mWrW ^2ri FOR THE PEOPLE FOR EDVCATION FOR SCIENCE LIBRARY OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY mj ••Ut »»>•• From a painting by Carl Rungiut BIGHORN SHEEP Among the barren crags and dizzy slopes of the Rocky Mountains these sure-footed and wary animals have their homes. ^2./ I Mammals of America Technical Editor H. E. Anthony American Museum of Natural History Managing Editor J. Walker McSpadden Editor, "American Statesman's Year Boolt," etc. Special Contributors Albert Porter J- M. Johnson Silas A. Lottrldge Daniel J. Singer Special Article by Dr. T. S. Palmer United States Biological Survey Artists Carl Rungius George A. King ^JVatur& jLovers .jCwrar\f, The University Society Inc New York \ / s Copyrieht. 1917, by The University Society Inc. Manufactured in the U. S. A. COMPOSITION, PRESSWORK, AND BINDING LYON COMPANY, ALBANY, N. CONTENTS Preface Introduction American Game Protection Order of Hoofed Animals Deer Family Antelope Family Oxen, Sheep, and Goat Fami Peccary Family Order of Flesh-Eating Animals Dog Family . Bear Family . Raccoon Family Weasel Family Cat Family Order of Gnawing Animals Squirrel Family Sewellel Family . Beaver Family Porcl'pine Family . Rats and Mice Family . Pocket Rats Family Jumping Mice Family Pocket Gophers Family PiKA Family . Hares and Rabbits Fa.mily Order of Pouched Animals Opossum Family Order of Toothless Animals Armadillo P'amily . Order of Insect-Eating Animals Mole Family Shrew Family Order of Bats Glossary Bibliography Index .... LY PAGE V vii XV I 3 35 39 6i 64 65 85 105 no 145 161 162 206 21 1 217 221 257 264 266 271 274 293 293 298 298 300 300 307 313 32s 329 331 PREFACE N preparing the text of " Mammals of America " two classes of readers have been kept constantly in mind — the inexperienced observer or layman who is yet fond of animals, and the trained naturalist or sportsman who wishes to supplement his field knowledge with exact book statement. The interest of both of these groups may be similarly keen, but their approach to the subject would necessarily be different. Young people are naturally interested in all living things. From the house dog or cat to the zoological or circus animal, their attention is easily aroused and held. If in later years they do not keep their interest, it is because they have not been allowed to study the subject systematically, classroom or at home. Natural History is, in fact, sadly neglected as a Only the few become expert For this either in the study, although one of the most fascinating of fields observers of animal life, while the many are content to learn the general aspects reason, the ideal text-book should be so constructed that both groups of readers can turn to it with equal profit and pleasure. On the one hand should be set forth the picturesque and story-telling side of Nature — for that is the way she reveals herself to the casual passer-by — and, in addition, there should be system and accuracy of statement, in order to be of value to the advanced student. This dual quality of popular and scientific treatment we have endeavored to obtain in " Mammals of America." We have presupposed no knowledge on the part of the reader; but at the same time have carried facts forward to a point of technical accuracy. In the introduction will be found the true starting point, in the question, What is a mammal? That defined, we next divide the mammals into orders, families, and species, and have, as it were, the framework of our structure. Turning now to the reading text we find the first order defined and followed by a diagram showing leading types of animals; and next come the animals under this order. The reader thus begins the book with a definite knowledge of the kinship of animals, which is essential to any study of types. A word may be said as to why we begin with the Deer. The arrangement of the different orders and the sequence in which each animal is taken up, in most systematic works on mammals, follows the degrees of evolution. That is to say, the first mammals treated are the lowest in the evolutional scale and the work closes with the highest. If this conventional order of things were followed we should begin with the Marsupials and end with the Bats. But this arrangement has been set aside, in the present case, in order to secure an intensified interest on the part of the layman. By opening the volume with articles on the large, con- spicuous ungulates it is hoped to secure a greater degree of interest on the reader's part from the very beginning. The reading text itself is set in two styles of type. The smaller type at the top of each article is addressed to the more experienced observer who wishes to know exact facts. Here are given: (i) the animal's scientific name; (2) other names; (3) general description; (4) dental formula; (5) pelage; (6) measurements; (7) range; (8) food; (9) general remarks; and (10) related species. The larger type which follows gives a popular and story-telling descrip- tion, of interest to every nature-lover, both young and old, and easily followed because of its avoidance of technical terms. But it is hoped that the interest there aroused will lead even vi PREFACE the younger readers to turn back to the scientific statement. Interest in the subject is further sought by the inclusion of many pictures taken from Hving animals, and, so far as possible, in the open. In a few instances animals were caged, and in a few others, pictures were made from mounted specimens. But the large majority are from field subjects obtained at the cost of infinite time and patience, and occasionally at the personal risk of the photographer. A work of this sort is dependent in large measure upon the published works of authorities which have preceded it. The recent observations of naturalists and sportsmen are of highest value only when checked up with earlier field work. We append a bibliography of the chief sources so used for " Mammals of America," as a partial acknowledgment of our indebted- ness; and wish to mention particularly the works of Allen, Audubon, Bailey, Coues, Elliot, Grinnell, Hornaday, Ingersoll, Lydekker, Merriam, Miller, Pycraft, Roosevelt, Seton, and Stone, there listed. We wish also to thank Messrs. Charles Scribner's vSons for permission to use quotations from Theodore Roosevelt's articles appearing in their magazine; Dr. William T. Hornaday, Director of the New York Zoological Park, for permission to use material from his books, and for suggestions and courtesies; Messrs. George H. Doran & Co., for permission to use material by Daniel J. Singer; and various officials of the American Museum of Natural History, and the United States Biological Survey for their interest and active assistance. Thanks are likewise due to various outdoor magazines such as Outing, Field and Stream, The National Sportsman, and Recreation, for permission to quote from articles and use pictures found in their pages. To the many photographers and field observers all over the land, whose patient and adventurous work speaks for itself in the following pages, we can express but imperfectly the debt of gratitude we feel. They have brought home to us the secrets of forest, field and water — showing us as no amount of printed words could do the reality of the outdoor world. Literally years of efifort have gone into these pictures which speak to us from almost every page. Wherever possible we have credited the name of the photographer on each picture. Special photographs were obtained from the New York Zoological Park, by Mr. E. R. San- born; the American Museum of Natural History, through Dr. G. Clyde Fisher; and the United States Biological Survey. A valuable series of pictures of moles, shrews, and rodents was obtained from the West Virginia University Experiment Station. The work of the photographers has been further supplemented with drawings by Carl Rungius, Belmore Browne, George A. King, and Henry Thurston. The attractive color note found on the title page was obtained from an original kindly loaned by the United Fruit Company. Following the text proper, the reader will find a brief but useful glossary of scientific or unusual words; a bibliography of sources already alluded to; and an index referring to the several hundred species by scientific name, common name, and other local names, so that even if only one name of an animal is known, it may be possible to turn at once to the page where it is described. INTRODUCTION HAT is a mammal? The beginner in any study has certain basic facts to acquire, and this is never more true than in an exactly related science such as natural history. It is absolutely necessary to begin here by mastering a few of the broad, under- lying principles, in order to follow the subject diligently. These are not difficult to follow, if the reader takes them up one at a time in regular order; and the first question that would naturally arise in the present volume is, What is a mammal? To answer it, let us turn back for a moment to the beginning of animal life. All living animals fall under one of two heads, or kingdoms, as the naturalist calls them, the Invertehrata and the Vertebrata. The Invertebrata are the lowest forms of life, and are so called because of the fact that they lack a backbone, or spinal column. To this kingdom belong the hosts of creeping, crawling animals such as Worms, Insects, Molluscs, Sponges and Jellyfish. The Vertebrate kingdom contains the higher types of life, beginning with such lowly forms as the Lancelets and Tunicates, and running upward in the scale to Man himself. The Vertebrates are characterized by the possession of a backbone, which is cartilaginous in the lower animal types, but formed of true bone in the higher. This kingdom may be divided into five divisions or classes, viz., the Fishes, the Amphibians, the Reptiles, the Birds, and the Mammals. HOW MAMM,\LS DEVELOPED Mammals are thought by competent authorities to have been developed from reptilian ancestors. They hold this belief because fossil reptiles of a highly specialized type have been found possessing mammal-like characters. The theory, in brief, is that from some verj' active, highly specialized reptile of this type, the first mammal was evolved at an early period. Mammals, however, are not an ancient class, when compared with other Vertebrates, for it is almost certain that the Mammals and the Birds are the latest arrivals of all. Mammals differ from other Vertebrates mainly in the following characters : the posses- sion of hair, mammary glands, a high blood temperature, a four-chambered heart, a dia- phragm, a highly developed brain and nervous system, and also some very important characters in the skeleton. Probably the best-known character is the possession of hair to a greater or less degree, varying from coarse bristles to finest fur. This form of outer covering is opposed to that of other classes. For example, the Birds have feathers, the Reptiles scales, the Amphibians are generally naked, and the Fishes have scales. A very important character of the Mammals, the one that gives the class its name, is the presence of mammae, or breasts, on the female. These structures are necessary because Mammals bear their young alive and helpless, and they must be fed by the mother until strong enough to take care of themselves. In the other classes the young more often come from an egg, or, if born alive, are more or less able to shift for themselves. The high blood temperature and the four-chambered heart are most valuable to the Mammals. Because of this fact alone they would be able to dominate the other classes. Long periods of sustained activity are possible only through a warm and consequently active blood stream. In all the other classes, except the Birds, the members have what is com- monly called cold blood, or, to speak more exactly, a variable blood stream. This results in long dormant or sluggish periods. The warm-blooded Birds, on the other hand, lack the viii MAMMALS OF AMERICA more highly developed heart of the Mammal. The diaphragm, a typically mammalian structure, is a thin muscular wall separating the cavity containing the lungs and heart from the other internal organs. This separation results in a better opportunity for the function- ing of the various organs, and is a development upward. Finally, the brain of the Mammal is marvelously developed and is far in advance of that of members of other classes. The increase is in both quantity and quality, in volume proportionally to the weight of the animal, and in the development of the higher centers and convolutions. SUBDIVISIONS OF M.\MMALS Now with a better idea of what a Mammal, any Mammal, is, the next step is to see how its different members differ from one another. Students have divided the class Mam- malia into two large divisions, based upon the degree of development; the least developed belong to the Protothcria, or ancient Mammals, while the more highly developed forms belong to the Eutheria, or modern Mammals. The Prototheria are represented today by only two types, the Duckbill Platypus, or Ornithorhynchus, and the Spiny Anteater, or Echidna, both very strange-appearing animals to be found only in Australia and neighboring islands. They lay eggs, but otherwise more closely resemble true Mammals than any other class, although they are connecting links with the lower animals. We are concerned only with the Eutheria, since all the North American Mammals belong to this subdivision. Because of the wide diversity of types it was early found that, in order to make anything like a close study of Mammals, a careful classification must be arranged. This classification has been built up on names formed on Latin and Cireek roots. The reason for this becomes evident when one learns the difficulty of trying to do anything with the so-called common names of Mammals. For example, the English-speaking settlers of North America brought over Old World names with which they were familiar, and applied them to New World Mammals with which they were not familiar. The result is that such animals as the American Elk and Buffalo have received these names from a fancied identity with Old World animals, while as a matter of fact these names are misleading and should apply only to the much different animals on the other side of the Atlantic. The common name of " Gopher " is variously used in different localities for Ground Squirrels, Chipmunks, and Pocket Gophers, and consequently means nothing in an exact treatise, whereas the scientific name of an animal means the same the world over. Thus the classification which at first appears to be cumbersome and unnecessary is seen to be absolutely essential to a clear understanding of the Mammals from widely separated localities. HISTORY OF CLASSIFICATION Attempts at classification were made in very early times. One of the earliest of these is contained in Leviticus XL where Mammals are classified into those that divide the hoof and chew the cud, and the Camel, the Cony and the Hare are enumerated among others. The early Assyrians (about 668 B. C.) made an evident attempt to classify into divisions like our modern families and genera, for they put the Dog, Lion, and Wolf into one category and the Ox, Sheep and Goat into another. The history of classification begins with Aristotle (B. C. 384-322) who was a good observer and compiler, but who has commonly been credited with ideas more advanced than were actually the case. He uses the words genus and species. Following Aristotle comes a long lapse of time wherein nothing of great importance was added to the classification of animal life. Gesner(i 551-1558) and Wotton(i552) are the landmarks for the i6th century. Ray (1693) began with the method of the Greeks, but left a method that marks most decided advances. His tables of classification chose characters of more fundamental value, and he discarded the habitat or home of the animal as a means of classi- fication. Earlier writers made up groups into Terrestrial, Aquatic, and Amphibious, regard- less of the true relationships of the animals. For example, the Seal and the Frog are both [ix] X MAMMALS OF AMERICA Amphibious, but are far apart in true relationships. In addition Ray designated many terms that are in use today such as Carnivora, Ungulata and Insectivora. The real foundation of modern scientific classification is found in Linnaeus (i 707-1 778). His Systema Naturcc passed through twelve editions; beginning in 1735 as a mere brochure of twelve pages, by the time the twelfth edition was published, in 1766, he had so added to it that it was a work of 2400 pages. The Systema Naturcc is an orderly treat- ment in a systematic manner of the entire animal kingdom as then known. The analysis is philosophical, the diagnoses clear and workable, and the details quite generally correct. The modern designation of an animal by two names (the lion = Felis leo) goes back to Linnaeus. He coined the word " mammal " and made the possession of mammae a char- acter of the entire class. This brought together in a single class for the first time the terres- trial hairs' quadrupeds and the whales. Man was placed among the Primates, where he belongs. After Linnaeus, Erxleben (1777), Buffon, and Daubenton (1753-1767), Geoffrey St. Hilaire and G. Cuvier (1795), Cuvier (i 796-1836), De Blainville (1816, 1834), Darwin and Huxley, Owen (1868), Gill (1870), Cope (1891, 1898) and Weber (1904) are the most important •workers among a number of earnest students of animal life. The later steps are mainly the result of a better knowledge of anatomy, an increased amount of material for study, and the refinement of scientific methods in general. ORDERS AND OTHER GROUPS The scientific classification of today is based upon a progression of subdivisions begin- ning with the class and ending with the species and sub-species. The class is subdivided into sub-classes, the members of each sub-class having some group of important fundamental characters in common. The next subdivision in rank is the order, which is itself a very large group, then next in importance follows the sub-order, beneath that the family and sub-family, the genus and sub-genus and finally the species and sub-species. The following diagram illustrates this arrangement better than a written description. CLASS — MAMMALIA ^ MAMMALS Sub-class - Eutheria = Modem Mammals Order — Marsupialia = Marsupials, or Pouched IVIammals. Order — Edentata == Sloths, Armadillos, etc. Order — Ungulata = Hoofed Mammals. Order — vSirenia = Manatees, Dugongs. Order — Cetacea = Whales, Porpoises, Dolphins. Order — Rodentia = Rodents. Order — Carnivora = Flesh-eating Mammals. Order — Insectivora = Insect-eating Mammals. Order — Chiroptera = Bats. Order — Primates == Lemurs, Monkeys, Apes, Man. The above carries the classification through all the mammalian orders of the world. Each order in turn is subdivided in much the same manner as the following diagram : Order — Rodentia. Sub-order — Simplicidentata = Rats, Squirrels, etc. Family — Muridae = Rats and Mice. Sub-family — Microtinae == Meadow Mice, Voles. Genus — Microtus = Common Meadow Mice. Species — pennsylvanicus = Eastern Meadow Mouse INTRODUCTION xi This diagram shows how the subdivision passes from the larger to the smaller group until finally a group is reached that contains only a single, particular kind of Mammal, and this group we call a species. Of course it is obvious that each of the larger groups may have more than one of the lower groups. Every Mammal has a similar place in the scheme, but always its relationships to any other Mammal are shown by the fact that the two will be included in some common group, if the groups are followed back far enough. Order Suborder Family Genus Species pennsylvanicus (Eastern Meadow / Mouse) Microtus / Muridae / Simplicidentata / Rodentia ■\ Duplicidentata \ Leporidae Lepus americanus (Varying Hare) Thus we see that the Eastern Meadow Mouse and the Varying Hare can claim no closer relationship than that expressed by inclusion in the same order, a rather distant relation- ship. The higher the rank of the first including subdivision, the more remote the imme- diate relationship of any two Mammals. In common practice the sub-groups, like the sub- family, sub-genus, and sub-species are often omitted, although with the knowledge that these groups exist, the full divisions themselves expressing all the ord'nar}- needs of relationship. SCIENTIFIC NAMES For convenience sake and to show the authority for a name, it is customary to place after a scientific name the name of the man who first described the animal. Thus, the scien- tific name for the Eastern Meadow Mouse is written Microtus pennsylvanicus (Ord). This means that Ord first gave a name to the animal we know as the Eastern Meadow Mouse; while the parenthesis about his name indicates that the name has been somewhat changed by some later authority from its original form. Ord called the animal Mus pennsylvanica not knowing that the name Mus was first used for a different animal, an Old World rat, and consequently could not be used for the American animal too without creating confusion; therefore, a later worker straightened out the confusion and put parentheses about Ord's name to indicate the change. No parentheses means that nothing has been changed, and that the name stands as its author first wrote it. EVOLUTION .\ CONSTANT FACTOR The real necessity of a classification arises from the plastic nature of animal organisms. If the Mammal were not the plaything of its environment, we should not have a multitude of different mammals, and consequently we should not be at a loss to find names and xii MAMMALS OF AMERICA relations for the thousands of varied forms about us. Evolution is a constant factor in the animal world. No matter how biologists may differ about the modes of evolution, nowadays none of them will refuse to admit that changes have taken place in the different animal structures. Evolution may be either progressive or retrogressive, resulting in specialization or degeneration. Evolution is expressed in a multitude of ways. The hair, the structure that on the Rabbit is so soft and flexible, through specialization becomes the quill of the Porcupine, a complex structure very little like the hair from which it has been evolved. This is called specialization through change in form. The difference in the character of teeth, such as the flat grinding tooth of a cow and the sharp shearing tooth of a cat, is a specialization of this sort. Another type of specialization results in the loss of parts. This is illustrated by the evolution of the Horse from a little five-toed animal of an older geological epoch into a one-toed animal of today. Specialization that results in the increase or addition of parts is seen among the bats, where many complex structures on the nose and in the ear occur. Minor changes in Mammals are to be seen on every hand. Such changes are those in the colors of the pelage to suit the environment, the increase or decrease in size of a species to suit the food supply, and the growth of special areas of hair, like the tufts on the ears of the Lynx. Just exactly how all these changes are brought about is a fruitful source of argument among students of biolog\', but two main factors are currently recognized, namely, heredity and the effect of environment. Heredity might be construed as the result of an earlier environment which then would make environment the main factor. Certainly a close connection can almost always be established between an animal's structure and its environ- ment. As a result of the competition among animals, bringing into operation the principle of "survival of the fittest," the Mammals have spread out into ever\^ conceivable environment, every possible economic niche opened up to them by nature. We find Mammals of different orders occupying the same niche; but generally when a Mammal has thoroughly mastered its environment, its advantages are such that an intruder cannot meet it in active com- petition and survive the encounter. "Adaptive radiation " is the name given to this spread- ing out of a certain type of Mammal life. Rodents, for example, have become specialized to the point that we find them living successfully as typical terrestrial animals (the Chip- munk), as semi-subterranean (the Ground Squirrel), as wholly subterranean (the Pocket Gopher), as aquatic (the Beaver), as arboreal (the Gray Squirrel), and finally as semi-aerial (the Flying Squirrel) . In this same order, the method of locomotion has passed from the typical running on all fours to swimming, to crawling in restricted burrows, to leaping kangaroo fashion with the hind legs alone, and to gliding like an aeroplane. The distribution of Mammals has become ver>' general because of this adaptability to environment. Mammals becoming accustomed to cold climates have extended their ranges until some species are found under the Arctic Circle and on the highest mountain peaks where intense cold reigns. On the other hand, desert Mammals have pressed into the heart of the most arid, hopeless wastes of sand. Food seems to be the only requirement necessary, lack of water and cover seeming to have little effect. As a rule, the largest and best-developed fauna, however, is to be found where conditions are most suitable. REQUIREMENTS FOR STUDY The requirements for the study of Mammals are primarily few, and most of us already possess them. The average child has a keen interest in the life about him and ordinarily in the process of growing up acquires considerable knowledge of the commoner animals of his vicinity. Given the interest, a sharp eye and an acute ear are material aids of first importance. Observations often need to be interpreted, the inter]3retation not infrequently calling for the skill and experience of the zoologist. Many things to be noted, however, [xiii] XIV MAMMALS OF AMERICA are so self-evident that every one sees the meaning, and thus upon observation depends the extent of the individual's study. Observation, reading, and scientific method are the student's trinity. Some Mammals lend themselves readily to observation, as, for example, the Squirrels and Hares; while others require more skill in pursuit, but yet may be watched if moderate pains be taken, the Pocket Gophers and Woodchucks coming into this categorA*. Still others, although not particularly rare, are difficult to observe, and experienced students live a lifetime without adding much first-hand knowledge to their store; such common Mammals as Bats and Moles having little-known life histories to this day. Lastly, the method gained by the study of a systematic account of Mammals, or any other class of animal life, will never be regretted in any pursuit, or at any time, for, cloaked in an entertaining garb, the basic principles that underlie all sciences have been introduced to the student, and as a consequence he should be the gainer in accuracy of observation, interpretation, and well-rounded knowledge. H. E. Anthony Photograph by H. .^. Colby SURPRISED An actual photograph of a flashlight exposure, showing how night pictures of Deer and other animals are obtained AMERICAN GAME PROTECTION By T. S. Palmer Of the U. S. Biological Survey AME protection in the United States has been gradually developing during a period of nearly three hundred years and has been marked by an immense volume of legislation. In no other country in the world have laws for the pro- tection of game been passed in such numbers or amended so frequently. The history of the development of the complex game laws of today from the simple provisions of colonial times is both interesting and valuable in showing the numerous experiments which have been tried and have resulted in failure, and in throwing light on present problems. Many provisions, such as restrictions on sale and export, considered recent, are in reality very old; while, on the other hand, legislation prohibiting spring shooting of waterfowl and summer shooting of woodcock and shore birds is comparatively recent, owing in large measure to the generally accepted, but erroneous, idea that migratory birds require little protection and may be shot as long as they are present in spring and as soon as they appear in late summer. The earliest game laws were probably the fowling and hunting rights conferred, in 1623, on the Plymouth colonists in Massachusetts; the hunting privileges granted, in 1629, by the West India Company to persons planting colonies in New Netherlands; and the provisions regarding the right of hunting in the New Jersey Concessions of Agreements of 1678. The succeeding years may be conveniently divided into two periods of approximately equal length — a colonial period and a modern period. The latter period is the more important and the one with which we are mainly concerned. In the century and a third since the Revolution a vast number of experiments have been made in game protection. GAME LAWS IN THE i8tH AND I9TH CENTURIES At the end of the colonial period twelve colonies had enacted game laws. Close seasons had been provided for deer in all the colonies except Georgia; and for wild turkeys, heath hens, partridges, and quail in New York. Several of the colonies had laws prohibiting hunting on Sunday or hunting with fire at night. Massachusetts in 1710 prohibited the use of boats or canoes with sails, or canoes disguised with hay, sedge, or seaweed for hunting waterfowl. Restrictions on the export and sale of deerskins were also in force in some of the colonies. The beginnings of the warden system had been made in Massachusetts and New Hampshire about the middle of the eighteenth century, but these comparatively few statutes were all that were considered necessary. By 1850 comparatively little game legislation had been enacted, although the list of States having such laws had increased to nineteen, which included the thirteen original States and Maine, Vermont, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, and Indian Territory. The only game law in force west of the Mississippi was the restriction on hunting on Indian lands. No protection for non-game birds was provided until the passage of the first laws protecting insectivorous birds in Connecticut and New Jersey in 1850. In the decade from 185 1 to i860 game laws were passed for the first time in twelve States, increasing the total number to thirty-one. These States included Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Ohio, and Wisconsin, east of the Mississippi River; Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, Nebraska, and California in the West; and Louisiana and Texas in the South. [XV] XVI MAMMALS OF AMERICA In the decade from 1861 to 1870 the Hst of States was still further increased by ten. The chief advance was in the Rocky Mountain States — in Colorado, Montana, and Wyoming; farther west in Nevada and Washington; and in the middle West in Kansas, Kentucky, Tennessee, and West Virginia. In the decade from 187 1 to 1880 the progress of game legislation extended to forty-eight States by the addition of North and South Dakota, Utah and Oregon in the West ; Arkansas and New Mexico in the South; and the District of Columbia in the East. In the decade from 1881 to 1890 the first game laws were passed in the Territones of Arizona and Oklahoma. FEDER.\L LEGISLATION The decade from 1891 to 1900 was marked by the first real Federal legislation. In igoo the earUest game provision for Alaska was incorporated in the Alaska Civil Code, although the first general game law for the Territory did not pass until 1902. The year 1900 also MAP SHOWING NATIONAL PARKS AND GAME RESERVATIONS marked the final passage of the earliest general Federal statute, commonly known as the Lacey Act, which became a law after being under consideration by Congress for three years. Since 1900 a number of new State restrictions have been placed on the statute books, among which maybe mentioned the prohibition of the use of automatic guns (Pennsylvania, 1907) and silencers (Maine, North Dakota, and Washington, 1909). The propagation of game has received widespread attention through the so-called " More Game movement," inaugurated in 1908. New impetus was given to game protection through the establishment of sportsmen's journals in the early seventies, and this movement was almost immediately reflected in an increased volume of legislation; so that during the last three decades of the century the number of laws rapidly increased. STATE CLOSE TERMS Early in the history' of the country, in some localities where game was becoming exter- minated, hunting was suspended for a term of years in order to afford opportunity for recuperation. These close terms were later extended to so many States that in some cases M^-' "\V t-'-^ ^'^- t^:'.^£^^- . J3 [xvii] xviii MAMMALS OF AMERICA a species received absolute protection throughout its range in the United States. The first close terms were apparently those for deer for three years in Massachusetts, 1718, and four years in Virginia, 1772. Comparatively few close terms for quail have been established in States well within the range of the species, although such periods are common in localities where birds have been introduced, or reach the border of their natural range, and where they are likely to be winter killed. In the case of doves the species was first removed from the game list in Connecticut and New Jersey in 1850, and this bird has since been given com- plete protection in about a third of the Northern States, although in the South and Southwest it is still retained on the game list. By the establishment of a close term on caribou in Minnesota in 1905, the last State which had any of this game was closed to hunting, and caribou were practically removed from the game list in the United States. Close terms for antelope have likewise been extended and adopted by successive States until in 1909 they covered the entire range of the species, thus practically removing antelope from the game list. The completion of the Union Pacific Railroad in 1868 determined the fate of the buffalo. The species at that time was distributed chiefly on the Great Plains region between the Missouri River and the Rocky Mountains, although a few individuals may have ranged west of the mountains. The only State which afforded the species any protection was Idaho. The building of the railroad not only divided the buffalo into two great herds, a northern and a southern, but gave ready access to the hunting grounds and afforded easy means of shipment for hides. For a time the slaughter raged almost uninterruptedly, and in six. years the southern herd was almost exterminated. With the completion of the Northern Pacific Railroad in 1881 the fate of the northern herd was sealed; the last survivors were destro^'ed seven years later. It is interesting to note that a close season on buffalo was first established in Idaho in 1864, and in Wyoming in 1871, followed by Montana in 1872, Nebraska 1875, Colorado 1877, New Mexico 1880, and North and South Dakota 1883. With the building of the Kansas Pacific, and the Atchison, Topeka and SantaFe railroads in the early seventies, an important trade in buffalo hides and meat arose at several points in southern Kansas, notably at Dodge City, Leavenworth, and Wichita. From these centers persistent and concerted attacks were made on the southern herd, and so long as buffalo killing remained profitable it was impossible to secure any legislation which w-ould interfere with the traffic. With the disappearance of the southern herd about 1874 the need for a close season vanished. Briefly stated, not the slightest protection was afforded in the way of legislation in the States in which buffalo were most abundant and in which, through its accessibility, the species was most quickly exterminated. The enormous. flocks of wild pigeons which formerly darkened the skies in the States of the upper Mississippi Valley, New York, and southern New England had already begun to decrease by the middle of the last centur\-. The last great nesting in New York occurred in 1868, the last large roosting in 1875, and the last great nesting in Michigan — probably the last anywhere on the continent — in 1878. During the time of abundance no serious effort was made to protect the birds. The first legislation on wild pigeons seems to have been an act passed in Massachusetts in 1848, which, instead of protecting the birds, pro- tected the netters against molestation in carr>-ing on their business. In 1857 a committee of the State Legislature of Ohio in their report on a game bill declared: " The passenger pigeon needs no protection. Wonderfully prolific, having the vast forests of the North as its breeding grounds, travelling hundreds of miles in search of food, it is here to-day and elsewhere tomorrow, and no ordinary- destruction can lessen them or be missed from the myriads that are yearly produced." The last wild pigeon in Ohio was killed in 1900, and a few years later the sole survivor of the species known, a captive bird, died in the gardens of the Zoological Society of Cincinnati, Sept. I, 1914. GAME PROTECTION XIX It is sometimes said that game legislation will not save a species from destruction, and this fact is shown by the history of the buffalo and the pigeon. The most casual examination of their history will show that game legislation played no part in the fate of these species. A close season during the period of reproduction was denied them until too late, and even then there was little serious attempt to enforce the laws. One of the most important features of the work under the Federal law has been co- operation with State officials and aiding them, so far as possible, in their efforts to secure more effective laws and solve the numerous problems which constantly arise in game-law enforcement. Thus in Massachusetts the game commission has been placed in possession of facts relating to the protection of non-game birds and the restriction of sale of birds for miUi- MAP SHOWING NATIONAL AND STATE GAME PRESERVES nery purposes. In Pennsylvania the secretary of the game commission has been supplied with information on various matters of legislation and game protection; in Delaware the State Game Protective Association has been aided in securing more effective laws; and in Mary- land and North Carolina the State authorities have been furnished summaries of the local laws and annual posters showing the close seasons for game in each of the counties of these States. These are merely illustrative examples. WORK OF THE AUDUBON SOCIETIES The most important factor in the protection of non-game birds in the United States has been the work of the Audubon Societies. In educating the general public in the economic value of birds and in creating public sentiment in favor of bird protection, these organizations have met with remarkable success, and their educational work has paved the way for still more successful efforts in securing the adoption and enforcement of uniform laws and in specific measures for bird protection. However successful the Audubon societies may have been in their efforts to secure legislation, their practical work of enforcement has been more effective. Though the aid of funds, raised chiefly by popular subscription, protection has been extended to all the important colonies of sea birds breeding along the Atlantic coast from Maine to Chesapeake Bay, on the coasts of North Carolina, Florida, and Louisiana, and at certain points in XX MAMMALS OF AMERICA Oregon. Wardens paid by the society have patrolled these colonies during the breeding season and insured the birds against molestation. The National Association of Audubon Societies has also caused various localities to be examined, and has in each case taken the initial steps which have led to the establishment of Federal reservations thus far set aside by Executive proclamation. In the maintenance of the warden service on these reservations it has also taken an important part. GAME RESERV.-VTIONS During the past forty years numerous reservations have been created by the Federal Government which directly or incidentally protect wild life. The largest and best known is the Yellowstone National Park, established by act of Congress on March i , 1872. Although usually considered the first, it is not as old as several lighthouse reservations which in recent years have become important refuges. Since 1872 other national parks have been set aside, military parks have been established on famous battlefields, national monuments have been created for the protection of objects of scientific interest, and bird reservations have been set aside for the protection of breeding grounds of waterfowl and other birds. Some of these reservations, including the military parks and some of the national monuments, although established primarily for other purposes, afford refuges for birds and game. These reser- vations are under the jurisdiction of five departments of the Government, the Smithsonian Institution, and the District of Columbia. Notwithstanding the apparently large numbers of refuges, their combined area is relatively small. The total area of the national parks and military parks, which serve as game refuges, is less than 5,000,000 acres. The only other large refuges are the Grand Canyon and Wichita Game Preserves, the Colorado, Mount Olympus and Mukuntuweap National Monuments, the Montana National Bison Range, the Superior National Forest, and parts of the Absaroka, Boise, and Teton national forests which have been made State game preserves; and bird reserves, such as Klamath, Malheur, Niobrara, and Yukon Delta. Most of the refuges are on waste, mountain, or marsh land, or on small islands of no agricultural value. When compared with the series of extensive parks and game preserves created in Canada in recent years or the still more extensive game preserves in the British colonies in Africa, the area devoted in part to the increase of wild life in the United States is still very small. Following is a complete list of our national parks as reported b}^ the Department of the Interior, with date of their creation, and area in square miles: National Park Location Hot Springs Middle Arkansas Yellowstone N. W. Wyoming Yosemite Middle Eastern California Sequoia Middle Eastern California General Grant Middle Eastern California Casa Grande Ruin. Arizona Mount Rainier West Central Washington Crater Lake South Western Oregon Wind Cave South Dakota Sullys Hill North Dakota Mesa Verde South Western Colorado Piatt Southern Oklahoma Glacier North Western Montana Rocky Mountain North Middle Colorado Lassen Volcanic California Hawaii Hawaii Mount McKinley Alaska A rea, Date sq. miles 1832 li 1872 3 ,348 1890 I .125 1890 237 1890 4 1892 I 1899 324 1902 249 1903 i6| 1904 li 1906 77 1906 i| 1910 I .534 1915 358 1916 124I 1916 117^ 1917 GAME PROTECTION xxi WILD LIFE IN THE PARKS Most of these parks have more or less big game, and this element of the fauna is probably the one of the most general interest. The General Grant and Wind Cave Parks have little or no native big game, but a movement was started several years ago to utilize the latter as a game preserve, and the park is now stocked with buffalo, elk, and antelope. The National Zoological Park in Washington, D. C, contains one of the largest collections of living animals and birds in the United States, and is especially rich in native species. The Yosemite and Sequoia Parks have little big game beside deer and bears, although the Sequoia has a few mountain sheep (recently described as a new species) on some of the higher peaks and a small herd of dwarf elk in an enclosure on the Kaweah River. Crater Lake and Mount Rainier have deer, bear, and beaver. Mount Rainier has also a number of mountain goats, and Glacier Park, beaver, deer, elk, moose, sheep, and many goats and bears. The Yellowstone Park has by far the greatest herds of big game, including antelope, mountain sheep, buffalo, deer, moose, bear, and beaver, and the largest herds of elk on the continent. A recent document issued by the Department of the Interior contains these interesting paragraphs in regard to the wild life of the Yellowstone: "It is the largest and most successful preserve in the world. Its .3,300 square miles of mountains and valleys remain nearly as nature made them, for the two hundred miles of roads and the five hotels and many camps are as nothing in this immense wilderness. No tree has been cut except when absolutely necessary for road or trail or camp. No herds invade its valleys. " Visitors for the most part keep to the beaten road, and the wild animals have learned in the years that they mean them no harm. To be sure, they are seldom seen by the people filling the long trains of stages which travel from point to point daily during the season; but the quiet watcher on the trails may see deer and bear and elk and antelope to his heart's content, and he may even see mountain sheep, moose, and bison by journeying on foot or by horseback into their distant retreats. In the fall and spring, when the crowds are absent, wild deer gather in great numbers at the hotel clearings to crop the grass, and the officers' children feed them flowers. One of the diversions at the road builders' camps in the wilderness is cultivating the acquaintance of the animals. There are photographs of men feeding sugar to bear cubs while the mother bear looks idly on. ' " Thus one of the most interesting lessons from the Yellowstone is that wild animals are fearful and dangerous only when men treat them as game or as enemies. Even the big grizzlies, which are generally believed to be ferocious, are proved by our national parks experience to be entirely inoffensive if not attacked. Even when attacked they make every possible effort to escape, and only turn upon men when finally driven into some place from which they can not get away. Then only are they dangerous, and then they are dangerous indeed. "This wild animal paradise contains thirty thousand elk, a thousand moose, innumerable deer, many antelope, and a large and increasing herd of bison. It is an excellent bird preserve also; more than a hundred and fifty species live natural, undisturbed lives. Eagles abound among the crags. Wild geese and ducks are found in profusion. Many large white pelicans add to the picturesqueness of Yellowstone Lake." Concerning the Rocky Mountain National Park, the same report says: " This range was once a famous hunting ground for large game. Lord Dunraven, the English sportsman, visited it yearly to shoot its deer, bear, and bighorn sheep, and once he tried to buy it for a private game preserve. Now that the Government has made it a national park, the protection offered its wild animals will make it in a few years one of the most successful wild-animal refuges in the world." xxii MAMMALS OF AMERICA OTHER GAME REFUGES The national military parks have been created on a few of the battle fields to com- memorate some of the more important engagements of the Civil War in Pennsylvania, Maryland, Georgia, Tennessee, and Mississippi. The total area of the five parks is 11,348 acres. They are under the jurisdiction of the War Department, and each of those at Gettysburg, Chickamauga, Shiloh, and Vicksburg is administrated by a special commission of three members which reports annually to the Secretary of War. Their importance as refuges is due to the fact that they furnish absolute protection at all seasons to small mammals and birds under a comprehensive law for the protection of wild life, enacted in 1897. Moreover, their location is such that, taking into consideration other military reservations, as the national cemeteries at Arlington and Fredericksburg, Va., and at other points, they practically form a chain of refuges for migratory land birds almost directly in the line of their northward flight. In addition to the above, the Federal Government maintains several reservations, chiefly for big game. These comprise two national game preserves in Arizona and Oklahoma; the National Bison Range in Montana; the Mount Olympus National Monument in Washington; the Muir Woods and Pinnacles National Monuments in California; the Colorado National Monument; and the Mukuntuweap National Monument in Utah. The Department of Agriculture has jurisdiction over the two game preserves and the Mount Olympus National Monument, which are under the immediate charge of the Forest Service, and the Bison range which is in charge of the Biological Survey ; and the Department of the Interior has jurisdiction over the other four national monuments. The wild life on the game preserves and the national monuments is protected by the acts under which these reservations were created; and the buffalo on the Bison Range and the elk on the Mount Olympus National Monument are protected throughout the year under the game laws of Montana and Washington. The national game reservations and the Bison Range are the only reservations which have been stocked with big game. On the Wichita Preserve in Oklahoma and on the Bison Range in Montana are herds of buffalo donated, respectively, by the New York Zoological Society in 1907, and the American Bison Society in 1909. The Wichita preserve has also a few deer. The big game on the Grand Canyon preserve is limited to deer and mountain sheep, which are now fairly abundant. t The Mount Olympus National Monument is the home of many deer and the summer range of the Roosevelt elk. Recent estimates indicate that the elk on the Olympic National Forest have increased to several thousand head. The Muir Woods, consisting of a grove of magnificent redwood trees in Marin County, California, shelter a few deer and also afford protection to small mammals and birds which here receive protection throughout the year. The Colorado and the Mukuntuweap National Monuments, comprising rugged canyons, give protection to various birds and small mammals. Several national reservations have become game preserves through subsequent State legislation, which has made them wholly or in part State game preserves. With the exception of the Pinnacles Preserve in California, they are all in national forests, and as hunting is permitted in national forests, they are the only parts of the forests, except the few monuments and bird reserves and two game preserves, which actually form refuges. The largest is the Superior National Forest in Minnesota, which was made a State game preserve soon after the establishment of the national forest. In each case the game is protected primarily by State laws and the reservation patrolled and maintained by cooperation between the State and the General Government. THE KING OF THE CERVIDAE The Wapiti, or Elk, is one of the most fearless of fighters. His great size, and activity have crowned him King of the Deer tribe [xxiii] CHART I VERTEBRATES AND INVERTEBRATES The above may be regarded as a Key Chart to those which follow; but it is graphic and not evolutionary. While the entire Animal World is divided into two Kingdoms — the Invertebrates, or Spineless Animals, and the Vertebrates, or those having a spinal column,— the latter m the scheme of evolution are derived from or through the former. Also, tor the sake of ease of reference, the main divisions of the Invertebrates are indicated above; while the Vertebrates are referred to other charts. Ihe Pre- Vertebrates, as shown above, are an intermediate form between the two Kingdoms. CHART II FISHES Fishes are among the oldest forms of Vertebrate life. Their fossil remains have been found in strata belonging to the upper part of the Silurian division of the Palseozoic epoch. They may be broadly described as cold-blooded Vertebrates, adapted to a strictly aquatic life, breathing by means of gills, and with external lim.bs modified into fins. In the above chart, emphasis in some orders has been placed upon forms familiar to American waters. CHART III REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS These two classes are often confused in the popular mind. The term, Reptile, has been applied indiscriminately to Crocodiles, Turtles, Snakes, Lizards, Tuataras, Frogs, Toads, Salamanders, and Caecilians; whereas it belongs correctly to only the first five groups, the others being classified as Amphibians. There are important structural differences. The Reptiles on their higher level are the ancestors of the Birds. Their lower forms are closely related to the Amphibians, which, in turn, are intimately con- nected with the Fishes. There are intermediate forms, also, which make it difficult to distinguish boundaries sharply. A majority of the Amphibians undergo metamorphoses, or changes, before reaching their final form. CHART IV ''"ci., '^■'e,, '^^"ds Flamingoes Pbanicopterida ''^ IbiJitlffi L S»°'^ 6«»""" /-"^ G'-'V \\e.o"" ^„-^ p,,*" i V? \» ,*'■ # / """"^1 St.rV,ngs -'■Ij' ,ASS^'''' " Ja Star\mg5 Slurni'^'^ Lori-iuu; Crows Jays Magpies Alaudidtz Alaudida Larks Tyrannida Tyrant Flycatchers Trc I Trochilida H,.™ . . I „ "ummingbi; Goa, irds .<^^ "suct, fer« «fo„ ■\ ? BIRDS OF AMERICA The above chart is hmited to a consideration of the Birds of America, only; the reason for this being twofold. The world at large contains hundreds of bird families, which could not be included in a chart of this size, with ease or profit to the student. Secondly, the above classification follows that officially adopted Ijy the American Ornithologists' Union, showing seventeen orders, beginning with the lowest forms, the Diving Birds, and ending with the highest, the Perching Birds. The classification by certain foreign authorities shows a larger number of orders (usually 21) some of which overlap the American classification through sub-orders. ■ The terminology, also, is different. It was thought best, therefore, to limit this chart to American orders and families, and to use only the names by which they are recognized in this country. CHART V MAMMALS In the Mammals we reach the highest forms of animal'Hfe, the final order including Man himself. The lowest forms include the Monotremes, or Egg-Laying Mammals, and the Marsupials, or Pouched Mammals. The gradual ascent upward is shown on the above chart, reading from right to left. Mammals differ from other animals in the following characters: the possession of hair, mammary glands or breasts, a high blood tempera- ture, a four-chambered heart, a diaphragm, and a highly developed nervous system. In the above chart a general world survey is made, except that, under Rodents, only the American families could be included, because of the very large number of these little Gnawers all over the world. ORDER OF HOOFED ANIMALS ( Ungulata) HIS order is one of the most important among animals. It includes some of the largest mammals both in this country and abroad. The order is called " Ungulata " from a Latin word meaning " hoofed." In this order are to be found the deer, pigs, sheep, oxen, horses, elephants, etc. The Ungulates are nearly all animals of good size and some of them are the largest of living land mammals. They are thus characterized : the toes or digits end in hoofs, and the animal walks upon the toes or is digitigrade; they lack the clavicle or so called " collar bone "; a full set of milk teeth always precedes the per- manent teeth; the molar teeth have ridged or tuberculated grinding surfaces. This order is commonly split up into two sub-orders as follows; the odd- toed Ungulates or Perissodactyla, such as the Horse and the Tapir, and the even-toed Ungulates or Artiodactyla, to which all the North American mammals of recent times belong. The Artiodactyla is a very large group, and besides containing all the North American Ungulates, claims as well nearly all those of the Old World, and the host of African Antelopes. VIRGINIA DEER AND FAWN These beautiful animals are easily domesticated, and their breeding might become a profitable industry Animals of this sub-order have the first toe wanting, the second and fifth toes small, rudi- mentary or absent, and carry the weight upon the third and fourth toes. Animals of this type generally have extremely long feet and legs, and for this reason are fleet and graceful runners. The hoofed animals are herbivorous — that is they eat herbs and vegetation. In the Deer, Oxen and Sheep families thej^ are also ruminants, or cud-chewing. The ruminants have a four-compartment stomach, regurgitate or bring up their food, and chew the 2 MAMMALS OF AMERICA cud. As a rule they lack the upper canine teeth. All of the North American Artiodactyls have frontal appendages in the shape of horns or antlers, if not found in both sexes, at least to be found on the male. The order is well represented on all the continents of the globe, with the exception of Australia, but at the present day it has a far larger number of species in the Old World than in the New; many of these from the former area belonging to groups quite unknown in the latter. Although represented in the Arctic regions only by the Rein- deer and the Musk-ox, Ungulates are found alike in the coldest and the hottest regions of the globe. The maximum number of peculiar forms, as well as those of greatest size are, however, inhabitants of the tropical and subtropical regions; and it is also in the warmer regions that the greatest numlier of species occur. As regards the number of individuals of peculiar species, many Ungulates far exceed any other of the larger mammals; this being the case with the Bison, which but a few years ago roamed in countless thousands over the prairies of North America, and with the myriad hosts of Springboks in the South African veldt. Not only are the Ungulates widely distributed in longitude and latitude, but they are also found at all elevations suitable for the existence of animal life; some of the wild Sheep of the Himalaya ranging to elevations of fully twenty thousand feet above the level of the sea. In time the order is an ancient one, being represented in the earliest stages of the Eocene division of the Tertiar\- period, although the species were mostly small, and in all cases widely different from any now living. The following diagram shows the division into families and species, in this country: ORDER OF HOOFED ANIMALS (UNGULATA) FAMILIES (In North America) 1 Peccaries 1 Deer Antelope Oxen and Sheep {Tayassuidce) 1 {Cervidce) ( A n tilocapridcB) {Bovi da) (Only species) (Typical species) (Only species) (Typica species) ■Collared Peccary Wapiti, or Elk Pronghorn Antelope Bison, or Buffalo White-tailed Deer Musk-Ox Black-tailed Deer Rocky Mountain Sheep Mule Deer Rocky Mountain Goat Moose Woodland Caribou Barren-ground Caribou Reindeer THE DEER FAMILY {Cervidm) HE Deer family stands next to the Cattle and Sheep family (Bovida) in general utility. The flesh is a valuable food, while the antlers or horns, as well as the skins, are important articles of commerce. Venison was more common than beef on the tables of medieval Europe, and was the flesh most commonly eaten by early settlers and frontiersmen in North America. Its dietetic value is enhanced by the fact that it is especially adapted to invalids who require a nourishing yet easily digested food. Except in a few species like the Caribou, adult male Deer have antlers. Although these horns are deciduous, they are solid processes produced from the frontal bone, and have the physical as well as the chemical properties of true bone. They are of two general types — those more or less broad and flat, and those rounded in shape. Those of the flattened type are usually the more massive, but the rounded antlers of the Wapiti are exceptionally heavy. Deerhorn has several uses. It produces much gelatin by decoction, the product being like that from most animal substances. The raspings and waste pieces of the horns used in manufacturing knife handles are either made into gelatin or boiled down into size used in cloth manufacture. At one time deerhorn was a prominent source of ammonia. The principal use of deerhorn is in the manufacturing of handles for knives, forks, and other instruments. In Sheffield, England, some thirty years ago, about 500 tons of deer- horn were used annually in manufacture. India and Ceylon furnished about four-fifths of this material, while about 100 tons came from European and English deer forests. The 500 tons represented the antlers of fully 350,000 Deer of various species. In Europe buck- horn is worked up into many useful articles, as umbrella stands, chandeliers, and ornaments for personal wear. The use of deerskins is well known. As tanned and dressed by the American Indians they are manufactured into a variety of useful and ornamental articles. The inhabitants of some of the Indian villages of the North derive a good income from their manufactures of deerskins into moccasins, rackets, toboggans, and other things for sale. Deer hide makes an excellent leather, its value depending upon the size as well as upon the species from which it comes. The skins of Wapiti, for instance, are porous, and the leather does not wear well, while those of the Moose and European Elk are so thick and hard that the leather is said to have resisted musket balls. In Sweden in former times a pair of elk-hide breeches went as a legacy through several generations of peasants. Formerly about 200,000 deerskins from North America were sold annually in the London market. Half of these were skins of the Wapiti. Many were bought for Germany and there manufactured into leggings, but the heavier skins were tanned and manufactured in England. In recent years the export of deerskins from America has fallen ofi^ greatly. Deer hair has a peculiar cellular structure, and is used in some parts of the world for stuffing saddles, for which purpose it is especially suited. North America is comparatively rich in species of Deer. All of them are valuable food animals, and nearly all have been of great commercial and economic value during the develop- ment of the country. While their commercial importance has been greatly lessened as their numbers diminished, they still play an important part in furnishing food in newly settled parts of the United States and Canada, as well as in feeding the native tribes in the far North. Except in States that have extensive forested areas and have protected deer for a series of years, they are rapidly disappearing before the encroachments of agriculture. The remnant are valuable chiefly because they are a natural resource which may be indefinitely developed if carefully husbanded. David E. Lantz, U. S. Biological Survey. MAMMALS OF AMERICA General Description. — A large member of the deer family, the m.ale with massive antlers shed annually, the female hornless and smaller. Weight of adult bull, 600 pounds or more. Color, yellowish-gray to tawny-brown. Tail short. A fine, well-proportioned animal standing about five feet at the shoulders. Greg- arious in habit. Dental Formula. — Incisors. ^*^°; Canines, '^^'' Pre- molars, _ : Molars Pelage. — Adults. ation, but female generally with the dark colored parts paler than in the male. General body color tawny- brown varying with the individual. Head, neck, cliest and under parts darker brown to nearly black ; legs clove-brown. A large conspicuous straw-colored patch on rump, surroundin.g tail. Hairs on neck long and forming a shaggy mane. Hairs everywhere rather long and coarse. Young. Tawny spotted with white until the first fall, when pelage resembling that of the adults is assumed. Measurements. — Total length 8 feet for male, 7 feet for female. Tail 8 inches. Height at shoulder 5 feet. Weight, male, 600 to 700 pounds. Horns of a record bull 64 and 66 inches along the beam. Range. — Formerly from the Atlantic Ocean to the Rocky Mountains. Now limited generally to western WAPITI, OR AMERICAN ELK Cervus canadensis {Erxleben) Canada. Montana. Wyoming, Colorado, and the Pacific Coast. Food. — .A variety of grasses, leaves and buds. Remarks. — The ,'\merican Elk is not to be confused with the Elk of the Old W orld. an animal more nearly related to the North .American Moose. With the exception of the Moose, the Wapiti is the largest of the American deer family. All of the diliferent vari- eties of Wapiti are variations of the same general color pattern and contour. - Incisors. — ; Canines 4—4 . '—=34. Sexes essentiallv similar in color Rel.^ted Species American Elk, or Wapiti. — Cervus canadensis can- iidcnsis (Erxleben). The typical form just described. Eastern North America to the Rockies, but today extinct over eastern portion of this range. Western Wapiti. — Cervus canadensis occidentalis (Ham. .'■'mith). Darker in coloration. Extreme west- ern North .\merica. Merriam Elk. — Cervus nierriami Nelson. Nose darker, head and legs redder than canadensis. Moun- tains of western New Mexico and eastern .Arizona. Probably extinct. California Wapiti. — Cervus nannodes (Merriam). Smallest of the Elk; pale. Known only in California, and nearing extinction. Bi' permission of the New York Zuul(ji^i^.il Sijeict\' WAPITI, OR ELK The American " Elk " is, next to the Moose, the largest of the Deer family, and is easily the handsomest. It has superb widely branching antlers DEER FAMILY '■ Monarch of the glen, lord of the wilderness, king of the red deer tribe is the Wapiti," says Singer. " The antlers are the most magnificent trophies yielded by any of our American game animals, save the single ]iossible exception of the giant Alaskan moose. Even so, the length of horn of the Wapiti with its wide, graceful sweep, long tines, massiveness, and symmetry is more admired and desired by many than the huge, heavy, grotesque antlers of the moose." Naturalists and sportsmen agree in designating the Wapiti or " Elk " as the handsomest of the deer kind. "A creature of regal presence," " the lordliest animal on earth," are among the descrip- tions of it one finds in the diaries of hunters and in works on natural history ; Colonel Theodore Roosevelt considers it to be " the grandest of the deer kind throughout the world ' and its antlers as " marvels of symmetrical grandeur." "A full-grown Wapiti is normally of twelve tines," says Singer. " The cows grow no antlers, ditTering in this respect from the caribou cows which grow small pointed antlers. It would not be amiss at this point to call attention to the difference between horns and antlers. A horn is a hollow sheath growing over a bony substance, and except in the case of the antelope, it is never shed. Horns are worn by both sexes of all bison, buffaloes, antelopes, sheep, goats and cattle. An antler is a solid bone throughout, growing from the skull, and is shed every year close to the skull, and quickly regrown. They are worn by nearly all male members of the deer family — moose, wapiti, caribou, deer, etc." The Wapiti is one of the round-horned deer. For an animal of its size and weight, its legs are comparatively slender. It carries its head high, and has a luxuriant mane. The general body color is a pale tawny brown : the head, neck, and chest are dark brown ; and there is a large yellowish white patch on the rump. The coat is shed between May and the middle of September. A native of North America, the history of the "Wapiti is a repetition of that of the Bison ■ — persistent and ruthless slaughter by man. In former times it was found over most of the North American continent, from Mexico to A'ancouver, and from New Jersey across the Alleghenies to the Pacific coast. It lived, like the Buffalo, on the open plains. In 1849 in the great valley of San Joaquin, in California, bands of Wapiti numbering many thousands roamed like cattle. Today it is confined chiefly to the northern region of the Rocky Mountains, but nowhere can it be said to be abundant except in the Yellowstone National Park, where perhaps there are some 30,000. Small herds and scattered individuals are occasionally met with in various States, and Wapiti from private parks and pre- serves have from time to time been liberated in various forests, as by Mr W. C. Whitney in the Adirondacks, in the Saranac Lake region, and elsewhere. It is gratifying to note that the num- ber of States in which this lordly animal receives protection is increasing. The King of the Cervidse, for as such is the Wapiti looked upon, differs from his lesser kin, the Mule Deer, in that he is more gregarious and highly polygamous. Another point of difference is that he is, not given to feeding at night, but at the first indication of day and in the late after- noon. During the day they lie down usually on an open, sunny hillslope facing the south, or in the timber if much hunted. In winter when the snow is deep they are naturally more inclined to browsing, even standing on their hind legs to enable them to reach higher up in the trees. They are especially fond of aspen, birch and the tops of the willows. In winter they gather in large bands and keep the snow well trodden down in the locality which they have selected. The shedding of the antlers of the full grown stag usually takes place late in December or dur- ing the month of January. The spike.-horn bulls do not shed until much later, often as late as May or June. They are proud of their little sharp antlers, and do not hesitate to remind with a prod the old bulls who have shed, that they are still well armed. The new antlers begin to sprout in March or April, and during the sum- mer while growing they are covered with hair, and are soft and full of blood, with club-like knobs. In this condition they are spoken of as being " in the velvet." It is a great drain on their system while this remarkable growth is going on. The stags grow thin and the fear of hurting their young antlers, which are very ten- der, makes them quite timid and inoffensive. By the middle of August the antlers are com- pletely grown and the covering or velvet is then rubbed off against trees and bushes, and the ends of the tines polished. For many are the battles to be fought before gaining full possession of a harem. The mating season varies in different localities, but usually begins in September. At this time the bulls become very pugnacious : their necks swell: and they challenge continually. The call, or " bugle," of the male Wapiti is described by MAMMALS OF AMERICA Dr. Hornaday as " a shrill shriek, like an English locomotive whistle, sliding down the scale into a terrific bawl " : but Colonel Roosevelt considers that, " heard at a little distance, and in its proper place, it is one of the grandest and most beautiful sounds in nature." The fawns, usually one or two, but occasionally three, are born in May or June and sometimes as late as August. Their coats are spotted, but the spots disappear in twelve or thirteen weeks. Except in late spring and summer. Wapiti are restless, roving animals. Their migrations vary in different places both in regard to distance and to time. In the old times, before they had been molested by man, herds were known to Photograph by H. N. Stabeck ELK AT HOME The Elk enjoys a timbered country such as this, where it obtain both protection and food may travel as far as 200 miles. The \\'apiti in the Yellowstone National park migrate south every winter to Jackson's Hole. The Wapiti has been described as " the most omnivorous of the vegetarians." It both browses and grazes, eating grasses, leaves, and especially the buds and tender shoots of deciduous shrubs. It is fond of the water, and is equally at home among the high mountains, in the deep forests, and on treeless plains. The economic value of the \\'apiti as a food animal has not hitherto been sufficiently appre- ciated. It is easily domesticated, becoming in three or four generations " as gentle as sheep that run wild." It is less nervous and more easily confined than the ordinary deer. Given suitable State regulations for killing and market- ing, elk venison could be raised more cheaply than beef, mutton, or pork. A cow Wapiti yields a considerably larger percentage of dressed meat than cattle. But the existing regulations are prohibitive of successful elk-raising. In some States the railway companies are precluded from carrying venison at all except in the open season ; and persons who keep deer in confinement are subject to a ta.x, and if they wish to kill one of their own animals have to pay a fee before the State accords the privilege of slaughtering. The foregoing opinions are those generally held by men who have raised Wapiti successfully, so far as increase of the herds is concerned ; and as the venison is admitted by scientific experts to form a highly nourishing article of diet, it is to be hoped further legislation may result in the estab- lishment of a new and useful industry. The Wapiti has often been trained to run in harness, and " trotting elks " have frequently been a feature of county fairs. Some years ago Mr. W. H. Barnes, of Sioux City, " drove a pair of Wapiti to a light wagon, and trained one to dive into a pool of water thirty feet below." The natural gait of \\'apiti is a walk. They trot with a long, graceful stride, and seldom break into a gallop unless much alarmed ; but they cannot sustain the latter gait for any great length of time. "Wapiti are extremely graceful creatures; their every move is the poetry of motion,'" says Singer. " I call to mind an especially beautiful scene. On the brow of a hill, silhouetted against the sky in the early dawn, fed a large band of Wapiti. First came the cows and calves, with their long, slender legs, small, well-formed heads, big ears and coats that glistened like satin in the early light. At the rear strode the ruler of the hand, a fine, lordly stag. What a splendid picture they made, sharply defined against the tinted sky! " The same sportsman gives the following vivid picture of a battle royal between two bull elk: " Up the mountain he came, the second stag who elected to do battle. Defiant and mad all through stood the big fellow up the slope, under the big spruce. But now, as his wrath grew with each approaching step of the bold intruder, he at last broke his wonderful pose, stamped his hoof in furious rage, and roared a threatening challenge to his foe. What the intruding stag lacked in stature he seemed to more than make up in courage, for he showed no intention of being turned aside by anything less than a battle ending in his defeat. " \\'hat looked to be twenty feet was all that now intervened between the two great lords of the wilderness. Then, as if by silent command, the battle was on. ^^'ith heads lowered between DEER FAMILY their forefeet the two adversaries walked around, waiting for an opening. Suddenly there was a savage rush, and as they met their antlers came together with such terrific force that their fore- feet were raised from the ground. Slowly re- treating, bellowing and threatening in a paroxysm of rage, they again circled around. Then came lowing he sullenly moved oflF, turned down the mountain and passed into the shadows of the gathering gloom." Mr. George Bird Grinnell has also given us an excellent pen picture of an elk herd : " From a distant ravine comes the shrill, sweet whistle of a great bull elk as he utters his bold Photograph Dy W. Ran WAPITI The distinctive dark coloration of the head, neck, and chest are here well displayed another charge, even more savage than the first. The intruder, or challenging bull, seemed to be doing most of the offensive fighting. "At length he appeared to be weakening. Once when they came together he went to his knees. Finally he backed off : it was plain that the daring young bull had been worsted. Still ugly and bel- challenge to all rivals far and near. You can see him plainly as he walks out from the timber and slowly climbs the hill, followed by the group of watchful cows; and he is a siilendid picture. Short-bodied, strong-limbed, round and sleek- coated, he is a marvel of strength if not of grace. His yellow body is in sharp contrast with the 8 MAMMALS OF AMERICA dark brown head and mane, and the hugely branching antlers, wide spread and reaching far back over his shoulders, seem almost too much for him to carry : so that as he marches along with ponderous tread each step seems to shake the earth. At intervals he throws back his head and utters a wild call, and before its first notes reach the ear you can see the white steam of his breath as it pours forth into the frosty air. His cows feed near to him as he steps along, or if one straggles too far, he moves slowly toward her, and shaking his mighty horns warns her to return. If you fire a shot at one of that band, speedily the old bull will show himself the herder and protector of his family. Rushing about from point to point he will gather up cows and calves into a close bunch and will drive them off o\er the hills, threatening the laggards with his horns and using them too with cruel effect if the cows do not hurry. No chivalry this on the part of the old bull — he drives them forward not because he wishes to protect them from death, but because the cows are his, and he does not intend to be robbed of his wives and children." Among the lesser known species of this animal are : the Western JVapiti, which is found in the Far West, and differs from the accepted type by being darker in color ; and the California Wapiti, a very rare animal which is much smaller and paler in color. The Merriam Elk of New Mex- ico and Arizona is also a varying type that has become extremelv rare. VIRGINIA DEER Odocoileus americanus (Erxlchen) Other Name.^ White-tailed Deer. General Description. — .\ fairly large Deer, the male with deciduous antlers, female lacking antlers. Tail long for a Deer, rather bushy and conspicuousK white on the underside. Antlers moderately large and branch- ing, directed forward, no brow tines. Color reddish- brown. Dental Formula.— Inc!sors,^=? Canines, ^=° ; Pre- 3—3 I— I molars. ''"^ ; Molars, ^r:^ = 32. 3=3 z -i Pelage. — .Adults: Color of sexes similar. Summer. Body color reddish-brown, with belly, underside and tip of tail, inside of legs, and throat patch white. Band across nose and ring about eye whitish. Spot on each side of nose blackish. Upper surface of tail dusky. Winter. Body color grayish to grayish-brown. Hair long and somewhat brittle in character, Young ; Reddish-brown or rufous with white spotting, the spots persisting until the fourth or fifth month. Measurements. — Length, male, 5 to sVz feet. Tail 12 inches. Height at shoulder 3 feet. Female some- wliat smaller. Weight, male. 225 to 300 pounds. Range. — From Atlantic seaboard to the Great Plains and from the Gulf to about 43° north. Food. — Grasses, leaves of shrubs and trees, mast and aquatic plants. Remarks. — The best known of the American Deer. .\ number of varieties have been described from the above mainly in minor details. k-hich differ Related Species Virginia Deer, or White-tailed Deer. — Odocoileus americanus americanus (Er.xleben). The typical ani- mal. The middle and eastern United States and Canada. Northern Virginia Deer. — Odocoileus americanus borealis Miller. Larger and grayer. Northern part of United States and southern Canada west to Rockies. Louisiana White-tailed Deer. — Odocoileus ameri- canus l<'uisiau^.c ((.;. .\L Allen). Pale and with slender skull. Louisiana and Gulf States. Plains White-tailed Deer. — Odocoileus americanus macrourus ( Rafinesque ). Pale than the typical form. Upper Mississippi Valley. Texas White-tailed Deer. — Odocoileus texanus (^learns). Size small, color pale, legs short. Rio Grande region of Texas. Florida White-tailed Deer. — Odocoileus osceola (Bangs). Size of Texas Deer, but much darker. Florida. Sonora White-tailed Deer. — Odocoileus couesi ( Coues and Yarrow). Paler and smaller than typical americanus. Weight of adult buck about 80 pounds. Douglas White-tailed Deer, or Oregon White- tailed Deer. — Odocoileus leucurus (Douglas). Lacks black markings; has more white. Oregon. The Virginia, or \\ hite-tailed Deer, com- monly known among sportsmen as the " White- tail,"' is the most widely distributed game animal of the United States : it was the first kind of Deer killed for food bv the earlv settlers on the Atlantic coast ; and the prophecy has been made that '■ it will also be the last of the large hoofed animals of North America to become extinct." Related species range from Canada and New England, as far south as Texas. Thanks to the [9] lO MAMMALS OF AMERICA protection afforded by State game laws, the Virginia Deer is probably more numerous in New England and in New York State than it was thirty years ago. Its prolonged existence in a wild state has been accounted for by some mainly by " the fact that it is an inveterate skulker, and fond of the thickest cover. Accordingly it usually has to be killed by stealth and stratagem." A fairly large White-tail measures five feet in length, and three feet high at the shoulders, usually but one fawn each year ; it is fifteen and one-half inches high, and its weight is about four and one-half poimds. .'Vgain, in the Louisi- ana marshes the White-tail live in the same local- ity throughout the year ; but in the Adirondacks the Deer change their habits with the seasons. " Soon after the fawns are born they come down to the water's edge, preferring the neighborhood of the lakes, but also haimting the stream banks. The next three months, during the hot weather, they keep very close to the water. Where they Photograph by R. R. Ravmond, U. S. A. WHITE-TAIL FAWN The fawns of the White-Tail Deer are particularly beautiful animals, and may be readily tamed. This was a wild one " snapped " in the open with a small folding camera and weighs a little over 280 pounds. The antlers differ from those of most other Deer in pointing forward as they rise, a short distance from the forehead. They rarely exceed twenty-nine inches in length. As might have been expected, the great differ- ences in climate and habitat induce many changes of habits. For instance, in the North the mating season is October or November, and the fawns are born in May or June. In Louisiana the season begins in June or July, and the fawns are born in January or February. Each doe has are much hunted, they only come to the water's edge after dark, but in regions where they are little disturbed they are quite as often diurnal in their habits. . . Before September the Deer cease coming to the water, and go back among the dense forests, and on the mountains. There is no genuine migration, as in the case of the mule- deer, from one big tract to another, and no entire desertion of any locality." With the exception of the Adirondacks, Maine has the greatest number of Virginia Deer today, and this notwithstanding the fact that several DEER FAMILY II thousand are killed annually by hunters holding the permits of the State. The White-tail is exceedingly graceful when in motion. One enthusiastic sportsman writes of it : " The \\ hite-tail moves with an indescribable spring and buoyancy. If surprised close up, and much terrified, it simply runs away as hard as it can, at a gait not materially different from that of any other game animal under like circum- stances. . . But normally its mode of progres- sion, whether it trots or gallops, is entirely unique. In trotting, the head and tail are both held erect, and the animal throws out its legs pads, acorns, beechnuts, chestnuts, and other mast, all go to make up its dietary. Add to these a good supply of running water and access to rocksalt, and the White-tail menu is complete. Except the goat, no animal requires so little attention. It is a prolific breeder. One buck is assigned to twelve does. The does begin breed- ing at seventeen months. There are several related species of this Deer, but the slight differences in size or marking can usually be traced to environment. Commenting on this fact, Mr. Archibald Rutledge says (in Field and Stream) : YOUNG WHITE-TAIL DRINKING Interesting snapshot of a young White-Tail, taken after dark with the aid of a flash-light with a singularly proud and free motion. . . In the canter or gallop, the head and tail are also held erect, the flashing white brush being very conspicuous. Three or four low, long, mar- vellously springy bounds are taken, and then a great leap is made high in the air, which is suc- ceeded by three or four low bounds, and then by another high leap. A White-tail going through the brush in this manner is a singularly beautiful sight." No animal does better in captivity than the Virginia Deer. It feeds on almost any kind of vegetable. Lichens, mosses, fallen leaves, lily " The Virginia, or White-tail Deer is of very wide distribution in America, and it is perhaps better known and loved than any of our game animals. Yet, since, as is the case with all wild creatures, its environment has considerable to do with the nature and habits of the White-tail, those who know it best in one locality are un- familiar with its manner of life in another. The \Miite-tail of the Florida Everglades is, in many ways, very dififerent from the Deer of the Adiron- dacks and those of the big Allegheny mountains. . . . For many years I have been acquainted with the White-tailed Deer as it is found in the South, 12 MAMMALS OF AMERICA particularly in the great pine barrens and tupelo swamps of the Carolinas. There are few essen- tial differences or peculiarities of the Deer of the South. As a rule they are smaller, sleeker crea- tures than those of the North, more graceful, too, and their coloring is lighter. It is very seldom, indeed, that a buck in the Carolinas will run 175 poimds. On the other hand, the antlers of the southern Deer are superior in beauty and symmetry, to, for instance, those of the Deer of TEXAS WHITE-TAIL FAWN The fawns of the White-Tail group are beautifully spotted) the western Pennsylvania mountains. Recently, on a visit to a taxidermist's shop in that State, I examined the heads of twenty-six bucks, and but one pair of horns could be called fine in their size and symmetry. The others were bent, crooked, knotted and generally misshapen. The same con- dition was true at another time when I examined the antlers of nineteen bucks. However, a perfect Deer head of the North is a more splendid trophy than one of the South, the antlers have a larger beam, longer tines, and a wider spread. Their whole appearance is more picturesque and rug- ged. I take this difference in horns to be largely due to the fact that northern Deer are, for the most part, creatures of the mountains or of rough country. Their paths are up and down hill, along steep declivities, and through dense areas of second-growth sprouts. Of necessity, their horns get rough treatment ; and when they are in the velvet, a rap or a push or a pull will mean, later in the hardened antler, some decided blem- ish. In the level, open woods of the South, it is only by singular mischance they are found with parts broken clear ofif, probably in a clash be- tween rival bucks, but as a rule their development is normal and very graceful. " I believe the Deer of the South are more gregarious than those of the other localities. When unmolested, they herd readily. Of course, in the mating season, extending through the autumn and the early winter, a buck will nearly always be found with two or three does. On four or five occasions I have seen a buck at that season with four does. But this gathering is not gregarious. .\t other times, in the great pine woods and swamps of the South, Deer are foimd in large families, and even where they are hunted a good deal, they are fond of running together. I have seen as many as eleven in such a drove, while a herd of six or eight is no uncommon sight. However, during the autumn and winter, deer of widely different ages do not consort: it is unusual at that season to see a fawn of the same year ; certainly they do not associate with the bucks and does which are then mating. Dur- ing a two days' hunt I have seen twenty or more Deer, everyone of which appeared large. The growing fawns are evidently dissociated from the older Deer during this season. "If permitted to live out their lives. Deer will probably go from twelve to fifteen years. But one seldom sees a Deer as old as that. There is a scourge called the Black Tongue which comes through the southern woods periodically — gen- erally everv six or seven years. This dread dis- ease pitifully depletes the ranks of the White-tail. Its symptoms are those of a galloping consump- tion, and I have no doubt that is a form of viru- lent tuberculosis ; fever, ague, inertia, and general wasting away are some of its fatal signs. Negro turpentine workers have often told me of coming on Deer thus stricken ; at which times they made no efTort to clear themselves. I myself have never seen a Deer sick in this way, but I have ridden the woods after the plague had passed, and I have seen many that had ])erished by reason of it. Of course, there is no practical way of ministering to creatures so wild and shy, even if their disease were amenable to the skill of medi- DEER FAMILY 13 cine, because for every Deer which is found sick, a score have died obscurely. " The age of a buck greatly affects his appear- ance. Except in size, weight, and color-shadings, does have no decided marks of age. But the appearance of a buck's neck and head, the form of his hoofs, and the size or synunietry of his antlers will supply definite data concerning his and its movements had lost nearly all the natural buovancy of the White-tail. His horns were r|uite small and crumpled. . . My experience has been that a buck is in prime antler at from six to nine years, and that a six or seven-year-old buck carries the best horns. As a rule, bucks two and a half years old have two prongs, or, as they are reckoned in some States, a beam and YOUNG VIRGINIA DEER This photograph was taken from a boat after dark, with the aid of a flash-light age. It is far from true that the oldest bucks will have the finest horns. I have known bucks which must have been ten years old to have antlers which were decidedly inferior in fonn and size. On St. Katherine's Island, off the Georgia coast, a friend of mine killed a buck which he declared was so old that it was actually decrepit. The Deer was decidedly gray in color, a prong. But I have seen bucks of that age with ■ nothing but very long spikes, somewhat resem- bling Antelope horns. I have also seen a buck with spike horns, fifteen inches long, which met in front, so great was their curvature inward, nor was there any sign to show that the antlers had been forced into that position. It was appar- ently a natural but an extraordinary growth." [Hi DEER FAMILY 15 MULE DEER Odocoileus hemionus (Rafinesque) General Description. — A moderate sized deer, with robust antlers and large ears. Tail covered with short hairs, naked on underside and with a black terminal tuft. Metatarsal gland unusually large. Body color yellowish-brown to reddish-brown. High bounding gait. Antlers never developing as many tines as with the White-tailed Deer, but dividing on each beam into two characteristic Y's. Dental Formula.— Same as given for White-tailed Deer. Pelage. — Adults: Suiiuiicr. Yellowish-brown vary- ing to reddish-brown above. Below blackish. A large patch on rump and surrounding tail dull white. Tail light color of the rump above, terminal one-third black above and below, the hairs forming a tuft or pencil. Inner ear grayish-white, externally same color as head and body. IViiitcr. Dark gray above, otherwise about as in summer. Young : General color brownish-yellow irregularly spotted with dull white. Measurements. — Length, male, 5 feet, 3 inches ; tail, 7'4 inches ; hind foot, iS'/i inches. Height of ear above crown, g' 2 inches. Length of female, 4 feet, 9 inches. Weight of average buck, 150 to 200 pounds. Range. — Northern Arizona to British Columbia in the mountains, foothills and plains. Food. — Twigs and foliage of shrubs, grass, fruits and plants, and in southern part of range, acorns. Remarks.— A very different sort of an animal from the Virginia Deer both in appearance and habits. The ranges of these two animals overlap in the Great Plains and in the Rockies as well as in the southern United States, but on the whole they inhabit widely separate areas. The Mule Deer varies in a few characters such as coloration and size, to produce several closely related forms. Related Species Mule Deer. — Odocoileus hemionus hemionus (Rafinesque). The most widely spread form. Found throughout the Great Plains and the adjacent Rockies. California Mule Deer. — Odocoileus hemionus cali- f amicus (Caton). Considerably smaller and more tawny. A dark stripe from back along upper surface of tail. Southern California and northern Lower California. Mexican Mule Deer. — Odocoileus hemionus canus Merriam. Smaller, paler and grayer. Texas, New Mexico and Arizona from the deserts up into the mountains. Burro Deer, or Desert Mule Deer. — Odocoileus hemionus eremicus (Mearns.) Very pale, large, with heavy horns. Western Desert Tract of the United States. Next to the Wapiti and Moose, the Mule Deer is the largest of our American Cer- vidae. Its limbs are larger and coarser than those of the White-tailed Deer, and it is less agile and elastic in its movements ; also less graceful in form. The large disproportioned ears very probably suggested the name of Mule Deer. The most striking difference between the White-tailed Deer and the Mule Deer is found in the antlers. With the Mule Deer the tines from the main beam divide to form two Y's on each beam, whereas in the White-tailed Deer, the tines from the main beam seldom divide. The Mule Deer was first discovered by Lewis and Clark on September 18, 1804, in latitude 42°, on the Missouri river. They then called it the Black-tailed Deer. On May 31, 1805, they discovered the true Black-tailed Deer, on the Columbia river. The Mule Deer is considered one of the most imposing of the Cervidae in appearance. It holds its head and neck erect, while its antlers are much wider than those of its white-tailed cousin. In winter its color is a sober gray, changing in summer to soft brown, thus ena- bling it to blend in with the landscape to a remarkable degree. This animal is at home in the wildest, roughest and most mountainous country. It frequents both the deep ravines and the mountain heights. " It is a proud-spirited, high-headed animal," says Dr. Hornaday. " a bold traveler, and, hke the Mountain Sheep, is often found where the scenery is wild and picturesque. In this respect it dilTers from the White-tailed Deer, which pre- fers low ground, and either brush or timber in which to hide.'" A large Mule Deer buck, shot by Dr. Horna- day on Snow Creek, Montana, measured forty- two inches high at the shoulders and sixty-two and six-tenths inches in length. A large pair of antlers showed a beam length of twenty-seven and one-quarter inches, spread twenty-nine inches, and had fourteen points. In the United States the present scarcity of really large antlers in the possession of taxidermists is a sure sign of the approaching end of this species. In 1903, Mr. A. G. Wallihan, a photographer of wild animals, made the following prediction regarding the extermination of the Mule Deer in Colorado, its centre of abundance in the United States : " Unless we have a close season on Deer, five years will see the finish of these animals. Five years would give them a good i6 MAMMALS OF AMERICA start again. I will cite you some figures: In 1897, I was on the big trail here for nine days, and I counted within a few of a thousand Deer. In 1901 I was on the same trail for eighteen days and I counted 228 Deer. In 1902, I was out fourteen days, and counted fifty-two Deer." The Mule Deer has a peculiar running gait — a progression of stiffs-legged leaps, in which the feet come down together to the ground then bound oflf again like steel springs. But it can run at astonishing speed for long distances. In the chase it will tire out most doo^s and wolves. still met with in many localities. In the coast range north of San Francisco it is almost entirely replaced by the Columbia Black-tailed Deer. In Oregon, \\'ashington and British Columbia the Mule Deer is not so numerous as in the Rockies further east. This Deer may produce two fawns at each birth, but in past years its breeding has nowhere near kept pace with the rate of killing, and it seems doomed to extinction. The Mule Deer was one of the strange animals noted by Audubon and his companions on their ijy permission of the New York Zoological Srn.ict\' MULE DEER BUCK Showing the distinctive marking of the crown and muzzle of this species In the Rocky Mountains, where the true Black- tailed Deer is not known, the Mule Deer is still referred to as the Black-tailed. On the Pacific Coast, where it is found on the same range as the Columbia Black-tailed Deer, it is known by its true name. The most natural home of the Mule Deer is in the mountains, but before the occupation of the country it frequented the Great Plains. West of the Rocky Mountains this species of Deer is memorable journey up the Missouri river, in 1843. He says of his first sight of it: "On winding along the banks, bordering a long and wide prairie, intermingled with willow and other small brushwood, we suddenly came in sight of four Mule Deer which, after standing a moment on the bank and looking at us, trotted leisurely away, without appearing to be much alarmed. After they had retired a few hundred yards, the two largest, apparently males, elevated them- DEER FAMILY 17 selves on their liind legs and pawed each other in the manner of the horse. They occasionally stopped for a moment, then trotted off again, appearing and disappearing from time to time, when becoming suddenly alarmed they bounded off at a swift pace until out of sight. They did not trot or run as irregularly as our Virginia Deer, and they appeared at a distance darker in color." Mr. A. G. W'allihan says of this species: " For me, at least, there is a charm about the Mule lights in the most charming bits of country to be found. He will jump up from the tall weeds and grass among the aspens, so close as to startle you as you ride through them, or will leap into view from the shade of a deep washout far in the desert, where he finds in the feed and surround- ings something to suit his taste. He is crafty also, for if he tb.inks he is hidden I have known him to lie in thick bush until almost kicked out, after all sorts of experiments to drive him out have failed. He has perhaps the keenest scent '''i^;'1?-^ir->rk Z'M..logical Society cow MOOSE Neither sex of the Moose family can be called handsome, but of the two the female is the more gaunt and ungainly average specimen of the adult Common Moose stands about five feet, nine inches at the shoulders, and one over six feet would be a very fine animal. The weight of the male often exceeds looo pounds. The females are smaller than the males. In both, the nostrils are large, and the muzzle hairy and long. In color the Common Moose is lighter in Maine and lower Canada than it is farther west. The head, neck, and body are blackish-brown ; the legs and under parts yellowish-gray, and in some cases almost white. The hair is very coarse, and is six inches long on the neck and shoulders. trot, but it will walk for long distances with great strides in a straight line across the marsh, splashing among the wet water plants, and ploughing through boggy spaces with the indif- ference begotten of vast strength and legs longer than those of any other animal on this continent. The Moose is a browsing animal, its legs being too long and its neck too short to allow it to graze ; yet in the early spring, when greedy for the tender blades of young, green marsh grass, the Moose will often shuffle down on its knees to get at them, and it will occasionally perform the same feat to get a mouthful of snow in DEER FAMILY winter. In Maine and lower Canada it feeds extensively in the summer on pond lilies and other plants in the marshy lakes ; sometimes when feeding in a pond or lake it will go com- pletely under the water and out of sight after its favorite lily root. In the forests it feeds on moss and lichens and on the twigs, leaves, and bark of certain trees, such as willows, alders, and aspens. It is a powerful swimmer, and is especially fond of wading in shallow water. The Moose is usually monogamous, and the mating season begins in September. The bulls at this time become absolutely reckless, and do battle royal for possession of the cow. The clash- ing of their antlers may sometimes be heard a mile off. The bulls seek the cows, uttering con- tinually a short, loud roar, which can be heard at a distance of two or three miles ; the cows now and then respond with low, plaintive bellows. Hunters and photographers of the Moose sum- mon the animal to them by imitating the call of the bull, on a horn made of birch bark. It has been a disputed question as to whether this call really deludes the Moose. The calves are born in May and usually remain with the cow till the second year. One or two at a birth is the usual number, very occasionally there are tri])lets. An eye-witness to a fight between two bull Moose gives (in Field and Stream) the follow- ing vivid description of the contest : " For a brief space they eyed each other with lowered heads, pawing the ground savagely meanwhile. The great ears hugged the bristling necks. Slowly they approached each other like two trained wrestlers waiting for an opening. Suddenly the gray bull with lowered antlers charged at a dis- tance of ten yards. The other, not a whit behind his rival in courage, sprang to meet the onslaught. So evenly matched were they in size and strength that at the terrific impact each was hurled back and almost upon his haunches. The gray Moose was the first to recover himself. Again their antlers crashed together, resounding far through- out the quiet moonlit woods. " It now became a test of strength. The first to give way would surely lose the fight, for once started backwards his hinderparts would sooner or later come in contact with some obstacle that would cause him to swerve, when the other would have a chance at his unprotected side. " The earth spurted up from their straining cloven feet, yet not a sound was made bv either other than the tramping and labored breathing. With a deep knowledge of the game they strove to keep head-on. Around and around they struggled until the grass and leaves were trampled out of sight. At last in one of these evolutions the rump of the stranger struck against a tree, preventing him from swinging to keep in line with his antagonist. The neck muscles, though tremendously powerful, could not hold his adversary. He struggled to recover himself but without avail. The tree that had been his ruin prevented him from leaping side- ways and thus escape the onslaught. The ant- lers of the gray Moose slipped around his neck, one of them catching him forward of the shoulder, and the other just back of it. With a Photograph by G. W. Vissi : MOOSE SWIMMING The Moose is not so pugnacious wlien in the water, and this one was snapped while busily getting away from a canoe surge the gray Moose drove his antlers home. Nothing that lived could withstand that fierce vindictive thrust. Through hair and hide and flesh those terrible points sank. The stranger reared to avoid the shock. That action, together with the tremendous lifting stroke, threw him with a crash full upon his back. As he went over the curved points ripped out of the wounds, lacerating the flesh. The lungs were pierced, but he struggled to his knees, and while in that defenseless position the gray Moose struck him full in the side in a maddened charge. As he made no motion to rise the gray Moose drew off and watched him for a moment, then turned to where the cow stood, who had been apparently an uninterested spectator of the fight." The Moose has several enemies, among them being the Bear, the Cougar (the most dangerous where both animals are at all plentiful), and the big Timber Wolf. Man, of course, is its most dreaded foe, though owing to the excellent game 24 MAMMALS OF AMERICA laws of many of the States, notably those of Maine, the Moose is now no longer in danger of extermination. It is hunted by several methods: calling (referred to above), still-hunt- ing, fire-hunting from a canoe, and " crusting." The last two methods are considered unsports- manlike. Crusting often degenerates into mere butchery, the animal breaking through the crust of snow and becoming helpless before its pur- suers. Hunters who employ this method are often charged by Moose. They follow the animals on edge of the shore ahead of us. We paddled up to within a hundred yards of it. Then it looked at us. but paid no further heed. \\'e were rather surprised at this, but paddled on past it, and it then walked along the shore after us. Another hundred yards put us to windward of it. Instead of turning into the forest, when it got our wind, it merely bristled up the hair on its withers, shook its head, and continued to walk after the canoe along the shore. I had heard of bull Moose during the rut attacking men, but never r At it cow MOOSE This Cow was lured to within fifteen feet of the camera by the operator, who grunted like a Bull Moose ■snowshoes during the late winter and early spring when the Moose have " yarded." A " yard," it should be explained, is a spot chosen by a Moose herd for their winter home because it contains plenty of browse and is sheltered from heavy snowdrifts. Across this space the Moose travel to and fro. making regular, beaten paths. On the general question, " Will Moose attack man without ])rovocation ?" Colonel Roosevelt throws some light in an article in Scribner's, in which he says: "When half a mile from the landing we saw another big bull Moose on the of anything as wanton and deliberate as this action, and I could hardly believe the Moose meant mischief ; but Arthur said it did ; and obviously we could not land with the big, black, evil-looking beast coming for us. I was most anxious not to have to shoot it. The Moose turned and followed us, shaking his head and threatening us. As soon as we stopped, he rushed down the trail toward us, coming into the lake. Where the water was deep, we pushed the canoe in close to him, and he promptly rushed down to the water's edge, shaking his head and striking the earth with his fore hoofs." DEER FAMILY 25 For more than an hour the animal prevented the occupants of the canoe from landing; then he galloped — not trotted — away. A couple of hundred yards on, the beast reappeared, and as we approached he struggled to his feet, grunt- ing savagely, and 1 killed him as he came to us." In forest preserves the Moose will thrive, but in zoological parks it seldom survives longer than ^ ■^"B 1 1 1 , *>• '•• r: '^^^^^^ ' ^^^'^w .'Af'^.^^H By pe^missi^n of the U. S. Biological Survey Drawing by Carl Rungius ALASKA MOOSE The Alaska Moose is the largest of its tribe. This spirited drawing shows a characteristic attitude after firing over its head without scaring it in the least, the Colonel " put a bullet into his chest. It was a mortal wound and stopped him short. I fired into his chest again. He turned and recrossed the stream, falling at a third shot : but 3 five or six years, usually dying of some affection of the stomach and intestines, although fed on " the best tree branches that its own native for- ests can supply." It is docile in captivity and has been trained, like the Wapiti, to run in harness. 26 MAMMALS OF AMERICA The Alaska Moose differs from the better known form by being larger and darker in color. This animal reaches proportions almost gigantic, and when at bay in the woods is a foe to be dreaded. Its home is the Kenai Peninsula of Alaska. " The broad valley and mountain banks of the Klondike," writes Tappan Adney, " are an ad- mirable feeding ground for this Moose. The temperature in winter is exceedingly cold and crisp, but the snowfall is light, and by reason of the intense cold the snow does not settle or pack. There is so little wind, especially through the early part of the winter, that the snow accu- mulates on the trees in strange and often fantas- tic masses, giving the landscape, especially on the mountain tops, the appearance of having been chiseled out of pure white marble. On account of its lightness, the snow is no impediment to the long-legged gaunt Moose, which is not obliged to ' yard ' as in more southern deep- snow regions, but wanders at will from valley to mountain top in search of the tender twigs of willow, white birch or cottonwood. The Indians surround the Moose in its feeding groimds and as it runs, one or more of them is tolerably sure of a quick shot." The Moose in this section have long been the main support of the Indians, and in their household economy no part of the beast is wasted. To quote further : " The hides were brought indoors, the hair was shaved oft", and all the sinew and meat adhering was removed by means of a sort of chisel made of Moose's shin bone. . . . The skin was now washed in a pan of hot water. The various portions of the Moose were divided among the village. One family got the head, another a slab of ribs, an- other the shoulders. The shin bones were roasted and cracked for their marrow ; the ears, although nothing but cartilage, were roasted and chewed U]i ; the rubber-like ' rnufifle ' or nose, and every particle of flesh, fat or gristle that could be scraped from head or hoofs were disposed of. Even the stomach was emptied of its contents, boiled, and eaten." A near relative of the Alaska Moose is found in the forests of the Scandinavian Peninsula, as well as parts of Russia and Prussia. The animal is known to the English by the name of Elk, which term has unfortunately been applied in this country to the Wapiti, an animal presenting nianv points of difference. WOODLAND CARIBOU Other Name. — American Reindeer. General Description. — A large Deer, the male weighing about 300 to 400 pounds. Antlers palmate, found on both sexes, those of male wide and branching, of female much smaller, occasionally lacking entirely. Brow tine present, compressed laterally. Muzzle haired, wide and heavily built. Ears and tail short. Mane on neck. Tarsal but no metatarsal gland. Hoofs broad and long, deeply cleft, with accessory hoofs reaching nearly to ground. Dental Formula.- molar -Incisors, -o t^ . I — 1 — ; Canines. 4 — 4 o — o ,^-^\ Molars, ^1^=34. 3—3 3—3 Pelage. — Adults: Sexes similar. Summer. Greater part of animal dark brown, with grayish-white to pure white on neck from ears to shoulders. Area about under side of tail, behy and extremities of limbs whitish, the white about hoofs arranged as a band. Black patch on cheek and about eye. W'micr. Head and neck whitish, rest of body grayish-ash to dull grayish-brown. Long hairs very coarse everywhere. Inner coat of fine hair present. Young: General body Rangifer caribou iGinelin) color about as in adults, but with faint traces of white spotting. Measurements. — Length, male, 6 to 6J4 feet ; height at shoulder, 42 to 48 inches: length of tail. 4 inches; antlers. 32 to 42 inches. Female, slightly smaller. Range. — Labrador, region between Great Lakes and Hudson Bay extending from Maine to Montana and British Columbia, in forest lands. Food. — Practically any green vegetation to be found in its range. Remarks. — This animal is well marked off from other Caribou to the north by its greater size and larger horns, and from the Caribou to the west by its color and smaller size. There are many species of the Wood- land group, but some are only slightly differentiated. Pre- Rfxated Forms Woodland Caribou. — Rangifer caribou caribou (Gnielin). Typical form. Canada from Maine to Rocky Mountains. Richardson Caribou. — Rangifer caribou sylfcslris (Richardson). Differing little from typical Woodland Caribou. Southern shores of Hudson Bay. DEER FAMILY 27 Mountain Caribou. — Raiujijcr monlanus. Seton- Thompson. Size very large, color very dark, horns massive. British Columbia. Osborn Caribou. — Rangifcr oshorni Allen. Very large in size, e.xceeding the Mountain Caribou. Antlers very long and heavy. Cassiar Mountains. British Columbia. Peary Caribou. — Rangijcr pcaryi Allen. Pure white except for large dark patch on mid back. Known only from 4 skins. EUesmere Land. Stone Caribou. — Rangijcr stoiici .Mien. Dark in coloration with heavy fringe of white hairs on front of neck. Antlers long and not especially massive. Kenai Penin,=nla. Dawson Caribou. — Rangifcr dawsoni Seton-Thomp- son. Size very small, color dark. Queen Charlotte Islands. Alberta Caribou. — Rangifcr fortidcns Hollister. Largest of the North American Caribou. Coloration very dark. Antlers stout, heavily palmate. Females normally without antlers. Alberta. Newfoundland Caribou. — See description which follows. Barren-Ground Caribou. — See description which follows. Scandinavian Reindeer. — See description which follows. This Caribou, which is the original type of the Woodland Caribou group, is a large and powerful animal, about twice the size of a Vir- ginia Deer. A typical specimen, from Maine, in the Zoological Park, New York, is described as " a strong lusty animal, forty-eight inches high at the shoulders, weighing 280 pounds, and endowed with sufficient energy to vanqtiish the strongest man in about one minute." The Wood- land Caribou is an odd-looking creattire. Its head, long and resembling somewhat that of the cow, is carried low and thrust forward ; its shoulders are high and sharp. Its hoofs, which are cleft nearly to the hocks, make, as it walks on the hard ground or withdraws them succes- sively from the ooze of a marsh, a distinctly clicking sound. When not suspecting danger, the \\^oodland Caribou has a careless, slouchy gait and. it must be confessed, an unattractive appearance ; but when it scents a foe " the listless, careless pose gives place to one animated and ftill of spirited attention; the head is carried proudly aloft, crowned by its noble weapons of offense and defense. . . . And then, the foe appearing, how grand is the animal's movement as, in a stately trot, with head and tail uplifted, the proud Deer passes rapidly from view over the yielding moss." The antlers present some noticeable differences from those of the Barren-Groimd species, being generally " short in the main beam, liberally palmated both on brow-tines and tips, and have upwards of thirty points. As a whole, the antlers have a tree-top appearance." One of the Woodland group, the so-called Osborn Caribou, is supposed to be the largest of Caribou; it has a height of fifty-five inches at the shoulders. The summer coat of the Woodland Caribou is of a dark gray, with white under parts and a white catidal patch. In winter the body changes to a very light hue, and the neck becomes almost ptire white. The color of the pelage varies con- siderably in different members of the group. The Black-faced, or Mountain, Caribou of south- eastern British Columbia is, in September, nearly black, while the Barren-Ground is the whitest of all Caribou. The female also may have antlers, though smaller. Antlers are shed between January i and the end of Febrttary. the new ones growing slowly till the warm weather comes, when they lengthen rapidly, attaining full size about Sep- tember 1st. The animal removes the velvet, or soft covering, by rubbing its antlers against the trees, and is then ready to do battle. The pair- ing season begins in September, and usually one fawn is born each year. Occasionally two are produced. The Woodland Caribou, unlike his Barren- Ground brother, is a wide-awake aniirial. In districts where his chief enemy, man, has not molested him he is confiding. His " first inclina- tion on seeing an intruder is to come up and jjlay with him." Mr. Charles Sheldon in the Upper Yukon district saw a Caribou with her young one which carne twenty-five yards toward him, looked at him indifferently and then trotted off. When surprised, the animals seem to become panic-stricken and unable to escape ; but as soon as they scent danger they are off. On the ice they are exceedingly swift, soon outdistancing the hunter. The Woodland Caribou is a forest rover, and is usually found in the swamps. The Cree Indians call it the Swamp Deer. They seek the mountains in the spring, and spend their summers above the timber line, hiding in dense thickets in the day and coming out at night to wander about and to drink of the nearest lake. In the autumn the Cariboti leaves the heights for 28 MAMMALS OF AMERICA the valleys, where it can more easily obtain food. It feeds on lichens, leaves, and berries, and is especially fond of cranberries. The animal is hunted by stalking, still-hunting, and on snow- shoes, and of late years its numbers in many districts have become greatly reduced. No instance is known of the domestication of the \\'Oodland Caribou, but the following inci- dent is related of an attempt in this direction ^ y^ ""^"rt-y i^ji IS >■'' ^ >K ., The flesh of this Caribou makes excellent veni- son and is much used by the northern Indians. In gait it resembles the Elk and Moose more than the smaller Deer. It travels with a long swinging trot, and goes much faster than it appears. The Caribou has good bottom and can travel great distances vi'ithout a halt, so that it is almost useless to try and follow a band when once they have taken the alarm. WOODLAND CARIBOU This animal has recently shed its horns, and is not altogether happy about it '' The proprietor of a camp in the Alaine woods had been much teased about the loss of useful labor he was incurring through not taming the Woodland Caribou. Shortly after, having trapped two fine animals, he proceeded to attach a rein, in the shape of a lasso, to one of the tmtamed creatures. Unfortunately, the Caribou reversed the order of things and taught the trainer a lesson. Slipping the lasso to his flanks, he made a bound of twenty feet, carrying his trainer like the tail of a kite, in a straight line after him. He dropped him, only to make a second leap, and a third finished the business." The camp proprietor picked himself up, bruised from head to foot, and this was his first and last attempt at taming Woodland Caribou. Like the Antelope, the Caribou sometimes ex- hibits curiosity. Mr. Ward, referring to this says : " The indifference or curiosity with regard to the noise of firearms exhibited by the Cari- bou often stands the hunter in good stead and affords him a chance for a second shot, should the first prove ineffectual; for it is not uncom- mon for a herd to stand stock-still on hearing the report of a gun, even when one of their number has fallen a victim thereto. The pause is but for an instant, and the hunter must be quick to take advantage of it, or his chance will be gone before he is aware of it, for, recovering quickly from the shock or alarm, or whatever it may be, the herd will dash off at a rattling pace." DEER FAMILY 29 NEWFOUNDLAND CARIBOU Rangifer terraenovae Bangs General Description. — See general de?cription of Woodland Caribou. Antlers massive with many points, general shape low. widely spread and points directed forward. Color lighter, more white on feet. Dental Formula. — See dental formula given for Woodland Caribou. Pelage. — .Adults : Autumn. Body above grayish- brown, lighter on flanks and nearly pure white on ventral surface. Neck all around soiled-whitish, rather lighter in front ; broad faintly defined eye-ring. Lower face, nose and terminal part of lower jaw grayish- white. Under surface of tail and buttocks white. Feet white. Front and outer surface of limbs brownish- gray. Measurements. — About the same as Woodland Caribou Range. — Newfoundland. Food. — Leaves, twigs and moss. Remarks. — A heavy-antlered relative of the Wood- land Caribou. Newfoundland is one home of the Caribou where, thanks to the excellent game laws in force, it will be able to exist secure from the probability of extinction for many years to come. Mr. J. G. Millais, writing in 1907 ("Newfoundland and its Untrodden \\"ays"), considered 200,000 to be a fair estimate of the number of animals of this species then on the island. Every native is allowed to kill three Cari- bou, but the total annual slatighter is estimated at not more than 6 per cent. Naturalists are in- debted to one sportsman, Mr. A. A. Radclyfife Dugmore, for an intimate account of the life of this Caribou. It should be explained that he hunted with a camera, and the results of his campaigns are giveti in his " The Romance of the Newfoundland Caribou." A good stag of the Newfoundland species stands four feet high at the shoulder, and its length varies from six feet to nearly seven feet. Its weight would be between 300 and 500 pounds. The does are less, both in size and weight. The color of the pelage varies so much, both with the seasons and in individual animals, that only an approximate description can be given. In summer, it is general!)' a rather dark mouse- gray, shading to almost white on the flanks. There is a white ring round the eyes, and the ears are very light gray. In atitumn, the white neck is conspicuous on the stags, less noticeable in the does. The flanks and underparts are v,hite or very light buff-gray, shading upward to the shoulders, back, and the upper part of the hips, which are all of a warm gray or brown. The tail .3 about seven inches long and con- spicuously white. The nose is white or nearly so ; the throat and below the ears nearly always white, as is also the throat mane. This mane varies in length from two to twelve inches. The legs are sometimes light and sometimes dark. The winter coloring is very light gray or white. Of the antlers Mr. Dugmore says: "In a general way the Newfoundland stag carries a more massive antler than that carried by even its closest cousins." Quite a number of the does are hornless, as many as twenty-four without horns having been counted in a herd of 300. The mating season is in October, the first three weeks. The stag " believes in a plurality of wives — a great plurality; in fact, as many as he can keep under control." Sometimes the stags leave all their does and take possession of an entirely new herd. Fighting for the pos- session of the does is not at all uncommon, and Mr. Dugmore photographed two stags in the thick of such a conflict. Unless a heavy snow- fall occtirs, the Caribou remain near their sum- mer quarters tip in the higher lands until the rutting-time is over. With the first heavy fall after the middle of October the migration south- ward to the winter home begins. The animals move in groups of two and three to herds of 100 or more. Each herd is usually led by a doe. Sometimes the pairing season atid the migration occtir together. At this time the stag presents " a striking contrast to the shy, retiring crea- ture of the preceding months ; and yet even greater contrast to the woebegone, miserable beast of the succeeding weeks. . . . It is indeed difficult to believe that this is the same animal, so great is the change. And yet the sportsmen who hunt the Caribou tistially see them at no other time. How can we wonder at the wretched drawings so frequently seen supposed to rep- resent the mighty stag ? " On the migrations each herd has its sentry. Their speed " is not less than five or six miles an hour when they walk, which is their usual gait ; only under rather exceptional circumstances do they trot for any distance, while they seldom resort to galloping unless they are frightened. On warm [3ol DEER FAMILY 31 days they take things easy, traveling in the must leisurely fashion, and spending the greater |)art of the day in resting and feeding, particu- larlv between the hours of nine and three." Their favorite food is the reindeer moss. When winter comes, and the snow is too deep for them to dig out their ground moss and lichens, they turn to the tree-growing mosses, such as the Usnea, or Old Man's Beard. When " the winter liegins to break, the days become longer, the nights less bitter, and the Aurora Borealis is no longer seen, the Caribou becomes restless ; the large herds break up, and in ones and twos the does begin the long return journey to their summer homes in the north." The young Caribou are born in June ; gen- erally there is but one fawn, occasionally twins are produced ; the nursery being in the thick forests of spruce. The Cariboti has few ene- mies in Newfoundland. " Wolves are practi- cally extinct on the island ; the Lynx is rare, but its extreme cunning makes it a danger to be dreaded. . . The chief enemies are . . . mosqui- toes and several species of flies, some of which cause intense annoyance and suffering." The does nurse their young as late as November. The summer months are spent in the higher regions, where, " often hidden away among the forests, marshy barrens aboimd, and nearly all are sprinkled with small ponds and lakes." BARREN-GROUND CARIBOU Rangifer arcticus (Richardson) General Description. — See general description of Woodland Caribou. Much the same as the Woodland Caribou, but smaller in size with very long, slender horns. Much whiter feet and legs. Dental Formula. — See dental formula of Woodland Caribou. Pelage. — Adults: Summer. Above, clove-brown mixed with dark reddish and yellowish-browns, under- parts and lower side of neck white. Wintrr. Entire coat soiled white. Measurements. — A little smaller than the Woodland Caribou. Range. — North of the forest zone in .■\rctic .\merica in the barren districts. Food. — Largely moss and twigs of small shrubs. Remarks. — One of the smallest of the Caribou and living the farthest north. Differing from the other Caribou in the characters given above, it is commonly classified in a distinct group. It has several relatives in this group in North America, besides the European, or Scandinavian Reindeer. Related Species Barren-Ground Caribou. — Rangifer arcticus (Rich- ardson). Typical form. Barren-Ground region of .'\rctic America. Grant's Caribou. — Rangifer granti Allen. Size small. \ white rump patch. Brow tine much expanded. Barren grounds of Alaska Peninsula. Greenland Caribou. — Rangifer groenlandicus (Gmelin). Size small. Antlers long, slender, with but few points. White ring around eye. Greenland. This denizen of the treeless, desolate wastes extending from Htidson Bay to Great Slave Lake, and known as the Barren Grottnds, is a smaller animal than the Woodland Caribou, and the only deer of this region : hence its name. The front of its head is more cowlike than that of the \\'oodland species, and its antlers are disproportionately long. They have fewer points than those of the W^oodland, and the brow tines incline downward. As a whole they pre- sent an armchair appearance. Both the males and the females have horns and shed them annually. The Barren-Ground Caribou winters in the woods in latitude about 63 to 66 degrees, the bulls going deep into the forests, and the females remaining near their edges. About the end of April they make short excursions from the woods, returning, however, if the weather is frosty. In May the females make their way to the sea-coast, and in the following month are joined by the bulls. In the section immediately east of the Mackenzie River the females leave the timber about March, and the bulls follow in April. The spring journey is made partly on the snow, and, after the snow has disappeared, on the ice that covers the lakes and the rivers. Soon after their arrival at the coast of the Arctic Sea the females drop their young, usually two, although some of the Indians say they have seen females with three fawns. The herds feed on the moist pasttires of the valley bottoms 32 MAMMALS OF AMERICA of the coasts and islands until September, when they begin their return journey to the south. The woods are reached in October, the bulls seeking their winter quarters in the deep recesses, and the females remaining on the edges. The bulls do not go so far north as the females, and meet the latter on their return from the coast. It is difificult to realize the vastness of these migratory herds. Mr. W'arburton Pike saw, in 1899, a band of migrating Barren-Ground Caribou that took six days to pass a certain point. He says: "With the increasing de])th of the snow there was a noticeable migration of life from the Barren Grounds. Ptarmigan came literally in thousands, while the tracks of Wolves, Wolverines and Arctic Foxes made a continuous network in the snow. Scattered bands of Caribou were almost always in sight from the top of the ridge behind the camp, and increased in numbers till the morning of October 20th, when we were awakened before daylight by the cry of ' La Foule, La Foule ! ' and even in the lodge we could hear the curious clatter made by a band of traveling Caribou. La Foule had really come and during its pas- sage of six days I was able to realize that an extraordinary number of these animals still roam in the Barren Grounds. From the ridge we had a splendid view of the migration ; all the south side of MacKay Lake was alive with moving beasts, while the ice seemed to be dotted all over with black islands, and still away on the north shore, with the aid of the glasses, we could see them coming like regiments on the march. In every direction we could hear the grunting noise that the Caribou always make when traveling ; the snow was broken into broad roads, and I found it useless to try to estimate the number that passed within a few miles of our encampment. This passage of the Caribou is the most remarkable thing that I have ever seen in the course of many expeditions among the big game of America. The Buffalo were for the most part killed out before my time, but I cannot believe that herds on the prairies ever surpassed in size La Foule of the Caribou." At such times the Caribou is an easy prey for the hunter. The Indian's method is very simple. In open country or on the frozen lakes, he will start straight for a band of Caribou, regardless of the direction of the wind. If they run away, he will go back and report that they are wild. Next day he does the same, and probably they are more ])layful and the slaughter is numerous. Dr. \\'. T. Hornaday relates that " along the Arctic coast, between Point Barrow and the mouth of the Mackenzie, tens of thousands have been killed by the natives and sold to whaling ships wintering along that coast." In the water the animal is speared by the natives in canoes. The importance of the Barren-Ground Caribou to the natives can hardly be overestimated. It may safely be said that the animal supplies the staple food and clothing material for three- fourths of Canada's great area. The Indians and Eskimo make tents of hides sewn together ; fish-hooks are made from the horns ; the skin with the hair on makes the finest clothing to resist the Arctic cold ; the flesh is eaten ; and the fat, sometimes two or three inches in dejith. on the back and rump, which the French-Cana- dian hunters call dcpouUlc, is a valuable .article of trade. By those who have had the most favorable and frequent opportunities of observing it. the Barren-Ground Caribou is regarded as a some- what stupid animal. It is very inquisitive, and will approach closely any new or strange object, if the latter is only motionless. The Eskimo takes advantage of this weakness. Placing him- self behind a rock, he will imitate their hoarse bellow, and in a short time some of them are certain to draw nearer and nearer to the decoy until they pay for their curiositv with their lives. The animal suffers sometimes from a disease of the hoofs, but this is not often very wide- spread. Its chief tormentor is the gadfly, the larvae of which sometimes perforate its skin. Mr. David T. Hanbury says that the migrating Caribou in the Northwest " arrive in bands of from about a dozen to as many as two him- dred. Trotting quickly down to thj edge of a river they take the water without a moment's hesitation. They swim with marvelous speed, almost appear to be trotting and they keej) up a peculiar grunting noise while in the water. The Huskies (Eskimo) wait till they are fairly in mid-stream, then shoot out in their kyaks and surround the band. The spearing then com- mences. The slaughter is sometimes great. " The deer show no signs of diminution at present, nor will they so long as the population of the North remains as it is. They exist in hundreds of thousands, it is safe to say millions : and, the few hundreds, perhaps thousands, killed bv the Huskies are insignificant.'' DEER FAMILY 33 REINDEER Rangifer tarandus (Linnaeus) General Description. — See general description of Woodland Caribou. Size smaller than Woodland Cari- bou, with antlers longer, less palmate and massive. Pasterns short and broad. White ring above hoofs poorly defined. Dental Formula. — See dental formula of Woodland Caribou. Pelage. — General body color clove-brown, limbs sooty, sides of neck and long hair on throat whitish, blackish along sides of belly. Nose and face dark. Narrow white band about feet above hoofs in male ; in female this band may be wanting. Measurements. — A little smaller than the Woodland Caribou. Range. — In North America has been introduced into -Alaska and Labrador. Food. — Same as other Caribou. Remarks. — By some authorities the Scandinavian Reindeer has been considered nearest to the Woodland Caribou, but the character of the antlers seems to place it with the Barren-Ground species. By permission "t the .New York Zoological Society REINDEER These handsome animals have been introduced into Alaska from Siberia, and are doing well This Arctic Deer is of especial interest from the fact that it has long been domesticated and used as a draft animal and beast of burden. In its wild state it is much larger than the domesticated Reindeer. It is found in the sub- Arctic and Arctic regions of Europe and Asia, nearly as far north as the extreme limits of land. A distingui.shing feature of the Reindeer is that both sexes have antlers. These are remark- able for their long, unequally branched horns, and particularly for the fact that of the brow antlers, which are greatly palmated, one is usually aborted and the other hangs over the face. An- other noteworthy feature of the Reindeer is its hoof. Just as the camel is enabled by its broad pad to traverse the trackless sands of the desert, so the Reindeer is equipped by nature for travel- ing over the vast snowfields of the North. 34 MAMMALS OF AMERICA The Reindeer has a brownish coat, dark in summer and lighter in winter, with long, whitish hairs under the neck ; the tail is short and goat- like, and the region about it, as also the outlines of the hoof, are nearly white. The hoofs them- selves are black. Of the breeding habits of the wild Reindeer little is known beyond the fact that the fawns are brought forth in the spring. The Reindeer in its wild state wanders about the treeless mountains and desolate tundras, mi- grating in immense herds from one feeding- ground to another. Admiral von W'rangel, who witnessed one of these migrations, describes it as extending " further than the eye could reach, a compact mass narrowing to the front. They moved slowly and majestically along, their broad antlers resembling a moving wood of leafless trees. Each body was led by a Deer, a female, of unusual size." The Reindeer feeds largely on grasses, sea- weed and rock lichens. To obtain the last of these it will scrape away several feet of snow with its horns and feet. Besides flesh and milk for food, the Reindeer furnishes skins for clothing and tents, and its horns and hoofs are also utilized commercially. The remarkable strength, speed, and endur- ance of the Reindeer in drawing sledges over the snow are so well known that they need only be referred to here. Pictures of Santa Claus with his Reindeer sledge full of Christmas presents are among the recollections of our earli- est childhood. The interest of Americans in the Reindeer, however, centers in the experiment, made about a quarter of century ago by the United States Government, of introducing Siberian and Lap- land Reindeer into Alaska. This experiment has been so remarkably successful as to war- rant more than casual mention here. About the year 1887 the native tribes of north- western Alaska, owing to their uneconomical habits of living and the loss of food supplies, were in great danger of starvation. The sug- gestion was made to the United States Govern- ment that it would be a useful and humane undertaking for the Government to introduce Reindeer into the territory, and to train the natives in the care and use of them. In 1892, one hundred and seventy-two animals were im- ported. By 1902 there had been introduced, from Lapland and .Siberia, 1720 Reindeer, from which 61 16 fawns had been born. On June 30, 1 91 3, the herds had increased to sixty-two, num- bering no fewer than 47,266 animals, an increase of 20 per cent, over the previous year. During the year 5000 had been killed for food and skins. The distribution of the Reindeer to the natives of Alaska is made pro rata. Young natives are required to serve an apprenticeship of four years in the care and management of Reindeer, animals and food being supplied by the Govern- ment to such ap])rentices. It is estimated that there are in Alaska areas of 400,000 square miles in the aggregate suffi- cient to feed 10,000,000 Reindeer. Lapland Reindeer have recently been intro- duced into Labrador and northern Newfound- land, and the experiment promises great success. THE ANTELOPE FAMILY (Antilocapridcs) NTELOPES, while a family which has many important members inAfricaare represented in North America by only one member, the Pronghorn. This unique animal is more nearly akin to the Bovidac, or oxen and sheep, than to its foreign brothers. It differs so widely from the foreign Antelope that scientists in despair have created for it a separate family which it occupies alone and undisturbed. The more important points of difference are : the horn is pronged, or branched, and is rooted very close to and above the eye; the horn, while a true one grown around a bony core, and not an antler, is shed and renewed every year; the pelage consists of very coarse, brittle hairs, those on the rump being erectile like the bristles of a wild boar, and stiffen up at the first sign of danger ; there are no accessory hoofs ; and the marking is strikingly individual. The protective coloration, while generally good, is disturbed by the conspicuous white patch around the tail, which shows most plainly when the animal is in flight. PRONGHORNED ANTELOPE Antilocapra americana Other Names. — Pronghorn, Prongbuck, Antelope. General Description. — Form deer-like, The male slightly larger than feinale, standing about 3 feet at shoulder. Both se.xes horned, but female sometimes hornless, and horns of male invariably larger. Horns unique, being flattened, branched, elongate sheaths upon an unbranched bony core. Horns shed annually ; core permanent and situated just above orbit. But two hoofs on each foot, accessory hoofs wanting. Body color tan, with conspicuous white rump patch and two white bands across throat and chest. A thick mane of long hair on neck. Hair everywhere coar.se and brittle. Ears long and pointed. Tail short, densely haired above. Numerous cutaneous scent glands on jaw. rump and legs. Horns and hoofs black. Canines, ^^ ; Pre- Ord) Dental Formula. — Incisors, "^—^ 3—3 molars, ^^ ; Molars, ^—^- = S2. i-3 ' 3-3 ^ Pelage. — Adults : Sexes similar. Upper parts and sides rich tan. Entire under parts white. A large area on rump, inside of limbs, sides of face, lips and chin, white. Two white crescentic bands on throat, and white areas on inner surfaces and bases of ears. Mane russet tipped with black. Ears lightly edged and tipped with black. A black spot in male only, on side of head at angle of jaw, and a black area from end of nose to between ears. Tail white. Summer pelage diflfers from winter pelage principally in having more Young : Paler than black markings, mainly on head. adults. Measurements. — Length, male, 4 feet ; tail 7 inches ; height at shoulder 3 feet; horns about 11 or 12 inches in length. Weight. 120 pounds. Female smaller. Range. — Formerly throughout plains country from 53° latitude south to Mexico, from the valley of the Missouri to the Pacific. Now, range is restricted principally to strip extending along Rocky Mountain area. Food. — Grass, sage and herbaceous plants. Remarks. — The Pronghorn is the sole representative of a family that combines characters of a number of widely separate families. It presents peculiarities of the Giraffes, the Goats, the African Antelopes and the Deer. It has no close relative on any other continent. But two forms of the Pronghorn are found in the United States. Rel.\ted Species American Pronghorn. — Antilocapra amcricmia americana (Ord.) Typical form. Greater part of the Rocky Mountain and Great Plains area from Mexico to 53° latitude. Mexican Pronghorn.— .IntHuca/^ra americana mcxi- cana Alerriam. With black of head replaced by brown. Southern United States along Mexican border. The American Pronghorn, known also as the " Prongbuck," " Pronghorned Antelope," or, simply, " Antelope," has the distinction of being the sole representative of a family, this unique position being due to certain characteristics [35] among which are the following: It is the only animal that has a hollow horn that is branched or bifurcated. While the hollow horns of other animals are persistent, those of the Pronghorn are shed and renewed annually. Hunters had 36 MAMMALS OF AMERICA long known this, but for many years the natural- ists, including Audubon himself, would not ac- cept the fact. Its feet have no lateral hoofs, or dewhoofs. It has no gland below the eye, nor any tufts of hair on the knees. It can erect the w-hite hairs on its rump, and when the animal is in fighting mood, they instantly bristle up. The Pronghorn is strictly a North American animal, and is the most graceful and the fleetest Canada, and southward into Mexico. At the present day only a few small, widely scattered herds exist, in California, Oregon, Utah, Idaho. Nevada, New Mexico, Texas, Kansas, Colorado, Wyoming and Montana ; from the extreme east- erly and westerly limits of its former range it has disappeared entirely. In its wild state, the Pronghorn normally pre- fers a barren rolling country or naked plains, and avoids timber and broken ground ; it has, \' riintncraph hv E. R. WaiTPn PRONGHORNED ANTELOPE A graceful, fleet-footed animal that has no relatives in America, but occupies a family by itself of all our quadru]X'ds. Until within the past few years it has been extensively slaughtered, and. but for the timely legal ]>rotection afforded it by all the States within whose boundaries it is still found, it must in the course of a compara- tively short period have suffered complete ex- termination. The Pronghorn first became known to scientists through a specimen brought back by Lewis and Clark from their expedition. Its range originally extended from the Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean, nortliward into however, been killed occasionally in places miles away from the nearest plains, and in recent years has been known to bring up its young in rough, hilly country. It avoids forests, and has no liking for high, bare mountains. The Pronghorn is smaller than the northern \^irginia Deer, but is more compactly built. The animal has a fuller muzzle than the Deer ; its eye. nearly as large as that of the Elephant, is intensely black ; and the e.xpression. like that of the Gazelle, is soft .uid gentle. The ears. *,' #^--, ..-Jf*- i^-i'- r o ■? X 1 in • — z « k; (Tl ^^ ^ D X 0 Z 1* 0 -G Cti Dh n g;?^>itgir--'-. ■ .., ANTELOPE FAMILY 37 five inches long and three inches broad, and sh.arply pointed at the extremities, are covered with hair, both within and without. The earlier statement, that the female has no horns, is at variance with the obr-ervation of the animal by Dr. Caton, who says : " The horn of the female cannot be detected on the kid,- on the yearling it can easily be felt ; later I have found them half an inch long . . . and it is only on the fully adult female that the horn appears above the hair. I have never met one more than one inch long, but others have found them three not skulk or attempt to elude observation. Colonel Roosevelt, who hunted the animal for several years, says : " Its sole aim is to be able to see its enemies, and it cares nothing whatever aboi;t its enemies seeing it." When lying down for their noonday siesta, Pronghorns will even " choose a somewhat conspicuous station and trust to their own powers of observation, exactly as they do when feeding." Its powers of sight are much greater than those of the Deer, and it seems to divine intuitively the intentions of the hunter. On this jioint Mr. Arthur ^^^ du Bray ,1 pl^' ^ i- ',> ANTELOPES AT HOME The most picturesque and the fleetest of all our North American quadrupeds inches long." In an average-sized buck the horns are usually about twelve inches long (an exceptionally large pair measured seventeen inches), with width of twelve and one-half inches between the tips, and are situated directly over the eyes. At the tips they are curved back- ward a little, and they have a short forward branch or prong. The coloration of the Pronghorn renders it a very conspicuous object in the landscape. It is a striking combination of russet, white and black (see details above). The tail is white with just a few tawny hairs on the top. In several of its characteristics the Prong- horn differs materially from the Deer. It does says he entirely agrees with the following dictum of one of his old guides : " What a live Ante- lope don't see between dawn and dark isn't visible from his standpoint ; and while you're a gawking at him thro' that 'ere glass to make out whether he's a rock or a goat, he's a countin' your cartridges and fixin's, and makin' up his mind which wav he'll scoot when you disappear in the draw to sneak on 'im — and don't you forget it." In a wild state, the curiosity of Pronghorns is so great that it often leads them to their destruc- tion. In the old days of the ])rairie-schooner, the animals, attracted by the white canvas cover- ing of that vehicle, would come so near that 38 MAMMALS OF AMERICA the teamsters shot them at will. James Capen Adams used to decoy them by merely holding up a handkerchief, his coat, or his hat : and he records that " to lie on one's back, with the feet in the air and the rifle between the legs, is a favorite and verv successful mode of hunting them." In spite of its fleetness and of its ability to make, withotit apparent effort, prodigious hori- zontal leaps, it seems unable to leap over an ob- ject a yard in height. Dr. Caton attributes this inability to the fact that, living on the plains. " they and their ancestors for untold generations have had no occasion to overleap high obstruc- tions, and thus from disuse they do not know how to do so, and never attempt it when they do meet them." The Pronghorn is a grazing animal, a vege- tarian, and a delicate feeder. When wild, it lives largely on grasses, and is especiallv fond of the tender green blades that come up after an area has been burned over. It drinks once a day, and will travel long distances to some little watercourse. In captivity, it will eat apples sparingly, bread and cake if fresh and good, and the heads of timothy hay. It is fond of common salt. The migratory habits of the Pronghorn vary with the locality. In some parts of its range it will travel in numbers for great distances each spring and fall : in others the migrations are quite local ; while in still other parts it does not migrate at all, remaining on the great plains throughout the year. Pairing begins in September, and from then till the following March bucks, does, and fawns keep together in herds from which the does withdraw themselves one by one to give birth to their young. There are generally two fawns at a birth, and, when wild, they can run when only a few days old, thenceforward accompanying their mother everywhere. Chasing the Pronghorn has long been a favorite sport. Besides its inordinate curiosity, to which reference has already been made, the animal has a peculiarity of which hunters are not slow to take advantage : when it has decided to make for a certain point, it is strongly disin- clined to abandon its course. It is hunted by stalking and by coursing with greyhounds. The Pronghorn has wonderful vitality, and is credited with being able, when wounded, to carry off more lead than any other animal of its size. If hit anywhere except in a vital spot. " it can still outrun any ordinary horse — even on three legs." Its flesh is excellent, but its coat is of little value, the hair being very brittle. Besides the inevitable hunter, the Pronghorn finds enemies in the Coyote, the Wolf, and the Cougar, and eagles have been known to carry off fawns. It seems tolerably certain, too, that, owing to the exposed nature of many of the Pronghorn's haunts, blizzards, and miduly severe winters must claim a great many victims. The Pronghorn is readily tamed and soon learns to enjoy the society of man. A neighbor of Colonel Roosevelt had three fawns that had been fostered by a sheep, and which followed him about so closely that he had to be always on the lookout to see that he did not injure them ; and Dr. Caton had one which " assumed he had as much right in the kitchen as any of the domestics, and. if he found the doors open, he enjoyed a visit to the parlor, and especially a siesta on the lounge in the library." Mr. Merritt Cary, in "A Biological Survey of Colorado," says that this most graceful game animal seems doomed to early extinction in many sections despite the protection aft'orded by the law. The decrease of Antelope in Colorado during the past few years has been great. In 1898 the State game warden placed the number at 25,000, while in 1908 the game commissioner estimated not over 2000. A conservative esti- mate based on data collected by the Biological Survey would be not over 1200 in this State. THE OXEN, SHEEP, AND GOAT FAMILY (BovidcE) NE of the most important families of the entire animal kingdon is the Bovidcc. Its economic value to man, in both its wild and domesticated states, is incal- culable. There are some fifty leading species, such as Bison, Buffalo, Mountain Sheep, Goats, Musk-ox and Ibex, found in every continent except Australia and South America. In our own country we have some of the finest speci- mens of the family, although the numbers have sadly dwindled before the relentless war of extermination which has been waged. The Bison, or Buffalo, is a striking example of this. A few decades ago it roamed the western plains in countless thousands. By the end of the century only heroic efforts on the part of the Government and the establishment of a few private parks saved it from perishing entirely. The Hollow-horned Ruminants, or Bovidae, are distinguished from their allies by the presence of true horns; that is to say, of hollow and unbranched sheaths of horn growing upon bony protuberances, or cores, arising from the frontal bones of the skull, neither horny sheaths nor the bony cores being shed at any period of existence. In all existing wild species these horns are present at least in the male sex; but in many domesticated races of cattle, sheep, and goats, they are absent in both sexes; and the same holds good for certain extinct members of the family. Usually the molar teeth of the Hollow-horned Ruminants are characterised by the great relative height of their crowns, and in all cases there is no tusk or canine tooth in the upper jaw. In some few instances the small lateral toes may be com- pletely absent, but they are generally represented merely by the small spurious hooflets alone, which may be supported internally by minute and irregularly-shaped nodules of bone. The Hollow-horned Ruminants are chiefly Old World forms, although they are repre- sented in North America by the Musk-ox, the American Bison, the Rocky Mountain Goat, and the Bighorn Sheep. They are unknown in South America. AMERICAN BISON, OR BUFFALO Bison bison (Linnaeus) ■ General Description. — A large wild o.x. horned in both se.xes. The horns are curved and cylindrical, and grow annually but are never shed. Two main hoofs, two accessory hoofs, on each foot. Stomach complex ; chews cud. Spines of dorsal vertebrae very high producing great hump. Tail short, covered with short hair, but tuft of long hair on end. Hair long and woolly especially on head and fore parts. Thick beard present. Color dark brown. Horns, hoofs and muzzle black. Dental Formula. — Incisors, °:^ ■ i^--- — 4—4 3—3 . lvf„1_,.. i^-i Canines, ^^^' ; Pre- 0 — 0 molars, ~^ ; Molars, =32. Pelage. — Adults : Se.xes much the same, with cow a trifle darker in body color. Head, neck, chest, and shoulders blackish-brown to black. Elsewhere pale, grading to cinnamon on rump. Hair long and shaggy ; an undercoat of finer wool-like hair. A long beard upon the chin, and thick tufts of longer hair upon crown, about base of horns and down forelimbs about to accessory hoofs. Hair much shorter on area begin- ning just back of fore limbs and taking in hind quarters. Young: At birth, dull reddish-yellow, paler on under parts. At six months, assumes more the adult appearance; by end of second year, everywhere deep glossy blackish-brown. Pales with age. Measurements. — Length, male, lo to ii feet: height at shoulder, 5 to 6 feet; length of tail, 15 inches. Horns 20 inches long by 15 inches girth at base. Weight 1800 to 2100 pounds. Female, height at shoulder 4' j to 5 feet; weight 700 to 1200 pounds. Range. — Historic range from Great Lakes to the Rockies, and from Northern Mexico to 60° latitude. By 1870 restricted to a strip north and south along Great Plains and eastern Rockies ; by 1880 found only in area formed by North Dakota. Montana and Wyoming with a few in Te.xas and in Canada. Now extinct in the wild state, and known only from zoological herds and animals on reservations. Food. — Grasses of the plains. [39I i : ■ \ 1." * »-_ L.. ^.LTinissim of the Nev nical Society MONARCH OF THE HERD A fine specimen of the Bull Bison, or Buffalo, showing his shaggy winter coat [40I OXEN, SHEEP, AND GOAT FAMILY 41 Remarks. — The Bison is the only wild ox, with the exception of the Musk-Ox, found in North America. There is no animal with which it may be confused although the term Buffalo, through its common use for oxen of the Old World, is not a happy name for the Bison. There is but one species of Bison, which con- tains two sub-species. Related Forms American Bison. — Bison bison bison (Linnaeus). The typical form. Woodland Bison. — Bison bison athabascae Rhoads. Larger and darker than the typical Bison with longer, more slender horns. Found formerly in the wooded uplands from Great Slave Lake south probably to the United States. Known now only from a few survivors along the Great Slave River. Because of its northern distribution this animal did not come so much into contact with white men and civilization, but rather with Hudson Bay trappers and Indians. Its habits and characteristics were much the same as those of its southern relative. The American Bison has long been popularly, through erroneously, known as the Buffalo, and the two terms will be used synonymously here. For the benefit of the non-naturalist it may be explained that a true Buffalo has no hump over its shoulders. Such an animal is the Water Buffalo of India, or the Carabao of the Philip- pine Islands. The American Buffalo has a con- siderable hump, and is a Bison. It is a large, massive animal, a fine adult bull measuring eleven feet from nose to root of tail, and five to six feet in height at the shoulders. Its average weight is about 1800 pounds, but a large speci- men has weighed as much as 2190 pounds; the females are considerably smaller than the males. Its horns are sometimes twenty-two inches in length, with a girth of sixteen and three-eighths inches at the base, and a spread of thirty-five inches from tip to tip. In yearlings, the horns are four to six inches long. Until four years old, the young males are called " spike-bulls," and their horns are jet black. In the adult, they become grayish. The forequarters are very heavy and covered with dense hair, and the tail has a terminal tassel. The upper part of the body and the hind quarters are of a pale gray-brown ; the lower parts, dark brown. The hump is covered with a dense mass of yellow-brown hair; the head, under part of the neck, and the forelegs as far as the knees bear a covering of shaggy hair shading from dark brown above into black below. The body color of the cow is darker. The coat of the Bison is at its best in November and De- cember. By March it has become weather- beaten and shabby, and shedding begins. For the next three months the old coat hangs in 'rags, and the animal presents a most dilapidated appearance. Naturally among the millions of individual Buffaloes a few years ago, the hide, or " robe," as it was termed, exhibited many color varieties. Thus there were black, blue, beaver, buckskin, and white or pied robes. The last-mentioned were considered the rarest. The great Cheyenne chief Roman Nose had a magnificent pure white robe, which he called his " great medicine," and which he was wearing when he fell before For- syth's troops. It seems pretty well established that the Bison is polygamous, the observations of Audubon and Bachman to the contrary notwithstanding. The breeding season is from June to September. The cow does not breed till her third year. The com- bined bellowing, or " roaring " as it is called, of the bulls in the breeding time can be heard for miles. The calves ( usually one, sometimes twins) are born about May or June. In their wild state, during the few first days of their life they were formerly subject to the depredations of the Coyote and Gray, or Buffalo Wolf. Against one or two of these the cow could suc- cessfully defend her offspring, but if the assail- ants were numerous she would bellow to the bulls for assistance.. These would qtiickly respond and would stand in a circle around the calf, while the wolves " at some twelve or fifteen paces dis- tant sat licking their chops in impatient expect- ancy." An incident of this nature was witnessed by an army surgeon, as related in " Plains of the Great West." The doctor determined to watch the performance. After a few moments the knot broke up. and, still keeping in a compact mass, started on a trot for the main herd, some half a mile off. To his very great astonishment, the doctor now saw that the central and controlling figure of this mass was a poor little calf, so newly born as scarcely to be able to walk. After going fifty to one hundred paces the calf lay down, the bulls disposed themselves in a circle as before, and the wolves who had trotted along on each side of their retreating supper, sat down and licked their chops again ; and so. though the doctor did not see the finale, it being late and the camp distant, he had no doubt that the noble fathers did their whole duty by their offspring, and carried it safely to the herd. In less than a week from their birth the calves are strong 42 MAMMALS OF AMERICA enough to run with the herd, and their safety is then assured. The Gow Bison is not always the most sohci- tous of mothers as regards her httle one's safety. Mr. Ernest Thompson Seton states that a cow- puncher some years ago " often amused himself by roping the calves. When one was caught, he would jump off, remove the lasso, and hold it with his hands. The mother would stand at a distance of lOO yards gazing anxiously, neither cow nor calf making any sound. As soon as he let the calf go, the mother, seeing it was free, knew it would take care of itself, and, turning During the latter part of the breeding season the animals of all ages and both sexes have inter- mixed in the herd. After September the males become indifferent to their partners, and separate themselves into one herd and the females into another. As early as 1542, Coronado and his followers were "much surprised at sometimes meeting innumerable herds of bulls without a single cow, and other herds of cows without bulls." There has been some difference of opinion with regard to the Buffalo and migration. Catlin says : " These animals are, truly speaking, Si^iC^ll^] .»Miu»t:j< I gettinct ready for summer The Bison shed their shaggy coats with the approach of spring, and do not don them again until well into the fall tail, went off at full gallop, without even looking behind." As the Bison shed their coats, leaving much of their hinder parts naked, they suffered much from the attacks of mosquitoes and from the prickly seeds of the spear grass. The huge ani- mals availed themselves of any convenient boulder or the trunks of trees against which to rub themselves, in their desire to gain relief from their insect scourges. The early telegraph poles over the plains were frequently thrown down by the 'Buffaloes rubbing against them. Another remedy employed was the wallow of water' and mud. gregarious but not migratory :" and there are to be considered the undoubted facts that the line of march was not always the same, that in cer- tain cases the movements of the herds were not prompted by the necessity of seeking fresh pas- turage, and that herds were found winter and summer over certain parts of the animals' range. But, whether from choice or from necessity, vast numbers of Buffaloes, sometimes reaching into the millions, moved northward three or four hundred miles in the spring, and southward in the fall, and this habit is known to have existed for a hundred years. As Seton says : " Theo- retically, the Buffalo must have been migratory. OXEN, SHEEP, AND GOAT FAMILY 43 Although it covered a vast region, it continued of one species, whereas, it would probably have split up into several distinct species had it not been continually mixed as the result of migra- tions." Reference has already been made to the attacks of Gray Wolves on Buffalo calves. Weak and old Buffaloes also fell victims to these beasts of prey. Still the total number destroyed by them cannot have been very great. Far more terrible enemies were the prairie fires, quicksands, and treacherous ice on the rivers which, combined, were responsible for the death of enormous numbers of Bufifaloes. In 1867, more than 2000 out of a herd of some 4000 were engulfed in a quicksand on the Platte river. Prairie fires destroyed whole herds. Alexander Henry, in his " Journal," under date of November 25, 1804, records : " At sunset we arrived at the Indian camp, having made an extraordinary day's ride, and seen an incredible number of dead and dying, blind, lame, singed, and roasted Buffalo."' Treacherous ice on the rivers took greater toll of Buffalo life than any other natural enemy of the animal. Under date of May 2, 1807, Henry records : "The number of Buffalo lying along the beach and on the banks passes all imagination. They form one continuous line and emit a hor- rible stench. I am informed that every spring it is about the same." John McDonnell, in his " Journal," states : " Observing a good many carcasses of Buffalo in the river and along the banks, I was taken up the whole day in counting them, and, to my surprise, found I had num- bered when we put up at night, 7360 drowned and mired along the river and in it." The yearly flood on the Missouri river " bore countless Buffalo hulks to be packed away in the Missis- sippi rtiud, that in some far geological day will be the rock, all stored with unnumbered bones." Rotten ice on all the northern rivers, totalling in length about 20,000 miles, must also have caused the death of enormous numbers of Buffaloes. A further natural enemy of the Buffalo was, in the opinion of Mr. Seton, the blizzard. " The great herds that went north in 1 870-1 never returned. There is no evidence that anv large numbers of them were killed by hunters, red or white, and there is, therefore, but one reasonable explanation of their disappearance. They were exterminated by the blizzards of 1872. Further, I believe that, all times, the Dakota blizzard has taken heavier toll of the Buffalo than even the Dakota Indian did." It is interesting to note that besides all these enemies the Buffalo had one little companion and friend — the cowbird or Buffalo bird. "Sometimes the cowbirds walk sedately behind their grazing monster; sometimes they flit over, snapping at flies ; often they sit along the ridge- pole of his spine." In the winter of 1900-01 in the herd at Silver Heights, near Winnipeg, a cowbird " remained with the Buffalo, especially with the biggest bull of the herd. Its food was of the Buffalo's food ; by day, it flitted near or warmed its toes in the wool of the animal's back, by night it snuggled on a sort of hollow it had made in the wool just behind his horns." The Buffalo unmolested attains to a ripe old age. Colonel Jones relates that he has frequently seen wild Buffaloes so old that their horns had decayed and dropped off. In domestication the Buffalo breeds freely, and it has been crossed with the domestic cow. The economic value of the Buffalo has been great. Its flesh has sustained thousands of red men and white ; its hide, tongue, and horns have been regular articles of commerce. Mounted heads have fetched $400 or more. No one who has not seen a wide plain covered by Buffalo can gain any idea of their countless numbers, only a very few years ago. Here are the impressions of one eye-witness. Col. R. I. Dodge, who in 1871 saw one of the immense herds while traveling in Arkansas. For twenty- five miles he passed through a continuous herd of Buffalo. " The whole country appeared one great mass of Buffalo, moving slowly to the northward ; and it was only when actually among them that it could be ascertained that the appar- ently solid mass was an agglomeration of innu- merable small herds of from fifty to two hundred animals, separated from the surrounding herds by greater or less space, but still separated. The herds in the valley sullenly got out of my way, and turning, stared stupidly at me, sometimes at only a few yards' distance. When I had reached a point where the hills were no longer more than a mile from the road, the Buffalo on the hills seeing an unusual object in their rear, turned, stared an instant, then started at full speed directly toward me, stampeding and bring- ing with them the numberless herds through which they passed, and pouring down on me all the herds, no longer separated, but one immense compact mass of plunging animals mad with fright, and as irresistible as an avalanche. Rein- ing in my horse I waited until the front of the 44 MAMMALS OF AMERICA mass was within fifty yards, when a few well- directed shots split the herd, and sent it pouring off in two streams to the right and left, \\hen all had passed they stopped, apparently perfectly satisfied, many within less than loo yards. From the top of Pawnee Rock I could see from six to ten miles in almost every direction. This whole vast space was covered with Buffalo, look- ing at a distance like a compact mass." The history of the Buffalo and its practical extermination as a wild animal reads like a tragedy. It has been so often recounted that only a few salient facts need be mentioned here. It is safe to put the primitive number of Buffalo at 50.000.000 to 60,000.000; in 1850, there were probably remaining 20,000,000; in 1870, only 5,500,000 were left; in 1888 (including some in captivity), a meagre 1,300; and about 1895 the remnant had probably dwindled to 800. To- day, thanks to the efforts of the governments of the United States and Canada, the New York Zoological Society, the American Bison Society, and certain public-spirited individuals, the Bison is breeding rapidly in parks and private pre- serves. In 1912 it was estimated that there were in North America 2,907 living Bison, and since then the increase has continued, several small herds being in a thriving condition. By permission of the New York Zoological Society THE LAST OF MANY MILLIONS The Wichita herd of Bison is one of the few groups being carefully preserved OXEN, SHEEP, AND GOAT FAMILY 45 General Description. — A somewhat small wild ox standing about 50 inches at withers. Both sexes horned, horns of male, however, much the larger. Horns never shed, rough and grooved at base, bending abruptly downward from occiput where they nearly meet in midline, tip curving upward and forward but not pass- ing above level of eye. Horns blackish at tip. Neck short. Muzzle hairy, with small triangular naked space between nostrils. No facial glands. Tail rudimentary. Hoofs broad, asymmetrical, with large lateral hoofs. Pelage long, shaggy. Color dark brown, except for sad- dle-shaped patch of yellowish on mid-back. Hair very long and moderately soft. A dense woolly undercoat of soft hair. Dental Formula. — Incisors, '!—!.■ Canines, °^; Pre- 4—4 c— o molars, — — ; Molars, -—^32. Pelage. — Adults : No marked seasonal change except that the shed underfur in summer gives animal patchy appearance. Sexes alike. Everywhere dark brown with head, neck and sides of body tending to blackish in adult males. A saddle-shaped patch of yellowish-white over lumbar region. Feet whitish. Young ; Very much as adults. Measurements. — Length, male, 6 to G'/i feet ; height at shoulder, 4 to 4^2 feet. Horns, along outer curve 22 to 30 inches; width at base, 9 to 12 inches; tip to MUSK-OX Ovibos moschatus (Zimm.) tip, 15 to 25 inches. Weight, 400 pounds. Female, slightly smaller throughout ; horns decidedly smaller, not so wide or ridged at base. Range. — Arctic America from Mackenzie River and north of 60th parallel, south to Melville Bay. Food. — Grasses, moss and lichens. Remarks. — A sturdy wild ox well adapted to Arctic life by the possession of a dense coat of long hair, wide hoofs to bear it upon snow, and a faculty of subsisting on a scanty diet of moss and lichens when everything is covered by snow. Related Species Common Musk-Ox. — Ovibos moschatus moschatus ( Zimmermann). The typical form. Arctic America from west side Hudson Bay to Banks Land. Melville Island Musk-Ox. — Oznbos moschatus mel- I'illcnsis Kowarzik. Melville Island. Hudson Bay Musk-Ox. — Ovibos moschatus niphoe- cus Elliot. FMacker in color, horns lighter, little white on head. Region to the northwest of Hudson Bay. Ward's Musk-Ox, or White-faced Musk-Ox. — Ovibos moschatus ivardi Lydekker. White space between horns and on face, also generally whitish on sides of head. More white on feet. General color lighter. Eastern Greenland. Photograph from the American Museum of Natural History MUSK-OX Living in the snow-clad wastes of the Arctic Circle, it is hard to see how this animal maintains life, where the vegetation is scanty and hidden 46 MAMMALS OF AMERICA The Canadian Barren Grounds, a stretch of country extending westward from Hudson's Bay to the Mackenzie river, are among the most deso- late regions on the face of the earth. Even in the continuous sunshine of the short summer, ice is to be found in the lakes till the month of July ; and it frequently happens that the young of the water-fowl are frozen into the early autumn ice before they are strong enough to fly, and ripe berries are covered by the snow before they can fall. In this inhospitable territory, year in, year out, dwells the Musk-Ox, neither true Ox nor true Sheep, yet partaking of the characteristics of both. In prehistoric times, the range of this animal was a very extensive one. Professor Henry F. Osborn records the finding of fossil- ized bones of the true Musk-Ox or of extinct species in Eschscholtz Bay, Alaska, and as far south as Kentucky ; while in the Old World the animal roamed over northern Asia, and in Europe remains have been found as far south as France and Germany. The Musk-Ox is an odd-looking animal, and has been not inappropriately described as re- sembling a huge hairy ram, its remarkable horns contributing largely to this similarity ; but its stout and short legs give it the appearance also of a small Ox. It stands about four and one- half feet high, and has a length of about six and one-half feet. The head is massive, espe- cially in the older males. The pupils of the eyes are bluish-purjile and elongated, and the iris brown ; and the ears are so short that, like the tail, they are concealed by the animal's long hair. The hoofs are peculiar, the inner half of each, being pointed while the outer half is rounded. Its hairy coat is warmer than that of any other mammal, and consists of an outer covering of coarse hair, which curls and is matted on the back, but elsewhere is more than a foot long, and conceals the upper half of the legs. Next the skin is a growth of fine wool, so dense as to be impervious to moisture. But the most noteworthy peculiarity of the Musk-Ox is its horns, which grow at first in a horizontal direction. The downward bend does not appear till the second year, and the horns are not fully grown till the sixth or eighth year. The horns of the bull grow into an almost solid boss on the top of the head. The food of the Common Musk-Ox consists for most of the year of mosses, to obtain which it scrapes away the snow with its hoofs. The Greenland species has been seen to use its horns also for this purpose. In summer, according to Mr. W'arburton Pike, it " feeds exclusively on willow leaves, which appear to give a great amount of nourishment." The fat accumulated by the animal in the summer serves also to nourish it during the long winter. Mating begins in September, and the calves, usually one at a birth, are born in May or early in June. From what Mr. Pike could gather from the Indians, the cows calve only every second year. The big bulls are seen wandering singly in the summer, while the young bulls and the cows keep together in small bands. "Towards autumn the bands increase in size, and it is not uncommon to see forty or fifty animals together at this season of the year." The specific name of the Musk-Ox is derived from its strong odor. The similarity of this odor to musk has, however, been denied by some hunters : and all who have fed on the animal say that if the carcass is promptly and properly evis- cerated there is no taint to the flesh, which is juicy, tender, and excellent eating. Although the Eskimo hunt the Musk-Ox for its pelage, which they use for bedding as well as an article of barter, the fact that the skins are in their prime in winter, when the difficulties of the chase are greatest, operates to prevent any large reduction in the numbers of the animal ; for " failure to find the game must inevitably end in starvation and a desperate retreat with uncertain results." In summer the animals are killed by the Barren Ground Indians for the meat and for the skins which can be used for tanning : otherwise, at this season of the year the latter have no commercial value. The Musk-Ox is gregarious, and is usually seen in herds numbering from a dozen or so to eighty or a hundred individuals. It has been thought that the animal was migratory; but Mr. Henry Biederbick, of the Greely Arctic Expedi- tion, is of the opinion that the supposition is an erroneous one, at any rate so far as the Green- land species is concerned. Though the skin of the Musk-Ox has been known since 1670, when the Hudson's Bay Fur Company was founded, it was not vmtil 1899 that a live animal was brought into civilized countries. In that year two calves which had been captured on Clavering Island, oflF the east coast of Greenland, were bought by the Duke of OXEN, SHEEP, AND GOAT FAMILY 47 Bedford. One of these survived till 1903. The Copenhagen Zoological Garden received a male calf on October 7, 1900. This was fed on " ground oats and wheat bran, with a very little white bread cut in pieces, besides hay ( grass in summer) and willow and elm branches through- out the year." At last accounts, the animal was doing well, but attempts to cross it with a Yak Cow and a Frisian Sheep had not met with suc- cess. The killing of a Musk-Ox has saved many a life in the great Arctic wastes. Peary in his great white waste." Further on he says : " A single Musk-Ox when he sees the dogs, will make for the nearest cliff and get his back against it ; but a herd of them will round up in the middle of a plain, with tails together and heads toward the enemy. Then the bull leader of the herd will take his place outside the round-up and charge the dogs." Of this method of combining for defense, Mr. Pike says : " On the only occasion when I have seen them held at bay by dogs there has been absolutely no attempt at regularity of formation. By permission of the New York Zoological Society MUSK-OX A young Bull that is doubtless longing for its own frozen wastes, where it must forage for food, instead of having regular meals handed in on a fork book, " The North Pole," writes : " For myself, I never associate the idea of sport with Musk- Oxen — too often in the years gone by, the sighting of those black forms has meant the dif- ference between life and death. In 1899, in In- dependence Bay, the finding of a herd of Musk- Oxen saved the lives of my entire party. On my way back from 87° 6' in 1906, if we had not found Musk-Oxen on Nares Land, the bones of my party might now be bleaching uo there in the and the calves were often to be seen in the fore- front of an irregular group." The habit is, how- ever, attested by many competent authorities, among whom Mr. Harry Whitney writes : " On gaining the top of the ridge I found thirteen Musk-Oxen at bay, tails together, heads down, in defensive formation. Two dogs, over-ven- turesome, had been gored to death." He men- tions also the fact that " wounded Musk-Oxen display no signs of pain." 48 MAMMALS OF AMERICA A very circumstantial account of this defen- sive formation of the Musk-Ox is given in Pro- fessor Nourse's "American Exploration in the Ice Zone." As it shows how the native hunters turn it to advantage, it is reproduced here : " When the band was surrounded, and as soon as they perceived that the dogs were slipped. they formed into their usual one circle of defence — a Musk-bull battery of nine solid battering heads and twice the number of sharpened horns. The dogs were quickly at these heads, barking and jumping back and forward. After a few minutes watch of the movements of dog versus bull and bull versus dog. Tn-nook-pro-zhee-jork went forward to within twelve feet of a large bull, carrying a lance which had a line attached by which he could draw it back ; but at his second throw the wounded and infuriated bull made a fearful forward plunge, from the effects of which the hunter and his companions escaped only by a very timely jump to the left. The bull was soon again brought to bay. On-ne-la then pulled trigger on another noble bull of the circle of defence, and Pa-pa shot the one which had been lanced, when at the noise of these guns the whole circle bolted away except two. who stood their ground, side by side, long after the whole fisrht was ended." ROCKY MOUNTAIN SHEEP Ovis cervina I >csnnirrst Other Name. — Bighorn. General Description. — The Rocky Mountain Big- horn is a large wild sheep reaching a weight of about 350 pounds for the male. Body stout. Nose narrow, chin beardless. Ears small, pointed, hairy. Tail short, pointed. Lateral hoofs present, main hoofs large with spongy cushion. Glands between hoofs and below eyes. Head broadest between eyes. Both se.xes horned, the horns of the male much the larger. Horns curving regularly backward, outward and downward, in a majestic spiral sweep. Transverse ridges on horns. Horns never shed. Hair of medium length, rather coarse and brittle. Color grayish-brown with patch of whitish on buttocks and above tail. Horns and hoofs blackish. Dental Formula. — Incisors, "—'' ; Canines, '^^ ; Pre- 4— t o — o molars, ^^' ; Molars, --^=-52. 3—3 3—3 •' ... Pelage. — .\dults : Not much seasonal variation. Sexes alike. General body color grayish-brown, dark- est along dorsal line. Face ashy-gray, neck grayish- brown tinged with plumbeous. Under parts, buttocks, inside of legs, on each side of base of tail, and upper part of throat whitish. Legs dark grayish-brown. Tail above like back. Young: Pelage much as in adults. Measurements. — Length, male. 5 feet ; height at shoulder. 40 inches ; tail. 3 to 5 inches ; girth around chest, 4 feet. Horns of male, 40 to 50 inches around curve; circumference at base, 15 to 16 inches. Female smaller. Range. — High moijntain ranges from the Colorado River and .Arizona into British Columbia. Food. — Grass, plants and twigs of shrubs. Remarks.— The Rocky Mountain Bighorn is found for the most part in rough broken country where his peculiar adaptations enable him to elude his enemies, the soft spongy nature of his hoofs giving him sure footing over the most precipitous places. The Bighorn is protectively colored and m response to his habitat has evolved a variety of color schemes in his pelage according to where he is found. It is largely upon this basis that the different varieties of mountain sheep have been classified. Rel.\ted Species Rocky Mountain Bighorn. — Oz-is ccrriiia cervina Desniarest. The typical form as described above. Mountain regions from .\rizona and Colorado River, north into British Columbia and Alberta. Audubon Bighorn. — Ovis cervina atiduhoni Mer- riani. Molar teeth larger, lower jaw heavier and deeper. Bad Lands of South Dakota. California Bighorn. — Ovis cervina calif orniana (Douglas). Very similar to the typical form. Cascade Mountains of southern Washington and Oregon ; Mount Shasta and mountains of northern California; now probably extinct. Mexican Bighorn. — Ovis cervina inexicana Mer- riam. Much larger ears, horns longer but less massive, paler in color, hoofs larger than the typical form. Texas. New Mexico and Arizona. Gaillard Bighorn. — Ovis cervina gaillardi Mearns. Very small with small feet. Pelage very pale. Rump patch not sharply defined. Arizona. Photograph by L. A. Myrick ROCKY MOUNTAIN BIGHORN In sure footedness and daring the Rocky Mountain Bighorn rivals the Chamois of the Old World. Its native ' heath" is well shown in this remarkable photograph [49] 50 MAMMALS OF AMERICA The Bighorn might be called the Chamois of our western mountains, scaling the rugged cliffs and plunging over precipices with the same agilitv and confidence. The elastic spring of the animal when startled, and the easy, poise of the splendid head are exceedingly graceful, and the animal seems built and ]3roportioned to the finest detail for the adventurous life it leads. During the breeding season an old ram pre- sides over the flock of ewes and lambs, driving the younger rams oflf by themselves, as is usual among the polygamous animals. The flocks are exceedingly watchful, and at the slightest alarm are oiT instantly, selecting a course that the French Canadians and hunters ' mauvaise terres,' may be formed by imagining some hundred of loaves of sugar of different sizes, irregularly broken and truncated at top, placed somewhat apart, and magnifying them into hills of considerable size. Over these hills and ravines the Rocky Mountain Sheep bound up and down, and you may estimate the difficulty of approach- ing them and conceive the great activity and sure-footedness of this species. They form paths around these irregular clay cones that are at times six to eight hvmdred feet high, and in some situations are even fifteen hundred feet or more above the adjacent prairies ; and along these they BIGHORNS GRAZING These Bighorn Sheep have found a grassy slope to their liking few animals or men care to follow. In early spring the Sheep venture farther down into the mountain valleys in search of food, but soon return to their rocky fastnesses among the higher slopes. From the edges of the Alaskan glaciers to the dry. waterless crags of the Mexican Sierras we find one species or other of the Mountain Sheep. In the '■ Bad Lands,'' the easternmost part of their range, Audubon made the acquaintance of these noble animals in 1843. He says: "The parts of the country usually chosen by the Sheep for their pastures are the most extraordinarily broken and precipitous clay hills or stony emi- nences that exist in the wild regions belonging to the Rocky Mountain chain. Perhaps some idea of the country thev inhabit — which is called bv run at full speed, while to the eye of the spec- tator below, these tracks do not appear to be more than a few inches wide, although they are generally from a foot to eighteen inches in breadth. In many places colunms or piles of clay or hardened earth are to be seen eight or ten feet above the adjacent surface, covered or coped with a slaty, flat rock, thus resembling gigantic toadstools, and upon these singular places the Bighorns are frequently seen, gazing at the hunter who is winding about far below, looking like so many statues on their elevated pedestals. One cannot imagine how these animals reach these curious places, especially on these inacces- sible points, beyond the reach of their greatest enemies, the Wolves, which prey upon them whenever they stray into the plains below." OXEN , SHEEP, AND GOAT FAMILY 51 Generally speaking, the range of the Bighorn extends from the northern States of old Mexico to northern British Columbia, and from the eastern base of the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Coast. There are many mountain ranges, however, within these limits, in which it has never been found. In Alaska it is replaced by the White Sheep (Oz'is dalli), and in the Cas- siar Mountains by the Black Sheep (Ovis stonc'i). This animal has few characteristics in common with the domestic Sheep. The horns of the wild ram resemble somewhat those of the domestic species, although more massive. ing in the valley below. So swift is the descent that, seen from below at a distance, these pauses are often scarcely apparent. " The Bighorn," says Singer, " is one of the wildest, shyest and most difficult to hunt, suc- cessfully, of all American game animals. His habitat being the highest, roughest and most forbidding mountain ranges, it is only by the most arduous toil, wearisome and in many cases dangerous climbing, that the hunter can reach the home of the Sheep at all. After one has toiled for hours he will be fortunate if a capricious current of wind, so often fatal to the success BIGHORN EWE As it takes its observation from a spur of rock, this mountain ewe completes an ideal study for a sculptor The wild ewe has horns from six to eight inches long that curve backward, whereas the domestic ewe has none. The lofty crags of the Rocky Mountain National Park are the natural home of the Big- horn. This animal is much larger than any domestic Sheep. It is powerful and wonderfully agile. When pursued these Sheep, even the lambs, unhesitatingly leap oflf precipitous clififs. Of course, they strike friendly ledges every few feet to break the fall, but these ledges often are not wide enough to stand upon ; they are mere rocky excrescences a foot or less in width, from which the Sheep plunge to the next and the next, and so on till they reach good foot- of mountain hunters, does not sweep round in a direction exactly opposite to that from which it has been blowing, and carry the scent of the hunter to the keen nostrils of the quarry." Persistent killing has largely reduced its num- bers. An estimate, made only a few years ago, gave the following figures : Arizona, a few, very widely scattered, small bands ; Colorado ( after twenty-five years' unbroken protection), 3500; Utah, probably quite extinct; W'yoming, 100; Yellowstone National Park, 210 head, " safe and sound and slowly increasing;" Glacier Park, 700; Idaho, a remnant of, sav 200; Montana, 100; Alberta and British Columbia, some fine herds and three preserves in which thev are 52 MAMMALS OF AMERICA protected. In a large number of States the kill- ing of Bighorn is now prohibited, but there is great difficulty in enforcing the game laws. The Bighorn is a stoutly built animal, larger than the domestic Sheep, the ram standing about three and one-half feet high at the withers, and weighing about 300 pounds. A very fine ram, killed in Wyoming in 1889, measured fifty-eight inches from nose to root of tail, and had a Mix Wilde A SUSPICIOUS BIGHORN While the Mountain Sheep are very shy and their protective coloring makes them hard to distinguish, the ewes may be found more frequently than the rams, as the former do most of their browsing during the day height at the shoulders of forty inches. The tail was three inches long. The Bighorn has a heavy coat of coarse, stiff hair, resembling that of the Wapiti, and beneath this is a sparse cover- ing of white wool. In summer, this is grayish- brown in color, often with a reddish tinge ; in winter, it changes to bluish-gray in the upper parts ; the under parts and portions of the legs are white ; a dark stripe runs along the back to the tail, which is black and comi^letelv sur- rounded by a conspicuous creamy-white patch on the hind quarters. The muscular development of the Rocky Mountain Bighorn is remarkable. As G. O. Shields says : " ^^ bile possibly not as graceful and elastic in his movements as the Deer or the Antelope, yet he will leap from crag to crag, will bound up over ragged ledges, over ice-glazed slopes, or down perpendicular precipices, alight- ing on broken and disordered masses of rock with a courage and a sure-footedness that must challenge the admiration of everyone who has an opportunity to study him in his mountain home." At the same time many of the " hair- breadth stories and wonderful pictures of Sheep hunting, in which men climb and cling bv their finger-tips to overhanging rock faces," must be considerably discounted. The fact that the Sheep often plunge head first has given rise to the fable that they land on their curved horns. This is absolutely untrue ; they always strike ledges with their feet held close together. As Mr. Shields very per- tinently remarks : " A full-grown ram weighs three hundred pounds or more ; and while his horns would probably stand the shock of such a fall, his bones would not. His neck, and prob- ably every other bone in his body, would, if he jumped from a precipice and fell fifty or a hun- dred feet, be crushed to splinters. Besides, if the rams could stand it, and come out of it safely, what would become of the ewes and lambs, which have not the big horns, and which follow where- ever the rams lead? A Sheep never jumps down a sheer precipice of more than ten or fifteen feet ; and whenever or wherever he does jump, he always lands on his feet." There is no ques- tion, however, of the agility of the Bighorn in making its way over crags and rim-rocks; it is often found as high as ij,ooo feet above sea- level ; and it is equally true that it can dash down decli\ities whose steepness seems to threaten its certain destruction. The lambs, one or two at a birth, arc born in May or June, and early give evidence of their courage and agility, following the ewes wher- ever they lead. \\'hilc the ewes and lambs are feeding, there is always one ewe that acts as sentinel to warn the flock of approaching danger. According to John Muir, " in spring and summer the full-grown rams form separate bands of from three to twenty, and are usually found feeding along the edges of glacier meadows, or resting among castle-like crags of the high sum- mits." In July and August all the Sheep may be OXEN, SHEEP, AND GOAT FAMILY 53 looked for on the open tops. In September they feed a trifle lower down. In October they are to be seen most of the time at the tops again. In winter on the Fraser river they may be found on the flatbenches that rise from the river bed ; and they have been known to come down even to the level of the ranches. At the town of Ouray, in Colorado, the citi- zens put out alfalfa for the Rocky Mountain Sheep in the winter, and have done so for several years. When it is first put out, the Sheep " race down hill " for it. The Sheep " make their appearance after the first heavy snows in December, and stay around until spring, some of them lingering along into April." Although so wild in summer, they will, in winter, come right into the town for their forage. The wild enemies of the Bighorn are the Puma and the Lynx, and not a few lambs are annually carried ofif by golden eagles. The flesh of the Bighorn is considered by many hunters to be the most delicious of the mountains. DALL MOUNTAIN SHEEP Ovis dalli (Nelson) Other Name. — White Mountain Sheep. General Description. — See also general description of Rocky Mountain Bighorn. Size and form a.s in the Rocky Mountain Bighorn, but color entirely different. Color, white, or yellowish-white at all seasons. Dental Formula. — See the formula given for Rocky Mountain Bighorn. Pelage. — No noticeable variation, except a clearer tone of white in winter than in summer. Color entirely whitish, hairs usually tipped with rusty. Sometimes individuals have brownish areas, but these do not seem to be confined to any particular spot. Pelage very dense in winter. Measurements. — Length, male. 5 feet ; height at shoulder. 39 inches ; tail. 4 inches. Horns along curve, 39 inches; circumference at base. 14 inches. Range. — Mountains of Alaska and Kenai Peninsula. Rocky Mountains north of latitude 60° nearly to Arctic coast west of the Mackenzie, thence west to headwaters of the Noatak and Kowak Rivers that flow into Kot- zebue Sound. Food. — Grasses and "browse." leaves and twigs of shrubs. Remarks. — This form is preeminently suited for a life in the snows of the northern regions, and its white coat is doubtless a response to this factor of its envi- ronment. There are three varieties. Rel,.\ted Forms Dall Mountain Sheep. — Otis dalli dalli (Nelson). The typical white Bighorn of the above description. Sub-arctic America in Alaska Peninsula region. Kenai White Mountain Sheep. — Oris dalli kcnaicn- sis Allen. Grayish-white instead of yellowish-white, tipping of hairs grayish instead of cinnamon. Kenai Peninsula. Alaska. Fannin Mountain Sheep. — Ovis dalli fannini Horna- day. Practically identical with Dall's Sheep. British Columbia and Yukon. The White Mountain Sheep, as Dall's Sheep is often called, is a very striking species, dis- covered in Alaska in 1884 by E. W. Nelson, and named by him Ovis dalli in honor of Prof. W. H. Dall. From October to the beginning of March its coat is pure white, long and thick ; but its texture and color are so delicate that the pelage stains very easily. During the summer months it is of a dirty white hue and very short. Mr. A. S. Reed, who has been a successful hunter of the animal, says: "I killed my first Ovis dalli about the first week in September, atid was very much disappointed in finding it to be quite short in the coat, and of a dirty rustv color, instead of the pure white that I had expected it to be." He adds : " There is one other pecu- liarity with regard to the coat of this Sheep — they all have a few black hairs in the end of the tail'." This species is smaller than the ordinary Big- horn, rams being about five feet in length, with a height at the shoulders of three and one- quarter feet. The ewes are somewhat smaller. The horns of a fairly large male measure nearly thirty-nine inches along the curve, and have a circumference at base of fourteen and one-half inches. They are, in the young rams, of an almost transparent amber color, but " the older ones are generally darker, and all of them, after being kept for some time, become just like those of the other varieties." Mr. Reed says that all of his have turned quite black. He has 54 MAMMALS OF AMERICA noticed also one marked difference between the Mr. Belmore Browne has recently contributed horns of Ball's Sheep and those of any other: to Outing some interesting reminiscences of " The crown or upper surface of the horn pro- hunting this Sheep. He writes : " No animal jects or overla])s the lower portion, as it were, lives a happier, lazier life than the mountain By permission of the tJ. S. Biological Survey DALL MOUNTAIN SHEEP Drawing by Carl Rungius The Dall, or White Mountain Sheep is a northern relative of the Bighorn. It is entirely white in color, to blend with the snow of its home, and there is little variation in its coat for summer and vrinter in such a manner as to form a ridge running for some distance from the base, gradually tapering off until at the distance of from six to eight inches from the skull it ceases to be apparent." ram, in the summer time. The ewes are busy bringing up the latnbs ; and the young rams, not knowing where they belong, wear the fat from their ribs in futile visits between the staid old OXEN, SHEEP, AND GOAT FAMILY 55 rams on the high crags and the mixed bands on the lower slopes. Not so the old patriarchs. Away up on the shoulder of some great wilder- ness peak they loaf through the summer days. For hours at a time they lie in the soft mountain grass, looking out over the blue sea of the foot- hills. If they want water, a thousand rivulets fall from the everlasting snowfields ; if they are hungry, they feed among the clean wind-swept pastures that lie at dizzy angles above the tower- ing cliffs, and when their hunger is appeased they hunt a soft bed in the sunshine and doze away the happy hours. . . . The lambs are born in the early spring, and it is one of the marvels of nature how the tiny, defenseless things can live through the cold sleet storms common at that time of the year. Luckily their enemies are com- paratively few. The Cougar's range ends at about the same northern limit as the range of the Rocky Mountain Bighorn, which is south of the Black Sheep ranges of northern British Co- lumbia. Eagles are responsible for the death of many lambs, and undoubtedly that arch fiend the Wolverene, takes toll from the white bands. I have seen a white ewe spring up in alarm at the approach of an eagle, and stand on the alert by her lamb until the broad-winged marauder had passed." Fannin's Sheep is a species of Mountain Sheep discovered in 1900 on the Klondike river, Yukon Territory, the specimen being named in honor of Mr. J. Fannin, Curator of the Provin- cial Museum at Victoria, British Columbia, to which institution it had been presented. It resembles Ball's Sheep to some extent, the general hue being white, with the shoulders, back, fore legs to knee, and hind legs to hock, outside, gray. The rump patch is white, and tail similar to back, but darker. On the front of the fore leg and on front of the thigh, in both cases extending to the hoof, is a brown stripe. It measures about five feet from nose to tail, and has a shoulder height of nearly three feet. Its horns are similar to those of Ball's Sheep, and have a basal circumference of thirteen and one-half inches, and a spread of twenty-one and one-half inches. It is a handsome and striking Sheep. NELSON MOUNTAIN SHEEP Ovis nelsoni Mcrriam General Description. — See also general description of Rocky Moinitain Bighorn. !Much paler in color, smaller in size, and with smaller teeth than the Rocky Mountain Bighorn. Dental Formula. — See formula for Rocky Mountain Bighorn. Pelage. — Upper parts, pale dingy-brown. Underparts and legs, much darker, contrasting sharply with the white areas. Groin, hinder part of belly, inner aspect of thighs and posterior aspect of fore and hind limbs, white. Rump patch white, small, and completely divided by medium line of drab-gray. Measurements. — Length, male, 50 inches ; tail, 4 inches; hind foot, 12 inches; height at shoulder, 33 inches. Range. — Desert mountain ranges of southern Cali- fornia and northern Lower California. Food. — Leaves and twigs of shrubs. This Sheep is a desert-loving variety, living in regions where water is scarce and found only in occasional springs. The pale color and small size are a response to an environment where colors are of a weak tone, and the scanty food supply militates against the size of the animal. It is one of the smallest of the Mountain Sheep, averaging a little over four feet in length, with a height at the shoulders of less than three feet. It occurs in the mountains of southeastern California and in the i)eninsula of Lower Cali- fornia.. In general characters it bears a resem- blance to Stone's Mountain Sheep, but is some- what paler. 56 MAMMALS OF AMERICA STONE MOUNTAIN SHEEP Ovis stonei Allen Other Name. — Black Mountain Sheep. General Description. — See also general description of Rocky Mountain Bighorn. Color darker than the Rocky Mountain Bighorn ; horns more slender. Dental Formula. — See formula given for Rocky Mountain Bighorn. Pelage. — Above, blackish-brown and whitish mixed. A broad blackish stripe from occiput to base of tail. Face and sides of neck paler. Front of neck, chest and sides almost black. Rump patch, back of thighs, under- parts to center of chest, where it ends in a point, and back of legs, white. Outside of legs blackish-brown. Tail black with some white hairs on lower surface. Hoofs black, horns pale brown. Measurements. — Length, male, 5 feet, 6 inches. Horns over curve, 30 inches; circumference at base, 13 inches. Range. — From Cassiar Mountains 61° north, south to headwaters of Nelson and Peace Rivers, Rocky Mountains; west to longitude 134°. Found in Stickeen, Cheonnees and Etsezas Mountains, Alaska. Food. — Grasses and herbaceous plants. Stone's is a dark form of Mountain Sheep liv- ing in the northern Rockies, in regions of bounti- ful rainfall, which fact has a tendency to produce dark color patterns in all animals. It is often called the Black Mountain Sheep, from its general dark appearance. Its size is about that of Ball's Sheep, but its horns have a much wider spread. A head, at one time in the possession of Mr. Robson of the Hudson's Bay Company, measured fourteen and one-quarter inches in circumference at the base, and had a spread of twenty-eight and three-quarter inches, the horns curving outward at the tips. This Sheep presents a striking contrast to the White Mountain Sheep. It is blackish-brown and whitish mixed on the upper parts, a broad blackish stripe running to the base of the tail. The horns are pale brown. General Description. — Color, white with black horns and hoofs. Height about three feet at withers. Weight 180-300 pour.ds. Both se.xes have horns which are never shed. Horns ridged and roughened at base and curving gently backward and somewhat outward, those of male being the larger. Horns of young animals short and straighter. Tail short and almost hidden in long hair of rump. Muzzle is haired, there are no facial glands, and in both sexes a beard grows from sides of lower jaw. Ears moderate sized, clothed with short hairs. Shoulders are higher than rump giving animal a humped appearance somewhat similar to that of the bison. A very shaggy animal. Dental Formula. — Incisors, "-^— ; Canines, ''^- ; Pre- 4 — 4 — o molars, ^~^ ; Molars, ^^^ = -la. Pelage. — Adults, both sexes: The hair is every- where whitish from tips to roots. In winter the visible hairs are long and straight, being longest on neck, chest and midline of back from shoulders to rump. Underneath is a coat of short woolly fur more or less e.xposed in summer when outer coat is shed. A very distinct beard is found on both se.xes growing from sides of lower jaw. Owing probably to stain, the tone of the white is seldom pure, but with a yellowish tinge more pronounced in summer. Young : Pelage same as adults, but during the first summer lacking the long hair of the outer coat. Measurements. — Length, male, 5 feet; tail, 5'j inches ; hind foot, i foot, i inch. Height at shoulder, 3 feet, 3 inches. Horn, along front curve, 10^ inches ; circumference at base, 5'/^ inches; from tip across to ROCKY MOUNTAIN GOAT Oreamnos montanus iOrd) tip. SH inches. Female, somewhat smaller Weight of female about one-fifth less than male. Range. — The higher mountains from Alaska south to California, in former times, now probably only to Idaho. Never found far from regions of heavy annual snowfall. Today found in greatest abundance in British Columbia. By nature, denizen of the Alpine life zone, special preference being shown for localities where crags and cliffs are the features of the landscape. Food. — Strictly herbivorous. Feeds upon scattered grasses among the rocks, pine needles and, in winter, upon any exposed vegetation it may find. Remarks. — Erroneously called " goat," this animal is in reality an Antelope closely related to the Himala- yan Serow, and is classified in a different section from that containing the domestic goat. Related Species Rocky Mountain Goat. — Oreamnos montanus mon- tanus (Ord). The animal described above. Ranges in the Cascade Mountains north to British Columbia. Columbia Rocky Mountain Goat. — Oreamnos montanus cohnnbianus .Allen. Much larger than typical montanus, with longer and narrower skull. Found in British Columbia. Allen Rocky Mountain Goat. — Oreamnos mon- tanus missoular Allen. Smaller than either of the above, with narrow skull. Found in Montana. Kennedy Rocky Mountain Goat. — Oreamnos kett- nedyi Elliot. Differs from montanus in skull char- acters, and has larger, more widely flaring horns. Found in southern Alaska. f57l 58 MAMMALS OF AMERICA Here we have another case in which an animal has been popularly misnamed. Just as the Pronghorn has been miscalled the American Antelope, it not being a true Antelope, so our friend Orcamnos uwntanus is popularly known as the Rocky Mountain Goat, although it is not a Goat, but rather a goatlike Antelope. It is, in fact, most nearly related to the Alpine Chamois and the Himalayan Serow. The so-called Goat of the Rocky Alountains is a sturdy animal set on short, stout legs, and ROCKY MOUNTAIN GOAT This is one of the few animals which are white at all seasons of the year. The horns and hoofs are jet-black, forming a striking contrast to the beautiful coat weighing somewhat over 250 pounds. Its hoofs, upon which the bold climber has to depend so largely for its safety, are aptly described as con- sisting " of an ingenious combination of rubber- pad inside and knife-edge outside, to hold the owner equally well on snow, ice, or bare rock." Its horns, present in both sexes, are about ten inches long, rough for about half their length, the remaining portion being smooth, and jet black ; they curve backward. The animal stands about three feet high at the shoulders. The fleece of the Rocky Mountain Goat is entirely yellowish white, and, like the pelage of the Musk-Ox, consists of a fine wool next the skin, through which grows an outer covering of long, straight hair. This hair being erect along the line of the back, and longer over the shoulders and hind quarters, gives a double- humped appearance to the animal. From the color of its fleece, it is sometimes called the White Goat. In spite of the comparative inaccessibility of its haunts, the range of the Mountain Goat is apparently lessening. At any rate, sportsmen and hunters find that it occurs in much smaller numbers than formerly, mainly in the States of Idaho, Montana and Washington, and north- ward throughout British Columbia. Amidst the grandest, wildest scenery, above the timberline, crossing the faces of precipices that seem almost perpendicular, dwells Orcamnos in serene and contented isolation. The well-known writer Stewart Edward White, who hunted the animal in the Cascade Mountains, a few years ago, gives in Outing an admirable description of typical Goat country. Mr. White had been hunting Elk in the dense forests at the foot of a mountain, when one of his companions suggested that they should go to the top and look for Goats, adding " It isn't very far." Says Mr. \Miite : " It was not very far, as measured by the main ranges, but it was a two hours' steady climb, nearly straight up. . . . Three times we made what we thought was a last spurt, only to find ourselves on a false sum- mit. After a while we grew resigned ; we real- ized that we were never going to get anywhere, but were to go on forever . . . and then at last the sudden, unexpected culmination. We topped a gently rounded summit ; took several deep breaths into the uttermost cells of our distressed lungs ; walked forward a dozen steps — and found ourselves looking over the sheer brink of a precipice. Across the face of the clifT below us ran irregular tiny ledges ; buttresses ended in narrow peaks ; chimneys ran down irregularly to the talus. Here were supposed to dwell the Goats. We proceeded along the crest spying eagerly. We saw tracks, but no animals. At last we found ovirselves cut off from farther progress. To our right rose tier after tier of great cliffs, serenely and loftily unconscious of any little insects like ourselves that might be puttering around their feet. Straight ahead the ledge ceased to exist. To our left was a hun- dred-foot drop." Owen \\'ister says: " It has been stated that in the winter season, like Mountain Sheep, the OXEN, SHEEP, AND GOAT FAMILY 59 Goat descends and comes into the valleys. This does not seem to be the case. He does not depend upon the grass, if indeed he eats grass at all. His food seems to be chiefly the short, almost lichen-like moss that grows on the faces and at the base of the rocks and between them in the crevices. None of the people in the Methon country spoke of seeing Goats come out of the mountains during the winter. I ha\e not sufficient data to make the assertion, but I am inclined to believe that the Goat keeps consistently to the hills, whatever the season may be, and in this ditifers from the Mountain Sheep as he differs in appearance, temperament, and in all characteristics, excepting the predilec- tion for the inclined plane ; and in this habit he is more vertical than the Sheep." Of hunting them he adds : " There is no use in attempting to hunt them from below. Their eyes are watchful and keen, and the chances are that if you are working up from below and see a Goat on the hill, he will have been looking at you for some time. Once he is alarmed, ten minutes will be enough for him to put a good many hours of climbing between himself and you. His favorite trick is to remain stock-still, watching you till you pass out of sight behind something, and then, he makes off so energeti- cally that when you see him next he will be on some totally new mountain. But his intelli- gence does not seem to grasp more than the danger from below. While he is steadfastly on the alert against this, it apparently does not occur to him that anything can come down upon him. Consequently, from above you may get very near before you are noticed." Of all big game animals the Mountain Goat is by common consent considered the most stupid. Mr. White's opinion is that "Goats are either fools or great poets :" and Colonel Roose- velt's pronouncement concerning the animal is : " Verily the White Goat is the fool-hen among beasts of the chase." This was uttered after he had shot a buck, and one of its accompanying does had run oiif for about a hundred yards and then stopped to look at the Colonel ! Although the White Goat is essentially a mountain animal, Mr. John Fannin has " known Goats to be shot within a few hundred yards of the sea-level, and to be captured while in the act of swimming rivers or wide stretches of salt water." Except during the pairing season, November, and in the middle of winter, they are not gre- garious. The young are born in the spring, and remain with their parents till the following spring, but no large flocks are seen. Up to 1903, only four Mountain Goats had been seen in captivity east of the Rocky Moun- tains. In 1905, Dr. Hornaday personally con- voyed a herd of five goats from Fort Steele, British Columbia, to New York, and in May, 1908, the first Mountain Goat ever bred in cap- tivity was born in the Zoological Park in that city. On June 8, 1910, a second kid was born. ROCKY MOUNTAIN GOAT Although sure-footed and fearless mountain climbers, the Goats lack the grace and recklessness of the sheep It was amusing to see these denizens of the mountains clambering over the roof of their house in the Park. The food supplied to them consisted of " best clover hay, crushed oats, sliced carrots, and chopped apples." The legis- lature of British Columbia a few years ago set apart for the preservation of the Mountain Goat about 450 miles of territory, between the Elk and Bull rivers and around Monroe Lake, since known as Goat Mountain Park, and here a thousand of them found a safe retreat from the insatiable hunter. The skin of the White Mountain Goat was formerly in demand by the Indians, who made the fleece into blankets, but of late years the demand for these has ceased. Otherwise the skin has no commercial value, and the flesh is not very palatable. Ph o / < rn >< < & O t^ o tu a ^ < .s O > O S S o s- d t>4 >. t ) d o PS (J .9 > s [60] THE PECCARY FAMILY ( Tayassuida) ECCARIES clearly belong in a family by themselves. Their nearest relatives are the wild boars of the Old World, and the domesticated swine, but there are well-marked points of difference from these also. The American family contains several species in Central and South America, but only one north of the Rio Grande. Distinguishing marks are : upper tusks directed downward instead of up- ward ; three toes instead of four on hind feet ; a complex stomach somewhat like that of the ruminants; twelve premolars, twelve molars, and a total of 38 teeth; whitish collar, and black dorsal stripe; and a large musk gland in which is secreted a quantity of evil-smelling oily substance. Fossil remains of Peccaries, some belonging to living and others to extinct species, occur in Pleistocene deposits of both North and South America. In addition to these, certain extinct Pliocene and Miocene hog-like animals seem to indicate the parent- stock from which both the Peccaries and the true pigs have been derived. COLLARED PECCARY Pecari angulatus (Cope) Other Name. — Texas Peccary, Musk Hog. General Description. — A small pig-like animal of about 40 pounds weight. Sexes similar. Tail rudi- mentary. General appearance black, grizzled with grayish, white. A large scent or musk gland just under skin of rump. .A broken whitish collar just in front of the shoulders, and a mane of long erectile hairs from occiput to rump. Strong straight tusks just visible beyond lips. Toes, four in front, three behind. Hair coarse and bristle-like. Dental Formula. — Incisors, — ; Canines, -^: 3—3 I— i' Premolars ^^; Molars, ^■'=38. Pelage. — Adults: Above, the hairs are black with grayish white annulations giving a somewhat grizzled appearance most noticeable on muzzle, cheeks and under side of head. .\ mane of black hairs, conspicuously longer than the other hairs, runs from back of the ears to the scent gland on the rump. An incomplete "collar" of soiled whitish runs from just before the 'shoulder obliquely upward and backward to the mane which breaks the continuity of the collar. Ears with five stripes of white hair internally, blackish externally. Below, the hairs vary from reddish-black along the ventral line to brownish-gray along groin and pit. Hairs everywhere long, hard and glossy. Young : At first brownish-yellow touched with black above, plain yellowish-gray below. A black stripe in the position of mane of adult, whitish collar and annuli of adult reddish in young. Measurements. — Total length (se.xes same size) 3 feet, 2 inches. Height at shoulders, 32 inches. Range. — Plains and desert areas up into lower mountains from Northern Mexico into Texas. Food. — Roots, acorns, pecans and miscellaneous vegetation. Remarks. — This animal is the only native "pig" found in the United States. However, while super- ficially bearing a close resemblance to the Old World pigs, the common domestic swine, it is a member of a distinct family based upon important internal structures. Related Species The Peccaries are a compact group containing several quite distinct varieties in Central and South America, but only one well-established species with its subspecies north of the Rio Grande. These subspecies are all very much alike. Collared Peccary, or Texas Peccary. — Pecari iiiii/ulatiis angulatus (Cope). The animal above described. Sonera Peccary, or Yaqui Peccary. — Pecari angu- latus sonoricnsis (Mearns). Larger and paler than the Te.xas Peccary. Sonora. Mexico, and region between Texas and Gulf of California. [6l| 62 MAMMALS OF AMERICA The Peccaries are the American relatives of the wild boars of the Old World, but there are certain well-marked differences between the two groups. The points of the upper tusks of the Peccary are directed downward instead of up- ward as with the swine ; the Peccary has no external toe on its hind feet ; it has a rudimentary tail, and a complex instead of a simple stomach. In the middle of the back the Peccary has a droves, sometimes of considerable numbers, and, when attacked, all assume the offensive, and are capable of doing much damage with their sharp tushes ; and a man in the midst of a number of enraged Peccaries is fortunate if he is able to find a tree to climb, that being about the only method of saving his life." Mr. A. G. Requa, relates an experience of his when treed by Pec- caries in Mexico. He had just shot a wild tur- COLLARED PECCARY The wild relative of the pig tribe, sometime called the Musk Hog, is fond of the jungles of tropical America, but is also at home among the cactus and sage of our southwestern states large gland containing an oily substance smelling somewhat like musk ; hence the animal is some- times called the Musk Hog. When in anger the Peccary ejects this substance, the odor emitted is very rank. In appearance the Collared Peccary resembles a small common hog. The range of the American species extends from the Red River of Arkan- sas, latitude 34° south through Mexico, Central and South America to the Rio Negro of Pata- gonia. Elliot says of the Peccaries : " These animals are fearless and pugnacious, associate in key, and, lieing warm, had sat down on a rock to rest, taking olf his coat. " I had not sat there," he writes, " more than five minutes before I heard the sharp noise of the Peccaries. They came in sight not more than twenty yards below me. I fired at one, and, just as I intended, only crippled him. He set up a great squealing, and sure enough, here they came! I was just a little excited, and started for a tree, forgetting my coat and turkey. I had scarcely time to get up when they were around the tree, and, instead of twelve, they kept coming until there were at least PECCARY FAMILY 63 two hundred. I commenced shooting, and killed five with my rifle. . . Fortunately, I had both revolvers, and a belt full of cartridges for them ; so I went at them. They were chewing the tree, and climbing over each other trying to get at me. I tried to count them, and found that there were over two hundred left, and I had killed twenty- three. The Peccaries showed no signs of leaving. It W'as now noon, and very warm. They would root around, then come back to the tree, and grunt, and paw, and bite the tree ; then they would cool down a little, would go a short dis- tance away, root around awhile, then come back again. I was getting tired of being treed. If only the boys could hear my firing and come over. " One o'clock came, then two. Three o'clock came, then four, and no signs of the boys. Some of the pigs would feed while others stood guard : then they would change off. I was so tired. I took my belt off and buckled myself to the tree, so that I would not fall out. Seven o'clock ! they still camped near me. Then the sun went behind the mountain ; darkness came on, and I was thirstv, hungry, and tired : but, worse than all. I was a prisoner. Twelve o'clock! The moon shone brightly, and I could see my sen- tinels scattered around. Two o'clock ! Then came a signal from some of the outside ones ; the rest snuffed the air, then away they all went. I unloosed the belt and got down, more dead than alive — so stiff I could scarcely walk. I went first to where I left my turkey and coat. The turkey had been eaten, and my coat had been thoroughly chewed. I started for camp, where I arrived just at daybreak. Two of the boys were out on horseback, hunting for me." The chief food of Peccaries consists of nuts and roots, in addition to worms, insects, and carrion. The female produces one or two young once a year. The flesh is somewhat inferior to pork, and the musk gland must be removed im- mediately after the killing: otherwise the meat will be tainted. There are several forms of the Peccary in Mexico : and in South America occurs the White- lipped Peccary, a larger species than the Collared variety ; it congregates in very large herds, and does much damage to growing crops. Its lips and breast are white. ORDER OF FLESH-EATING ANIMALS (Carnivora) LESH-EATING mammals are known by the Latin name Carnivora, which means " Flesh-eaters." The order is also known as Fercc, and comprises a wide circle of beasts of prey which live on flesh usually killed by themselves. Most of the members are fierce and active, the larger ones being dangerous to man. Because of their flesh-eating habits, we find this order distinguished by having certain teeth especially sharp and powerful. The teeth are of three sorts, incisors, canines and molars. The canines are prominent and dagger- like as a general rule, while one or more of the molar teeth have prominent shearing edges forming the so-called " carnassial " or flesh tooth. The lower jaw is articulated in a manner to secure strength and freedom in an up-and- down plane. The clavicle is absent, or at best incomplete. The radius and ulna are distinct bones. The feet of the flesh-eating animals are not so long as in the hoofed animals. The Carnivora as a rule walk solidly on the whole foot, instead of daintily on the tip of the toe, and are therefore called plantigrade. They are further provided with sharp claws which can be pulled in, or retracted, by many animals. The Carnivora have two suborders, the Pinnipcdia, an aquatic group whose feet have been modified into flippers — such as the Seals and Walruses; and the Fissipcdia, which have several toes on each foot. There are never less than four digits, more often five, and each bears a claw. The first and second digits are never opposable as thtimb and finger. The Cats, Dogs, Bears, Raccoons and the Weasel tribe are all members of this suborder. Some of these, the Kodiak Bear for example, may be reckoned as the mammals most to be feared on the North American continent, while at the other end of the series is found a bloodthirsty carnivore, the Pygmy Weasel, small enough to prey on the smallest. Characters common to all these mammals are mobile limbs, adapted for walking, toes free with long sharp claws, external ears well developed, incisors three on each side above and below, stomach simple, caecum present, mammae abdominal. Some of the members of this suborder walk full foot or are plantigrade, others are digitigrade, while still others are midway between the two. The following diagram illustrates typical members of the Fissipedia in North America: ORDER OF FLESH-EATING ANIMALS (CARNIVORA) Sub-Order Fissipedia Families (In North America) Dogs (Canidce) (Typical species) Coyote Wolf Red Fox Kit Fox Arctic Fox Gray Fox Cats {Felidce) (Typical species) Cougar Jaguar Ocelot Jaguarondi Canadian hyax Wild Cat Bears ( Ursidce) (Typical species) Polar Bear Grizzly Bear Big Brown Bear Black Bear Raccoons ( Procyonidce) (Typical species) Raccoon Ring-tailed Cat [64] Weasels (Mustelidce) (Typical species) Weasel Marten Mink Wolverene Ferret Skunk Badger Otter THE DOG FAMILY (CanidcE) HIvS family includes the Dogs, Wolves and Foxes. Their claws are non- retractile, that is, they are fixed, and are not adapted for use as weapons. All members of the Dog family walk upon the front portion of their feet, or are digitigrade. They have five toes on the front feet, and four toes with a rudimentary or imperfect toe above the others on the hind feet. The Dog Family is not characterized by many admirable traits in its wild state. It is usually cunning, vicious and treacherous, and exhibits no bravery except where there are numbers of its own kind. It is furtive and sneaking, looking for every unfair advantage, and, once in danger, is an arrant coward. From the commercial side, however, the family is entitled to respect. The pelts of both Wolves and Foxes are of value, those of certain varieties of Foxes bringing high prices. Photograph by \V. L. Kinley THE LONE SCOUT OF THE PLAINS There is no more typical animal of the western plains than the Coyote Other Name. — Prairie Wolf. General Description. — Like a shepherd dog in size and appearance. Nose sharp and slender ; ears fully haired, erect, pointed. Pupil of eye circular. Tail of moderate length, bushy. Hair long and thick, color huffy gray and black above, below whitish. Carnassial tooth (4th premolar) very large with extensive cutting edge. COYOTE Canis latrans Say Dental Formula. — Incisors, ~^ : Canines. r Pre- molars, --- : Molars, ~ — ?=:42. 4—4 ' 3— i Pelage. — Sexes identical. Adults : Muzzle pale fulvous grizzled with gray and black; top of head grizzled gray ; ears deep fulvous sprinkled with black ; upper parts buffy gray and black; under parts and upper lip whitish ; throat hairs tipped with blackish : [65] 66 MAMMALS OF AMERICA fore legs and feet dirty white, clay color on outer side ; hind legs and feet fulvous on outer side, white on inner side and top of feet; tail tipped with black, underneath white basally. Young: Not so contrastingly marked, the pelage more of a gray monotone. Measurements. — Sexes practically equal. Total length, 4 feet; length of tail, i6 inches; hind foot, 7 inches ; ear, 41,4 inches. Weight, 30 to 40 pounds. Range. — Northern valley of the Mississippi westward on northern edge of the plains to the Rockies in Alberta. Food. — Almost entirely carnivorous. Small mam- mals and birds, mice, hares and cotton-tails, occasional deer or antelope, ground squirrels, prairie-dogs, frogs, snakes and sometimes sheep. Remarks. — Coyotes of different species are found throughout almost the entire western half of North America from Mexico to Alaska. Accordingly as the influences of environment vary, the species of this genus become dififerentiated, and authorities recognize today no fewer than 12 to 14 species and subspecies e.xclusive of the large wolves. The principal variations in characters are to be found in size and coloration, the general appearance of all these forms being suffi- cient to show clearly their relationships. The most important forms only are mentioned below. Related Species Coyote, or Prairie Wolf. — Ca>iis latrans Say. This form is typical of most of the genus and it is one of the largest. It ranges the farthest north of the group. Nebraska, or Plains Coyote. — Canis ncbraccnsis ncbraccnsis Merriam. Smaller, paler, skull smaller. Arid plains from eastern Colorado and Montana to Assiniboia. Texas Coyote. — Canis ncbraccnsis tcxcnsis Bailey. Smaller, brighter and more fulvous than latrans. Gulf region of Texas northward as far as Oklahoma. Mountain Coyote. — Canis Icstcs Merriam. Sim- ilar in size and color to lalrans but skull and teeth smaller. High plains of interior of British Columbia, Washington and Oregon southward over the higher lands of the Great Basin, the Sierra Nevada and the Rocky Mountains to the plateau of Northern Arizona and thence along the continental divide as far south as Mexico. Oklahoma Coyote. — Canis fnistror Woodhouse. Smaller than latrans, color pale, ears short. Oklahoma. Mearns Coyote. — Canis incarnsi Merriam. Size small, color bright, skull and teeth small. Southern .\rizona. Desert Coyote. — Canis estor Merriam. Size small, color pale, teeth small. Deserts of eastern Cali- fornia, Nevada and Utah. California Coyote. — Canis ochropus Eschscholtz. Smaller and darker than latrans, more highly colored, ears larger, skull and teeth smaller. San Joaquin Valley, California. From southern Mexico to northern Alberta in Canada, and from Michigan to the Pacific coast, the Coyote, or Prairie Wolf, may be found pursuing its devious ways. It is much smaller than the Gray Wolf and far less savage ; and its foxlike muzzle and ears seem to be an index to its craftiness and cunning. The typical Coy- ote gained its specific name latrans ( " barking ") from the fact that it habitually barks. Mr. Seton considers " the voice of the Coyote is one of its most remarkable gifts." He thinks that some of the atiimal's calls are " the outcome of the pleasure it finds in making a noise." Soon after the sun goes down the Coyote begins its " evening song." This is " a series of short barks, increasing in power and pitch till it changes into a long sqtiall. One Coyote begins and immediately two or more join in, making so much noise that newcomers think there must be a hundred wolves out there." An average male Coyote is about four feet in length, stands a little under two feet at the shoulders, and weighs a little over thirty pounds. The females are less. Coyotes mate in February, and the cubs, usually five to seven, but occasionally as many as ten, are born in April. The den is either a hole excavated by the old Coyotes or, it may be, the abandoned hole of some other ani- mal. The eyes of the " little strangers " open on the eighth or ninth day from birth. When they are about six weeks old solid food is brought home to them by the parents. The young leave the home nest in the fall. The dietary of the Coyote has been described as " every kind of fish, flesh, and fowl that it can master, dead or alive." Turkeys and even sheep it will attack when pressed by htinger, and in some of the Southern States it is said to have developed a liking for watermelon. It will often slink after a hunter and pick up any offal it can. The Coyote shows great cunning in hunt- ing its prey. When after jack-rabbits, a pair of Coyotes will work together; antelope and deer they often hunt in packs, spreading them- selves into a wide circle and endeavoring to exhaust the quarry. The Coyote does not attack man, but shows considerable ferocity with animals of its own size. Mr. G. O. Shields thus describes a fight that he saw between a Coyote and a Wildcat over the shoulderblade of a mountain sheep that he had killed : " The Cat, of course, depended mainly on its claws as weapons, while the Coy- ote's best hold was with its teeth. The Cat was quicker and more elastic in his movements, DOG FAMILY 67 while the little \Volf was the more deliberate, and the better stayer. . . . When I first sighted the contestants, they were in the midst of a san- guinary round, but finished it in a few seconds, and, separating, as if by mutual consent, both backed off a few paces and sat down. The Wolf growled and snarled, showed his ivories, and licked his wounds in turn, while the Cat hissed, spat, and caterwauled, much as a domes- tic cat does when engaged in a family row. Finally the Coyote started for the Cat, and take of poisoned bait. It seems to know when a man is unarmed, and will sit undisturbed within gunshot ; but when the hunter has his gun it is a different matter. Dr. Hornaday tried twice for two weeks, in Montana, to shoot a Coyote, and could not get within three hun- dred yards of one, and then only a running shot. The Coyote has great speed. Mr. Seton places it at its best in the 2.30 class. It, however, when young, falls a prey to the gray wolf, eagle and horned owl. Photograph by the U. S. Biological Survey COYOTE AT BAY The cowardly disposition of the Coyote is shown here, as the animal backs up against a rock, to pose for an unwelcome portrait no sooner had he taken a step than the Cat shot into the air, clearing at least ten feet in a single leap, and lit on top of the Coyote. Then there was snapping, clawing, snarling, yawling, howl- ing, and shrieking. Teeth and toenails con- tended valorously for the victory ; the air was filled with hair, and rent with cries of rage and shrieks of pain. . . . When both seemed ex- hausted, they again drew off. Again they sat nursing their wrath. . . . After the fifth round the rest was much longer than at the end of either of the others. ... I decided to assume the role of referee, and mentally declaring the fight a draw, took a shot at the Cat. This broke up the affair suddenly." Though less cunning than the Gray Wolf, the Coyote, as has been stated above, is decidedly crafty. It is an adept in avoiding snares and traps, although hunger often induces it to par- .\ small band of Coyotes hunting together has been known to kill Mountain Sheep which had been shut into a small pocket by an aval- anche. Fawns are of course preyed upon in summer and early fall, but the adult Deer only in winter when the crust will sustain the Coy- otes, but not the Deer. Forest rangers who have seen Coyotes pursuing Deer in this manner state that a band of five or six will overtake a Deer and hamstring it very qviickly on a weak crust of snow. Many calves also are killed by Coy- otes in the mountain parks, and in certain local- ities it is almost impossible to raise chickens and turkeys because of their depredations. In some parts of the ^^'est, until recently. Coyotes were unusually abundant and destruc- tive. Numbers were seen on the plains where they mixed freely with the cattle, and evinced little fear of man unless he carried a gun. Dur- 68 MAMMALS OF AMERICA ing the day one was in almost every extensive weed patch or growth of rank marsh grass, ready to pick up the turkeys and chickens which strayed too far from the ranch buildings. Coy- otes have been seen catching Meadow Mice and playing with them like a cat. Mr. Ernest Ingersoll, in the Popular Science Monthly, gives this personal description of a Coyote attacking a mother Antelope and her fawn : " I remember at a place where I was encamped for two or three nights in south- western Wyoming, the rough ledge of a butte- face just across the creek was the home of a family of these Wolves, and I often saw the mother lying at the mouth of their den, and the four whelps gleefully romping in the sunshine. The father of the family kept out of view at first; but later I caught sight of him in pursuit of a doe Antelope and her fawn. The doe was backing away over the plain, keeping the little one, which seemed to understand its part per- fectly, close to her hind legs. Following her closely ran the Wolf, often making a dash to the right or left to get at the fawn ; but each time the brave little mother, whisking alertly, would present to him her lowered head and make a dash at his skull with her sharp fore-hoofs. Thus she retired, but I fancy that the pursuer's longer breath and varied tactics won the day." The nocturnal prowlings, secretive disposi- tion, and remarkable craftiness of the Coyote, together with the annoyance it has the power to inflict, cause it to figure prominently in the myths and religious history of the Indians of the far West. The Indians give this annual a curious position in their legends, some paying him high honor for his cunning, while others give him a low place because of his cowardliness. In some of these folk-lore tales he is called " Old Man Coyote," and varied are his advantures. " In parts of the West where fruit growing and farming are dominant industries," says. Dr. A. K. Fisher, " it may be wise to encourage Coy- otes and Bobcats within certain limits, provided poultry and sheep are properly protected at night. Numerous ranchmen and fruitgrowers have learned by experience that these animals, if unmolested, will free their premises from rab- bits and other crop or tree destroyers. Where Coyotes have been allowed to do their work thoroughly, they are fully appreciated, and many ranchers would almost as soon shoot their own dogs and cats as their wild benefactors. The Coyote feeds on large insects, as May beetles, crickets and grasshoppers, and accomplishes much good." The skin of the Coyote is not very valuable, being worth, in raw state, about seven dollars. Other Names.— Timber Wolf, Buffalo Wolf. General Description. — A large dog-like animal, the male reaching a weight of lOO pounds. Nose rather elongate and pointed. Ears moderately high, erect, pointed. Tail of medium length, bushy. Legs powerful and feet large. Hair long and coat heavy. Predom- inating colors of pelage gray and black with whitish gray below. Claws horn color. Eyes straw-colored. Dental Formula. — Same as given for Coyote. Pelage. — .Adults : Sexes similar ; seasonal variation slight. Great range of individual variation in color. Gray or black, sometimes brownish gray or brownish white; many of the hairs black-tipped making irregular wavy black markings which are heaviest in the middle of the back ; underfur dusky. Underparts and sides whitish gray, paler beneath ; face gray ; ears rather fulvous. Tail gray with black markings like back. Outside of legs somewhat fulvous, inside like under parts. Young : Grayer throughout than adults. Measurements. — Length, male, 5 feet, 2 inches ; tail, i5 inches ; height at shoulder, 27 inches ; weight 75 to 105 pounds. Female, length, 4 feet, yVi inches; tail, 12 inches ; height at shoulder, 25 inches ; weight, 55 to 80 pounds. Range. — In general the Great Plains region. GRAY WOLF Canis nubilis (.S'ay) Food. — A meat-eater preying, at times, on almost all of the other animals of the region in which it lives. Principal diet mice, hares, squirrels, deer, the young of elk and moose, and in settled districts domestic cattle, horses and sheep. Remarks. — The status of the wolf classification is shrouded with some uncertainty, and authorities are not agreed as to the exact number of species to make, or what their ranges should be. The following arrange- ment of related species is something of a compromise on the best sources. Related Species Gray Wolf, Timber Wolf, or Buffalo Wolf.— Caii!.!- nubilis (Say). The typical form, described above. First taken near Council Bluffs, Iowa. Definite range not determined. Gray Wolf, or Timber Wolf. — Ca)iis occidcntalis (Richardson). Shares with the above species the com- mon names of Gray Wolf and Timber Wolf. Size very large, color usually light, white to grizzled gray. Color variable sometimes through different degrees of gray to all black. Doubtfully distinct, according to some writers, from Old World Wolf, lupus. Canada from plains of the Saskatchewan to Arctic Coast. By permission of the New York Zoological Society YOUNG GRAY WOLF In pioneer days Wolves were a menace to settlers, just as they are today on the plains of Siberia. They still make such serious inroads upon cattle and sheep in the West, that bounties are offered for their destruction [69] 70 MAMMALS OF AMERICA There has been much diversity of opinion among naturalists as to whether the Gray Wolf of North America is specifically identical with or distinct from the ordinary European Wolf. Dr. Merriam. who was supported in his view by the late St. George Mivart, holds that the two animals are one and the same species, but of recent years the opposite view has received an increasing number of adherents. As regards the American Gray Wolf, some naturalists consider it to be identical with the Timber Wolf, while others hold that the two represent different species. Jones and a companion, in 1899, above the Arctic Circle, " were so beset by packs of huge and fierce White Wolves, seeking to devour their five living musk-ox calves, that for over forty- eight hours they fought them continuously at short range, killing a Wolf at every shot." The Gray Wolf is abroad in the daytime as well as at night, and hunts both solitary and in pairs, and, especially in winter, in packs. The early American farmer often awoke in the morn- ing to find that Gray Wolves had during the night killed " fifteen or sixteen sheep, simply tearing open their throats without otherwise dam- Photugrul- TIMBER WOLVES An unusual picture, taken in the open, showing two full-grown specimens at ease The fact is, that so many variations in respect of shape, size and color exist among the Wolves of America, that it is often difficult to assign a particular Wolf to a certain species. The Gray Wolf formerly ranged over the greater part of the North American continent, but was most abundant in the great plains. When the Bufifalo herds in countless thousands were seeking new pastures, it was the Gray Wolf from which the old bulls had time and again to defend the newly born calves ; and many a feeble, wounded, or aged Buffalo also has fallen to the same beast of prey. Reindeer and Moose likewise are among its victims. In Alaska there is a large white variety, and C. J. aging the carcasses." And even today in the western ranges Wolves still kill large numbers of sheep, horses, and cattle. The Gray Wolf has wonderful endurance, enabling it to run down and kill even Foxes, whose swiftness is proverbial. Deer and Antelope are favorite prey, although sometimes a large buck has been known to kill a Wolf with a blow of his sharp hoof. A typical Gray Wolf is about five feet in length, has a height of twenty-seven inches at the shoulders, and is about twenty-nine inches in girth at the chest. Mr. Seton caught "a good-sized male " in Colfax County, New Mex- ico, in 1893, which measured sixty-two inches from nose-tip to tail-bone tip, its tail being six- DOG FAMILY 71 teen inches, its chest girth twenty-eight and one- half inches, and its weight 102 pounds. A female taken at the same place weighed only seventy- five pounds. As already stated, the color vari- ation among Gray Wolves is very great. The skin of Mr. Seton's New Mexico specimen was generally a dull yellowish-white ; cheeks, chest and inside of hind legs nearly pure white. The outer side of each limb, upper part of the muz- zle, and the crown were tinged with a clear pale sienna. From between the eyes, over the head and back were black-tipped hairs ending on the tail in a black spot. The under fur on the under parts was brownish gray, becoming much darker and browner on the upper parts. Below the spot on the tail there was no under fur, but " evidently a skin odor gland." The claws were of dark horn color. Mr. Seton thinks this speci- men represents the prevalent color. Mr. F. R. Burnham gives the following ob- servations on a ^^'olf hunt : " While following the tracks of two Grizzlies, we came upon a bunch of eleven Wolves ; six were black and five were gray. A day or two before they had pulled down a young cow Moose and were making this particular spot their headquarters. Mac and I watched them for over an hour through the glasses. We were probably within 400 yards of them. Their actions were similar to a collie dog's. The youngsters would play, run and jump and roll each other as you have seen dogs do many a time. On the other hand, the older Wolves would snarl and snap at each other, and especially if one was disturbed during his slumbers. After watching them for over an hour we made our stalk and arrived within 100 yards without their having scented us. Upon doing that, they immediately scattered, and I managed to get five out of the bunch. Four were black and one was gray. Of the four black ones, two were in very good coat and two poor. The gray had the best pelt of all. The two poorer pelts of the blacks were a shade between a blue-black and a snuff color. The front paws were a deep tan ; also, the throats had a tendency to that shade. The smallest of the five weighed ninety-two pounds ; the largest, if I remember correctly, 118 pounds." Gray Wolves mate any time between the last week of January and the first week of March ; the colder the region, the later the pairing. The consensus of opinion among those who have had the most favorable opportunities of studying these animals seems to be that Gray Wolves pair and that the partnership is permanent. The den may be a hollow stump of a tree, a hole in the ground, dug by the parent Wolves, or some natural cave. Sometimes two or three she-wolves will use the same den together. Some observations of a professional wolfer, given be- low, are informing as to the interior of the den. The gestation period is sixty-three days, and the litters number from three to thirteen pups, six or seven being the usual number. The eyes of the little ones do not open till the ninth day. The she-wolf has the reputation of being an excellent mother, never killing or eating her young as the Prairie Wolf does. She may often be seen turning over rocks to obtain a supply of crickets of which the pups are fond. The Bad Lands, alkali deserts, and the Hud- son Bay Barren Grounds still harbor large num- bers of Gray Wolves ; but the W'olf of today is comparatively shy, doubtless due to its experi- ence with modern firearms. Indeed, shooting can no longer be depended upon to restrict its num- bers. Some observers consider the Gray W'olf a more cunning animal than the Fox. It certainly shows great ingenuity in evading traps ; and, although bounties ranging from two dollars to fifteen dollars are offered for its destruction, cattlemen in some States offering as high as fifty dollars for a notorious freebooter, considerable skill and astuteness have to be used to secure one. A professional wolfer says : " The time to catch the W'olves is when they are going back to their dens ; if the dam sees you, she will try to lead you away. There's nothing to be afraid of about Wolves, when once you know their peculiar way of acting. Their jaws and teeth are as stout and strong as a pair of sheep shears, and they are powerful biters, but a Wolf won't fight as long as he can hide his head. Gener- ally at the bottom of the den or hole there is a little space or boudoir where they raise the pups, and at one side of this room there is a little hole. When the hunter crawls into the den, the big Wolf will hide her head in this little hole and think she is safe." The fur of the Gray Wolf makes a fine robe, and a skin fetches on the London market from seven dollars to fifteen dollars, according to size and quality. The Gray Wolf has often been crossed with the domestic dog, and in the North such half- breeds have been utilized in drawing sledge trains. In captivity, according to Dr. Hornaday. they retain all their meanness, treachery, and cruelty. " No matter how well yarded, well fed or com- fortable, a Wolf will watch and coax for hours to induce a neighbor in the next cage to thrust through tail or paw, so that he may instantly MAMMALS OF AMERICA seize and chew it off, without mercy." Other observers tell like tales of its treachery. Mr. Merritt Cary in "A Biological Survey of Colorado," says : " Gray Wolves were form- erly abundant over practically the entire State, except possibly the highest mountains, and were especially numerous on the eastern plains, where large bands preyed uj)on the Buffalo. From this habit of hanging on the flanks of the large herds, they were generally known as Buffalo Wolves. The mountain animals are said to average much darker than those of the plains. Unfortunatelv, there are no specimens available from the moun- tains to settle this point, but it is unlikely that two forms occur in the State. Wolves are still found in considerable numbers in North Park and in Koutt and Rio Blanco Counties, where they kill a great many range cattle. A few are probably found throughout the mountains west of the main ranges, and small numbers are still ])resent over the more unsettled parts of the eastern plains region, particularly in I'aco and eastern Las Animas Counties, in the extreme southeast, where, in 1907 and in 1910, they were said to be common and to kill a great many sheep. In 1906 Wolves were common over most of the Routt County, notwithstanding the bounty of fifteen dollars authorized by the local stock association, the additional ten dollars offered by the county, and the efforts of several pro- fessional wolf trappers employed by the asso- ciation. " In Dixon, Wyoming. I saw a nearly adult black W'oU in captivity, which had been captured as a cub. This individual was kept in a large cage in the back yard of its owner in Dixon. A boy of three years was petting and stroking its head through the bars, and the Wolf's every movement betokened its [pleasure in the compan- ionshi]) of the little fellow. All playfulness im- mediately left it. however, on the approach of a man. when the wild, untamable wolf nature was revealed in bared fangs, curling lips, and glaring eyes. The mother of this Wolf was gray, as was also one of the three cubs captured in the den." RED FOX Vulpes fulva { Dcsinarcst) Other Names. — See Remarks. General Description. — Size of a small dog. total length ahciut J feet. Fur long and soft. Tail long and bushy. Ears long, erect, pointed. Pupil of eye ellipti- cal. Nose elongate and tapering. Color bright yellow- ish rufous above, wliite underneath; feet blackish. Claws long, sharp, non-retractile. Toes. 5 in front. 4 behind. Dental Formula. — Incisers, '^p?; Canines, ^-^ I Pre- molars. ■'^■*; Molars. 2^^^ = 42. 4—4 i—3 Pelage. — Adults : Sexe-> identical. General color above, yellowish brown or bright yellowish rufous, darkest on back and shoulders ; throat, middle of belly and undersides of legs white or whitish, often tinged with dusky ; front of legs and feet largely brownish black; terminal half of upper surface of ears dark brown ; tail yellowish brown more or less tipped with brownish black; tip of tail white. YocNc: Muzzle blacki>h ; head dusky with sides of face light yellowish and nearly the whole posterior ear black; tail dusky with white tip. Measurements. — Male about l/io larger than female. Length, male, 3 feet; tail. I4|'2 inches; hind foot, 5^ inches. Range. — Northeastern United States. Food. — Small mammals, birds, frogs, meadow mice, hares, squirrels, poultry. Remarks. — The Red Fox group is found over prac- tically all of North America from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and from the .Arctic Coast south to about 35° on the Atlantic Coast, and on the Pacific Coast, and in the Rocky Mountains to about 38' latitude. This group is made up of some 16 species and subspecies, all differ- ing, in general, from one another in some variation on the color pattern or in size, often rather minor details. Among many of these species color phases or deviations from the normal color pattern appear. These color phases may appear in a litter with all the other mem- bers the ordinary red pattern, and are of three styles: the Cross Fox. the commonest of the color " freaks ", the Black Fox, or the Silver Fox, the latter two very rare in occurrence. These phases vary from the normal as follows : Cross Fox. — Body color variable but showing more or less gray and fulvous. A black streak crosses the shoulders and meets at right angles another running down tlie line of the back, forming in effect, a cross. Black Fox. — General color black with more or less white tipping to the hairs. Tail with a white tip. Silver Fox. — Same as Black Fox but with many more white-tipped hairs, giving a frosted appearance. Related Species Common, or Eastern Red Fox. — Vulfcs fulva f Desniarest ). The typical form as described above. Xortheastern United States. Nova Scotia Red Fox. — / 'ul/^cs ritbricosa nibricosa (Bangs). Larger and darker in color. Range re- stricted to Nova Scotia. DOG FAMILY 73 Newfoundland Red Fox. — Vulpcs dclctrix Bangs. Color very pale, varying from yellow and buffy to light straw color. Newfoundland. Royal Red Fox. — J'ulpcs regalis Merriam. Size large, color golden yellow, shading to whitish yellow on face, legs reddish brown. Northern Plains from Dakota to Alberta, east to Manitoba and Minnesota. Western Red Fox. — Vulpes macrourus Baird. Size large; colors rich; tail long. Mountains of Col- orado, Utah and Wyoming. Sierra Red Fox. — Vulpcs nccator Merriam. About size of the common Red Fox. Color throughout rather paler. High Sierra above 6000 feet altitude in Cali- fornia. Cascade Red Fox. — J'ulpes cascadensis Merriam. Size greater than that of common Red Fo.x. Color pale. Cascade mountain system of Washington, Oregon and into the Sierra Nevada of California. Alaska Red Fox. — I'ulpcs alascciisis alascciisis Merriam. A large, long-tailed species ; color golden fulvous. Northern Alaska. Columbia Red Fox. — Vulpcs alascciisis abictorum Merriam. Lighter, longer and more slender skull, Interior of British Columbia and southeastern Alaska. Kodiak Island Red Fox. — Vulpcs harrimani Mer- riam. Largest of the Red Fo.xes ; tail enormous, largest on basal fourth, tapering thence to tip. Kodiak Island, Alaska. RED FOX Noted ever since the time of .Ssop for its cunning, the Red Fox of today lives up to its reputation. It is the arch-schemer and trickster of the animal kingdom From time immemorial the English Red Fox has been accepted as the embodiment of speed, cunning, and resource; but Dr. M. G. Ellzey, who has hunted the American Red Fox in Vir- ginia, is persuaded " that, as found in the States of Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia, North Carolina, and Tennessee, the American Red Fox is an animal far superior to the English Fox, in speed, endurance, cunning, and resource, when in front of a dangerous pack. He laughs an inferior pack to scorn." In the matter of daring, there is no doubt that he excels his British cousin. Perhaps a few reminiscences of Fox-hunting will serve, better than anything else, to give 6 those unacquainted with this clever animal clearer notions as to the scope of Fox sagacity. To be- gin with, it should be borne in mind that Foxes, tinless old and experienced in guile, will not, when hounded, run far away on a straight course, but will circle near the home where they were reared. It is also well to know that Foxes have certain runways through valleys and across hills, through swamps and along water courses, and that these are followed more or less regu- larly by the Fox, either when pursued or when qtiietly moving from place to place in search of food. This fact is taken advantage of by hunt- ers, and the runway must be located before success in the hunt can be expected. 74 MAMMALS OF AMERICA In the fall of 1880, Foxes were very plentiful in the State of New York on the hills between the Unadilla and Chenango Rivers. There was scarcely any snow until late in November, and when it did come it was very dry, the wind blow- ing it from the fields and hill tops, and drifting it along the fences. Notwithstanding the bare- ness of the fields, thoughts of the old-time sport tempted the more adventurous hunters. Two of these enthusiastic Nimrods set forth with a well-trained hound before the snow had stopped sifting about even in the less exposed places. The hound soon struck a trail, and as the track was fresh he seemed to fly over the snow. The deep-toned baying sent the blood tingling through the veins of both pursuer and pursued. The first hunt of the season was really on ! The men took positions of vantage on the supposed runway, watching and listening carefully for the expected game. Meanwhile, the hound had gone quite out of hearing to the north. An hour passed and no Fox appeared. Nothing was heard save the baying of the hound far away to the east. In half an hour the Fox appeared in a valley, over which the hunters commanded a distinct view. As the Fox could not take to the water in the frozen streams, he tried an- other trick which worked admirably. It was this : Within the valley and in sight of the hunters were two ploughed fields, each contain- ing a marked elevation. The wind had swept these higher areas completely bare of snow and loosened bits of earth had rolled away, until the surfaces were quite smooth. The runway of the Fox may have been across these wind-swept places. Be that as it may, the Fox crossed each in turn. \\'hen the hound came upon the first place he lost the trail for a time, but finding it, proceeded to the second. The Fox, instead of continuing his course as would naturally be ex- pected, returned to the first by a circuitous nnite and then again to the second. Tie repeated this manoeuvre three times, taking the same course each time, finally quitting the game by turning sharply to the left, and making off to the south, leaving behind him a most weary and perplexed dog, At another time a Fox was seen to follow a rail fence for about forty rods, nearly in the 0])posite direction from that in which he had been traveling; he then jumped from the fence upon the ice of a small creek. By this ruse he succeeded in completely eluding the hounds. The common Red Fox is to be found through- out the northeastern United States and Canada, as far south as the Carolinas. Though fond of the open prairies, it is especially partial to districts in which there are low hills and ravines, or where there is close proximity to cover. What may be termed its home range, however, is about five miles in diameter in sum- mer, and probably twice that distance in winter. The Red Fox takes its name from the rusty or yellowish red color of its coat. The male is a little over three feet in length, the tail being about fourteen inches long. Its height is about thirteen inches. The female is smaller. In northern Foxes the tail is very large, and Mr. Seton gives the following reason for this : " Its nose and pads are the only exposed part, and these might easily be frostbitten when it sleeps during severe weather. But it is always careful on lying down to draw these together, then curl the brush around them ; it acts both as wrap and respirator. ... I believe a Fox or Coyote would die before spring if turned out in the autumn without a tail." Its hearing is remarkably keen, and it depends upon this more than upon its eyesight. The Red Fox mates in February or early in March, and it seems to be fairly well established that the animal truly pairs. The male Fox is an attentive husband and brings food to his mate, whom he assists in caring for and feeding the cubs. The young are born about the first of April ; there are four to nine cubs in a litter ; and they are born in the den or " earth," which is sometimes excavated by the parents and some- times is an adaptation of a hole that they have found. Besides the den proper, there is often a space used as a store room. The cubs, which are kittenlike in appearance, do not see till the eighth or ninth day from birth, and they remain in the den till they are three or four weeks old. Though nearly full-grown in August or Septem- ber, the cubs are still to be found with their parents; they scatter, however, before winter. The speed of the Red Fox is much greater than that of its gray cousin ; it has been known to cover a certain distance at the rate of thirty miles an hour. Dr. Ellzey considers " it is doubt- ful whether a first-rate specimen of a Red Fox, taken at his best in point of condition, can either be killed or run to earth by any pack of hounds living." The Fox has no regular hours for sleeping or eating ; it likes to sleep in the sunshine, and, when tired, " lies down for a nap, not usually in a hollow, but on some ex- posed place, the top of a bank, a boulder, a log, or a stump. , . . He looks like a yellow stone, and seems to know it." The Red Fox's dietarv is hoth extensive and DOG FAMILY 75 varied. For flesh, he partakes of woodchucks, hares, rabbits, and mice, with an occasional young lamb for a change. He has a pronounced fondness for the occupants of henroosts, also partridge, and other ground game. Fish and crabs form other items. Such deHcate morsels as frogs and beetles he does not scorn when other food is scarce. He kills large numbers of mice and other destructive rodents, and thus recom- penses the farmer to a great extent for the loss of an occasional chicken. The enemies of the Red Fox are many. Wolves and Lynxes being among the fourfooted ones. Eagles keep a sharp lookout for its young. Fleas are among its pests. It is sometimes sub- ject to rabies. Its extreme age has been esti- mated at fifteen years. The fur of the Red Fox is an important article of commerce. In London, in 1912, the number of skins sold by one house alone was 40,300 ; the total in the previous year having been 58,900. A prime skin is worth ten dollars or more. Nova Scotia and Newfoundland both have forms of the Red Fox. That of the former is larger and of a brighter rusty red than the com- mon Fo.x. The Red Fox of Newfoundland is of a paler color and less rusty than the common Fox, with larger hind feet and claws. It is smaller than the common Red Fox. For other related forms of this numerous and widely scattered tribe see list above. Three im- portant color phases, however, are given further mention below. CROSS FOX, BLACK The Cross Fox and the Black, or Silver Gray, Fox are merely color phases of the Red Fox, but the importance of the trade in their skins entitles them to separate treatment here. Mr. A. P. Low, in 1887, on the Moose River, Labrador, found a litter containing seven kits. Of these two were Red, three were Cross, and the remaining two Blacks or Silver. The Cross Fox gets its name from the large cross-mark formed by two dark stripes ; one across the shoulders, and the other running down the middle of the back. The color of the tail is darker than that of the Red Fox, and the muzzle, legs, and under parts are black. It has a reddish patch on the side of the neck, and another behind the foreleg. It occurs in British Columbia, Alberta and Manitoba, Alaska, and occasionally in the northwestern States. A first- class dark skin is worth twenty dollars or more. The Black Fox is a dark edition of the Red Fox. Its general color is jet black. The tail also is black, except the tip, which is white. It is called also the Silver Gray, or Silver Fox, from " the gray rings usually marking the other- wise black hairs of the hinder half of the back, the head, and 'the thighs, which communicate the peculiar silver luster to the fur." The fur of the Silver Fox is, next to that of the Sea Otter, the most valuable fur in the world, that is to say, in the present-day fashions, matched skins of good size and texture bringing from $500 to $4,000 each. In the United States, " extra fine " skins have sold for $600 to $1,200 each. The extraordinary prices realized for the FOX, SILVER FOX furs of this animal have resulted in the estab- lishment of various fox-farms, the center of the Silver Fox fur industry being Prince Edward RED FOX The fur of this animal is very beautiful, both in color and texture- Island, in the southern part of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. An account of this industry given by Mr. Phil M. Riley in Coitutrv Life in Amer- ica (July, 1915), is a valuable contribution to 76 MAMMALS OF AMERICA our knowledge of the Silver Fox ; and this fact, combined with the importance of the industry itself, warrants somewhat extensive quotation from this article. Mr. Riley says : " The whole island is virtually a great fur farm, from which the principal income is derived. Of the 2,700 Silver-black Foxes in captivity about 2.500 are there. More recently the breeding industry has been firmly established in a few of the United States along the Canadian boundary, where the climatic conditions have proved to be ideal. " There are several reasons for preferring furs grown in captivity. Pelts from the wild must be taken when caught, regardless of their con- dition. . . . Here the breeder has a big advantage over the trapper. Not only may the pelt be taken when the fur is at its best, but by the use of chloroform the killing may be virtually painless and without mutilation. While the trap- per may occasionally command top-notch prices, the breeder can do so every time. . . . .\nother fear that has prevented the establishment of Fox breeding on a firm basis in the United States is that success will attend it only in a bleak northern latitude. The United States Depart- ment of Agriculture, however, states that the whole eastern and northern sections of the coun- try as far south as Tennessee, and about all of the Pacific Coast States are suitable for Fox breeding. This is attested by naturalists of the first authority, and has been shown practically in several instances, notably by a large and suc- cessfully conducted fur ranch at ^^'hitefield, N. H., of which Otto J. Piehler. of Boston, is president. ... A 2000 acre tract of land has been purchased in the \\'hite Mountain region, em- bracing three ponds and several streams and mountain peaks, and providing every desirable condition for breeding not only the Fox, but the Mink, Raccoon. Black Muskrat. American Otter, Beaver, and Marten." In 1910, Silver Fox breeders sold for $4,000 a pair; in 191 1, the price jumped to $6,000; in 1912, it became $10,000; in 1913, $15,000; a two-year-old pair that had shown unusual fer- tility was sold, with a guarantee, for $30,000; and later in the same year the record for guar- anteed breeders became $40,000. The Woodbury ranch promises to become famous because of the vigor, stamina, and all-arovmd quality of its breeders. Experts agree that the prime pelts at this ranch for beauty alone would easily bring $2,000 to $3,000, the fur being thick, full, soft, glossy, and of beautiful color sprinkled with white points. The Silver Fox is monogamous, and the pairing is a matter of utmost delicacy, for both male and female quickly resent uncongenial com- panionship. This is one of the chief factors in the high cost of mated pairs for breeding pur- poses. From early in February until June or July, the mated pairs must be unmolested, except by a friendly keeper who goes quietly into the pens with food. The kennels must not be approached or any attempt made to count the litters. Plenty of sleep, quiet, and contented solitude are needed during this period, for the mother is ever quiv- ering with anxiety for the safety of her charges. So great is her love for them that if she fears intrusion or interference, she will kill them that they may be spared from what she evidently fears may be a worse fate. ■' The young feed on the mother's milk, but occasionally, if the mother ignores them, they are weaned easily, for they will take milk and crackers as freely as a child. For cubs open their eyes in about three weeks after birth, after which there is less danger. . . . Also for variety of food, fish, fruit, small game, and crickets may be employed ; hard tack and ordinary sea or dog bis- cuit dipped in fresh milk are desirable. Ban- nock or unleavened bread, shortened with tallow, is often used, and fresh grass is desirable as a laxative. . . . Full feeding for a few weeks helps to make the fur glossy. Some breeders em- ploy honey, molasses, or patent stock food for the same purpose. The cost of feeding a Fox is estimated at ten dollars to fifteen dollars a year, and two men are ample for care and constant watching on a ranch where there are forty to sixty fo-xes.' Dr. William Young Chapman, writing under the title " Fox Frenzy " in the Independent (February 13, 1913), says: "Recently, one of the pioneers in the (fox-breeding) business sold his ranch of twenty pairs to a company, with certain guarantees, for $625,000, and within a few weeks a gentleman from Russia visited ' The Island ' and purchased five pairs for $100,000. These are to be shipped to Russia and the industry will be established in that countrv.'" DOG FAMILY 77 KIT FOX Vulpes velox {Say) Other Names. — Swift Fox, Long-eared Fox. General Description. — See general description of Red Fox. A diminutive Fox similar in form and general appearance to the Red Fox. Color much paler ; legs shorter. Tail half as long as head and body. No black on ears. Dental Formula. — Same as that of Red Fox. Pelage. — Top of head, ears, upper part of body and tail yellowish-gray, darkest on back, hairs tipped with white; sides of neck, flanks and upper portion of legs huffy white, inclining to rufous where it meets the gray of upper parts ; a black patch on each side of muzzle, some hairs white-tipped ; under parts and legs white; under side of tail buff, tip black. Measurements. — Length, 25'/2 inches; tail, 9 inches; hind foot, 3-)4 inches. Weight, 4 pounds. Range. — Plains of Colorado and Nebraska to Sas- katchewan. A prairie dweller. Food. — Small mammals and birds of the region it inhabits. Remarks. — This is the smallest member of the Red Fox genus. The sub-group to which this Fox belongs differs rather markedly from the other members of the genus in appearance, habitat (dwelling in the open) and consequently somewhat in habits. The color phases of the typical Red Fox group are unknown among the Kit Foxes. The Kit Foxes might be considered as Red Foxes that had left the timbered regions to dwell in open, semi-arid areas and had become bleached out by exposure to the hot sun, as well as suffering a reduc- tion in size. Related Species Kit, or Swift Fox. — Vulpes velox velox (Say). The typical form of the description above. Plains and prairies from Colorado and Nebraska to Saskatchewan Assiniboia. Merriam's Kit Fox. — Vulpes velox hehes Merriam. Larger ; paler and grayer. Alberta. Long-eared Fox. — Vulpes inacrotis Merriam. Size larger ; ears very large ; color very pale. Deserts of southern California. The Kit, or Swift Fox, sometimes called also the Burrowing Fox, is a much smaller animal than the Red and Gray Foxes ; indeed it is the smallest ( also, in the opinion of some, the pretti- est) of all American Foxes. It is found from Nebraska to Colorado and northward over the plains. It derives its specific name, velox, from its supposed swiftness of foot; but according to several observers, its speed does not jtistify the appellation. Mr. Seton ranks its speed as " a little higher than the Coyote." It is only abotit twenty-five inches long, its form being compact and slender. It stands lower that) the Red Fox, and its thickly furred ears are relatively longer. Its feet are clothed with long woolly hairs. Its weight is about four pounds. Its under fur is both long and abundant. The Kit shows the least cunning of all Ameri- can Foxes. It is very tmstispicious ; and its rapid decline in numbers may be due to the readi- ness with which it eats poisoned meat that has been put out for Coyotes. The name " Burrowing Fox " has been given to the animal on account of the skill and speed with which it digs its burrows. From these it seldom ventures far. Kit Foxes feed on birds and their eggs, in- sects, and small rodents ; and they have been seen to catch prairie-chickens that were asleep in soft snowdrifts. From mating time the male and female remain together the summer through ; and from the fact that the former is active in the care of the cubs it has been thought that the pair- ing is permanent. Comparatively little, however, can be stated with certainty concerning this part of Kit Fox life. The Kit's den is often some dis- tance below the surface of the ground. One that was found on Pawnee Creek, Colorado, by one of Mr. Seton's guides, " was reached by a tunnel about nine feet long and was five feet from the stu'face. The chamber was nicely lined with grass and contained five young ones. ' Just the cutest, prettiest things he ever saw.' " Adult Kit Foxes are not entirely devoid of strategy, although they are not, as has been stated above, so cunning as some of the other species. Thus if the old and young are together when surprised, the parents will attract the at- tention of the dog while the cubs make their escape into the burrow. Thotigh young Kit Foxes may be easily raised, they do not seem to become really tame. This, at any rate, was the case with the five ctibs from Pawnee Creek, referred to above, but Mr. Seton says that this Fox is easily managed and breeds freely in captivity, and he cites Audubon and Bachman's accotmt of a captive specimen that " drank more water than Foxes generally do, seemed anxious to play or wash in the cup which held his supply, and would frequently turn it over, spilling the water on the floor of his cage." The Kit Fox's skin is not commercially valua- ble, bringing from thirty cents to one dollar and thirty-two cents. In 1912, one firm in London sold 35,222 skins, which was an average annual sale. 78 MAMMALS OF AMERICA ARCTIC FOX Alopex lagopus innuitus (Mcrriam) Other Names. — Blue Fox, White Fox. General Description. — A small Fox with thick, bushy tail, pelage changing to white in winter. Form of body in all essential details as in Red Fox. Hair long and fine. Dental Formula. — Same as given for Red Fox. Pelage. — .\dults : Siimiiicr. Head and upper parts, flanks and outside of legs slate brown, under parts and inside of legs dingy white; tail brownish above, white below, tip white. Winter. All pure white. Measurements. — Sexes practically equal. Length, 30 inches; tail. 10 inches; heel to end of claw, 4^^ inches. Range. — Alaska, from Point Barrow southward. An inhabitant of Arctic regions. Food. — Principally lemmings, meadow mice, .\rctic hares and ptarmigan. Remarks.— Although for a long time considered as a member of the same genus as the Red Fox, J'ulj'i-s. the Arctic Fox is now generally considered as being sufficiently distinctive to be a genus by himself. All the members of this genus are very much alike, the main differences being in cranial characters and in size. As all turn white in winter there is no opportunity for any variation in the winter pelage. The Blue Fox is a color phase of the Arctic Fox. and is analogous to the silver phase of the Red Fox. Related Species Alaska Arctic Fox. — Alcpcx lagopus iuiadttis (Mer- riam). The typical North American form, the animal of the above description. Point Barrow. -Maska, south- ward and eastward in Arctic America. Ungava Arctic Fox. — Alopex lagopus ungava (Mer- riam). Slightly larger; cranial differences. Ungava, Canada. Pribilof Arctic Fox. — Alopex prihilofensis (Mer- riam). Largest of the .\rctic Foxes. St. George Island and St. Paul Island. Bering Sea. Hall Island Arctic Fox. — Alopex hallensis (Mer- riam). Skull shorter and broader. Hall Island, Bering Sea. " The Fox with a good reputation " would he a good designation for this member of the Fox family. All the naturalists and many others who have come in contact with it have a good word to sav for the Arctic Fox. Mr. W'itmer Stone says : " The Arctic Fox is in many ways the most attractive of its race, being wholly free frotn the rank odor characteristic of the other Foxes. ... In its family hfe it is certainly the equal, if not indeed the superior, of many of By permission of the New Yurk Zuulugical Society ARCTIC FOX This photograph gives a good idea of the extremely soft and rich coat of the Arctic Fox, during the winter months DOG FAMILY 79 the native Eskimo tribes inhabiting the same re- gion, at least in matter of forethought, clever- ness, and morality." It is found throughout most of the Arctic regions, and as far south as latitude 50°. The three color varieties of the animal are so distinct that the mistake has not infrequently been made of regarding them as dififerent species. In the Pribilof Islands, and the Aleutian Archi- pelago, it has the dull blue tint all the year round ; farther north, it is bluish brovi^n in sum- mer and white in winter ; still farther north, it is always pure white. Its nose is black-tipped and somewhat of the " stub " variety, and its ears have a cropped appearance, being shorter and more rounded than those of anv other Fox. happen sometimes that these caches are opened by the Wolverines and Wolves, which are the worst enemies of the Arctic Fox. During the short summer the Arctic Fox has a great variety of food and plenty of it. He is a terror to the different kinds of birds, es- pecially breeding waterfowl, not only preying on the birds themselves, but also robbing their nests. He is partial to polar hares also, but catch- ing these is no easy matter. When the first young seals are born, numbers of Arctic Foxes move seaward and find their food on. the coastal ice. According to Richardson, the Foxes of the northern portion of Arctic America migrate southward, the line of march being always as ARCTIC FOX Three color variations of the same animal. In summer it is slate brown; in fall it is of mottled appearance; and in winter it is pure white Its eve, which is hazel in color, is very bright and intelligent. Arctic Foxes, like Prairie Dogs, live in com- munities, digging for themselves burrows, of which twenty or thirty are usually to be found to- gether. They are fully as provident as Squirrels in storing up food for the winter, relying mainly upon lemmings. These the Arctic Foxes catch in the swamps or dig out of their holes. This Fox " hunts diligently while game is yet abund- ant, and brings home load after load of fat- bodied lemmings to be packed away in cold stor- age for the winter. Where the Blue Fox lives the frost never wholly leaves the ground ; so he digs down in the moist turf until he reaches a temperature only just above freezing, and packs down several dozen lemmings in a place, covering them with moss and sods. These caches of frozen lemmings are his principal food supply for the greater part of the year." It will near as possible to the coasts. Some hunters, however, affirm that it is only the young Foxes which have not " set up housekeeping " that go south ; and that these kill their food as they go, returning when daylight lengthens and the sun reappears across the south, to rejoin the older Foxes. The Blue pelts are by far the more valuable, selling from $125 to $250. On St. George's Island, one of the Pribilof group, 250 pairs of Blue Foxes are kept for breeding purposes. Mr. James Judge, writing in Science, gives some interesting information concerning these Foxes. The mating season, he says, is March and the first half of April ; and. contrary to the often heard statement that this Fox truly pairs, only one authenticated instance of pairing has been recorded on St. George's Island. The average weight of the males is a little under eleven pounds ; that of the females, eight and three- 8o MAMMALS OF AMERICA quarter pounds. There are five to twelve cubs in a litter, and they are born in May or early in June. Occasionally there is a white cub in a litter. The cubs weigh about two and one-half ounces each, and their eyes open on the fifteenth day from birth. Only about two cubs per female reach maturity. Since i8g6, all seal meat not used by the natives of the island has been salted and fed to the Foxes the following winter. On various other islands along the Alaskan coasts some forty or fifty firms are engaged in Blue Fox breeding, and White Fox farming has become an important industry in Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and Quebec. The Arctic Fox does well in captivity, and, according to Dr. Hornaday, is " ever ready to adopt the prepared food of civilization.'' It is a graceful and attractive little animal that repays closer acquaintance for its own sake as well as the value of its coat. GRAY FOX Urocyon cinereoargenteus iSchyc-bcr) General Description. — The eastern Gray Fox is of medium size with moderately long hair and long bushy tail. Pupils of eyes elliptical ; tail with concealed mane of stiff black hairs on its upper surface; skull with widely separate temporal crests ; muzzle short. Color above silver gray, beneath white. Hair coarser than that of Red Fox. Dental Formula. — Incisors, ^— ^ ; Canines, in." ; 3—3 I— I Premolars, ~^ ; Molars, -~==^2. Pelage. — Adults : Sexes similar. General color of back and sides grayish-white ; sides of neck and a band across the chest red-brown : ears, inner surface of legs, sides of belly and under surface of tail also more or less red-brown, the extent and intensity of the color variable. Throat and greater portion of belly whitish ; sides of nose and under jaw blackish ; a ridge of black hairs extend down middle of tail above. Youxu: Pups have muzzle blackish, head grayish ; back of ears ful- vous basally. tipped with dusky ; tail black tipped. Measurements. — Sexes nearly equal. Length, 35 inches; tail, iij/i inches; hind foot, 5'4 inches. Weight, 8 pounds. Range. — New York and New Jersey to Georgia, west to the Mississippi Valley, and north to north central IlHnois. Food. — Mice, rabbits, squirrels, birds, eggs, reptiles, insects and various berries. Remarks. — This animal is not to be confused through similarity of names with the Silver Gray Fox (I'utpcs fulva) from which it differs considerably. Authorities have separated the Gray Foxes into no less than 14 species and subspecies to be found north of the Rio Grande. As the basis of many of these separations are with difficulty discernible to the lay- mati no attempt is made to list all the related forms, only the principal ones being mentioned. Rel.med Species Eastern Gray Fox. — Urocyon cinereoargenteus cin- crcoargcntcus (Schreber). The animal described above. Eastern North America from Georgia north to New England, west to Mississippi Valley. Florida Gray Fox. — Urocyon cinereoargenteus flor- idanus Rhoads. Size small ; pelage harsher ; tail and ears shorter. Florida to Georgia. Scott's Gray Fox. — Urocyon cinereoargenteus scotti ( Mcarns). Longer ears and tail than the typical form; colors paler. Southern California, .'\rizona and western New Mexico. Wisconsin Gray Fox. — Urocyon cinereoargenteus ocythous Bangs. Larger in size; tail longer; less gray, more yellowish. Upper Mississippi Valley. Desert Gray Fox. — Urocyon cinereoargenteus tex- ensis Mearns. Paler than the Eastern Gray Fox; ears longer ; tail longer. Texas. California Gray Fox. — Urocyon calif ornicus cali- fornicus (Mearns). Paler, lacking black on fore legs. Ears much longer. California to Washington. Santa Barbara Gray Fox. — Urocyon littoralis lit- toralis (Baird). Smallest of the Gray Foxes; weight about 41/2 pounds. Color similar to California Gray Fox. San Miguel Island. Santa Barbara Islands, Cali- fornia. The Gray Fox difl^ers from its red cousin in color and size. It is not to be confused with the Silver Gray Fox, which is an animal of widely differing traits. Of the common Gray Fox there are at least fourteen species, the most important being listed above. The male and female are nearly of the same size, being about three feet long, and with tails nearly a foot long. The Gray Fox is common to almost every State of the Union, although in some sections persistent hunting or the growth of towns has S3 3 O ja OS 3 I 3 '3 •9 o a 5 ^ [8ll 82 MAMMALS OF AMERICA made it scarce. The Eastern Gray Fox ranges naturally from New England to the Mississipjii Valley. In Florida, there is a smaller cousin. In Wisconsin, a larger one, marked with more yel- low. In California, there are several species. It will thus be seen how nuich at home Gray Jacket has made himself. Dr. Ellzey, when contrasting the habits of the Gray Fox with the Red, observes that the two animals differ very widely. " So far as my per- sonal observations inform me," he says, " the following are some of the princijjal distinctions. First, as to reproduction, the Red Fox nearly always brings forth its yotmg in an earth den. earth. Gray Foxes run before hounds only a short distance, doubling constantly and for a short time, when they either hole in a tree, or climb one. I have known the Red Fox to run straight away nearly twenty miles. Very com- monly they run eight or ten miles away, and then run back in a parallel course. I have known them to run the four sides of a quadrilateral nine or ten miles long by about two miles broad. It is doubtful whether a first-rate specimen of the Red Fox, taken at his best in point of condition, can either be killed or run to earth by any pack of hounds living, such are his matchless speed and endurance. It is hut a sorry pack which >v. Vhuiograph by Daniel J. Singer DESERT GRAY FOX A desert-loving animal which frequently makes its home in a rocky den the Gray Fox generally in a hollow log or tree or, at most, under a rock. I have seldom seen a Gray with more than five, and often with only four yoimg. I have never seen a Red with less than five. I have seen one with nine, and sev- eral with seven. I think it certain, therefore, that the Reds are more prolific. Second, as to hunting for prey and subsistence. The Reds are holder in pursuit, and hunt over a much greater territory than the Grays. Whether the Grays ever climb trees in pursuit of prey I am uncertain, but they take to a tree as readily as a cat when run hard by hounds. I think it nearly certain that they climb for persimmons and grapes. Red Foxes never climb trees imder anv circumstances: when hard run th-v cro to the fails to kill or tree a Gray Fo.x in an hour's run. The young of the Gray Fox closely resemble small blackish pu]ipies ; those of the Red Fox are distinctly vulpine in physiognomy when only a few hours old." " The Fox from its occasional misdeeds," says Dr. A. K. Fisher. " is looked upon by the major- ity of mankind as a deep-dyed villain that de- votes its entire life to robbery and derives its forage from the chicken yard or duck pen. As a matter of fact, within the localities where Foxes are abundant, it is comparatively rare that poultry is destroyed by them. On all well regu- lated farms, chickens are housed at night, and the Fox necessarily turns his attention to field mice, rabbits, ground squirrels, and insects. DOG FAMILY such as grasshoppers, crickets, and May beetles to the great benefit of the farmer. Although it is true that the Fox destroys a considerable number of birds, yet a Ruffed Grouse has been known to rear its young within loo feet of a Fox den, and the tracks of the young birds have repeatedly been seen on the fresh earth before the entrance. Among the food brought to the young in its litter and left outside were rabbits, mice and other smaller rodents, and half -grown woodchuck, but no birds of any kind." EASTERN GRAY FOX This animal is sometimes called the " tree fox" because he does not hesitate to climb trees, either to escape pursuit, or to hunt food — perhaps a nice young squirrel, or fruit or nuts. He is not hard to please STRANGE COMPANY Two Polar Bears and a Brown Bear fraternizing together in a menagerie [84I THE BEAR FAMILY ( Ursidas) EARS comprise one of the most distinctly marked families of all the Carniv- ores. No one familiar with animals could see a Bear even at a distance and fail to recognize it. While the Bears may differ widely in size and coloring in various countries, the same general traits are peculiar to all. They are heavy lumbering animals, treading solidly upon their feet. In some species they grow to immense size, some of the largest being found in North America. They are, indeed, the largest of our Carnivores. The skull of the Bear is heavy and elongated, the back portion being especially heavy, and the jaws powerfully hinged. The teeth are true molars with broad fiat crowns. The soles of the feet are naked, the feet are plantigrade, and the tail short. The members of the Bear family are characterized by their heavy and massive build, their thick limbs, extremely short tails, and the presence of five toes armed with powerful claws, on both the fore and hind feet. Moreover, when walking, the whole sole of the foot is applied to the ground in the heavy plantigrade manner, so that the impression of a bear's foot presents a considerable superficial resemblance to that of a man. The claws of the feet are incapable of being retracted, and are well adapted for digging, although no rnembers of the family are in the habit of constructing burrows for themselves after the manner of foxes. The various members of the family have a marked resemblance to one another, so that the characters by which the different species are distinguished are slight. Their fur is coarse, and generally long, thick, and shaggy, although it may be short and thin in some of the tropical species. Except for an occasional white collar round the throat, the fur is nearly always of one color, and generally some shade of either brown or black. It is true, indeed, that the Polar Bear is a marked exception to this rule, but in this case the color of the fur has evidently been specially modified to suit the natural surroundings. The great prevalence of black among the Bears is a feature unknown in any other group of Carnivores, and is, indeed, rare among Mammals in general. Bears have a wide geographical distribution, occurnng throughout Europe, Asia, and North America, while one species inhabits the South American Andes, and another the African Atlas. South, however, of the Atlas not a single member of the family is to be found throughout the length and breadth of Africa. Geologically speaking, true Bears, that is to say those which can be referred to the genera now living, are of comparatively recent origin, none being yet known before the Pliocene, while it is not till the succeeding period that they become abundant. POLAR BEAR Thalarctos maritimus Knottncnis-Mevcr Other Name. — White Bear. General Description. — One of the largest of Bears, reaching a length of lo to ii feet. Color whitish to yellowish white. Neck elongate. Soles of feet hairy with small bald pads. Forehead nearly on line with nose. Head long. Molar teeth small and narrow. Tail very short. Dental Formula.— Incisors, ^-^ : Canines, ^-' : 3—3 1— I ' Premolars, . — ; Molars, ^^^=42. 4 — 4 3—3 Pelage. — Sexes similar ; young like adults. Color white at all seasons ; sometimes portions of the pelage tinged with yellow or saffron. Hair long, soft and very dense, especially in winter. [85l 86 MAMMALS OF AMERICA Measurements. — Length, male, 8' j to ii feet; height at shoulder, 4i.> leet; weight, looo to 1500 pounds, but latter figure seldom attained. Female generally smaller. Range. — .-\rctic regions of the world. Food — .Seals, fish and any animal food it may catch. Remarks. — This Bear may be known at once by its unique color as well as its long neck and body. The form described above is the typical animal of the .Arctic regions, and by some authorities it is considered that there is only one Polar Bear in all the Arctic regions. By others the American Polar Bear is con- sidered a distinct animal, and, in fact, no less than three different forms have been described from America. -AH of these, however, dififer in no marked characters from the above, but for the sake of completeness they are listed below. Related Species Ungava Polar Bear. — Thalarctos maritimus ungav- cnsis Knottnerus-Meyer. Typical animal of above de- scription. Ungava, Canada. Greenland Polar Bear. — Thalarctos cogrocnlandi- ctis Knottncrus-Meyer. Greenland. Labrador Polar Bear. — 7 halarctos labradorensis Knottnerus-Mever. Labrador. The Polar Bear, whether wild or in captivity, is one of the most interesting members of the Bear family. In its native state an inhabitant of the vast solitudes of the Far North, hunting its prey over snowfields and glaciers or in icy waters, it nevertheless bears confinement well. one time ; and it is reasonable to conclude that in the immense inaccessible regions of the Arctic, where the animal can breed unmolested, there must be large numbers that pass their existence unknown to and undisturbed by their chief — one might sav. their only enemv — man. ijl tlic New Vuik . POLAR BEARS Two half-grown cubs trying to keep cool in the Zoological Park, New York. Their coats, if frequently washed, are almost pure wnite and has become a familiar object in our zoologi- cal collections, of which it always proves an attractive feattire. Usually regarded as scarce in comparison with other species of Bear, the Polar Bear is probably more numerous than is generally supposed. On a lone island in the northern part of Bering Sea there were found in the latter part of the last century between 250 and 300 Polar Bears, twenty being in view at The Polar Bear is equally at home on land or in water. Its hair-covered soles enable it to retain a firm footing on the most slippery sur- faces ; and it has been seen to watch from a projecting piece of ice an unsuspecting seal sun- ning itself on a ledge below, then suddenly to shoot on to the head of its victim, knocking the latter into the water, where it became an easy prey. It is far and away the most powerful. BEAR FAMILY 87 swimmer of the bear family. It has been met with in the open sea forty miles from the nearest shore, and Peary saw the tracks of one. along the course of a lead covered with young ice, more than 200 miles from land. Another remarkable fact recently discovered is that the Polar Bear swims entirely with its fore- legs, the hindpart of its body being well down in the water. It is possibly the only quadruped which swims in this fashion. Like all Bears, the Polar Bear has poor eye- sight, and relies mainly on its nose for scouting. Its sense of smell is very keen, and it can readily detect the presence of concealed food on land and of fish in a harbor. It is very fond of pork, diverting. These sounds rasped upon us just as we were about to draw our toes up to the fire for a smoke, and the thrill sent through our little party was electric. 'A Bear! A Bear ! ' we all shouted together, grabbing our rifles and rushing blindly out into the night. . . . I sent two shots after a big white fellow in full retreat over the snow. " The bear had carefully nosed his way up on top of the slanting roof of the lean-to, and on up to the smoking chimney whence came the ap- petizing odor of roast ham. Evidently a whitif of smoke had caused him to lose his balance, and he slid backward, scratching with all his might to hold his footing. POLAR BEAR AT HOME The floating ice that forms this Polar Bear's couch is just to his liking especially fat pork ; and Felix Riesenberg, who had a hunting camp on the shores of Virgo Haven, opposite the old Andree base, thus re- lates how the odor of roast ham once brought an inquisitive Bruin to his death : " Morton, who was the official chef, busied himself in an attempt to roast some pieces of ham over the glowing coals, while Paul and I sat impatiently by, awaiting the completion of the dainty morsels and ready to sandwich them between pieces of hardtack. On the stove we had a pot of coffee steaming merrily. At the •conclusion of this modest refreshment we pro- posed to crawl into our bags. " The noise of sharp claws against a roof of frozen tar-paper is peculiar, and the thud of a heavv body launched from nowhere and scratch- ing its way over your lonely housetop away up in the Arctic regions is, to say the least. " Roast ham proving a tempting bait for Bear, we kept our surplus pork trimming sizzling in the stove for many days." At length the Bear came back, and this time received his quietus from the rifles of the party. The flesh of the Polar Bear is welcome food for the hunter ; its teeth and claws are used as ornaments ; its fat furnishes the Bear's grease of commerce ; and its pelt serves as material for garments for the Eskimos and is mounted in the form of robes and rugs. A fine specimen of the latter has been known to fetch $1,000 in New York. Both Carl Hagenbeck and J. \\'. Bostock. the well-known animal trainers, agree that the Polar Bear is harder to train than any other kind of Bear. The former says that " at certain sea- sons of the year they become extraordinarily restless and intractable," and the latter, that 88 MAMMALS OF AMERICA " even in cold and frosty weather, a Polar Bear, when being trained, will get completely played out long before any ordinary Bear would con- sider he had begun." J. Alden Loring, who studied the antics of two Polar Bears which for ten years were exhibited in the New York Zoological Park, bears testi- mony to the genuinely playful disposition of the animals. They would amuse themselves for hours with an airtight beer-keg. which they would force under the water in their swirnming- tank when it came to the surface, much as a child would keep a rubber ball bouncing on the sidewalk ; they engaged in bona-fide wrestling bouts; and one was a very good juggler with a which proved to be the large male Bear now in the New York Zoological Park, swimming among the small broken pans. \\'e lowered the launch and started after him. . . . Finally we suc- ceeded in cutting him off by running between him and the pan for which he was making. . He dove, came up alongside, and smashed the boat a terrible blow. " The Bear seemed to have an idea of getting into the launch, and we had to punch him away with the boathook. Finally we succeeded in roping him, and this time I took good care to leave the rope slack until he had put his fore- legs through it, when I took a turn with our end of the rope just as the Bear was busy climb- "^fcl...- Photograph by J. W. McLellan AN ANGRY POLAR BEAR The Polar Bear is not the heavy, inactive animal that he appears to be. He can swim and dive nearly as well as the seal, and climbs icebergs rapidly ])iece of bone, which he would throw up into the air with evident enjoyment. .Most of the Polar Bears now shown in the menageries and zoological parks were captured when young, but a few years ago Paul J. Rainey succeeded in bringing from the Arctic a full- grown male. This was such a difficult, hazard- ous, and noteworthy undertaking that some ac- count of it may well be given place here. The first Bear captured, being noosed round the neck, was strangled in being hauled to the deck of the ship. Of the second and successful capture, Mr. Rainey writes in the Nciv York Zoological Society's Bulletin: " On Thursday, August 4th, we sighted a large Bear that the Eskimos took to be a female, but ing out on the ice. ... It was a wonderful sight to see this enormous .brute with a strong rope just behind his fore shoulders. He would rear on his hind legs, bite at the rope, and jump up and down ; but . . . we steadily and surely dragged him towards the edge. Finally, seeing that the inevitable was coming, with a vicious growl, he plunged into the water. . . . \\'e towed him to the ship, swung out the crane, fas- tened the hook on to the rope, and in the twink- ling of an eye Mr. Green, the mate, had hoisted him high into the air and swung him over the ship's deck." After several attempts to demolish the cage in which he had been placed, in consequence of which a sailor was set to watch the Bear day BEAR FAMILY 89 and night, the animal reached City Island, where he was unloaded by men from the neighboring Zoological Park. ^^'hen the first voyagers went to the Arctic Seas, dressed in thick clothes and skins, the Polar Bears took them for seals. On Bear Island, below Spitzbergen, a Dutch sailor sat down on the snow to rest. A Bear walked up behind him, and seized and crushed his head, evidently not in the least aware of what kind of animal it had stalked. \Mien the Jackson- Harmsworth Exposition was wintering in Franz- Josef Land, the Bears were a positive nuisance. They were not afraid of man, and used to come round the huts at all hours. The men shot so many of them that they formed a valuable ar- ticle of food for the dogs. The power of these Bears in the water is wonderful ; though so bulky, they are as light as a cork when swimming, and their strong, broad feet are first-class paddles. The manoeuvres of a Polar Bear in the water are marvelous to watch. It swims, dives, rolls over and over, catches seals or fish, or plays both on and under the water with an ease and evident enjoy- ment which show that it is in its element. A favorite game is to lie on its back in the water, and then to catch hold of its hind toes with its fore feet, when it resembles a half-rolled hedge- hog of gigantic size. It then rolls over and over in the water like a revolving cask. Its foot- steps are absolutely noiseless, as the claws are shorter than the land-bear's, and more muf- fled in fur. This noiseless power of approach is very necessary when it has to catch such wary creatures as basking seals. A very large propor- tion of the food formerly eaten by Ice Bears in summer was probably putrid, as they were al- ways supplied with a quantity of the refuse car- casses of whales and seals left by the whaling- ships. This may account for the bad results to the sailors who ate the Bears' flesh. Now the whaling industry is so little pursued that the Bears have to catch their dinners for themselves., and eat fresh food. The Arctic explorer Nordenskjold saw much of these bears on his voyage,' and left us what is perhaps the best description of their attempts to stalk men, mistaking them for other animals. " When the Polar Bear observes a man," he writes in his " Voyage of the Vega," ," he com- monly approaches him as a possible prey, with supple movements and a hundred zigzag bends, in order to conceal the direction he means to take and to prevent the man feeling frightened. During his approach he often climbs up on to blocks of ice, or raises himself on his hind legs, in order to get a more extensive view. If he thinks he has to do with a seal, he creeps or trails himself forward on the ice, and is then said to conceal with his fore paws the only part of his body that contrasts with the snow — his large, black nose. If the man keeps quite still, the Bear comes in this way so near that it can be shot at the distance of two gun-lengths, or killed with a lance, which the hunter considers safer." When hunting seals. Polar Bears will chase them in the water as an Otter does a fish, but with what result is not known. Besides stalking them in the manner described above, they will mark the place at which seals are bask- ing on the rim of an ice-floe, and then dive, and come up just at the spot where the seal would naturally drop into the water. GRIZZLY BEAR Ursus horribilis Ord Other Name. — Silver-tip Bear. General Description. — Among the largest of the Bears, powerfully built, heavy, thick set. Five well developed toes on each foot ; plantigrade ; claws long, nearly straight, nonretractile ; claws on front foot longer than those on hind foot ; tail very short ; ears •.^hort, rounded ; color everywhere dark ; generally of a deep brown color grizzled or frosted with white tipping to the hairs. Dental Formula. — Incisors, ^— ^ ; Canines. '=' ; Pre- molars, ^- — ^ ; Molars, ^ — ^=42. 4—4 i—3, Pelage. — Sexes alike in color with little seasonal variation. In general color deep brown darkening to brownish-black along spine, on limbs and on ears ; occasionally white tipping much reduced ; limbs dark, sometimes whitish areas on face or chest. Hair every- where rather long ; generally a short mane on shoulders and upper back, and hair at base of jaws somewhat elongated. Young : Dark in color, similar to adults. Measurements. — Length, male, 8 to 9 feet ; height at shoulder, y/2 to 4 feet; hind foot, 10 inches; claws, 4 to 6 inches. Weight, 600 to 800 pounds. Female, slightly smaller, weighing 500 pounds. Range. — Wyoming to Alaska in Rocky Mountain region. Food. — More or less omnivorous, but at times largely carnivorous when opportunity affords ; able to prey on the largest, but not disdaining to eat small mammals, such as ground squirrels and gophers. 90 MAMMALS OF AMERICA Remarks. — The Grizzly Bears comprise several species, and they in turn are related rather closely to the group of Bears known as the Big Brown Bear of northern distribution. The line between these groups is not a very hard and fast one. and the classification of the large Bears has been so shrouded in confusion that no two authorities are agreed as to their exact status. In general the grizzlies may be said to inhabit the country from Mexico through the mountain ranges to Alaska, where their habitat overlaps that of the Big Brown Bears. The principal variations in the grizzly group are size and slight color differences, while some importance attaches to cranial marks. Rel.med Species Silver-tip Grizzly. — Ursus Jwrribilis horribilis Ord. Typical form described above. Wyoming to Alaska. Sonora Grizzly. — Uisus horribilis horriacus Baird. Main dififerences to be found in the skull. Mountains (if Xew Mexico, .\rizona. Colorado. Utah. California Grizzly. — Ursus horribilis calif amicus Merriam. Largest of the horribilis group, and with little silver tipping to the hairs. California. Alaska Grizzly. — I'rsiis horribilis alasccnsis Mer- riam. Size very large. Found in the Norton Sound region, .-Maska. The Grizzly Bear occupies a unique position in the history of the fauna of the North Ameri- can Continent. From the times when the In- dians ( never in less than parties of six or eight ) attacked it with bows and arrows, down to the present era of the hreechloader and magazine rifle, it has stood, in public estimation, as the embodiment of all that is ferocious and terrible among big game animals. The Grizzly has certainly been more tuisrep- resented than any other member of the Bear family. He has been discredited with the prac- tice of hugging his victim to death ; he has been accused of feasting upon mules; and one quasi \-. ^\ Photograph by J, M J GRIZZLY BEAR Calmly surveying the intruder of its home, in Yellowstone Park BEAR FAMILY 91 authority states : " He will climb a fruit-tree. strip whole branches of ripe fruit with his huge paws and claws, and then on the way home will finish off the meal with a toad or a lizard." Mr. ^^'illiam H. Wright cites a State .Senator who " tells of shooting a Grizzly four times through the heart and having it still chase him over down timber and bad going," and of an- other " that used to come once a week, climb a live-oak tree, walk out along a horizontal branch over a high-fenced pigpen, drop in, steal a little pig, push the gate open (it opened out), and go home." Dr. Hornaday, who has made many observations on the temper of the Grizzly, is " convinced that naturally the disposition of this reputedly savage creature is rather peaceful and good-natured. At the same time, however, no animal is more prompt to resent an affront or injury, or punish an offender. The Grizzly temper is defensive, not aggressive ; and, unless the animal is cornered, or tliiiiks lie is cornered, he always flees from man." Less than a quarter of a century ago, the range of the Grizzlv Bear was given by natural- ists as from Norton Sound, Alaska, through the Rocky Mountains to Mexico, and from the Pacific Coast across the Sierra Nevada to \\'yoming : but this is now considerably dimin- ished, and as late as 1903, it was stated that " in all parts of the United .States save the Yellow- stone Park and the Clearwater Mountains of Idaho, the Grizzly is now a rare animal, and so difficult to find that it is almost useless to seek it this side of British Columbia ... in a short time none will exist in the United States out- side of the Yellowstone Park and the zoological gardens. In the wilds of Alaska, they may survive for perhaps a quarter of a century longer." Compared with the Black Bear, the Grizzly has a greater length of body, and is straighter along the back. The muzzle is rather square, the jaws are longer, and the forehead narrower. Another characteristic of the Grizzly is the great length of the third incisor on each side of the upper jaw. Dr. W. S. Rainsford once killed " two well-grown two-year-old Grizzlies to- gether, who had double instead of single tusks, m both upper and lower jaws." It has very powerful shoulders, and over these in some members of the group is a hump-like lift which hunters term the " roach." Its claws are from four to six inches long and very formidable ; and, while they do not enable the animal to climb a tree, they are admirably adapted for digging roots, turning over rocks or logs, and especially for fighting. A Grizzly has been known to carry off the carcass of an Elk weigh- ing nearly 1000 poimds. The published accounts of the size and weight of the Grizzly Bear are, in many cases, very mis- leading and much exaggerated. Mr. Wright, who has hunted, studied, or photographed the animal for twenty-five years, has seen old Griz- zlies, with " their teeth worn down to the gums," that would not liave tipped the scales at more than 250 or 300 pounds. Dr. Rainsford esti- mated the largest of eighteen Grizzlies killed by him at not more than 850 pounds. Mr. Wright saw one in Spokane that had been " sold to a butcher, who claimed that he weighed it and paid for 1173 pounds of bear meat." With regard to color. Grizzlies show con- siderable variety. As long ago as 1805, Lewis and Clark in their journals described them as " grizzly," " gray," " white," " brown," and " variegated." Dr. Rainsford considers that all varieties of color are accounted for by the es- tablished fact of interbreeding: he himself " shot three yoimg Bears going with one sow, one al- most yellow, one almost black, and another nearly gray." Dr. Hornaday does not " know of any other Bear species in which the coloration of the pelage is so erratic." The standard color (in winter) is brown next to the skin, the extremities of the hair being tipped with silvery gray, from which has come the common name of " Sliver-tip." It is difficult to describe the gait of a Grizzly. His walk is a shuffle but he will go a very long wav without breaking it ; his run is a mixture of a lope and a gallop ; and " no man can match him in speed, and it takes a mighty good horse to catch him." The feeding habits of the Grizzly Bear de- pend on his environment. In a good Elk coimtry he will feed on the carcass of that animal ; in the Clearwater region he forsakes this diet, and subsists on grass, salmon — he is a skillful fisherman — and ants, grubs, or larvae. \\ hen the berries come round, he feeds on them ; later, on salmon again, and once more on ants. Grizzly Bears mate in the Northwest about the middle of June to August, and begin to hibernate in November, but these times vary somewhat in dift'erent regions. The cubs (gen- erally two or three, but sometimes four) are born in the winter den of the female ; and are tiny things for such huge parents. Two born in the Zoological Park, New York, weighed eight 92 MAMMALS OF AMERICA ounces each, and measured nine inches from nose to tail. The dam and cubs leave their den from one to three weeks after the male has left his winter quarters. A curious and unexplained habit of some Grizzlies at this time is that of scoring trees with their teeth ; sometimes they will bite out considerable pieces from the trunks. Of the nature and disposition of the Grizzly Bear something has been said above. In esti- «:i.«tt!f^O.-i.^i^.^ Photograph by C. J, Hawkins BLACK BEAR CUB Out on a foraging expedition mating the conflicting accounts that have been printed, it is obvious that the experience and opinions of those who have hunted the animal and studied it at close range are most to be relied upon. Dr. Rainsford considers that the increase in the power of the rifle, and " the pressure of civilization felt more and more in the wildest parts of the land " have brought about a change in the habits of the Grizzly, and that " the danger of his attack, in the present day, has been grossly exaggerated." He ac- counts for many of the stories of " charging " Grizzlies by the fact that " when fired at, reared from cubhood, " Ben Franklin," the whether wounded or not, he will almost in- variably turn downhill and try to get away, and in doing so, often nearly tumbles over his antagonist, who fancies the Bear is charging at him, when his sole intention is to get away as soon as possible." Mr. Wright has " never known of a single instance where one of these Bears turned out of his way. unprovoked, to attack a human being." In captivity, the Grizzly Bear responds to fair treatment better than any other well-armed animal does ; it generally reaches full maturity between the ages of six and seven years. In 1909, in the Cenetral Park Menagerie, New York, a Grizzly was chloroformed which was more than twenty-five years old. That the Griz- zly can be tamed, if taken young, has been abundantly proved. James Capen Adams ("Grizzly Adams") had two which he had " Lady Washington " and former of which used to carry his blankets, etc., and sleep near him, and the other saved his master's life when attacked by a wild Grizzly. Early settlers have testified that this Bear often caches its food. On a ranch near the upper waters of the Colorado River, several years ago, some colts were seized by Grizzly Bears. One of them was found buried accord- ing to the custom of this Bear, and the owner sat tij) to shoot the animal. Having only the old- fashioned small-bored rifle of the day, excellent for shooting Deer, but useless against so massive a beast as this Bear, unless hit in the head or heart, he only wounded it. The Bear rushed in, struck him a blow of its paw, smashed the rifle which he held up as a protection, and struck the barrel on to his head. The man fell insensible, when the Bear, having satisfied himself that he was dead, picked him up, carried him off, and buried him in another hole which it scratched near the dead colt. It then dug up the colt and ate part of it, and went off. Some time later the man came to his senses, and awoke to find himself " dead and buried." As the earth was only roughly thrown over him, he scrambled out, and saw close by the half-eaten remains of the colt. Thinking that it might he about the bear's dinner time, and remembering that he was prob- ably in the larder for the next meal, he decided that he had an urgent engagement elsewhere. BROWN BEAR While a beast of enonnous size, Bears are by no means so ferocious as often painted. This is a Siberian cousin wnicb prefers the solitary wastes where it may hunt undisturbed [93I 94 MAMMALS OF AMERICA ALASKA BROWN BEAR Ursus middendorffi Mcrriani Other Names. — Kodiak. or Kadiak Bear. General Description. — General appearance about as in Grizzly Bear. See general description of Grizzly Bear. Largest of American carnivores and probably largest in the world. General color golden-brown. Shoulders high, head broad, forehead massive, nose flat, short, square; drop in the line of the head directly in front of eyes. Dental Formula. — Same as that of Grizzly Bear. Pelage. — Se.xes similar and seasonal variation rather slight. Color uniform brown or golden with same color on the legs. Coat long, thick and shaggy. Measurements. — Length. 9 to 10 feet: height at shoulders. 45 to 50 inches. Weight, 1200 to 1600 pounds. Range. — Kodiak Island and adjacent mainland of Alaska. Food. — Principally salmon and vegetation. Remarks. — The Kodiak Bear is regarded as a repre- sentative of the group of Big Brown Bears ranging throughout northwestern Arctic America. This group is differentiated from the Grizzly Bears farther south, to whom they are very closely related, mainly by the lighter brown coloration of the pelage, higher shoul- ders, wider head and shorter claws. The Kodiak Bear is probably the largest of the group but they are all large animals. Some six or eight species of this group have been described. Rel.\ted Species Kodiak Bear. — Ursus middendoHH Merriam. Typical animal as described above. Kodiak Island and adjacent mainland of .Maska. Yakutat Bear. — Ursus dalli dalli Merriam. Size large ; skull flattened in frontal region as contrasted with highly arched frontals of middcndorfH. Yakutat Bay region, .•\laska. Peninsular Brown Bear. — Ursus dalli gyas Mer- riam. Larger than dalli. about same size as Kodiak Bear. Region about Pavlof Bay, Alaska. Merriam's Brown Bear. — Ursus mcrriami Allen. Allied to Yakutat Bear but differing in cranial char- acters. Region about Portage Bay, Alaska. Kidder's Brown Bear. — Ursus kiddcri Merriam. Decidedly smaller than Kodiak Bear, color much like that of Peninsular Bear. Cook Inlet region, Alaska. Sitka Brown Bear. — Ursus sitkciisis Merriam. Smaller than dalli and teeth of distinct type. Region about Sitka, Alaska. The Alaska Brown Bear enjoys the distinction of being the largest flesh-eating animal in America, and jjrobably in the world. Its huge bulk, powerful limbs, and beautiful coat of golden-brown unite to give it an imposing ap- pearance. It stands very high at the shoulders, compared with its length, while its broad head, heavy forehead, and small gleaming eyes have given it a reptitation for ferocity which many accounts belie. The habitat of this interesting Bear extends along the coast of southeastern Alaska and most of the large islands adjacent thereto. Kodiak Island and the Alaskan Peninsula seem especi- ally adapted to their liking. Here they roam over this immense rugged country, seldom mo- lested by man and certainly not by any other enemy. .Maskan Bears hibernate during the long Alaskan winters, and their hibernating dens are generally in the most rugged mountains, where, even in summer, there is no vegetation. The cubs, usually two in number, are little round balls of fur, so small that a man could easily hold one in the hollow of his hand. In Alaska, it is daylight from June to September ; and when the bears come down to the lowlands they usually settle themselves in a brushy, well- watered valley. Here the cubs .vill play for hours at a time in the long sunshine, the mother Bear watching them or dozing in the dry grass. In their first lessons in living off the cotmtry, the cubs begin with ptarmigan chicks and held mice. Later the mother Bear instructs them in catching marmots and ground squirrels. As the summer passes, the hungry beasts make their way to the salmon rivers as the fish are coming up from the sea to spawn. They gen- erally fish in shajlows above a deep pool. Sta- tioning themselves where there is hardly suffi- cient water to cover the pebbles, they will patientlv wait for the fish to come within their reach, when they will throw the salmon out upon the hank with their paws and feast to their heart's content. When the salmon have gone, the Bears betake themselves to the heights above the timber line, where they may be seen " like grazing oxen rolling across the hills." They are now taking on fat for their long winter's sleep, and their fur grows long and silky. The New York Zoological Park possesses one of the largest Alaskan Bears in captivity — known as Ivan. He was taken at the head of a canyon looking down on Bering Sea. The mother had been killed, and the cub, which was standing liy the body, was driven into a glacial stream. His captor says : " He was helpless in the swift water, and I caught him behind his I'/IO • From a painting by Belmore Browne ALASKA BROWN BEAR This huge Beai enjoys the distinction of being the largest carnivore in America, and probably in the world. BEAR FAMILY 95 furry ears, and as I carried him dripping and kicking to the bank, the mountains re-echoed to his grievances. We used our heavy woolen socks to muzzle his mouth and paws, and then, rolling him up in a pack strap, I swung him onto my back. . . . We fed the cub on raw sea- gulls' eggs, and he thrived on the diet." Alaska Bears prefer to stay near the coast, as their natural food is found in the vicinity of salt water. Their chief diet consists of salmon, of which they consume large quantities, as the fish swarm up the small rivers and shallow streams. The run of the various kinds of salmon lasts from June to October. During this period the Bears fatten up and upon this fat they live through their long winter sleep. They den up for the winter some time in November, depend- ing upon the latitude and the severity of the weather. Most Bears remain in their den until April before emerging, but occasionally, for one rea- son or another, they will roam abroad even in midwinter. Possibly their cjuarters become un- comfortable and they are compelled to look up another den. Usually they select their dens well up on the rough and broken movmtain sides, where the rocks form a natural cave, and it is probable that the same winter quarters are used year after year. The male Bear is the first to come out in the spring. On emerging he partakes very sparingly of food and only nips the tender tops of green grasses, and in fresh water localities of skunk cabbage, until he becomes used to eating and digesting food again. He now turns his attention to the salmon berry and roots. By this time he is feeling quite himself again, and now begins to wander far and wide for the track of a female. After finding a mate he follows her persistently and it is at this time the mating season begins. This period lasts generally from the first of May till July. The cubs are born in the winter den of their mother, usually about the first of the year, or in February. They are very tiny, compared to the size of their mother, and would weigh sometimes near a pound and a half. There are from one to four in a litter, two I think, more often occur- ring. Their eyes are not open and they are quite helpless for the first few weeks. The cubs follow their mother, and den with her the first fall, and it is not until the second fall that they shift for themselves. They grow to enormous size, just how large no one can accur- ately state. There is one mounted in the Ameri- can Museum of Natural History that weighed, when alive, 1600 pounds. It stood four feet four inches at the shoulders and measured eight feet in length. Dr. Hornaday once showed me an unstretched skin that measured nine feet, four inches. When one considers that a big lion will not weigh more than 500 pounds, one will gain some idea of the huge bulk of this beast. The length of an animal's skin can only be fairly measured, and properly, by doing the measuring before it is removed from the animal. A skin stretched and measured means very little, as it is possible to stretch a skin into almost any shape or size. The head of the Alaska Bear is very massive, and he stands high at the shoulder. This char- acteristic is emphasized by a thick tuft of hair which stands erect on the dorsal ridge above the shoulder. The Bear's senses of smell and hearing are developed to an extreme degree. Its vision however, as in most of the Bear family, is not particularly good. The difficulty seems to be in discerning or separating objects that are inert: for instance, if a man remains perfectly still, he is not likely to be detected, unless scented or some movement is made. The color of the pelage ranges from a creamy tan to a dark brown, and in some cases almost black. In several sections the Alaskan Bears have been divided into subspecies under the follow- ing names : Those found on Kodiak Island are classed under the name of Ursiis middcn- dorffi. They have long noses and belong to the long-skulled group with the large and slightly curved claws. This species was first described by a man who bore the name of Middendorf, and in whose honor it was named. This same species is found also on the mainland, and I had the good fortune to shoot one at the head of Snug Harbor, which is on the west coast of Cook Inlet. Chinitna Bay is thirty miles south of Snug Harbor, and in both of these sections the Ursns iniddendorfR and another subspecies are found. The second is classified under the name of Ursns kidderi, and is generally of a lighter color on the body and darker on the legs, while the nose and skull are shorter than the Kodiak variety. The Bears from the Copper Ri\er districts are the short and thick-muzzled species, and take the name of Ursns dalli. The Admiralty Bear, Ursiis culoplnts, represents a 96 MAMMALS OF AMERICA large species found on Admiralty Island. Its color usually resembles that of the Kodiak Bear. The Bears found well down on the Alaskan Peninsula, Ursiis gyas, have a tendency to more of a brownish yellow color. Their claws are of great size and thickness. This species inhabits the open country — that is, for the most part devoid of timber. There are undoubtedly other sections where the Bears differ from the ones already described. It is commonly believed that feigning death will prevent a Bear from inflicting further in- juries, and I have heard of several cases where it is supposed to have saved men's lives. The supposition is that the Bear, believing his victim dead, goes on about his business. W'ith beasts of prey this strategy must not be too much relied upon. In some cases it may prove effec- tual with Bears, as Bears do not as a rule eat human flesh. But with the Cat family T think it would prove ineff'ective. Probably the con- ventional expression, " the Bear hug " has no significance. Black Bears hug tree trunks in ascending trees adapted to their embrace, but the Brown Bear is too large and too heavy for that, and the claws are not adapted for climb- ing. In fact, like the greater Pclidxc, they are not constructed for any arboreal gymnastics. There is no available evidence to show that this or any other Bear attempts to inflict injury by hugging an enemy with its arms. There is great divergence of opinion as to the disposition of the Alaskan species, some say- ing that it will avoid man, others that it will not hesitate to go out of its way to make an attack. Mr. Edward G. W. Ferguson, who spent seven years in Alaska and familiarized himself with the country and its fauna, is convinced " that he is just naturally fearless and savage most of the time." He cites two cases where this Bear deliberately chose to attack men. In one of these a Swedish prospector was making his way to where he had left his pack. " His path was of necessity circuitous, and he was scram- bling his way among the huge boulders, when suddenly he came face to face with a ' Silver- tip ' (the local name of the Kodiak). The Bear growled, dashed for him, mouth wide open, eyes ablaze. The Swede, panic-stricken, thrust his gun forward, and providentially into the Bear's open mouth, and well into his throat. The Rear closed his jaws over both barrels and crushed them ; but before he did this the Swede, unin- tentionally without doubt, pulled both triggers and the charge shattered the Bear's spine. The carcass was brought to town . . . and measured six feet seven inches from nose to tip of the tail." The other case was that of a rodman engaged in surveying, who was startled by seeing one of these Bears waddle out of the brush and make its way toward him. " The rodman backed away toward the water as fast as he could, but did not fire, realizing that his weapon, a shotgun, could only wound and anger, but could not pos- sibly kill the beast. I grabbed my rifle and ran up the bar. The Bear did not even turn its head to look in my direction, and by the time I was within ICO feet of him the rodman had backed into the stream up to his waist, and the Bear was wading in after him. I yelled to him and he let go both barrels at once full into the brute's face. As we found out, the shot had blinded him in both eyes. While he was roaring and thrash- ing about, beating the water to a froth, I care- fully emptied the magazine into him, coming closer at each shot." This writer claims that the Bear " had no reason for deliberately coming out of the woods and chasing the rodman into the water " and that he can be relied upon to tackle a man when- ever he comes across one. Mr. Charles Sheldon, who hunted this Brown Bear on Montague Island in 11)05, made this entry in the diary of his trip : " 1 had pro- ceeded but a few steps when suddenly I saw about eight feet away, on the curving border of the spruces, running directly at me, what ap- peared to be a huge Bear. I had just time to ])ush forward the butt of my rifle, and yell, when it collided with me, knocking me down. It seemed to turn slightly to the left as I pushed my rifle into it, and I clearly recall its shoulder striking my left hip, its head striking first above my left knee, while its claws struck my shin, so that it is now black and blue. I had the sensa- tion of being mauled and nuUilated. As I fell, to the right, my rifle dropjied, and in my con- fusion, I grabbed with my left hand the animal's fur. . . . The Bear was, I believe, more sur- prised than I. I felt its fur slip through my hand, as it quickly turned to its right, and, swing- ing about, ran back over the hill without any attempt to bite or strike me." Daniel ]. Singer. BEAR FAMILY 97 BARREN-GROUND BEAR Ursus richardsoni S'cH'ainson General Description. — See also general description of Grizzly Bear. Size large, muzzle short and slightly upturned, dentition of Grizzly Bear. Color yellowish- brown to very much lighter. Dental Formula. — See that given for Grizzly Bear. Pelage. — General color throughout yellowish-brown varying in individuals to yellowish so that animal has whitish appearance. Measurements.— Length, 8 feet; tail, 3 inches; height at shoulder, 3 feet, 6 inches. Range. — Barren Grounds between Hudson Bay and MacKenzie River; hilly regions east and north of Great Bear Lake; also Rockies west of MacKenzie possibly to the upper tributaries of the Yukon. Food. — Small rodents, ground squirrels, mice, etc., and berries and grass. Remarks. — This bear, while generally placed by authorities in the group of the Grizzly Bears, has, nevertheless, characters not found among the Grizzlies. Its range is in a region of heavy snowfall, a treeless region, and because of these facts it has developed habits differing from those of its northern relatives. It ranges throughout its northern habitat without be- coming differentiated into more than the one species. Little is known concerning the Barren-Ground Bear, because of the inaccessibility of its home. We know its general appearance, measurements, and color, but beyond that have not cultivated its acquaintance very extensively. It lives, as its name indicates, in a treeless waste of country in the far North, between Hudson Bay and the Mackenzie River ; also to the east and north of Great Bear Lake. It is about the size of the Grizzly Bear, which it generally resembles ; but it has a shorter muzzle and a yellower coat. Its fur, especially in winter, is remarkably thick. The hibernating period is very long, often six months of the year, because of the relatively short summer ; and when the animal emerges from its den, pinched by htmger, it is alert and frequently savage. The number of cubs born during the winter period is from two to four. They are extremely small at first, but rapidly develop as soon as they get out into the sunlight. These Bears are both flesh-eaters and vege- tarians. -A.ny fish, flesh, or fruit in season is welcome. Their enemies are few, because of the desolate country they inhabit. AMERICAN BLACK BEAR Ursus americanus Pallas General Description. — A medium-sized animal weighing 250 to 400 pounds and black in color. Form robust ; legs short, powerful ; claws long, sharp, some- what curved ; tail short ; soles naked ; plantigrade. Molar teeth are broad, flat crowned and lack high sharp cusps. Hair long and moderately soft. Ears erect, rounded. Dental Formula. — "■* ■ Molars, J Canines. "re- Incisors, - — =* ; 3—3 1—1 molars, ^-^ ; Molars, - — -^^42. 4—4 3—3 ^ Pelage. — Notably of two phases in most regions, not infrequently the two phases being represented at a birth. These color variations are the black and the cinnamon. Black Phase. Adults and young similar ; sexes identical. General color black, varying from brownish black to coal black, often with a white spot on breast ; face tinged with cinnamon-brown or tan-brown. Cinnamon Phase. Everywhere cinnamon-brown, often with a lighter shade of brown on nose. Measurements. — Sexes almost equal. Length, 6 feet, 5 inches ; height at shoulder, 3 feet ; tail, 5 inches ; hind foot, 8 inches. Weight, 200 to 400 pounds. Range. — Wooded North America except Louisiana and Florida, where other species occur. Food. — Omnivorous ; fruit, berries, grass ; mice, squirrels, and any other mammal it can catch ; birds and eggs ; fish and frogs ; ants and their larvae ; honey and young bees. Remarks. — The Black Bear group contains the smallest of the North American Bears, although the Black Bear is itself a good-sized beast. In the eastern part of the United States the cinnamon phase is very rare, but in the western part of its range it is about as common as the black phase. The Black Bear is much the same wherever he is found, but local abund- ance or scarcity of food sometimes produces greater or lesser size, and in addition some habits have pro- duced sufficiently profound changes to warrant the establishment of different species. Of the 14 species and subspecies currently recognized, those below listed are the best known. Related Species American Black Bear. — Ursus americanus amer- icanus Pallas. The typical stock. Greater part of wooded North America, with the exception of the southeastern United States and northeastern Canada. 98 MAMMALS OF AMERICA Louisiana Black Bear. — Ursus tulcolus (Griffith). Size lar.yo ; molar teeth very large. Normally black but cinnainoii phase is known. Louisiana to Texas. Florida Black Bear. — Ursus floridaiuis Merriam. Very large ; wholly black. Everglades of Florida. Queen Charlotte Islands Black Bear. — Ursus car- lottac Osgood. Large: skull longer; teeth larger and heavier. Glossy black. Queen Charlotte Islands, British Columbia. See also Glacier Bear and Kerniode's Bear. BLACK BEAR Although powerful animals, the Black Bears are notoriously timid, so far as man is concerned, and to stalk one unaided is a task to try any hunter's patience This Bear has been described, by one who has studied it in the open for nearly thirty years, as " the most amusing, the most ludicrous, the most human and understandable of our wild animals." In its native state, it exists in larger numbers and is more widely distribtited than any other species of bear ; and in captivity, it is one of the most " poptilar " of quadrupeds. It is the per- forming Bear par excellence , the Bear that can climb a tree ; and its cleverness in learning tricks, its general tractability, and its playful disposition have combined to make it an invariable as well as an invaluable feature of most menageries. Paradoxical as it may seem to say so, not all Black Bears are black. The ten or twelve mem- bers of the group show remarkable varieties of coloration, including glossy black, yellow-brown, olive-vellow, and mouse color ; in the region of Flat Head Lake, in Montana, a mimber of albinos were seen. This variation in color has often given rise to the mistaken idea that the black and the brown individuals of the group are different species. They are not. Black Bears mate just before going into winter quarters. They are not particular about their winter home. The hibernating den mav be BEAR FAMILY 99 any place that offers a fair promise of privacy and protection. A favorite device of the Black Bear is " to dig a hole under the butt end of a fallen tree, rake a few leaves into the opening, and then crawl in himself." Mr. William H. Wright, the well-known writer on bears, had a tame Bear which made a winter home for him- self under the carriage-house, foraging for rags with which he covered the floor several inches thick, and " once he came back dragging a fine cashmere shawl that he had pulled off a clothes line where a neighbor had hung it to air." The beginning of the hibernation period varies with the weather and the locality. In the north- west it is from November to January ; but the Black Bear will often come out for a time, if a warm spell occurs. It is a mistake to suppose that hibernating Bears are in a kind of comatose state, like the Woodchuck. They sleep, it is true ; but they are easily aroused, and more than one hunter who has fallen through a crust of snow and landed on top of a hibernating Bear has found the animal to be very much awake. In captivity, hibernating Bears neither eat nor drink. " All Black Bears hibernate during the winter months," says Daniel J. Singer. " There are, however, woodsmen in the South who disagree with me on this point, saying that they have seen their tracks during every month of the winter, and the mild climate does not force them to lie up in a cave or den as it would in the more severe weather of northern latitudes. I have myself seen bear tracks during the winter months, and even in the deep snow of the north- ern States. But this is the exception, and I have no doubt that these Bears are simply shifting to another sleeping place, having been driven out for one reason or another. Their dens may not have been well chosen, and they possibly became leaky, or exposed to the winds, or some hunter might pass that way with a keen-nosed, inquisi- tive canine that would cause him to roll out in a hurry. It is safe to say, all Black Bears den up, both Korth and South, some time between November ist and January ist, depending upon the altitude, weather and latitude. They emerge in the sj^ring, usually from the first of A])ril to the middle of May, according to conditions, the males often appearing some two weeks before the females. It is at this time in the spring, just after they have left their winter quarters, that a Bear's pelt is in its prime. During hibernation, as no food is laid up, they, of course, do not eat, nor do they drink, unless they make use of the snow that has fallen about them. Contrary to the general supposition, they are not in a deep coma or hazy condition, for they are easily aroused. It is true that they sleep, but are quick to detect danger and fully equal to the occasion of making off and looking up other quarters if disturbed. " Another much mistaken idea about the Black Bear is that he emerges from his winter quarters very thin and emaciated (this so far, is true) ; that he is desperately hungry after his long fast; I.. ** ■^. t: Photograph by J. H. Murphy BLACK BEAR CUB Taking an observation on a fallen tree or is terribly ferocious, and inclined to attack anything on sight, man included. This is not so, although I have often heard it so stated. Not even a Black Bear with his enviable digestive apparatus can or does indulge in a hearty meal after so long a fast. The organs of a Bear are no different from those of a man in this respect, and after their long disuse are only capable of assimilating the daintiest morsels of food — such as grass shoots, tender roots and the like. In fact, at first he shows little or no desire to eat." Black Bear cubs, numbering one to four — litters of the latter size are bv no means un- lOO MAMMALS OF AMERICA common — are born in the winter den of the mother between January and March, and from six weeks to two months before the mother comes out. They are ahiiost naked, toothless, and their eyes do not open for some time. Single cubs vary in weight from eight to eighteen ounces. Usually, though not always, the Black Bear mother leaves her cubs to shift for them- selves at the close of their first summer. In the matter of food the Black Bear is easy to please. Centipedes, bumblebees, and hornets ; wild white clover and skunk-cabbage roots ; frogs, toads, and field mice — all are acceptable to him. He is, too, inordinately fond of ants. He will run one of his forelegs deep down into an anthill, give his paw a twist, and await results. " Out rush the ants, mad as hornets and looking for trouble. They get it almost immediately. They discover the Bear's furry paws and begin to swarm over them. And as fast as they appear the Bear licks them up." One characteristic of the Black Bear in feed- ing is that it does not cache its food. The Grizzly will store fish and hide a carcass ; the Black Bear never does. The latter will learn to steal sheep, and is said to be a born pig thief. As mentioned above, the Black Bear is pre- eminently a tree-climbing bear. Mr. Wright says : " He can climb as soon as he can walk, and his mother takes clever advantage of the fact. She sends her cubs up a tree whenever she wants them ofif her hands for a time — uses trees, indeed, very much as human mothers, who have no one to watch their children while they work, use day nurseries. The first thing a Black Bear mother does when any danger threatens is to send her cubs up a tree. . . In all my experience I have never known cubs, when thus ordered into retirement by their mother, to come down from the selected tree until she called them. . . . Later in life the Black Bear comes to regard trees as its natural refuge from all dangers. . . They can climb, and that with almost equal ease, any tree that will hold their weight ; from a sapling, so small that there is just room for them to sink one set of hind claws above the other in a straight line, to an old giant so big that they can only cling to its face." In the wild state. Black Bears will play together, and they " have a funny trick of pre- tending not to see each other when they meet." They are not given to systematic labor in seek- ing their food ; will " work hard at any kind of mischief, but seem to hate to work steadily for business purposes." Probably no animal is so quick to evade the hvmter. A recent writer asserts that on a highway in New Hampshire a Black Bear kept ahead of his automobile for a short distance when going at the rate of nearly thirty miles an hour. The fur of the Black Bear is a valuable article of commerce. In the early part of the nineteenth century, in a single year 25,000 skins were imported into England, where they were used chiefly for military accoutrements. There are so many tame Black Bears, and their tricks and antics are so familiar that it is scarcely necessary to refer to them here. It may, however, be of interest to cite an occasion when a well-known stunt was given with an unexpected variation. Mr. W. H. Wright, when in Mis- soula, Montana, had nailed up the door of the shed in which his tame Black Bear, Ben, was confined. Some boys broke it open, w-ith seri- ous results for one of them. The Bear's owner writes : " In front of my house a mob was gathering. ... At first I could make neither head nor tail of the clamor, but finally gathered that that bloodthirsty, savage, and unspeakable Bear of mine had killed a boy ; and upon asking to see the victim was told that the remains had been taken to a neighbor's house and a doctor svuiimoned. ... I found the corpse sitting up on the kitchen floor holding a sort of impromptu reception. ... I could not help admiring the youngster's pluck, for he was an awful sight. From his feet to his knees his legs were lacer- ated and his clothing torn into shreds ; and the top of his head — redder by far than ever nature had intended — was a bloody horror. " It developed that the two Urlin boys had broken open the door of the shed and gone in to wrestle with the Bear. Ben was willing, as he always was, and a lively match was soon on ; another of the boys joined in the scufifle. Then one of them got on the Bear's back. This was a new one on Ben, but he took kindly to the idea and was soon galloping around the room with his rider. Then another boy climbed on and Ben carried the two of them at the same mad pace. Then the third boy got aboard and round they all went, much to the delight of themselves and their cheering audience in the doorway. But . . . after a few circles of the room Ben suddenly stopped and rolled over on his back. And now an amazing thing happened. Of the three boys, one happened to fall upon the upturned jjaws of the Bear ; and Ben, who for years had juggled rojie balls, instantly under- took to give an exhibition with his new imple- BEAR FAMILY lOI nicnt. (lathering the badly frightened boy into position, the Bear set him whirling. His cloth- ing from his shoe tops to his knees was soon ripped to shreds and his legs torn and bleeding; his scalp was lacerated by the sharp claws until the blood flowed ; his cries arose to shrieks ; but the Bear, unmoved, kept up the perfect rhythm of his strokes. Finally the terrified onlookers realizing that something must be done, tore a rail from the fence and with a few pokes in Ben's the desire of obtaining food. During the spring months it searches for food in the low alluvial lands that border the rivers, or the margins of the inland lakes. There it procures abun- dance of succulent roots, and of the tender, juicy stems of plants, upon which it chiefly feeds at that season. During the summer heat it enters the gloomy swamps, and passes much of its time in wallowing in the mud like a hog ; it seizes a young pig, or perhaps a sow or calf. As soon as By ptrmissiuii of the New Yurk Zoological Society BLACK BEAR The Black Bear was the species first encountered by the early settlers on the Atlantic side of America. The Grizzly belongs to the Rocky Mountain region side induced him to drop the boy. ... So square and true had Ben juggled him that not a scratch was found on his face or any part of his body between the top of his head and his knees. He eventually came out of the hospital no worse for his ordeal, but I doubt if he ever again undertook to ride a Bear." The early backwoodsmen found the Black Bear a troublesome neighbor. It liked Indian corn, and was not averse to a young pig. " Like the Deer," says Audubon, " it changes its haunts with the seasons, and for the same reason, viz.. the different kinds of berries ripen, the Bear be- takes itself to the high ground ; next visits the maize fields, which it ravages for a while. After this the various kinds of nuts and grapes, acorns and other forest fruits, attract its atten- tion. The Black Bear is then seen wandering through the woods to gather this harvest, not forgetting to rob every tree which it comes across." According to Dr. Merriam, the food of the Black Bear " consists not only of mice and other small mammals, turtles, frogs, and fish, but I02 MAMMALS OF AMERICA also, largely of ants and their eggs, bees and their honey, cherries, blackberries, raspberries, blueberries and various other fruits, vegetables, and roots. He sometimes makes devastating raids upon the barn yards, slaying and devour- ing sheep, calves, pigs and poultry." x\nother writer, Mr. C. C. Ward, states, as the result of his own experience, that the Black Bear, " is growing more carnivorous and discontented with a diet of herbs. Assuredly, he is growing bolder. He is also developing a propensity to destroy more than he can eat, and it is not improbable that his posterity may cease to be frugi-carniv- orous. It is fortunate that an animal of the strength and ferocity which he displays when aroused seldom attacks man. The formation of his powerful jaws and terrible canine teeth are well adapted to seize and hold his prey, and his molars are strong enough to crush the bones of an ox. His great strength, however, lies in his fore-arms and paws. His mode of attacking his prey is not to seize it with its teeth, but to strike terrific blows with his fore-paws. His weakness is for pork, and to obtain it he will run any risk. ^^'hen the farmers, after sufTering severe losses at his hands, become unusually alert, he retires to the depths of the forest and solaces himself with a young Moose, Caribou, or Deer. He seldom or never attacks a full grown Moose, but traces of desperate encounters, in which the Cow-Moose has battled for her offspring, are frequently met with in the woods." CINNAMON BEAR This is not a distinct species, but only the local name for Black Bear in one of its curious color phases. The Black Bear, indeed, runs through many varying shades, and often brown and black cubs are found in the same litter. In Alaska and the Rocky Mountains it is fre- quently found with a brown or cinnamon coat — hence its name. See description of Black Bear. Photograph by J . M . Johnson BLACK AND CINNAMON BEARS Feeding together in Yellowiitone Park. They are quite tame in this reservation BEAR FAMILY 103 GLACIER BEAR Ursus emmonsi (Dall) General Description. — See also American Black- Bear. In general like the Black Bear but smaller and body color a bluish-black with white-tipped hairs. Dental Formula. — Same as for Black Bear. Pelage. — Sexes similar. A remarkaljly soft pelage, the hairs not very long ; rich underfur of a bluish-black. with many of the long hairs white or tipped with white ; dorsal line from tip of nose to rump, the back of the short ears and outer surfaces of limbs, jet black; sides of the muzzle and lower anterior cheek are a bright tan ; no brown elsewhere in pelage. Measurements. — Smallest of American Bears. Height at shoulder, 2 feet. Range. — St. Elias range of mountains southeasterly to Juneau. Food. — Similar to that of the Black Bear. Rel.\ted Species While there are no related species of similar color pattern, one with much the same status, and also con- sidered by some as still another color phase of tlie Black Bear, is Kermode's Bear. Kermode's Bear. — Ursus kcnnodci Hornaday. Gen- eral form Hke Glacier Bear and like it in size. Color, white, more or less pure in tone. Range in British Columbia just south of Alaska. The Glacier Bear is a remarkable and little known animal that frequents the edges of glaciers in Alaska, chiefly near Mt. St. Elias. Some fur dealers call it the Blue Bear, from the indefinite bluish-gray tinge of its fur. The Gla- cier Bear is tiiuid and retiring. It has been seen by but few hunters, and has not yet been cap- tured alive for any zoological park, because of the wild bleak country which it frequents. Although quite distinct in size and appearance from the American Black Bear many authori- ties today regard the Glacier Bear as but a color phase of the normal black variety. However, if this be the case it is a unique phase and has no duplication among the Black Bears in other regions of North America. According to this view, the Glacier Bear would be analogous to the Silver Fox, an unusual color phase of the com- mon Red Fox. The Glacier Bear has one of the softest and most beautiful coats of any of the Bears, and for this reason is much sought after. The fur has something of the smooth, fine texture of the seal, and in the same way is remarkably adapted to the double purpose of keeping the aniinal warm and dry. It is distinctively marked so that it cannot be mistaken. This is the smallest of all the Americatt Bears, being only two feet high. BLACK BEAR HbMING BEES The Black Bear is a great bee hunter, and is inordinately fond of honey •a o J3 E o (A .s THE RACCOON FAMILY ( Procyonidcc) HE Raccoon family in North America is limited to two members — the Raccoon, of which there are several species, and the Ring-tailed Cat. These animals are Carnivores, with head broad at the back and tapering rapidly forward to a narrow muzzle. Ears are of moderate size. Feet are plantigrade, with soles naked. The toes are free, and capable of being widely spread. The claws are curved, and non-retractile. The tail is semi-bushy, and generally ringed. The body is short and stocky. One member of this family is among the best known of our native animals; while the other is almost entirely unknown even to many sports- men. This is because of the latter's restricted range in the desert lands along the Mexican border. EASTERN RACCOON Procyon lotor {Linnaeus) General Description. — A short-legged, long-haired animal the size of a small dog (Cocker Spaniel). Head broad ; nose pointed ; tail bushy, cylindrical, and annulated ; ears erect and comparatively short : toes five on all feet; soles of feet naked; plantigrade; gen- eral color grayish or yellowish-gray, black patch about eye. and blackish rings around tail. Dental Formula. — Incisors, ~^- ; Canines, -i— ^ ; Pre- molars — — ; Molars, ^^ — ^=40. 4—4 2—2 ^ Pelage. — Sexes alike ; young similar to adults but rather grayer at first. Above, grayish or dull brownish- gray becoming yellower on back, strongly yellow on nape and on tail, and a paler gray on belly and feet; long hairs of entire upper parts, especially of dorsal region, black-tipped, of lower parts, white-tipped; on cheek a black patch that includes eye and joins with the narrow blackish stripe that runs from nose to the dark color on forehead ; face dull white, whitest in band above each eye; ear behind black, joining with a black patch on neck back of ear; tip of ear whitish behind; tail with 6 or 7 rings of very dark brown or black on a pale yellowish background ; eyes dark, whiskers white. Measurements. — Considerable variation. Average length. i2 inches; tail, 10^ inches; hind foot. 4'<> inches. Weight 15 to 22 pounds. Range. — Eastern America from Canada to Georgia, west to the Rocky Mountains north of Texas. Food. — Quite omnivorous ; frogs, fish, small mam- mals, birds and eggs, reptiles, insects, shell-fish, fruits, corn and grain. Remarks. — The Raccoon has often been called the little brother of the Bear, this association being due mainly to the resemblance in build and in the naked, full-soled feet. The Raccoon is the sole representative (with the exception of the Ring-tailed Cat) of a family found only in the New World ; there are no Raccoons in the Old World. Differences in size, color and proportions of the skull account for the separation of the North American Raccoons into six species and subspecies. 11 /»p Bg^ EASTERN RACCOON The Raccoon's habit of washing its' food before eating it, even in captivity, is one of its peculiar traits Rel.ated Species Eastern Raccoon. — Procyon lotor lotor (Linnaeus). The typical animal described above. Eastern America from Canada to Georgia, west to Rocky Mountains north of Texas. Florida Raccoon. — Procyon lotor rluctis Bangs. Darker, shorter haired, longer tail. Eastern Georgia and Florida. 105I io6 MAMMALS OF AMERICA Hernandez Raccoon. — Procyon lolor hcrnandczii (\\'agler). Size large; colors dark; tail tapering; black rings on tail, narrow. Along southern Pacific Coast north into California. California Raccoon. — Procyon psora psora Gray. Found alcmg the central Pacific Coast. Desert Raccoon. — Procyon pallidus Merriam. See description following. The Raccoon is found only in North and Central America, from Alaska in the north to Costa Rica in the south. It is common to the whole of the United States. Raccoons are gen- 4 y Photograph by Julian A. D!toock UP A TREE Brer 'Coon has an anxious look, as though he had sighted his arch enemy, the dog crally found in the woodlands near civilization, but avoid the dense evergreen forests of the in- terior. Like the numerous bats and the flying squirrels, they are one of the most nocturnal of North American mammals, vet they may occa- sionally be seen abroad on cloudy days. In diet they are preferably flesh-eaters, feeding upon poultry, mice, yovmg birds, bird's eggs, fresh- water tortoises and their eggs, frogs, fish, mol- luscs and insects. Occasionally, however, they vary this with a diet of nuts, fruits and corn. They delight to sport in the shallow water on the margins of pools and streams, where they capture the smaller fish lurking beneath the stones, and the fresh-water mussels buried in the mud and sand. They also catch such fish as happen into pools near the shore, although they are unable to dive in pursuit of their prey. They are, how- ever, good swimmers. Although first-rate climbers, and making their nests in a hollow high up in some large tree, Raccoons cannot be con- sidered arboreal animals. They neither hunt their prey among the tree-tops, nor feed upon the young shoots and twigs. Trees, however, form their nesting and breeding places, and like- wise their refuge when pursued by human or other foes. With the falling shades of night they invariably descend to hunt their prey and search for food. This animal is known colloquially all over the United .States as the " Coon." Its fur was highly prized by the early settlers, and Coon-skin caps were a staple article of apparel. In weight it is about equal to a common Fox, but it is short and stout. Restless, inquisitive, and prying, it is a most mischievous beast where farmyards and poultry are within reach. It kills the fowls, eats the eggs, samples the fruit, and if caught, generally puts up a stifif fight, although it some- times shams death with all the skill of an Opos- sum. It is very fond of fish and shell-fish, and opens bivalves with wonderful skill. With one crunch it will break the hinge with its teeth ; its paws complete the work of getting out the meat. It must have a delicate sense of touch, for in the task it rarely avails itself of sight or smell. It passes the mussel under its hind paws ; then, without looking, it seeks with its forepaws the weakest place. It there digs in its claws, forces asunder the valves and tears out the flesh in fragments, leaving nothing behind. The Raccoon has been one of the most valu- able of the fur-bearing animals of North .'\merica, and is consequently much persecuted. Raccoon skins were formerly used as a recog- nized circulating medium in the States of the Mississijipi valley. RACCOON FAMILY 107 The Raccoon may be easily caught in steel traps ; but it is essential that these should be set under water near the margins of swamps or streams. The more sporting method in the South is to hunt these animals at night with specially trained dogs, which are usually a breed of Fox-hounds. It has often been stated that the Raccoon leaves a very faint foot-scent : Init this opinion is controverted by some hunters who state that hounds will hunt a Raccoon at midday over snow, on a trail which has been made the previous night. The Raccoon after a short run invariably takes to a tree, and stays there until it is captured or escapes. It will stick tightly even while the tree is being felled to bring it to earth. Like the Bear, the Raccoon is plantigrade in its manner of walking. It has been nick-named " the little brother of the Bear," from this and other similarities. For example, it is fond of dipping its food into water before eating it. Concerning this trait, \lr. \\'itmer Stone says: " It is curious that the quaint custom of washing meat of all kinds before eating it should be clung to so religiously by the Raccoons of all parts, of the country. Raccoons are so easily domesticated and prove such amusing pets, that accounts of tame Coons are to be picked up almost anywhere, and although exhibiting plenty of originality in most ways, they all seem to agree in this one particular, that when meat is offered them it must be thoroughly washed or else eaten under protest apparently, many a Coon preferring to go hungry rather than eat flesh which it has not been allowed to wash. Moreover, they are not willing to let any one else do the work for them, insisting rather on being allowed to do it all themseh'es, holding their food in both fore paws and sousing it about in the water until it is reduced to a pallid, flabby. unappetizing mess which only a Coon could look upon without misgiving." Raccoons are most at home in a hollow tree. Here they construct a rough nest and rear five or six young every year. " The Raccoon hiber- nates during the severest part of the winter," says Dr. Merriam, " retiring to his nest rather early, and appearing again in February or March, according to the earliness or lateness of the season. Disliking to wade through deep snow he does not come out much till the alternate thawing and freezing of the surface, suggest- Photograph by C. P. Cobb SITTING TIGHT The snows of winter do not bother the Raccoon as his fur coat is well lined ive of coming spring, makes a hard crust upon which he can run with ease. He does not usually walk many miles during a single night, and consequently is soon tracked to the tree, in some hole of which he has retired for the day. It is unusual to find a Raccoon alone, for they commonly live and travel in small com- panies, consisting of several members of a single family." DESERT RACCOON Procyon pallidus 71/ General Description. — Much the same as Eastern Raccoon but colors pale, size medium. Dental Formula. — .See Eastern Raccoon. Pelage. — .\bove. pale gray darkened by short black tips to the coarse hairs; below, grayish-white, the drab underfur being nearly obscured ; tail long and slender, with narrow blackish rings ; hind feet pale gray. Measurements. — Length. 33 inches ; tail vertebrae. 12 inches : hind foot. 5 inches ; height of ear above crown, 2 inches. email] Range. — Colorado Desert. California. Food. — Fish, birds, small mammals, frogs and a few insects. Remarks. — This is a pale desert adaptation of the genus. Because of the wide differences in the environ- ments of the Desert and Eastern Raccoons it is not surpri.sing to find some difference in their habits. The Desert Raccoon, however, is true to his descent to a considerable degree. For related species see under Eastern Raccoon. io8 MAMMALS OF AMERICA Photograph by C. Reid DESERT RACCOON A near cousin of the Eastern species, but with paler markings The Desert Raccoon is the western cousin of otir more famiHar friend. It is foimd from the treeless wastes of Colorado to the Sierra Nevada range, and varies both in color and habits to some extent from the common species. The heat of the sun and lack of shade have changed the hue of the fur from brown or black to dull gray. The animal is an inhabitant of bushy retreats and holes in rocks, and seeks its food along the ground. Where streams are encountered it is fond of fishing ; it will indeed follow along water courses for long distances; and it will not disdain birds as a variant from its usual diet of rats, mice, frogs and insects. It does not hibernate like the eastern type, as the milder weather does not make such a course necessary. It is by nature a night prowler, its scent being so keen as to permit it to hunt its prey unerringly over the desert wastes, but it also roams occasionally by day. RING-TAILED CAT Bassariscus astutus { Lichtcnstcin) Other Names. — Civet Cat, Bassarisk, Bassaris. Ca- comistl, Mountain Cat, Raccoon Fox. General Description. — Size a trifle smaller than domestic cat. A slender graceful animal with a long cylindrical tail marked by black rings alternating with white. Muzzle pointed; ears rather large; pads of ■feet naked, soles hairy, digitigrade. General color, above huffy, tinged with black ; below white ; tail white with 6 or 8 black rings. Fur fairly soft. Dental Formula. — Incisors,-—; Canines, — 3—3 I- Pre- molars, — — ; Molars, =40. 4—4 2—2 Pelage. — Adults: Sexes similar. Above yellowish- brown and gray mixed, with the long hairs black tipped: below white; legs and feet like body; tail above with alternate black and white bands and black tip; the black does not meet on under side of tail, so there is a continuous white line down the center of the under side. Young: Much as adults. Measurements. — Length, male, 30 inches; tail, 15 inches; hind foot, 2^ inches; ear, lYz inches. Weight 2^ pounds. Female a trifle smaller. Range. — California, Texas, Arizona, New Mexico. Food. — Small mammals, birds and eggs. Remarks. — The American Ring-tailed Cat is easily distinguished from any other North American mam- mal by its long annulated tail and general appearance. Its closest relative, the Raccoon, is much larger and has a shorter tail. The name Civet Cat applied to this animal is really a misnomer, as the Civet Cats are found only in the Old World, but this name has been used locally in the West in place of the more proper one of Ring-tailed Cat. Related Species American Ring-tailed Cat. — Bassariscus astutus astutus ( Lichtenstein). The typical form as described above. California, .Arizona, Texas, New Mexico. California Ring-tailed Cat. — Bassariscus astutus relator (Baird). Darker with less gray, bufTy white below. Rings on tail broader. California and Oregon. Texas Ring-tailed Cat. — Bassariscus astutus fiavus Rhoads. Smaller; tail often completely encircled by lilack rings ; blackish tawny above. Texas. Oregon Ring-tailed Cat. — Bassarisctis astutus orc- goiius Rhoads. Dorsal region intense black ; below strongly brownish-yellow. Oregon. RACCOON FAMILY 109 The American Civet Cat has the misfortune to be wrongly named. It is not a Cat, being more like a weasel ; nor does it have any odor of civet about it. Dr. Coues speaks of it as the Bassar- isk ; and the reader may find other references to it as the " Bassaris," "Cat Squirrel" (so called in Texas) ; " Mountain Cat," and " Ring- tailed Cat" (California), and " Cacomistl " (Mexico). Dr. D. G. Elliot terms it the "Rac- coon Fox," and this seems a very good name for it ; for, as Dr. Hornaday pertinently remarks : " The Bassarisk is, after the true Raccoon, the only animal in the United States possessed of a long, bushy tail with alternating black and round, catlike feet in the dry dust of the darkest corners," and they will steal Wood Rats and White- footed Mice caught in the traps of collect- ors. Owing to the inaccessibility of their rock dens, and their nocturnal habits, they are seldom seen in the wild state. Mr. Bailey trapped a pair in one of the canyons of the Rio Grande and he says, " the male fought and screamed viciously as we approached, but the female was quiet and gentle. Even in the traps the anima- tion and brightness of their faces were wonder- ful. The large ears, when directed forward, were in constant motion. The long, black, vibrating moustache, the striking black and light By permission i>f the New V^rk Z-Mil-n^i, jl S.. iri\ RING-TAILED CAT A little known wanderer along our Southwestern border, which has been blessed with many names white rings around it . . . and it has a many- sided appetite like a Raccoon." The Ring-tailed Cat, is found in Mexico north to California. In Texas, the tawny variety is common throughout the State except in the open plains of the western half. Although mainly a dweller in cliffs and rocks, it is found also in the chaparral, mesquite, and cactus plains of the southern part of the State right down to the coast, where it secures ample protection and small game in greater abundance than in its higher rocky haunts. According to Vernon Bailey ("Biological Survey of Texas"), at night " they prowl along the ledges of clififs from cave to cave, leaving the prints of their little. face markings, and, most of all, the big. soft, expressive eyes give a facial expression of un- usual beauty and intelligence." They feed on small rodents, birds, insects (including the centipede), and are not averse to fruit. Traps set for them are often baited with meat. Their nests, which are lined with moss, are placed in the hollows of trees, and there are usually three or four young in a litter. They are very easily tamed, and are made household pets by California miners and Texas ranchmen. The latter say that they make better mousers than domestic cats, and, if given free run of the prem- ises, will lose no time in clearing a cabin of rats and mice. THE WEASEL FAMILY {Mustelidce) NUMEROUS group of fur-bearers comprise the Weasel family, which is scat- tered all over the world, with the exception of Australia and Madagascar. They include Weasels, Badgers, Skunks, Minks, Otters, Martens and Wol- verenes. They are small in size, some being quite diminutive, but as a rule are fierce and bloodthirsty. Their bodies are long and slender, their motions are quick and graceful, their strength and endurance prodigious. They have short, powerful legs with feet adapted to running, climbing, digging, burrowing, or swimming. Most members of the family take readily to the water. Other distinguishing traits are: a single tubercular molar tooth on each jaw; five- toed feet which are both plantigrade and digitigrade; absence of the csecum; presence of anal musk glands which are more or less completely under control. The members of this family differ widely in coloration. In some of the northern forms a single animal will change its dress from dark in summer to light in winter. Others, such as the Skunk, will have broad stripes of white contrasting with black or brown. Others, like the Otter, have fur of a uniformly dark tint ; while a nearly related member will possess a coat of wonderful brilliance. The wide range of colors coupled with the softness of the fur has made the members of this family of great economic importance. They are highly prized among furriers, some of the species bringing high prices. AMERICAN WOLVERENE Gulo luscus Linmcus Other Names. — Glutton, Carcajou. General Description. — A robust animal built like a small Bear and weighing 20 or 25 pounds. Tail bushy, short ; soles hairy ; ears short ; claws strong, curved, partially retractile ; fur moderately long ; color blackish brown with lighter areas on face and along sides. Sexes alike. A very powerful animal for its size. Dental Formula. — Incisors, ^~^ ■ Canines, — ' ; Pre- ^ 3—3 I— I molars, -~- ; Molars, ^^^A8. 4—4 2—2 f Pelage. — General color deep blackish-brown, paler and grayer on crown and cheeks; band of pale chest- nut from shoulder to tail where the two bands meet ; nearly white on rump in some specimens ; more or less yellowish white spots on throat and chest ; claws whitish horn color. Little seasonal variation. Measurements. — Length, male, 36 to 38 inches ; tail, 7 inches ; hind foot. 7 inches : ear, 2 inches. Weight, 25 pounds. Range. — Arctic America south to northern United States, and in Rocky Mountains to Colorado. Food. — Mammals and birds; any mammal it can kill and occasionally animals found dead. Remarks. — The Wolverene is the largest member of the family to which it belongs, the family of the Martens and Weasels. It is a wide-ranging beast but is not found south of the regions of heavy snowfall. It remains unchanged to any very noticeable degree throughout a wide area and but three species are described. Related Species American Wolverene. — Gulo luscus Linnaeus. The typical species described above. Arctic and sub- Arctic America north of the United States, south in the Rocky Mountains to Colorado. California Wolverene. — Gulo lutrns Elliot. Color about huffy. California. Alaska Wolverene. — Gulo hylacus Elliot. Color very dark, without buff or gray, parts of Alaska. Found in various WEASEL FAMILY 1 1 1 The Wolverene, also known as the Glutton and Carcajou, has been the subject of more legends and quaint stories than almost any other animal. According to the Indians, it is inhabited by an evil spirit. The French Canadian also gave it strange characteristics, under the name of Carca- jou. In fact, the myths clustering about this animal date back as early as the sixteenth century, in Europe. Olaus Magnus (1562), to whom is comnionlv attributed the earliest men- a ravenous monster of insatiate voracity, match- less strength, and supernatural cunning, a terror to all other beasts, the bloodthirsty master of the forest. These stories are highly absurd, says Coues, who describes the W'olverene as " simply an uncommonly large, clumsy, shaggy Marten or Weasel, of great strength, without correspond- ing agility, highly carnivorous, like the rest of its tribe, and displaying great perseverance and Photograph by American Museum of Natural History WOLVERENE The Wolverene is thought by Indians and trappers to be possessed of an evil spirit, such demoniacal cunning does it exhibit. Many legends cluster about the Glutton, or Carcajou, as it is also called tion, gives a most extraordinary account, made up of the then current popular traditions and superstitions, and tales of hunters or travelers, unchecked by any proper scientific inquiry : al- though, to do him justice, he does not entirely credit them himself. We may be sure that such savory morsels of animal biography did not escape the notice of subsequent compilers, and that they lost nothing of their flavor at the hands of Buffon. Probably no youth's early conceptions of the Glutton were uncolored with romance ; the general picture impressed upon the susceptible mind of that period being that of sagacity in procuring food in its northern resi- dence when the supply is limited or precarious, often making long uninterrupted journeys, al- though so short-legged. It is imperfectly planti- grade, and does not climb trees like most of its allies. It lives in dens or burrows, and does not hibernate. It feeds upon the carcasses of large animals which it finds already slain, but does not destroy such creatures itself, its ordinary prey being of a much humbler character. It is a notorious thief, not only of stores of meat and fish laid up by the natives of the countries it inhabits, the baits of their traps, and the animals 112 AIAALMALS OF AAIERICA so caught, but also of articles of no possible serv- ice to itself ; and avoids with most admirable cunning the various methods devised for its destruction in retaliation." The fur of the ^^'olve^ene is highly valued both by civilized and uncivilized people. A number of skins sewed together make a very beautiful carriage robe or hearth-rug, and the pelts are in common use for these purposes. The Indians and Esquimaux use the fur as they do that of the Wolf, for fringing their gar- ments, the skin being in strips for this purpose. The Wolverene ranges in greater or less abundance all over the northern portions of this country. It appears to be particularly numer- ous in the Mackenzie river region, and it fairly infests the whole country bordering the lower portions of this river and the west side of the mountains. From this country, many accounts from various officers of the Hudson's Bay Com- pany bear witness to the wonderful cunning and sagacity of the beast, as well as its ferocity, and represent it to be the greatest enemy with which the hunters and trappers have to contend in the purstiit of fur-bearing animals. To the trapper, Wolverenes are especially an- noying. When they have discovered a line of marten traps they will never abandon the road, and must be killed before the trapping can be successfully carried on. Beginning at one end, they proceed from trap to trap along the whole line, pulling them successively to pieces, and taking out the baits from behind. When they can eat no more, they continue to steal the baits and cache them. If hungry, they may devour two or three of the martens they find captured, the remainder being carried off and hidden in the snow at a considerable distance. The work of demolition goes on as fast as the traps can be renewed. The propensity to steal and hide things is one of the strongest traits of the Wolverene. To such an extent is it developed that the animal will often secrete articles of no possible use to itself. Besides the wanton destruction of traps, it will carry off the sticks and hide them at a distance, apparently in sheer malice. Mr. Ross has given an amusing instance of the ex- treme of this propensity : " The desire for ac- cumulating property seems so deeply implanted in this animal, that, like tame ravens, it does not appear to care much what it steals so that it can exercise its favorite propensity to com- mit mischief. An instance occurred within my own knowledge in which a hunter and his family having left their lodge unguarded during their absence, on their return found it completely gutted — the walls were there but nothing else. Blankets, guns, kettles, axes, cans, knives and all the other paraphernalia of a trapper's tent had vanished, and the tracks left by the beast showed who had been the thief. The family set to work, and by carefully following up all his paths recovered, with some trifling excep- tions, the whole of the lost property." Fatal tragedies have occurred in pioneer camps, on account of such thefts — the man who suffered the loss of his goods often suspecting one of his human neighbors. Though very clumsy, the Wolverene manages to capture, at times, such prey as hares or grouse, and successfully attacks disabled deer. It also feeds on offal or carrion ; in fact, any- thing that it can catch or steal. Its own flesh is only eatable in the extreme of starvation. Wolverenes bring forth in burrows under ground, probably old bear washes, and have four or five young at a birth. It is very rarely that they are discovered at this period or while suckling their young. One reason, however, may be that they reproduce late in June and early in July, when the mosquitoes are so nu- merous that no one who can avoid it goes abroad in the woods. The mating season is in the latter part of March. The female is ferocious in the defense of her young, and if disturbed at this time will not hesitate to attack a man. Indeed, Indians have been heard to aver that they would sooner encoimter a she-Bear with her cubs than a Carcajou under the same circumstances. In October, when the rivers set fast, the Wolver- enes reappear in families, the young still follow- ing their dam, though now not much her in- ferior in size. They are full grown when about a year old. In early infancy, the cubs are said to be a pale cream color. The ferocity of the Wolverene, no less than its cunning, is illustrated in some of the endless occasions on which it matches its powers against those of its worst enemy. A man had set a gun for a Carcajou which had been on his usual round of demolition of IMarten traps. The ani- mal seized the bait unwarily, and set off the gun ; but owing to the careless or improper set- ting, the charge missed or only wounded it. The Carcajou rushed upon the weapon, tore it from its fastenings, and chewed the stock to pieces. It is added to the accotmt of this exploit that the beast finished by planting the barrel muzzle downward in the snow; but this may not be fully credited. The stories that pass current among trappers in the North would alone fill WEASEL FAMILY 113 a volume, and they are quite a match for those that Olaus Magnus set down in his book cen- turies ago. But we need not go beyond the strict fact to be impressed with the extraordinary wit of the beast, whom all concur in conceding to be " as cunning as the very devil." The \\"olverene is almost exclusively noc- turnal, there being but few instances of its having been seen abroad during the day; and it has been seen to sit up and shade its eyes with its paws, as if suffering from the unaccustomed light. It does not hibernate, and there is no marked difference in the color of the winter and summer coat. In spite of its clumsy-looking ap- pearance the animal when disturbed can make off at a very rapid pace. It likewise ascends rough-barked trees with facility, although it is said that its climbing powers are only exerted when it scents food. In the pursuit of prey the \\'olverene will readily swim rivers. As a rule it is silent, although when attacked it will give vent to angry growls. These animals are found both solitary and in pairs, but generally solitary. During the day they live concealed in subterranean holes, which are usually their breeding-places, and which are frequently the deserted lairs of Bears. In North America the young are born in June or July, the number of individuals in a litter, as before stated, being generally four or five, but it has also been noticed by hunters that there are sometimes only two cubs. AMERICAN MARTEN Martes (= Mustela) americana (Tnrton) Other Names. — Pine Marten. .American Sable. General Description. — A long, slender-bodied animal rather smaller than a house cat. Limbs short, digiti- grade; tail moderate, inclined to be bushy; soles furred, pads naked ; claws compressed, acute, semi-retractile ; ears large ; head roughly triangular with sharp nose ; color above orange-brown, belly brownish, spot on breast orange. Habits arboreal. PINE MARTEN On account of their beautiful fur these Martens are so persistently hunted that they are now rare 114 MAMMALS OF A.MERICA Dental Formula. — Incisors, -^ ; Canines. ^^ ; Pre- molars. ^-^ ; Molars, i-"^ = 38. 4—4 •!— -' Pelage.— Sexes identical ; young soon appearing as adults. Head grayish-brown, darkest on nose which is smoke brown ; throat and spot on breast rich orange ; general body color orange-brown clouded with black or blackish-brown on back and belly; legs, feet and upper part of tail black, underpart of tail rufous, save tip which is black. There is a considerable individual range of variation in color of pelage. Pelage same in winter as in summer. The hairs are soft and glossy and there is an under-fur of very soft short hair. Measurements.— Length, 25 inches; tail, 8 inches; hind foot, i^i inches. Range. — Boreal North America, west to Rocky Mountains, south to New York. Food. — Largely squirrels, but also birds and their eggs, and at times other small mammals. Remarks.- Owing to its particularly characteristic markings this animal should be confused with none of the other small fur-bearers. It is closely related to the Weasels and co the Minks. Eleven different forms of the .\merican Marten are recognized: among these the following are prominent. Rel.med Species American Marten. — Martcs americana aiiicricana (Turton). The typical species described above. For- ested North .America from New York to the Rocky Mountains, northward. Saskatchewan Pine Marten. — Martcs americana abictiiola iPrelile). Much larger. Saskatchewan, Canada. Alaska Marten. — Martcs americana aetuosa (Os- good). Larger, grayer. Alaska., Kenai Marten. — Martcs americana kcnaiensis (Elliot). Smaller, paler; lacking orange throat patch. Kenai Peninsula. Alaska. Newfoundland Marten. — Martcs atrata (Bangs). Larger ; much darker, color deep chocolate. New- foundland. Labrador Marten. — Martcs brunialis (Bangs). Larger and darker. Labrador. Pacific Marten. — Martcs caurina caurina (Mer- riaml. Colors averaging darker; larger; throat spot orange red. Pacific Coast from San Francisco to Puget Sound. The IMartens in America have been given many names, due at first to the effort to dis- tinguish them from their foreign kin. Although the American animal was known in very early times, long before it received a distinctive name, having been i-eferred alternately to the Euro- pean Pine Marten and Asiatic Sable, or to both of these species, very little definite information upon its range and habits was recorded for many years. Pennant, our principal early au- thoritv on the animals of the North American fur countries, considered it the same as M. martcs, and drew its range accordingly. He states that it inhabits, in great abundance, the northern parts of America, in forests, particu- larly of pine and fir, nesting in the trees, bring- ing forth once a year from four to eight young ; that its food is principally Mice, but also in- cludes such birds as it can catch ; that it is taken in dead-falls, and sometimes eaten by the natives. As an article of commerce in comparatively early times, we notice the sale of some 15,000 skins in one year (1743) by the Hudson Bay Com- pany, and the imj)ortation from Canada by the French into Rochelle of over 30,000. " Once in two or three years," he adds, they " come out in great multitudes, as if their retreats were over stocked : this the hunters look on as a forerunner of great snows, and a season favorable to the chase." Such periodicity in numbers thus early noted is confirmed by later observations. The Sable is ordinarily captured in wooden traps of very simple construction, made on the spot. The trap is a little enclosure of stakes or brush in which the bait is placed upon a trigger, with a short upright stick supporting a log of wood ; the animal is shtit off from the bait in any but the desired direction, and the log falls ujion its victim with the slightest disturbance. A line of such traps, several to the mile, often extends many miles. The bait is any kind of meat, a Mouse, Squirrel, piece of fish, or bird's head. One of the greatest obstacles that the Sable hunter has to contend with in many local- ities is the persistent destruction of his traps by the Wolverene and Pekan, both of which dis- play great cunning and perseverance in follow- ing up his line to eat the bait, and even the Sables themselves which may be captured. The ex- ploits of these animals in this respect may be seen from the accounts elsewhere given. Hud- son Bay trappers tell of a Sable road fifty miles long, containing 150 traps, everyone of which was destroyed throughout the whole line twice — once by a \\'olf and once by a \\'olverene. When thirty miles of this same road were given tip, the remaining forty traps were broken five or six times in succession by the latter animal. The .Sable is principally trapped during the colder months, from October to .A-pril, when the fur is in good condition ; it is nearly valueless during the shedding in summer. Sometimes, however, bait is refused in IMarch, and even earlier, probably with the coming on of the pair- WEASEL FAMILY II.- ing season. The period of full furring varies both in spring and autumn, according to latitude, by about a month as an extreme. Although the Sable is persistently hunted, it does not appear to diminish materialh' in nmn- bcrs in unsettled parts of the country. It holds sometimes a den underground or beneath rocks, but oftener the hollow of a tree; it frequently takes forcible possession of a .Squirrel's nest, driving ofi or devouring the rightful proprietor. Though frequently called Pine Marten, like its European relative, it does not a|)])ear to be par- Photograph by O. J. Murie AMERICAN MARTEN Martens are still to be found in the dense forests of pine and sprute, but have been so persistently hunted for their fur, that they are extremely shy its own partly in consequence of its shyness, which keeps it away from the abodes of men, and partly because it is so prolific ; it brings forth six to eight young at a litter. Its home is ticularly attached to coniferous woods, living in them simply because such forests prevail to a great extent in the geographical areas it inhabits. Ii6 MAMMALS OF AMERICA " The Sable," says Coues. " is no partner in guilt with the Mink and Stoat in invasion of the farm-yard, nor will it, indeed, designedly take up its abode in the clearing of a settler, preferring always to take its chances of food supply in the recesses of the forest. Active, in- dustrious, cunning and predaceous withal, it finds ample subsistence in the weaker rodents, insectivora and birds and their eggs. It hunts on the ground for ^lice, which constitute a large share of its sustenance, as well as for Shrews, Moles, certain reptiles and insects. An expert climber, quite at home in the leafy intricacies of tree tops, it pursues squirrels, and goes bird's- nesting with success. It is said also to secure toads, frogs, lizards, and even fish. " The Sable has some of the musky odor char- acteristic of its family, but in very mild degree compared with the Mink or Pole-cat. With a general presence more pleasing, it combines a nature, if not less truly predacious at least less sanguinary and insatiable. It does not kill after its hunger is appeased, nor does a blind ferocity lead it to attack animals as much larger than itself as those that the Stoat assaults with suc- cess. Animals like the Rabbit and Squirrel form less of its prey than the smaller rodents and in- sectivores. In confinement, the Marten becomes in time rather gentle. It is sprightly and active, with little unpleasant odor." Merritt Cary, in "A Biological Survey of Col- orado," says : " In the dense forests of lodge- pole pine and spruce, which clothe the upper slopes of the higher mountain ranges of northern Colorado, the Marten is still present in consid- eral)le numbers. It appears to be uncommon on all the southern ranges except the San Juan Mountains, where from a point northeast of Pagoda Springs west of Silverton and Telluride it is reported in good numbers. Martens are rarely observed below 8.000 or 8,500 feet, or the lower edge of the Canadian zone forest belt. They range regularly to timberline. however, and have been seen 1,500 feet above timberline near Silverton. Throughout their range Martens are hunted and trapped extensively, and conse- quently are not nearly so abundant as formerly. Skis are often used in hunting them in winter, when snow covers the mountains to a depth of several feet, and when pursvied in this manner the animals quickly take refuge in trees where they are easily shot. Hunting Martens on skis is said to be very exciting sport, and at times hazardous, owing to the roughness of the coun- try. This is a favorite method of hunting in Middle Park and in the San Juan Alountains. Most of the Alartens secured, however, are taken in either steel traps or dead-falls. Although Colorado Martens are somewhat paler than those farther north, they yield a valuable fur." PENNANT'S MARTEN Martes pennanti (Ilrxlcbcn) Other Names. — Fisher. Pekan. Black Cat; General Description. — .\ Marten, but much larger than the Pine Marten. See description. Body long, lithe and powerful; weight up to 18 pounds. Legs short ; head short ; muzzle pointed ; ears prominent ; tail moderately bushy. Color brownish-black, lighter on sides, browner below. Dental Formula. — Same as given for Pine Marten. Pelage. — Color same the year around ; sexes identi- cal. Color variable, but dark. Some specimens are glossy black, including tail and underparts ; others are gray or grayish-white on he'ad and neck; the majority of individuals have more or less white on chin, chest and abdomen. In general the body color is grayish- brown or brownish-black, lighter on sides and browner on belly ; darker on snout, ears. feet, and tail ; ears witli pale linings ; claws whitish horn color. Measurements. — Length, male. 36 inches; tail. 14 inches ; hind foot, 4 inches. Weight. 8'4 to 18 pounds. Female, smaller. Range. — North America north of 35° in forest covered country, e.xcept on Pacific coast w'here the Pacific Fisher is found. Food. — Mice, squirrels, hares, porcupines, birds and eggs. Only rarely fish. Remarks. — .Mthough the name Fisher is applied to this animal it is inappropriate inasmuch as the animal is not a fisherman. But two varieties of this Marten are recognized. Rel.\ted Species Pennant's Marten, or Fisher. — Martes fcnnanti pcn- luinli (Erxleben). The typical animal described above. Boreal North America north of 35° except on Pacific Coast. Pacific Fisher. — Martes t>cniia>tti f^acifica (Rhoads). Larger skull and upper molars ; coloration in general darker. Various parts of the Pacific slope, California to ."Maska. WEASEL FAMILY 117 The largest of all the Martens is an animal rejoicing in a number of names both popular and scientific, being variously designated as the " Pekan," " Fisher," " Pennant's Marten," " Black Fox," and " Black Cat." The two latter titles are due to the large size, stout build and dark color of the animal, which in point of form may be more aptly compared to a Fox than to a Weasel. Its general color is blackish brown, becoming gray on the head and neck ; while the throat is distinguished by the absence of the light-colored patch distinctive of all the other species. It ranges over the greater part of North America, as far north as Alaska and south to the upper part of Texas. Continual hunting has, however, exterminated the animal from the more settled districts of the United States east of the Mississippi. Dr. Merriam observes that " the name Fisher is somewhat of a misnomer, for these animals commonly frequent deep swamps and wooded mountain sides, away from the immediate vicin- age of the water, and are not known to catch fish for themselves as do the Mink and Otter. However, they are fond of fish, and never neg- lect to devour those that chance to fall in their way. They prey chiefly upon hares, squirrels, mice, grouse, small birds and frogs, and are said to eat snakes. They also catch and feed upon their own congener, the Marten, and make a practice of devouring all that they discover in dead-falls and steel-traps. It also appears that Porcupines compose a considerable proportion of their food in some districts ; specimens being sometimes killed with numbers of Porcupine- quills in their skin and flesh." This Marten breeds but once a year; it brings forth its young in the hollow of a tree, usually thirty or forty feet from the ground. Two, three, and four young are produced in. a litter. It has been known to offer desperate resistance in defense of its young, as on one occasion men- tioned by Audubon. This animal, a young one, was kept in confinement for several days. " It was voracious, and very spiteful, growling, snarl- ing and spitting when approached, but it did not appear to suffer much uneasiness from being held in captivity, as, like many other predacious quadrupeds, it grew fat, being better supplied with food than when it had been obliged to cater for itself in the woods." Another mentioned by the same author as having been exhibited in a menagerie in Charleston, S. C, some months after its capture, continued sullen and spiteful, hastily swallowing its food nearly whole, and then retiring in growling humor to a dark corner of its cage. Hearne, however, has remarked that the animal is easily tamed, and shows some affection at times. When taken very young, it may become perfectly tame, and as playful as a kitten. The Pekan is sometimes forced, by failure of other sources of supply, to a vege- tarian diet, when it feeds freely upon beechnuts. One hunter thus describes an encounter with tliis animal. " A servant, on one occasion, came to us before daylight, asking us to shoot a Rac- coon for him, which, after having been chased the previous night, had taken to so large a tree that he neither felt disposed to climb it nor cut it down. On our arrival at the place, it was already light, and the dogs were barking furi- ously at the foot of the tree. We soon perceived that instead of being a Raccoon, the animal was a far more rare and interesting species, a Fisher. As we were anxious to study its habits we did not immediately shoot, but teased it by shaking some grape vines that had crept up nearly to the top of the tree. The animal not only became thoroughly frightened, but furious; he leaped from branch to branch, showing his teeth and growling at the same time ; now and then he ran half-way down the trunk of the tree, elevat- ing his back in the manner of an angry cat, and we every moment expected to see him leap off and fall among the dogs. He was brought down after several discharges of the gun. He seemed extremely tenacious of life, and was game to the last, holding on to the nose of a dog with a dying grasp. The animal proved to be a male ; the body measured twenty-five inches, and the tail, including the fur, fifteen. The servant who had traced him informed us that he appeared to have far less speed than a Fox, that he ran for ten minutes through a swamp in a straight direction and then took to a tree. " Species that are decidedly nocturnal in their habits frequently may be seen moving about by day during the period when they are engaged in providing for their young. Thus the Raccoon, the Opossum, and all our Hares, are constantly met with in spring, and early summer, in the morning and afternoon, while in autumn and winter they only move about by night. In the many Fox hunts, in which our neighbors were from time to time engaged, not far from our residence at the north, we never heard of their having encountered a single Fisher, in the day- time ; but when they traversed the same grounds at night, in search of raccoons, it was not un- usual for them to discover and capture this species. We were informed by trappers that Ii8 MAMMALS OF AMERICA they caught the Fisher in their traps only by night." In its chiefly nocturnal and largely arboreal habits the Fisher Marten resembles most of the other members of the group: its agility in the forests is, however, very remarkable, and when much frightened, or in pursuit of prey, it has been known to leap from tree to tree. The nest, as before stated, is usually built in the hole of a tree at a great height above ground ; the yoimg being generally born at the end of April or begin- ning of May. The Fisher is trapped for its skins in the northern parts of America from October till May, those captured in the early i)art of the season being in the best condition. ARCTIC WEASEL Mustela (^Putorius) arctica t Mrrriain) Other Names. — Ermine. Stoat. General Description. — A very small, slender and long-bodied Carnivore. Legs short; tail long, moder- ately bushy, black at the tip ; ears of moderate size ; soles haired ; general color in summer, yellowish-brown above, under parts yellow ; in waiter white everywhere except for black tipped tail. Females much smaller than males. Dental Formula. — Incisors, 3—3 irzi = 34- Canines, Premolars. — — ; Molars, 3 — 3 -— .= Pelage. — Adults: Summer. Upper parts and upper lip dark yellowish brown ; chin white ; under parts, inner sides of limbs, fore feet and under side of tail deep ochraceous yellow : tail above like body except for terminal half which is black. H'iittcr. Everywhere white except for black pencil on tail. Pelage made up of two coats, long hard hairs and a shorter, softer coat of uiiderfur. Measurements. — Length, male, 15 inches; tail, 7 inches ; hind foot. 2 inches. Females about one-seventh smaller. Range. — Arctic coast and tundras. Food. — Strictly carnivorous, principal diet mice, hares and small birds. Remarks. — Nearly all the Weasels have the same general type of coloration and practically all found in regions of moderate to heavy annual snow fall turn white in winter ; only those found in warm regions retain throughout the year the brown summer coat. This group is a large one and contains many forms differing from one another in color, size and internal structure. In all some thirty species and sub-species of Weasels are now recognized by the best authorities, but only a few of the more distinct and well-known species are listed below. Rel.\ted Species Arctic Weasel. — Mustela arctica arctica (Merriam). One of the larger Weasels. See description above. -Arctic coast and tundras. Bonaparte's Weasel. — Mustela cicoh Culunibia. Mountain Weasel. — Mustela arizoiieusis (Mearnsl. Similar to New York Weasel. Sierra Nevada and Rocky ^Mountains froin Arizona into British Columbia. Long-tailed Weasel. — Mustela lougicaiiiia loiuji- cauda Bonaparte. Size large, tail long. Great Plains from Kansas northward. Cascade Weasel. — Mustela saturata (Merriam). Color dark. Cascade and Siskiyou Mountains of Ore- gon and Washington northward into British Columbia. Yellow-throated Weasel. — Mustela xaiithoyenys xanthogeiixs Gray. Size large, white spot on head and between eye and ear. Sierra Nevada, southern California. New York Weasel. — Mustela iioveboraccnsis novc- boraceiisis (Emmons). See description below. Bridled Weasel. — Mustela frenata frenata Lichten- stein. See description below. Least Weasel, or Pygmy Weasel. — Mustela rixosa ri.vosa (Bangs). See description below. The \\'easel tribe is numerous and widely dis- tributed, both in this country and in Europe. It contains members diflfering greatly in size, color and structure. In size it. ranges from the New York Weasel, about sixteen inches long, to the Pygmy \\'easel, about seven inches. There are, in fact, some thirty species and stib-species now recognized, but the general habits are similar. Wherever found, it is a bold and inquisitive animal, exhibiting but little fear of man. and poking out its nose from some hole or cranny with the greatest indifference and self-possession. In spite, however, of this cttriosity, the AA'easel is ever on the alert to withdraw its head at the slightest symptom of attack. Its normal gait is a series of small leaps, stopping at intervals to take a careful survey of its stUTOundings, and not unfrequently rising on its haunches to obtain 3 o Eli •a o ex J3 -S 2^ e 3 o >* ^ I20 MAMMALS OF AAIERICA a better view. From its elongated, almost snake- like, body it can follow most of the small mam- mals on which it preys into their holes. A graceful little bundle of muscle, combined with courage and cunning of a high order — such is the American Ermine, or Arctic \\'easel, whose fur is so highly prized. Dr. Cones gives him a quality of courage and resourcefulness, far above the large carnivora : " Ko animal or bird, below a certain maximum of strength or other means of self-defense, is safe from his ruthless pursuit. The Ermine assails them not highest known raptoria; character; the jaws are worked by enormous masses of muscles covering all the side of the skull. The forehead is low, the nose sharp ; the eyes are small, penetrating, cunning, and glitter with an angry green light. " There is something peculiar, moreover, in the way that this fierce face surmounts a body ex- traordinarily wiry, lithe and muscular. It ends -a remarkably long and slender neck in such way that it may be held at right angle with the axis of the latter. When the creature is glancing around, with the neck stretched up, and flat tri- ERMINE, OR ARCTIC WEASEL A dominant trait of this beautiful fur-bearer is curiosity only upon the ground, but under it, and on trees, and in the water. Swift and sure-footed, he makes open chase and runs down his prey ; keen of scent, he tracks them, and makes the fatal spring upon them unawares ; lithe and of extra- ordinary slenderness of body, he follows the smaller animals through the intricacies of their hidden abodes, and kills them in their homes. And if he does not kill for the simple love of taking life, he at any rate kills instinctively more than he can possibly require for his sup- port. I know not where to find a parallel among the larger carnivora.'' A glance at the Weasel suffices to betray its dominant traits. The teeth are almost of the angular head bent forward, swaying from one side to the other, we catch the likeness in a mo- ment. It is the image of a serpent." Audubon, one of our earliest and most care- ful observers, thus describes the Ermine : "Graceful in form, rapid in his movements, and of untiring indtistry, he is withal a brave and fearless little fellow ; conscious of security within the windings of his retreat among the logs, or heap of stones, he permits us to approach him within a few feet, then suddenly withdraws his head. \\'e remain still for a moment, and he once more returns to his post of observation, watching curiously our every motion ; seeming willing to claim association so long as we abstain WEASEL FAMILY 121 from becoming his persecutor. Yet with all these external attractions, this little Weasel is fierce and bloodthirsty, possessing an intuitive propensity to destroy every animal and bird within its reach, some of which, such as the American rabbit, the rulTed grouse and domestic fowl, are ten times its own size. It is a notori- ous and hated depredator of the poultry house, and we have known forty well grown fowls to have been killed in one night by a single Er- mine. We have traced the footsteps of this . bloodsucking little animal on the snow, pursuing the trail of a fleeing rabbit, and although it could not overtake its prey by superior speed, yet the timid Hare soon took refuge in the hollow of a tree, or in a hole dug by the Marmot or Skunk. Thither it was pursued by the Er- mine and destroyed, the skin and other remains at the mouth of the burrow bearing evidence of the fact." and spring ; the dark summer coat being gradu- ally replaced by the advent of the white hairs of the winter one. Doubts then arose whether the change in color was always coincident with the development of the winter and summer coat, and whether the hairs themselves might not actually change color. Dr. Coues succeeded, however, in proving that the change might take place in either way, some specimens taken in spring showing the long, woolly white winter coat on some parts of the body, while on other parts they had the short, coarse, brown hair of summer ; and he observes that " we may safely conclude that if the requisite temperature be ex- perienced, at the periods of renewal of the coat, the new hairs will come out of the opposite color ; if not, they will appear of the same color, and afterwards change: that is, the change may or may not be coincident with the shedding." Dr. Coues attributed the reason of the color- TWO VIEWS OF THE ERMINE Showing the summer and winter coats of an animal whose fur is greatly desired The Weasel can be employed, in the manner of a Ferret, in driving Rabbits from burrows. In one instance the Ermine employed had been captured only a few days before, and its canine teeth were filed, in order to prevent it destroying the Rabbit. A cord was placed around its neck to secure its return. It pursued the Hare through all the windings of its burrow, and forced it to the mouth, where it could be taken in a net, or by the hand. The color of the fur in summer is of a red- dish-brown above and sulphur-white below. In the northern latitudes the color change is very ^marked. In the late autumn the coat is shed very rapidly and replaced by a much longer and den- ser white ^..e for winter, except the tip of the tail, which is black. The nature of the change from the dark sum- mer to the white winter dress has given rise to much discussion. It was originally considered that the animal sheds its coat in the autumn change entirely to the effect of temperature ; but strong objection is taken to this view by Dr. Merriam, who observes that it occurs in captive specimens kept continually in warm rooms. Dr. Merriam, however, states that the winter change never takes place till after the first fall of snow, . which generally occurs towards the end of Oc- tober or the beginning of November. Although the temperature of the air may be much lower before than subsequent to this first snowfall, yet it is true " that Ermine caught up to the very day of the first appearance of snow bear no evi- dence of the impending change. Within forty- eight hours, however, after the occurrence of the snowstorm the coat of the Ermine has already commenced to assume a pied and mottled appear- ance, and the change now commenced progresses to its termination with great rapidity. In early spring, the period for the reversal of this pro- cess, the changing back from its white coats of winter to the brown summer coat is determined 122 MAMMALS OF AMERICA by the same cause — the presence or absence of snow." Like a majority of predatory animals, the Weasel is nocturnal in its habits. Nevertheless, it is too often abroad in the daytime, either in sport or on the chase, to be classed among the truly nocturnal animals. In the choice and con- Captain Lyon states that he observed a curi- ous kind of a btirrow made by Ermines in the snow " which was pushed up in the same manner as the tracks of moles through the earth. These passages ran in a serpentine direction, and near the hole or dwelling place the circles are multi^ plied, as if to render the approach more intricate." Photograph by the U. S. Biological Survey BONAPARTE'S WEASEL The Weasel is a skilful climber, darting along the limbs of trees with the nimble- ness of a Squirrel struction of its retreats we see little evidence of burrowing instincts. It retreats beneath stone heaps in dense thickets, under logs and stumps, in hollow trees, and also in burrows, though these are usually those made by other animals that it has driven off or destroyed. Neverthe- less, there is evidence that it sometimes digs. Audubon has a passage of similar effect: " We have frequently observed where it has made long galleries in the deep snow for twenty or thirty yards, and thus in going from one burrow to another, instead of traveling over the surface, it had constructed for itself a kind of a tunnel beneath." WEASEL FAMILY 123 NEW YORK WEASEL Mustela noveboracensis (Emmons) General Description. — See Arctic Weasel. One of the larger Weasels of the United States. Dark in color, in summer, and with a long tail, usually one-third entire length. Black tips. Dental Formula. — Same as Arctic Weasel. Pelage. — Suiuiiicr, dull brown on upper side grad- ually shading into white on under side. 11' i)itcr, pure white except tip of tail. Measurements.— Male larger than female ; length usually 16 to 18 inches for male, and 12 or 13 inches for female. Range. — Eastern United States from Maine to Illinois. Food. — Small mammals, birds, grasshoppers, and any other living flesh that it can secure. No vegetable matter. One of the best known Weasels, because liv- ing near home to many Eastern people, is the New York Weasel. Its habits resemble other related species, one of its nearest relatives being the Mountain \\'easel of the \\'est. The New York Weasel is to be found from Maine to the Mississippi River. It is one of the larger types, being about sixteen inches long. It is dull brown in color above, and white below, changing to white in winter, except for the final one-third of the tail, which remains black. Despite its destructive habits, this Weasel is rather a benefactor than an enemy to the farmer, ridding his granaries and fields of many prowl- ers. A mission appears to have been assigned to it by Providence to lessen the rapidly multi- plying number of mice and the small rodentia. Wherever the Weasel appears, the mice for half a mile around rapidly diminish in number. Their enemy is able to force its thin vermiform body into the burrows, it follows them to the end of their granaries, and destroys whole families. Dr. Coues thus observes : " We once placed a half-domesticated ^^'easel in an outhouse in- fested with Rats, shutting up the holes on the outside to prevent their escape. The animal soon commenced his work of destruction. The squeaking of the Rats was heard through the day. In the evening, it came out licking its mouth, and seemed like a hound after a long chase, much fatigued. A board of the floor was raised to enable us to ascertain the result of otir ex- I)eriment, and an immense number of Rats were observed, which, although they had been killed in different parts of the building, had been drag- ged together, forming a compact heap." A better character, however, is given by a recent observer, Mr. S. A. Lottridge, who says: " I do not believe that the normal Weasel is as bloodthirsty as many would lead us to think, but rather his physical condition must answer for his superfluous killing. My experiments with W^easels extended over a period of several years. Under an old barn I had a Weasel house which was made mouse tight, a ground space ten by fifteen feet. Connecting with this by means of small doors were two other smaller compart- ments, also mouse tight. The hotise was fitted up as an ideal place for a Weasel's home : there were hollow logs, a stone pile, and plenty of dry leaves and moss. The experiments were tried at nightfall, as results were more quickly ob- tained, since the Weasel is largely nocturnal. " In one of the experiments there were placed in one of the compartments an old rabbit and four small ones, and in the other compartment three chickens. Late in the evening the com- partments were examined and not a rabbit or a chicken was found alive, and the remains had been left just where the victims had fallen. No attempt was made by this Weasel to hide the bodies for future use. The Rabbits were killed by a single bite, except the old one, which was bitten twice in the neck. The brains of two of the young rabbits were eaten. At another time, another Weasel killed six young rabbits and six chickens in a single night. " In experimenting with several other Weasels the number of animals killed was large, e.xcept in two instances which I will cite later, but there was a marked difference in the ntimber of brains consumed and the amount of flesh eaten. By regulating the food supply I found that the first choice was blood, next the brains, and then the flesh. Why this is the order I will attempt to demonstrate. By accident I discovered in the stomach of a Weasel a large parasite. As this was noted several times in other ^\^easels, it oc- curred to me that perhaps the parasite was the cause of such an abnormal ferocity and love for blood. I accordingly set about a definite investi- • gation, with the result that out of twelve Weasels examined, I found but two without the parasites. 124 MAMMALS OF AMERICA " At last a beautiful male Weasel occupied the house. On several occasions he left both chick- ens and rabbits in the compartments for two nights without killing them, and of ninety per cent of the animals he killed in six months por- tions of the bodies were eaten. Upon the dis- section of this Weasel no parasite was found. Some time later another Weasel without the parasite behaved in the same manner. A Weasel which was trapped and brought to me dead had no parasite, but the stomach contained much solid food. " I noticed with the \\'easels having parasites that they were not in as fine a condition as those not having them. The fur in many cases showed a marked difference, being thicker and more glossy in those without the parasites. The length of the parasites varied from six to nine and a half inches. This seems to point to one conclusion, that the parasite in the \\'easers stomach is one cause for its choice of food and the blind ferocity that stamps the animal as a bloodthirsty little villain." ^^'hen angered the Weasel emits a penetrating and disagreeable odor, common to its family. The mother Weasel's courage in defending her young against all odds is well known. The nest is constructed of dry leaves or moss in a stone heap, or log pile, or hollow log. There are two or three litters each year, with four or five young at a birth. The young develop very rapidly and soon learn to shift for themselves. The following anecdote by an observer testifies to this fact : " I was walking through a park one day early in the autumn, when I noticed that the dead leaves under a tree were tossing and tumbling about ™ a curious manner. On going a little closer I found that a mother Weasel and her little ones were playing together. When I came uj), of course, they all ran away. So I ran after them, and caught one of the little animals by putting my foot on it, just hard enough to hold it" down on the ground without hurting it. And imme- diately the little creature, which was only about six inches long, twisted itself around, and drove its sharp teeth into the edge of the sole of my shoe, both from above and below. So that if I had done what I thought of doing at first and had stooped to pick it up, its teeth would cer- tainly have met in my finger." The Weasel is a skilful climber, darting along the limbs of trees with the nimbleness of a Squir- rel. Not content with seeking its prey on the ground it will pursue birds through the trees. Dr. A. K. Fisher says, " The Weasel is one of Nature's most efficient checks upon the hordes of meadow mice and other rodents, which at times destroy forage, crops, orchards, vineyards, and garden produce. It feeds also upon rabbits, squirrels, and birds, and in many sections its occasional inroads on the poultry yard have brought it into serious disrepute. It is, of course. desirable to kill particular individuals which have acquired the poultry habit, but farmers and hor- ticulturists will make a mistake if they systemati- callv destrov Weasels." Photograph by H T. .Middleton NEW YORK WEASEL The Weasers body is long, and its legs are set so far apart that they seem to work independently The Mountain Weasel is tolerably common in the mountainous parts of the West, and replaces the Long-tailed Weasel from the eastern base of the foothills westward. It has a wide vertical range and occurs on both slopes of the Continental Divide from 5,000 feet to timberline. It frequents the piles of large bowlders and debris in canyon bottoms and along mountain streams, where it preys chiefly upon Mice, Chip- munks, and Say Spermophiles. Wlien surprised in the open, it immediately seeks refuge among the nearest rocks, but once in its safe retreat, its curiosity overcomes its fear, and it is seldom out of sight for more than a moment. WEASEL FAMILY 125 BRIDLED WEASEL Mustela frenata Lichtcnstein General Description. — See general description for Arctic Weasel. Larger in size ; tail longer and pattern of coloration distinctly different; color in general dark chestnut brown to black, with conspicuous white patch across forehead ; below, ochraceous yellow to orange. Dental Formula. — Same as given for Arctic Weasel. Pelage. — Adults : Same pelage in winter as in summer. Top of head varying from dark chestnut brown to black; rest of upper parts rich brown; band across forehead including eyes and extending back to ear white; chin and throat whitish; rest of under parts ochraceous yellow to orange ; front feet to above wrists whitish yellow to orange; inner sides of hind legs and hind feet yellow or orange ; tail like back above and below, with restricted black tip. Measurements. — Male, 18 to 20 inches ; tail, 7 to 8 inches ; hind foot, 2 inches. Range. — Southern Texas into Mexico. Food. — Small mammals and birds, anything that it can capture. The Bridled Weasel lives at the other ex- treme of our country from the Ermine. While the latter ranges from the Canadian border to the Arctic coast, thus deriving its name of Arctic Weasel, the Bridled Weasel is found principally along our southern border and in the interior of Mexico. It is a handsome little beast with tawny coat, as befits its life in a warmer zone, but it appar- ently has lost none of the activity of its northern cousin. The coat is a rich chestntit, shaded with dull brown or black, and, unlike the northern varieties, it does not turn white in winter. Where it lives, with winter almost devoid of snow, there is no need of this change, and Nature does not believe in doing useless things. The Bridled \\'easel is about eighteen inches long, sometimes longer, and is thus one of the largest species. Like other Weasels it is blood- thirsty, pursuing rodents and birds relentlessly. It pays no attention to other food, and is especi- ally noted for its ferocity. Indeed, if such Weasels were of larger size they wotild be among the most dreaded of animals. By permission of the U. S. Biological Survey BRIDLED WEASEL Drawing of head, showing characteristic markings from which this animal gets its name LEAST, OR PYGMY WEASEL Mustela rixosa [Bangs) General Description. — See Arctic Weasel. Smallest of the Weasels and smallest living carnivore. Tail without black tip and very short. Dental Formula. — Same as Arctic Weasel. Pelage. — Summer, upper parts reddish-brown, lower parts, white. Winter, entirely white. Measurements.— Males, 7 inches long; females, 6 inches long. Range.— Arctic America from Alaska to Hudson Bay, and south to Minnesota and Montana. Food.— Strictly carnivorous. Small mammals and birds wherever found. The Pygmy, or Least Weasel, is so-called because it is the smallest of the Weasels and the smallest of all flesh-eating mammals. Be- cause of its flesh diet it is exceedingly fierce, being known to attack animals nearly twice its size without provocation. The Pygmy Weasel is only seven inches long, or less. In color it is reddish brown on the back and white on the belly. In winter it is entirely white. Its tail lacks the usual black tip which marks the Ermine. It ranges over the greater part of Canada from the coast of Alaska 126 MAMMALS OF AMERICA to Hudson Bay, and south as far as Minnesota and Montana. Its white coat in winter coupled with its dimin- utive size makes it extremely hard to follow through the snow. An observer says : " One would suppose that this beautiful white fur of winter, literally as white as the snow, might prove a disadvantage at times by making its owner conspicuous when the ground is bare in winter, as it frequently is even in the North ; yet though ^^^easels are about more or less by day, you will seldom catch so much as a glimpse of one at such times, though you may hear their sharp chirrup close at hand. Though bold and fearless, they have the power of vanishing in- stantly, and the slightest alarm sends them to cover. I have seen one standing within reach of my hand in the sunshine on the exposed root of a tree, and while I was staring at it, it van- ished like the flame of a candle blown out, with- out leaving me the slightest clue as to the direc- tion it had taken. All the Weasels I have ever seen, either in the woods or open meadows, dis- appeared in a similar manner. How hawks, owls or foxes ever succeed in catching them is a mystery, yet they do from time to time, though certainly not often enough to reduce the number of Weasels at any season." Mr. D. Costello relates an incident which oc- curred many years ago while he was prospecting in the mountains of northern Gunnison County, Colorado, back of Crested Butte. Soon after locating in a cabin adjacent to a large rock slide just below timberline, he discovered that a Cony was occupying a large grass nest beneath the cabin floor. It often appeared in the cabin, com- ing up through a broken board in the floor, and in time became very friendly. Finally a day came when the Cony did not make its usual ap- pearance, but a tiny ^^'easel was seen at the hole in the broken board, peering in all directions and craning its long slim little neck with the bold curiosity so characteristic of the larger Weasels. Fearing for the welfare of the Cony, Mr. Cos- tello killed the tiny cut-throat, but apparently too late, as he saw no more of his interesting com- panion. It seems probable that the Cony is often preyed upon by this Weasel, as the same rock slide has frecjuently been found to harbor both animals. BLACK-FOOTED FERRET Mustela (= Putorius) nigripes {Audidw)! and Baclnnan) General Description. — Largest of the Weasel group. See general description of .'\rctic Weasel. Form like that of Arctic Weasel, but much larger in size, and body proportionately heavier ; muzzle short ; ears short, broad at base, closely furred; tail about '/} length of head and body ; color above, reddish-brown ; below, white; end of tail black. Dental Formula. — Same as that given for Arctic Weasel. Pelage. — Adults : No seasonal variation. Color above, rather reddish-brown with a dark area along the back and with hairs white at the roots ; underfur white, tinged with yellow, showing through the brown hairs to give a buft'y appearance; sides and rump lighter fading to yellowish-white; nose, ears, sides of head, throat and under surface of neck, belly and under surface of tail white; chest between fore legs brown- ish ; a broad black patch on forehead inclosing eyes and reaching tip of nose; legs to shoulders and to hips brownish black; terminal two inches of tail black. Measurements. — Length, male, 19 inches ; tail, 4 inches ; hind foot, 2' 1> inches. Female, length, 18 inches. Range. — Great Plains from western North Dakota and northern Montana south to Texas. Food. — Small mammals, but principally Prairie Dogs and probably a few small birds. The Black-footed Ferret is a true Weasel, but differs frotn the other members enough to be placed in a group by itself. Its characteristic markings, the bright yellowish tone of the upper parts, the black across the face and the black feet, together with its large size, are sufficient to enable it to be instantly separated from any of its kindred. It does not change color in win- ter. There is but the one species known, a pretty little animal living out in the Western States in the Rocky Mountain country. In 1849 it was described and pictured by Au- dubon and Bachman, but soon afterward natur- alists seemed to lose sight of it. for little more was heard of it for thirty or forty years. Locally it is known as the Prairie Dog Hunter, or Prairie Dog Ferret, as it seems especially fond of that fat little beast — much, however. WEASEL FAMILY 12/ to the latter's distress. It is most often found in the holes of the defunct Dogs upon which it has feasted. Very httle is known as to the habits or Hfe history of this animal, which seems chiefly re- markable for its ability to escape observation. Like all of the Weasel clan it is strictly a flesh- eater. There are no Fridays on its church cal- endar and no vegetarians among its friends. Failing in its supply of Prairie Dog steak, it assiduously hunts the Field Mice and other mals, because their prey consists largely of Prairie Dogs." Two .specimens were captured at a height un- usual for this plains mammal. Warren says : " One specimen in my collection came from Di- vide, Teller County, at an elevation of 9800 feet, another was found dead in Lake Moraine, El Paso County, altitude 10,250 feet. It is a mystery how the animal came there, and when skinned there were no marks on its body to in- dicate the cause of death." By permission of the New York Zoological Society BLACK-FOOTED FERRET A member of the Weasel family that is little known because of its elusive habits. It is sometimes found in Prairie Dog burrows small mammals, as well as birds and their Mr. Merritt Cary, in " A Biological Survey of Colorado," says : " This rare and little known animal has been recorded from a number of localities on the plains of eastern Colorado, but here, as elsewhere over its range, its numbers are small. Usually it is found in Prairie Dog towns, where it takes up its abode in an aban- doned burrow, and from this convenient base preys upon the defenseless inhabitants of the colony. These Ferrets are mo:-t beneficial mam- Others have been recorded by Coues. All were taken in Prairie Dog towns, and one speci- men had been drowned out of a Prairie Dog hole and captured alive. This individual was kept in confinement for some time. " It became quite tame, readily submitting to be handled, though it was furious when first caught. It was kept in a wire cage and fed on beef, ^^'hen irritated it hissed and spat like an angry cat. It used to hide by covering itself over with material of which its nest was composed, but at times, es- pecially at night, it was very active and restless." 128 MAMMALS OF AMERICA AMERICAN MINK Mustela vison Schrcbcr General Description. — Body Weasel-like ; heavier and considerably larger than a Weasel ; legs short ; head broadly triangular in shape; tail about Ys length of body, bushy ; ears short ; soles hairy ; foot pads naked ; five toes in front and behind. Females considerably smaller than males. General color dark brown. Dental Formula. — Same as that given for Weasel. Pelage. — .Adults : No marked seasonal variation. Pelage is composed of a long outer coat formed of hard, lustrous hairs and a shorter denser coat of soft under hairs dark in color like the longer coat but generally lighter in tone; above, nearly uniform umber brown, darker and glossier on the back, and on the tail, becoming nearly black ; chin more or less white, and occasionally irregular white spots on throat, breast or belly. Young : Not quite as dark as adults and at first lacking the long shining hairs of the outer coat. Measurements. — Length, male. 24 inches ; tail. 7 inches; hind foot. 2'A inches. Weight. 2 pounds. Females, smaller ; weight, i pound 10 ounces. Range. — Central North .America from eastern Canada to the Rockies. Food. — Small mammals, birds and their eggs, fish, crayfish, mussels and clains. Remarks. — The Mink seems to be midway in its development between the Weasel and the Otter, having a good many characters in common with either animal. The Minks of North America have not become differ- entiated into as many different forms as have the Weasels, and the Mink from Florida has almost pre- cisely the same appearance as has the one from Alaska, there being only a slight size and color difference. .'Vbout ten species and sub-species are known. Rel.-\ted Species American Mink. — Mustela vison vison Schreber. The typical animal of the above description. From eastern Canada to the Rocky Mountains through central North -America. Western Mink. — Mustela vison cncrgunicnos (Bangs). Larger and darker than the .American Mink. Western North America from northern California to -Arctic regions and east to Saskatchewan. Alaska Mink. — Mustela vison ingcns (Osgood). Very large and rather dark. Alaska. Florida Mink. — Mustela lulensis (Bangs). Smaller than .American Mink, tail shorter; color paler, inore yellowish. Florida. In both Europe and America, the Mink is semi- aquatic, being commonly at home in districts where water is found. In its water-loving pro- pensities, it may be regarded as bearing the same relationship to the Polecat as is held by the Water-Vole to the Land-Vole. " The Mink," writes Dr. Merriam, " not only swims and dives with facility, but can remain long under water, and pursues and captures fish by following them under logs or other places from which there is no escape. It has thus been known to catch as swift and agile a fish as the brook-trout, and -Audubon says that he has seen a Mink catch a trout of upwards of a foot in length. It is remarkably strong for so small an animal, and a single one has been known to drag a mallard duck more than a mile, in order to get to its hole, where its mate joined in the feast." Generally, the food of the Mink consists of various aquatic creatures, such as frogs, crayfish, and molluscs ; but it will also eat various small aquatic mammals, such as voles, as well as mice and rats. Marsh-fre- quenting birds also fall victims to the Mink, and their eggs are probably also consumed. Other wild birds are, however, comparatively safe from the attacks of this animal, as its climbing powers are of the feeblest. Poultry are not un- f requently attacked ; but in these and other at- tacks the Mink does not exhibit that wholesale destructiveness characteristic of the Ermine. In hunting, the Mink has been often observed to pursue its prey entirely by scent ; and it may be observed on its hunting expeditions both by night and by day. As a rule. Minks appear to be comparatively solitary animals ; rarely are more than two seen in company. The abode of the Mink is usually a hole in the bank of a stream or lake ; and a well-trodden path always leads from the entrance of the burrow down to the water. From such abiding places the animal will not only make daily excursions for the sake of procuring food, but also wander into neighboring districts, from which it sometimes does not return till after the lapse of a week or two. Minks have been extensively bred in captivity for the jHirjiose of being used as Ferrets, and in this condition it appears that the number of young in a litter may vary from three to as many as ten. The scent characteristic of all the mem- bers of the Weasel group is extraordinarily de- veloped in the Mink, Dr. Coues observing that no animal, with the exception of the Skunk, pos- sesses such a powerful, penetrating and lasting effluvium. All who have hunted the Mink bear witness to its extraordinarv tenacitv of life, the writer last WEASEL FAMILY 129 quoted stating that he has known several in- stances of these animals being found alive after having lain for fully four-and-twenty hours with their bodies crushed flat beneath a heavy log. The countenance of the Mink is described as at all times far from prepossessing ; but when alive in a steel-trap, these animals are said to have an expression almost diabolical. A recent writer narrates an incident showing that the Mink is a formidable enemy of the Musk-Rat, though yielding to the latter in weight. W'hile snipe-hunting on a marshy island below the Kickapoo Rapids of the Illinois River, the writer noticed an object, which appeared like a than twelve pounds : " We were spending our vacation in the woods of Maine, fishing and trav- eling about for a good time in general. One day we came across an old dam made to flood a piece of lowland. As this looked like a good place to fish we stopped, seated ourselves upon the edge of the dam, and cast in our line. The fish were quite plenty, and as soon as we caught one we threw it behind us upon the scaffolding. After a dozen or so had been caught, I thovight I would light my pipe, pick up the fish and put them in the shade, and I started to do so. I accomplished the first object, but upon looking for the fish I could not find a single one. I thought that my By permission of the New York Zoological Society MINK The Mink swims and dives with ease, hunting fish, frogs and other aquatic food. It is also fond of birds' eggs, but its climbing powers are feeble ball some six or eight inches in diameter, rolling toward the water. It was a Mink and a Musk- Rat clinched together, and so completely covered with mud as not to have been at first recognized. At his approach, the Mink released its hold and made its escape ; but the Musk-Rat was already dying of severe wounds in the head and neck, from which the blood was flowing profusely. ■The rodent had evidently been captured and overcome in fair fight by broad daylight, and the Mink would have devoured its victim had not the hunter interfered. Mr. Charles Hallock remarks that he has known Minks to carry ofif fish weighing no less chum must have removed them, and was plaving a joke upon me, but on mentioning it to him, he was as much surprised as I was. They could not have fallen through the cracks, nor leaped over the side without our knowing it. Where were they ? That was the question. He returned to fish, and I seated myself upon the bank to digest the subject. Presently he caught another fish and threw it upon the boards. Immediately I saw a Mink run out from a hole near bv, snatch the fish and carry it off. This explained the mysterious disappearance of the others." "The movements of the Mink on land," says Coues, " though sufficiently active, lack some- I.^O MAMMALS OF AMERICA tiling of the extraordinary agility displayed by the more lithe and slender-bodied Weasels, as a consequence of the build of its body ; while, for the same reason, it does not pursue the smaller animals into their extensive undergroimd re- treats, nor so habitually prowl about stone heaps and similar recesses. It is altogether a more openly aggressive marauder, though not less per- sistent and courageous in its attacks. It appears to be more ]ierfectly at home in the water, where it swims with exactly the motions of an Otter. and in fact appears like a small specimen of that kind. It swims with most of the body sub- merged — perhaps only the end of the nose ex- posed — and progresses under water with perfect ease, remaining long without coming to the sur- face to breathe." The Mink is not properly a migratory animal. In most sections it remains permanently where it takes up its abode. In other.t;, however, it may be forced to remove at times, owing to scarcity or failure of its food-supply, such as may ensue from the freezing of the waters in northern parts. Under such circumstances, it may perform extensive journeys overland. Trap- pers speak of a " running " time with the Minks, but this probably refers to the time when the animals are hvmting mates. The mating season begins early — generally in February — and .Vpril is for the most part the month of reproduction. Five or six yoimg are ordinarily produced at a birth, and the yoimg remain with their mother through the summer. Litters have been found in the hollow of a log. as well as in the customary burrows. The Mink has been frequently tamed, and is said to become with due care perfectly gentle and tractable, though liable to sudden fits of anger, when no one is safe from its teeth, ^^'ith- out showing special affection, it seems fond of being caressed, and may ordinarily be handled with perfect impunity. Minks are not burrowing animals in a state of nature, but freely avail themselves of the holes of r^Iusk-Rat and other rodents. They cannot flimb a smooth surface, but ascend readily where there is roughness enough for a nail-hold. Tame Minks make excellent ratters, hunt vigorously, and soon exterminate the troublesome pests. Rats will make off on scenting them ; they are so bewildered in flight that they give no battle, but yield at once ; and the Mink severs the main vessels of the neck so quickly and skilfully that an observer would scarcely imagine the deed had been done. Dr. A. K. Fisher says : " The Mink feeds on fish, crayfish, mussels, bats, and like the Weasel is indefatigable in its search for meadow mice and other marsh-loving rodents. It is very fond of Musk-Rats, and one of its mo t important services to man is the destroying of these pests about milldams, canals, and dikes, where their burrows undermine the embankment and cause disastrous overflows. The Mink, although semi- aquatic, sometimes travels long distances from water in search of rabbits, ducks and chickens. ^^'hen it finds an unprotected ])ouItry house, it sometimes contents itself with a single victim ; but other times it kills all the inmates within reach. A single Mink has been known to kill thirty to forty ducks or chickens in one night. Fortunately such occurrences are rare and cer- tainly will become less frequent, since the de- mand for Mink fur is constantly increasing." LARGE STRIPED SKUNK Mephitis mephit General Description. — A. large robust-bodied animal as large as a eat. with pelage of clear black and pure white. Body thick-set : legs rather short ; tail bushy ; claws curved ; ears short ; anal musk glands exceedingly well developed ; soles nearly wholly naked, partly plantigrade ; color black all over, with the exception of broad white stripe from head along back and onto tail : white line down forehead to nose. Dental Formula. — Incisors, — — : Canines, — ; 3—3 I— I Premolars, ^£^ ; Molars, ^—=34- Pelage. — Adults: Sexes similar and no seasonal variation. Pelage composed of two types of hairs, long hard hair and short soft underfur. Color everywhere black, but with broad white band commencing at crown of head rumiing backward, at first as one stripe, then dividing back of shoulders into two stripes along the is iScltrcber) upper side and continuing thus out along sides of tail ; a narrow white stripe from middle of nose to crown ; black hairs of tail white at base: tail white at tip. Young : Striped like adults. Measurements. — Sexes about the same. Length. 24 inches ; tail. 8 inches : hind foot. 3 inches. Weight. 7 to S pounds. Range. — Eastern Canada west and north to Kee- watin. Food. — Sinall manunals, birds, insects, frogs, cray- fish and snakes. Remarks. — The Striped Skunks of the genus Mephitis range over nearly all of North America south of Hudson Bay and from coast to coast. They are readily distinguished from the Little Spotted Skunks of the genus Spihijalc by their large size and by the quite difi^erent color pattern, the broad white stripes of the ^';- ^ol^ '■ % Photograph by H. T. Middleton HUNTING FOR TROUBLE An adventurous Irish terrier is making the acquaintance of two Eastern Skunks 11311 132 MAMMALS OF AMERICA Mephitis group being a good diagnostic character. There is a wide range of individual variation in color- ation, some animals having the white stripes very broad and prominent, others being nearly all black. About 15 species and subspecies are known from the region under discussion. Many of the characters upon which the species are based are to be found only in the skull. Rel.\ted Species Large Striped Skunk. — Mrl'liitis inrphilis (Schre- ber). Typical animal described above. Eastern Canada. Hudsonian Skunk. — Mcpliitis hi =36. Premolars, — — ; Molars, - 3—3 2 Pelage. — Sexes similar. Young very much like adults. Seasonal variation slight. Color in general, dark rich ochraceous brown becoming somewhat paler and grayer below ; lips, cheeks, chin and throat pale brownish gray to grayish-white. The long outer hairs are hard and glossy; the underfur is dense, short and soft. Measurements. — Sexes nearly equal. Length, 40 inches ; tail, 12'/2 inches ; hind foot. 4 inches. Weight, 20 pounds. Range. — Greater part of the United States and Canada except on extreme southeastern and north- western coast of the United States. Food. — Largely fish, with a few small mammals and birds. Remarks. — Tlie Otter is one of the most aquatic of the group to which he belongs, being exceeded in this respect only by the Sea Otter. The long well-muscled body, the webbed feet and the long tail enable it to pursue fish in their own medium. The Otters have been separated into some seven species and subspecies known north of the Rio Grande. The differences that separate them are mainly in color, size and cranial characters. Related Species Canada Otter. — Lutra canadensis canadensis (Schre- ber). Typical animal of the above description. North .'\merica from Alaska to Hudson Bay and eastern Canada, south to Washington, thence south to Texas, and east to the Atlantic Coast, north of Florida. Southern Otter — Lutra canadensis lataxina (F. Cuvier). Smaller. North Carolina to Louisiana, south to Florida. Florida Otter. — Lutra canadensis vaga (Bangs). Larger and redder. Florida. Sonoran Otter. — Lutra canadensis sonora (Rhoads). Large and yellowish. Arizona, Colorado, Utah and New Mexico. Pacific Otter. — Lutra canadensis pacifica (Rhoads). Color paler. California north to British Columbia. Newfoundland Otter. — Lutra degener Bangs. Size small. Newfoundland. Queen Charlotte Islands Otter.— Lutra pericly- comae Elliot. Size large. Queen Charlotte Islands. The Otter is an aquatic aniinal which swims and dives with great readiness, and with pecu- liar ease and elegance of movements ; and although its action on land is far from awkward and difficult, yet it is certainly in the water that the beautiful adaptation of its structure to its habits is most strikingly exhibited. It swims in nearly a horizontal position, and dives instan- taneously after the fish that may glide beneath it, or pursues it under water, changing its course as the fish darts in various directions to escape from it, and, when the prey is secured, brings it on shore to its retreat to feed. As the Otter lives exclusively on fish, when it can procure them, it frequents lakes, rivers, smaller streams, ponds, and not unfrequently descends to the sea ; and the havoc which it makes among the finny inhabitants is almost incredible. In feeding, it holds the fish between its fore-paws, eating first the head. Otters are generally found either in pairs or in family parties of five or six. Their homes 140 MAMxMALS OF AMERICA are made in or near the banks of a river or lake, the hollows beneath the roots of trees growing on the margin being special favorites, while in hilly districts the clefts between rocks are selected, and where the soil is of an alluvial nature deep burrows, with several entrances, one of which usually opens beneath the water, are excavated in the banks. Otters apparently never hibernate, and in con- sequence must be hard jiressed to supply them- selves with food during the winter in the colder portions of their habitat. At such times they mav make occasional raids on the farmvards. copious under- fur is lanuginous and lustreless. The sheen is only visible in its perfection when the pelt is viewed with the lay of the hairs ; from the other direction the color is plain. The roots of the hairs, even on the darkest part of the pelage, are light brown, or dingy white, but the fur is so close that this does not appreciably affect the rich brown tone of the surface. According to Richardson, one of the earliest authors giving accounts of the species with pre- cision, " The Canada Otter resembles the Euro- pean species in its habits and food. In the winter season, it frequents rapids and falls, to have the \ S'i^ 'i^ By perrnr OTTERS Otters are too short of limb to move easily on land, but are wonderfuUy agile and graceful in water. They are also fond of sliding down mud banks Water-fowl are probably also attacked at such periods, while eggs are always acceptable. In addition to fish, Otters are fond of frogs and shell-fish. The number of young in a litter is usually two, although there may be either one or three. They are born about the middle of April, and during the summer and autumn the young stay with their mother. The fur of the Otter, says Cones, is of great beauty, very thick, close, short and shining. The longer hairs are stout and glistenin;.; : the very advantage of open water ; and when its usual haunts are frozen over, it will travel to a great distance through the snow, in search of a rapid that has resisted the severity of the weather. If seen, and pursued by hunters on these journeys, it will throw itself forward on its belly, and slide through the snow for .several yards, leaving a dee]i furrow behind it. This movement is repeated with so much rapidity, that even a swift runner on snov,--shoes has much trouble in over- taking it. It also doubles on its track with much cunning, and dives under the snow to elude its WEASEL FAMILY 141 pursuers. When closely pressed, it will turn and defend itself with great obstinacy." The sliding of the Otter seems to be a favorite amusement of this creature. Godman speaks of the diversion in the following terms : " Their favorite sport is sliding, and for this purpose in winter the highest ridge of snow is selected, to the top of which the Otters scramble, where, lying on the belly with the fore-feet bent backwards, they give themselves an impulse with their hind legs and swiftly glide head-foremost down the declivity, sometimes for the distance of twenty yards. This sport they continue ap- parently with the keenest enjoyment tmtil fatigue or hunger induces them to desist." Statements of similar import are made by vari- ous writers, and accord with Audubon's observa- tions : " The Otters ascend the bank at a place suitable for their diversion, and sometimes where it is very steep, so that they are obliged to make an effort to gain the top ; they slide down in rapid succession where there are many at a sliding place. On one occasion we were resting on the bank of Canoe Creek, a small stream near Henderson, which empties into the Ohio, when a pair of Otters made their appearance, and not observing our proximity, began to enjoy their sliding pastime. They glided down the soap-like muddy surface of the slide with the rapidity of an arrow from a bow, and we counted each one making twenty-two slides before we disturbed their sportive occupation." The general intelligence of the Otter is of a high order, and his docility is such that he may not only be thoroughly tamed, but taught to work for his master. Audubon speaks of four American Otters which were tamed so com- pletely that they would answer a whistle like dogs, and became very agreeable as well as use- ful pets. SEA OTTER Latax lutris (Linnaeus) General Description. — Size very large, general ap- pearance miicli as Canadian Otter. Body long ; fore- feet small ; hind feet large, fully webbed, flapper like, haired on both surfaces ; tail flattened, smooth, about one quarter length of body; claws of moderate length: ears very small and low on side of head; skin very loose on body; fifth toe longest, others diminishing to the first; molar teeth large and smooth on crown; color dark, frosted with white tipped hairs. Dental Formula. — Incisors. ~~ ; Canines, ^^ ', Premolars. ^:z\' J^Iolars, tE-=32. Pelage. — Sexes similar. Seasonal variation slight. Color black, with white tips to the longer hairs, giving frosted appearance ; head and neck grayish-white or yellowish-white; an exceedingly dense underfur is present, formed of shorter and softer hairs, and through this coat a much less dense outer coat penetrates, the hairs hard and lustrous. In summer the long, white- tipped hairs are more numerous, producing a grizzled appearance. Measurements. — Length. 48 inches; tail, 11 inches; hind foot. 0 inches long and 4 inches wide. Range. — North Pacific south to California in kelp 'beds among rocky islands and along the coast. Now a very rare animal, and nearly extinct on American shores. Food. — Fish, mussels, clams and molluscs. Remarks. — The Sea Otter is the most highly specialized member of the MustcUdac. being purely aquatic in its habit and taking all its food in the water. .•Mthough so highly developed, it has yet retained many of its more primitive characters, and is readily seen to be related to its kindred ashore. Specimens of the Sea Otter are very rare in collections, and but little is known of its life history. One species divided into two subspecies is known. Rel.^ted Forms Sea Otter. — Latax lutris lutris (Linnaeus). Typical animal as described above. North Pacific south to California. Southern Sea Otter. — Latax lutris )icrcis Mer- riam. Much like the typical form. Waters off Cali- fornia coast. The Sea Otter is an inhabitant of both coasts of the North Pacific ; its chief haunts on the American side being Alaska, the Aleutian Islands, the neighborhood of Sitka Island on the west coast of Canada, and Vancouver Island; its southern limits being the shores of Oregon. On the Asiatic side it occurs in Kamschatka. btit apparently more rarely than on the eastern shores of the Pacific. When the Russian traders first opened up the Aleutian Islands, they found the natives com- monlv wearing cloaks made of the fur of the 142 MAMMALS OF AMERICA Sea Otter, which they were at first willing to sell for a mere trifle, esteeming these skins much less than they did those of the fur-seals. Again, when the Prybiloff Islands, situated in Behring Sea to the eastward of the Aleutians, were first discovered, upwards of five thousand skins of this species were taken in the first season, with the result that in six years these animals had completely disappeared from the islands. Nearly the same story is told in all the haunts of the Sea Otter, which has now become a very rare animal indeed, and stands in sore need of protection if it is to escape total exter- mination. Mr. H.W. Elliott, states that "over two-thirds of all the Sea Otters taken in Alaska are secured in two small areas of water, little rocky islets and reefs around the islands of Saanach and Chernobours, which proves that these animals. live without its mother, though frequent attempts have been made by the natives to raise them, as they often capture them alive, but, like some other species of wild animals, it seems to be so deeply imbued with fear of man that it invari- ably dies from self-imposed starvation." The remarkable difference in the structure of the cheek-teeth of the Sea Otter from those of the true Otter clearly indicates that there must be an equally marked difference in the food of the two ; and the rounded prominences on the crowns of those of the present species would further suggest that they were adapted for pounding and crushing hard substances. As a matter of fact. Mr. Elliot tells us that the food of the Sea Otters " is almost entirely composed of clams, mussels, and sea-urchins, of which they are very fond, and which they break by striking the shells together, held in each fore- SEA OTTER The fur of this animal is so valuable that it is in danger of extinc- tion from over-hunting in spite of the incessant hunting all the year round on this ground, seem to have some parti- cular preference for it, to the practical exclusion of nearly all the rest of the territory. This may be due to its better adaptation as a breeding- ground." A similar preference is also shown for a small area in the neighborhood of Gray's Har- bor, over the whole of the remainder of the coast of \\'ashington and Oregon. The female Sea Otter produces but a single young one at a birth, so that the increase of the species can be, at best, but slow. The young may apparently be born at any season of the year, and do not attain maturity till four or five years old. Writing of the general habits of the species, Mr. Elliot observes that the " mother sleeps in the water on her back, with her young clasped between her fore-paws. The pup cannot paw, sucking out the contents as they are frac- tured by these efforts ; they also undoubtedly eat crabs, and the juicy tender fronds of kelp or sea-weed and fi,-.h." The flesh of the Sea Otter is very unpalatable, highly charged with a rank smell and flavor. Old hunters assert that they have watched the Sea Otter for half an hour at a time as it lay upon its back in the water and tossed a piece of sea-weed up in the air from paw to paw, a])par- ently taking great delight in catching it before it could fall into the water. It will also play with its young for hours. The quick hearing and acute smell possessed by the Sea Otter arc not equaled by any other creatures in the territory. They will take alarm and leave from the effects of a small fire four or five miles to the windward of them ; and the WEASEL FAMILY 143 footstep of man must be washed by many tides before its trace ceases to alarm the animal, and drive it from landing. Sea Otters are not polygamous. A pair will usually mate for life. Neither are they social animals. Only one at a time is usually met with at sea, unless it is a mother with her young one. The pelage is extremely valuable. In the days when the animal was plentiful, skins brought from $100 to $500 apiece. Now that it is fast •disappearing, skins are sold for as high as $1500 and even more. For this reason, the Sea Otter is relentlessly hunted, although usually a hazard- ous business, on account of the wild country it inhabits. One of the first official steps to pro- tect the Sea Otter was the setting aside of a preserve on Afognak Island, on the southern coast of Alaska, in 1892. This was placed under the jurisdiction of the Federal Bureau of Fish- eries. Without such protection, it would be doomed to extermination, and this despite the fact that it is one of the shyest and keenest of animals. AW^A-^'^SyT'^^ SEA OTTER The Sea Otter is an inhabitant of both coasts of the North Pacific: its southern limit on the American side being the coast of Oregon. But it is now extremely rare a a -I «^ S2 d a o .g a o >• a ■5 5 :tj41 THE CAT FAMILY {FelidcB) HE family of Cats is one of the most sharply defined of all the Carnivores or flesh-eating animals. Whether seen in its most familiar form, the House Cat, or in the larger members from the jungle, such as the Lion or Tiger, the strong family traits can instantly be noted. These are not only found in the peculiar shape of the skull and the facial traits, but also in certain, characteristic habits, such as washing the face, "sharpening" the claws, and contracting the pupils of the eyes. The Cats have long, sharp retractile claws. The feet are digitigrade, with five toes on each fore foot, and four on each hind foot. The soles are hairy, and pads naked. The tongue is covered with sharp, horny, back- wardly directed papillae. The powerful jaw is armed with a large shearing tooth, or carnassial. The skull is short and broad, with a very short face. The clavicles do not articulate, or hinge, with the scapulae or sternum. In America there are four or five typical large members of this family living in a wild state. COUGAR Felis couguar Kerr Other Names. — Panther, Puma, Mountain Lion, Catamount. General Description. — A very large, cat-like animal with a long tail. Body long and lithe ; legs moderately long; tail long and round, more than half the length of head and body ; claws long, sharp, curved ; soles haired, pads naked ; general color pale tawny brown above, dirty white below ; tail tipped with black ; ears prominent, without tufts of long hair. Young spotted. Dental Formula. — Incisors, ^^ ; Canines, '-^— ; 3—3 I— I Premolars, — - ; Molars, ^— ^ = 30. 2 — 2 * I— r Pelage. — Adults: No difference between the sexes and color in winter much the same as in summer. Color variable ; upper parts from yellowish to reddish brown, darkest along the middle of back; beneath dirty white ; black patch at base of whiskers ; lips and chin white; back of ear black; tip of tail dusky; hair every- where rather close, thick and soft to the touch ; whiskers prominent. Young : Spotted in the first coat, the ground color being tan, the spots dark brown. Measurements. — Length, 7 feet ; tail, 30 inches ; hind foot, 10 inches. Se.xes about equal, the male about a foot longer than female. Weight of male, 200 pounds. Range. — Formerly throughout eastern North Amer- ica from about the Canadian line south to the Gulf, but now extinct in the easternmost part of this region. Food. — Mammals and birds ; especially destructive to deer, elk and domestic stock, colts in particular. Remarks. — This beautiful animal while formerly known all over eastern North America has been driven out by civilization and the disappearance of its prey until now it is nowhere found in anything like its original numbers until the western part of its range is reached. Cougars are found throughout western North America and on the Pacific Coast as well, but this animal differs enough from the eastern form to be given another name. The Cougar, like the Grizzly Bear, has received various treatments at the hands of the classifiers, but for the purpose of this book, it is best to consider the group north of the Rio Grande as being composed of 5 species and subspecies. Related Species Eastern Cougar. — Fclis couguar Kerr. Typical animal as described above. Eastern North America from Canada south to the Gulf. Southern Cougar. — Fclis coryi Bangs. Legs long; feet small ; color ferruginous brown. Florida. Oregon Cougar. — Fclis oregonensis orcgoncnsis Rafinesque. Size large. Northwest coast east to Rocky Mountains. Rocky Mountain Cougar. — Fclis orcgoncnsis Iiifpo- Icstcs (Merriam). Above, pale fulvous brown, darkest on the back ; tip of tail black ; face to eyes grayish- brown ; under side soiled white; under side of tail grayish-white. Rocky Mountains. Brown Cougar. — Fclis actcca browni Merriam. Paler and grayer than eastern Cougar. Size probably smaller. Southern California and Arizona. [145I 146 MAMMALS OF AMERICA Next to the Jaguar, the Cougar is the largest of the American Cats. In color it is a tawny brown, becoming lighter on the lower surface, and without any spots at all. But the odd thing is that its young are marked all over with large blotches of blackish brown, while their tails are ringed with black like that of the Tiger. And these markings do not disappear until the animal is more than six months old. The Cougar is found in western parts of the American continent, from British Columbia in the north to Patagonia in the south, and it is even said to have been seen in Tierra del Fuego. Being so widely distributed it rejoices in several eyes, muscles and sinews like coiled springs of steel wire, the hate of a demon, a cvmning that surpasseth understanding, viciousness personi- fied, all wrapped up in a tawny reddish coat end- ing in a long, cylindrical, nervous tail ; this is the American Mountain Lion. This big Cat. one of the largest of the American varieties, averages forty inches from nose to root of tail, and the latter is more than half the length of the body. He is sleek and thin of flank, graceful and wil- lowy of movement, and anything but pretty to the eye. No mane adorns his shoulders, no stripes relieve his coat, his belly fur is usually a dirtv white, his ears are large and round, and his Photograph by Daniel J. Singer COUGAR Quick, alert, and agile in its actions, this big Cat is powerful enough to be dangerous to man — but as a matter of fact, it is slinking and cowardly names. In the Northwest they call it the " Mountain Lion," in the Southwest the " Cou- gar;" the Mexicans and South Americans know it by the sobriquet " Puma ; ' to the naturalist it is Felis several things ; J. Fenimore Cooper names it the " Varmint," and in the Gulf States it answers to the chill-producing name of " Pan- ther," while the early settlers in the East called it the " Catamount." and the " Painter :" but whatever the name, and whatever the locality, it is one and the same Cat. Mr. Edward Ferguson thus describes him : " A massive broad flat head, malignant yellow only ornament is a little tuft of hair at the end of his tail. " His range is greater than that of any other member of the Cat family and extends for over a hundred degrees of latitude, from Northern Canada to the Argentine, and before civilization drove them back they were found from the Atlantic to the Pacific in considerable numbers. Hardy and tenacious, capable of adapting them- selves to all conditions of climate, good foragers and clever thieves, they have not entirely given way in the West Virginia and Kentucky moun- tains and in the woods of Maine. In the Rockies, CAT FAMILY 147 they are entirely at home, their haunts are always inaccessible, and it is doubtful if they will ever be exterminated." Calves, colts, sheep, dogs, chickens, in fact any kind of flesh is the Cougar's diet ; it shows a pronounced jireference for lamb but when fam- ished will not hesitate to attack a steer. Its mid- night raids are carefully planned, its des- cent on the prey is quick, sure and deadly, it takes no chances and when opportunity oflfers will kill more than it can possibly consume, wan- tonly satisfying its lust for blood. These great Cats live in communities, each group ranging over a certain zone, usually along both sides of a valley for many miles of its length. The group consists of one male and from five to ten females, each with her own lair. The female is nearly as large as the male and is his counterpart in appearance. She picks a permanent abode, a pile of loose rock, under and through which she can crawl. Here with but one possible entrance to guard, she rears her young, and this guardianship is her most serious busi- ness in life, for when the litter has been born the male will haunt the neighborhood watching for a chance to kill them. The extent to which a female Cougar will go in defence of her young is illustrated by a story that Mr. Ferguson tells of a fight between this animal and a Rear which stumbled upon her den. " The Bear peacefully ambled along evidently unconscious of the Lion's presence when, as he approached the pile of rock where her kittens were hidden, the Lion suddenly appeared. She might just as well have remained hidden, and if she had the Bear would, without doubt, have gone on his way in peace. But she didn't — the watchers saw a dark body shoot out and with one long leap land squarely on the Bear's back. " The surprised brute reared and tried to throw her off, he frantically clawed the air and tried to reach her, then he rolled on the ground ; the Lion let go and with another spring was at his throat. The animals were too far away for the watchers to observe closely the details of the fight, but it must have been interesting while it lasted. As it was. they thrashed about and finally, locked in each other's embrace, rolled over the edge and tumbled down the hillside, over and over into the gulch below. The miners found them in the creek bed, both dead, with almost every bone broken." The Cougar takes readily to the trees, being a much better climber than the Jaguar. But it almost always hunts upon the ground, trying to creep stealthily up to its victim, and to spring upon it before its presence is even suspected. It scarcely ever veiUures to attack a man, but will follow him for a long distance as though wait- mg an opportunity to pounce upon him unawares. But if he suddenly turns and faces the animal, it will always slink away, even if he is quite unarmed. Sometimes too, it will allow itself to be killed without attempting to defend itself at all; so farmers have a rather poor opinion of its courage. The farmers, however, have very good reason for dreading the animal, for it is a terrible enemy to sheep, and has been known to kill as many as fifty in a single night. And it will also leap suddenly upon a horse or cow and break their necks, just as the Jaguar does. Although, in some ways cowardly, the Cougar will often fight the Jaguar itself. It is the weaker animal of the two, but is so exceedingly quick in its movements, and makes such excel- lent use of its teeth and claws, that in many cases it gets the better of the battle. Hunting a Cougar is a highly exciting sport, because of the element of the unexpected. Mr. Charles J. Lisle thus describes such a hunt in Idaho : " Bursting over the little knoll directly ahead of us they came. A long, lithe beast, like a silvery brown shadow, that traveled in unbelievably long leaps, was the first to come in view. I do not think it saw us ; but it had run a long way — far longer than a Cougar will usually travel ahead of a pack of hounds — and it was due to take a tree. There was a big- limbed red fir straight ahead of it, standing out apart from all the others. The limbs grew down close to the ground, making it easy to climb. Up the tree sprang the great Cat, not farther than the width of a street from where we stood. " Hardly had the Cougar reached the middle of the tree and settled down on a comfortable limb when the dogs burst over the crest of the knoll. They were so close that they must have been hunting partly by sight the last few minutes and they were crazed with excitement. As the hunters started in to surround the foot of the tree where the Cougar was. the dogs came at us with the ferocity of a pack of wolve:.. \\"illiams called sharply to the pack, and none of them bit him ; but two of our party were bitten before the dogs realized that we were not the Cougar ! " Meanwhile, the great Cat lay flattened out on the limb of the tree, fifty feet above the 148 MAMMALS OF AMERICA ground. It was a pretty shot, one that no one could miss. One of the hunters drew up his rifle, took a quick but careful aim, and put a 30.30 bullet through the eye of the big beast. There was a crash as the nearly 200 pounds of Cougar fell down through the Small limbs to the earth. Then the dogs leaped upon the pros- trate foe — a foe that would have attacked as willingly if it had been uninjured and alive, but that alive would have killed in detail ten times as many dogs as there were in the pack — and it was only by the most violent exertions that Williams could draw them off. Fortunately, the Cougar was dead and had not the power to " No animal, not even the Wolf, is so rarely seen or so difficult to get without dogs. On the other hand, no other wild beast of its size and power is so easy to kill by the aid of dogs. There are many contradictions in its character. Like the American ^^'olf. it is certainly very much afraid of man ; yet it habitually follows the trail of the hunter or solitary traveler, dog- ging his footsteps, itself always unseen. When hungry it will seize and carry off any dog, yet it will sometimes go up a tree when pursued even by a single small dog, wholly unable to do it the least harm. It is small wonder that the average frontier settler should grow to regard Photograph by W. L. Finley COUGAR KITTEN This pretty little Cougar kitten is evidently meditating upon something interesting. Note the crafty expression even in the very young animal fight back, otherwise the pack would have been badly cut up." Colonel Roosevelt says of the Cougar's pecu- liar traits : " It is the special enemy of the Aloun- tain Sheep. In 1886, while hunting White Goats north of Clarke's Fork of the Columbia, in a region where Cougars were common, I found them preying as freely on the Goats as on the Deer. It rarely catches Antelope, but is quick to seize Rabbits, other small beasts and even Porcupines. almost with superstition the great furtive Cat which he never sees but of whose presence he is ever aware. The Cougar is as large, as powerful and as formidably armed as the Indian Panther, and quite as well able to attack man ; yet the instances of its having done so are exceedingly rare. But it is foolish to deny that such attacks on human beings ever occur. It cannot be too often repeated that we must never lose sight of the individual variation in character and conduct among wild beasts." Id o N M D- O i-J Pi O u en B B SI .a 1 s J3 [149] I50 MAMMALS OF AMERICA JAGUAR Felis hernandezii (Gray) = Felis onca Linnaeus General Description. — Largest of the North Amer- ican Cats. Body larger and heavier than that of Cougar; tail less than half the length of head and body ; body spotted : head very large proportionally ; jaws powerful ; dentition heavy ; neck short and thick ; color in general golden yellow dotted with hollow spots or rosettes of black. Dental Formula. — Incisors, Premolars, ^^ • 3-3" Canines, i=^ ; Molars. -~- = 30. Pelage. — Adults : Sexes similar. No seasonal variation. Color variable ; usual pattern, above brown- ish or golden-yellow ; beneath, white spotted with black ; shoulders, neck and head covered with small black spots ; body covered with large rosettes or hollow areas of black with one or more black spots in the center and arranged in from five to seven rows ; black spot at opening of mouth; tail ringed with black; lips, throat, underparts and under side of tail white; ear behind black, huffy spot near tip ; hair close and soft. Young : Tawny gray spotted with black. Measurements. — Males average larger than females, probably one-fourth. Length, 6 to 8 feet; tail, 20 to 24 inches. Weight of male, 150 to 250 pounds. Weight of female, 120 pounds. Range. — Red River of Louisiana, and Te.xas south- ward into Mexico. Food. — Deer and other wild animals, pigs, cattle, horses. Remarks. — This powerful, handsome Cat reaches the United States only as a wanderer from Mexico, as the country north of the Rio Grande is only the extreme edge of its range. There is but the one species known to cross over, and of recent years this has been rarely encountered. The Jaguar is the largest of all the spotted Cats, being next in size to the Tiger, but second to none in fierceness. South of the Rio Grande it is usually called "El Tigre " (pronotinced "Teagre"). Though more essentially inter- tropical than most of the large felines, its range at one time extended as far north and east as Arkansas. James Capen Adams, better known perhaps as " Grizzly Adams," stated that in the year 1854, in the mountains of Sottthern Colo- rado, he met a pair of Jaguars, followed l)v two cubs. There is no doubt, however, that the Jaguar ranged as far north as latitude ;i7° , but like many others of our large-game animals, has gradually receded before the trend of civilization. Of late years a few have been taken in Arizona, and in 1910 one was shot in Central Western Texas. At the present writing there are still a few Jaguars within the borders of the United States, but to meet with one is becoming a rare occurrence. From the Rio Grande south they become plentiful, ranging through Mexico, Central America, and as far south as Patagonia in South America. Unlike the Cougar, Jaguars seem to require a constant supply of water. In contradiction of this, and showing a well-known fact that ani- mals will frequently alter their generally con- ceded habits, according to their changed sur- roundings, the Jaguar is found on the great pampas to the north of Patagonia, a place totally unfitted to its usual habits, where it has been attracted by the abundance of mammalian prey. Few animals surpass the Jaguar in point of beauty, and none in agility or stealth. His every motion is easy and flexible in the highest degree, he bounds atnong the rocks and trees with an agility truly surprising; now stealing along the ground with the silence of a snake, now crouching with fore-paws extended and his head laid between them, while his checkered tail twitches impatiently and his eyes glare upon his expected victim. At first glance one might mistake the Jaguar for a heavily built Leopard. In form the Jaguar is thick-set. It does not stand as high at the shoulders as the Cougar, but is a far more powerful animal. Its skull resembles that of a Lion or Tiger, but it is much broader in pro- portion to its length. The ground color of the Jaguar varies greatly, ranging from grayish-wdiite to black, while the rosette markings in the two extremes are but faintly visible. The typical color, however, is golden yellow, or a rich tan tipon the head, neck, body, outside of legs and tail near the root. The ears are black, with a bufif spot at the tip. The nose is usually a pinkish brown. The fleshy part of the lips is black, which, when parted, inake the cruel, white fangs stand out in contrast. The average length of a fine specimen is from six and one-half to seven and one-half feet, the males averaging a foot longer than the CAT FAMILY 151 females. The tail is much shorter, compared with that of the Leopard, and in a large male sel- dom exceeds two feet. I'requently the Jaguar is forced to take to arboreal life during the rainy season, or floods, and, as may be expected, climbs well among the trees and branches. Here, instead of his retreat being a rocky cavern which he uses as a lair, in one place, he " lays up " upon a huge branch where the thick, gnarled foliage shuts out the sizzling sun, and where he can doze quietly through the long, sweltering hours of the day. The pupil of the Jaguar is circular and is not of his voice, and to the extent he emplovs it, some insisting that the great Cat is decidedly silent. He may be quiet or noisy, depending on locality, or weather. The English naturalist, Charles Waterton, who spent ten years in the wilds of Guiana, wrote : " During the night the Jaguars roared and grumbled in the forests as though the world was going wrong with them.'' Jaguars are indiscriminate feeders and their appetite is a ravenous one ; so long as an animal has blood in its body, whether it be red or white, it does not come amiss to their taste. From bugs and lizards to all quadrupeds that inhabit JAGUAR ' El Tigre " of Central and South America occasionally wanders as far north as Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona. He is a powerful and beautifully marked animal adaj)ted to excess light. Like all the Fclidac, the animal is nocturnal and prowls stealthily about at sunset and throughout the night in search of prey. While occasionally abroad by day, this is not its custom. The Jaguar leaving his lair shortly after sunset for the night-long prowl, frequently begins to roar like a lion, until he actually begins to hunt. Jaguars are usually noisy animals, espe- cially during the pairing season and upon stormy nights, when their harsh, rasping roar vibrates through the forest, in tones conveying the im- pression of great power. There is a widespread difference of oninion, however, as to the tone their range, they prey upon them promiscuously, including domestic animals, such as horses, cattle and especially calves and dogs. In the tropics they also capture for food, the tapir, peccary, agouti, marsh deer, wild fowl, and consume large numbers of fresh water turtles and their eggs. The Jaguar swims well and does not hesitate to follow turtles into the water. Often the great Cat, by a dexterous stroke of his paw, will flip a fish up onto the bank, and this practice seems to be engaged in both for sport and for gain ; for all animals, no matter how serious a life they lead, must play a little sometimes, and the Cat family particularly are so inclined. I.S2 MAMMALS OF AMERICA There are innumerable accounts by reliable men of instances where Jaguars have attacked and killed human beings of their own accord. There are, too, many records showing that they have turned and charged when come upon, or when being pursued by hunters. It is the present observer's opinion, however, that, in the majority of cases, if they are given an option on the safe side of retreat they are more inclined to make oft'. If the Jaguar does intend to attack, he usually does so at once, and without the usual warning of the Lion and Tiger, which is indi- cated by throwing the tail up, baring the teeth and uttering violent growls. The great spotted Cat runs with belly almost to the ground with incredible rapidity until it is within a few feet of its adversary, then springs to the shoulders, while it sinks its fangs in the neck and lacerates the body with its great claws. Conditions being favorable, the female, after attaining the age of three years, brings forth from two to four cubs yearly (two being the usual number), which are about loo davs in gestation, and which when about two or three weeks old are able to follow the mother. Jaguars are monogamous, both the male and female assisting in bringing up the young. At the end of a year they usually shift for themselves, but it is about five years before they attain their full growth. The splendid male Jaguar. " .Senor Lopez." was presented to the New York Zoo- logical Park in 1901 ; he was full grown when he arrived, so that at the present writing he must be at least twenty-one. The Jaguar and Puma frequently occupy the same range, and there seems to be a decided enmity between them ; though the Puma is con- sidered less formidable and less daring, it is, nevertheless, the occasional persecutor of its neighbor. Like all animals with retractile claws, the Jaguar delights in sharpening them, as it is called ; but it is not for this purpose that it scratches the bark on either side of a tree trunk. The object of this practice is to tear off the ragged ends and to cleanse them, and not for the pur- pose of sharpening them, as is generally sup- posed. Some assert that each animal has an especial tree to which he repairs for the pur- ]30se, and a common method of ascertaining if a Jaguar is in the neighborhood is to examine the trunks of the trees. Next to hunting the Lion or the Tiger there is no more thrilling sport than the pursuit of the -\nierican Tiger. Sportsmen and lovers of ani- mal life are giving more attention to this superb animal, finding that transportation of the present day makes it possible to explore his haunts within the space of a few days. There is still much to learn about this splendid beast, and those who will go and live with him in his native haunts, as the writer has done, may bring back some- thing that the others have failed to note. Daniel J. Singer. OCELOT Felis pardalis Liinucns Other Names. — Tiger Cat, Leopard Cat, Spotted Cat. General Description. — A medium-sized Cat smaller than the Lynx, with a long slender body, and tail less than half the length of head and body. Form typically cat-like; color pattern striking, made up of irregular stripes and bands of black running lengthwise on a tan or rufus ground color; ears without tufts. Dental Forrhula. — Incisors, ^~ ; Canines, ~ ', Premolars, ^^ ; Molars, i^ ^ 50. 2—2 I— I ^ Pelage. — Se.xes similar. No noticeable seasonal variation. Young spotted. Color variable, typical style with upper parts rufous, marked with black lines and spots, some of the latter with rufous centers; flanks and loins yellowish white, striped with rufous, margined with black: legs spotted with black on light buflfy ground color ; feet buft'y-white ; cheeks covered by two black lines ; chin, throat, breast and belly white, the last two spotted with black ; tail dark buff banded and spotted with black, tip blackish. Hair close, glossy and soft. Measurements. — Length, 38 inches; tail, 15 inches. Weight, J() pounds. Range. — Texas from Red River southward in forested regions. Food. — Small mammals and birds. Remarks. — Like the Jaguar, the Ocelot is a southern visitor, Texas being its northern limit. No two skins of this animal are ever just alike, so variable are the pattern and the coloration, but so characteristic are its markings that it need be confused with no other .Amer- ican Cat. Only one species crosses over into Te.xas. Pholo by Ottomar Anschiilz, Berlin OCELOT FROM CENTRAL AMERICA This is one of the most beiiutifully marked of all Mammals. The ornamental coloring is seldom quite the same in any two specimens. CAT FAMILY 153 If one talks with hunters or ranchmen about Ocelots, the probability is that they will refer to them as Leopard Cats or Spotted Cats, either of which is by no means a bad designation for them. Ocelots are about the size of the Wild Cat. or Lynx, though of somewhat different build, and with a long tail. They get their name of Leopard Cats, from their beautifully marked fur, resembling in color that of the Leopard ; but, instead of being spotted, it is covered with hori zontal stripes and bands of black. There is great variety in the marking and coloration of this beautiful animal, so much indeed that Dr. Elliot savs: " To varv from each other in the hue and of lambs, young pigs, and kids, Ocelots thus cause much damage to the ranchmen. They are believed to kill turkeys and fawns also, and what they can not eat at the time they will hide under a heap of leaves. Occasionally, while hunting for other game, the dogs will tree an Ocelot. Mr. Howard Lacey, a Texas naturalist, narrates an experience of this kind : " At the head of the Frio river, the hounds struck a hot trail and were just beginning to get of? well together when a splen- did male Ocelot sprang into a large cedar close to us. Thinking the hounds might be on a bear trail, I shot the Cat at once, put him behind me By permission of the New York Zoological Society OCELOT Like most of the Cat tribe, the Ocelot prefers the night to the day, and may seldom be seen abroad until after sundown arrangement of the spots and stripes of their coats seems to be one of the chief efforts of the existence of these Cats, and, as if not content with differing from his fellows, an Ocelot usually succeeds in exhibiting a distinct pattern on each of his sides, so that he may be said to differ from himself." Formerly the Ocelot was seen in Louisiana and .\rkansas. but it is doubtful whether it is now to be found in the United States beyond the bound- aries of the State of Texas. It prefers brushy and timbered country, is an excellent climber, and in its native haunts will spend hours on the lower limbs of trees waiting patiently and watch- ing intently for its prey. Being especially fond II on the saddle, and made after the hounds, that were getting off at a good pace. They ran about two miles and then treed a female Ocelot in the bottom of a steep canyon. I think the two were together when we started them, and that they often go in pairs. They are not common here, but I fancy that they often rest in trees and so escape the dogs. They are heavier and more muscular than the Bobcat, and our hounds, that always make short work of a Bobcat, find the Leopard Cat a tough proposition. Unlike the Bobcat, they have the strong odor peculiar to the larger felines, and I never killed one without being reminded of the Lion house at the London Zoo." 154 MAMMALS OF AMERICA Little is known of the breeding habits of the Ocelot. The young are born in late October or early November, and there are usually two kittens at a birth. In this connection Mr. Lacey supplies the following useful information : " I have never had the luck to find any kittens, but a friend of mine ran a female into a cave with his hounds and killed her: then the dogs went into the cave and brought out two kittens a few weeks old. This was in November. Another of my neighbors killed a female and two kittens in a cave near here. This was also in November, and when captured the kittens had not yet got their eyes open." JAGUARONDI Fells jaguarondi Fischer Other Name. — Yagourondi. General Description. — A little smaller in size tlian the Ocelot, with even more slender body. Body elon- gate : legs short ; tail as long as body with head ; general color grizzled brownish-gray ; a sinuous cat with some- what the appearance of a large member of the Weasel tribe. Dental Formula. — Incisors, — — ; ,1—3 30. Canines, Premolars, - — -; Molars, - — ^- - 2 — 2 ' I — I Pelage. — Sexes similar and no seasonal variation. General color brownish-gray with hairs annulated and black-tipped, the whole giving a somewhat grizzled appearance, with brown body color ; tail like body or sometimes black with rufous tinge, and extreme tips of hair white. This little-known American Cat is an inhabi- tant of s(juthern Texas, ranging thence south- ward to Paraguay, east of the Andes ^Mountains. In appearance it is not unlike an Otter ; and some individuals of the species are of a grizzled brownish-gray, the hairs being black-tipped. A closely allied species, the Eyra, a rich brown- ish-red animal, with long and slender body and a very long tail, is found around the Mexican border. These species are without streaks or spots, and are commonly spoken of as the Gray and Red Cats. Of these differences in color IMr. Vernon Bailey says ( in " .\ Biological Survey of Texas") : "A study of five skins and skulls of the Red Cats and six of the Gray from southern Texas and eastern Mexico, reveals no constant difference other than color. The striking coinci- dence of range and similarity of habits, as well as of structure, of the Red and Gray Cats strengthens the evidence tending to show that these supposedly distinct species present onlv another case of dichromatism, comparable to the Black and Cinnamon Bear and the red and gray phases of the screech owl."' Concerning the habits of these animals Mr. B. F. Armstrong says : " These Cats inhabit the Measurements. — Length, 30 inches ; tail, 14 inches. Range. — South of the United States, but occasionally crossing the Rio Grande into Texas. Food. — Small mammals and birds. Remarks. — Like the Ocelot and the Jaguar, the Jaguarondi is not a typical North American mammal if we consider the Rio Grande as a southern limit. There is but the one form of this animal known to reach Texas, although in its southern distribution it is sulidivided into several varieties. Some authorities hold that the Eyra, the FcUs eyra of other authors, is a color phase of the Jaguarondi. Certain it is that the Eyra is very similar to the Jaguarondi, and differs from it only in being a rich brownish red instead of a grizzled l)rownish-gray, the proportion of the two animals being the same. There are no related species in this country. densest thickets where the timber (mesquite) is not very high, but the underbrush — catsclaw and granjeno — is very thick and impenetrable for any large-sized animal. Their food is mice, rats, birds and rabbits. Their slender bodies and agile movements enable them to capture their ])rey in the thickest of places. They climb trees, as I have shot them out of trees at night by ' shining their eyes ' while Deer hunting. I capture them by burying traps at intervals along the trails that run through these thick places. I don't think they have any regular time for breeding, as I have seen young in both summer and winter, born probably in .\ugust and March. They move around a good deal in daytime, as I have often seen them come down to a pond to drink at midday, and seen them dart through the brush in daytime. They are exceedingly hard to tame." In the New York Zoological Park there is a fine specimen of the Jaguarondi, which often passes unrecognized : for, as Dr. Hornaday says, " it is so seldom seen in captivity that compara- tivelv few persons north of the Rio Grande are aware of its existence." CAT FAMILY 155 CANADA LYNX Lynx canadensis Kerr General Description. — A stout-bodied, long-legged cat about tbe size of a good-sized cocker spaniel. Ears prominent, tufted; fur dense and long; feet very large ; claws sharp and strong ; tail very short and blunt ; legs very long giving animal a grotesque appear- ance; a ruff of long hairs on sides of head. Dental Formula. — Incisors, ^^ ; Canines, -^^ ; i—3 ' I— I Premolars, ^- ; Molars, -— = 28. 2— J I— I Pelage. — Adults : Sexes similar. Seasonal varia- tion not conspicuous, color in wuiter paler and grayer than in summer. General color light gray more or less grizzled with brown, darker on the head and back where the long hairs are black with occasional white tips; belly and throat grayish white; ears behind, black with central spot of whitish ; ear tufts brownish black usually more than an inch and a half long; black spots at corners of mouth ; black bars on ruff at sides of head, and black tip on tail ; a few dusky spots on inside. Measurements. — Length, 36 inches ; tail, 4 inches ; hind foot, 9' J inches. Male rather larger than female. Weight of male, 25 to 40 pounds. Range. — Boreal America from the latitude of Maine to 60° N.. and from Atlantic to Pacific Oceans. Food. — .'^ny mammal that it can kill, and birds. Remarks. — The Canada Lynx need be confused with no other of the North American Cats, with the possible exception of its very near relative, the Bay Lyn.x or Wild Cat, because of its long legs, large paws, bobbed tail and tufted ears. From the Bay Lynx it may be distinguished by its unringed tail, tufted ears and larger size as well as less prominent color differences. This group has been separated into three varieties. Rel.\ted Species Canada Lynx. — /.y".r canadensis canadensis Kerr. Typical animal as described above. Boreal North America from latitude of Maine to 60° N., and from .'Atlantic to Pacific Oceans, possibly only south of Alaska. Alaska Lynx. — Lyn.r cjmadensis niollif'ilosus Stone. Browner in color, otherwise like Canada Lynx. Alaska. Newfoundland Lynx. — Lynx suhsolanus Bangs. Size of Canada Lynx, but darker. Newfoundland. By permission of the New York Zoological Society CANADA LYNX One of the handsomest of the Cats, and also exceedingly active and muscular. Note the enormous fore paw 156 MAMMALS OF AMERICA The Canada Lynx is one of the most widely known of northern animals. It is the " Lucivee " {Loup cervier) of Canadians. It has a somewhat clumsy appearance, its legs being very muscular and its paws enormously disproportionate to its lean body. The color of its coat is usually a dark gray with chestnut tinge, and the shading renders it indistinct against any background. It is described by Mr. J. C. Nattrass as " an extremely wary and timid animal, and possessing the faculty of concealment to a wonderful degree. He will, hke the Cougar, hide himself on a small limb, flattening himself out thereon so that he is almost concealed ; and only the most vigilant and well-trained eye can discover him." Its main food consists of cotton-tail rabbits, mice and small birds ; it is partial also to the heads of grouse, and it delights in a small deer. It is very clever in unearthing deer, sheep, and young pigs which the Cougar has hidden away for future con- sumption. Strangely enough, although such a powerful animal, the Lynx is not by any means tenacious of life, a slight blow on the back sufficing to kill it. It is a very good swimmer. Mr. Edward A. Preble, when in the upper Mackenzie region, saw one cross the Nahanni river. " It swam readily in the swift current, and on reaching the shore bounded away into the forest, apparently little fatigued by its violent exertions." In the same region " the Indians capture the Lynx bv snar- ing, the noose being made of heavy twine or babiche. In setting the snare, a circular inclos- ure about five feet in diameter is made by stick- ing pieces of brush into the crusted snow. One or more openings are left, in which the noose is placed at the proper height, so that the animal attempting to enter the pen will put its head into the loop. In the center of the inclosure is placed a split stick smeared with the contents of the musk glands of the Beaver, sometimes mixed with perfumery of some sort, which serves to attract the animal. The snare is attached to the middle of a stout stick three or four feet long, which acts as a drag when the animal is caught. It thus generally becomes entangled in the brush and after a few struggles remains passive, and, if the weather is cold, quickly freezes to death. The flesh of the Lynx is said to be very palata- ble, and is eaten by the natives and to some ex- tent by the white residents." Unlike the Bobcat, the Canada Lynx seldom invades the farmyard ; it dwells in the deep for- ests far from the haunts of man. Stone and Cram think that the Lynx " must necessarily go without food often for days together in the winter, glad enough perhaps to pull some frozen scrap of flesh or skin out of the snow, dropped there by some more fortunate hunters weeks before. The lack of insect scavengers is not felt in the woods in winter ; every scrap of flesh that is scattered is wanted by one warm-blooded creature or another before warm weather comes again. The Lynx appears to have its summer home in tangled thickets of young growth, where the interlocking branches of fallen trees afford protection. Here the ill-natured kittens [usually two at a birth] are raised and taught to hunt." A female Lynx, owned by Mr. J. C. Nattrass, had been trained as a kitten and brought up in his family as a domestic cat. It lost many of the traits of its wild kin, and acquired others of the house cat. Says Mr. Nattrass : " She is a beauti- fully marked animal. She shows all the markings of her grandfather except the tufted and pencilled ears and the heavy limbs. She is a gentle, affec- tionate, and intelligent animal. The children can tease her with impunity: but game must never he allowed near her. for when her teeth close on a game bird, her wild instincts are aroused. She is then a fury, and will fight to the death. While cleaning some grouse one day, several of them being laid out on the table, she came purring up, rubbing her arched back caressingly against my knee, when she got her eyes on the birds. She seized one in her teeth, and started to make off with it to the bushes. I seized her bv the tail and attempted to take the bird from' her, when all her wild instincts sprang into in- stant play. Her fur turned the wrong way, her tail bushed out, her sharp white claws were dis- played, while her eyes blazed with fury. Fight- ing like a demon, she clung to the grouse with her sharp teeth. I became thoroughly indig- nant, lifted her aloft, and banged her down on a log with considerable force ; so heartily, in- deed, that the grouse rolled into the bushes. After the trouble was over, she calmed down into the same old serene and complacent, pur- ring pussy, showing no malice — in fact, seem- ing to forget all about the matter." The Lynx is found as far south as the Adi- rondack Mountains. In the Adirondacks, where it is nowhere common, it preys, according to Dr. Hart Merriam, "■ upon the northern hare, and such other small mammals as it can catch, and upon the ruffed grouse and spruce par- tridge. It has been known to devour pigs, lambs, and young fawns; but the accounts of CAT FAMILY 157 its attacking full-grown deer are not to be credi- ted. Its haunts are in the deep forests and bush districts, remote from the paths of man ; and consequently it rarely intrudes upon the barn- yard. Its ordinary gait when in a hurry is a long gallop, like that of the hare, and it is said to swim well. The female commonly has two voung at a birth, her lair being located in a cavern or hollow tree." When leaping over the ground, with back arched, and tail so short as to be almost indis- cernible, it presents an appearance that has been described by hunters and backwoodsmen as laughable and peculiar in the extreme. The Lynx is seldom hunted systematically, as are other game animals, unless it be by profes- sional hunters or trappers, who value it for the ])elt. With them the usual method is to hunt it with dogs trained to follow the trail by scent. In other cases the track is followed through the snow, but hunters following such a lead must be prepared for a long arduous chase of many hours, because of' its combination of cunning, agility, and endurance. WILD CAT Lynx ruffus (Glildeiistaedt) Other Names. — Bobcat. Bay Lynx, Red Lynx. General Description. — \'ery similar to Canadian Lynx q. v. but rather smaller and with detailed dif- ferences. Form thick-set ; legs long, tail short but longer than that of Canadian Lynx ; ears prominent but not conspicuously tufted; feet large but smaller than those of Canadian Lynx ; ruf? of hair on side of head. General color pale rufous-brown, spotted on sides with dark-brown ; fur soft and full. Dental Formula. — Same as that given for Canadian Ly n X . Pelage. — Sexes similar. No very noticeable seasonal variation. Adults: Yellowish-brown above, spotted on sides with dark-brown ; brown stripe on forehead and one on back and tail ; underparts yellowish-white spotted with black ; legs yellowish-brown spotted with black on outside, dull white on underside, barred with black : chin and throat whitish ; breast white barred with black ; two white bars across cheek ; ears tipped with black; tail with broken bars of dark brown on upper surface, end spotted. Measurements. — Length. 36 inches ; tail, 6J^ inches ; hind foot. 7 inches. Weight, 20 pounds. Range. — Central North America from southern Georgia to Maine. Food. — Mammals and birds. Remarks. — The Wild Cats form rather a larger group containing more species than are to be found in that section of the genus which contains the Canadian Lynx. They range over a much more diversified habitat and consequently more variations in size and color are met with. The distinguishing features between the Canadian Lynx and the Wild Cat have been set forth in the synopsis on the Lynx, as well as in the general characters outlined above. Some eleven species of Wild Cats are known from the Rio Grande northward. Rel.^ted Species Bay Lynx, or Wild Cat.— Z..r«.f ruffus ruffus (Guldenstaedt). Typical animal of the above descrip- tion. Eastern Noith .'America from southern Canada to the Gulf States. Florida Wild Cat. — LyiLr ruff'iis floridanus (Rafinesque). Feet smaller; darker in color; spotted. Florida. Texas Wild Cat. — Lynx ruffus tcxcnsis (Allen). Chestnut brown above, spotted and sprinkled with lilack ; size small. Texas and New Mexico to southern California. Desert Wild Cat. — Lyttx ruffus crcinicus Mearns. .\ pale desert form. Above, grayish tawny olive, more or less mottled or spotted with brown or blackish, usually with pair of narrow interrupted black stripes on back; an indefinite whitish eye ring surrounding black eyelids ; whiskers with several rows of small black spots at their bases ; convex surface of ears black, with triangular pale gray spot; upper side of tail similar to back, with black tip. and one to si.x black bars ; beneath grayish-white with black spot on inner side of limbs. A white, buffy or tawny band across breast; belly white, spotted with black. Central and southern Cali- fornia. Northwest Wild Cat. — Lynx fascialus fascialus Rafinesque. Fur very full and soft. Color rich reddish chestnut-brown above ; pale on sides and throat ; belly white spotted with black; terminal third of tail black. Oregon and Washington. Gray Wild Cat. — Lynx fascialus fallesccns Mer- riam. Smaller and paler than Northwest Wild Cat. California, Oregon and Washington. California Wild Cat.— Z,.v > -d J3-2 3 «> w "a ^^ k. U> .t3 3 -I MS 3 O .g [i67i 168 MAMMALS OF AMERICA EASTERN RED SQUIRREL Sciurus hudsonicus ( Erxlcbcn ) Other Names. — Chickaree. Pine Squirrel. General Description. — .\ medium-sized Squirrel with bushy tail. Head blunt and rounded ; ears fairly large and broad, clothed with short hair ; tody of moderate proportions ; tail nearly as long as head and body, broad and bushy ; feet of moderate length, soles furred, pads naked ; general color above yellowish- rufous in summer, chestnut rufous in winter. Tem- perament, nervous and active. Dental Formula. — Incisors, Premolars, or — ; Molars, Canines, -^ 20 or 22. Pelage. — .Adults: Sexes identical. Sximmer. Upper parts yellowish-rufous ; a conspicuous black lateral line between rufous of upper parts and clear white of under parts; everywhere below, pure white; no tufts on ears; tail above like body, beneath, yellowish-gray bordered with black and fringed with yellowish-rufous; upper surface of hind feet and front of fore legs clear fer- ruginous. Winter. Upper parts and dorsal stripe, chestnut rufous; sides olivaceous gray; under parts grayish-white; tail as in summer but fuller; short tufts of hair on ears. Young: Similar to adults but colora- tion weaker. Measurements. — Total length, 12 inches; tail verte- brae. 5.5 inches; hind foot. 1.8 inches. Range. — Boreal North .'America. Labrador west to Rocky Mountains and .■\laska. Food. — Seeds of conifers and of other plants, nuts, buds, some insects and birds' eggs. Rel.\ted Species Eastern Red Squirrel, or Eastern Chickaree. — Sciurus liitdsonicus huiisniiicus (Er.xleben). Typical animal of the above description. Boreal North America north of the United States. Southern Red Squirrel. — Sciurus hudsonicus loquax Bangs. Larger than Eastern Red Squirrel ; tail longer ; dorsal stripe brighter. Ontario to North Carolina, and west to Minnesota. Little Red Squirrel. — Sciurus hudsonicus gymnicus Bangs. Smallest of the Eastern Red Squirrels; tail with orange-red fringe. Eastern North America south of Labrador to northern New York, west to northern Michigan and northern Minnesota. Richardson's Chickaree. — Sciurus hudsonicus rich- ardsonii (Bachman). Upper surface of tail mostly black, size large. Northern Montana, Idaho, north- eastern Washington, and Oregon northward into British Columbia. Douglas's Chickaree. — Sciurus douglasii douglasii Bachman. See special synopsis. Fremont's Chickaree. — Sciurus frcinoiiti frcnionti Audubon and Bachman. See special synopsis. The Red Squirrel in some of its related forms is found in nearly every timbered area in North America. This group of mediinn-sized Squirrels is divided naturally into several subgroups clearly distinguished by strong color differ- ences. Altogether about twenty species and sub- .species of Red Squirrels range north of the Rio Grande and fall easily into three divisions : the first, or Eastern Red Squirrel group in which all the members are clear white below and generally some tone of chestnut, or rufous brown above; the Douglas Red Squirrel group in which the members are bright orange below and reddish above : and the Fremont's Chickaree group in which the members are grayish white below and gray above. The Red Squirrel is the most frolicsome, alert, curious, and " sassy " of the family to which he belongs. His home is usually in a hollow tree or among the roots, but sometimes he constructs a summer nest of twigs and leaves, located on lofty branches in the forest; but if in an old apple tree, it is usually not more than fifteen feet from the ground. Nuts form the chief food of the Red Squirrel, but berries, roots, ftmgi, fruits, seeds of the pine. and, occasionally, animal food, are also eaten. Even in the coniferous forests he, with his intelligence, industry and faculty of adapt- ing himself to circumstances, lives and thrives. If the annual nut crop fails, the other Squirrels are forced to migrate ; not so with the Red Squirrel, or Chickaree, as he is often called, for he can subsist upon buds, roots, and even mush- rooms — in fact, he is very fond of the last named. Just how a Red Squirrel knows the dif- ference between the poisonous and the non- poisonous varieties has always been a mystery. Mushrooms decay quickly if not gathered at the l)roper time, and the Red Squirrels, who know this as well as we do, harvest them accordingly. There are also the barberries, chokecherries, partridge berries and greenbrier berries which they add to their store, and last, but quite im- portant in many localities, are the seeds from the cones of the hemlock, pine and spruce. But the food question is far from being set- tled for the Red Squirrel, even after the supply which has cost him days and days of arduous toil is gathered, for he has thieving neighbors constantly watching to take advantage of his thrift. He suffers little from his own kind, for SQUIRREL FAMILY I69 each Red Squirrel is supposea to have a certain territory that belongs to him, and trespassers upon another's preserves are promptly driven away ; also he easily vanquishes his larger cousin, the Gray Squirrel, but there are many other hungry wood folk not so easily disposed of, such as the thieving blue jays, which know neither bounds nor limits, and which are ever on the alert for tempting morsels. The Red Squirrel has learned through bitter experience that it is better to have various storehouses for his sup- plies. Nature and stern necessity have taught him to make ample provisions in the season of abundance for the long winter that is to follow, and the quantity of food stores is often quite ones, but also in the manner and certainty with which he gets at the kernel. Concerning this art John Burroughs writes as follows : " There is one thing that the Red Squirrel knows un- erringly that I do not know ( there are probably several things) ; that is, on which side of the butternut the meat lies. He always gnaws through the shell so as to strike the kernel broadside, and thus easily extract it ; while to my eyes there is no external mark or indication in the form or appearance of the nut, as there is in the hickory-nut, by which I can tell whether the edge or the side of the meat is tow^ard me. But examine any number of nuts that the Squir- rels have rifled, and, as a rule, you will find th'ey ^^^V\ jS^"'''^' '::^^i^^f:£^^f!^'::^j^. Faotograph by the U. S. Biological Survey FREMONT'S CHICKAREE Also called Pine Squirrel, from its fondness for pine and spruce cones. This was a young specimen large. Sometimes as much as a bushel and a half of nuts have been taken from a hollow tree occupied by a pair of Red Squirrels. This probably was the main storehouse, but undoubt- edly there were lesser ones which would have considerably increased the amount. Annoying as the blue jay is, he is a real friend to the Squirrels and other wood dwellers. The Red Squirrel, being a constant target for gunners in some localities, is very shy, and the jay often sounds an alarm note when the hunter is some distance away, thus warning the Squirrel in time to scamper away and hide until the danger is past. The blue jay, and in the northland the Canada jay, have caused the hunters to lose many a good shot, not only at small game, but more particularly at members of the Deer family. The Red Squirrel is an expert on the subject of nuts, not only in selecting sound and good always drill through the shell at the one spot where the meat will be most exposed. Occa- tionally one makes a mistake, but not often. It stands them in hand to know, and they do know. Doubtless, if butternuts were a main source of my food, and I were compelled to gnaw into them, I should learn, too, on which side my bread was buttered." In certain parts of the country the Red Squir- rel makes inroads upon the farmer's storehouse of grain, and sometimes it ventures even so far as to make a nest for itself in some of the out- buildings. Although the Red Squirrel is a good provider, food sometimes becomes extremely scarce in the north country, if the spring is very late, and his hunger drives him to drink. He does not slake his thirst at the mountain stream, but taps a maple tree and later the birch. \\!\t\\ his sharp, chisel-like teeth he makes an incision in the bark, I70 MAMMALS OF AMERICA either upon the tree trunk or upon the upper side of a limb. The cut in the bark forms a small cavity, in which the sap collects, and as the capacity is small, there may be two or three " drinking fountains " on the same tree. He is abroad at nearly all times of the day, but retires early, excej^t in the busy nutting sea- son, when he keeps late hours. This Squirrel combines qualities so entirely dissimilar that he is clearly the enigma of the forest. His wonder- ful inquisitiveness, his exasperating insolence, coupled with all disregard for the ordinary civilities of the wood folk, stamp him " the black sheep of the flock." If you disturb him in your walk, he mounts the nearest tree, and from a limb just out of reach he literally boils over with rage and indignation, jerking his tail and stamp- ing the limb furiously, calling " chickaree, chickaree, chickaree! " He barks and spits, and probably says things in Squirrel language that would sound very dreadful in English. He makes little dashes first this way, then that, as though he intended to come down the tree and run you from the premises. He has no more respect for a man than for a dog, and if you sit down and remain motionless, he may either pay no attention to you at all, or his insolence may know no bounds, so fickle and changeable is his disposition. Those who have tented in the woods far re- moved from man's influence, must have observed the ungovernable curiosity of the Red Squirrel. \\'ithin ten minutes after your camping outfit was landed, he was chattering at you from the tree tops. If he considered you a " squatter " upon his territory, his language indicated it, but if pleased, his every action showed his appro- bation. Many a time I have been awakened in the early morning by the repeated calls and chuckles of this clown of the forest ; nor was he always satisfied in remaining on the outside of my tent, for if I did not appear at what he be- lieved to be the proper time, he might surprise me by coming inside. If you really would like to have him come in, a nut dropped near the entrance would seem to assure him that vou were his friend, and the ice once broken he visits you regularly during your stay, accepting food of almost any kind. A few weeks of this, and you become very much attached to the mis- chievous little rascal, and after camping davs are over, the recalling of his escapades is a pleasant memory. This same curiosity that endears him to some campers makes him a terror in the region of the trappers. Says one observer : " From an over- hanging limb he looks on with unfeigned in- terest while the trapper arranges the bait for the Marten or Fisher; but a moment later he has sprung the trap and is chippering with a fiendish delight. He is often caught, it is true, but a half dozen others are always ready to take his place, and it affords little satisfaction to the hunter, on his lonely rounds through the snow- clad forest, to find a worthless squirrel in his trap, instead of the valuable fur for which it was set." Many claim that the Red Squirrel is the bird's most deadly enemy, destroying both eggs and Photograph by ii. T. .Midaktun CHICKAREE Holding almost as big a nut as he can manage young ; others are equally positive that the Squirrel does not meddle with nesting birds. I do not precisely agree with either, for circum- stances have very much to do with it, and to say that the Red Squirrels as a whole do not rob birds' nests is a very sweeping statement. There are probably both innocent and guilty ones. In other words, I believe it to be largely a habit, formed like any other habit that an animal may have, or that persons may have. Yet, with all his many faults and objectionable traits, his intelligence, his wonderful persever- ance, his industry, and the cleverness displayed in his various actions cause him to be tolerated, even though he is an acknowledged nuisance. S. A. LOTTRIDCE. SQUIRREL FAMILY 171 DOUGLAS'S CHICKAREE Sciurus douglasii Bachman General Description. — Genera! build as in Red Squirrel, but coloration strikingly different, dark gray ; below, orange. Dental Formula. — Same as Eastern. Pelage. — Adults: Sexes similar. Summer. ceous brown, tinged with reddish, above; orange of variable intensity, below; feet, orange rufous; lateral line conspicuously black ; tail above, dark ferruginous with sub-terminal broad black bar ; tail fringed with Eastern Above, Oliva- yellowish ; underside grizzled rusty. Winter. A darli reddish dorsal band; rest of upper parts dark gray; underparts orange grizzled with black ; lateral line present; tail as in summer but thicker. Young: .Similar to adults but colors weaker. Measurements. — Total length, 14 inches : tail verte- brae, 5 inches ; hind foot, 2 inches. Range. — Coast region of Oregon and Washington from Cape Blanco to Puget Sound. FREMONT'S CHICKAREE Sciurus fremonti Audubon and Bachman Other Name. — Pine Squirrel. General Description. — Proportions and size about as in Eastern Red Squirrel, but coloration much grayer. Dental Formula. — Same as Eastern. Pelage. — .Adults: Summer. Above yellowish-gray; forearm and upper surface of feet ochraceous ; lateral line black ; beneath, grayish-white ; tail above, yellow- ish-rusty bordered with black and fringed with white ; beneath, pale yellowish gray bordered and fringed as above. Winter. .Above, gray with pale yellowish- rufous dorsal band and obscure dusky lateral line; underparts grayish-white ; tail as in summer but thicker. Youni;: Much the same markings as found in adults. Range. — Rocky Mountains of Colorado, and Uintah Mountains in Utah. Photograph by H. T. Middleton YOUNG CHICKAREES The Red Squirrel, or Chickaree, is the most frolicsome and also the most quarrelsome of the Squirrel tribe. It will not hesitate to tackle and drive off its larger gray cousin 172 MAMMALS OF AMERICA The Douglas, and the Fremont Red Squirrels are western types which differ in coloration, but only slightly in habits. Mr. Merritt Cary, of the U. S. Biological Survey says : " Like the common Northern Red Squirrel, which it greatly resembles in all respects except color, the Fremont Squirrel feeds chiefly upon pine and spruce cones, which are hoarded in large caches at the bases of trees, beneath logs, and among rocks. I have never found it living in a hollow tree, although it may do so occasionally. The nests of pine or spruce needles and fine strips of bark are usually constructed in the fork of a branch well out from the main trunk, at from twenty to forty feet above the ground, and in the densest forest. I have found the nests occu- pied by the Squirrels in both summer and winter. This Squirrel is not at all shy, and may be coaxed to within a few feet by making a non- descript, ' screaping ' noise. One seen in Au- gust was laboriously ascending a tree, carrying a large cantaloupe rind, which had been left by a camper. In some localities it is called the little Gray Squirrel, which is, of course, a misnomer." The Red Squirrel has many enemies, and of these the most deadly are the hawk, the owl, and the Weasel. The Weasel is the most relent- less of all, and by his sense of smell pursues the Squirrel through the tree tops. The Squirrel is much fleeter, but for some reason not known, he seemingly goes crazy when he discovers the Weasel on his trail, and rushes pellmell among the tree tops, up and down, crossing and recross- ing his trail, until at last, hiding among the branches or taking to a cavity, he awaits the coming of the Weasel, which means nothing less than sure death. FOX SQUIRREL Sciurus niger Linnaeus General Description. — Largest of the North .Xmer- ican arboreal Squirrels. Head large, blunt, rounded ; ears of moderate height, rounded ; body large, fairly heavy; tail about one-half total length, broad and bushy ; legs short ; pelage harsh ; color varying from glossy black to clay color mingled with black. Dental Formula. — Incisors, I — I I— r Canines, Premolars, 1 — I Molars, ^~^= i—i Pelage. — Adults : Sexes similar. Seasonal varia- tion not especially noticeable. General color above. from glossy black to clay color mingled with black ; clay color below ; tail mixed black and clay color ; nose and ears always white; top of head usually black. Yoln'g: Colors not so strong as in adults. Measurements. — Total length, 25.5 inches ; tail vertebrae, 12 inches; hind foot, 3.5 inches. Range. — Virginia to Florida, east to .\lleghenies, and Gulf Coast to Louisiana. Food. — Nuts and seeds of trees with some buds, fruit and berries. Remarks. — The Fox Squirrels may be known from the other North .American Tree Squirrels by their large size, heavier bodies and distinctive coloration, .'\bout five species and subspecies are known in the United States. REi..\TF.n Spfxies Fox Squirrel, or Black Fox Squirrel. — Sciurus iiigcr nigcr Linnaeus. Typical animal as described above. Florida and the southeastern States. Yellow-bellied Fox Squirrel. — Sciurus niycr rufi- zwtlcr (Geofifroy). Smaller than the Black Fox Squir- rel ; ears and nose never white. Greater part of the Mississippi Valley from northern Louisiana to southern Wisconsin. White-bellied Fox Squirrel. — Sciurus t.iycr iici/U'c- lus (Gray). Belly white or whitish. Central Virginia and West \'irginia to Pennsylvania. Texas Fox Squirrel. — Sciurus nigcr tcxianus (Bach- man). Smaller and paler than the Western Fox Squirrel. Coast region of Louisiana and Mississippi. The Fox Squirrels are big strapping fellows, the largest members of their large family in America. They are also the laziest. They can defend themselves more easily from some of their enemies such as the hawks, and for this reason may have lost some of their agility. They prefer also to lie abed of a morning. snuggling contentedly between their mossy or leafy coverlets, rather than hustle abroad with some of their noisier red cousins. This, how- ever, is not because they fear the cold, but froiu sheer laziness. Dr. Hornaday says : " In cap- tivity the northern Fox .Squirrel seems to be more hardy in winter than the Gray Squirrel. / / i * - ji^^^^^^^^BF^^^SiyW^^^B i f _* V ^^L gm &d f "**' ^^^^^^^^^hSI^^ '^^^^^^^^^v ^I^^^^^I ^^^H^u^&4^'-<^ .^^^^^1 - r N "'-^Jpt/Mj > /' "^ *^*^^^Bb ^^^^I ^ 4 ^^9H f ▼ ^ • >, J- ■r- 7\--^ ^^^v ^HH lmI ii ^^^^■j^^H Mif ^ J3 o 5 3 O H o « E S t> O c *t w (A O X a o in (K .-I 3 a < o 5 174 MAMMALS OF AAIERICA In the New York Zoological Park it blithely runs about in the snow when the latter takes pains to avoid it. Often the Fox Squirrel will be out when none of the other occupants of the rodents' cages are visible. It seems to me, how- ever, that the Fox Squirrels are not as nimble on foot, or as active and daring in the tree- tops, as the Gray Squirrels." Mr. \Mtmer Stone says of the southern species which is the more common type : " In rough weather they keep close at home in their hollow trees, choosing to go hungry rather than face tops, and here they bring the cones which thej- cut off, just as the Red Squirrels do the cones of the white pines in the North, biting off the scales in order to get at the seeds in a similar manner. The scales scattered about the foot of their tree often betray them to the Squirrel-hunter. Thev are much hunted as an article of food, being well flavored and heavy, but it requires skillful watching to kill many of them." The Fox Squirrel's home is chiefly in the southeastern and gi^ilf States. It is found as far west as Louisiana, and one species, the Photograph by Dr. R. W. Shufeldt FOX SQUIRREL The Fox Squirrels, which are found chiefly in the Southern States, are the largest members of the tribe in America the cold. In warm weather they gather wild fruit, berries and mushrooms and go into the corn fields as soon as the ears have reached the milky stage. Among the southern pines they make large nests of Spanish moss in the tree- Yellow-bellied, along the Mississippi Valley as far north as Wisconsin. An observer in Colo- rado states that a few have been introduced there from the East, but thus far have not increased to any appreciable numbers. TUFT-EARED SQUIRREL Sciurus aberti IV oodhouse Other Name. — .'Vbert's Squirrel. General Description. — h large tree Squirrel about the size of the Eastern Gray and resembling it some- what in color. Head blunt and rounded ; ears tall and noticeably tufted, especially in winter; body large: tail less than half the total length, broad and bushy; feet of moderate length ; pelage full and moderately soft. Only three subspecies are known. Dental Formula. — Incisors, I — I I — I Canines, Premolars. --? : Molars, ^-^=22. 1— I ' ' 3—3 Pelage. — Adults; Sexes identical. Summer. Above plumbeous gray with broad dorsal area of reddish- brown; under surface, including tail, pure white; sides with a black line between gray of upper surface and white of underparts ; tail black at tip, mixed gray and black above, white beneath ; ears with conspicuous tufts. Winter. General coloration much as in suinmer but ears clothed with chestnut hair at base and tufted with blackish hairs more than an inch in length. Young: Similar to adults. Measurements. — Total length. 20.2 inches ; tail vertebrae. 8.9 inches ; hind foot, 2.5 inches ; ear from crown. 1.5 inches; length of ear tufts in winter, 1.5 inches. Range. — Pine-covered plateaus and mountains of northeastern .Arizona eastward into New Mexico. Food. — Pine nuts, acorns, ground nuts and green vegetation. SQUIRREL FAMILY 175 Although closely resembling the Eastern Gray Squirrel, in some respects, the Tuft-eared Squir- rel deserves separate consideration, as in many ways it is nearer the typical Tree Squirrel of the Old World, Sciunts I'lilgaris, from which it differs only in color and in several minor char- acters. Its Old World relationships are indi- cated in the long ear-tufts found developed to such a degree in no other North American Squirrel. These ear-tufts are sufficient to dis- tinguish this animal at once from the Eastern Gray. The Tuft-eared Squirrel is characteristic of the stately yellow pine forests, and in the open vistas can be seen at a considerable distance. It is often first detected on the ground, moving about among pine cones which carpet the forest floor in many places. When alarmed, it lopes leisurely up to the base of a pine, usvially the nest tree, which it seems reluctant to climb, barking and scolding at the intruder until ap- proached somewhat closely. When thoroughly frightened it betakes itself to the higher branches and its claws make a very audible sound on the dry bark. \\'hen seated motionless on an exposed limb far up in a big pine, it pre- sents an odd appearance, due to its long hairy eartufts. Once safely within the confines of the nest tree it will occasionally scamper part way down the trunk in a daring fashion, chattering excitedly. In climbing up or down a tree it spreads its feet far apart and by its flat appear- ance reminds one strongly of a Flying Squirrel. The nest tree — usually a large dead pine with a hollow sufficiently large for the Squirrel's home — is generally located in the heaviest forest, and very few of the animals live in small timber or along the outskirts of the forest. A few nests, composed largely of dry pine needles, have been seen in the upper branches of large pines, but most of the Squirrels ap- pear to be living in hollow trees. A stomach examined contained a mass of finely masticated green material which could not be identified with certainty, but probably consisted of the inner bark of the terminal branches of the yellow pine. One Squirrel was seen gnawing the bark from a good-sized limb, apparently feeding. The many freshly cut tips of branches beneath the pines in the neighborhood of the nest trees also attest to the Squirrels' activities. In the silence of the vast forest reaches, the calls of this Squirrel are at times the only sounds which reach the ear. During rainy or inclement weather, however, the Squirrels are inactive and the calls rarely heard. The soft bark, sometimes sounding like " wuh, wuh, wuh," and again like " chuck, chuck, chuck," is usually repeated three RICHARDSON'S SQUIRREL A handsome species of the West. This one was "snapped" running down a tree, near Old Faithful Inn, Yellowstone Park or four times at short intervals, and each call is accompanied by a jerk of the tail. These Squirrels are occasionally kept in confinement and are said to make desirable pets. 176 MAMMALS OF AMERICA EASTERN FLYING SQUIRREL Sciuropterus volans (Linnaeus) General Description. — A small, soft-haired arboreal Squirrel. Head blunt and rounded; ears low and broad ; hair on ears very short : body small : tail about as long as head and body, broad and flat ; an extension of skin from the sides of the body reaching from wrist to ankle forming when the legs are spread, a flat plane ; legs of moderate length ; hair very soft and of moderate length; eyes large and soft; general color above gray- ish-brown, below white ; hairs on tail very soft, and while tail is broad it is not bushy. Nocturnal in habit. Dental Formula. — Incisors, '~' ; Canines, ^^ '> Premolars, ~ ; Molars, |~ = 22. Pelage. — Adults: Sexes identical. Summer. Upper parts grayish-brown washed with rusty-brown, becom- ing deeper on upper surface of tail; upper portion of lateral membrane dark drab brown ; below white, the hairs entirely white to the bases; under surface of tail tawny to tawny-white. IVintcr. Similar to summer, but upper parts tinged with grayish-brown. Young: Mouse-gray above. Measurements. — Total length. 9.3 inches ; tail verte- brae, 4 inches; hind foot, 1.22 inches. Range. — Northern New York and southern New Hampshire south to Florida, west to the Plains. Food. — Omnivorous to a considerable extent ; nuts, seeds, insects, birds' eggs and occasionally young birds. Related Species Eastern Flying Squirrel. — Sciuroplcrus volans 7'olans (Linnaeus). Typical animal as described above. Northern New York, southern New Hampshire to Florida, west to tlie Plains. Florida Flying Squirrel. — Sciuroftcrus volans qucrccti Bangs. Underparts washed with rusty. Florida to southern Georgia, west to Louisiana. Northern Flying Squirrel. — Sciuropterus sabrinus sahrinus (Shaw). Decidedly larger than Eastern Fly- ing Squirrel ; fur of underparts gray at base instead of all white. Boreal North America south to northern New York and southern New Hampshire. Alpine Flying Squirrel. — Sciuropterus alpinus atpinus (Richardson). Larger than Northern Flying Squirrel with longer tail ; above yellowish-brow'n. From MacKenzie River along east side of Rocky Mountains to northern border of the United States. Cascade Flying Squirrel. — Sciuropterus alpinus fuliginosus Rhoads. Similar to Alpine Flying Squirrel in size, but color darker. Cascade coast and Sierra Nevad:i Mountains at high elevations. Olympic Flying Squirrel. — Sciuropterus alpinus olyiiipicus Elliot. Largest of the Flying Squirrels. Color dark. Total length 13.5 inches. Northwestern Washington in Olympic Mountains. The Flying Squirrel is a very specialized animal and stands in a .group well differentiated from the other North American Squirrels. Its so-called flying membrane at once marks it out from the other Squirrels, and in addition the texture of the pelage is very much softer, the individual hairs being rather long, very lax and exceedingly soft to the touch. The lateral mem- brane is supported mainly by the limbs, but in addition a cartilaginous spur or slender rod runs backward for a short distance from the wrist, and serves to stiffen the forward edge of this gliding plane. A number of Flying Squir- rels have been described, some eighteen species and sub-species in all, and while the differences between many of these varieties appear slight, there are several well-marked groups best singled out on the basis of size difference. The Flying Squirrel is a specialized member of his family, possessing a pectdiar, hair-covered membrane of skin on each side of the body, between the fore and hind legs, and attached to both as far as the wrist and the ankle. When the Squirrel is about to " fly " it spreads its " wings," and from the summit of a tree springs into the air and then glides swiftly on an in- clined air-plane, always in a slightly descending direction, until a movement, probably of both bodv and tail, inclines it upward, and it alights gently upon the object for which it set out. The tail, being thin and flat, with closely set silken hairs, probably serves a double purpose on these short " flights " — that of rudder and parachute. I do not mean by this that the tail can in any way turn the animal from a straight line, except that probably by bending it downward, and at the same time elevating the head, it brings the body in a convenient position for alighting upon an upright object. The distance that the Squirrel can " fly " depends entirely upon the elevation from which it starts. The angle of descent is ordinarily from twenty to thirty degrees, although the desire of the animal and the direc- tion and force of the wind probably command an extreme range of from forty or fifty degrees to a nearly perpendicular drop. The powerful hind legs of the Flying Squirrel are important factors at the beginning of the " flight." for by means of these it is projected into the air with considerable force. The usual mode of travel from place to place, if trees are convenient, is sailing from the top of one to the base of SQUIRREL FAMILY 177 another, then running up this and again saihng. It is surprising how quickly one of these little fellows can travel a quarter of a mile. The Flying Squirrel is one of the most beauti- ful and graceful, and by far the most gentle of our Squirrels, becoming quite tame in a few- days. On one occasion a Flying Squirrel mother and four young ones were taken from a hollow tree. She seemed very willing to remain with them, and so the family was taken home in the pocket of a coat. They were placed in a box near a window, which was left partly open. At first the mother remained with the young only at night, but in a few days she had gained suffi- cient confidence to remain with them the whole day, and even allowed herself to be handled. This was not an unusual instance of gentle- ness, for several years ago the writer knew a man to capture two adult Flying Squirrels, a male and a female, who took them home for pets. In a short time they were very tame, and at nightfall they would come from their cage and play about the house as contentedly as though they were in their forest home. In the spring comfortable quarters were made for the Squirrels in the woodhouse attic. At the rear of the attic stood a large maple tree, the boughs of which touched the woodhouse. The old tree had but one cavity, but it was supplemented by a woodpecker stub and fastened in an upright position about thirty feet from the ground. It did not take the Squirrels long to find an open- ing at the end of the attic by the old tree, and so their playground was considerably enlarged. In the old stub the first litter was born, and as soon as the young ones were large enough to enjoy night frolics, the attic became their play- house. The distance from the old tree to the edge of the forest, where nuts were plentiful, was only a few rods, and even this was made easy for the Squirrels by the use of a fence and orchard. By the time the nuts were ripe the old instinct had conquered the few months of civilizing influ- ences, and the whole family must have visited the forest nightly, judging by the quantity of nuts that were stored in boxes in the attic and in the stub of the old tree. The family lived together that winter, but the next spring most of the young ones sought homes of their own, prob- ably in the forest near by. Other young were reared in the attic and the old tree, but the following August they all mysteriously disap- peared, both old and young, probably obeying some migratory instinct. It is worthy of note that the autumn following their disappearance the nut crop was nearly a failure in that imme- diate vicinity. Could there be any connection between the two circumstances? Concerning the degree of intelligence of the Flying Squirrel, we quote from Charles C. Photograpii £rom the American Museum of Natural History FLYING SQOTRREL This specimen was mounted, but the attitude in taking its flying leap is very lifelike Abbott : " Years of familiar acquaintance with these Squirrels have not enabled me to detect much in their habits indicative of intelligence ; and it is for this principally that I look in study- ing animal life. I feel sorry to have so poor an account to give of these beautiful creatures, but I am compelled to say it of them — they are not ' smart.' Notwithstanding all their vivacity when in their native haunts, and their eminently gre- garious habits, they do not suggest by any of MAMMALS OF AMERICA their movements, so far as I could ever detect, any decided indication of that sociability charac- teristic of the Ground Squirrels, or Chipmunks. Each, on the contrary, jumps, runs, flies, solely on his own account, associated together indeed, but never acting in concert. Their several squeaky cries, too, are quite as frequent when they are alone as when associated with their fel- lows." If one really wishes to know the Flying Squir- rel, the best plan is to go into a large grove of maples, beeches, and chestnuts on a still moon- light evening in early autumn, find a comfortable seat and remain quiet. If it so happens that one does not see a Flying Squirrel, one will be amply repaid, for other night-loving animals are abroad, and they are as interesting as those seen by day. One must be patient, look, and listen ! The night hawk is already on the wing, and the bat has taken the place of the chimney swift. Then comes a sound like that of a nut dropping from a tree. A slight rustle among the leaves is heard overhead, as a shadowy form glides through the air, and alights upon the bole of a tree ; another soon follows and alights at nearly the same place and hastens after the first. It is quite common for three of four Flying Squirrels to start from the same or neighboring trees, and at times there will be various lines of them crossing and recrossing one another. The writer cannot quite agree with Mr. Abbott concerning the play of the Flying Squir- rels. As far as T can judge, frolic and amuse- ment occupy the greater part of the waking hours, and old and young seem to enjoy it alike. Even during the " business hours," when the storehouses must be filled with nuts for winter use, the same rollicking spirit holds sway over this Squirrel band. The Flying Squirrels, unlike most others, live in communities, but during the winter a dozen or even more may occupy the same cavity in a hollow tree. Even in the storing of food for winter, several may unite in gathering a general supply. The storehouse may be in the same cavity as the living quarters, or in a separate one in the same tree, while it is occasionally in a tree some little distance away. The food stored consists of nuts and seeds of various kinds ; but in season, buds and fruits are much enjoyed. \\'ood-choppers very often find the store- houses of the Flying Squirrels. One man took six quarts of beechnuts from a cavity in a large maple tree in the month of January, and from the same tree counted eight escaping Flying Squir- rels. In this instance the Squirrels and nuts were found in separate cavities. Flying Squirrels make large nests of leaves in tall trees, which are similar to those of the Gray .Squirrel. These nests are sufficiently compact to withstand the storms of winter, and warm enough to protect the .Scpiirrels during cold weather. I have never known these nests to contain food for winter use. It may be that they are used principally as summer homes. The Flying Squirrel during the day avoids the light, its large eyes, like those of the owl, being better adajjted to darkness, and so one may get the idea that it is a dull and uninteresting pet', crawling into your sleeve or pocket and seeking any dark place of concealment. \Mien asleep it is so rolled up as to appear like a ball of fur, the head resting near the base of the tail, which is spread over the body, doing duty as pillow and coverlet. S. A. Lottridge. GREAT PLAINS GROUND SQUIRREL Citellus elegans { Komicott) Other Names. — Great Plains Spermophile. Wyoming Spermopliile. General Description. — The Great Plains Ground .Sciuirrel may be taken as characteristic of a very large group of Ground Squirrels found all over western North America. It is of rather small size. Head blunt; ears broad, rounded, of moderate height; white eye ring; tail fairly bushy, nearly half length of head and body ; body elongate but not slender ; legs short ; general color brown above; below dull yellowish-white. Dental Formula. — Incisors, ^^; Canines, ^^^ ; Pre- molars. ^^ : Molars, ^ , — 22. 1— I ' 3—3 Pelage. — .Adults : Sexes identical, seasonal varia- tion not conspicuous. Upper parts brown, mottled indistinctly, black tips to hairs; top of head like back but without black tips to hairs; sides, flanks and upper surface of feet pale fulvous; under parts a paler shade of fulvous; chin whitish; whitis'i buff ring about eye; tail above, mixed brown and black, tip black edged SQUIRREL FAMILY 179 with whitish, tail below, brown or fulvous with black tip. Young; Colors paler. Measurements. — Total length, 10.8 inches: tail vertebrae, 3 inches: hind foot, 1.7 inches. Range. — Wyoming, Colorado and Utah in the Plains region and up into foot hills. Food. — Grasses, seeds, grain and some insect food. Related Species Great Plains Ground Squirrel. — Citcllus clcgans (Kennicott). The typical animal of the above descrip- tion. Wyoming, Colorado and Utah. Richardson's Ground Squirrel. — Citcllus richard- sonii (Sabine). About the same size as the Great Plains Ground Squirrel, coloration yellower. From Saskatchewan, latitude 55° N. south to South Dakota and Montana. Townsend's Ground Squirrel. — Citcllus towiisciidii (Bachman). Small: tail short, not very bushy; colors dark. Nebraska westward to plains of Columbia river, and from Wyoming and Utah to Montana, Idaho and Oregon. Soft-haired Spermophile. — Citcllus mollis mollis (Kennicott). Size very small: ears small: silvery gray above: fur very soft. Utah and Nevada. Picket-pin " Gopher" — Citcllus armatus (Kennicott) Body stout : ears large : tail short and moderately bushy : pelage soft : color above dark gray and black : length 10 inches. Utah, Wyoming, Idaho and Montana. Spotted Spermophile. — Citcllus spilosoina sfiilosoma (Bennett). Size small: form slender; length 10 inches: tail about 2.25 inches ; above, rusty brownish spotted with ill-defined white spots. Southern California to New Me.xico and Te.xas. Round-tailed Spermophile. — Citcllus tcicticaudus (Baird). Size small; tail not bushy, and about four- fifths length of head and body; grizzled grayish-brown above ; beneath brownish-white ; length 10 inches. Cen- tral California to southern Arizona. Franklin's Spermophile. — Citcllus franldinii (Sa- bine). Similar in build to Thirteen-striped Ground Squirrel, but lacking the stripes ; color grayish-brown. From Saskatchewan south to Nebraska, Kansas and Missouri, eastward to Indiana. By permission of the U. S. Biological Survey GROUND SQUIRRELS Points of difference between the Douglas and the California Spermophiles are shown in the above drawing by E. T. Seton Spermophile is a word literally meaning " seed lover," and has been given to a large group of Burrowing or Ground Squirrels, as it most nearly describes their chief characteristic. They are indeed seed-lovers, as the farmers in the West know to their sorrow ; for this small ani- mal causes the annual loss of large crops through destruction of the seed grain. The Spermophile is a Ground Squirrel wliich in some of its species resembles the tree Squir- rel, on the one side, and the Chipmunk on the other. Its burrowing traits ally it to the ]\Iar- mot. It is frequently called a " Gopher " in the Middle West, but this is a misnomer. The only true Gophers in America are the Pocket Gophers, described elsewhere. Ground Squirrels are found in the greatest numbers on the great plains of the West. Because of the scarcity of trees they have doubt- less lost their tree-climbing propensities, and they i8o MAMMALS OF AMERICA prefer to dig deep tunnels underground, in which they fix up very cosy quarters. They always seek and prefer the open country. Crevices in rocks, and burrows similar to those of Chipmunks, but larger, serve as homes for the Ground Squirrels of the plains. Sometinles the mound at the mouth of the burrow is several inches high, but frequently it has been so beaten down that there is scarcely any elevation at all. but just a bare spot of earth a yard in diameter. Often the mouth of a tunnel is under a root, the base of a tree, or the lower edge of a boulder, and little or no dirt is scattered about to indi- cate its presence. Always, however, the sur- rounding area for three feet or more is kept bare, smooth and hard by the constant trampling of little feet. These Spermophiles spend hours at a time sitting or lying near the mouth of the burrow. and rarely stray farther away than one hundred yards. As a class, they are gregarious animals, but the Picket-pin " Gopher " is much less so than many of the others. Their burrows may be scattered along a road for miles, all of them several rods apart. In wide areas of open grassy country, small colonies may be established. In Wyoming, and in Colorado, the writer has seen a few groups of ten or a dozen homes each. Not more than half an acre was occupied in any case. About camp sites they are particularly numerous. These little animals make an inter- esting group to watch, after a hard day in the saddle, as they scurry about in search of waste grain and camp refuse. The writer has never seen a Spermophile in a dense forest or at a greater altitude than 8500 or 9000 feet. In northern Wyoming their lowest altitude seems to be about 5000 feet. Like the Chipmunks, the Spermophile's food is largely vegetable matter made up of seeds and grasses, but it will not scorn animal food such as grasshoppers and other insects. In former days dead Bison were said to be favored as food. They will attack growing grain, and store the ripened grain in their underground chambers. From early fall until early or late spring, according to the latitude, the Spermophile is dead to the world, but, be the ground bare or snow-covered, it appears at about the same time in the spring in any given locality. As soon as hibernation is over the raising of a family occupies its attention. Four to six young to a litter appear in middle or late May in Colorado. Small rodents seem to exist to furnish food for the birds of prey and carnivorovis animals large and small. To the Bear, the Coyote and the Weasel, they are all acceptable, and the Ground Squirrel is no exception to the rule. Mr. Merritt Cary. in " A Biological Survey of Colorado." says: " The sage flats in Middle and North parks are densely populated with these Ground Squirrels, and ranchmen consider them very injurious to the cattle range and to small grain. Judging from my own observations the damage inflicted is by no means slight, and when the large territory inhabited l)y them is con- sidered, it must be very considerable. During July I often saw numbers in the rye fields eating the green stalks, and not a vestige of grass re- mained near their burrows. Ranchmen in the Snake River Valley claim that this species destroys fully a third of the rye crop, pulling down the stalks to get at the heads. In North Park I often saw them in the hay meadows, whither they resort in the early morning, busily engaged in pulling down and eating the tall grass stems. This species hibernates very early in the autumn.'' Close acquaintance with the Picket-pin " Gopher " in the western plains shows how well it deserves its name. Curiosity seems to require that it sees as much as possible of every strange object. At first it stands up in a bent position like a Tree Squirrel, then straightens u]), and finally fairly raises itself on its hind legs, stretches to its full height, and gazes with all its might with its twinkling, bright black eyes. When in this position, with its arms partly folded at its sides, the diameter of its body seems to be about the same throughout, and the term '' Picket-pin '' is the most apt that could be applied, especially in a region where horses are often tethered. A close or a sudden approach will send the animal scurrying to its burrow with a sharp, trilling whistling resem- bling that of a Chipmunk. In a moment, if you look down into the hole, you will see its head appear in the blackness. Stand still, and the little fellow will soon move out with short starts and jerks. If you move backwards a few yards, it will presently be looking at you in the regular picket-pin style. Attracted by curiosity perhaps two or three more from the same opening will join the first. Richardson's Spermophile is a northern neighbor of the Great Plains species. It is about the same size, but of more yellowish hue, so that it is hard to distinguish from the surface SQUIRREL FAMILY i8i of the ground, especially in autumn. It is found as far north as Saskatchewan, and is reported to be far more destructive to the grain fields than its southern relative. Tliis species has a short, thin body, squat legs, and a short thin tail. It looks very much like an underfed Prairie Dog. The Spotted Spennophile is a little Ground Squirrel which prefers the deserts or the dry levels of the plains and the eastern border of the has very similar habits to Richardson's Sper- niophile, and like it is interesting in being a con- necting link. But while the latter seems nearest related to the Marmots, Franklin's Spermophile strongly resembles the Tree Squirrel. In many localities it called the " Gray Ground Squirrel." When they become numerous near farms they are troublesome, venturing boldly into the barns and granaries ; but the harm they do is offset to some extent bv the insects thev devour. Photograph by J. M. Johnson, copyright by Outing " PICKET-PIN GOPHER " A name bestowed upon this gray Spermophile, in the Middle West, from the fact that a row of them will stand so erect and still as easily to be mistaken for picket-pins Rocky r.Iountain region. In the desert the mouths of its burrows often open under yuccas. Shy, quiet, small and prettily marked, these ani- mals are in strong contrast to the big, noisy plain- colored species, such as the Bushy-tailed Spermo- phile. Under favorable conditions they increase almost as rapidly as rabbits. There may be as many as eight young to a litter. Franklin's Spermophile is one of the more common varieties. It is found in the middle West, from Indiana to Missouri and Nebraska, and extending north into Canada. This animal In the Department of Agriculture, twenty- nine stomachs were examined with the following result : Animal matter present, 30.3 per cent. ; vegetable, 68.5 per cent.; and undetermined, \.2 per cent. Out of the whole twenty-nine stomachs examined, twenty-six contained the remains of insects. Thus the grain consumed by this ani- mal is at least partially paid for by the destruc- tion of insects that prey upon crops ; but farmers everywhere are diligent in destroying it with poisoned wheat placed in its burrow. J. M. Johnson. I82 MAMMALS OF AMERICA COLUMBIA GROUND SQUIRREL Citellus columbianus ( Ord) General Description. — A large, heavy-bodied, short- tailed Ground Squirrel. Head very blunt : ears broad, rounded, of moderate height ; body very thick-set ; tail only about one-quarter length of head and body, flat and moderately bushy ; legs short ; color above, mixed white, black and yellowish-brown ; below, brownish-red ; hairs of moderate length and coarseness. Dental Formula. — Same as foregoing. Pelage. — .Adults ; Sexes identical ; some seasonal variation but not especially conspicuous. Color above, mixed white, black and yellowish-brown with numerous blotches formed by the white ; an obscure brownish streak on back ; upper part of neck blackish ; side of face grizzled black and white ; under parts and hind parts of hips and thighs brownish-red; feet like under parts : tail above gray, brown and black mingled ; beneath, brownish-red bordered with black. Youxc : Like adults but colors paler. Measurements. — Total length. 15 inches; tail verte- brae. 3.5 inches; hind foot. 1.8 inches. Range. — From western Montana to Washington, and north through British Columbia and ."Maska to Plover Bay in Siberia. Food. — A variety of fleshy plants, seeds and roots. Remarks. — This Ground Squirrel is an example of the group of heavy-bodied, short-tailed Ground Squir- rels that range throughout the Xorthwest, They are all large animals. Some thirteen of the larger species have been described, if for convenience sake we form a group, although they are closely related to the smaller Ground Squirrels of a more southern range. Rel.\ted Species Columbia Ground Squirrel. — Citcllt4s columbianus colunib'uiiius (Ord). Typical animal of the above description. From Montana north to .Alaska. Point Barrow Ground Squirrel. — Citellus barroxv- riisis (Merriam). Largest Ground Squirrel known. Region about Point Barrow. .Alaska. Alaska Ground Squirrel. — Citellus beringensis (Merriam). General color fulvous; ferruginous on nose and underside of tail ; back spotted with buffy white ; size large. Common to the region about Cape Lis- bourne. Alaska. Yukon Ground Squirrel. — Citi-llus osyoodi (Mer- riam). Size large; tail long; gray above with fulvous flanks ; back fulvous spotted with whitish ; under parts ferruginous. \'ukiin region. .Alaska. Arctic Ground Squirrel. — Citellus j^arrxii ( Richard- son). One of the largest and hardiest; tail short. Mixed black, white and yellowish-brown above, top of head cinnamon and black. Arctic .America from Mel- ville Peninsula to southwest Yukon River, and in the east to 65° north latitude. Photograph by the U. S. Biological Survey COLUMBIA GROUND SQUIRREL A very large Spermophile that is fond of roots and tubers, and hibernates for long periods SQUIRREL FAMILY 183 The group of Ground Squirrels typified by the Columbian is found in the extreme Northwest, reaching through British Columbia up to and across Alaska, and as far west as Siberia. The animal resembles its southern cousins in many respects, except that it is about half as large again as the usual type. It is the size of a large cat, with heavy body, short tail, and thick fur. On account of its bleak environment, some change also is noted in its habits. It greedily eats roots and tubers and usually prefers a snug hole in the rocks to digging very far down in the hard soil. The animal is sluggish in its actions, and falls an easy prey to its enemies including man. This is, in fact, one of the few Spermophiles that men eat. Its flesh is said to be well-flavored. From four to six months in the year it hiber- nates, this long period being necessary on account of the length of winter. One animal was examined during this sleep, and it was found that the heart action was reduced to four faint beats per minute, the temperature was only fifty- eight degrees, and there was no visible breathing. The circulation of the blood was so feeble that when a limb was amputated, only a few drops of blood slowly oozed from the wound while the nerves showed no sensitiveness. In fact, the animal was in a condition of suspended anima- tion, as if under the influence of chloroform. BUSHY-TAILED GROUND SQUIRREL Citellus grammurus (Say) Other Names. — Rock Squirrel. Gray Digger. Scrub Gopher, Spermophile. General Description. — A large, long-tailed, full- bodied Ground Squirrel. Head blunt ; ears of moderate height ; body not excessively heavy ; tail very long, nearly half of total length and quite bushy, flat; legs of moderate length; soles of feet smooth; general coloration drab or sepia, thickly sprinkled with small whitish spots ; hairs fairly long and coarse. Dental Formula. — Same as foregoing. Pelage. — Adults ; Sexes identical, seasonal varia- tion not conspicuous. Back and sides thickly sprinkled with indistinct, small, whitish or pale brown spots of sepia on drab ground color. Color below, brownish- white or grayish ; tail grizzled brown with hairs annu- lated, under surface grayer than upper surface. Young: Paler in color with distinct white neck patches : spotting dimmer than on adults. Measurements. — Length. 20 inches ; tail vertebrae, 8.5 inches; hind foot, 2.2 inches. Range. — Park region of the Rockies from Central Colorado south to Mexico. Food. — A number of plants and their seeds and probably some insect food. Related Species Bushy-tailed Ground Squirrel. — Citellus gram- murus grammurus (Say). The typical animal of the above description. From Central Colorado south to Mexico in park region of the Rockies. California Ground Squirrel. — Citellus grammurus bccchcyi (Richardson). Smaller than the typical form with body more slender and tail shorter. West of the Sierra Nevada in California. Texas Rock Squirrel. — Citellus grammurus hucklryi (Slack). Like the Bushy-tailed Ground Squirrel in size and form, but with anterior half of the dorsal sur- face black and hairs elsewhere much blacker. Middle Texas to western Texas. Douglas's Bushy-tailed Ground Squirrel. — Citellus grammurus douglasii (Richardson). Size intermediate; shoulder patches black. Northern California and Ore- gon. Fisher's Bushy-tailed Ground Squirrel. — Citellus grammurus fisheri (Merriam). Similar to the Bushy- tailed Ground .Squirrel, but sides of neck and shoulder stripes heavier white. Western border of Nevada, central and southern California. ; The group of Ground Squirrels which the Bushy-tailed Ground Squirrel typifies, resembles, perhaps more closely than any others of the family, the large Gray Squirrels of the trees. The Bushy-tailed has the largest and bushiest tail of all the Ground Squirrels and its general appearance is very similar to that of the true Gray Squirrels, Sciu7-iis, but it may be distin- guished from the latter by its mottled appear- ance and the fact that it sticks pretty closely to mother earth. Seven subspecies of this form are recognized north of the Rio Grande, all very similar in most characteristics. The Bushy-tailed Ground Squirrel or "' Scrub Gopher," as it is sometimes called, diiifers only slightly in habits from the Striped Spermophile, 184 MAMMALS OF AMERICA and the Picket-pin Gopher. It prefers a more wooded country than the former, and a less ele- vated region than the latter. It likes a brushy, rough territory, with a few trees here and there. In fact, this animal seems to occupy the same position in the Rocky Mountains that the Picket- pin Gopher does in the prairie country. Photograph by W. P. Dandu HARRIS ANTELOPE GROUND SQUIRREL An inhabitant of the southwest The burrow is similar to that of the Striped Spermophile, but is likely to be dug into the side of a brush-covered bank, and it is farther below the surface. After hibernating, this animal appears later in the spring than other species of the same region. About May first is the time it is first to be seen. Mating soon begins, and the four to seven young are born about a month later. Although not so fiercely carnivorous as the striped form, the Bushy-tailed Spermophile will eat flesh whenever it can find it. Vegetable matter, however, furnishes its main food supjily. Unlike some other species, it requires a supply of water to drink. Some Ground Squirrels live in arid wastes and seem to get enough moisture from their food. In early October, the " Scrub-Go]>her " makes itself safe against unfavorable weather and ene- mies by plugging up the various entrances to its home with earth, and enters into its night of six months. ]\Ierritt Gary, who recently made an extended study of these animals in the West, says': " Rock Squirrels nearly always live in rocky moimtains, the ledged and boulder-strewn sides of canyons, the bare rocky slopes along the base of the foothills, and the rim rock of outlying mesas and buttes being especially fre- quented. In the pinyon country their burrows are often found along the margins of fields in a nearly level country. As a rule, however, the burrows are located beneath boulders at the base of a rocky canyon rim or in rock slides. Rock Squirrels are quite shy and wary, and when one is surprised in the bottom of a canyon, as is often the case, it invariably runs up the slope and takes refuge among the rocks above. If the observer remains perfectly quiet, he may at length detect the animal peering silently over the top of a large boulder, but it generally vanishes at the slightest noise or motion. I watched one of these Sqtiirrels dusting itself near Bayfield. Apparently it was unaware of my presence and at intervals would run to a dusty spot in a path, throw the dust up with its fore feet, turn on its back, and wriggle and squirm along the ground in the greatest enjoyment. This performance was repeated a number of times when suddenly the little fellow spied me and raced oti' through the brush. " While at Ashbaugh's ranch in June. I often heard the sharp alarm notes of Rock Squirrels in the orchard back of the house. Near Coventry in July they were feeding extensively upon pin- yon nuts. In Grand \'alley, near Glenwood Springs, in October, numbers were seen in the tops of large pinyons busily feasting upon the nuts, and so common is this habit in that section that the animals are locally known as gray tree Squirrels. " The food of Rock Squirrels consists of pin- yon nuts, acorns, and juniper berries, and conse- quently over much of their range the animals do little damage. In some sections, however, they are reputed to show a fondness for yotmg chickens. They destroy many apricots on the trees for the sake of the seeds, of which they are especially fond ; they eat holes in cantcloupes and watermelons on the vines in search of the seeds, which they carry into the rocks to 'be eaten at leisure: and they also dig up and eat much newly planted corn." SQUIRREL FAMILY 185 THIRTEEN-STRIPED GROUND SQUIRREL Citellus tridecemlineatus (Mitchill) Other Names. — Striped Gopher, Striped Prairie Squirrel, Spermophile. General Description. — A small animal with body rather slender for a Ground Squirrel but more robust proportionally than the Chipmunk. Head rounded ; ears low, rounded, inconspicuous ; tail somewhat bushy but flat, and about one-half length of head and body; legs short; fur short and rather glossy, the hairs being somewhat hard and shining ; color pattern unique, con- sisting of 13 stripes along the back; underparts pale tawny brown ; eyes black. Dental Formula. — Same as foregoing. Pelage. — Adults : Sexes identical and no seasonal variation in the color pattern. Above, back lined with 13 longitudinal stripes from ears to tail as follows; 7 long stripes of dull yellowish-white, alternating with 6 more or less broken rows of spots similar in color to stripes ; stripes broken up on crown and haunches ; rest of upper parts dark brown ; belly dull buffy or tawny, nearly white on chin ; tail yellowish-brown or sienna, fringed with black hairs yellowish tipped. Young: Striped like adults but color paler. Measurements. — Total length, 11 inches; tail verte- brae, 3.5 inches; hind foot, 1.4 inches. Range. — Central North America from eastern Mich- igan to Montana, Colorado, central Texas, north to Saskatchewan Plains, and in prairie region of Missis- sippi from Ohio to Minnesota. Food. — Seeds, grasses and also flesh. Rei..\ted Stecies Thirteen-striped Ground Squirrel. — Citellus tri- decemlineatus tridecemlineatus (Mitchill). The typical animal of the above description. Central North Amer- ica in the Prairie region. Pallid Thirteen-striped Ground Squirrel. — Citellus tridecemlineatus ['allidus (.Allen). Size small, colors paler, light stripes white and wide. Wyoming, south to Texas and east to Missouri on the plains and desert regions. Little Thirteen-striped Ground Squirrel. — Citellus tridecemlineatus parvus (.\llen). Smaller than the typical form. Utah and Wyoming. This small Grotmd Squirrel, because of the peculiar striping on the back, is at once distin- guishable from any of the other Spermophiles. It is a prairie animal living on the grassy plains and not found in the heavily wooded regions. There are seven subspecies of the Thirteen- striped Ground Sqtiirrel, all having the same essential pattern on the back and differing only in cranial characters or intensity of color. Ver- non Bailey in his report upon these animals says : " Throughottt the prairies of the Mississippi Valley the Striped Spermophile is a familiar object as it darts through the grass to its hole or is seen standing upright on its hind feet, straight and motionless as a stick. With its short ears, smoothly rounded head, and the fore feet droop- ing at its sides, there is no point about its out- line to catch the eye, and at a little distance it is r m\ By permission of the New York Zoological Society THIRTEEN-STRIPED SPERMOPHILE This peculiarly marked Ground Squirrel is a Plains type, and is not found in heavily wooded sections 13 i86 MAMMALS OF AMERICA impossible to distinguish it from an old picket-pin or fence stake. Standing thus the animal will often allow one to approach within a few yards, then quickly dropping on all four:, it utters a shrill chatter and dives into a hole close by. Remain quiet for a few minutes and its head reappears at the entrance of the hole, and the little black eyes peer at you curiously, ^^'alk away from the place and it will soon come out and, standing up again, watch you as long as you are within sight, uttering an occasional note of alarm or warning to its friends." Usually the Striped Spermophile is con- fined to the sagebush plains and the prairies, although it occasionally works up into altitudes of yoGO feet. This is also a form which shuns woodland of any greater density than that of a natural park. In the prairies of southern Canada, and of the ^Mississippi basin it is com- mon although outnumbered by some other kinds, especially by the yellow or Richardson's Ground Squirrel. The settlement of these regions seems to be causing the decrease of the striped but not of the yellow species. One authority states that the very shallow burrows and chambers of the former are destroyed by plowing, and that the deeper ones of the latter are only temporarily plugged up. Since the burrows of the Striped Spermophile are only about six inches below the surface, plowing would not only destroy them, but the young as well. The nesting burrow is complicated by many twistings, turnings and branchings. There are also several openings, some of which are occa- sionally stopped up. The real home room is about nine inches in diameter by six inches in height. In addition to this type of burrow, there is a simpler one, which may be used for tempo- rary retreat from danger. To render the tunnel entrance inconspicuous, the excavated dirt is often scattered, and the opening hidden by a bunch of grass, weeds and other objects. The Thirteen-striped Spermophile is appar- ently the most carnivorous of all this family. .A.S much as 46 per cent, of its stomach contents has been found to be insects, caterpillars, grasshoppers, cocoons, insect eggs, birds, rep- tiles and mice. Offal of any kind of flesh is eagerly seized upon. Lacking other meat, it will eat its own relatives. For vegetable food, it uses the same materials as others, grain and seeds being the favorites. Food which will spoil is never stored. Extra food is laid by in side chambers made for the purpose. Since the animal is asleep all winter, this food must be used in the early spring when other food is scarce. This is just the time, too, when much food is needed. Because of their long fast the animals are thin, and the mating activities begin at once when they awaken. In late May or early June, the young are born. The number varies from seven to fourteen, with nine the average. They are among the most helpless of young Ground Squirrels. Their eyes do not open at once, and twenty days are required for hair to appear on their naked bodies. By the end of stmnmer, however, they are full grown. The enemies of this species are the same as those of other Spermophiles. In many of the western States the larger hawks are protected by law, partly because of their fondness for Spermophiles and Prairie Dogs. Three and even five western red-tailed hawks may often be seen circling over colonies of these animals wait- ing for a favorable opporttmity to swoop down upon one. It is true that most Ground Squirrels take con- siderable grain, and may pull up newly planted seeds, but in the case of this species, the number of harmful insects and mice destroyed more than compensates for the damage done to the growing crops. ANTELOPE GROUND SQUIRREL Ammospermophilus leucurus ( Mcrriam ) Other Name. — A\'hite-tailed Spermophile. General Description, — Size small : head blunt and rounded ; cars rounded and low ; body moderately thick- set; tail short, fairly bushy and flat, about one-third length of head and body, carried turned up over animal's back when running; hair moderately short; color above, grizzly gray with white stripe on either side of back: underparts glistening white. Dental Formula. — Same as foregoing. Pelage. — .Adults : Sexes identical, seasonal varia- tion not conspicuous. General color above, grizzled gray ; vinaceous on head and rump with broad white SQUIRREL FAMILY 1.S7 stripe on either side of back; outside of legs salmon color ; underparts glistening white ; tail above, iron gray with indistinct white border, beneath, white bor- dered with black. Young : Much as adults but colors not so strong. Measurements. — Total length, 8.5 inches ; tail verte- brae, J.8 inches; hind foot, 1.5 inches. Range. — California and Utah to Arizona and New Mexico in arid regions. Food. — A variety of different plants and their seeds. Remarks. — The Antelope Ground Squirrel is repre- sentative of a group of 9 species and subspecies found north of the Rio Grande, all conforming rather closely to the same general type. Related Species Antelope Ground Squirrel. — Aininost^rniiophilus Icuiunis Iciii-uriis (Merriam). Typical animal as described above. California to New Mexico. Cinnamon-Colored Antelope Ground Squirrel. — Ammospcrmophllus Icucurus cinnamomcus (Merriam). Ears, tail and hind feet larger than in the Antelope Ground Squirrel, with color above pale cinnamon. Desert region of Colorado, Utah and Arizona. Harris's Antelope Ground Squirrel. — .liiiiiiosfcr- iiwphihis harrisii harrisii (Audubon and Bachinan). White stripe on sides narrow ; color above, grizzled grayish-brown, and, in general, stronger coloration than the Antelope Ground Squirrel ; tail lacking black dorsal stripe and not so white below. Southern Utah and Nevada into California, Arizona and northwest New Me-xico. Texas Antelope Ground Squirrel. — Ainmospcrmo- philus intcrprcs (Merriam). As large as Icucurus, but tail tinged with fulvous, and head grayer ; pelage much finer and longer. Eastern desert tract of New Mexico and Te.xas. Phot .\. E, Butler Mlisluiii lit :\,itural ]]i^t'iry SAY'S GROUND SQUIRREL The Ground Squirrel may be readily distinguished from the smaller Chipmunk, by the fewer number of stripes on the former The Antelope Ground Squirrel gets its name from the fact that the tail, with its glistening -white under surface, is turned up over the back when the animal runs, and by this one feature it may be known from all the other Ground Squir- rels. In addition it can be easily distinguished by a gray upper body contrasting with the pure white of the under parts. It is smaller than most of the Spermophiles, seldom exceeding five or six inches in body length. Antelope Squirrels frequent sandy arroyos, and are striking objects as they frisk about in the morning sunshine with the pure white under surface of the upraised tail showing prominently. They are easily alarmed and retreat precipitately to the burrows, which are usually in the sandy bank of a dry desert wash or beneath sage or Atriplex bushes. In a few moments the animal may be watching the intruder from the mouth of a burrow or from behind a pile of rocks, but it MAMMALS OF AMERICA disappears at the slightest noise or movement. One which J. Alden Loring heard had a note descrihed as " loud, shrill, and rattling, and gradually dying out like a policeman's whistle." Mr. Loring states that the Antelope .Squirrel has from four to six young in a litter. Ranch- men say that Antelope Squirrels do much dam- age in the spring hy digging up newly planted corn. The}- appear to be particularly voracious and active at this season. SAY'S GROUND SQUIRREL Callospermophilus lateralis (Say) Other Names. — Big Chipmunk, Spermophile. General Description. — A small Ground Squirrel about twice tlie size of the Eastern Chipmunk and somewhat like it in appearance. Head rounded ; ears of moderate size, broad and rounded, closely haired; body inclined to be thick set; tail about half the length of head and body, with long hairs arranged laterally to give a broad, flat appearance ; legs in proportion to body : color in general, grizzled grayish-brown above, below brownish-gray. Dental Formula. — Same as foregoing. Pelage. — Adults: Sexes alike, seasonal variation from typical summer pelage as described below to grayer and more rusty in winter. Back, from shoulders to tail, a mixture of black, grayish-white and rufous; contrasting stripes formed by two black stripes inclosing a white stripe, along each side of back; flanks and sides of neck deep bright chestnut ; top of head chest- nut; upper surfaces of feet pale yellowish rusty color; a light ring about eye; below, light rufous with black bases to the hair ; tail above, mixed black and chestnut with chestnut border, below, chestnut with poorly defined black border, the hairs tipped finely with chest- nut again. Hair everywhere of short to moderate length and rather coarse than soft. Young : Pattern as in adults, but colors not so strong and contrasting. Measurements. — Sexes identical in size. Total length, II inches; tail vertebrae, 3.5 inches; hind foot, 1.65 inches. Range. — Mountainous parts of Colorado, New Mex- ico and Arizona. Food. — A great variety of seeds and various types of vegetation. Rel.\ted Species Say's Ground Squirrel. — CaUosf