HUM HiT _ ha i : re a ag) i F oi WN ' " » a : 1 ms Oe a it wid iy 7 - Tay oP By, co) i> a eee ¥ 7 oT Bras ff ‘eee ; ie ae a q : : ere aa : 7 f ie ; ' : a ra mt ry ; if Thy ye Ay H nea eee an ant tana eae aan. tes ‘ - i a ne phir) - Wai i D'S rie i r a fiery ce veoh rhe tip) ; Hin pt atta rit A wi rh y uly str) Bren ae arty Mian hn An ANE iv ns Meal , * 4 Rt, han, Fonte Mics SU Ci | UR AU y mel Titty Et a yet HSoONIAN S@teN WM EIGrSERIES, Editor-in-chief CHARLES GREELEY ABBOT, D.Sc. Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution Published by SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION SERIES, Inc. NEW YORK ofl] STY jo SUOT}IPUOD apni oui sjsossns yorum uelu d140ystyaid jo os agers YIIHAS [hjloues V Leprseyd Puy MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST By es Cart Wuirinc BisHop Associate Curator, Freer Gallery of Art WITH THE COLLABORATION OF CHARLES GREELEY ABBOT Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution AND ALES Hrp.i¢Ka Curator, Division of Physical Anthropology United States National Museum VOLUME SEVEN OF THE SMITHSONIAN SCIENTIFIC SERIES 1930 CopyRIGHT 1930, BY SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION SERIES, Inc. [Printed in the United States of America] All rights reserved Copyright Under the Articles of the Copyright Convention of the Pan-American Republics and the United States, August 11, 1910 COUN T BN aS PREFACE Man’s THEATER OF ACTION THE Cuorus or Man’s STAGE THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE INDIVIDUAL Human BEING . Tue Stupy or Human Pepe ene THE Ice AcE. Man THE CAVE Devies NEANDERTHAL MAN . NEANDERTHAL MAn (Continued Tue Most Ancient Remains or Man THe Unrotpinc or Man’s INTELLIGENCE THE Op Stone AGE Tue Mippie Stone AGE THE New Stone AGE THE AGE or BRONZE ANCIENT Ecypt, Asia MINor, AND oon OTHER CENTERS OF CIVILIZATION . PreuHIsToric MAN IN THE NEw Wor.Lp BIBLIOGRAPHY APPENDIX: Nae aa Re ce INDEX IIo 134 166 182 234 246 266 294 me ae 326 352 359 365 gy VP hae) DY teen axa af SI AAO Po (Cio heh ONS LIST OF PLATES A conception of prehistoric man . The Ptolemaic and the Copernican theories of the universe The appearance of our universe Pika Peak, a an example of erosion Camarasaurus, a giant reptile of the Marascic Woolly rhinoceros in combat with bison What breeding will do . Human embryo and pig embryo . Human embryo of four to six weeks . Human embryo of six to eight weeks The Age of Steel The Age of Iron The Bronze Age. The New Stone Age The Old Stone Age Skulls of man and gorilla . Hand silhouettes in prehistoric caves The Victor Glacier, Alberta, Canada Glacial striation : Loess country, Hecehiestenn China ; A raised beach . . A mammoth hunt in the Old Stone Age Varves in glacial clay Restoration of Cro-Magnon man ? Caves at Grimaldi, near Mentone, France . The Grimaldi skeletons The Gorge of Neanderthal The Neanderthal cave . | Restoration of Neanderthal man . Side view of Neanderthal cranium The Gibraltar skull Rock-Gun, Gibraltar . Frontispiece 2 ~ Restoration of Neanderthal boy . Rock and cave of Spy, ae Spy skallNo. To... Rock-shelter of Krapina } ; Restoration of Neanderthal woman nad child ‘ Kaempfer’s Quarry, Ehringsdorf . Skulls of La Chapelle and modern man . Skulls of La Ferrassie man and Le Moustier youth Le Moustier, on the Vézére, France . The Galilee skull ioe Restoration of Neanderthal man . Restoration of Piltdown man. . ‘ The Mauer Quarry, Heidelberg, Germany : The Mauer or Heidelberg jaw ‘ Locality of Pithecanthropus find . Pithecanthropus skullcap and reconstructed skull Thigh bones of Pithecanthropus and of white man . Broken Hill cave, Rhodesia, South Africa The Rhodesian skull : Discoverer of the Rhodesian sical Fire-making by rotating a stick An Arab still g d Restoration of Neanderthal man . Restoration of Neanderthal woman . é Bisons modeled in clay by Cro-Magnon artists Solutrean carving of a mammoth Musk ox : é Magdalenian bone needless SG andl Bohnooks Superimposed mural frescoes . Magdalenian painting of a bison . Life in the Stone Age. . Thatched hut, New Hebrides ends h Primitive bark canoe of Australian aborigines . Neolithic warrior Chinese carts : Loom used by certain American Indians American Indians beating out copper Igorot group, Philippine Islands . Hopi Indian woman potter Outrigger sailing canoe Chinese deep-sea fishing fee ; Mosaic standard from Ur of the Chaldees Assyrian king in his chariot, hunting lions . Ancient Egyptian chairs 93 96 97 104 105 102 118 11g 126 128 129 136 144 145 148 149 ie) 156 160 161 72 176 196 197 204 208 216 217 220 222 299 240 An 248 256 264 265 268 piped 276 ath 284 285 296 Egyptian portrait statues... Portrait statue of scribe of an Egyptian king Temple of Karnak, Egypt Example of Egyptian mummification Assyrian troops besieging a city . Assyrian winged lion : Assyrian troops in battle . Persian frieze of archers Ancient Cretan vases Cretan bath of terra cotta ; Ceremonial procession of Cretan women Gold cups from Vapheio Primitive scenes in India . Primitive scenes in India . : Stone hoe and knives, Neolithic hina : Bronze sacrificial vessel Asiatic archer and slingers Chinese bronze helmet American Indians hunting moose The quetzal, or resplendent trogon Ruins of a Maya temple Maya pyramid . . Old Spanish map of ‘Penechttlany The sack of Cholula ares Atahualpa, the last of the Incas . LIST. OF TEXT, FIGURES Woolly rhinoceros . Cell multiplication by division Fetal membranes of a pig embryo Typical cross-section of cave strata . : Skulls of chimpanzee, Neanderthaler, and modern man Skulls and brains of modern man sed chimpanzee Skulls of chimpanzee, Neanderthaler, and modern man, seen from below . : : : Lower jaws showing chin development : Skull, spinal column, and pelvis of man and gorilla Thigh bone of modern man, Neanderthaler, and gorilla Fragments of skull of ancient Egyptian woman Reconstructed skull of ancient Egyptian woman Cave painting of a bison Map of western Europe showing anes lend Bieeaen Skull of Grimaldi woman . Aurignacian and modern Bashinan comparisons Diagram of human skull Lower jaw of a Neanderthal child Profiles of Neanderthal and Spy crania . Skeletons of La Chapelle man and modern Aviceralian Skulls of Neanderthaler, Pithecanthropus, and modern Arab ‘ Skulls of European, WAmeeralacns Neanderehaler\ bad chine panzee . Comparison of Hiodekn sind Neinderthall eae forrus i Bone implement from Piltdown Reconstructions of Piltdown skull j Piltdown, La Chapelle, and modern alealts ! Development of lower jaw Brain-cases of Pithecanthropus, Neanderthal man, , chim. panzee, and gibbon . : Brains of chimpanzee, Pithecanthropus, and modern man . Eoliths of the Tertiary Period Primitive method of fire-making . : Primitive clothing of Tierra del Fuego netics é Necklace of later Old Stone Age . Central Australian sacred ey : African witch doctor African chief on bow of war canoe Pointed types of eoliths s Pre-Chellean type of stone implement Tasmanian stone implements . Chellean flint tools . Acheulian fist-axes . Mousterian implements Flint core and flakes Aurignacian implements Baton de commandement Engraving of grazing reindeer Solutrean laurel-leaf flints Geometric design of a woman Prehistoric engraving of a horse, aoe the Mongolian ele horse : Magdalenian flint implements Magdalenian bone and ivory points . Magdalenian spear-thrower Tectiform designs from caves of Recher Branee Ai Spain Conventionalized designs carved on fragments of bone Hunters’ feast engraved on bone pendant Stone lamp from cave of La Mouthe Design of herd of reindeer Mammoth engraved on ivory Red deer and salmon, engraved on reindeer antler “The Sorcerer” of Trois Fréres Ceremonial bowls made from human Seulls) A stag hunt . Wounded warrior f : Flat harpoons of red-deer athe Stone hatchet and iron hammer . Negrito using bow and arrow Wooden fire-drill Tasmanian canoe Chinese dragon-boat Aztec human sacrifice . Staghorn pickaxes . f Prehistoric stone hatchet . Dog travois used by American Plains ies : Primitive Mexican cart South African Bushman woman’s ‘digging- erick Ancient Egyptian wooden hoe Caschrom, or foot-plough . Korean threes man spade Ancient Egyptian man-drawn plough Rock engraving of plough and oxen . Necklace of leopard’s teeth : Wooden ladle Swiss lake dwellings Pick made of deerhorn Flint-bladed dagger Late Bronze Age sword Bronze axes . Bronze ax with Wanden ainee Copper axes and ax-adz Stone copies of bronze battle-axes Male costume of early Bronze Age Female costume of Bronze Age f Bull-boat of American Plains Indians Roman coin of bronze, about 300 B.c. Early Chinese knife-money Early Chinese hoe-money . Bronze vase of late Bronze Age Egyptian infantry, Eighteenth rial Four-wheeled wagon 5 Sacrifice of a slave . NP © HH (e) (2) LO ee Oe ee ee Oe Od © ©) WMmint bb PB GC G HO HWW YH HP LP WY PV (MO oon] con] mtn —~ IOI. 102. 103. LOA): 10S. 106. 107. 108. 109. 110. eieil 112. Primitive Egyptian hoe : Dagger or short sword of early Tron Age Rock engraving of mounted warrior . Maya design of Feathered Serpent Maya wall painting of human sacrifice Diagrammatic cross-section of Maya building . Maya wall painting Design from Aztec eacriceal store Section from design of Peruvian painted vase . Portion of a Peruvian quipu Peruvian mythological design : Peruvian concept of the God of the ce F 297 312 323 329 330 332 333 340 343 345 347 348 PIV PACE THE past history of our race 1s far too vast and complex a subject to be surveyed adequately by any one individual. Hence this book is the result of cooperative effort on the part of workers in several different fields, all, however, with a direct bearing on the subject. Dr. Charles G. Abbot, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution and Editor-in-Chief of the present Serres, has assumed the task of writing the first three chapters. In the first two of these he has described the setting of the cosmic stage upon which the human race is playing its part; while in the third he has told of the prenatal life of the individual, which so strikingly recapitulates the de- velopment of the species in many ways. The portions of the book dealing with the physical characteristics of prehistoric man have been based very largely upon the work of Dr. AleS Hrdlitka, of the Na- tional Museum, Chapters VII and VIII in particular hav- ing been taken almost verbatim from a technical mono- graph specially prepared by him for the Smithsonian Institution. For the remaining chapters and especially for those dealing with man’s cultural progress, the writer is re- sponsible. In order to avoid confusing the reader, the distinction between man’s physical development and his progress in civilization has been carefully maintained. In discussing the former, the plan has been followed of working back from the recent to the more remote past—from familiar types to those less well known. This method enables us [1] PREFACE to see more clearly how the human race grows ever more primitive, increasingly less like that of today and definitely inferior to it in many ways, the farther back we go in point of time. The account of man’s conquest of material things, how- ever, from his primeval condition to the beginnings of modern civilization, contained in the last nine chapters, has called for the opposite method of treatment. Instead of tracing them backward through the ages, the various discoveries and inventions of major importance have been dealt with in their probable order of occurrence, and their application to an ever-growing range of uses has been described. Where so many have been drawn on for information, it would be impossible to give due credit by name in each individual instance. Special acknowledgment must be made, however, to Dr. H. N. Russell, Sir James Jeans, and Dr. A. S. Eddington, among astronomers; to Dr. T. C. Chamberlin, Dr. R. D. Salisbury, Dr. Ernst Antevs, Dr. C. Wi Gilmore): Dr: Ry-S.) Bassler, the (ace Wore PD: Walcott, and the late Dr. G. P. Merrill, among geologists and paleontologists; to Dr. E. W. MacBride, Dr. C. W. Prentiss, Dr. L. B. Arey, and Dr. Edwin G. Conklin, among cytologists and embryologists; and to Sir Arthur Keith, M. Marcellin Boule, the Abbé H. Breuil, Dr. G. G. MacCurdy, Dr. Hugo Obermaier, and Dr. H. F. Osborn, among prehistorians. For the various illustrations, due acknowledgment is made in the captions accompanying each. Hearty thanks must be paid to Mr. William H. Gill, of Washington, for the artistic excellence of the drawings, which are almost entirely the result of his painstaking work. The writer also wishes to express his personal apprecia- tion to Miss Daisy Furscott, of the Freer Gallery Expedi- tion Library, for her aid in reference work and her helpful criticism; and to Miss Christabel E Hill for her unremit- ting care in the preparation of the manuscript. [u | PREFACE Lastly and in a very special sense are the joint authors under deep obligation to Mr. John R. Ellingston and Miss Rose A. Palmer, of the Editorial Staff, for their cordial and unwearying cooperation, without which this book could not have been completed. C. W. BisHop. Freer Gallery of Art, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, November 1, 1929. [iii] Phila | are, va MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST CHAPTER 1 MAN'S: DHEATER OF ACTION’ Maw has his residence upon a world 8,000 miles in diam- eter. It is fifth in size and third in solar distance of the sun’s family of eight principal planets. The sun is an average star, situated about twenty-five trillions of miles from the nearest neighboring star, Alpha Centauri, in the southern heavens. As it would be almost meaningless to name in miles the distances of the other stars, astronomers have devised another expression which is very striking. - This is the light-year, the distance which light, moving 186,000 miles each second, covers in a full year. It equals some six trillions of miles. In these terms Alpha Centauri is at about four light-years’ distance from our sun and his family of planets. Though expressed in hundreds of millions of miles, the separations of the planets from each other and from the sun become, by comparison to the dis- tance of the nearest star, almost as nothing. Light travels from sun to earth in eight minutes. Only a few stars are known to lie within Ioo light-years of our solar system. The vast majority of them exceed 1,000 and even 10,000 light-years in distance. The stars are not scattered uniformly outwards to infinity. If we could stand armed with a great telescope at a million light- years’ distance from the sun, we should see all of our own familiar starry system isolated like a little wheel whose rim, 1 These introductory chapters on man’s setting are by Dr. Charles G. Abbot. [1] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST extended along the plane of the Milky Way, would appear about five times as wide as its hub. Within this lens- shaped star cluster, which we call our galaxy, the stars, if we could count them all, would probably number some thirty billions. As we gazed about us from our supposed observing point, a million light-years distant, we should see still other clus- ters of stars not belonging to our system, for our galaxy is not the only one in space. There are, indeed, hundreds of thousands of other island universes, each of multitudes of stars, besides that one which contains the well-known constellations, the solar system,and the world of man. Do other stars within our own galaxy have planets revolving about them? If so, are these planets inhabited by con- scious beings? Do other island universes far outside our galaxy contain still other inhabited worlds? In short, is it reasonable to believe that among the hundreds of thou- sands of galaxies, each containing its millions or billions of stars, only one world supports creatures equal to man? So much for the world’s setting in regard to space. What of its extension in the domain of time? “The days of our years are threescore years and ten; and if by reason of strength they be fourscore years, yet is their strength labour and sorrow; for it is soon cut off, and we fly away.” So writes the Psalmist of the individual. As the history of the ancient world is recovered in written inscriptions on walls and tablets, we are carried back to a time six thou- sand years ago when men already built great works, mar- shaled armies, and carried on industries. Dating from many thousands of years before this earliest recorded his- tory, evidences of human skill and fossil human remains in cave dwellings are still preserved. These indications grow less and less evidential of high intelligence in man with in- creasing antiquity, until at last, at a time estimated at much less than a million years ago, man fades from the scene. Back of that period, animal and vegetable king- doms persisted for periods estimated at several hundreds [2] PLATE 1 he ee * Lam. SE Curkur Ben Incid- When man believed earth to be the center of the universe and himself the supreme achievement. From a seventeenth-century edition of the Ptolemaic 4/magest, depicting victory of the Ptolemaic over the Copernican theory PATE 2 What our universe would look like observed from a point a million light-years distant. Earth’s position would be about a half inch off center. Photograph of Spiral Nebula Messier 33 from Mt. Wilson Observatory MAN’S THEATER OF ACTION of millions of years. Back farther still the most ancient traces of life itself fade out. Was this the dawn of time for our earth? We believe not. Nature furnishes a calendar in the minerals which bear the radioactive elements, radium, thorium, uranium, and their degenerated products, lead and helium. Radium, for example, constantly decomposes, yielding helium and a temporary element called radium emanation. The emana- tion itself decomposes into more helium and a second temporary element. After five similar transformations the end product, besides the gas helium, is the familiar metal lead. Such are the works of nature’s time clock. The time element consists in this, that radium loses half of its weight in 1,700 years, producing helium and lead at rates which are now well known, and which no known agency can either hasten or retard. Basing their estimates on the quantities of helium and of lead in certain of the very old- est rocks which contain such chemical elements as uranium and radium, and on other similar data, students have now come to a general agreement that the primeval earth’s crust can not be less than a billion years of age. Was this, then, the beginning of time? Evidently not, for the chemicals in the stars are all so hot as to be gaseous, whereas the crust of the earth is so cool as to be solid. Immense periods of time must have elapsed before the material which combined to form the solid earth was de- veloped from the gases of which once it formed a part. This brings us to the newest view relating to the length of time, which grows out of the consideration of solar and stellar energy. Our sun and the other stars constitute im- mense bodies hundreds of thousands of times more massive than the earth. Owing to their tremendous temperatures they constantly give off visible and invisible rays having enormous energy. Even at the earth’s immense distance the sun rays contain over a horsepower of energy per square yard. Equally intense are the sun rays in all directions, so [3] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST that the flow of solar energy is to be estimated in horse- power in terms of the number of square yards on the sur- face of a sphere ninety-three million miles in radius. What supplies this copious flood of energy? Probably the annihilation of atoms. This, indeed, so eminent an astronomer as Professor Jeans of England states to be not only a reasonable but a necessary article of scientific belief. Writing on “Astronomy” in the thirteenth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, Professor Eddington declares the energy equivalent of the destruction of the entire sub- stance of our sun to be sufficient to sustain its output of radiation through fifteen trillions of years. This is the order of time which the universe is now supposed to represent. Thus, in brief summary, man’s home is in a universe con- taining some hundreds of thousands of galaxies each com- posed of millions or billions of stars. Among these there may be many systems of planets such as that which our star, the sun, holds in his train, and among them may be many inhabited worlds. The starry hosts are scattered through a space measured in millions of times the six trillions of miles that light traverses in a year. They seem likely to have been existing through time enduring trillions of years, and likely to continue quite as long in time to come. From the prodigious stores of energy, partly gravi- tational, partly radiant, which our star, the sun, supplies, man collects the fragment that he needs to carry on his comparatively small concerns. In short, a man, one of nearly two billion living human individuals enduring but for threescore years, does not loom large compared to the universe 1n which he dwells, to its duration or its energies. Man’s existence on his little earth depends on extraor- dinary circumstances. As to how life began here, science offers no guess, but how slight are the changes which might destroy life has recently become plain. Water in liquid form is indispensable. It is the only natural liquid [4] MAN’S THEATER OF ACTION independent of life processes! which exists in free state and considerable quantity at the earth’s usual temperature. A small change of temperature would congeal or vaporize this indispensable liquid. A fall of only ten per cent in the temperature of the globe would drive the higher forms of life to the tropics. Again, miles high above the earth ex- ists that form of oxygen which is called ozone. There is so little of it that if brought to the earth’s surface it would make a gaseous layer only a little thicker than the cover of this book. Yet if this trifling constituent of our atmos- phere should be destroyed, probably blindness and death to humanity would ensue, owing to the burning chemical. action of extreme ultra-violet rays of the sun which ozone cuts off. The materials of which the universe is composed seem to be common to all parts of it. In the sun and all the stars are found, by observation, only those chemical elements, such as iron, hydrogen, oxygen, and others, which are familiar on our earth, and some of which go to make up man himself. These elements, wherever found, are composed of two constituents, and two only—the protons and the electrons, equal and opposite elementary charges of elec- tricity. On the other hand, harmonious to this unity, there _ are many examples of progressive gradation. These begin among the very atoms of the chemical elements. The keen discoverer who laid the groundwork of this knowledge of the atomic gradation was Henry Gwyn- Jeffreys Moseley. Born in 1887, he graduated at Oxford University and became lecturer in physics at the Uni- versity of Manchester, where he was associated with the eminent British Nobel prize winner, Sir Ernest Ruther- ford. By a brilliant series of highly delicate and original experiments, Moseley demonstrated the step-by-step re- lation in the X-ray spectra of the elements, now known as Moseley’s law. So epoch-making was this discovery that he was specially invited to lecture upon it in Australia at 1 Gasoline, the oils, the alcohols, etc., are in nature all products of life processes. [5] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST the meeting of the British Association for the Advance- ment of Science in the year 1914. A volunteer officer in the ‘““Territorials,’’ Moseley hurried from the British As- sociation scientific assembly on the outbreak of the Great War, to be instantly killed by a Turkish bullet at Gallipoli, August 10, 1915. He lived only twenty-eight ae but his name will be remembered forever. Moseley’s law finds its interpretation in the structure of the atoms of the chemical elements. Hydrogen has one orbital electron, helium two, lithium three, beryllium four, and so on, advancing by unit steps, to uranium, the last of the known chemical elements, with ninety-two electrons arranged in a multitude of orbits all focusing about the central nucleus. | Not only in the infinitesimal domain of the atoms, but in the vast spaces of the starry systems, an orderly gradation of qualities prevails. In size, in brightness, in spectrum, in density, in temperature, the nebulae and the stars pre- sent an orderly series of great impressiveness. Invisible to the eye, because of tremendous distance, but readily photo- graphed by great telescopes, the heavens contain hun- dreds of thousands of such objects as are shown in Plate 2. We see there a series of forms ranging from irregular through spherical hazy masses, thence, through gradual elongation, to pronounced spindle shape, and finally to the branched spirals. It is believed that here we see the evolu- tion of a starry galaxy such as our own. At first unformed, gravitation settles the gaseous mass into a sphere; rota- tion elongates it; still greater motion tends to produce the spindle shapes; which, with increased velocities and tidal forces, produce the two-branched spirals; from which, at length, separate the stars. All of this observedly probable train of events conforms to known laws of fluids. But the stars also show progression after their birth, of which a striking evidence is given by the group of stellar spectra shown in Plate 78 in Volume 2 of this SrriEs. By many years of observation along many lines of attack, [6] MAN’S THEATER OF ACTION knowledge has advanced so far that we may now summa- rize the evolution of a star. Separating from the parent nebula as an enormously extended gaseous ball, hundreds of millions of miles in diameter and rare as the residual of gas in what we are apt to call a high vacuum, the newly- born star is of low temperature, glows but feebly red, and shows in its spectrum the bands of molecular compounds. Condensing and rising in temperature by the fall inwards of its gaseous matter under its own gravitation, the star glows yellowish red, its spectrum loses its compound bands, because heat dissociates the compounds which produce them, and substitutes for these bands the lines of moder- ately heated metals. Still enhancing its temperature by internal gravitation, the density of the star becomes yet greater, and its light glows yellowish. Its spectrum lines begin to show the effects of the high temperature involved in the shattering of the atoms from which are stripped off one or more electrons by the violent agitation of the power- ful heat within. This process goes on through the white to the blue stage, when the atoms become so far dissociated as to render the spectrum unfamiliar, for it corresponds to temperatures too exalted to be commanded for any considerable time in our laboratories. If this be the exterior condition, much more is the interior of the star in tremendous exalta- tions of heat and pressure. It is believed that under these conditions matter is gradually annihilated by the collapse of the atoms, and that the enormous output of radiation is made possible only by the actual passing out of existence of interior matter, with a diminution of the mass of the star. Thus the star grows smaller both by condensation and by annihilation. With great density the star material, though gaseous, be- comes so little transparent that the inner heat is no longer able to force to the exterior a sufficient supply to maintain the radiation outward. The star then visibly cools, and passes in reverse order through the series of colors and of [7] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST spectrum appearances which we have named. But now, from the rarity of a red star newly born, it grows old and ends as a red star, indeed, but with a density approach- ing or even exceeding that of the solid metals such as iron. Finally failing altogether to supply glowing heat, the star becomes dark, as indeed many great celestial bodies are known to be. These reveal their presence not by their light but by their gravitation or by cutting off the light of companion stars. Such, it appears, is the evolution of a galaxy and a star. A solar system presents another operation. Among the multitudes of stars, all of which are in rapid motion in various directions, there will be some pairs, in the course of billions or trillions of years, which will approach so closely together as nearly to collide. Though not actually pre- senting the tremendous catastrophe of collision, which between two bodies so enormous would indeed be beyond description, a pair of stars passing near each other would raise such great mutual tides that their material would not merely swell out like our ocean tides, but for a time would actually flow away in ropelike streams into space by reason of the adventure. Such material, after the passage of the disturbing star, would collect into planets; and such, we may imagine, is the origin of our solar system. We are to suppose, then, that our earth was formed by the gathering together of matter which had been caused to flow out from the sun by reason of the close approach, ages ago, of some other star. As the stars often exceed twenty- five miles a second in their mutual approach or recession, and as we have noted that the nearest star, Alpha Cen- tauri, is only some 25,000,000,000,000 miles away, it is conceivable that the near catastrophe which gave birth to our earth might have happened no more than 1,000,000,- 000,000 seconds, or 30,000 years ago. But as our radium clock has told us that the earth’s crust is fully a billion years old, we must conclude that it was not the nearest of the stars but some unknown one, now very distant, which [8] 09]%M “dG ‘D Aq ydvasojoyg "yiivs ay} Jo AJOYSIY IY} PKI 0} ysIdo[OIS Sy} ple yoryA jo [Jv ‘uotso1s puv “Suny ‘sunyiydn ‘UO vOYyne.S Ssunevijsny{t “epeury ‘eI 19q|V ul jisseuu eI exld € ALV1Id MAN’S THEATER OF ACTION by its close approach to the sun founded the solar system. It used to be supposed, when another hypothesis of its origin prevailed, that the earth cooled from the condition of a glowing hot ball until its crust formed, and that soon after that event it became fit for life. We are now more apt to believe, following Chamberlin and Moulton, who first advocated this view in the early years of the present century, that the earth is the product of gradual accretion of the train of finely divided solid meteoric matter which the supposed close approach of a star to our sun threw out as gases from the sun into space, but which soon cooled to solidification there before combining to form the earth. Some meteoric matter in individual masses of pounds or tons, and some thousands of minor planets, which are mineral masses of some miles in diameter, still are met with in the solar system. But nearly the whole of the matter which it is supposed escaped from the sun owing to the near approach of another star, 1s now collected to form the eight great planets and their moons. In the progress of accretion it is not to be supposed that the earth was at first of regular shape or complete solidity. But as more and more matter accumulated, its growing pressure gradually squeezed out the lighter parts, includ- ing the present earth’s crust and the water and air. The water settled into depressed regions and, adding to their weight, tended the more to depress them. Also, then as now, the action of the atmosphere 1n producing decompo- sition and disintegration, and of the rains and streams in wearing off the elevated parts, tended to remove the heavier portions of the rocks, which on the whole are more soluble. This detritus, finding its way to the incipient oceans, tended the more to emphasize the oceanic depres- sions and to tilt still higher the land elevations. Under the enormous weight of the outer part of the earth, its inner portion flows slowly as if it were a viscous fluid. Experiments have shown that the crust to a depth of about sixty miles behaves like a floating island, tilting [9] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST about and bending under the loads of detritus which the rivers bring down to the plains and the sea, as the winds and waters plane the mountains down. Again and again, as geology teaches us, portions of the continents have been uplifted, planed down, sunk beneath the oceans, covered with mud layers, newly uplifted into mountains, newly planed down, and so on through vicissitude after vicissi- tude in the great age of the earth. Similar changes are still going on, slowly, but probably no more slowly than they always have done. During many of these changes life existed, the remains of which were sometimes buried by sands and mud that became rock and so have preserved for us the fossil records of the past. It is impossible to determine accurately in years the length of the periods of geologic time. Moreover, the records are fragmentary, imperfect, depending on the vicissitudes of elevation and depression, aridity, tempera- ture, and other factors. Nowhere is the whole gamut of strata from earliest to latest time exposed. The laying down of strata demands locations such as the shores of a sea or lake, the sea bottom, river basins, or desert valleys. Obviously, these could not in all ages prevail at any one lace. Yet the earth’s surface yields so many examples of the burial of multitudes of forms of life at successive depths that what is lost in one locality may be supplied from an- other. Thus it has become possible for paleontologists to estimate the approximate order of succession of life re- corded in the fossil remains, and the approximate relative length of time involved in the several periods which these fossil remains suggest. These data are confirmed by many samples from many parts of the earth’s surface. Local contradictory evidences, explainable on grounds of earth- folding, noncontemporaneousness of life forms, and other- wise, become no more than the exceptions which prove the rule. The broad features remain surely known. In this brief survey of present hypotheses and observa- tions relating to the place of man and his abode in time [10] MAN’S THEATER OF ACTION and space, our attention has been drawn to the orderly march of forms, both as regards the infinitesimal atoms and the enormous heavenly bodies. In such developments we find a forecast of the progress of life forms from the sim- plest to the most complex, not only of every individual being from his conception to his death, but of the animal and vegetable kingdoms themselves. In the next two chapters we shall trace the progressive steps of life de- velopment which lead us at length to the consideration of adult man and his achievements. e CHAPTER: TI THE CHORUS OF MAN'S STAGE In most plays the principal actors are assisted by a large group of minor characters and attendants, whose parts, though less conspicuous, are vital to the drama. It is so in nature. Though man dominates creation, his happi- ness and even his very existence depend on humbler creatures. Nor are they all his friends or the friends of his friends. Powerful as he is, man requires the full use of all his mental superiority to hold his own against the competition of the insects and microscopic enemies which threaten his life. Man has not always held the stage. Long before his entrance, race after race of creatures developed, came to the zenith of their power, and gave way in turn to others. Perhaps it will be so with man. The almost interminable march of life as read in the imperfect record of the rocks has presented six especially interesting eras, which may be designated as, first, the era of the simplest life forms; second, the reign of the inver- tebrates; third, the period in which vertebrates, exempli- fied by the fishes, made their appearance; fourth, the heroic age of vegetation; fifth, the age of reptiles; and sixth, the age of mammals, culminating in man. The first era embraces the dawn of life. Its duration probably is to be reckoned in hundreds of millions of years and is at least equal in length to all succeeding time. Partly by reason of the vicissitudes of the ages which lie between that period and ours, partly because its strata have not been thoroughly explored, and more [12] THE CHORUS OF MAN’S STAGE especially because in its strata the complete records have not been preserved, we have little evidence of the kinds of creatures which then developed. It is in the rocks of the second great life period, that of the early Paleozoic time, divided in geological nomencla- ture into the ‘““Cambrian”’ and “Ordovician,” that numer- ous fossil specimens first become available, abundant, and beautifully preserved. These were the ages solely of the invertebrates, among them many creatures so different from present forms that they can not be said to have de- scendant representatives in the modern world. There was, for instance, the great family of the trilobites, which resembled superficially the lobster and the crab. The trilobites long ago became totally extinct, but they domi- nated the earlier part of the periods of which we are now speaking. Some of them, indeed, grew to large size, ex- ceeding eighteen inches in length. The name comes from the shape of the body, which presents a right, a left, and a middle prominent portion. Very beautiful in outline, with numerous delicate side organs almost fernlike in their detail, and provided with eyes and other sense organs, the trilobites seem to have been as complexly organized as many of the foremost of the invertebrates of the present day. They are not by any means primitive creatures. If we accept the theory of the gradual evolution of life forms, they must have had a very long ancestry. The trilobites counted among their contemporaries many kinds of shell-protected creatures, including several whose shells resemble greatly some of those of today. Thus we may regard the family of the present-day oyster and those of certain other bivalve mollusks as extremely ancient, though the species have changed from the ancient forms. Toward the close of the Ordovician period, the class of the cephalopods, now represented by the chambered nautilus, the octopus, squid, and their like, usurped the preeminence so long held by the trilobites, and continued [13] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST | prominently during the Silurian period which followed. Some of these chambered shells were of straight, tapering form, and no less than twelve to fifteen feet in length and one foot in maximum diameter. It is interesting to speculate on their means of locomotion and nutrition. The great period called the Silurian, which followed the Ordovician, is the last one dominated by invertebrate animal life. During the Silurian the trilobites declined, but the cephalopods continued very notable. They shared their prominence, however, with certain remark- able crustaceans, of somewhat scorpionlike appearance, called Eurypterus and Pterygotus. Among these latter, giants of one and a half to six feet in length appeared. These creatures have never been surpassed among crusta- ceans of all ages. Many of the other orders and classes of invertebrates flourished notably during the Silurian, as they had done previously, but towards the end of the age the third great life era, that of the vertebrates repre- sented by fishes, began to dawn. Here we find forms called the ostracoderms, which seem to constitute a connecting link between the crustaceans, as represented by the trilobites, and the true vertebrate fishes that were to come. Their heads and trunks ex- ternally bear resemblance to the trilobites, while present- ing fishlike fins and tails. They opened their jaws later- ally like the crabs, not vertically like the fishes, yet so fish- like were their bodies and tails that till recently students have always classed them with the fishes. With the Devonian period comes the reign of the true fishes, though the forms differed extensively from most of those in the present seas. Sharks lived in the Devonian both in the open sea and in brackish waters of the shores. Lampreys, lungfishes, and ganoids were also developed. But as yet paleontologists have found no trace of the now dominant bony fishes. Our fourth era of special interest is the heroic age of vegetation, the Carboniferous. As vegetation is indis- [ 14] A1OISIF{ [eINIVNY JO unasnyY uRdIIauTY 9y3 Jo Asazin07 "yooy AJXIS Jo YSU, w poulyiw AY ‘pesojsar “SIssvinf{ 9yi jo apidar queisd yeotdAy wv Ssnunvsvsvuivy b ALVId THE CHORUS OF MAN’S STAGE pensable to support animal life, it must have coexisted plentifully with the earliest terrestrial animals, though inconspicuous in the fossil record. Fossil evidences of bacteria and marine algae have been found in the rocks laid down in the era of dawning life; but vegetation, though present through all preceding ages, first becomes plentiful, as indicated by the fossil record, in the Devonian. It is represented then, not only by mosses and ferns, but by trees of fernlike form and by some palmlike species. In the Carboniferous period, however, though in forms very strange to our eyes, vegetation became so luxuriant as to form the main source of the coal and to some extent of the oil on which modern industry depends for power. Layers of coal which in some sections reach a thickness of 250 feet are supposed to represent several million years of luxuriant vegetation during the Carboniferous period. Many kinds of trees abounded, but they were very unlike those of the present. This same period brought forth in the animal kingdom the amphibians, those vertebrate creatures adapted to both land and water. They are thought by some to have developed from certain Devonian types of fishes. Surely this development is a most interesting one. It marks a new era in which for the first time the earth held verte- brate animals able to live on land. Some Carboniferous amphibians, recalling the structure of the crocodile, reached lengths of eight to ten feet. Others resembled snakes, lizards, and salamanders. Following the Carboniferous period, there ensued an age, evidently of great stress and hardship, called the Permian. It used to be supposed that life was then altogether ex- tinguished gnd that all subsequent life arose from a new creation. This is an exaggeration. Great diminution in life certainly occurred, and many species were extermi- nated. It was estimated from such knowledge as was available about the beginning of this century that, with 10,000 known animal species of the Carboniferous period, [15 MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST only 300 remained to represent the Permian. The ratio at present would be more favorable to the Permian, but the decline is startling. Simpler, hardier forms of vegetation took the place of the rich Carboniferous flora. Among vertebrate animals arose a new order, the reptiles. Strange forms they took. There was, for instance, the fin-back lizard, Dimetrodon, found six to seven feet in length. Highly in- teresting is the discovery of reptilian forms which, in the shape of head and skeleton, begin to suggest the mammals. But before the age of mammals, the earth had yet to see the long ascendency of the gigantic reptiles which ruled at length air, land, and sea. The Triassic period witnessed the rise of the reptilian land dinosaurs, which, although they did not rival the monstrous forms of the two following periods, yet attained a length of fifteen feet. Reptiles of marine habit became lords of the sea, preying upon its previous rulers, the fishes. But the shell-armored inverte- brates also attained a new prominence with the rise of the cephalopod ammonites, somewhat similar to the modern nautilus. Their beautifully sculptured spiral shells present hundreds of varieties. From the Triassic we pass to the Jurassic period, in which the ammonites attained their maximum of luxuri- ance and beauty. Among the fishes, which during their earlier dominance in the Devonian had been limited to the families related to the lampreys and sharks, the modern bony types now first made their appearance. However, the Jurassic stands for the grand period of the reptiles, both on sea and land. Ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs reached their highest development. The former took on something of the lines of a fish, though crocodilian of snout, with pad- cles, fins, and sharklike tails suitable to rapid marine loco- motion. The plesiosaurs were ungainly reptiles described by some one as having “the body of a turtle strung on a snake.” Like the ichthyosaurs, they were covered by smooth skins unprotected by scales. They ranged from eight to forty feet or more in length. [ 16 ] adoiny ul uew a10ystyaid yr snoaurazodura} uod TOM saroads UO, “UOST e UJIM JBquoy ul sSoTII0OUTU A AyJoom JOUTZXA ayy JO UOTIQRIOSOI V § ALVId THE CHORUS OF MAN’S STAGE On land the dinosaurs attained enormous stature. Here we find Brontosaurus, an herb-eating creature balancing its huge horizontal carcass of sixty feet, in combined length of neck and tail, on four stocky legs. Equally grotesque was the great armored Stegosaurus with its row of vertical plates over the backbone from head to tip of tail. Finally, the reptiles, as represented by the pterodactyls and others, invaded even the air. They did not occupy it alone, however, for in the same period the first birdlike animals appear, in the form of the Archaeopteryx. Still antedating the age of mammals, we pass on into the Cretaceous period, in the vegetation of which appear for the first time the angiosperms which form the dominant dynasty of modern plants. The plants had hitherto been represented by the gymnosperms, whose seeds are naked. The angiosperms have true seed vessels. To this class a great variety of trees, shrubs, and herbs of the present day belong. Among land reptiles, the dinosaurs now attained their most formidable features for attack and defense in Tricera- tops, with his shieldlike crest, sharp beak, and great, pointed horns. Yet Marsh remarks that he had the larg- est head with the smallest brain of the reptile race. Turtles, lizards, snakes, and crocodiles were among other reptile fauna of the period. The flying reptiles attained great spread of wings, possibly twenty-five feet, and doubtless flew with great power. At sea, also, the reptiles still ruled. A species of sea turtle reached the enormous size of twelve feet in diameter, with a skull larger than that of a horse. The plesiosaurs and other marine reptiles still continued in giant forms. True sea-diving birds of large size are found, as well as smaller flying species. Among the fishes, a transition had taken place to the prevailing dominance of the modern bony types. And now, after the long ages of invertebrates, fishes, amphibians, and reptiles, and finally of birds, we arrive at [17] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST last at the eve of the rapid rise of the mammals, and with them, of the rise of the mind. We find in the Eocene pe- riod herbivorous, carnivorous, and insectivorous mammals, among them the ancestors of the cats, dogs, squirrels, rab- bits, monkeys, and lemurs, the horse, and the rhinoceros. Ancestral forms of the elephant and mastodon arose in Africa and migrated through Eurasia and America. Some mammals of Eocene time were of elephantine size, though soon extinct. Also, the mammals went down to the sea as the reptiles had done previously, and were represented by whales, dolphins, manatees, seals, and sea lions. Indeed, the name Eocene is given because in this period, for the first time in all the long history of life, the world’s fauna and flora contained an appreciable percentage of orders that still exist. Thus the Eocene is the dawn of modern life. In the Miocene period, which succeeded the Oligocene, the approach toward the present fauna was marked by the advance of the cat and dog families, of the horse, the rhinoceros, the rodents, and by the development of the pigs and the camels, which as yet were confined to America. The deer and ox families migrated extensively. Most in- teresting, however, is the rise of the primates, nearest of all creatures in their form to man. The Miocene gave place to the Pliocene period, in which after an intermigration of New and Old World types, simi- lar to that which had taken place in the Eocene and other periods, pointing to the existence of ancient bridges across the ocean depths, there begins the divergence which separa- tion by the oceans has caused. The elephant family were the giants of this period. Mastodons occupied all conti- nents. Among the cats occurred the ferocious saber- toothed tiger, now extinct. The apes developed in south- ern Europe and other parts of the Old World. Dubois, in 1891, found in Java portions of a skeleton of Pliocene age, about which paleontologists are in doubt as to whether it is more akin to the apes or to man, and so have called it Pithecanthropus erectus—the erect apelike man. [18 ] THE CHORUS OF MAN’S STAGE To whichever species the Java fossil remains may be as- signed, the next period, the Pleistocene, indubitably brings in the dawn of the day of man. His advent 1s demon- strated by skeletons, tools, drawings, and many other evi- dences. That he was contemporaneous with extinct Sia’ Ss " WSs : RQ % A i Fic. 1. Woolly rhinoceros of the Pleistocene in Europe. A mural drawing in red in the cavern of Font-de-Gaume, Dordogne, France. After Capitan, Breuil, and Peyrony Pleistocene animals is proved by his drawings of spirited likenesses of some of these creatures in the caves of south- ern Europe, as well as by the association in European fossil beds of primitive human skeletons and artifacts with bones of the mammoth, the woolly rhinoceros, and other animals now extinct. The Pleistocene, or Glacial period, was remarkable for the several advances and retreats of arctic and antarctic glaciation. In North America the ice sheets pushed as far south as the junction of the Ohio and Mississippi rivers, while in Europe ice sheets invaded the plains of France. Thus in the infancy of the race, man struggled against odds. Beginning with the dawn of life, we have surveyed animal and vegetable development through the early Paleozoic, the age of the invertebrates; the Devonian, the age of fishes and of the rise of vertebrates; the Carbonifer- ous, or heroic age of vegetation; the Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous, embracing the long dominance of the giant [19] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST reptiles of air, land, and sea, and the rise of birds; through the Eocene, Oligocene, Miocene, and Pliocene, which saw the dawn of the age of mammals, and their development to cover and rule the earth; till finally, after the lapse of hun- dreds of millions of years, man came upon the scene. Within the comparatively brief epoch of a few hundred thousand years at most, he has become master of the world. Other creatures hold their lives at his pleasure; the earth yields her stores of fruits, fuel, and minerals to his machin- ery; he collects power from the rivers and the sun; he com- municates his thoughts around the world almost instan- taneously; he explores the universe with his telescope and spectroscope; and he rides on air, land, and water at speeds exceeding that of the swiftest of the birds. There are at present in the world approximately 600,000 known species of insects, several hundred thousand other invertebrates and nonmammalian vertebrates, and 15,000 mammals. Until comparatively recent times, these were nonexisting, and other species, now extinct, prevailed. Their numbers can not now be estimated, because of the imperfect record which paleontology has thus far disclosed. Nor is the present number complete. Every year adds thousands of newly discovered species to the already hugely swollen list of creatures of the present and the past. It has even been estimated that the unknown insect species are really ten times as numerous as those hitherto described. The immense numbers of species and the changes there- in from epoch to epoch which have marked the past history of the earth, and the tremendous time scale indicated by the study of the slow alterations and great thickness of stratified rocks no less than by the discovery of the trans- mutation of radium, combine both to accentuate and to answer the question: What is the origin of species? With- out other evidences than those just mentioned, the mind would tend to conclude that the species have been formed by gradual divergences of forms exposed to different en- [ 20] Adjsnpuy [eutuy jo nvaing oyi jo Asaqinoz = “1993s qn4ids pyo-svaA-991Y} B SI JoT[eUIS ay} fpaiq Aynyaivo “1993s snSuy-usspsoqy Surpiwad wv SI [eUUY JOBIVT OY, ‘Op [[IM Surpooiq JwyYAA 9 ALVId THE CHORUS OF MAN’S STAGE vironments over ages of time. Such indeed is the almost universally accepted conclusion of scientific men. It is called the theory of organic evolution. As to the relative importance of the parts played by different agencies in pro- moting the evolutionary process there is as yet no general agreement; but as regarding the general proposition there is nearly unanimous consent. If the proposition of organic evolution requires further support, it may be found in the experiments of the present day. For example, the little plant, St.-John’s-wort, which in America and Europe seldom exceeds a foot in height, was transplanted to New Zealand about eighty years ago. There it has become a tree reaching forty feet in the air. Pigeons which came originally from the wild blue rock pigeon have been developed, under the care of breeders, into the astonishing variety of forms familiar to fanciers. Dogs and horses, too, under the selection of breeders, range through forms almost as various. In laboratory ex- periments of the past half century, hundreds of what may be accepted as new species of invertebrates and vertebrates have been originated. Man himself is proved to vary. Thus the races of Europe, which have furnished over twenty million emigrants to America within the past cen- tury, betray, according to Hrdlicka, definite changes of the shape of the skull and other of the most deep-seated skele- tal characters in their descendants of only a few genera- tions. Still more remarkable is the evidence of change which we shall take up in the next chapter, where we follow the human development from conception to old age. It is thought by some to be derogatory to the dignity of man that he should be considered to have ascended from sub- ordinate creatures during the progress of ages. Yet it can not be denied that every human individual goes through an extensive evolution in his own individual development and passes through forms equally repulsive to the squeamish eye. A fact which is often overlooked in this connection [21] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST is that if the theory of organic evolution is admitted, we are to consider man as ascending from some mammal of the Eocene period, not from any existing form of primate. The date of the parent stem, from which man and the other primates separated as branches, must be set back in time quite a million years. [ 22 ] CHAPTER... THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE INDIVIDUAL HUMAN BEING ALTHOUGH in adult life a man is about thirty times as heavy as a fowl, the human egg weighs less than a mil- lionth as much as that of the hen, and is less than a hundredth of an inch in diameter. This great disparity is appropriate to the great difference in the method of nourishing the unborn progeny. The essential nucleus of the living germ-cell in either case makes up but a trifling portion of the total weight of the egg. A great portion of the egg substance in the fowl consists of the. yolk which gives nourishment to the forming creature. This egg nourishment must entirely suffice to sustain growth throughout the three-weeks’ period of gestation preceding the birth of the chick. The human embryo, on the con- trary, almost immediately attaches itself to the wall of the uterus and begins to be nourished at the expense of its mother’s circulation. The nucleus of the human germ-cell within the egg is microscopic in its size and, though it is considerably larger than the male nucleus which unites with it to in- itiate the new individual, the two contain essentially the same number of chromosomes which constitute the in- heritance material. With this in mind, and reflecting that the subsequent office of the mother is mainly to nourish the growing embryo, it will not appear so strange that on the average the influences of father and mother on the character of their offspring are substantially equal. [ 23 ] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST What at first sight is even more extraordinary is that family resemblances, traits of character, even minute similarities in ways of acting, legion in their number, are clearly transmitted from parents to progeny through the channel of the microscopic germ-cells. One might well marvel that so small an organism could possibly carry the potential impression of so many and such complicated traits. To illustrate this point: A certain gentleman, when signing his name to the roll of members of the Handel and Haydn Society in Boston was accosted by the secretary with the remark, “I should have known to what family you belong had you written only the little letter 4.” Not only do deportment, degree of deliberation of movement, stat- ure, facial and bodily appearance, and quality of voice, but a host of other little peculiarities proving family connec- tion, thus pass from ancestor to descendant. On the other hand, no two human individuals are alike. In the act of fertilization many thousands of spermatozoa compete for the impregnation of a single ovum, of which but a single spermatozoon is successful. The preferment is in the highest degree accidental, and had any other of the many possible combinations occurred, the child would have differed from him who is born. Also the ova, though far less numerous than the spermatozoa, differ each from each and impart differences to their progeny. Hence by the marriage of two individuals arises almost countless possibilities of varied characters in their off- spring. The germ-cells, in short, carry not only the com- plex imprint of family inheritance, but also the imprint of individuality which stamps each child apart from all others who ever lived. Yet considering the race as a whole, every germ-cell is only one of an almost infinite number, each of which represents still other individuali- ties. Notwithstanding that its potential capacities are thus certainly so highly complex, the tiny organism 1s, as we have said, so small as to be beyond the unaided vision of the human eye. [ 24 ] DEVELOPMENT OF THE HUMAN BEING We may carry this remarkable consideration still fur- ther. It is difficult, though not always impossible, to detect differences microscopically between the germ-cells of man and those of many other creatures of the millions of species representing vertebrate and invertebrate life. These others also have each one their millions of ancestral, living, or potential individuals. By so much the more extraordinary, therefore, is the certainty of determination which stamps uniquely the order, species, race, family, sex, and individuality upon a microscopic human germ- call How is this possible? It is because of the astonishing divisibility of matter. Though so minute, the germ-cells are nevertheless large enough to contain at least billions, perhaps even trillions, of molecules apiece. In a structure containing such an Grichinieable number of molecules, the possibilities of dissimilar combinations of chemical differ- ences and of varieties of arrangement are sufficient even to carry all the complexities of inheritance which are wrapped up within a germ-cell. Let us look more closely upon this mystery. The whole substance of every living creature, plant and animal, is made up of minute cells. In the adult human body, the cells are estimated to number twenty-six quadrillions. Each of them contains a microscopic portion called the nucleus. This latter is the part in which inheritance fac- tors reside. Differences exist in the cells which determine if a fragment of substance is perchance part of a plant, an invertebrate, a mammal, a male or female, a brain, a nerve, a muscle, or skin. Living cells have four properties: 1. Movement. 2. Metabolism, nutrition, etc. 3. Sensitivity. 4. Reproduction. Movement, by expansion and contraction; metabolism, including the building up of definite substances and the [25 ] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST excretion of worn-out or waste substances; sensitivity, com- prising the reception and transmission of stimuli, so that what is done to one cell produces some sort of effect in others; and reproduction by cleavage, so that one cell becomes two. Although reproduction by cleavage is the property of all living cells and is necessary for the growth and repair of tissues, certain cells in the higher forms of life are reproductive cells par excellence, since they have the function of producing new individuals. Cells contain, besides the microscopic nucleus, the nour- ishing and specialized material called cytoplasm, con- tained within a sur- rounding membrane. Imbedded in the cyto- plasm, the nucleus itself is also inclosed une : most of the time Fea I, within an inner mem- Lo ‘ ; brane, which contains a fluid called nuclear sap and also the all- important chromo- somes of the nucleus wherein is the seat of inheritance units. The cell goes through two phases, which may be compared to sleeping and waking. In the dormant state of the cell the chromosomal structure of the nu- cleus is practically in- visible, though un- doubtedly this is only one, iA : Fic. 2. Phases of mitosis or cell multiplica- tion by division. After Schafer, from Prentiss an apparent absence, and Arey not arealone. Inthe [ 26 | DEVELOPMENT OF THE HUMAN BEING active state occur the extraordinary processes of the divi- sion of the nucleus and of the cell (Fig. 2). Within the nucleus at this time the microscope reveals the chromo- somes as a certain number of aggregations of granular material. These take various forms, such as loops or chains or single lumps. The number BF chromosomes in a cell is characteristic and is constant for each species, but within each species it may differ between the two sexes. In man the count is difficult, but the number is usually regarded as forty-eight. Preparatory to cell division, a pair of centers migrate apart to opposite poles of the nucleus (Fig. 2). The chro- mosomes range themselves as if upon a central plane with respect to these centers, while from each center rays or fibers go out and fasten upon the chromosomes, thus giving a spindle-shaped appearance to these radiating threads. Thus the whole structure at this time resembles a double cone, with the company of chromosomes at the junction of its fees. Meanwhile the membrane which inclosed the nucleus has dissolved, so that the fluid of the nucleus merges into the cytoplasm of the remainder of the cell. And now all of the chromosomes are dragged into halves, as though drawn toward the two centers by opposing pulls of the connected fibers. These half-chromosomes come together near each of the centers and about them new in- closing membranes are formed. The outer membrane of the cell itself then shows a furrow which deepens into a middle septum, and then the cell divides into two cells, each inclosing one of the daughter nuclei. Such, in brief, is the general story of all kinds of cells and of their multiplication. But in the formation of the special male and female germ-cells which unite to produce the embryo, each rejects one-half the number of its chromo- somes at a certain stage. The act of impregnation com- pletes the structure and unites in a single normal cell the chromosomes of two cells, which were distinctively male and female before impregnation. In every division of [ 27] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST cells which occurs thereafter throughout the body of the child, and even in adult life, the daughter cells, being always composed of halves of all chromosomes in ae pre- existing parent cells, contain equal shares of male and female elements. Every part of the human body, there- fore, is composed of cells which owe half of their chromo- somes to each parent. There is a reservation to be made. In the human species the male germ-cells, or spermatozoa, consist of about equal numbers of two kinds. Each of these germ-cells has one chromosome possessing one or the other of two dis- similar properties. Depending on which of these dissimilar chromosomes is included in the male germ-cell which fortuitously unites with the female, the resulting embryo is male or female. In some animals, as among the birds, for instance, the female holds the pair of unequal chromo- somes and is the governing influence which controls the sex of the offspring. In certain animals the disparity between the pair of unequal chromosomes is so great that one chromosome is entirely absent in half the male germ-cells and all cells of the bodies of females contain one more chromosome than those of males. After the union of the male and female germ-cells the resulting new cell of compound nature soon divides in the manner described above, making two cells, and these in turn divide again, and so on, until soon the ovum contains not one but many cells, each of which includes the male and female chromosomes. Up to this point, so far as microscopic observation shows, the cells have been nearly alike, merely minute sparks of living matter. Yet it 1s not quite so, for the descendants of certain of them have, it is now proved, capacity for only one sort of further de- velopment, although, on the other hand, other cells can subsequently give rise to any organs indiscriminately. But now, as in colonies of bees or of ants, the cells begin to be definitely assigned to different functions, and their descendent cells develop differences from this time for- [ 28 ] \ PLATE 7 Amnion Branchial grooves 1- . g 3 Mandibular process Heart Body stalk Yolk-sac ; Maxillary process Mandibular process Branchial arch 2 Branchial arch 3 Cephalic flexure Cervical sinus Eye Atrium of heart Olfactory pit Yolk sac U pper limb bud Cut edge of amnion Mesodermal segment Lower limb bud Mesonephros Upper: Human embryo of 2.6 mm., showing yolk sac. Enlarged many times. After His, Normentafel Lower: Pig embryo of 6 mm. Compare with Plates 8 and 9. After Prentiss and Arey PLATE 8 Human embryo of four to six weeks (2.1 to 11 mm.). After His, Normentafel DEVELOPMENT OF THE HUMAN BEING ward. They resolve themselves into three categories, called in the language of embryology, the ectoderm, the entoderm, and the mesoderm (Fig. 3). Of course, the new creature has not yet given any recognizable visible signs of the wise head, the strong Entoderm of primitive gut Amnion Ly UN qm | [sd i | fos < i i =" ‘Ss = | Somatic mesoderm Splanchnic mesoderm Wall of allantois Chorionic mesoderm Chorionic ectoderm Uterine epithelium Tunica propria of uterus Fic. 3. Diagram of the fetal membranes and allantoic placenta of a pig embryo, showing the three primary germ layers, ectoderm, entoderm, and mesoderm, from which all tissues and organs of the body are derived. After Prentiss and Arey body, the nimble legs, which later will appear. The three primitive divisions which we now speak of are much simpler; for the ectoderm is merely the original source of that which develops the outer skin, with hair and nails, the lining of the mouth and nose, the nervous system, and the [29] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST lens of the eye; the entoderm, of the lining of the long canal which is finally to make up the digestive as well as the speaking and breathing organs; and the mesoderm, of the bones, the muscles, the blood and lymph, lining of the body cavity, and the reproductive organs. In the initial stage, as we have seen, it is difficult if not impossible to recognize microscopically the differences between the nuclei of the germ-cells of different species or even of different orders of animals. But the eggs differ greatly in the quantity of the yolk in which the nuclei are immersed. With birds and reptiles, as we well know, the eggs contain much yolk, whereas with mammals, inelee ing man, the yolk is scanty. The development of the embryos associated with much yolk occurs outside the mother’s body and they derive all nourishment up to the time of birth from the egg. There naturally develops, as the means of nourishing the growing embryo, a channel of communication leading to the reservoir of food which the egg contains. This channel and reservoir are called the yolk-stalk and the yolk-sac. In the mammals we might well expect the absence of these appendages, for they are useless because the yolk is so scanty and the embryo almost immediately is attached to the parent’s circulation. Yet they exist, and persist for a long period, notwithstanding. (Plate 7A.) Other curious features in young mammalian embryos are the so-called gill slits. (See Fig. 8 in Plate 8.) These occur in the place corresponding to the gills of fishes. They are most marked in human embryos at the fourth or fifth week, and gradually are closed and modified into the organs of the face, so that they usually disappear before the end of the second month. Again, the human embryo hasa tail or coccyx, very plainly present as an exterior appendage during the second month. (See Plates 8 and g.) Though the infant generally retains no external vestige thereof at birth, sometimes (though rarely) the tail visibly persists throughout adult life. [ 30] DEVELOPMENT OF THE HUMAN BEING We might mention also the soft woolly hair called lanugo which covers the human fetus at a certain age, but is shed prior to or soon after birth. Numerous other tran- sient similarities to other forms of life have been detected in the human embryo. Some of them even persist through adult life. So many and curious are they that they have given rise to what is called the “doctrine of recapitula- tion.” This is the idea that in the development of each human individual from the germ-cell to adult life we see recapitulated in a fragmentary way the organic evolution of man’s entire ancestry. Organs which it is suggested were functional in man’s remote animal ancestors, but under present conditions are useless, briefly show them- selves, and by disuse atrophy and are lost. Some, indeed, like the hair and vermiform appendix, are in process of being lost, although in earlier ancestral forms of life they were valuable functionally. It is, of course, perfectly obvious that, in the skeleton; the skin; the lungs and their accessories; the heart and the blood circulation; the digestive and reproductive organs; and in many other particulars, man bears a strong re- semblance to many of the mammals, and more particu- larly to the great apes. It is stated by Sir Arthur Keith! that only thirty per cent of man’s structural details are peculiar to himself and not shared with any others of the primates. Among the remaining seventy per cent there are said to be twenty-six per cent of characters which man shares with the gorilla or the chimpanzee but with no other animal. Going back to other genera of the primates, there are found eight per cent of characters shared by man and the great apes with the gibbons, and indeed a small residue of characters shared with the little monkeys of South America. Such facts and considerations as these, added to those outlined in Chapter II, have led most anthropologists to admit great probability in the hypothesis that man is not an independent creation but a gradually developed animal 1See Encyclopaedia Britannica, Ed. 13, vol. ii, p. 779 [3r MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST form, whose ancestry and the ancestry of the great apes separated from a common stock at some distant epoch which anthropologists incline to put as far back as the Miocene period. Still further back, in Oligocene or Eocene time, this stock separated, as it is supposed, from those of the gibbons and other Old World monkeys and from the small monkeys of South America. This hypothe- sis does not imply at all that man’s ancestors were like the present great apes. For the line of descent both of man and of the great apes has been subject to great evolu- tionary changes in these hundreds of thousands of years. We must therefore conceive that the supposed common ancestral stock was quite as different from the great apes of the present as from man. Speculating still further as to man’s descent, it may have come with that of other mammals through the am- phibians, and these by way of the fishes from the arthro- pods, where we lose all paleontological evidence in the long twilight of pre-Cambrian time. But the evidence from analogy found in the development of the human embryo leads us by the doctrine of recapitulation to assign simpler and simpler structures to this prepaleontological human ancestry, until in the beginning of life it originated from the cell itself. There scientific speculation commits the problem to religious faith. It is of surpassing interest to know what are the in- fluences which change the forms of life. From our knowl- edge of the structure of the cell, it seems clear that the almost infinitesimal chromosomes are the all-important elements which determine inheritance. Whatever of in- fluence the environment may exert upon a living creature can have no permanent effect on succeeding generations unless it modifies the chromosomes. Hence students of cytology have made many experi- ments to endeavor to change in some way the fundamental characters of the chromosomes. Without going far aside to note their work extensively, it will show something of [32] PLATE 9 Human embryo of six to eight weeks (12.5 to 23 mm.). Stage W (22 marks the transition from embryo to fetus. After His, Normentafel DEVELOPMENT OF THE HUMAN BEING the means employed and the results reached to speak of the X-ray treatment of the sex cells of certain plants, as reported by Goodspeed and Olson. With a Coolidge X-ray tube operated at 50,000 volts, the flower buds of the plant Nicotiana tabacum,variety purpurea,were treatedin January for ten- and twenty-minute intervals. Of over 1,000 plants raised from these seeds more than twenty per cent were variant from the normal. In one lot of 168 plants, 136 were variant. A majority of the variants were decidedly abnor- mal in such characters as stature, leaf shape, and flower structure. Many of the new forms were completely fertile. In some variants the chromosomes themselves were found by microscopic examinations to be visibly altered. The development of the individual human being enters a new phase with birth. Ceasing to depend upon the moth- er’s circulation for nourishment and excretion of waste matter, the infant begins to employ its lungs to vitalize the blood with oxygen, and its digestive organs to assimilate food taken for the first time through the mouth. At this epoch of radical change in habit, let us pause to compare the status of the infant with that which has preceded and that which is to follow. As regards age, length, and weight, the average prenatal growth has been summarized as follows: AGE LENGTH WEIGHT Months Centimeters Inches Grams Pounds 0.47 0.015 0.006 0.63 OW13 0.05 Ted. 0.88 0.35 D5 1.6 0.63 Dk 1.8 BES 1.0 4 0.009 2% 8 oT 20 0.045 35 14 ns 120 0.26 Ane 22 8.3 285 0.63 5 5 31 12 635 1.40 6.5 36 14 1220 Deg) a5 42 =i eo x | a6 48 1g 2240 4.9 9.5 50 20 3250 We MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST Compared to the adult, the length of a newly-born in- fant may be taken as thirty per cent, and the weight as five per cent. But if the total weight is thus to increase twentyfold between infancy and adult life, the different organs of the body show great differences in this respect. Thus, in average terms, if we take the infant weights in each case as unity, the adult weights of corresponding organs are as follows: Stomach Eye | Brain| Skin | Heart and Lungs | Skeleton | Muscles Intestine Ty. RIB RTD 15 20 20 26 48 It is thus apparent that the eyes and brains of newly-born infants are greatly developed compared to other organs, a fact which is of high importance to a creature whose command over nature rests so much more upon sight and thought than upon size and strength. The rate of growth of the child decreases very rapidly during the first two or three years, then remains nearly stationary until about the seventh or eighth year, when it again rises rapidly, so that the youth from twelve to fifteen years of age 1s fairly racing toward adult growth and his food demands are correspondingly increased. From this maximum of growth rate there is a gradual decline, and growth practically ceases at about the twenty-fifth year. In later life the weight, however, often has a marked in- crease after about the fiftieth year. The heart-beat of the babe is very rapid, and ap- proximates 135 per minute, falling to 110 in the second year, about ninety in the tenth, and seventy-five in adult life. Considering the very much smaller volume of the infant body, this relatively great rapidity of heart action causes an exceedingly more rapid renewal of the blood in the tissues than occurs in adult life. [ 34] ] | { ] 1 DEVELOPMENT OF THE HUMAN BEING Breathing, too, is quicker in the infant life, ranging from thirty-five per minute at birth to twenty-eight in the second year, twenty-six in the fifth, and so onwards. In the early years there 1s a continual storing up of reserves in the form of complex chemical compounds. Energy is being laid up against the exigencies of life in the form of rapidly increasing masses of flesh. The infant and growing child require pound for pound, over and above the needs of adult man, a larger income of energy corresponding to the imperious demands of growth. Let us embrace in a single view the long panorama of life and survey the mysterious march of progressive evolu- tion from its marvelous beginning in the individual cell, through the complex organizations of cells making up the many orders and species which have occupied the earth in the past or occupy it now, looking forward towards the undisclosed unfolding of the life of the future. In this far-ranging view, reproduction, not present activity, is by far the most important of all functions. Without it the glory of life is indeed but evanescent. With it the potentialities of the life of the future are beyond estimate. From this point of view it is wholly fitting that the period of life which is marked by the most outstanding changes in form, activity of growth, behavior, mental out- look, and assertion of individuality should be the period of puberty, when the organs of reproduction become func- tional. In savage life, the significance of this period is frankly recognized and has led to rites and ceremonies, fasts, vigils, self-torturings, and other curious practices emblematic of the mysterious importance associated with this vital epoch. It would be superfluous to describe changes of bodily form and habits of thought which accompany the onset of the reproductive period of life, for no one can avoid know- ing them. The literature of romance, of motherhood, and of chivalry, which makes up so preponderating a part of [35] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST the written heritage of the world, expresses the finer influences of this transcendent experience. We have traced the outline of the history of the forms of life culminating in man, as revealed in the geological record, and the development of the human individual from conception to adult life, as discovered by the sciences of cytology, embryology, and anatomy. We may properly turn now to the story of the upward march of the race of mankind, which begins with primitive man and his implements. These till recently lay buried under the accumulations of ages, but now reveal to us humankind contending for a place in the sun against the brutes and nature. [ 36] CHAPTER TV THE STUDY OF HUMAN PREHISTORY Ir was formerly supposed that the great sequences in life forms, like the Age of Fishes, the Age of Reptiles, the Age of Mammals, and so on, came as the result of “‘cata- clysms.”” There is no evidence, however, that universal catastrophes, of flood, glaciation, or what not, have ever really wiped out all life on the globe so that nature had to start out all over again. The nearest approach to it appears to have come in Permian time, but even then, as noted in Chapter II, many species survived. On the contrary, the same natural forces—rain, wind, frost, ice, earthquake, and volcanic eruptions—which we see about us today, have operated with only moderate fluctuations of effect from the beginning. We shall study the pre- historic past of man as a part of this orderly continuous working of nature. The decipherment of the records of man’s physical type and of the achievements of his intelligence in the far- distant past by the archeologist has required the coopera- tion of specialists in many different fields—of the geologist, the climatologist, the paleontologist, the zoologist, the botanist, the ethnologist, among others. Thanks to their cooperative work we now know far more than would have seemed possible even a generation ago. Yet the task has been but fairly begun, except perhaps in western Europe and especially France. In spite of the vast age of human remains in Europe, it is probable that man did not originate on that continent, but came there from other lands, partly over “‘land- [37] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST bridges’’ long since sunk beneath the sea. When Asia and Africa have given up more of the secrets which recent discoveries show are concealed 1 in their soil, we shall know much more about man’s origin and earliest history than we do now. The records of man’s prehistoric past fall into several classes, of which two are of leading importance—first, his own actual bodily remains in the shape of his bones; and second, the objects of his handiwork, such as tools and weapons and evidences drawn from the traces of his oldcamp sites, his burial customs, and his dawning artistic sense. In addition, the animal life and the vegetation associ- ated with early man can contribute much information. Certain types of plants and animals flourish in tropical climates, while others can exist only under temperate and even cold conditions. Their remains give a clue to climate and other conditions under which early man lived. We can also learn something of prehistoric man from the more backward races of the present day. But before we describe these methods and their ap- plication, let us see how the trained archeologist works. Once he has chosen his site, he digs methodically and with closest attention, sometimes even straining every spadeful of earth through a sieve. He makes exhaustive notes of every bit of evidence that he finds, records each fragment of pottery or bone or worked stone as to its position and condition when found. He takes photographs not only of the objects themselves but also of their surroundings, in some cases even from aeroplanes; draws detailed plans; makes maps; notes fully the geology and climate, the human and animal life and vegetation of the region, both past and present—everything, in short, which might throw light in any way on the mode of life of the men of that time and place. The final study of the finds them- selves can be done properly only at some great institu- tion, a museum or university, with the aid of all the resources that modern science can bring to bear. [38 ] THE STUDY OF HUMAN PREHISTORY If it be asked how we can tell the relative age of dif- ferent kinds of remains found in the soil, how we know that one type of human culture, for instance, is older than another, a simple illustration may answer. Most of us cherish early memories of the “‘old swimming hole” and its sometimes forbidden delights. Very often, we recall, the creek curved around, with a high bank on the outer edge of the bed, where the water was deep and safe for diving, and with a low, shelving beach on the inner side. The steep outer bank tended always to be undercut by the current, so that portions of it occasionally slipped down into the water, leaving exposed a fresh surface of clay. Near the top of this we should perhaps find sticking out of the earth objects that had been left there in recent times since white people inhabited the country: a rusty piece of iron, some baked bricks, a few fragments of broken chinaware, or a decaying log bearing marks of the pioneer’s steel ax. There might, too, be bones of horses or oxen, pigs or sheep—animals which we know the early settlers brought with them from Europe. Lower down in the freshly exposed face of the bank we might find stone arrowheads, fragments of coarse, unglazed pottery, or bones and antlers of deer—animals which shared the country with the Indians. Sometimes, of course, we should find things mixed up— jumbled together by the plow of the farmer, by burrow- ing animals, spring freshets, or the caving in of the banks. In general, however, we should see that traces of the later comers in the country lie above those of the earlier in- habitants. In a brick wall, the lowest course is bound to be the earliest, while the top one is laid down last. That, in essence, is the principle on which archeology depends (Fig. 4). As our knowledge accumulates, the easier it is to apply it. If an archeologist from Mars were to come upon a chipped Indian arrowhead of stone sticking out of our clay bank above a rusty old iron hoe instead of de/ow it, [39] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST he might be pardoned for thinking that the Stone Age came later than that of Iron. We know, however, thanks to our better information, that it was really the other way around. It is always easier to work from the known to the un- known. That is the way all riddles are solved. Man’s prehistoric past is really a riddle to be solved from certain ozs = typi yo MMMM Fic. 4. Cross-section of deposits in cave of Drachenloch, Switzerland, showing how consecutive occupation through the ages is recorded in distinct strata. After Bachler clues, a skein to be unraveled from the end in hand, which in this case is the present. Let us treat it so, starting from the things we know, and when we reach the things we have not known they will be much less unfamiliar to us. As we go backwards we shall see man’s great dis- coveries—metal working, weaving, pottery making, house building, the domestication of plants and animals, and implement making—fall away from him one by one, until at last we come to a time when he lived among the wild creatures, naked as one of them. The age we live in is an age of steel. This does not mean, of course, that we never employ other substances [ 40 ] PLATE 10 The Age of Steel From an etching of the Standard Oil Building, New York City, by Joseph Pennell Courtesy of the Joseph and Elizabeth Robins Pennell Collection in the Library of Congress THE STUDY OF HUMAN PREHISTORY where they prove more suitable or economical. We use copper in many more ways than were ever dreamed of in the Copper Age itself, as we also use stone and wood. But steel is the material most characteristic of our times. Man has known and employed steel, mainly for making weapons and edged tools, for over 2,000 years; but the true Age of Steel only began something like half a century ago, with its general application to structural uses. Be- fore that, civilized man had long been living in the Iron Age, which began in the real sense about 3,000 years ago, almost certainly in western Asia. Man had known iron earlier still, but only so slightly as to consider it a precious metal. He forged rings and other ornaments from it, and, with the intense superstition which enveloped him, he regarded it as something mysterious and uncanny. We must not think that the general use of iron sprang up in every part of the globe anything like 3,000 years ago. The entire Western Hemisphere, which long re- mained to all intents and purposes in the late Stone Age, learned of it only four centuries ago, as did also portions of Asia and Africa and the whole of Australia and the great Pacific area. Even yet remote and isolated tribes, like the New Guinea Papuans, who use stone, bone, horn, or shell for their tools and weapons, are actually living in the Stone Age today. This helps us realize as nothing else can that widely different culture stages may exist at one and the same time in various parts of the world. As we delve still deeper into the past, we find that be- fore the Iron Age there was a time when, in certain regions of the Old World, people depended on bronze (an alloy of copper mixed, generally, with about ten per cent of tin) as their chief metal. We know this period, therefore, as the Bronze Age, and its earliest traces are to be sought somewhere around 4000 B. Cc. But people did not find out all at once how to combine copper and tin to make bronze. Before that they em- ployed copper alone, perhaps as far back as 5000 or [41] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST 6000 B.c. Along with its use, we meet with many traces surviving from the preceding epoch, that in which weapons and implements were made of stone. In fact, for a very long period men seemed to have looked on the lumps of native copper and the nuggets of gold which they found here and there merely as varieties of tough, malleable stone, and cut, pounded, and polished them into shape long before some prehistoric Edison found out how to melt and cast them. ees Ei ‘ Hence we often speak, ; not of an Age of Copper, but of a Chalcolithic Pe- riod, from two Greek words meaning, respec- tively; (copper) (anid COMETS Then, as we push on Fic. 5. Outlines of the skulls of a chim- still further backward panzee (dotted line), of a Neanderthal into the past, we reach man (solid line), and of a modern European a time when men knew (broken line); showing stages in cranial A development. After Boule nothing of metals, but depended instead on stone, chipped, ground, and polished, for their most serviceable tools and weapons. This cultural stage is called the Neolithic Period, or New Stone Age. In its long course, man made very many of the basic discoveries upon which all his later progress has depended. The further back we penetrate into bygone ages, the less certain be- comes our chronology, because we have less and less to go by. But perhaps we shall be reasonably close to the truth in estimating that in the more advanced parts of the world of that day the New Stone Age was beginning something like 10,000 to 15,000 years ago. As our knowledge of the past steadily increases, we realize more and more that there are few breaks in prog- ress. Successive stages always grow quite naturally out of those that have gone just before. Thus instead of a [ 42 ] PLATE 11 ne 5 Eee Pe . ¥ J J ie ee & The Age of Iron. Scene at a posthouse on one of the great Roman roads. In the foreground a cavalryman. After Forestier, The Roman Soldier PLATE 12 The Bronze Age. Right, a Greek like those who fought at Troy; left, a western European chieftain; center, one from the Danube region. After Forestier, The Roman Soldier THE STUDY OF HUMAN PREHISTORY complete gap or hiatus between the New and the Old Stone Ages in Europe, such as students once thought existed, there was an intermediate period when men were slowly, and no doubt often with great difficulty, adjusting themselves to changed conditions and new discoveries. This stage has been given a name of its own, w2z., the Mesolithic or Middle Stone Age. It was clearly an age of transition. Some of the peoples and cultures which then appeared in Europe undoubtedly arrived there from other lands; but there also existed some survivors from earlier times in that continent itself. But we have not yet reached the earliest evidences of man’s presence in Europe. Before the Middle Stone Age, as we might infer from the name itself, there was an Old Stone Age—the Paleolithic Period, as it 1s called by prehistorians, who have subjected it, especially in France, to intensive study. They have discovered an it numerous subdivisions which they have named after places in France where typical sites have been found. At the very close of the Old Stone Age—merging, in fact, with the Mesolithic that followed—is the Azilian, named for the cave of Mas d’Azil in the northern spurs of the Pyrenees; before that comes the Magdalenian, so called after the rock shelter of La Madeleine, in the same region; then the Solutrean, from the great open camp of prehistoric man found at Solutré, farther east; the Aurig- nacian, from the sepulchral grotto of Aurignac, and the Mousterian, from the cave of Le Moustier, both in the same region as Mas d’Azil; the Acheulian, from St. Acheul, and the Chellean, from Chelles, two places in mouehecn France; and lastly, the BreeGuelean: oldest of all. These successive stages overlap the entire vast span of the Old Stone Age. They comprise certain periods when the climate was warmer than it is now, and others when it was far colder and a sheet of ice buried much of Europe, as Greenland today. Throughout this epoch, [ 43 ] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST as we travel further and further back into the past, we find on the whole an increasing rudeness of culture asso- ciated with older and older types of animals, many of LY, CHIMPANZEE Fic. 6. Side view of the skulls and brains of modern man and chimpanzee. Note the difference in the manner of carrying the head. After Boule them extinct ages ago. This is no mere guesswork, but is clearly proved by the actual remains themselves. The bones of men and animals, unlike the rest of the body, may, under favorable circumstances, be preserved almost indefinitely. Careful study of them can tell us much about the looks and habits and the relationships of the creatures, human or animal, to which they once [44] winasnyy JeuOeNy ay3 ut dnoig ‘sjuataydwn suojs Sutinjovjnuvur siay UMOYS ase pu aingpnd aby auoig May, v passassod ‘suvadoiny jo JUaApPe dy} sJOJaq ‘su¥IPUT ULDIOWIY ayy ‘aSy 2Uu0Ig MAN OT ee ae. €l ALV Id AsOISTFY [eANIV NT jo WMNOSNTAT Pely 2ep! jo Asaqino7y “Apres Je YTIpPUvINT B jo UOT RIO II V Ys he/ suds PIO FUL th} ALVI1d THE STUDY OF HUMAN PREHISTORY belonged. Fortunately, also, the very part of the skeleton most apt to be preserved is the one which reveals to us more about the living creature than any other, namely, the skull, which in life contains the brain, the seat of man’s intelligence—precisely what we are studying. The size of this organ, as shown by that of the brain-case Fic. 7. The lower surfaces of the skulls of a chimpanzee, a Neanderthal man, and a modern European; showing progressive shifting of the opening for the spinal cord toward the center of the skull. After Boule itself, provides us with many clues of the highest im- portance. Among normal white male adults the size of the brain averages around 1,550 cubic centimeters, al- though in different individuals this figure may vary as much as 200 cubic centimeters either way. The skulls of certain less cultured modern peoples, however, as well as those of some prehistoric races, fall decidedly below this capacity. In the three higher apes, the gorilla, the chimpanzee, and the orang-utan, the average sizes of the brain rarely if ever exceed 600, 400, and 400 cubic centimeters, respectively. Hence, speaking very generally, the lower we go in the scale of intelligence the smaller and lighter in weight do we find the brain. More than that, it is simpler and less convoluted, so that in creatures like some of the South American monkeys, for example, the surface of the [45 ] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST brain presents a very smooth structure showing com- paratively few of those folds which seem so closely linked with intelligence. Again, by good fortune, the number and shape of these convolutions is indicated on the inner MALARNAUD ere / ™CHIMPANZEE Fic. 8. A series of lower jaws showing progressive development of chin. After Boule surface of the skull, which nature molds to fit them exactly (Plate 15). Hence, in a well-preserved prehistoric skull we can tell by the impressions on its inner surface whether the individual to which it once belonged had a brain of higher or of lower grade. And where, as in the case of Neanderthal man, we have found several skulls belonging to the same type, we can begin to draw conclusions regard- ing that race as a whole. Scarcely less significant are the base of the skull and the manner of its attachment to the neck. These help to reveal the posture habitually assumed by man and by the most manlike animals, the great apes. As none of the latter ever habitually go about erect, their heads are set on their necks very differently from ours. The face is pushed forward (Fig. 6), and the muscles of the neck are attached to the skull in a way calculated to sup- port the latter in this position. Moreover, the opening through which the spinal cord passes into the brain is situated much nearer the back of the head (Fig. 7). From these data we could deduce, if we had never seen a live gorilla, that [ 46 ] THE STUDY OF HUMAN PREHISTORY he normally assumes a stooping posture, with the head and especially the jaws carried far forward, more nearly approaching that of four-legged creatures on the one hand and of very early man on the other. The characters of the lower jaw or mandible, though too numerous and often too technical for us to describe in detail, contain much information for the anthro- pologist. The hinge, or articulation, by which the lower jaw is attached to the skull differs widely both in individuals and in races, so that this single character can tellus al reat deal regarding the shape of the head of which it once formed apart. The presence or absence of a chin also. means very much. All modern and recent races of men have a_ chin, while the apes have none, their lower jaws sloping right back- ward from the front teeth. Here again, the further back eee Fic. 9. The skull, spinal column, and pelvis intO mans _ remote of man and gorilla compared. After Boule past, the less do we find his chin developed, until in some of the most ancient human skulls it is practically absent (Fig. 8). Just inside the point of the human chin, back of and below the roots of the front teeth, occurs a small projection bearing two points to which the main muscles controlling the tongue are attached. Instead of a projection, the [ 47 ] GORILLA MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST lower jaws of apes actually have a small depression at this point; and in the older prehistoric human skulls, we find a condition intermediate between modern man and the ape. The teeth, in their size and shape, including that of their roots, in the way they are set in the Jaw, and in many other features, likewise contain evidence of great sig- nificance to the anatomist and the prehis- torian. As our far- distant ances- tors gradually attained amore upright pos- ture, their fossil skeletons reveal that further anatomical and struct mnas changes took place in their bodies. The head began to be balanced on the spinal Fic. 10. Thigh bone of modern man (left), of Neander- column > oe us thal man (center), and of gorilla (right). After Keith stead of being thrust far forward (Fig. 9). To accomplish this balancing, the back of the head, or occiput, grew out backward, the jaws were drawn in and became less massive, the forehead became higher, and the whole face more nearly vertical. At the same time equal or even greater changes went on in the rest of the skeleton, notably in the pelvic bones. In'a creature going on all fours, the weight of the internal [ 48 ] PLATE 15 Upper: Progressive series of skulls—gorilla, Rhodesian man, Neander- thal man, and modern Kafir. In the National Museum Lower: Fragment of the Piltdown skull. Note its great thickness and the impression left by the brain on its inner surface. After Smith Woodward PLATE 16 Silhouettes of hands, mostly mutilated, made by prehistoric man on the walls of the cave of Gargas, in the Pyrenees. After Breuil THE STUDY OF HUMAN PREHISTORY organs, chest, and head is partly supported by the fore- legs; in man, on the contrary, this duty is thrown on the pelvis. Alterations took place also in the curvature of the backbone and in the structure of the individual vertebrae. Finally, the bones and joints of the legs and feet like- wise bear witness to many facts about primitive man. For example, a fairly constant relation exists between the length of the thigh bone, or femur, and the total height of the individual in different races; and the femur is pre- cisely one of the parts of fossil skeletons most apt to be preserved (Fig. 10). The shape of the knee joint, again, shows whether the leg could be straightened, which 1s to say, whether its owner walked upright or stooping over. A striking recent instance will suffice to show how the trained modern specialist works with the often very frag- mentary evidence that keeps coming to light. About a score of years ago some pieces of a skull found at Piltdown, in southern England, were recognized at once as one of the very earliest specimens yet discovered. It was in the highest degree desirable to restore it as nearly as possible to its original shape. As some question existed as to whether the fragments found were sufficient to allow of this being done, the eminent anatomist, Sir Arthur Keith, submitted to the following test. With his permission we here quote part of his narrative in his own words: . . . The question is often asked: Are four fragments of a skull, such as those found at Piltdown, sufficient to give us a definite clue to the original form of skull? . . . To test the matter, Professor F. G. Par- sons of St. Thomas’s Hospital Medical School, London, made a pro- posal to me, namely, that he and some of his fellow-anatomists should select a skull, cut fragments from it corresponding to those found at Piltdown, and that I should attempt to reconstruct the entire skull from these fragments. I gladly accepted the proposal, and resolved, however the result should turn out, to make the experiment the sub- ject of an address I had promised to the fellows of the Royal Anthro- pological Institute. On the 16th January, 1914, a fortnight before this lecture was due, the four pieces of a skull shown in [Fig. 11] came to me from Dr. Douglas Derry, of University College, London. They were representatives [ 49 | MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST of the Piltdown fragments, and the task of reconstruction offered the same difficulties. Only on one piece—the occipital fragment—could any certain sign of the middle line of the skull be detected. How near a true reconstruction of the original form can be obtained PGs: Fragments of skull used in Sir Arthur Keith’s test; cut from the cranium of an ancient Egyptian woman. After Keith OCCIPITAL FRAGMENT by the use of such a meth- od is apparent in [Fig. 12]. As regards the width and height, the reconstruction was in close agreement with the original skull from which the fragments given to me had been cut. The general form was rightly reproduced. There were certain minor errors which could have been elimi- nated had there been suf- ficient time at my disposal. It is obvious in [Fig. 12] that the right parietal fragment is placed too low, and that the occipital bone is too high. But as regards general outline and chief diameters the result of this experiment was reassuring. The actual reconstruction of the experimental skull occupied me Fic. RECONSTRUCTION 12. CAST OF ORIGINAL Skull of ancient Egyptian woman as reconstructed by Sir Arthur Keith, and cast of the original [50] THE STUDY OF HUMAN PREHISTORY the better part of two days. Having made exact drawings of it, I handed the skull and drawings to Dr. Derry at University College. He then showed me the cast of the original—the skull of an ancient Egyptian—a woman, with a peculiar form of head and a brain capacity of 1,395 c.c. The estimate I returned of the brain capacity, namely 1,415 c. c., was not very wide of the truth, and as regards general form and actual dimensions I was relieved to find the method I had followed had given—except in one respect—a fairly accurate reproduction of the original. Nothing could be more conclusive regarding the pains- taking methods employed by modern anatomists in the study of ancient skeletal remains. And only rarely, we may add, do prehistoric skulls present so many difficulties as that of Piltdown. The comparison of ancient man’s customs and practices, so far as we know them, with parallel traits among modern savages has its dangers, for often the ethnologist finds that closely similar practices among modern tribes may arise in totally different ways and be governed by entirely different ideas. Yet this method in the hands of experts can be made very useful, even if rarely in itself decisive. A concrete example will show how it helps to throw light on the far-distant past. There have been found painted on the walls of caves in France and Spain many silhouettes of human hands, with one, two, three, or even four fingers showing only as stumps (Plate 16). An experience with American Indians reported by George Bird Grinnell suggests the key to this mystery. Once when he was present at Camp Lewis, Montana, the body of a Crow Indian chief killed in battle was brought in, whereupon the mother and a male rela- tive each cut off the little finger of the left hand in sign of their grief. And a Cheyenne Indian once explained to Grinnell how he had sacrificed three of his fingers to the Higher Powers, to induce them to aid him in taking ven- geance on an enemy. Again we find in the reasoning of certain primitive peoples of our day who depict animals and enemies on [51] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST their weapons and elsewhere, for the purpose of exerting over them magical influences, an explanation of why some of the prehistoric peoples of Europe executed wonderfully lifelike paintings and engravings of animals on the almost: inaccessible and ordinarily invisible walls of caves. They aches nia NE Fic. 13. Cave painting of a bison, with darts (or possibly arrows) piercing its sides; undoubtedly of magical significance. From the cavern of Niaux, southwestern France. After Breuil did this not to give expression to their artistic impulses but for magical motives. It may help to make clear the manner in which the science of archeology reveals the story of man’s ancient past if we consider three typical prehistoric sites where lived generations of men far apart in time. There is.a cavern near the village of Mas d’Azil, in southwestern France, forming a natural tunnel some 500 yards long through which flows the Arize, a tributary of the Garonne. Repairs in the road along the stream in the year 1887 brought to the notice of M. Edouard Piette a section of the earth with which the cavern had become filled through the ages. A surface layer of black clay five feet thick contained many traces of the latest occupants. These dated from Roman times back to the Neolothic Period, which in this part of France merged into the [ez THE STUDY OF HUMAN PREHISTORY subsequent Bronze Age somewhere around 2500 B. c. Just beneath this, and therefore next older, was a stratum one and one-half feet in thickness, of various colored clays, containing objects of early Neolithic date. Lower still came the Azilian layer, also about one and one-half feet thick, with implements of that transitional period which in fact has received its name from this very site. Below the Azilian again, a succession of strata, amounting in all to seventeen feet, contained various hearths with remains of Magdalenian type, including a thick barren layer which showed that there had been a long interval when the cave was unoccupied by man. Bones of reindeer and other arctic animals, some of the latter belonging to extinct species, were found in the lower deposits, but not in the Azilian. Passing over now to Solutré, where M. Arcelin carried on excavations from 1866 until his death in 1904, we find a site of another kind. It is two and one-half acres in extent, sloping upward from the river Sadne toward a rocky bluff 300 feet high, and consisting largely of the débris left behind by the ancient occupants. In some places this great mass of material was found to reach a depth of thirty-three feet. Its upper portions contained bones of various wild animals, including the mammoth, the cave bear, the wild bull, the horse, and especially the reindeer; also quantities of tools and weapons of reindeer horn, bone, and stone; minerals for colors; carved figures; and perforated animal teeth. The weapons included many of the so-called “‘laurel-leaf” points of flint, so character- istic of the Solutrean culture phase named for this very site. Beneath the Solutrean remains and belonging appar- ently to the preceding Aurignacian epoch, at a depth of about ten feet, occurred a uniform layer of horse bones, charred, cut, and broken; mingled with these were flint implements. This huge deposit covered an area of well Over 4,200 square yards, or more than seven-eighths of an acre, and represented the remains of at least 100,000 [53] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST horses that had been killed and eaten by the prehistoric hunters during their long occupancy of this site. Below the horse bones, again, the excavators came upon one and in some places two layers of Aurignacian débris; while finally, in the deepest portions of their trench, they un- covered the Mousterian culture with its characteristic coarser artifacts. These were buried under nearly forty feet of accumulations. . In 1923, the son of the elder M. Arcelin, in company with MM. Depéret and Mayet, dis- covered in the Aurignacian stratum, under all those of Solutrean and Neolithic and more recent times and well below that of the horse bones, the skeletons of two men and one woman. Near the latter lay the remains of two babies. The bodies of the adults had evidently been regularly buried, for their graves were marked by slabs of limestone which, though destined in the course of ages to be so deeply covered, probably had projected above the ground when the prehistoric mourners placed them in position. The last of our three typical sites is that of Chelles, on the river Marne, eight miles east of Paris. Here the an- cient sands and river gravels form a terrace about twenty- six feet thick between the present bed of the stream and the surrounding level. First comes a Mousterian stratum; just below that, an Acheulian one; then, earliest of all, about thirteen feet above the river, the Chellean, to which this site has given its name. Characteristic types of stone - implements and bones of different species of animals mark each of these layers. For the Chellean and earlier Acheu- lian epochs were associated with creatures belonging to a warm climate, like the straight-tusked elephant, the hip- popotamus, and Merck’s rhinoceros. On the other hand, the upper or later Acheulian and the Mousterian, later still, show, by the presence of animals like the mammoth, the reindeer, and the woolly rhinoceros, the existence of arctic conditions. These three typical sites—Mas d’Azil, Solutré, and [54] THE STUDY OF HUMAN PREHISTORY Chelles—show how successive culture layers have come to light one after the other, from the Neolithic, at the top, clear back to the Chellean, far below. They reveal, too, that the further back we go into the past the cruder are the implements which we find man using and the more primitive his manner of life. [55] CHAPTER V THE ICE AGE GEOoLoaIcaL research has revealed traces of more than one ice age, or glacial period, in both the Northern and South- ern Hemispheres, far back in the earth’s remote past, countless ages before the appearance of man. However, the one which we generally have in mind when we speak of the Ice Age, and with which we are here concerned, oc- curred but yesterday, geologically speaking, and pro- foundly influenced the development of man. There is no doubt whatever that man existed long before it began, but the vicissitudes and hardships to which he was then ex- posed had a great deal to do with the shaping of his later destinies and therefore the Glacial Period deserves our attention here. Many explanations have been suggested of the causes that produce an ice age or lead to its disappearance. One surmise pictures the solar system, in its journey through space, as having passed through a “cold region” which lowered the temperature of our earth enough to cause enormous expansion of the polar ice caps. But this theory lacks the support of any real evidence. Again, the English astronomer, Croll, argued for varia- tions in the shape of the earth’s orbit as the cause of an ice age. We all know that the path of our planet around the sun does not form a true circle but an ellipse. This changes its shape through the ages at a rate that can be calculated astronomically. Croll suggested that the Ice Age corresponded to the last period of great eccentricity of the orbit of the earth, when the latter attained its [ 56] ( oe opi ; STS : ES FOIL AA ‘Cd eS) Aq ydvisoioyg SAQT[VA jo peels eyy uo Siar e uOoTIOR Sheer ‘SOuUIvIOUI [B19q¥] pue [VUIWUIO} SUIMOYS BpeurV) BIO TY Tolov]£y TOJITA UL “JOY 2yi pue “syoo|q Ie1I9 LY ALVId aaa AdAING [edIBopoax) ay3 jo Asayinod "y4aqqig Aq ydesZojoyg “3 3tr 01 Yay Wo Sutraow 41 19A0 JaOvps v jo aBessed saws0j aya Prosar ysyod puv suoneiys sy f ‘viusosyeg “epeaanN B4dIg 2y3 UL yd0I a}UvID 81 ULV Id WHE! ICE (AGE maximum distance from the sun and therefore received correspondingly less of its heat. This would have made the Glacial Period begin 240,000 years ago and last for 160,000 years, thus coming to an end 80,000 years ago. This theory at one time found wide acceptance. But growth of knowledge has developed serious objections to it, and prehistorians have come to feel convinced that the maximum severity of the Ice Age occurred much less than 80,000 years ago. Still others have tried to explain the great expansion of the ice caps as due to causes arising on our earth itself, such as changes in the shape of the continents, produced by the elevation or sinking of the land. It has also been claimed that an ice age has followed every great period of mountain upheaval. Such earth movements have no doubt played a part, perhaps an important one, but they do not explain everything. Another hypothesis, in some ways more promising than any of those outlined above, ascribes the advance and retreat of the great ice fields to fluctuations in solar radia- tion; for our sun appears to be what astronomers call a variable star, giving out less heat at certain times than at others. But whatever the cause or causes, they led to a lowering of the temperature, although not necessarily a great one. In fact, meteorologists believe that even under present atmospheric conditions a fall in the average yearly tem- perature of only seven to nine degrees Fahrenheit would bring on another glacial period in Europe. The formation of glaciers requires that two conditions be met: First, an annual heavy fall of snow, so that it lies in great drifts; and second, summers either too cool or too short to melt all the snow that falls. The snow thus keeps on growing deeper and deeper, until the lower and older layers, subjected to great pressure by the superstructures, gradually turn into solid ice. When this takes place on level ground, immense ice sheets form in time, to remain [57] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST for ages until another slow change in climate causes them gradually to melt. In rugged country, however, these vast accumulations of ice tend to move downhill, seeking ever lower levels (Plate 17). In this way the valleys are occupied by slowly moving rivers of ice, partly carried along by their own weight and partly pushed on by that of the ever-growing masses behind them. Usually glaciers move down the valleys very slowly, although in the polar regions they may advance as much as fifty feet per day. The rate depends on the temperature, the slope of the ground, and the volume of ice involved. It is a little greater by day than by night and in summer than in winter. Now the passage of millions of tons of ice over the sur- face of the earth produces many interesting effects. For one thing, it naturally exerts a tremendous grinding and scouring force which steadily wears away the sides and bottoms of the glacier-filled valleys. Their cross-sections thus become changed in time from the typical V shape, produced by ordinary stream erosion, into one resembling a capital letter U. Where valleys of this type occur, we may be sure that glaciers have once passed. Much as the current of a river often undermines its banks and causes them to cave in, so a glacier, in spite of its vastly slower movement, produces in the same way falls of rock, gravel, and earth. These lie on its surface and gradually form long lines of débris, known as lateral moraines, which, sinking slowly to the bottom of the glacier, become frozen solidly in the ice; being thus dragged along irresistibly over the underlying rock surface, they score parallel grooves running in the same direction as that of the moving glacier (Plate 18). After the latter has dis- appeared with the return of a warmer climate, these marks remain to afford unmistakable proof that the region was once ice covered. In time the bowlders carried along at the bottom of the glacier are worn by their contact with the ground into [ 58 ] THE ICE AGE characteristic rounded or prismatic shapes. Ultimately many of them are reduced to dust. All this material, both coarse and fine, together with the earth that falls from the sides of the glacial valleys, combines to form what is known as “till,” or ‘“‘bowlder clay.”” The occurrence of this substance is another evidence of the former presence of a glacier. Often, too, after the ice has melted away, it leaves be- hind it bowlders of all sizes, usually with rounded contours, called ‘erratic blocks.’”’ When these are composed of rock unlike that of the country around them, they can often be traced back, sometimes for vast distances, to the region whence they originally came. The glacier, as it slowly travels downhill, eventually reaches a level where it melts and forms a “glacial stream,” which carries along with it bowlders, gravel, and sand, automatically sorting them out, as it goes, according to size. This material forms heaps called terminal moraines, often of crescent shape, with the hollow side toward the glacier. Wherever, owing to stability of climate, the melt- ing end of a glacier has remained stationary for centuries, these appear as huge mounds quite unmistakable to the trained eye. Through the careful study of these and other traces of former glaciation, particularly in western Europe, geolo- gists have been able to learn a great deal about the nature and history of the last great Ice Age. They have found that the latter, far from being confined to western Europe, extended over the world, with glaciers forming in both the Southern and Northern Hemispheres apparently about the same time, and through their gradual extension en- veloping large portions of the globe. In this way much of North America, of northern Europe, and of southern- most South America was buried under enormous fields of ice during untold thousands of years. Asia, owing to a drier climate, seems largely to have escaped such visita- tions. For we must remember that to bring on an ice age [59] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST an increase of cold alone is not enough; there has to be at the same time a fairly heavy annual fall of snow. Northern Siberia, at least in part, lay under a vast station- ary field of ice; and some of the great Asiatic mountain masses formed important centers of glaciation. But, speak- ing generally, in Asia the Glacial Period appears to have been far more local in character than it was either in Europe or in North America. The same, too, may be said of South Africa, of Australia, and of New Zealand. Geologists have found further that the Glacial Period consisted not of a single intensely cold epoch, but of several, alternating with epochs of mild or even decidedly warm climate. In most of western Europe the great ice sheets underwent no less than three or four successive epochs of expansion and retreat, known as glacial and interglacial stages respectively, even the shortest of which lasted for many thousands of years. There 1s, moreover, reason to believe that the interglacial epochs were much longer than the glacial ones. As a glacial stage approached, the winters must have grown imperceptibly more and more severe, through not merely hundreds but many thousands of years. The glaciers far in the north crept further south, those in high mountain masses further down the valleys, until they over- spread the northern portions of Europe and North America with enormous ice sheets, in some places thousands of feet thick. Conditions then must have resembled those of today in Greenland and in the Antarctic Continent. Further, the glaciers transformed the covering of the neighboring ice-free regions from forest and meadow- land and swamp into tundras—treeless plains of black mucky soil, with a permanently frozen subsoil overgrown with moss, lichens, and dwarf shrubs, as in northern Alaska and Siberia today. The animals living on them were quite typical, and included forms like the hairy mammoth, the woolly rhinoceros, and the reindeer. The terrible storms of winter often killed multitudes of these [ 60 | THE: ICE; AGE and other wild creatures, whose skeletons, buried in the earth, still remain and reveal many facts concerning the climatic and other conditions which prevailed in those days. Again, while the glacial stages were drawing on or dis- appearing, the nearness of the ice fields set up atmospheric effects of the most far-reaching sort, such as the winds known as anticyclones. These blew over the adjoining ice-free areas, carrying vast clouds of dust composed largely of the finer material from the moraines. The fact that this dust settled equally on the tops of the hills as well as down in the valleys shows that it was carried there by the wind and not by the action of water. As the process went on, the dust accumulated in thick beds of a special kind of soil known as loess, which occurs in many parts of the world, in both the Eastern and the Western Hemispheres. Loess is no longer being formed in Europe, but it 1s in northern China, where it covers vast areas with a mantle many feet in thickness (Plate 19). There the people hollow their dwellings out of it, and the roads in time become worn down so deep that not only they but even the vehicles passing along them are often quite invisible from the surface. Along with the formation of the loess, the aspect of the country gradually assumed a steppe condition, like the seemingly limitless plains of southern Russia and central Asia. These have an extreme range of temper- ature, with short hot summers, when they are covered with grass and shrubs, and long bitterly cold winters, when the snow lies deep, blizzards rage, and animals perish by the thousands. To the latter peculiarity of a “‘steppe’’ phase of climate we owe much of our knowledge about the animal life of the time, including such plains-loving forms as the bison and the horse. For the blizzards killed many creatures whose bones, left after the snow melted away in spring, were buried by the dust storms of the following summer. [ 61] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST The same is true of human remains, though in far less degree; for man even then was able to afford himself and his kind protection from the frightful snowstorms. Other phenomena attending the Glacial Period were - the recurrent elevation and sinking of the land. We do not know definitely just what occasioned this, but the very weight of the enormous ice sheets seems to have caused the ground beneath them to sink slowly, while the regions where they were absent were pressed as gradually upward, in a sort of slow seesawing motion. Still another contributory cause seems to have been the actual lowering of sea level during the glacial stages. In order to form the enormous ice fields, water had to come from some source. Normally that drawn up out of the ocean by evaporation is returned to it, either di- rectly as rain and snow falling on its surface, or indirectly through rivers, streams, and melting icebergs. But dur- ing the recurring glacial epochs this balance was upset. Then the snow which fell over vast areas, instead of melting the following summer to flow eventually back into the ocean, slowly, year after year, turned into ice. While the glaciers were thus growing in size during tens of thousands of years, more water was being withdrawn from the ocean than was going back into it. Dr. Ernst Antevs, of the University of Stockholm, a very high authority, has made some interesting calculations based upon this fact. He says: The volume of ice during the climax of the last glaciation in excess of the existing quantity, according to the estimates made in the foregoing chapter, was as follows: Cubic Kilometers of Ice North Amenicanviee sheer rn Or OO ae, es 27,050,000 Européan ice Sheets iyo. au och ist (oe) tien Sn eis See 5,000,000 Other. Pleistocene. glaciersiin Eurasia} jt: oie bce e pith 350,000 Greenlandiciice sheet ob m5. (Sao. "s aoe, gabe eae 400,000 Northern: Hemispheres. ish cebu: Sih. SSRIs ee 32,800,000 THE ICE AGE This total volume of ice corresponds to 30,800,000 cubic km. of water. Taking the area of the ocean as 361,000,000 square km., this water quantity represents a layer over that area 83 m. (272 feet) thick. The ice sheets and glaciers on the Northern Hemisphere are thought to have reached their greatest extent at practically the same time. On the other hand the climaxes of the glaciations were perhaps not en- tirely synchronous on the different hemispheres, though alternation is out of question. The volume of the ice on the Southern Hemisphere in excess of the present quantity is estimated to have been some 4,100,000 cubic km., which corresponds to 3,760,000 cubic km. of water and represents a layer over the area of the oceans 10 m. (33 feet) thick. Therefore, if the glaciations reached their climax simultane- ously on both sides of the equator the sea level was lowered by some 93 m. (305 feet). If the contemporaneity was only partial the sea level may at most have been lowered 88 m. (290 feet). This process steadily, although very slowly, caused a lowering of the sea level and exposed to the air thousands of square miles of the earth’s surface that had hitherto formed part of the bed of the sea. There is scarcely a part of the globe where the effects of this rising and sinking of the land are not manifest. Thus in many regions we find one or more “‘raised beaches,” old strands on which the sea once broke for long periods, but which are now raised far above the reach of the highest waves (Plate 20). The opposite sort of earth movement, that of slow subsidence, left traces in “‘sunken rivers.” The taking of accurate soundings has traced the former courses of many of the present-day rivers sometimes for long dis- tances along the sea bottom. The latter, that is to say, was once elevated above sea level, so that existing rivers flowed across it far beyond their present mouths. Thus both England and Ireland have in the past been joined to the mainland, as was the case even after the close of the Ice Age, not so very many thousand years ago. And Europe was connected with Africa both across the Strait of Gibraltar and by way of Italy and the pres- ent islands of Sicily and Malta, thus dividing the Medi- terranean Sea into two landlocked basins. The ‘“‘land- [ 63 | MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST bridge” at Gibraltar probably sank beneath the waves somewhat before that of which Sicily still forms a remnant. But traces of the invasion of Spain by cultures from ] 2 Gy: oD ber 4 ‘o Fic. 14. Map of western Europe, to illustrate the former greater elevation of the land. The dotted lines indicate the ancient coast lines and the courses of “sunken rivers.” Note the land connections between Europe and North Africa across the Strait of Gibraltar and by way of Sicily [ 64] jooJ JO spaipuny jo ssauyory3 v saovyd url sayovas “rasap IqoH 243 Wor uonse purm Aq pazsiodsuvsy “snp auy jo SULMaAOD SIYT, “BUIYD UsaIsaMyIsou SAIQUNOD ss20°T ol ALWI1d PLATE 20 The terrace along the hillside in the distance is a raised beach repre- senting the shore line of old Lake Bonneville, Utah. Photograph by Gilbert. Courtesy of the Geological Survey THE ICE: AGE Africa seem to show that during at least part of the Pleisto- cene or Glacial Period the two regions were connected. It is unlikely that man during the Old Stone Age had learned how to build canoes or rafts, so wherever he spread, he probably did so by walking. On the other hand, during a portion of the Ice Age, great gulfs stretched down across what is now dry land from the Arctic Ocean to the Caspian and Aral seas (then probably united) and to Lake Baikal in eastern Siberia. One proof of this is that in all three of these now quite landlocked bodies of water occur seals, which could only have reached them when they were connected by sea with the waters of the Arctic regions. A final characteristic result of the Ice Age to be men- tioned is the “river terraces” it formed. As the climate grew warmer with the approach of an interglacial stage, the melting of the ice sheets set free vast quantities of water, which caused great floods and freshets. These carried with: them much of the débris brought down by the glaciers from the uplands, and spread it over the river bottoms as sand or gravel. With the disappearance of the ice, the rivers, deprived of most of their supply of water, of course shrank in size, and began to cut for them- selves channels in the great beds of sand and gravel that they had brought down in the preceding glacial stage. Thus terraces formed, and sometimes we find more than one, the highest in each case being the most ancient. In the gravel and sand of certain of these river terraces, we find some of the earliest remains of man’s handiwork, in the form of rough stone implements. These include the Pre-Chellean, the Chellean, and the Acheulian cul- ture stages, when man had not yet been forced to become a cave dweller, but lived in open camps or at most on the sunny side of overhanging blufts. The sequence of the warm and cold epochs which to- gether composed the Glacial Period has been well worked out in the region of the Alps by Penck and Bruckner. [65 ] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST They found in those mountains and their surrounding foothills evidence of four glacial stages, which they called the Giinz, Mindel, Riss, and Wurm. Of these the first or Giinz stage, although it lasted for many thousands of years, seems to have been the least . extensive. Its traces, for example, appear to be lacking in parts of Germany and perhaps in England. At all events, no evidence exists of any very severe or wide- spread refrigeration, although the snow line in the Alps dropped 4,000 feet lower than the present 8,800 feet above sea level. After the Giinz glaciation had reached its maximum, the climate of Europe grew slowly milder again. The first interglacial stage was relatively short and its tem- perature seems to have been slightly warmer than that of the present, as indicated, for example, by the fossil remains of the hippopotamus. The second or Mindel stage ushered in the first really great period of glaciation, at least in Europe. Great ice sheets, spreading out from the Alps, from Scandinavia, and from Scotland, gradually overflowed those regions, in addition to the greater part of England and Holland, nearly the whole of northern Germany, and two-thirds of Russia. Ice packs covered the northern seas the year round, and glaciers, forming in the mountains of Scotland and Scandinavia, united in a solid mass of ice clear across the North Sea. There followed in turn another interglacial stage, which appears to have been the longest of all. Penck, indeed, believes that its duration was greater than all the time that has elapsed since. The remains of the vegetation indicate a climate not so very much warmer then than now. The third or Riss glaciation seems to have been more severe than the first, but less so than the second, and was followed by a warm interval of particular interest to us because in it many authorities place the beginning of [ 66 | THEVICEOAGE the Old Stone Age—the Pre-Chellean, the Chelléan, and the Acheulian epochs of human culture, mentioned in the previous chapter. Up to the end of this third interglacial stage the animal life of Europe had been one suited to a tropical or sub- tropical climate. It included various forms of the elephant and the rhinoceros, the hippopotamus, the monkeys, the lion, the hyena, and the saber-toothed tiger. These creatures probably came from southern Asia and northern Africa, in part at least by the “land-bridges”’ which then spanned the Mediterranean. More northern forms, like the musk ox, do occur during the colder stages, but not in the south of Europe. After the close of this interglacial stage, however, as the fourth or Wirm glacial stage drew near, this warm- temperate animal life of Europe died out entirely, to be replaced by species belonging to northern regions with a cold environment. A like change also occurred in the vegetation. During this fourth glacial stage the climate seems to have been colder than at any previous period, though the areas actually covered by ice sheets did not, at least in Europe, equal those covered in the second stage, so that man managed to exist in spite of the cold damp climate. The type of human culture in Europe and the ad- joining portions of Asia and Africa during most, if not all, of this glacial stage was the Mousterian, which is always associated with remains of the Neanderthal race, a species of mankind differing from that of the present day. For the Neanderthalers life in the fourth glacia- tion must have been hard and rough to a degree beyond anything that we can conceive of now. In its appalling danger and discomfort it has been likened by one recent author to a winter in the trenches under the conditions of modern warfare. Although man had progressed some- what in his: mastery over nature, he was still pitifully [ 67 ] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST ill equipped for his struggle with ferocious beasts and a bitter climate (Plate 21). After the maximum of the fourth glacial stage the climate did not at once turn warmer. Instead, there followed a period of oscillation, with at least three minor returns of the ice, during which the mammoth, the woolly rhinoceros, the reindeer, and other cold-weather animals continued to live in Europe, although many other crea- tures found there during the earlier periods had died out. Gradually the slow changes of temperature character- izing the Postglacial Period became less and less marked, and toward the beginning of the Neolithic or New Stone Age, the climate became pretty much what it is today. It is interesting to note, in this connection, that the Ice Age still exists in the north and south polar regions. These, however, were not always covered with ice, as they are today. The fossil remains of plants found there prove that they have in times past enjoyed a mild and genial climate. Perhaps some day they will do so again. On the other hand the present may be simply an interglacial stage, with another return of the ice sheet awaiting us in the far distant future. Various attempts have been made to determine how long the Ice Age lasted, and definite light has recently been thrown on the length of time since the last or Wurm glacial stage attained its maximum. So far, however, we do not know how long it had taken to reach that point; nor how long the preceding periods lasted. Some have put the beginning of the Pleistocene period, or Ice Age, as far back as 1,000,000 years ago; others at half that figure; Penck estimated it at 525,000 years, and Sir Arthur Keith at 200,000 years ago. Geologists practically agree, however, that the Ice Age closed both in North America and in Europe some- thing like 10,000 years ago, a little more in the southern portions of those continents and a little less further north. Thus Scandinavia, lying considerably nearer the [68 ] UMOYS S¥ YI] v JOAO Yt Sutatmp Aq Aasd s19yy papLy AALY UO JsNuu S19zUNY stoystyaad asayy suodvam sayy Jo Aovnbapvur ay3 0} BuIMG, ‘asy auois PIO 2 ur juny youueu y j>eabsy {3 # VW ULV Id THe TCE AGE North Pole, remained in the grip of the ice sheet for over two thousand years longer than France. Baron Gerard de Geer of Sweden has made the most promising attempt at measuring the time that has elapsed since the height of the last great glacial stage. In his article in Antiquity of September, 1928, he says: In 1891 I had noticed, in several places [in America] laminated clays, similar to the late glacial melting sediments in Sweden; these I had found, by long continued investigations, to represent the annual de- posit from the melting water on the border of the retreating ice edge. I had succeeded in identifying such varves from one point to another, and ultimately worked out a systematic plan for the elabora- tion of a continuous time scale. These varves, or annual bands, as Baron de Geer satis- fied himself, corresponded to the yearly fluctuation of the glaciers, due to the oncoming heat of summer (Plate 22). If carefully measured over some section of country which represents the whole retreat of the ice since the end of the last glaciation, they will indicate pretty closely the number of years that have elapsed since that retreat began. They will also tell us, by their inequalities, which were the warmer and which the cooler periods of years. If we find that such warmer and cooler periods occurred at the same time in different parts of the earth, we shall know that the major cause of all these successive glacia- tions must have been of cosmic character. Such a dis- covery would also probably throw much new light on the variability of the sun’s radiation, to which these world- wide, contemporaneous glacial changes would in all probability be due. Aided by a band of enthusiastic university students, Baron de Geer actually carried through the laborious undertaking of counting and measuring the varves in Sweden. He found that in that country approximately 8,700 years have elapsed since the latest glacial stage finally closed. His pupil, Doctor Antevs, made extensive counts and measurements in the United States and [ 69 | MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST Canada and found nearly corresponding results. Going still further back, these investigators have shown that certain well-defined pulsations of ice advance and retreat occurred both in America and in Europe. Summing up all the evidence, Doctor Antevs concludes as follows: Thus there was correspondence between the ice retreat in North America and in Europe in several of the larger features, but topographic and climatic differences seem to have limited the agreement. Since the correspondence was not perfect even in the larger features, agree- ment in the smaller features in details, such as relative summer tem- perature and varve graphs, cannot be expected. Our present knowledge of the geologic history of the two areas does not permit any other correlation. If the one outlined is correct and the estimates of the time represented by zones in which the ice retreat is not chronologically determined are fair, the last ice sheets had their greatest extent and began to wane about 40,000 years ago. This figure may be less than 10,000 years too large or too small—a fact of impor- tance because of the interest that has recently sprung up in the absolute Quaternary chronology. Thus for the first time we have before us, in results attained since 1920, an actual chronology in years cover- ing the period since the peak of the last glaciation, and we can say with some confidence that it reached its greatest intensity about 40,000 years ago and, after a long and fluctuating period of retreat, finally ended, in western Europe at least, about 8000 or 10000 B.c. This much is fairly definite. [70 ] vpeurs jo AdAIng [edIBopOay) ay} Jo Asayinod = “uoTwIDvIS Jo UINUIIXBU 3S¥] dy} dduIS pasdeya au} ayi Jo ajevUITSa ayqu uoIeg P2]qvUa asdy} Sv YONS sSurysVpY “O1IvIUC IJad ISI 9YyI aard 0} Jaay ap ‘s]jeq Apuvs ‘Avqpo [erovys ur soaiv dR apn: RET ES BETH *, ane Tins t — aa CHAPTER VI MAN THE CAVE DWELLER Nor until the final great glacial stage, that of the Wiirm, did man, in Europe at least, begin definitely to live in caves, forced thereto no doubt by the increasing cold. We often speak of “cave men” as though they were, from first to last, of one and the same species. But we err in doing so, for it was precisely during this cave-dwelling period that there occurred the most fundamental change in mankind so far known in human history. At first, as we move backward in time, through the Ages of Iron, of Bronze, and of Polished Stone, we meet with men of essentially modern type, differing in no very marked way from the races found today in all parts of the globe. The same thing applies in almost equal degree to the Mesolithic, or Middle Stone Age, and to the last of the three subdivisions of the Old Stone Age proper, that usually called the Upper Paleolithic. For even then, dur- ing and just after the close of the last glacial stage, we find living in Europe men of large brains, well developed foreheads and chins, and sometimes almost gigantic height. It is just here that the change occurs. Before the last-mentioned peoples, and differing from them far more than does any one modern race from another, lived the lowly Neanderthal man, short of stature and slightly stooping of posture, with a large head, thick neck, enor- mous projecting brows, retreating forehead and chin, and powerful frame. Back to this point, the beginning of the Middle Paleo- lithic or Mousterian epoch, our knowledge of the different [71] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST physical types of the Old Stone Age is fairly extensive, because while people lived and died in caves their bones stood a much better chance of being preserved than when left lying in the open. Moreover we have definite proof that even the lowly Neanderthal race had come to rever- ence its dead enough to lay their bodies away in graves, where they would be covered with earth at once and thus protected from destructive agencies. But earlier still, during the Lower Paleolithic, that ex- tremely long period embracing the Acheulian, the Chel- lean, and the Pre-Chellean epochs, there were men who made from stone roughly chipped implements of ever- increasing crudeness the further we penetrate back into the past. Finally we reach the Eolithic or “Dawn Stone” Age, characterized by implements so rough as to be barely, if at all, recognizable as the work of human hands and brains. Throughout these long earlier ages men seem to have lived mainly in the open, often on the “‘glacial terraces” described in the last chapter. Hence when they died their skeletons stood but lit- tle chance of preservation, especially as they appear not to have done much, if anything, in the way of burying their dead. An account of the human types of the later periods, when man had already become much what he 1s today, forms no part of the plan of the present volume. In the present chapter we shall confine ourselves to a discussion of the cave-dwelling races of the Old Stone Age, and more particularly to some of the finds of human skeletal re- mains from the three epochs of the Upper Paleolithic, viz., the Magdalenian, nearest our own times; the Solu- trean, next earlier; and the Aurignacian, earliest of the three. A description of the various industries and above all the remarkable art of this time belongs more properly in the last section of this book, devoted to man’s cultural development. [72] MAN THE CAVE DWELLER THe MaGpDALENIAN Epocu Excellent authorities are inclined to put the beginning of the Magdalenian epoch at from 15,000 to 18,000 years ago, and it appears to have lasted at least 3,000 or 4,000 years. Researches indicate that it occurred during the first two of the three minor advances of the ice fields which took place in Postglacial time, together with the drier interval between. During the greater part of this long period one race of men dominated western Europe, almost though not quite to the exclusion of all others. This race is named after the little hamlet of Cro-Magnon in south- western France, where, in 1868, five typical skeletons came to light in a grotto. The men of the Cro-Magnon race, when it first appears, were of almost gigantic height, although its women were much shorter, a disproportion which seems to have been a special characteristic of the race. But by the Magdale- nian epoch, with which we are now dealing, it had for some reason degenerated considerably in this respect, although still of high mental type and strong bodily development. In fact, with this one exception of stature, it presents much the same traits during the entire Upper Paleolithic, from the beginning of the Aurignacian down to the very end of the Magdalenian. Some of its characteristics seem to have survived into much later times and perhaps even to the present day. The shape of the Cro-Magnon skull is quite unmistak- able, and in itself serves to identify skeletons of this race wherever found. Anthropologists call it “dishar- monic,” because the shape of the face does not harmonize with that of the brain-case, as it normally does in most races. When looked at from above, the Cro-Magnon skull is seen to be long and narrow; but the face, instead of having a somewhat similar outline, is short and broad. Even the women of the Cro-Magnon race actually had larger brains than the average modern American or [73] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST western European, a condition due perhaps in part to the fact that with bigger bodies go larger brains. But an- other explanation suggests itself. The intensely hard conditions of life during the Old Stone Age must con- stantly have weeded out the less intelligent individuals, - particularly during their younger years. Probably only the very fittest, both in mind and in body, survived to become the fathers and mothers of the next generation. The human remains assigned to the Magdalenian epoch include the parts of two skeletons found near La Madeleine (Dordogne), the site which gave the culture its name, and a single skeleton, that of an adult male, found at Laugerie- Basse, a great rock-shelter on the Vézére, by Massénat in 1872, under nearly ten feet of deposits containing Paleo- lithic hearths. In the rock-shelter of Raymonden, in the commune of Chancelade (Dordogne), MM. Hardy and Feéaux, in 1888, found a nearly complete skeleton of a man between fifty and sixty years of age, and about five feet in height. It lay doubled tightly up, and had probably been buried in that position, perhaps swathed about with bandages. This Magdalenian man of Chancelade had a large brain quite of modern size, a high and rather narrow skull, a long straight nose, broad face, powerful jaw, and strong chin. Except for his short stature we should find him a well-built man with strong features. Both this and the preceding example, that from Laugerie-Basse, differ from the typical Cro-Magnon in displaying greater height of face. In this trait, they have been thought to resemble some of the eastern Eskimo of today. Again, two well-preserved skeletons of a man and a woman were found in 1914 by workmen at Obercassel, near Bonn, on the Rhine. They lay at a depth of about twenty-five feet, protected by large, flat stones. Here, as elsewhere, the bones were stained with red ocher and were associated with bone implements bearing the incised decorations characteristic of Magdalenian art. This has [74] PLATE 23 Restoration of Cro-Magnon man; represented clad in furs and carving a piece of bone. Modeled by Mascré under the direction of Rutot 18 — 1 MAN THE CAVE DWELLER definitely proved the Cro-Magnon race to be responsible for the remarkable artistic development of the Upper Paleolithic Period. The man’s height was estimated at five feet three inches, the woman’s at two inches less. THE SOLUTREAN Epocu The Solutrean epoch was shorter by probably 1,000 years than the Magdalenian, which it immediately pre- ceded in parts of western and central Europe. The geo- graphical distribution of its peculiar culture suggests that the latter came from the east, perhaps from the plains of Russia and western Siberia. The forms of its art and its implements, rather than the skeletal remains of man himself, distinguish the period. Among the very few skeletons which may be attributed with some certainty to the Solutrean epoch are the following: At Crot-du-Charnier, in the commune of Solutré itself, Ducrost found, at a depth of some five feet, an oval hearth measuring about fifteen by ten feet, bounded by flag- stones. Within this inclosure he discerned the skeleton of a male, under the bones of whose right hand were two fine “‘laurel-leaf” points, the special flint implements which characterize the Solutrean. Near by lay several carvings and outside the flagstones great quantities of cold-period animal bones. Numerous other sepultures have been found near this site, but many of them seem to belong to later times. At Klause, near Neu-EFssing, in Bavaria, Obermaier found many Solutrean artifacts and, amid a mass of breccia composed of fragments of mammoth tusks, a human skeleton of a male about thirty years old, attrib- uted to that stage. A mass of powdered ocher completely surrounded it. Among other skeletal remains usually attributed to the Solutrean epoch are those from Brix, in Bohemia, and from Briinn, in Moravia. These indicate the existence in central Europe of a narrow-headed race which, how- [75] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST ever, differed from the very broad-faced Cro-Magnons in having a harmonic form of head; that is, the face was narrow, like the brain-case. Thus it would seem that during this period two dis- tinct races occupied Europe, the Cro-Magnon in the west and that of Brinn more to the east, particularly in the valley of the Danube. This would harmonize with the belief that the Solutrean culture came originally from that direction. It has been suggested, moreover, that in the Briinn race we have the remote ancestors of the type of northern European, tall, fair, and narrow skulled, which we know as the Nordic race; but whether this be true or not only time and further research can tell. THE AURIGNACIAN EpocH The Aurignacian epoch, the earliest of the three in- cluded within the Upper Paleolithic, endured for perhaps 7,000 or 8,000 years. Its culture appears to have reached Europe toward the close of the fourth great glacial stage, that known as the Wurm, somewhere around 25,000 or 30,000 years ago, finding a climate much colder than that of the present and quite severe enough to compel man to seek refuge in rock-shelters and the mouths of caves. The splendid Cro-Magnon race first appears in Europe at the beginning of the Aurignacian. At this time, in addition to its other fine attributes, it enjoyed that of exceptionally great stature, which it later lost. The men seem actually to have averaged over six feet in height, and individuals have been found who stood over six feet four inches. In addition to this splendid height, the men had deep chests and broad shoulders, and the pro- portions of their leg bones show that they were capable of great speed and physical activity. The Cro-Magnon race stands, in fact, among the finest that has ever ex- isted anywhere in the world. It has been suggested that the race originated some- where in Asia and moved slowly westward, along the [ 76 ] MAN THE CAVE DWELLER northern shores of Africa, until it reached the ancient land-bridge extending across the Mediterranean Sea by way of Sicily to Italy, which it crossed to enter Europe. In connection with the skeletal remains of Aurignacian man, the name of Lartet will ever be remembered. Edouard Lartet, in early life a lawyer, when almost sixty years of age became keenly interested in the ex- ploration of caves. These are numerous in the depart- ments of Haute Garonne and Ariége, in southern France. Near the village of Aurignac there existed a small cave, now wholly quarried away, which New Stone Age man had used as a sepulcher and then walled up with a slab of stone. Falls of débris from the hill above had hidden its mouth, but it was accidentally discovered in 1852. Within were found the remains of seventeen persons, which by order of the mayor received Christian burial. In 1860, Lartet visited this cave and explored the un- disturbed strata, two or three feet thick, which still cov- ered its floor. These abounded in charred and broken bones of extinct animals—the cave bear, cave lion, cave hyena, woolly rhinoceros, giant deer, mammoth, and others—broken for their marrow by the men who formerly lived there. In the terrace in front of the cave he found charcoal and other traces of ancient hearths, in which were embedded objects of the type we now call Aurignacian, including flint implements, carvings in ivory, shell neck- laces, pendants of perforated teeth, and weapons of bone and reindeer horn. Fight years later, Louis Lartet, the son of Edouard, while excavating a grotto or rock-shelter at Cro-Magnon, near Les Eyzies (Dordogne), made the discovery of five skeletons lying amid hearths and implements similar to those found at Aurignac. The skeletons belonged to men averaging nearly six feet in height and were, on the whole, hardly to be distinguished from those of tall men of the present day. This site gave the race the name which it bears among prehistorians today. [77] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST In the Crot-du-Charnier at Solutré, MM. Mayet, Depéret, and Arcelin found in 1923 three Aurignacian burials beneath the celebrated deposit of horse bones already mentioned. These included the remains of two tall males and one short female, the former resembling the tall old man found at Cro-Magnon. We can mention but one more of the many discoveries of Aurignacian remains, that made by the late Prince Albert of Monaco. In the year 1895, the Prince under- took the investigation of the caves of Grimaldi, sixty or seventy feet above sea level in the red rocks which rise from the sea a little east of Mentone. For his researches Prince Albert secured the help of the best talent of France, including such eminent men as Boule, Cartailhac, Ver- neau, and Villeneuve. They investigated no less than seven caves, one of which, the famous Grotte des Enfants, proved a veritable treasure house of Aurignacian remains. In excavating thirty-three feet of deposits, they revealed ten ancient floors of habitation. From the top down to the ninth level all were Aurignacian, yet evidently sep- arated from one another by long intervals of nonoccu- pancy, which suggests the long duration of the Aurigna- cian epoch. The upper strata disclosed the reindeer, but no mammoth or woolly rhinoceros, such as were found at more north- erly sites of the same period. Various extinct forms common in those ancient times, like the cave bear, cave lion, and cave hyena, were discovered. Toward the bot- tom, tropical animals—Merck’s rhinoceros, the hippopota- mus and the straight-tusked or “‘ancient’’ elephant— proved the existence in the early Aurignacian of an inter- lude of warm climate. In the lowest layer of all, some implements gave evidence of the Mousterian culture of Neanderthal man. The investigators found human remains in the second, third, eighth, and ninth levels, all probably interred in shallow graves under the floors of their dwelling sites, [78 ] MAN THE CAVE DWELLER according to the custom of the time. Ornaments and artifacts, evidently intended by their friends as provision for the future life, accompanied the skeletons, and some of the bones found were stained with red ocher. At the base of the Aurignacian deposits of Grimaldi, and dating apparently from the very beginning of that Fic. 15. Profile and full-face views of the skull of the Grimaldi woman. After Keith epoch, were found two skeletons which have aroused great interest among prehistorians. For they have been held to indicate the existence at that time in this part of Europe of representatives of a race which was neither that of Neanderthal nor that of Cro-Magnon. The skeletons belonged to a youth and a woman, both of rather short stature (Plate 25), and they present traits which have been interpreted as Negroid in character. It will be remembered that the Cro-Magnon race, with its Aurigna- cian culture, is supposed to have entered Europe from Asia by way of northern Africa and the old land-bridges across to Italy. Now in recent years there are coming to light all over Africa remains of a type of art, consisting mainly of engravings and paintings of animals, which in many ways recall the remarkable cave art of the Upper Paleolithic in Europe. [79] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST In South Africa works of this character are attributed in part to those dwarfish, yellow-skinned, woolly-haired little hunters, the Bushmen, themselves undoubtedly a very ancient race, now nearly extinct. Moreover, cer- tain of the physical peculiarities of the latter people are A B C D Fic. 16. Aurignacian and modern Bushman comparisons. A, Bushman woman; B, Bushman drawing of same; C and D, statuettes in steatite from the Grimaldi caves shown clearly in the figures of very stout nude women, carved from ivory or soft stone, which have been found here and there in the Upper Paleolithic of Europe (Fig.16). These facts, taken in conjunction with the Negroid traits ascribed to the two Grimaldi skeletons just mentioned, seem to hint at some African influence on Aurignacian art. Any more definite conclusion than this, however, we should hardly be justified in drawing as yet. At all events we have now reached the point, in our backward journey through time, when Aurignacian man first appears in Europe and takes the place till then occu- pied by the low-grade race of Neanderthal. As far as [ 80] aynog Joiyy “URW oIIO}STY ; UvI T aS i ise Tpy]eUILI eB SOABD JU -o1d Aq peiqeyur souo0 ‘aduRdy jo Jsvod uvsuRIOIpay dy} uo “suojUaTY Twou “IpyeUIIyH Y at ve ALV Id PLATE 25 Se aie Be ce with negroid a youth und € a woman skeletons Idi a Grim he T erneau er V ft A 2) o) st character! MAN THE CAVE DWELLER western Europe is concerned, Neanderthal man disap- pears completely from the scene never to return. Whether he was in part absorbed and in part exterminated by the far superior Cro-Magnon race, or whether he died out from other causes, we can not as yet say with certainty.! Beyond doubt contact, with intermarriage between the two races, did occur. The spread of civilized man over so much of the globe at the expense of less advanced races during the past few centuries shows us what usually hap- pens in such cases. The lower culture, even though destined in the long run to be entirely destroyed by the higher, yet borrows from the latter many of its features, particularly in the domain of warfare. In like manner the unmistakable Aurignacian influence visible in certain classes of Mousterian artifacts may very probably be traced to the time when the Cro-Magnon race was spreading over western Europe, absorbing, driv- ing out, or killing off Neanderthal man as it advanced. Perhaps, too, the undoubted resemblance in the burial customs of the two races is due, in part at least, to this cause. In central Europe the Mousterian epoch is im- mediately followed, not by the Aurignacian, but by the Solutrean, which would indicate that the Cro-Magnons for some reason did not penetrate that far. But even here the Neanderthal race finally disappears and is suc- ceeded by the bearers of the Solutrean culture, who ap- pear to have been the race of Briinn or Predmost. That the latter, notwithstanding their high skulls and their faces of modern type, should display certain traits recall- ing the Neanderthalers may perhaps be due to contacts at this time. It is possible that Neanderthal man may have survived for a while longer in a few other regions. At one time or another he inhabited not only Europe but also parts of 10On this subject the author accepts the views of many eminent prehistorians, not- withstanding that Dr. Hrdlicka, as will appear in the following chapter, inclines to think the Cro-Magnon the lineal descendant of Neanderthal man. [81] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST Asia and Africa. But until the prehistory of the two latter continents is much better known than it is today, we shall not be able to say where he originated or where he made his last hopeless stand against men of the modern species. This much seems agreed upon by most prehistorians— that the Mousterian culture appears in Europe at the close of the third interglacial period; that it was in part, though by no means entirely, a development from the previous Acheulian; and that it extended over much of the last great glacial stage, that known as the Wurm. Some time after the first and more important climax of the latter, the career of Neanderthal man came to an end, and. that of the Cro-Magnon race began. [ 82] CHAPTER VII NEANDERTHAL MAN" NEANDERTHAL Gorge and the valley north of it consti- tute one of the most interesting natural formations in western Germany. Here one comes unexpectedly upon a piece of romantic scenery lying beneath the level of the cultivated plain surrounding it. Eroded by the small stream, Diissel, and its branches, out of the limestone formations that underlie the surface, for generations the gorge and valley have been favorite resorts. The former is named for Joachim Neander, a poet and song composer of the German Reformed Church, who lived in the seven- teenth century, and for whom the gorge was a favorite retreat. Doubtless he sometimes entered the cave in which two centuries later was found the famous skeleton which has become the type of a special race of men. The gorge is bounded by high, rugged cliffs of Devonian limestone which have been extensively quarried since the middle of the nineteenth century. In the year 1856 the excavations had reached the so-called Feldhofen Grotto, a somewhat extensive cave located in the right-hand cliff not far from Ravenstein, a high, isolated rock still standing. The mouth of the cave lay about 110 feet from the right bank of the stream and 60 feet above its level. According to local accounts the cave had two parts. In August, 1856, two laborers, clearing out the loam from the smaller section, uncovered a human skeleton. Not 1This and the following chapter are quoted with slight alterations from, and Chapter IX is based on, a monograph by Doctor Hrdli¢ka, now being published by the Smithsonian Institution, entitled “The Skeletal Remains of Early Man.” [ 83 ] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST recognizing its importance they threw it out with the earth; but the owner of the quarry on being told of the find urged the workmen to collect the fragments of the skeleton. Fourteen pieces were gathered and these were given soon after into the hands of Doctor Fuhlrott, of Elberfeld. They comprised the skullcap, the femora, humeri, ulnae, right radius, a portion of the left pelvic bone, part of the right scapula, a piece of the right clavicle, and five pieces of ribs. At the general meeting of the Natural History Society of the Prussian Rhineland and Westphalia, at Bonn, on June 2, 1857, Doctor Fuhlrott gave a full account of the locality of the find and of the circumstances under which the discovery was made. The principal details of his re- port were as follows: A small cave or grotto, high enough to admit a man and about 15 feet deep from the entrance, which is 7 or 8 feet wide, exists in the southern wall of the gorge of the Neanderthal, as it is termed, at a distance of about 100 feet from the Diissel and about 60 feet above the bottom of the valley. In its earlier and uninjured condition this cavern opened upon a narrow plateau lying in front of it and from which the rocky wall descended almost perpendicularly to the river. It could be reached, though with difficulty, from above. The uneven floor was covered to a thickness of 4 or 5 feet with a deposit of mud, sparingly intermixed with rounded fragments of chert. In moving this deposit the bones were discovered. The skull was first noticed, placed nearest to the entrance of the cavern; and further in were the other bones lying in the same horizontal plane. Of this I was assured in the most positive terms by the two laborers who were em- ployed to clear out the grotto and who were questioned by me on the spot. At first no idea was entertained of the bones being human; and it was not till several weeks after their discovery that they were recognized as such by me and placed in security. But, as the impor- tance of the discovery was not at the time perceived, the laborers were very careless in the collecting and secured chiefly only the larger bones; and to this circumstance it may be attributed that fragments merely of the probably perfect skeleton came into my possession. Soon afterwards, in 1860, Sir Charles Lyell, the cele- brated English geologist and paleontologist, visited the [ 84] 26 4 PLATE e the for cut 840, be I bout From A c S it wa ay AS aw c Neanderthal sorge of ~ The ¢ wood an old c asted s were bl rock JNIpOoM pfo ue Wolly “OFgI Jnoqe PoIySstxo Rs i Se JABO [eyiTopUuvaNy FUL L€ ALV Id NEANDERTHAL MAN locality, in company with Doctor Fuhlrott, and made a sketch thereof. Following the early notices concerning the Neanderthal cranium and before other specimens of similar nature, such as those of Spy and Gibraltar, became known, an extensive controversy arose as to the real significance of the find. Virchow, and after him others, were at first inclined to look upon the skull as pathological; to Barnard Davis its sutures appeared to show premature synostosis; while Blake and his followers regarded the specimen as probably proceeding from an idiot. But there were also those, such as Schaaffhausen, Broca, and others, who from the beginning saw in the cranium (the other bones received at first but little attention) not a pathological or accidental monstrosity, but a peculiar, theretofore un- known type of ancient humanity. From time to time new examples of this same early type appeared in different parts of Europe, under circumstances which steadily strengthened the claim of the whole class to geological antiquity. Finally, after a thorough comparative study of the Neanderthal remains had been carried out by modern methods and in the light of new knowledge, the cranium and bones were definitely recognized as repre- senting in a normal and characteristic way a most inter- esting earlier phase or variety of mankind, our Mid-Quater- nary predecessor or close relative, Homo neanderthalensis. The credit for deserving work in this field is due especially to Prof. G. Schwalbe, of Strassburg, whose numerous publications on the early forms of human remains in Europe are well known to every anthropologist. The remains of the Neanderthal skeleton are preserved in the Provincial Museum at Bonn, where, through the courtesy of the director, Prof. Hans Lehner, Doctor Hrdli¢ka was enabled to examine the originals and later have them photographed. For the explanation of the terms used in the description of this and other skulls, the reader 1s referred to the diagram of the human skull (Fig. 17). [85] Fic. 17. OO OyNI AN & WH WH & _ BI. 12. 13. 14. 15. MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST . Mental foramen . Body of lower jaw . Superior maxilla . Ramus of lower jaw . Zygomatic arch . Styloid process . External] auditory meatus . Mastoid process . Asterion . Superior curved line of occipital bone External occipital protuberance Lambdoid suture Occipital bone Lambda Obelion placed between the two parietal foramina 17. 18. 19. 20. Ph te 29; 29% 24. 25. 26. ane 28. 29. 30. BI. 2: [ 86 ] Diagram of skull showing principal characters referred to in the text 16. Parietal bone Lower temporal ridge Upper temporal ridge Squamous part of temporal bone Bregma Coronal suture Stephanion Frontal bone Pterion Temporal fossa Great wing of sphenoid Nasal bone Lachrymal bone Malar canal Infraorbital cana] Malar bone Anterior nasal aperture PLATE 28 Restoration of Neanderthal man. Courtesy of the Field Museum of Natural History NEANDERTHAL MAN The skull (Plate 29) is gray in color, with large mud- brownish or gray-sepia patches, on the outside, and whitish gray to whitish brown on the inside. It is de- cidedly heavy and much mineralized. It is plainly non- pathological. The sagittal suture has evidently closed earlier than it ordinarily does in civilized modern man, but this must have taken place after the brain ceased to influence the cranial vault, for it resulted in no perceptible deformation. The coronal suture is obliterated up to the temporal ridges, while the lambdoid is still patent. Simi- lar conditions to these are sometimes met with in the skulls of persons beyond the fiftieth year of life, and if not attended by scaphocephaly or other consequent deforma- tion can not be regarded as abnormal. The serration of the lambdoid suture is decidedly simpler than in modern human skulls. The facial and basal parts are lacking. The vault shows very good dimensions in length and breadth, but is strikingly low, and the bones are considerably thicker than in the white man of today, so that the brain cavity was only moderate. Besides its lowness the vault is characterized by a very decided protrusion of the whole supraorbital region. The supraorbital torus, or arch, formed through this pro- trusion is heavier than in any other known example of Homo neanderthalensis. The line from the glabella to the naso-frontal articulation is relatively extensive and passes considerably backward and downward, indicating a very marked depression at the root of the nose, not unlike that which is present in the adult gorilla. Like- wise owing to the forward extension of the supraorbital arch, the upper parts of the planes of the orbits face very perceptibly downward, while in modern man they face somewhat upward or approach the vertical. The forehead is low and slopes markedly backward; nevertheless it presents a moderately well-defined con- vexity. The sagittal region is oval from side to side, much [ 87 ] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST like that in man of today; the occiput, however, is marked by a relatively high situation of the crest and other peculiarities. The outline of the vault, as looked at from above, is a long ovoid. The thickness of the frontal bone at the eminences is 8.5 mm.; of the left parietal, along a line 1 cm. above the squamous suture, 6 to8 mm. These measurements are about one-third greater than those of the skull of an average modern European. The lowness of the skull vault is very marked. In modern crania the vault is almost invariably much higher. Neanderthal skull measurements gave a height, accord- ing to Schwalbe, of 8.05 cm. with “‘calotte-index”’ of 40.4. In contrast thereto, 107 recent adult human skulls, of various derivation, gave heights of from 8.40 to 11.70 cm. and indices from 52 to 68. The cephalic index is 78.5, almost exactly medium between long and short heads of modern times. The internal capacity of the skull has been estimated by Schaaffhausen at 1,033 c.c., by Huxley at 1,230 c.c., and by Schwalbe at 1,234 c.c. The brain which filled the skull was lower and narrower and slightly more pointed than the human brain of today, approaching in these features more nearly the anthropoid form. The right frontal lobe was slightly larger and longer than the left, and the whole right hemisphere was slightly longer than that of the opposite side. In modern man it is generally the left hemisphere which is the longer, but this exception in the Neanderthal man is not neces- sarily of any special significance. The long bones and others of the skeleton, so far as preserved, show many features of anthropological in- feriority, demonstrating plainly that not merely the skull, but the whole body of Neanderthal man occupied a somewhat lower evolutionary stage than that of any normal human being of historic times. Yet there is much, also, that connects the type closely with later and present-day man. [ 88 ] gSgi ul punoj WNtURID [eYAPUBANY 9Y} JO MIIA APIS 6¢ HLVAd uopuo’T ‘suoading jo adarjog jeAoy ey} Wor ydessoioyg “gbgr ul AlueNC) saqio.y ay3 Ur Puno; “ovr [eYJapULaANy ay) JO UBIOM ¥ OF BulBuojaq [[MYs 1eIpesqiy ay], Of ALV Id NEANDERTHAL MAN The bones of the arm, the pelvis, and the femur, or long bone of the leg, differ markedly from those of the average present-day man. Certain distinctive features of the femur, indeed, could not be duplicated today collectively; in some instances, not even individually. Thus, among other differences: The head is larger and more globular than in modern man; the neck is stout and rather short, and the angle it forms with the shaft is less oblique than in most recent femora; the connecting bridge of bone between the great trochanter and the neck is stouter than in most recent bones; and the trochanteric fossa is larger than in modern man. These are but a few of the many differences too technical for this discussion. Some of these may be observed in Figure 10, in which the Neanderthaloid femur is compared with those of a mod- ern Frenchman and of a gorilla. The bones of the Neanderthal skeleton in eenecal in- dicate a powerful musculature and a broad and strong chest, combined with a somewhat submedium stature. As years have gone by since the discovery of the skele- ton at Neanderthal, many other remains of similar men, with retreating chins, low, beetling brows, and powerful frames, have been found in various parts of Europe and Asia. Almost a score of important recoveries of this nature have already (1929) come to light. The prin- cipal ones found thus far are dealt with by Hrdlicka in the order which follows. THe (GIBRALTAR SKULL The celebrated Gibraltar skull was discovered as early as 1848, therefore eight years before the Neanderthal cranium made its appearance, in the Forbes Quarry situated on the north front of the Rock of Gibraltar. It was dug out of a terrace on the north face of the rock from a formation of solidified breccia consisting of weath- ering of the limestone cliff and fine wind-blown sand. The part of the terrace where the cranium lay was [89] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST possibly in former times the floor of a cave. A section of a cave still exists behind the site of the discovery and was explored in 1911 by Duckworth, but without results. It is certain that the skull showed, and to some extent presents to this day, a hard stony matrix adhering to its surface and filling its cavities. Broca, to whom we owe the first descriptive account of the specimen, says that it was taken out from a ‘“‘very compact and adherent gangue” from which it was disengaged with much diffi- culty. The photographs published with Brocas account show very noticeable remnants of the stony matrix. The skull was presented to the Gibraltar Scientific Society by the then secretary, Lieutenant Flint, but for many years received no scientific attention. In 1862 it came to England, with the collections from the Gi- braltar caves, and was studied to some extent by Busk and Falconer. The latter, perceiving how much it differed from recent human skulls, proposed to refer it to a dis- tinct variety of man, the Homo calpicus, after Calpe, the Roman name of Gibraltar. Finally, in 1868, Busk presented the cranium to the Museum of the British Royal College of Surgeons, where it 1s still preserved. The first descriptive account of the specimen was pub- lished, as mentioned above, by Broca, but the adhering stony matrix prevented at that time any attempt at accurate measurement. Subsequently it received atten- tion from Huxley, de Quatrefages, and Hamy, and later from Macnamara, Klaatsch, Schwalbe, Sollas, Sera, and Keith, as well as Hrdli¢ka. It is a very remarkable specimen, which, even though the geological and paleon- tological evidence relating to its antiquity is imperfect, does not allow for one moment any doubt as to its repre- senting an early form of human being; and its character- istics are such that it is now universally regarded as a representative, possibly a very early one, of Homo neander- thalensts. The cranium is gray-whitish to yellowish in color. It is [ 90] NEANDERTHAL MAN considerably mineralized and heavier than normal. .The stony matrix has been so far removed that such important determinations and measurements as the defective state of the bones permit may now be made. Fortunately the facial region, the frontal bone, and most of the right side of the skull, including the back, are relatively well pre- served; the top of the vault, on the other hand, shows a large defect, and the left parietal, temporal, and sphenoid parts, together with much of the base, are lost. With all these defects, a sufficient number of parts remain to per- mit of valuable determinations on the skull and infer- ences as to the brain, and also a fairly correct recon- struction. The aspect of the face is semihuman, apish. The mid- portion, from the glabella downward, protrudes more than in normal skulls, as a result of which the planes of the orbits, as well as the planes of the malars, slope more outward and backward than they do in modern crania. Other very striking features of the face are: The relatively (for a female) huge supraorbital arch; the very large orbits; the stoutness of the medial process of the frontal bone; the complete absence of the supraorbital (canine) fossae; the broad nose; and the dental arch with long teeth. The supraorbital arch does not greatly protrude as it does in the male Neanderthal skulls; nevertheless it represents a true and rather huge torus, such as is wholly unknown in recent crania. A remarkable feature which gives the face its characteristic appearance is the fullness, to mild convexity, of the suborbital (canine) fossae and of the nasal processes of the maxilla. All these parts look as if inflated from behind. The teeth, though considerably worn off, appear very long. A very interesting condition is the absence of the two median incisors. As there is no sign of decay, and as the alveolar process shows a characteristic absorption notch at this place, it would seem that the two teeth must have been lost long before the death of the indi- [91] MAN FROM THE) PARTHESY PAST vidual, and that presumably through some violence. The whole recalls forcibly the ceremonial knocking out of these incisors (and sometimes also other teeth) in the Negro, Australian, and other primitive peoples. Another facial peculiarity of the skull is its low and sloping forehead, the ensemble presenting a picture of phylogenetic inferiority which, taking into consideration that this is unquestionably the skull of a female, is not quite equaled by any other specimens of Neanderthal origin thus far discovered, though it is true that the facial features are preserved in only a few of the specimens be- longing to this great period. The vau!t of the skull is especially noteworthy on ac- count of its lowness and a peculiar formation of the occl- put that gives the impression of breadth with submedium height. Much the same characteristic is found also in other Neanderthal skulls. Endocranially, the skull shows a number of interesting features. There is throughout a marked paucity of im- pressions of brain convolutions and also of those of the blood vessels. Even the sinuses have left but shallow grooves. The brain itself was not particularly small for a female skull; and it was of an already rather advanced human type. There are other details and dimensions about the speci- men which are of more or less interest to the anthropolo- gist, but which need not be dealt with in this account. It will suffice to say that both the visual and the instru- mental examination of the specimen lead to the conclu- sion that the Gibraltar skull represents highly valuable remains of an early human being and that its principal characteristics justify its classification with Homo neander- thalensts. The cephalic index is approximately 77 as measured by Hrdlicka, 80 according to Sollas; the cranial capacity 1,200 c.c. according to the estimate of Keith, 1,250 to 1,260 c.c. according to Sollas. [92] PEATE, 31 A view of Rock-Gun, Gibraltar, with the Devil’s Tower cave marked by a black cross. After Miss Garrod PLATE 32 Restoration of a Neanderthal boy. Courtesy of the Field Museum of Natural History NEANDERTHAL MAN Later WorkK AT GIBRALTAR In 1gto and again in 1g11, W. L. H. Duckworth, of Cambridge University, visited Gibraltar for the purpose of obtaining, if possible, additional information about the old skulls and of making further exploration. He found that the Forbes Quarry still existed, though, having been worked at intervals since 1848, its boundaries were now larger. The quarry, as originally noted, is under-the north front of the Rock of Gibraltar. The rock at this point still contains a remnant of a cave, which is not more than about thirty feet above sea level and “‘is probably the result of marine erosion at a remote epoch; and at a remote epoch also, the mouth of this cave must have been closed, until it was reopened by the quarry- men.” It was in all probability in this cave that the skull was discovered. A partial exploration of the cave and the neighboring talus was barren of results so far as remains of man were concerned. A second cave in the rock explored by Doctor Duck- worth gave remains of the Neolithic Period. Another cavern (Sewell’s Cave) yielded, with others, some Mous- terian, Aurignacian, Solutrean, and even Magdalenian stone implements. In 1917, parts of the Rock of Gibraltar and its neigh- borhood were investigated by the Abbé Breuil. During this work the Abbé discovered near the ‘‘ Devil’s Tower’’ a rough rock-shelter which gave indications of Paleolithic man. This site, in 1926, was explored in detail by Dr. Dorothy A. E. Garrod; and it was here that in June, 1926, Miss Garrod found, inclosed in rock, the skull of a child, proceeding evidently from the Mousterian period. The specimen was found in some Mousterian deposits fronting a small cave opposite the ruin of Devil’s Tower, in the eastern face of the north front of the Rock, not very far from the Forbes Quarry, in which in 1848 was discovered the adult Neanderthaloid skull of Gibraltar. [93] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST The details of the find are given by Miss Garrod; the main points are as follows: The Mousterian site at Devil’s Tower was discovered in 1917 by the Abbé Breuil, then acting as diplomatic courier between Gibraltar and the French Naval Bureau at Madrid. In the course of a visit to the North Front of the Rock he noticed fragments of fossil bone in the talus of a small cave or rock-shelter at the foot of the immense vertical peak of Rock-Gun, immediately opposite a ruin known as the Devil’s Tower. M. Breuil was unable to follow up this discovery at the time, but in 1919 he returned to Gibraltar and with the help of the late Colonel Willoughby Verner dug a trial trench a little way down the talus of the shelter, unearthing a number of animal bones and four stone implements of definite Mousterian type. My own work on the shelter, undertaken at M. Breuil’s suggestion, occupied seven months, between November, 1925, and January, 1927, and was carried out by means of a grant from the Percy Sladen Memorial Fund. The Devil’s Tower cave is a narrow fissure running obliquely into the Rock of Gibraltar at the eastern end of the North Front, 350 m. from Forbes Quarry. It has a maximum height of 12 m. and a maximum width of 1.20 m., and 4 m. from the entrance it narrows to a mere crack. The rocky floor at the cave mouth lies 9 m. above sea level, and 5 m. above the average level. The work carried out consisted in emptying the cave down to the rock floor and removing the talus or terrace deposits over an area extending from the rock wall which bounded them on the west to a line 4.50 m. to the east of the cave mouth. Seven layers of deposit were revealed in this way, the succession from above downwards being as follows: . Fine sand, filling the fissure to the roof. . Calcareous tufa, I-4 m. . Fine sand, 20 cm.—1I m. . Travertine, 10-80 cm. . Fine sand, 40 cm.—1.40 m. . Travertine, 50-75 cm. . Raised beach, with its surface at 8.50-g9 m. above sea level. SIAnFW HH Layers 1-5 contained archeological material, the industry from top to bottom being Mousterian. The total number of implements and flakes recovered was small—less than 5oo—the majority in quartzite, the rest in flint, chert, and jasper. There were also two frag- ments of bone compressors. The industry of layers 1 [94 | “NEANDERTHAL MAN and 2, and the implements found in the “wash” have a well-marked Upper Mousterian character. The fauna found by Miss Garrod was much the same at all levels and represented about twenty-five species, many of them now extinct. They include the wolf, bear, hyena, lynx, deer, horse, and elephant, and indicate a cold-temperate climate as then prevailing in southern Spain. In June, 1926, after firing a heavy blast of explosive gelatin in the hard rock, Miss Garrod uncovered with difficulty part of a human skull embedded in layer 4 and filled in with travertine. It had been cracked by the blast into several fragments. ; 0, | == DEvit's TOWER inOctober, other ee eG POP EAN CHILD parts of the skull e zea Losses YOUNG CHIMPANZEE Were. found... ° in layer 4, about eighteen feet dis- tant and nearer the mouth of the cave. Miss Garrod remarks: bck Bolen oe ate Fic. 18. _Lower jaw of the Neanderthal child from the Devil’s Tower, Gibraltar, compared with those of bones that the skull a modern European child and a young chimpanzee. originally lay in the After Buxton mouth of the cave, but as it belonged to a very young individual it fell apart along the sutures, and the frontal and left parietal, together with those parts which are missing, were washed forward on to the terrace by the waters of the spring which converted the original sandy layer into travertine. The missing parts were probably carried further forward than the others, and so rolled down the slope and were lost. It is probable that the skull was already separated from the body when it lay in the cave, for if the whole skeleton had been present, some at least, of the bones must have been found. On the other hand, the fact that the lower jaw (Fig. 18) lay quite close to the temporal [95 ] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST and maxilla suggests either that decomposition was not complete at the time of deposition or that the jaw was fastened to the skull by a thong or string. In either case it seems impossible to avoid the conclusion that the skull was intentionally preserved, either as a trophy or in fulfilment of a pious rite. The human skull is described most carefully and with much detail by Professor Buxton. The main results of his study are: The Devil’s Tower bones are the remains of a single individual skull belonging to a child of five years old, probably of the male sex. . . . The form of the face and jaws is essentially that which we associate with Neanderthal man. Many of these features can be shown, how- ever, to owe their characteristic appearance partly to the great size of the teeth and partly to functional activities, but the general mas- siveness, not only of the jaws but also of such features as the tympanic plate, is remarkable. . . . The dimensions and form of the brain-case, especially the expansion of the frontal area, are beyond the range of Neanderthal man, as hitherto discovered, if we make the same allowance for age that we should do in the case of a modern child. These conditions suggest a brain-case built more after the fashion of modern than of Neanderthal man. . . . The teeth of our specimen closely resemble in size and shape those usually associated with Neanderthal man. The face and jaws must therefore necessarily be close to the typical Neanderthal form. The brain-case is, however, different from the type form, because the underlying structure, the brain, was larger. THE Spy SKELETONS In the province of Namur, in Belgium, there is a steep wooded mountainside in the district of Spy, which 1s skirted by the little river Orneau. A great rock standing sentinel-like has at its base, sixty feet above the stream, a cave now called the cave of Spy, which opens toward the south. Several times during the last century the accumulations within the cave were searched by anti- quarians and yielded worked flints and bones dating from Late Stone Age cultures. In 1885 MM. Marcel de Puydt and Maximin Lohest, archeologist and geologist, respectively, examined the region of the cave more systematically. A terrace at its [ 96] PLATE 33 The rock (upper) and cave (lower) of Spy, in Belgium, where in 1886 were found two Neanderthal skeletons displaying certain features approaching those of modern man. Photograph by Hrdlicka quodiviy sayy *90vd [eYyIOpuBaN ayy ut jensn st uvyy adAq usapour oy} sJarvou ore yi99) pur smef ayy, ‘Mata apis ‘t ‘oN Tnys Adc ve ALVId NEANDERTHAL MAN front showed no signs of having been disturbed, and here they concentrated their efforts. Sinking a trench in a thick layer of brown earth mixed with numerous fragments of limestone, they came at a depth of four feet to a layer some twelve to sixteen inches thick containing fragments of bones and flints, débris of pottery, and several thou- sand implements of wood and stone, ornaments, and the like. The stone implements, of rather high-class work- manship, seemed of the Mousterian cultural type. Returning to their excavations in 1886, de Puydt and Lohest found in June two human skeletons, besides large quantities of bones of animals and flints and other arti- facts of the Mousterian type. Professor Fraipont, of the University of Liége, joined in the examination of the discovery and in its announcement in Bulletins of the Royal Academy of Belgium. According to this an- nouncement the human bones were found at a depth of thirteen feet below the surface, which here rose con- siderably higher than the floor of the cave. There was no evidence of previous disturbance of the superincumbent layers. The accumulation contained fallen rocks, earth, many traces of man’s early occupation, and numerous remains of fossil animals. The skeletons, called Spy No. 1 and Spy No. 2, lay, respectively, twenty-eight and twenty feet to the south of the cave entrance. They were inclosed by an undis- turbed layer of argillaceous tufa, from which they were removed only with great difficulty and some damage. More in detail, a section of the deposits showed them to consist of: | A. Brown earth and fallen rocks; thickness approxi- mately 2.90 m. (over g ft.). No paleontological or human remains. B. Yellow argillaceous tufa, inclosing limestone blocks, 0.80 m. (2% ft.) in thickness. This layer could be broken only with difficulty by the pick. It gave some bones of the mammoth and deer, and also some worked fiints. [97] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST C. A stratum 15 cm. (6 in.) thick, strongly colored red and containing many flint implements, rejects of stone industry, angular fragments of limestone, bits of charcoal, and débris of mammoth tusks. This layer formed a hard crust resistant to the hammer and covered the human skeletons. The animal remains found in the hard layer C that overlay the two human skeletons were: Woolly rhinoceros Mammoth Horse Hare Wild boar Cave bear Stag Badger Wapiti (?) ~ Marten (Weasel?) Giant deer Fox Reindeer Wolf (Dog) Sheep Cave hyena Wild bull Cave lion Extinct bison Wild cat D. Yellow calcareous clay and rubbish, passing to a tufa of the same nature as that in layer B. Thickness 15 cm. (6 in.), uneven. At base a streak of charcoal. E. The human skeletons and the worked flints. F. Brown clay, in places black, inclosing angular pebbles of limestone, numerous animal bones, and worked flints. The animal remains encountered at the level of the skeletons, or lower than these, comprised the following: Woolly rhinoceros (abundant) Wild bull (rather abundant) Horse (very abundant) Mammoth (common) Stag (rare) Cave bear (rare) Reindeer (very rare) Badger (rare) Cave hyena (abundant) There were, therefore, distinguishable, aside from the surface material, three distinct fossil-bearing layers, namely: B. This contained bones of the mammoth and deer; also some Mousterianlike flint implements of refined and rather peculiar type. [98 |] NEANDERTHAL MAN C. This stratum, with the underlying few inches of earth, covered the human skeletons. Contents: Bones of many Quaternary animals; abundance of flint blades, Mousterian points, and other flint implements, in general of less refined make than those of layer B; also implements of bone and ivory. Among the bones were needles, awls, beads, and pendants, and a number of bones were deco- rated with linear designs. Some of the bone pendants evidently had once been colored red. D-F. The stratum of the two human skeletons. This gave also some bones of Quaternary animals, and some stone implements of Mousterian type but inferior in work- manship to those from the layers above. The human remains, the authors thought, were not burials but incidental inclusions. As the middle, hard- ened stratum was found undisturbed, the skeletons could not have been more recent than this stratum. Considering the animal and archeological remains as- sociated with the human skeletons, together with the absence of disturbance in the superimposed and more recent layers, Lohest believed himself justified in referring Spy remains to the Mousterian period. The deductions of Fraipont, based on the study of the skeletal remains themselves, were that they belonged to Neanderthal man. Since then the Spy remains have received more or less careful consideration by every student of early man, and the above classification was found to need no radical revision. What remained of the Spy skeletons was preserved, up to the German invasion in 1914, in the collections of the University of Liége, where thanks to the courtesy of MM. M. Lohest, Charles Fraipont, and J. Servais, Doctor Hrdli¢ka was enabled to examine the originals for the first time (1912). During the invasion, the remains, the property of M. Lohest, were secreted by the latter in his home, at the bottom of an old chest, and, though searched for, remained safe. Here, in the presence of the [99] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST regretted owner, Hrdlicka studied the remains the second time (1923); and finally in 1927, thanks to the courtesy of the sons of Lohest, he was enabled to examine the. originals, still in their house, for the third time. At the time of his second visit, in 1923, Prof. A. Rutot and his assistant made it possible for him also to visit the cave. The skeletons are currently known as No. 1 and No. 2. To No. 1 (Plate 34) Fraipont and Lohest attributed: The vault of a skull Two portions of an upper jaw, with the three right molars, the two right premolars, the left canine and left lateral in- cisors A nearly complete lower jaw, with all (16) teeth The left clavicle The right humerus, which has lost its upper epiphysis, and the shaft of the left humerus The left radius, without the lower epiphysis The proximal extremities of the two ulnae The nearly entire right femur The complete left tibia The right calcaneum The parts attributed by the two authors to the second subject are: The vault of a skull Two portions of the upper jaw with twelve teeth Two fragments of the lower jaw with the molar teeth Loose teeth belonging to the lower jaw Fragments of the scapulae of two humeri without upper extremities The shaft of the right radius The proximal two-thirds of the left femur The left caleaneum The left astragalus Besides these parts, there are seven vertebrae, a right patella, twenty-four fragments of ribs, and eleven bones [ 100 ] NEANDERTHAL MAN of hands and feet, with some pieces of which it was impossible to say to which skeleton they belonged. Repeated critical examination of the specimens left a serious doubt in Doctor Hrdlicka’s mind as to the ac- curacy of the above distribution. No photographs or sketches were made on the spot; the bones were not marked and have evidently become mixed up, their dis- tribution being decided upon later. The specimens indi- cate very strongly different relations. The right femur, the tibia, and the two stronger ulnae do not harmonize with the relatively weak arm bones and clavicle of No. 1. They harmonize perfectly, on the other hand, with the bones of the male skeleton No. 2 and must, Hrdlicka feels, be attributed to this skeleton. The true identification of the parts appears to him as follows: SKELETON [| SKELETON I] sEx| Weak male or female Male AGE| About 35 years About 23 years Smaller skullcap | Larger skullcap Portion of right maxilla Two portions of upper jaw Lower jaw (complete except | Two pieces of lower jaw for damage to rami) Sound loose teeth (probably) | Loose teeth The two weaker humeri The two strong humeri Two daimaged radii Head of a weak ulna The proximal parts of two strong ulnae Weak clavicle Parts of the two scapulae A nearly complete right and proximal half of the left femur Complete left tibia Two fragments of fibula (prob- | Lower fifth of right fibula ably) BE Agee Left patella Right calcaneum Left astragalus Portion of sacrum Some small bones and fragments| Fragments of small bones [ ror | MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST This identification removes many difficulties, making the material much more intelligible and the deductions from it of more value. All the skeletal parts show an advanced state of mineralization. In color they range from brownish to grayish, skull No. 1 representing the Fic. 19. Profiles of the Neanderthal cranium (unbroken line) and of Spy No. 1 (dotted line) and Spy No. 2 (broken line). Note that although the two Spy skeletons are of the same period, the forehead and vault of No. 2 are much higher than those of No. 1. After Fraipont and Lohest former and No. 2 the latter shading. The teeth, however, are white, with yellowish roots, much as in crania from late burials. The two skulls are plainly normal specimens, free from disease or deformation. In age, No. 1 was an adult of about thirty-five years, No. 2 had just reached the adult stage. As to sex, were it not for the heavy supraorbital arch, No. 1 would be identifiable as a female. Such identification would conform with the characteristics of all the bones that may definitely be attributed to this subject, except the skull, and even this is rather feminine except in the lower frontal region. Morphologically the two skeletons, more particularly the two crania, show features of such interest and im- [ 102 | NEANDERTHAL MAN portance to anthropology that they deserve all possible attention. The vault of skull No. 1 and the skeletal parts of both individuals are thoroughly Neanderthal in character; but the jaws, teeth, and the vault of skull No. 2 represent nothing less than a bridge from the Neanderthal type of man to the recent. The Spy find is without question the most important ever made in relation to the problem of transition from the Neanderthal to the more modern forms of man. Here in practically one grave, certainly at the same level and under the same associations, are found two skeletons, one of which in many respects is still typically Neanderthal; but the jaws and the teeth of this skeleton, and the skull of the second subject are far in advance of the Neander- thal stage and correspondingly nearer to modern man. No better demonstration could have been furnished, or could reasonably be wished for, of the transitional poten- tialities among the later Neanderthal representatives, to which the skeletons evidently belong, toward the modern human type.’ In Spy skull No. 1, the characteristic Neanderthaloid features—retreating forehead, heavy brows, large eye sockets, protruding jaws, retreating chin, and pronounced backward elongation of the cranium—are very plain in the profile (Plate 34). Tue Diztuviat Man oF KRAPINA One of the most important finds of the skeletal remains of Quaternary man is unquestionably that of the Krapina shelter, near Zagreb, in northern Croatia. The discovery comprises a whole series of human bones of well-deter- mined geological age, and the remains were not recovered 1There exists a difference of opinion among anthropologists on the relationship between Neanderthal and modern man. While Doctor Hrdlicka is convinced that Homo sapiens developed gradually from Neanderthal man, other authorities believe that the Neanderthalers were a distinct species who died out leaving no descendants, while modern man sprang from some other rootstock outside of Europe and eventually spread there to take the place of Neanderthal man. { 103] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST accidentally or by laborers ignorant of their importance, but through prolonged, painstaking exploration. The bones themselves are for the most part fragmen- tary, which is much to be regretted; but they represent, as now estimated, over twenty individuals, and they show on the one hand such similarity and on the other such variation of structure that they are of great value to the student of ancient humanity. The Krapina rock-shelter is an ancient, not very deep hollow, worn in the basic sandstone by the Krapinica, now a small stream, and subsequently filled with water- worn stones, some alluvia, and much detritus resulting from the decomposing rock of the hollow. Since the formation of the latter, the Krapinica has cut its channel so that it now flows eighty-two feet, or twenty-five meters, below its floor level. Before and while the shelter was being filled it was uti- lized by the early men of the region, at first occasionally, later, for some time perhaps, continuously; and the ac- cumulations in the cave were augmented by the remains of fireplaces and by refuse, including many primitive stone implements and rejects as well as animal bones. These accumulations were found to contain numerous human bones in more or less fragmentary condition. The locality became known in 1895, after two Croatian teachers discovered in the superficial deposits of the cave some teeth of a rhinoceros and fragments of other fossil bones. These finds were brought to the attention of the scientific men at Zagreb (the capital of Croatia, formerly “Agram”’), but no thorough examination of the site was undertaken until 1899. In that year the place was visited by K. Gorjanovic-Kramberger, professor of geology and paleontology of the University of Zagreb and Director of the Geological Division of the Narodni Muzej of the same city. The deposits in the shelter and their stratification were found well exposed. They were over twenty-six feet in [ 104 ] Jasioquiviy-jrAouvlioy Jaipy “punoy uaag aavy aovi Jeyiepuvayy aya fo spenprarpur AjuUdM} SUIOS Jo SUIBUIAT aay “VIVOID UIIYIIOU ‘euidery Jo 193,9yS-YydoI ay J, pa > On a Le ee foowig. . —ir £ go s¢ ALVId PLATE 36 Restoration of Neanderthal woman and child. Courtesy of the Field Museum of Natural History NEANDERTHAL MAN thickness from top to base. The initial work showed ashes, charcoal, burnt sand, and rejects of stone industry, stone implements, and a human molar. The excavations proper, after a determination of nine distinct cultural layers, were begun from the top and carried very carefully downward. They proved from the start very fruitful, giving many bones of Quaternary animals, many rejects of stone industry with some implements, a portion of a human maxilla, eighty loose teeth, and many pieces of skulls, lower jaws, and other parts of skeletons. From 1900 to 1905 the painstaking exploration of the shelter was carried on, partly by Gorjanovi¢é-Kramberger, partly by S. Osterman and D. Galijan, his assistants, until the deposits were exhausted. * Notwithstanding the presence of numerous cultural layers and the evidently long-continued use and occupa- tion of the shelter, the whole represented apparently but one extended cultural period, and this during a fairly warm interglacial time. The fauna is not that of a cold climate. It consists, aside from a few snails, birds, and a turtle, of the following: Merck’s rhinoceros (frequent) Dormouse Cave bear (frequent) Marmot Wild bull (frequent) Hamster Beaver (fairly frequent) Horse Wolf Wild boar Brown bear Stag Wild cat Roebuck Marten Giant deer Otter There were no traces of the mammoth or of the woolly rhinoceros. The remains found represent either com- pletely extinct forms or forms not hitherto known from Croatia or known only from diluvial times. As a whole the fauna resembles closely that of the diluvial station of Taubach, Germany. The total number of worked stones recovered from the [ 105 ] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST Krapina shelter amounts to approximately 1,000, but most of these are waste and rejects. They are mainly of flint but occasionally also of quartz, chalcedony, and jasper. The better-characterized specimens are “‘typi- cally Mousterian” (Obermaier), and this applies to all layers. The collective human skeletal remains recovered from the Krapina shelter, though very fragmentary, are more numerous than those found in any other locality of similar age. They comprise many parts of the skull, numerous portions of the jaws ranging from fragments to nearly complete mandibles, many teeth, and numerous pieces of other parts of the skeleton. The bones represent, as already mentioned, the remains of at least twenty individuals of both sexes, ranging from childhood to ripe adult age. The fragmentation of the skulls, lower Jaws, and some of the long bones is excessive and of such a nature as strongly to suggest that it was caused otherwise than by accidental breaking or crushing. A number of the fragments show also the effects of burn- ing, and one specimen, a portion of the supraorbital part of a frontal, presents some cuts. These different condi- tions, together with the absence of many parts of the skulls and bones, the total lack of association of the fragments, and the commingling of the human with the animal bones, led Gorjanovi¢é-Kramberger to the opinion, now generally shared, that the remains represent the leavings of occa- sional cannibalistic feasts and are not burials. The Krapina bones are whitish, yellowish, or light brownish in color. They are not of great weight, but a chemical examination has shown that they are much altered in constitution, particularly in the fluorine-phos- phates proportions. The long bones and others of the skeleton show the Krapina man to have been, as compared with the central European white man of today, of moderate stature and, except for the powerful jaws, of strong though not exces- [ 106 | NEANDERTHAL MAN sive muscular development. Some individuals were very perceptibly weaker than others. As to form, particularly in the upper extremities, the bones in general are per- ceptibly more modern in type than those of the Neander- thal or Spy man; nevertheless they present, as is well shown by Gorjanovic-Kramberger, numerous and im- portant primitive features. The fragments of the skulls show that the bones of the vault were somewhat thicker than they are in the white man of today. The crania were of good size externally, but the brain cavities were probably below the present average. The vault of the skull was of good length and at the same time fairly broad, so that the cephalic index, at least in some of the individuals, was more elevated than usual in the crania of early man. They were also char- acterized, like the Neanderthal and other crania of the Mousterian epoch, by relative lowness of the vault, and in every instance among the adults by a pronounced, com- plete supraorbital arch. The last-named feature, though less marked, is plainly distinguishable even in the children. Its invariable presence 1s a definite proof of the fact, not quite well established before, that this arch was, up to a certain stage of the Quaternary period, a regular char- acteristic of the early men of a large part of Europe. The lower jaws in particular are very interesting. The symphysis or fore part of these bones, while in some possessing already a faint trace of the future chin emi- nence, slopes invariably more or less downward and back- ward, thus approaching the form of the mandible in apes. The mandibles are massive and in males high. Except in this height, they are akin to the lower Jaws of the La Quina and La Chapelle skulls, and represent decidedly more primitive forms than the mandibles of any man of historic times, though they are rather nearer to the modern type than is the jaw of Mauer. The teeth of the Krapina man offer numerous peculli- arities, most of which point to a lower stage of differentia- [ 107 ] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST tion. They are in general very perceptibly larger than those of the modern white man; their roots, especially, are longer; and there are some details of form, particu- larly in the crowns of the incisors and molars, which are related to anthropoid features. Notwithstanding these facts, the Krapina teeth, and particularly the canines, are on the whole fairly near those of present-day man. In spite of their defective condition, the numerous frag- ments of the Krapina skulls show clearly that the crania they represent belong in general to the Neanderthal race of early man. Many of the distinguishing characteristics of the latter are here repeated—the supraorbital torus, the sloping forehead, the peculiar occipital, the planes of the orbits, the stout nasal and malar processes (the effects of powerful masticatory apparatus), a relatively lower posi- tion of the zygomatic arches, small mastoids, etc. All these features show, however, considerable variation and that of a rather progressive tendency. Thus some of the foreheads approach closely those of some recent men; even the vaults of these skulls differ individually, in height, breadth, and other characters; and there is much significance, in this connection, in the jaws and the teeth. Of particular interest is the evident tendency of the Krapina crania toward brachycephaly, which thus far has not been known in early skulls. There have been some objections to the restoration of these specimens, but these appear unjustified. Thus the pieces that compose skull C appear clearly to belong to that skull, and those of D fit too well to involve any serious errors. An inde- pendent examination of the Krapina remains leaves no doubt but that they represent skulls both broader and shorter than those of the western Neanderthalers. Gorjanovic-Kramberger’s opinion that more than one race of men is represented at Krapina can not, however, be sustained; the low jaws and weak bones are plainly those of females. If we add to the variations and peculiarities of the [ 108 ] NEANDERTHAL MAN Krapina skulls, jaws, and teeth those of the skeletons, and then contrast the whole with what is known of the corresponding parts in the western Neanderthalers, it is plain that the Krapina man, while of the same general family, differs sufficiently to be regarded as a subtype, and that, too, a subtype which on the whole was morpho. logically somewhat more advanced toward later man. This is difficult to harmonize with the supposed greater age of the Krapina remains. Possibly this individual lived later than we have supposed; or he may have be- longed to a more progressive group. [ 109 ] CHAPTER, VIII NEANDERTHAL MAN (Continued ) REMAINS OF Earty Man NEAR WEIMAR Tue little village of Ehringsdorf, in the Ilm valley, three kilometers from Weimar and about the same distance from Taubach, has become quite famous within the last two decades, on the one hand for its quarries, which yield a very. pure limestone (travertine), and on the other hand for the highly interesting animal and especially for the human remains that are constantly being found there. The travertine deposits, of diluvial origin, extend from Weimar to beyond Ehringsdorf. At the latter they are found in a low broad hill on the slope of which is the village. For many years past a portion of the hill over- looking the valley of the river Ilm has been exploited for the limestone, the works being known as Kaempfer’s Quarry. Herr Kaempfer was in fact still the owner of the place during Doctor Hrdlicka’s visits (1921, 1923) and is largely to be credited for the intelligent preservation of the paleontological as well as the human remains from his extensive workings. By 1914, the exposed rocky wall approximated forty feet in height. It showed gross horizontal stratification. A little below the middle could be seen a belt, about three feet thick, known as the “‘Pariser,” a largely consolidated loess formation; and beneath this in the left part of the quarry were the remains of a flat pocket of more or less con- solidated looser material in whichstone implements had been discovered with numerous evidences of human occupation. [ 110 | NEANDERTHAL MAN It was in this layer or pocket, which lay about ten feet below the “Pariser,” that workmen began to discover in April, 1914, various fossil animal bones and some worked flints; and it was here that on May 8, 1914, after a blast, there appeared, besides some animal bones, fragments of ~an adult human lower jaw which had been freed and partly shattered by the blast. Nearby were bones of various Quaternary animals identified later as a Merck’s rhinoceros, a cave bear, an ox, a horse, and a deer; also some bones that had been partly burned, some charcoal, and numerous flints showing human work. Fortunately the value of the find was promptly recog- nized, and the pieces of the jaw were most carefully gath- ered by Herr Haubold, the overseer, with the aid of Herr Lindig, the able curator of the Weimar City Museum. The specimen was then most painstakingly repaired by Herr Lindig and not long after turned over to Gustav Schwalbe for study. Basing his opinion on its form and association, Schwalbe considered the specimen to be a very valuable one and referred it to the earlier period of Neanderthal man. After Schwalbe’s death a more complete study of the jaw was undertaken by Hans Virchow, and its descrip- tion forms the main part of his masterly memoir on the human skeletal remains of Ehringsdorf. While Virchow was engaged in this study, however, there came to light, on November 2, 1916, under similar circumstances and from about the same hortzon but about eighty feet to the right and inclosed in rock, portions of the skeleton of a child about ten years old. The specimen was badly damaged through the blast, but thanks once more to the most careful efforts of the quarrymen and Herr Lindig, all that could possibly be saved was secured and taken to the Weimar Museum. The parts consisted of six right and five left ribs, two vertebrae, the epistropheus, the right pelvic bone, half of the right humerus, part of the lower jaw, and five teeth from the maxilla. The thoracic itaz | MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST parts lay in a block of the stone and were found, with the rest of the defective parts of the skeleton, to be of but secondary scientific importance; but the lower jaw with its nine well-preserved teeth was a document of value and as such was submitted also to Hans Virchow and is described with the adult mandible in his memoir. In addition to the preceding, several other finds of human remains were made in Fischer’s Quarry, lying im- mediately behind Kaempfer’s workings. They included a number of fine stone implements and two pieces of a human parietal, and were, like the child’s skeleton, in- closed in the solid rock. About 1922, in the right-hand section of Kaempfer’s Quarry, a blast in the travertine above its middle revealed, as Doctor Hrdlitka was told, a portion of ahuman femur. Fossil animal bones and worked flints were found on numerous other occasions. Finally, on September 21, 1925, a blast in the lower travertine of Fischer’s Quarry, in a block 55 feet (16.7 m.) from the surface, brought to light pieces of a young adult human skull. Of these additional human skeletal remains, the skull, after being most carefully disengaged from the rock and reconstructed, has been thoroughly studied and the results published by Weidenreich. The origin of the travertine units at and near Weimar has been attributed to precipitation of lime from waters furnished by mineral springs. The formation of the de- posits was evidently very gradual, leaving an ample op- portunity for human habitation about the pools. As to their dates, German geologists ascribe the lower layers of the travertine to the last (Riss-Wirm) interglacial; the upper limestone layers are doubtless more recent. The 1925 skull specimen presents some of the distinctly Neanderthaloid characteristics, such as a complete and still rather heavy torus and the somewhat protruding broad occiput, flattened from above and hollowed out below, typical of the Neanderthal crania. But with these inferior features there is a higher and well-arched forehead, [112] sovjins juasaid ayi Mojaq yidap waiB ayy AIONN *punoj sem Mef JaMOT YSTYM ul wavs saqvorpur jods a31TyM “WOJ}0q IvauU YOTq UO UBUT jo JYSIZ OT ‘Jropsdursryy ‘Asten() s ssduraey Le ALV Id NEANDERTHAL MAN a higher vault, a better developed mastoid, a less heavy zygoma, and a parietal with a central rather than posterior though still low-placed eminence. Doctor Hrdli¢ka’s examination of the Ehringsdorf originals, coupled with the study of the most recent skull and implements of which there are able descriptions, led him to the following views: The originals in Weimar and the many fine illustrations of the artifacts in Schuster’s report (1928) show plainly, especially in the knives and scrapers, Mousterian affini- ties. But the long and the fine points, including the re- markable double-point, the drills, and other objects, sug- gest further developments. There is certainiy nothing very primitive about the culture, though a few of the worked stones are rather crude or simple. Similarly with the human skeletal remains—they are certainly not more primitive than those of the Neander- thalers. They are on the whole less primitive, in fact, than the Neanderthal remains proper, or those from La Chapelle or Le Moustier, or the adult from Gibraltar. The quarry work at Ehringsdorf proceeds, and with the intelligent interest of the owners, the overseers, and even the workmen, in the finds, and with the aid of Herr Lindig, it seems reasonable to hope that new discoveries will throw additional light on the highly interesting problems of the ancient Ilmstal population. Tue Fosstt Man or La CHAPELLE-AUX-SAINTS One of the most interesting, best authenticated, and, thanks to Marcellin Boule, now best-known skeletons of early man, is that of “the fossil man of La Chapelle- aux-Saints.” La Chapelle-aux-Saints is a small village in the De- partment of Corréze, near the railroad station of Vayrac, south of the town of Brive, in southern France. Some 200 yards from the village and beyond the left bank of the small stream, the Sourdoire, in the side of a moderate [ 113] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST elevation, is a cave, now known as that of La Chapelle- aux-Saints. In 1905, archeological exploration of this cave was undertaken by three Corréze priests, the Abbés A. and J. Bouyssonie and L. Bardon. These explorations, which from the beginning were successful, resulting in the recovery of numerous industrial and other vestiges of Paleolithic man, progressed gradually until the uniform archeological stratum was nearly exhausted, when, on August 3, 1908, in the floor of the cave, the excavators came across a shallow artificial fossa in which lay rem- nants of the bones of a remarkable human skeleton. The human bones were carefully: gathered and sent to Professor Boule, at the Museum of Natural History, Paris, where they were cleaned and as far as possible restored. The following December Professor Boule demonstrated the skull, giving at the same time the first account of the find, before the Paris Academy of Sciences. One week later, MM. Bouyssonie and Bardon presented before the Academy their own observations, and these reports were followed at short intervals by several others before the same scientific body. Subsequently the skull and other parts of the skeleton were subjected by Professor Boule to a thorough study and comparison (Fig. 20). The results of his work were published in a series of communications extending through the sixth, seventh, and eighth volumes of the 4znales de Paléontologie, and in 1913 they were issued in a large individual volume. These various reports show that the cave of La Chapelle- aux-Saints is a moderate-sized and rather low cavity, about 6 m. (ig ft.) long, 2 to 4 m. (6 to 13 ft.) broad, and I to 1.0 m. (3 to 4.5 ft.) high. When first approached it was seen to be nearly filled with old accumulations, which later disclosed numerous traces of man, and with débris of the rock from the roof and sides. The stratigraphy of the cave was found to be quite simple. There was but one fossiliferous layer, of Pleisto- [114] NEANDERTHAL MAN cene age, laid down apparently after the excavation of the fossa that contained the skeleton. The worked flints and quartz gathered from this layer Fic. 20. Skeletons of Neanderthal man (from La Chapelle-aux-Saints) and of a modern Australian native, drawn to same scale. After Boule reached over 1,000 in number. They showed careful and able work. They comprised especially the two classical Mousterian types, points and scrapers, and their deriva- [115 | MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST tives. There were also a few instruments of Acheulian type, and a number of well-chipped blades as well as other forms that presaged the Aurignacian. There was no trace, however, of any worked bone. The animal bones show generally signs of intentional breaking, for the marrow; some show also traces of fire or marks of implements. The following species have been identified: Woolly rhinoceros Fox Spotted hyena Badger Reindeer Horse Ibex Wild boar Extinct bison Marmot Wolf This is a cold fauna, referable to the last glaciation. Under the accumulations the floor of the cavern was found to be a whitish, hard, calcareous deposit. In this hard base, at a distance of a little over four meters from the entrance of the cave, was found a nearly rectangular, moderate-sized cavity, 1.45 m. long, 1 m. broad, and 3o cm. deep, which lodged a fossil human skeleton. The de- pression, in the opinion of the explorers, had clearly been made for the body by the primitive inhabitants or visi- tors of the cave, and the whole represents a regular burial, the most ancient intentional burial thus far discovered. The body lay apparently on its back, with the head to the westward. The head reposed against the wall of the fossa in one corner and was surrounded by stones. The left arm was extended, the right bent probably so that the hand was applied to or lay near the head. The lower limbs were flexed. Above the head were found three or four large flat fragments of long bones of animals, and somewhat higher there lay, still in their natural rela- tion, the foot bones of a large ox or bison, suggesting that the whole foot of the animal may have been placed in that position, perhaps as an offering to the dead. About the body in the fossa were numerous flakes of quartz and [ 116 | NEANDERTHAL MAN flint, some fragments of ocher, broken animal bones, etc., much as in the rest of the archeological stratum above the skeleton. To the right of the fossa containing the skeleton were many large fragments of various animal bones, jaws, and vertebrae of the reindeer, and verte- brae of a large ox or bison, with some very well-made implements of flint. The last-named vertebrae and the flint implements were covered by two large blocks of stone; above these stones, at the side wall of the cave, the earth showed the effects of fire, but it was not possible to de- termine whether this was of the same date as the deposits or the human burial beneath. There was no indication that the deposits in the cave had been moved in any way since the burial of the human body. On taking out the human bones, it was found that through decay or other causes many were defective and that some parts of the skeleton were lost. What remained comprised the skull, almost complete, with the lower jaw; twenty-one vertebrae or pieces of them; twenty ribs or their fragments; an incomplete left clavicle; the two humeri, almost complete; the two radii and the two ulnae, all more or less defective; a few bones of the hands and feet; portions of the pelvic bones; fragments of the right femur (from which it is possible to reconstruct the bone) and the lower half of the left femur; the two patellae; and parts of the tibiae. The state of preservation of the specimens is exactly like that of the animal bones recovered from the deposits about the burial fossa. They are ferruginous in color, heavier than any corresponding recent human bones, and very perceptibly mineralized. The skull, except for the sexual differences, comes close in many respects to that of Gibraltar; it is also closely related to that of Neanderthal; but, except for the vault of No. 1, itis distinctly more primitive than the Spy crania, particularly in its facial portions and the lower jaw. The characteristics that strike one most forcibly at pare MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST first sight about the La Chapelle cranium are the lowness and the large size, especially the length, of the vault; the huge supraorbital arch; primitive features of the face; and the large and primitive lower jaw. The La Chapelle skull, as a whole, is plainly one of the more typical representatives of Neanderthal man. Its closest relations, particularly in the facial portion, are with the skull of Gibraltar. It approaches in many es- sentials the human skull of today; yet it carries still many remnants of the prehuman past. It belonged to a male of short stature but very muscular, massive frame, which doubtless accounts in great measure for the large brain (Plate 38). For the nontechnical reader, the most vivid impres- sions of the similarity of the La Chapelle skeleton to others of Neanderthal man, and of its differences, on the other hand, from skeletons of modern Europeans, will be gathered from the accompanying illustrations where these comparisons are displayed. THE REMAINS OF LA FERRASSIE “La Ferrassie” is the name of a rock-shelter close to a hamlet of that name, near Le Bugue, Dordogne, France. The locality belongs to the general region of the Vézére and Les Eyzies. In this rather exposed rock-shelter M. Peyrony with some associates discovered in September, I1g0g, a human skeleton of Neanderthal affinities. The discovery was announced by the Academy of Inscriptions on November 10, 1909, and was shortly afterward published in the Revue de I’ Ecole ad’ Anthropologie. M. Peyrony had been exploring the rock-shelter and its prehistoric deposits for ten years. The excavations showed that the spacious shelter had been inhabited for a very long time by successive prehistoric populations and that each group of these left behind a layer of its kitchen refuse with its special stone industry. [ 118 ] PLATE 38 Above, side view of skull of the Neanderthal man of La Chapelle-aux- Saints. Note the loss of most of the teeth during life, due principally Below, modern skull (left), compared with that of La Chapelle; brain-cases shaded to bring out the contrast. After Boule to old age. PEADE 39 Above, skull of male skeleton found at La Ferrassie. Note the ap- proach of the lower jaw and chin to the modern type. Below, skull of the youth of Le Moustier. After Boule NEANDERTHAL MAN From its top to the base it was possible to identify the following horizons: 1. Upper Aurignacian 2. Middle Aurignacian 3. Lower Aurignacian 4. Mousterian 5. Acheulian After the Middle Aurignacian the roof of the shelter fell down, and on the rocks and between them accumu- lated the débris of the Upper Aurignacian. Above this, reaching to the surface, was a layer of over twelve feet of humus and gravel. The first skeleton was discovered by M. Peyrony in the lower part of the Mousterian deposits. The explorer, with Professor Capitan and another companion, removed just enough of the bones to satisfy themselves that they were human and then notified Professors Boule, Car- tailhac, and Breuil, besides several local prehistorians, of the find; and it was in the presence of these, on Sep- tember 27, that the skeleton was carefully uncovered and disengaged from its deposits (Plate 39 A). The several cultural layers of the shelter were easily distinguished at sight, owing to their different coloration, and definitely so by their fauna and industry. The Mousterian layer, besides its characteristic stone indus- try, yielded an abundance of the bones of the bison, the stag, and the horse, with occasional parts of other later Quaternary animals. As the explorers removed the upper layers and most of the Mousterian deposit, they found three flat stones, placed one above the skull and the two others over the shoulders or chest of the skeleton. Over the whole space inclosing the skeleton the deposits contained a consid- erably greater number of large fragments of animal bones than were found elsewhere. A piece of a bone lying just above the skeleton shows a series of fine inten- [ 119] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST tional gravings reminiscent of the graved bones of the Aurignacian layers. The accumulations about the skeleton contained also a large number of very well-worked flints of the Mous- terian type. Such flints were found above, about, and even beneath the skeleton, those beneath being mixed up with flints showing Acheulian industry. The work uncovered a whole skeleton in position, though numerous parts, particularly of the thorax and the spine, had been destroyed or damaged by the pressure of the superimposed deposits. The skeleton lay on its back, slightly inclined to the left and in a contracted position, with the legs bent against the thighs and the thighs half flexed upon the body, the left arm extended by the side, the right flexed. The skull lay on its left side, and the lower jaw was considerably separated in front from the upper, as if the mouth had been wide open. All the bones of the skeleton, though damaged,: were still in their proper anatomical positions; only the smaller bones of the feet and the right hand had been displaced, probably by small animals. The bones were removed with all possible precautions, in some cases with blocks of the deposits, and were thus transferred to Professor Boule’s laboratory in the Paris Museum of Natural His- tory, where eventually they were cleaned and studied and where they are now preserved. The consensus of opinion of those present was that the remains represented a regular intentional human burial. The three flat stones and the broken animal bones had probably been placed designedly over the skeleton. It was believed, however, that there had been no burial fossa, the body having been placed on the old (Acheulian) surface and covered with broken bones, débris, and per- haps skins and branches, to become in the course of time buried by kitchen refuse and newer accumulations. The explorations in the La Ferrassie rock-shelter con- tinuing, the work of M. Peyrony and his associates re- [ 120 ] NEANDERTHAL MAN sulted within the next year in additional discoveries of human remains. These consisted of another skeleton of an adult, in poorer condition; and of several burials of infants, in which, however, the bones have mostly dis- appeared. This second skeleton was discovered in September, Ig10. It lay in the middle of the same Mousterian layer, five feet from the rocky wall of the shelter, and with the head only twenty inches from that of the first skeleton. It lay at the same level and in the same axis as the latter, but in an inverse position, the heads approaching each other and the bodies extending in opposite directions. The second body had also been flexed and lay on its right side, the hands resting on the knees. The bones of the lower members were fairly well pre- served; those of the upper limbs, partially; but of the thorax there were but few remnants. The skull of No. 1, relatively well preserved, is plainly that of a male; the skull of No. 2, defective, is that of a female. The male was about middle-aged, the female an adult of uncertain age. The brain portion of the male skull is striking because of its size, for it appears to be at least as large as that of La Chapelle. It belonged to a male taller but somewhat less muscular than the latter specimen. The second skull was evidently of but moder- ate proportions and belonged to a short female. In form the skull of La Ferrassie No. 1 resembles in many respects that of La Chapelle, but it also differs from the latter in some points, including a somewhat less primitive face. The vault is large and spacious, and in all important respects much like that of the La Chapelle cranium. The supraorbital arch, the forehead, the low vault, the occiput, the far-back position of the parietal fossae, all are close to those of La Chapelle. The face presents, below the heavy arches, similarly inclined orbits as in that of La Chapelle, similar relatively small and sloping malars with broad frontal processes far | MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST and stout zygomata, and similar fullness of the suborbital (canine) surface. The nose is broad. The facial prog- nathism is not excessive. The dental arch 1s large, the palate approaches U shape. The teeth, all present, are stout; the crowns are worn, especially anteriorly, where the pulp cavities are exposed. The lower jaw, although large, is distinctly nearer to the modern type than are the other Neanderthal jaws with the exception of Spy No. 1. It shows clearly the beginning of a chin. The intracranial cast of the male skull from La Fer- rassie is reported by M. Boule to be “at least as large as that of the specimen of La Chapelle-aux-Saints.”’ The two skeletons show marked sexual differences, No. 1 being that of a fairly tall male (for a Neanderthaler), while No. 2 is that of a low-statured woman. Many parts of both skeletons are absent or more or less imperfect. The bones that remain resemble in essentials those of the La Chapelle, Neanderthal, and Spy skeletons; though there are also some differences in which some of the parts, such as the scapulae, are even a trace more primi- tive than the corresponding bones of other Neanderthalers, while others show more similarity to recent types. THE La Quina REMAINS Two important skeletons and fragments of several others have been found by Dr. Henri Martin and his family at La Quina, Department of Charente, France. The first, discovered September 18, Ig11, was found in clayey sand near the ancient bed of the small river Voultron, among Mousterian deposits. The clayey sand contained worked stones and bones showing human touch, but none of the handsome pieces characteristic of the later Mousterian. Various bones of prehistoric ani- mals were found near by. The human remains appear to be those of a woman of Neanderthal type. While Doctor Martin was serving as surgeon in the French army, Mme. Martin and a young son supervised [ 122 ] NEANDERTHAL MAN further investigation of the deposits and discovered on August 23, Ig15, a unique skull of a Neanderthal child about eight years of age. It belongs to the later Mous- terian period, and, though approaching the Neanderthal features with relatively low skullcap and with supra- Matt TS heey te, La Quina Neanderthal, DY. Digi sscccu soca la Chapelle ~.—.-.—- Oye, te Pithécanthrope -+-+-¢-4. Arabe mod *++++ Fic. 21. Outline of five Neanderthal skulls compared with Pithecanthropus, or Java man, and a modern Arab. Note close grouping in intermediate position of Neanderthalers. After Henri Martin orbital ridges already well marked in spite of the owner’s youth, there is a good cranial capacity. The lower Jaw is missing. Doctor Martin is one of the most persevering as well as able workers in French prehistory. His summer chateau is near La Quina; and for over twenty years, except during the war, he has spent most of his spare time in the exploration of the deposits and in the cleaning, repair, and study of both the cultural and the skeletal remains recovered. Of the cultural and faunal remains [123°] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST there were vast quantities, reaching into the hundreds of thousands; yet every flint and every fragment has passed through Doctor Martin’s hands and been examined by him, the only assistance he has had outside of labor being that furnished by members of his own family. And all this work at his personal expense. As Doctor Hrdligka says, may prehistory have more Henri Martins! The excavations at La Quina have been visited by prob- ably more prehistorians than has any other site of primi- tive man, aside from those in the Vézére valley. The “station” is easily accessible and relatively easily worked, though all the work must be done in the open and is made difficult by the great quantities of fallen rock and débris from what were probably in olden times more or less over- hanging rock-shelters. The quantity of archeological material and of animal bones recovered from La Quina is such that it has sup- plied many European and even some American museums. The archeological material is clearly Mousterian, and in general shows much differentiation as well as improve- ment from below upwards; but the determination of definite strata, except in the case of the very lowest one, seems difficult. There was evidently a very long-con- tinued occupation attended with local developments. The fauna of the Mousterian layers of La Quina, as determined by Doctor Martin, consists essentially of the following forms: Mammoth (scarce) Cave bear Horse Wolf Wild boar Hyena Reindeer A large feline Deer (large) Blue fox Marmot Small rodents Birds (including vulture) It is throughout a cold fauna; there are no traces, even in or beneath the lowest cultural layer, of animals of a warm period. [ 124 ] NEANDERTHAL MAN Tue Moustier Man It is appropriate that the site which lends its name to the culture of Neanderthal times should at length have yielded a specimen of human remains, the so-called ‘“‘“Homo mousteriensis.” The skeleton is preserved in the addi- tion to the Ethnological Museum at Berlin, where Doctor Hrdligka saw it in 1923 and again in 1927. It was dis- covered in March, 1908, by O. Hauser, during archeo- logical excavations in what is known as “the lower Moustier cave,” or “Paleolithic station No. 44,” at Le Moustier, in the valley of the Vézére, Department of Dordogne, France, and was purchased from Herr Hauser for the Berlin Museum. The cave, or more properly rock-shelter, when exca- vated, gave numerous evidences of man’s occupation but no human bones. The skeleton was discovered in the terrace in front of the cave, almost vertically below its entrance. It lay about three feet deep, and no disturbance in the superimposed deposits was noticeable. The human bones were uncovered with great care in the presence of responsible witnesses, then covered again with earth and left in situ for several months, though shown during this time to a number of visitors. On August 8 they were exposed for Virchow, von der Steinen, Klaatsch, and other scientific men, and finally, two days afterwards, in the presence of Professor Klaatsch, they were taken with the utmost precautions from the deposits. The skeleton, it appears, lay on its side in a natural extended position, with the right hand under the occiput, the left extended along the body. About the body and among the bones were found seventy-four worked flints, ten of which were of a well-defined form. On the skull rested a charred bone of a wild bull and in the neighbor- hood of the thorax lay a tooth of the same animal. Besides this, forty-five other fragments of animal bones were gathered in close vicinity to the human remains. asa) MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST The examination of the human bones was begun on the spot by Klaatsch and continued after the removal of the remains to Germany, resulting in the following con- clusions by this author: The skeleton belongs to an adolescent of perhaps six- teen years of age and probably of the male sex. The height of the boy, as estimated from the long bones, was probably 1.45 to 1.50 meters (4 feet g inches to 4 feet II inches). The skull, notwithstanding the youth of the subject, shows a number of characteristics which are peculiar to the Neanderthal group. While of good size, with the bones of the vault only moderately thick and of fair height, it shows nevertheless a rather low and sloping forehead; a well-marked complete supraorbital arch, or torus, which later in life would doubtless have become much more prominent; relatively large dental arches, with decidedly large and somewhat primitive teeth; a massive lower jaw with no chin eminence; and other interesting features (Plate 39 B). The long bones and others, as far as preserved, possess numerous primitive characteristics. Especially notice- able among these are the relatively large extremities, particularly the head of the femur; a strong development of the external condyle of the femur; the peculiar arching of the femur; and the very marked curvature of the radius. Klaatsch reached the conclusion that the skeleton belongs undoubtedly to the Homo neanderthalensis variety of early European man. THE GALILEE SKULL In 1925 the British School of Archeology in Jerusalem decided upon the exploration of certain caves in Galilee, and the work was intrusted to Mr. F. Turville-Petre, who during a previous season had made a preliminary survey of the area. The main site explored by Mr. Petre during the year was what is now often referred to as the [ 126 } BY PI Aq ydeisoioyg ‘sasnoy 9y3 Aq painosqo st ‘punoj sem u0jajays uvuiny yy aJayM “uO J9MOT 24} SaAvd s9ddn ay} SUIMOYs ‘QOUvI U1a}SaMYINOS Ul *349Z9 A 9Y} UO “JAISNOTW IT OF ALVId NEANDERTHAL MAN “Galilee Cave,” and in this cave at a depth of 6% feet toward the lower limit of a Paleolithic horizon, were found parts of a Neanderthaloid human skull. The main details of the discovery, since published, are as follows: Entering the ravine of the Wadi el ’Amud and walking some 150 m. up stream, a cave known as the Mugharet-el-Zuttiyeh is to be seen high up in the cliffs to the north of the stream. The stream at this point is not more than 3 m. wide, and the width of the ravine from base to base of the cliffs might be estimated at about 15 m. The cave, a natural limestone formation, is situated at the base of a pre- cipitous wall of rock, facing south-west; the cliff, which rises to a height of some 20 m. above the entrance, renders it inaccessible from the plateau above; while from below, the cave, the modern floor of which lies some 40 m. above the level of the stream, is approached by a steep, rocky slope... . No flint implements, or other evidences of habitation, were to be seen either on the floor of the cave or on the slope which led up to it, but its size and convenience as a place of habitation, together with the impregnability of its situation, seemed to merit the digging of a trial trench through the débris which had accumulated during gen- erations of use as a stabling for goats. A preliminary trench was dug from the mouth of the cave inwards to the back wall, running some 2.5 m. north-west of the medial line of the cave. For the first 120 cm. the deposits were of comparatively recent origin, yielding fragments of bone and potsherds, among which Late Roman and Byzantine types predominated, but at a depth of 120 cm., towards the front of the cave, a layer was reached composed of large blocks of rock apparently fallen from the roof, and from below these blocks some fragments of bone in a highly mineralized state were obtained; also a small coup-de-poing of Middle Paleolithic type and a few chert flakes of indeterminable form. ° The deposits of the cave showed eventually a number of distinguishable layers. The layers of approximately the upper four feet showed that the cave had served latest of all as a sheep stable; below this and up to about 3% feet in depth were signs of human occupation extending to the Early Bronze or Neolithic Period. At a depth of about 3% feet a layer of fallen rock was found over the central area of the cave. (237i MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST Below this layer of rock there was a marked change in the character of the deposits. They were here composed of a fine reddish, clayey earth, which was comparatively dry; the bone fragments which they contained were hard and heavy, reddish in colour, and gave out a sharp metallic sound when tapped. This layer averaged go cm. in thickness, and rested on another consisting of yellowish sand, con- taining water-rolled pebbles. Throughout the layer were blocks of fallen rock, but they never formed a continuous layer, as they had done at a depth of about 120 cm. . . . Fortunately only a small part of the deposits had thus become hardened, and throughout the layer numerous fragments of bone and many worked flints in good condi- tion were found. . . . No implements were found anywhere above the dividing layer of rock, showing conclusively that the deposits had undergone no serious disturbance since their deposition. Towards the bottom of this layer of Paleolithic occupation, at a depth of 2 m. below the modern floor level, were four fragments of a human skull. . . . They were lying in a shallow depression formed by irregularities in the cave floor, and were covered by two blocks of rock apparently fallen from the roof. The frontal bone has been separated from the skull to which it originally belonged along the line of suture, and there is nothing to indicate that the separation was produced by force, or least of all to suggest that the individual may have been killed by the fall of the rocks beneath which the fragments lay. Nor was there anything in the position of the bones and ar- rangements of the blocks of rock to suggest an intentional burial. It is difficult to surmise what may have become of the rest of the skull. Careful sieving of all the earth taken from the surrounding area and from numerous other parts of the layer failed to disclose any further human remains. The fact that the four fragments, namely, the frontal bone, part of the right zygomatic bone, and two fragments of the sphenoid, were all found together, indicating that they have be- come separated since reaching their final resting-place, seems to pre- clude the probability of their having been washed into the cave from outside, for in such a process the projecting sphenoid portions would almost inevitably have become detached; nor is it possible that they could have fallen through from a higher level, for if so, how did they come to lie beneath two large blocks of rock, themselves entirely covered by Paleolithic deposits? The bone itself is in a hard, highly mineralized state, extremely heavy and reddish in colour, in fact in every way similar to the other bone fragments found in the layer; it differs absolutely from the soft light pieces of a yellowish colour found in the superior layers. In 1926 the work in the cave was finished, without fur- ther discoveries of note. Sections through the water-laid [ 128 ] PLATE 41 The Galilee skull. This fragment shows that Mousterian man was not confined to the continent of Europe. After Keith PLATE 42 Restoration of Neanderthal man, showing especially the shape and carriage of the head. Courtesy of the Field Museum of Natural History NEANDERTHAL MAN deposits below the Paleolithic layer showed no earlier traces of occupation, human or animal. The fauna recovered from the Paleolithic layer, as de- termined by Miss Bate, was in the main as follows: Hippopotamus Leopard (?) Bison or ox Wild Cat (?) Horse Lynx Brown bear (?) Porcupine Striped hyena (?) Deer Spotted hyena Fallow deer Pig Gazelle (2 kinds) Fox Extinct goat (2 kinds) The stone implements, of flint and chert, show essen- tially Mousterian affinities. There are also, however, some short and some long blades and a few other imple- ments that resemble somewhat later types. One of the most interesting facts disclosed by the study of the animal remains from the Emireh and Zuttiyeh Caves is the definite association of Hippopotamus with a Middle Palaeolithic culture, and the probable association of Rhinoceros hemitoechus with a slightly later culture. This seems to point to the fact that there has not been any great faunal change in this region between the Mousterian and the following period. The fact that this rhinoceros is R. hemitoechus and that this species also occurs in Syria is highly important, emphasizing the absence of evidence of a so-called cold fauna. Below the Middle Palaeolithic occupation layers of the Zuttiyeh Cave “African” types are represented by the spotted hyaena (/. crocuta) and perhaps by a river hog (Potamochoerus); these were as- sociated with a large form of brown bear (Ursus arctos), a typically Palaearctic animal. There can be no doubt that the Galilee skull belongs to the Neanderthal group; but many points, including the accompanying industry as well as fauna, indicate that it belongs probably well forward in this group. Morpho- logically, the shape of the forehead, the height of the vault, the size and form of the orbits, and other characteristics, as well as the general features of the brain, point toward later man, while there is still enough to connect the speci- men with the far past (Plate 41). [ 129 ] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST Explorations in Palestine, thus auspiciously initiated, will continue; some new undertakings are in fact now (early in 1929) under way; and Palestine, with other parts of Asia Minor, may give much that will complement, La Chapelle— aux-Saints _ European Fic. 22. Profile views of the skulls of a modern European, a modern Australian, a Neanderthaler (the man of La Chapelle-aux-Saints), and a chimpanzee. After Boule and perhaps improve, our understanding of conditions in western Europe. Such are some of the most important discoveries of human remains of Neanderthal type associated with the Mousterian culture. They have been found over a wide range in Europe and Asia. Animals of cold or arctic habit accompany them. Though displaying certain variations of anatomy, the Neanderthal remains present on the whole so well-marked a type as fully to deserve assignment to the species Homo neanderthalensis rather than to the modern Homo sapiens. Indeed it has been remarked by several zoologists that, if characters so different occurred in animals other than man, they would warrant assignment to a different genus. [ 130 ] NEANDERTHAL MAN Prof. Marcellin Boule has concisely summed up the anatomical peculiarities of Neanderthal man as follows (Plate 42): Body of short stature, but very massive. Head very large, with facial region much developed in comparison with cerebral region. Cephalic index medium. Skull much flattened; orbital arches enor- end aoa = — = on, = Fic. 23. Modern (left) and Neanderthaler (right) head forms compared. The Gibraltar skull was used as a basis for the drawing of the Neanderthal type, a lower jaw being modeled from one of those found at Spy. Modified from Keith mous, forming a continuous ridge; forehead very receding; occiput protuberant and compressed in a vertical direction. Face long and projecting, with flat and receding malar bones, upper jaw lacking canine fossae and forming a kind of muzzle. Orbits very large and round. Nose prominent and very large. Subnasal space extensive. Lower jaw strong and chinless, with large ascending rami, and truncated in the region of the angle. Dentition massive, structure of back molars retaining certain primitive characters. Vertebral column and limb bones showing numerous simian char- acters and indicating a less perfect bipedal or upright carriage than in modern man. Legs very short. Brain capacity averaging about 1,450 cubic centimeters. Brain formation presenting numerous primitive or simian characters, espe- cially in the relatively great reduction of the frontal lobes and the general pattern of the convolutions. [132 | MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST A comparative study of the morphology of various living human groups confirms the idea that we are here con- cerned with an altogether special type, very different not only from the so-called superior races but also from the Eskimo, the Fuegians, the Bushmen, the Pygmies, African or Boone the Veddas, the Polynesians, the Melanesians, and even from the Australians, with whom attempts at comparison have often been made. The skeleton of the last-mentioned racial type is as dis- similar as possible to that of Neanderthal man. It can no longer.be asserted that the Australians are descended from our Mousterians; indeed, the idea of this relationship would probably not have occurred to the mind of the early observers, if in place of having only a skullcap they had had the opportunity of examining a complete skull with its facial portion. All that can be admitted in this respect is that the Australian group of men, certainly one of the least developed groups of modern mankind, is less far removed than other races from the primitive forms, and that in consequence, it ought to have certain char- acteristics in common with the Neanderthal type. Per- chance our Mousterians led the same wandering life as the modern Australians. CONCLUSION In this and the preceding chapter we have described at some length various discoveries of remains of Neanderthal man. We have been more particular regarding these skeletal remains because, in contrast to earlier periods, numerous Neanderthal specimens have already been dis- covered and exhaustively studied, so that the Neander- thalers represent the earliest race of men to disclose for us in any degree of thoroughness the anatomical charac- teristics of man. Neanderthal man, as we have intimated, was closely, if not indeed exclusively, associated with the Mousterian type of human culture. This seems to have spread over [ 132] NEANDERTHAL MAN Europe and certain other portions of the Old World, probably toward the close of the third interglacial epoch, when the climate was growing colder and more moist. With the advent of the last great glacial stage, that of the Wiirm, Neanderthal man was compelled to take up the life of a cave dweller. Of the Cro-Magnon and Neanderthal cave dwellers, we have a number of more or less complete skeletons, but for still earlier culture stages, the Acheulian and others, human skeletal remains almost fail us, for the reasons given in Chapter VI. Even so, intensively studied as they have been, they throw no little light on the remoter past of our race and deserve our attention. [ 133 ] CHAPTER IX THE MOST ANCIENT REMAINS OF MAN THE Pittpown REMAINS We have already mentioned the Piltdown race in connec- tion with Sir Arthur Keith’s interesting experiment. The race to which this individual belonged has been named Eoanthropus dawsont, or ““Dawson’s dawn man,” in honor of its discoverer, Charles Dawson. Between 1908 and 1912, laborers, digging in the ancient gravels of the river Ouse, at Piltdown, in southeastern England, found the fossil remains of a human skull of most unusual character. Not realizing the importance of their find at first, how- ever, they permitted the fragments to be scattered about. At length it was brought to the attention of Mr. Dawson, and his careful and painstaking researches brought to light at various times several fragments. These consisted of certain portions of the skull itself, a pair of nasal bones, a portion of a lower jaw, and a canine tooth. Mr. Dawson kept up his search for additional remains. Early in 1915 he discovered, some two miles from the first site, two fragments of a skull of similar type and a lower left molar tooth. With the earlier remains were found worn fossils of mastodon, rhinoceros, and Stegodon, evidently washed out of Pliocene formations, as well as others probably of early Pleistocene age, among them hippopotamus, beaver, and elk. From the same gravels came also water-worn [ 134 ] THE MOST ANCIENT REMAINS OF MAN “eoliths,” which may likewise have been washed out from an older formation; and rare flints with “obvious signs of human workmanship,” representing a very old type of Paleolithic implements. There was also found a large crude tool made of the femur of an extinct ele- phant—by far the earli- est bone implement thus far known (Fig. 24). The discoverers, as well as English anthropolo- gists in general, regard the first group of finds as those of a single indi- | vidual and all of them [fj i ie together as belonging to [ff le Ne one very early form of [AMM Sh man, the Eoanthropus, or “dawn man.” Taking all the circum- stances of the find into consideration, Sir A. Smith Woodward, of the British Museum, who had been associated with the discovery almost from the very first, decided that the skull and mandi- ble could not safely be “described as being of Fic. 24. Bone implement from Piltdown, England, made from the thigh bone of an elephant. A is the inner surface; B, the rounded outer surface; and C, the edpe: 4, an accidentally broken hollow; c, a natural break due to pressure in the gravel; p, the inner wall of a perforation from which the outer wall has been broken away; and x, the beginning of another perforation never completed. After Smith Woodward earlier date than the first half of the Pleistocene Epoch. The individual probably lived during a warm cycle in that age.” In 1922, in his Guide to the Fossil Remains of Man, the same authority states: “‘So far as can be judged from present evidence, it is therefore reasonable to suppose that Piltdown man dares back to the beginning of the Pleistocene period.” It is [135 ] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST only fair to say, however, that there has been much divergence of opinion among English, French, and Amer- ican scientists as to the period to which the Piltdown re- mains are to be assigned. But all are agreed that they are extremely ancient and date from a very early period in the Ice Age, or Pleistocene period, if not indeed from the still earlier Pliocene. The Piltdown skull is plainly that of an adult, probably a female, of over thirty years of age. One of the most striking things about it is its extraordinary thickness; its walls measure from eight to twelve millimeters, or roughly twice the thickness of an average modern European skull. From the fragments of the cranium, together with the portion of the lower jaw and the loose canine, a number of prominent authorities have attempted with infinite pains to reconstruct the whole skull. The principal efforts of this sort are those of Sir A. Smith Woodward, of Dr. Elliot Smith, of Sir Arthur Keith, and of J. H. McGregor of New York. These reconstructions differ somewhat in size and in details, but all agree in regard to certain char- acteristics. In the opinion of Smith Woodward, a detailed examina- tion of the bones of the skull as far as preserved “‘proves the typically human character of nearly all the features they exhibit.” Keith believes that “except for the thick- ness of the skull bones, the head was shaped and balanced as in us.” It is a skull that “in its general conformation does not differ materially from human skulls of the modern type” (Fig: 25): The capacity of the skull has been estimated by the different authors who attempted its reconstruction as follows: RECONSTRUCTION APPROXIMATELY Second Smith’ Woodward sv... 30.0 ss... 1,300 C.Cc Mest Sirah rity eee an a yr Sha 1,200 ¢.c Reithgrs..)) daca ea Na sects we Biel mee 1,400 C.c PLATE 43 Restoration of Piltdown man (the “Dawn Man”); shown using an eolith. Modeled by Mascré under the direction of Rutot =i Bene Se a a — THE MOST ANCIENT REMAINS OF MAN The various determinations show that: 1. The skull, taken as female, was in size above rather than below the present aver- age of female crania. 2. The skull cavity, and hence the size of the brain, were about the average of the ordinary white fe- males of today. 3. The vault of the skull was not low as in all the other known early forms of man. In addition it is certain that the forehead was well arched and filled out; the parietal, temporal, and occipital re- gions were fash- ioned _ practi- cally as they are in modern skulls; the supraorbital ridges were very moderate and did _ not form a con- Fic. 25. Two reconstructions of the Piltdown skull. Upper, by Sir Arthur Keith; lower, by John I. Hunter. After Elliot Smith [ 137] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST eZ yp : fe (54 ag’ LY Hy Fic. 26. Piltdown (A), La Chapelle-aux- Saints (B), and modern (C) skulls con- trasted. In some ways Piltdown man seems nearer the modern type than Nean- derthal man (B). After Smith Woodward [ 138 ] nected arch; there were no occipital or other crests; the glenoid fossa and the mastoids were well developed. In short this skull, though it may have shown some secondary inferiori- ties, if it were not for the exceedingly primitive lower jaw and canine tooth found near it, would inevitably have had to be classed with those of modern man. It is the lower jaw, to- gether with the subse- quently found canine, that has become the great “bone of contention” in the case. The reason is that, as tersely stated by Smith Woodward, “‘while the Piltdown skull is thus completely human, the half of the lower jaw, so far as preserved, is almost precisely that of an ape.”’ And in another place the same authority expresses the uncertainty thus caused: It may next be questioned whether this apelike mandible belongs to the skull. We can only state that its molar teeth are typically human, its mus- THE MOST ANCIENT REMAINS OF MAN cle-markings are such as might be expected, and it was found in the gravel near the skull. The probabilities are therefore in favor of its natural association. If so, it is reasonable to suppose that the skull will prove to be that of a very primitive type, not that of a highly civilized man. No other such jaw or anything even approaching it has ever been found with such a skull. The two at first sight do not belong to the same being or even the same species. In other early remains, especially one of the Spy skulls, in the La Quina and La Ferrassie specimens, it was the jaw rather than the skull that showed a form advancing toward the modern. While the probabilities of the discovery itself seem overwhelmingly in favor of an organic association of the skull with the jaw, the morphological features of the specimen, on the other hand, are all against it. Doctor Hrdlicka sums up his own views on the primi- tive mandible in the following words: The first strong impression which the specimen conveys is that of normality, shapeliness, and relative gracility of build rather than massiveness. When, after studying the specimen for a good part of two days, the observer took in hand the thick Piltdown skull, there was a strong feeling of incongruity and lack of relationship, and this feeling only grew on further study. As a rule there exists a marked correlation between the massivity of the skull— particularly if as in this case the upper facial parts were involved in the same—and the lower jaw. A finely chiseled mandible of medium or submedium strength belongs as a rule to a skull that is characterized in the same way, and vice versa. To connect the shapely, wholly normal Piltdown jaw with the gross, heavy Pilt- down skull in the same individual, seems very difficult. After prolonged handling of both the jaw and the skull there remained in the writer a strong impression that the two may not belong together, or that if they do the case is totally exceptional. [ 139 ] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST The next important question in connection with the jaw was whether or not it was human. All possible pains were taken to determine this point, regardless both of the skull and of previously expressed opinions. It may as well be said at once that all the results of the study point to the specimen being a very early man or an advanced human precursor, and not an anthropoid ape. The jaw is more primitive than any other known jaw relating to early man. It still had a marked submentoneal shelf, in all probability a large canine, and teeth of ances- tral prehuman form. It resembles more or less in a num- ber of points the jaws of the chimpanzee, but it differs from these in a whole series of points of importance, such as the form of the notch; type of coronoid process; sub- dued musculature; markedly reduced internal massive- ness of body, especially near symphysis; and the most important characteristics of the teeth, namely, height of crown, height of enamel, nature of “‘cingulum” and stout- ness of cusps—in all of which features it is more nearly if not actually human. Thus most authorities feel, in view of all this, that it is no longer possible to regard the jaw as belonging to a chimpanzee or any other anthropoid ape; but that it is really the jaw either of man’s precursor or of very early man himself. Hence Smith Woodward’s designation of this form as Eoanthropus—a being from the dawn of the human period—seems entirely appropriate. Portions of at least one other skull of similar type were found, it will be recalled, two miles away. These included a fragment of the frontal bone and another of the occipital, both probably belonging to the same cranium. This second specimen makes it certain that in the Pilt- down gravels, within a few feet of the surface, there occur fossilized skulls nearly if not wholly of modern form, [ 140 ] THE MOST ANCIENT REMAINS OF MAN though some, at least, are markedly thicker; and that with them are associated very primitive human imple- ments, as well as animal fossils of early Pleistocene and Pliocene age. The problem is this: Are the skulls, the implements, and the animal fossils contemporaneous; or, in other words, may the skulls not be intrusive? The probabilities all seem to point to the specimens being of the same age; but in view of the history of the deposition of the gravels, together with some of the un- certainties of the find and the apparent incongruity of the parts, there is room for no little disagreement. The original main problem, the genetic and chronologi- cal association of the jaw and the teeth with the two skulls, remains much as it was soon after their discovery, and no amount of thought, discussion, or even reexamina- tion of the specimens can promise, it seems, for the pres- ent, definite conclusions. The only hope, as in so many other cases of this sort, lies in new and sufficient dis- coveries. Doctor Hrdli¢ka concludes: In view of all this it must be plain that any far-fetched deductions from the Piltdown materials are not justified. This applies particularly to the superficially attractive conclusion that the Piltdown remains demonstrate the existence in the early Pleistocene, and long before the Neanderthal and even the Heidelberg forms, of men with practically modern-sized and modern-formed skulls and brains and directly ancestral to Homo sapiens, or recent man. This hypothesis is a proposition that would change the whole face and trend of human prehistory, and that against all other better substantiated evidence in this line. Such a theory, all science will agree, could only be established as a fact by the most ample and satisfac- tory material demonstration, which is quite impossible in the present case. [141 ] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST THE HEIDELBERG MAN If so many apparent contradictions and uncertainties surround the Piltdown discoveries, nothing of the sort attaches to that other extremely ancient specimen, the lower jaw of Heidelberg man. The Heidelberg, or more properly, Mauer jaw is one of the oldest relics of early man. For its preservation and thorough description we are indebted to Dr. Otto Schoe- tensack, at the time of the discovery professor of anthro- pology at Heidelberg University, who for years had been watching for human remains in the sand pits near Mauer which eventually yielded the specimen. Much credit is due also to Herr Joseph Rosch, of Mauer, the owner of the sand pits, who saved the jaw from destruction, im- mediately brought it to Professor Schoetensack’s atten- tion, and eventually donated it unselfishly to science. The specimen, the lower jaw of an adult male, was dis- covered accidentally on October 21, 1907. On the date of the find, two of the laborers were working in undis- turbed material at the base of the exposure, over eighty feet below the surface, when one of them suddenly brought out on his shovel part of a massive lower jaw which the implement had struck and cut in two. As the men realized the importance of carefully preserving all fossils, the specimen was handled with some care. The missing half was dug out, but the crowns of four of the teeth broken by the shovel were not recovered. The men were struck at once with the remarkable resemblance of the bones to a human lower jaw; but it seemed to them too thick and large to be that of man. They called Herr Rosch and he also was puzzled; but he saw at once that the specimen might be of considerable interest to Professor Schoeten- sack, and so took charge of it. Returning to the village he telegraphed to the professor, who came the next day; and “‘once he got hold of the specimen, he would no more let it out of his possession.”” He took it to Heidelberg, [ 142] THE MOST ANCIENT REMAINS OF MAN cleaned it, repaired it, and in 1908 published its descrip- tion in an exemplary fashion (Plate 45). Shortly following the discovery of the jaw a most care- ful examination and study were made of the Mauer de- posits. They were found to range from recent accumu- lations on the surface to Tertiary deposits in the lowest layers. The jaw lay a little less than three feet (0.87 meter) above the floor of the excavation and seventy-nine feet (24.1 meters) from the surface. The same level, as well as some of the higher layers, yielded fossil bones of the straight-tusked elephant, Etruscan rhinoceros, an extinct lion, and various other animals. The age of the human jaw has been determined by these and later explorations to be of the early Quaternary, or Glacial Period, though there is still some uncertainty as to the exact subdivision of that period to which it should be attributed. The original specimen, when seen, impresses one at once and strongly with its remarkable character. So com- pletely mineralized is it that it resembles limestone rather than bone. It is an enormous lower jaw, which presents at one and the same time both human and apelike char- acteristics (Fig. 27). There is no indication of abnormality or any diseased condition which might have altered it in shape; on the contrary it may be regarded as a perfectly normal repre- sentative of its type. The bone is dull yellowish-white to reddish in color, with numerous small and large black- ish spots. The crowns of the teeth are dirty creamy white, with blackish discolorations on the somewhat worn-off chewing surfaces of the canines and incisors, and a few similar spots over the molars; while all the parts of the teeth beneath the enamel are dull red, as if espe- cially colored. The jaw is considerably larger and stouter than any other known human mandible. The ascending rami are exceedingly broad, and the coronoid processes, thin and sharp in modern man, are thick, dull, broad, and markedly [143 ] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST Fic. 27. Development of the lower jaw. Chimpanzee (A), Piltdown man (B), Heidel- berg or Mauer man (C), and modern man (D), compared. Note especially the canine teeth and the region of the chin. Woodward After Smith [144] everted. The chin slopes backward as in no human being now known or thus far dis- covered, and there are other primitive fea- tures. The total effect of the characteristics of the bone is such that, had the teeth been lost, it would surely have been regarded as the mandible of some large ape rather than that of any human being. The teeth of the Mauer jaw, however, are perfectly preserved, and though large and provided with great roots, and in various other ways primitive, they are unquestion- ably human teeth. They show no crowd- ing, nor diastemata. The labial cusp of the anterior premolar was decidedly pointed, the lingual cusp moderate. The teeth force the conclusion that their possessor, while of heavy protruding face, huge muscles of masti- cation, wide and thick yorsuaqaoyog Jayyy “e0vfins juasaid ay3 Mojaq yidap ywais s}i ajou *pesaAodsip SUM MUL JOMOT 9Y2 A1dyAM Jods ay} SYIVUT SSOLD ITY MA ‘Auvwiay ‘Siaqjapep ivou ‘Arsen() Jonvyy ey], WwW ULV1d YOBSUdIDOYIC JAW *YI99} ayI Jo JaJOvVAKYO ayIpURW ApatIZUD JY} OF JSvIJUOD PayIvU url reqj oyrpody Asoa v ‘aducurtuoid-ulyd v Jo aouasqe aud By} DION “Me! Sioqjaploy{ JO JonvyA] YL Sh ALV Id THE MOST ANCIENT REMAINS OF MAN zygomatic arches, thick skull, probably heavy brows, and possibly not yet quite erect posture, had nevertheless already crossed the line dividing man from the ape. His food and probably his mode of life were related to those of primitive man, and he was already far removed from his primate ancestors with huge canine teeth resembling tusks, like those of the gorilla. PITHECANTHROPUS This celebrated discovery was made by Dr. Eugene Dubois, distinguished as anatomist, paleontologist, and prehistorian. At his own request Doctor Dubois was appointed to the Dutch military service in Java, in order that he might find some opportunity to search for pre- historic human remains in the East Indies. He arrived in Java in April, 1889, and carried on his researches, by permission of the Colonial Government, until 1895. Pale- ontological work was not new in Java and had already led to the discovery of Pliocene and Pleistocene strata rich in fossil plant and animal remains along the Solo or Bengawan River and its tributaries. In his report of 1898, Doctor Dubois describes the cir- cumstances of his discovery in part as follows: By order of the Netherlands Indian Government I conducted in Java, from 1890 to 1895, explorations for a fossil vertebrate fauna, of which already some remains had been discovered, many years ago, by Junghuhn and others, and later extensively described by Professor K. Martin, of Leiden. I found a very large quantity of remains of mammals and reptiles, for the most part derived from extinct species, which show, as might be expected, an unmistakable relation to the later Tertiary and Pleistocene faunae of India. The chief localities of these finds are in the southern slope of a range of low hills, the Kendengs, which extend between the residencies of Kediri, Madiun, and Surakarta on one side, and of Rembang and Samarang on the other, over a distance of about sixty miles. The area in which these vertebrate remains are abundantly found, in many places, may have on an average a breadth of from one to three miles. . . . It can be said, in accordance with geological circumstances, and the relations which this fauna has with the Post-Tertiary and [145 ] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST Pleistocene vertebrate faunae of India, that most probably it is young Pliocene; in no case, however, can it be younger than the oldest Pleisto- cene. For, whilst on the one hand the species surely belong almost exclusively to living genera—only the genus Leptobos and the sub- genera Stegodon and Hexaprotodon are extinct—and it must therefore be younger than the principal part of the Upper Miocene or Lower Pliocene Siwalik fauna, including not a few extinct genera; on the other hand, the number of the extinct species seems to be in propor- tion somewhat greater than that of the Narbada fauna, which is put in the early Pleistocene. Further, the inclination which the strata show does not well agree with a Pleistocene age. . . . From Trinil to Ngawi the steep banks of the Bengawan or Solo river, for an extent of seven and a half miles, consist exclusively of volcanic sands and lapilli, cemented into soft rocks, very much like the rocks which I saw in the Siwalik hills. The strata have in this area a general dip S. of about 5°, and are only concealed by a thin covering of vegetable soil. In these strata the Solo river has cut its channel, 12 to 15 metres deep, near Trinil. North and west of Trinil the Plio- cene marl and limestone appear under them. It was near Trinil, in the left bank of the river, at the foot of the Kendengs, that I came, in August, 1891, upon a place particularly rich in fossil bones, and found there, in that and the following year, among a great number of remains of other vertebrates, bones and teeth of a great manlike mammal, which I have named Pithecanthropus erectus, considering it as a link connecting together Apes and Man. Among hundreds of other skeletal remains, in the lapilli bed on the left bank of the river, the third molar tooth was first found in Sep- tember; then, the hole having been enlarged, the cranium a month later, at about one metre distant from the former, but in the very same level of that bed. The species of mammals, of which remains were found in the same bed, are, for the greater part at least, extinct ones, and almost certainly none of them are at present living in Java. Among these remains we find a great number of the . . . small species of Cervus, which certainly is not extant in the Malayan isles. Also many bones of Stegodon were found. One or two Bubalus species seem to be identical with Siwalik species; a Boselaphus undoubtedly differs from the known species, living and fossil; further on there were found the extinct genus Leptobos, the genera Rhinoceros, Sus, Felts, Hyaena, and others; a Garial and a Crocodile, differing little from the existing species in India, but which cannot be classed among them. Of the animals found in the same strata in other places, the most interesting species are a gigantic Pangolin (Mamis), three times as large as the existing Javanese species, and a Hippopotamus belonging to an extinct Siwalik subgenus. Further a Tapir and an Elephas. [146 ] THE MOST ANCIENT REMAINS OF MAN The work having been brought to an end that year on account of the setting in of the rainy season, it was taken up again at the begin- ning of the dry season in May, 1892. A new cutting was now made in the left rocky bank, which comprised the still unfinished part of the old excavation. Thereby bones were again found in great num- bers, especially in the deeper beds; and among these, again in the same level of the lapilli bed, which had contained the skull-cap and the molar tooth, the left femur was found in August, at a distance of about 15 metres from the former; and at last, in October a second molar, at a distance of 3 metres at the most from the place where the skull-cap was discovered, and in the direction of the place where the femur had been dug out. This tooth I did not describe, because I only found it later among a collection of teeth derived from the place stated above. | Thus altogether Doctor Dubois’s finds, eventually at- tributed by him to Pithecanthropus, comprise a lower jaw, two molar teeth, a skullcap, and a femur. With these is associated another tooth, a premolar, discovered in the Trinil deposits several years later. Toward the end of the year 1895, Doctor Dubois re- turned to Europe. His discovery was universally ac- knowledged as one of great importance; but his views were soon combated. The case presented two main problems. The first was the question whether the several parts, 7.c., the skull, the two teeth, and the femur, belonged to the same individual or at least to the same form; the other, that of the identification of this form. Dubois believed, as has been seen, that all four speci- mens, namely the skull, the two teeth, and the femur, be- longed to one stratum, one age, and one individual, a female Pithecanthropus erectus. To this there were soon many objections, and for several years the question was debated, not wholly without bitterness. Of some of its later aspects Doctor Hrdlicka speaks as follows: In the summer of 1923, the writer visited Europe in the temporary réle of Director of the American School for Prehistoric Studies in Europe. The first visit was to Professor Smith Woodward at the British Museum of [ 147 ] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST Natural History. Before meeting we had had some cor- respondence in which I had expressed my great desire to see once the Pithecanthropus originals. These wishes had most kindly been communicated to Professor Dubois at Amsterdam. Upon my arrival, to my great astonish- ment and joy, Sir A. Smith Woodward handed me a tele- gram from Professor Dubois inviting me most courteously to the Teyler Museum in Haarlem, his home town, where he would show me all the originals in his possession. This great privilege was taken full advantage of by me and my class on July 15. It was the first time the precious spect- mens were shown to a scientific man after their long seclusion. We found Professor Dubois a big-bodied and big-hearted man, who received us with a cordial simplicity. He had all the specimens in his possession brought out from the strong boxes in which they are kept, demon- strated them to us personally, and then permitted me to handle them to my satisfaction. Besides the four speci- mens attributed originally to the Pithecanthropus there was the additional tooth (a premolar), the fragment of a curious fossilized lower jaw, and two interesting, Austra- loid-like mineralized skeletons from Wadjak. The in- terior of the skullcap of the Pithecanthropus had now been completely freed from the consolidated tufa that filled it before; a cast of it was made, and this revealed a very remarkable brain of an unexpectedly humanlike conformation. The examination of the originals made a deep im- pression. It was seen that none of the casts of the skull that have been seen in different institutions were wholly faithful, and the same was felt to be true of the hitherto published illustrations. The originals were seen to be even more important than they had seemed hitherto. Professor Dubois told us he had about finished a final study of the specimens, which was soon to be published; and we left, truer and profounder prehistorians than we had been before. [ 148 ] ujoyuayouryg puv eyuayag Jay *pedaaoosip OIOM (Qysts uo) deoynys oy] pue (3Ja] uO) InWay ay} aTayM MOYS saienbs a14M OMT, ‘eal “lull, Ivau puy sndosysuvrayjig IY jo Aqyeoo'T oF ALVId PLATE 47 Above, the Pithecanthropus skullcap, side view. After Dubois, 1924. Below, reconstruction of the Pithecanthropus skull. The darker shad- ing indicates those portions of the skull (the brain-case and some teeth) which were actually found. After Weinert THE MOST ANCIENT REMAINS OF MAN Later during the same summer the specimens were shown also to Professor McGregor, of Columbia University. Since then they have been demonstrated on a number of occasions, including that of the Twenty-first International Congress of Americanists at the Hague, 1924. Finally, during this same year (1924), there appeared in the Proceedings of the Academy of Sciences, Amsterdam, three new important publications on the Pithecanthropus remains by Professor Dubois: The first, on the skull and brain, with which the author now definitely associates the fossil mandible, all three teeth, and the thigh bone; the second showing eleven excellent plates of the specimens; and the third dealing with the femur; with a final exhaus- tive work on the whole of the remains promised for a not- far-distant future. In these latest and ripest communications on the Java remains are found the following statements of special interest: The bones are in a state of perfect mineralization. Their specific gravity, like that of the bones of other mammals dug up at Trinil, has risen to about 2.7. They contain only traces of organic matter in the form of human substances, which give them a chocolate-brown color. The skull-cap has been greatly corroded on the outer surface by sulphuric acid, formed from pyrites in the volcanic tufa; the femur appears to be free of such corrosions. The physical and chemical characters of the bones are such, in Dubois’s opinion, that they “‘stamp the remains of Pithecanthropus as Pliocene’’; which possibility is further strengthened by the somatological characteristics of the specimens. Dubois, therefore, is still inclined to regard the Pithecanthropus remains as late Pliocene rather than Pleistocene. Ventrally, the skullcap, particularly in the frontal region, shows strong impressions of the cerebral convolu- tions. In details of its conformation it agrees partly with man, partly with the gibbon. ‘“‘The form of the [ 149 | MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST skull of the Pithecanthropus is on the whole not human; nor is it a transition of any type of manlike apes to the human type. The agreement with the anthropoid cranial type, particularly that of the small gibbon species of the genus Hy/obates, may on the other hand be called perfect.” It extends to many features such as the arching of the vault, the receding forehead, the precerebral part of the frontal bone, the constriction behind the orbits, etc. “Tn all these points Pithecanthropus is distinguished no less strongly than the Anthropoid Apes from the Neanderthal Man.” The detailed characteristics of the skull indicate now to Dubois that the erect posture of the body of the Pithecanthropus, “‘which clearly appears from the shape of the femur, was not such a perfect one as in Man; the correlation, at least, did not extend to the skull.” Nor can the skull, however, have belonged to an Anthropoid Ape, because the relatively very large skull as regards shape presents a close, nay striking resemblance with the skull of a small Hy/odates species, the smallest of the Anthropoid Apes, whereas judging not only from the femur and the molar teeth, but also from the skull itself, Pithecanthropus must have surpassed the size of a large chimpanzee, and was very much that of a middle-sized man. As to the size of the brain, “it may be assumed that with equal body weight Pithecanthropus possessed double the brain quantity of the Anthropoid Apes.” The endo- cranial cast in its side view “presents a striking resem- blance with the endocranial cast of a small Hy/lobates species reproduced at the same size. There is on the other hand a great difference—and a difference of great im- portance between the profile of the endocranial cast and that of the Neanderthal Man of La Chapelle-aux-Saints.” (Fig. 28.) To which Dubois adds: It seems to me that it is evident, at least, from all this that Man and Pithecanthropus both descend from a common primitive Simian an- cestor. From this, among the living species, the Hylobatidae, though greatly differentiated by their long arms and sabre-shaped canines, depart least, several fossil Simiidae still less. Also through his mandi- [150] THE MOST ANCIENT REMAINS OF MAN ble and teeth Pithecanthropus deviated less from this common stock type than the three living Gigantanthropoidea and the Hylobatidae. . . . The approach of the mandible and the teeth, as also of the femur, to the human type, and the large cranial capacity, added to consider- AB/OfSAPULDAYY \ SNDOM {UTA Uff lof Fic. 28. Profile view of the Pithecanthropus brain-case (heavy black line) com- pared with those of Neanderthal man, the chimpanzee, and the gibbon; all drawn to the same scale ations on the brain-quantities in nearly allied mammalian genera, all this leads me to the conclusion that Pithecanthropus should be con- sidered as a member, but a distinct genus, of the family of the Ho- minidae. The resemblance of the fossil femur to that of man, in contrast to the apes, is very marked in the knee joint, which was adapted for perfect extension of the leg. A discussion of the characters of the femur leads Doctor Dubois to remark: . . . Pithecanthropus cannot have possessed a human-shaped pelvis, but as the femur could to all appearance be extended to a human degree, the pelvis may have been comparatively more human than that of Hy/obates and chimpanzee. . . With such an unhuman pelvis the locomotion of Pithecanthropus cannot have been exclusively, per- fs7) MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST haps not even chiefly, on the ground. The erect type was not per- fectly developed. The characteristics of the hip joint and also the knee joint “render it probable that Pithecanthropus was less ground-walker than tree-climber, but did not climb with a prehensile foot, in the way of Apes. . . . The femur of Pithecanthropus was, therefore, also fit for locomotion on the ground, but by no means adapted so exclusively for it as in Homo sapiens and Homo neanderthalensis.” (Plate 48.) Doctor Hrdli¢ka finally concludes: But all this is not the pivotal essential of the find, and diminishes in no wise its high interest and value, both of which are universally acknowledged, particularly since the endocranial cast has become available. Neither should the student allow himself to be confused by the seeming flood of discrepancies of opinion on the remains. The differences are often more apparent than real, and even where real they by no means discredit the find, but are only so many trials, under all the great limitations of our present collections and knowledge, to reach a true con- clusion. The Trinil skull alone is sufficient to establish the pres- ence in what is now Java, somewhere during the early Quaternary and possibly earlier, of a class of beings that so resembled the anthropoid apes, on the one hand, and came so far in the direction of man, on the other, that if it was to be named today we could hardly find a more ap- propriate name for it than Pithecanthropus. It really is of little moment whether one student calls these beings giant gibbons, another, human precursors or intermediary forms, and a third, proto-homo or even a very low man; unless one is led astray from the truth by a lack of sufficient contact with the remains, they all mean a form somewhere between the status of all the known apes and of all except perhaps the earliest man. Who can say Page] PLATE 48 Thigh bone of Pithecanthropus (left) and of a white American, on the same scale; both show abnormal growth of bone near the upper end. The straightness of the bone shows that Pithecanthropus had already acquired an erect posture. Photograph by Hrdlicka 1 ide =) THE MOST ANCIENT REMAINS OF MAN just where we could class a being with such an apelike skullcap but within it such a near-human brain, if he ap- peared in life today? Witness the able discoverer alone, who moreover has had the originals at hand now for thirty- six years. First they represent for him a great chimpanzee; then a human precursor and direct ancestor; and then they are of an intermediary but not human ancestral form. The brain form of Pithecanthropus, which, due to the filling of the skull cavity with a hard mass, did not become available until three years ago, is exceedingly important. Its size and form and gyration appear to remove it at once from the brains of all known apes and bring it cor- respondingly close to that of man. It is inconsistent with and morphologically superior to its own skull. The female brain cavity measured in capacity at least goo c.c. A corresponding male brain cavity would measure some- where about 1,100 c.c. These dimensions connect already with the human (see Fig. 29). In my collections in the United States National Museum, I have thirty-two American Indian skulls, of small-statured but otherwise apparently normal individuals, ranging in capacity from glo to 1,020 c.c. In the largest gorilla this capacity does not exceed, so far as known, and mostly is well below, 600 c.c.; and in the chimpanzee or orang-utan it never reaches even this proportion. The frontal lobes of the Java specimen, while still low, approach in their form the human, lacking the pointed keel-shaped appearance they have in all the apes; and the rest of the brain is of a higher type than that of the apes. Had this form advanced in size and shape of brain by as much again as it already stood above those of the known apes, it would be wholly impossible to exclude it from the human category, unless it was done by the establishment of a separate genus of creatures equivalent in brain mass and brain differentia- tion to Homo. With all this it would not be legitimate to assert that the Pithecanthropus was either a form of early man or one [153] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST that eventually evolved into man. Either of these con- clusions would demand decisive supporting material, which does not exist. The most that appears justifiable until further and conclusive evidence appears, is to con- sider the Pithecanthropus, as represented by the skullcap, to have been a high primate of as yet uncertain ancestry and no known progeny, far advanced in what may be termed a humanoid direction. Taking everything into consideration the indications are that the Pithecanthropus erectus was a being that well de- served the name of “‘a human transitional form from Java” which, not in single specimens but as a type, can show us the way followed in human evolution from the lower forms. Ruopesian Man Another extremely important discovery of recent years is that of the fossil man of Rhodesia, in South Africa. This is discussed here, not because it is earlier than those of Piltdown, of Heidelberg, and of Java, but because there is even less certainty regarding the period to which it belongs than is the case with these others. Of Rhodesian man Doctor Hrdliéka writes as follows: On June seventeenth, 1921, a very remarkable human skull was discovered in the Broken Hill Mine, northern Rhodesia (Plate 49). It was the skull of a man whose features were in many ways so primitive that nothing quite like it had been seen before; and coming from a part of the world which hitherto had given nothing similar and in which nothing of that nature was ever suspected, it aroused much scientific attention. Fortunately the specimen was saved, with but a minor damage, and later in the same year was brought by the manager of the mine to the British Museum of Natural History, where, safely preserved, it constitutes one of the scientific treasures of that institution. [154] THE MOST ANCIENT REMAINS OF MAN The sparse data about the Rhodesian find left a desire for more details about the position of the skull, about its surroundings, about the cave itself and its fillings, about the nature of the animal bones in the cave, about the general region in which the “broken hill” with its cave existed, and about other possible remains, as well as the native types of the territory. The skull was so remarkable that every view of it and every further word published upon it served only to intensify the feeling of need for more complete answers to the above questions. It was this motive, together with the recent discovery of the skull of a highly interesting anthropoid ape near Taungs, Bechuanaland, that induced the writer to extend his late journey to South Africa. Upon arrival at Broken Hill the writer was rather astonished to find the whole region for many miles in every direction to bea great, level, loosely forested plateau, barren of hills with one slight exception. This exception is a small “‘kopje”’ situated near the railway tracks as one nears the Broken Hill mine and settlement. This little hill, only about ninety feet high, is said to resemble closely the former “broken’’ hill which gave us the Rhodesian man and which has now, through mining, been removed. The plateau of the town of Broken Hill is 3,874 feet above sea level. Up to the time of the commencement of mining operations it was a part of a vast, featureless, more or less openly forested region. But the minerals in the two “‘kopjes’”—lead and zinc—may have been known to the natives in earlier times. At all events, in digging ditches and in other surface excavations about the mines and in the town, there are being found, buried up to eight feet in depth from the present surface, old primitive native smelters, with here and there some Negro pottery, indi- cating probably former burials. _ The “broken” kopje consisted of hard dolomitic lime- stone impregnated with lead, zinc salts, and vanadium. It was originally full of crevices and holes, and as shown [155] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST in the course of mining, at least two large caves led deeply into the interior. The cave of special interest became known as the bone cave. This cave in the course of time had become filled with sand, soil, bones of animals, and detritus of various kinds, which in turn were impregnated by seepage carry- ing in solution mineral matter. This matter formed incrustations on the walls, here and there formed new ore deposits, and in general consolidated most of the con- tents, bones included, into a “paying ore.”’ The kopje that yielded the “Rhodesian skull” was situ- ated approximately northwest to west of the present railroad station and measured about 50 feet in height by 250 feet in its longer diameter. This entire elevation has now disappeared, and where there was a hill there 1s now a deep hole, in and about which mining operations are still energetically proceeding. Before mining began in this craggy “‘broken” kopje there was nothing to indicate the presence of any human habitations about the hill, or at least nothing sufficiently conspicuous to be noticed. Mining was carried on from the side, but due to the condition of the mineral deposits work was later commenced also from the top proceeding downward. During the earlier operations from the side, a good-sized cave or fissure was reached and found to contain dirt, ore, and numerous bones. The bones were those of animals; if any others were present they were not noticed. They were for the most part so mineralized that they were smelted with the rest of the ore and, after the first flurry occasioned by their discovery, received little further attention. . When the excavations from the top reached in the cen- ter to approximately ninety feet below the surface of the ground surrounding the kopje, a large inclined plane was opened to the central funnel from near the side at which the original work began. At some distance this plane once more encountered the large bone crevice that had [156] ne SMaN] UOPUuOT paqvassny] dy} woly ‘}pNyYs aya Jo Araaoosip 9y3 Burmoyjoy APsoys “vojyy YyINog “vIsopoyY Ul ‘9Avd [ITF] VOY OU PuNno{ asam Sureusas 3 uBUsNY day{o pue NHS @Yui 49 u ibugisexa > “ 2 dtr - i. 43jem of es 3040) "NAN a ; Gonietiere ee c i * FO MOLjtOody, a. (awuaoa a's) aldox JEUIeHoO JO UOlpsOg 7 6r ALV Id ib & 5 ° ey me vw a : 1 ® ° 4 in a id 4 + -* a ce ti > | ¥ % = | 2 4 i ae 7 id » : a a ; al THE MOST ANCIENT REMAINS OF MAN been discovered before. The crevice passed here obliquely across part of the incline and, as in the portion seen earlier, was filled with detritus, bones of bats or rodents, ore, and more or less mineralized bones of larger animals. The extent and contents of this cave or crevice were only learned gradually in the course of the prolonged work of mining. After the inclined plane reached the bottom of the cen- tral excavation, some of the workmen were directed to turn back and work on the ore and stone exposed by the plane; and it was in these parts, not long after, at a level of approximately sixty feet below the surface, that a Swiss miner, Mr. T. Zwigelaar, working with his black “boy”’ in some softer fillings, was confronted, after a stroke of the boy’s pick, with the Rhodesian skull (Plate 50). As good fortune would have it, before the writer’s de- parture from Broken Hill he was able to locate and inter- view five of the men concerned from the beginning in the discovery, including Mr. Zwigelaar, who actually found the skull; and a sixth one was reached later by a letter. Each of these men was most willing to tell all he knew, but their memories regrettably were no longer clear as to the par- ticulars. However, what was obtained is not without importance. At the British Museum the writer was very kindly furnished with copies of all the official entries relating to the find and to an earlier collection from the same cave. As the collective sifted result of the information ob- tained from all quarters, as the result of the personal in- spection of the mine and of what remains of the bone cave, and with the impressions left by the different men associated with the finds, the conclusion is that the real conditions had probably been somewhat as follows: The ‘‘bone cave” was an extensive irregular crevice running for 120-150 feet inward and downward from near the base of the hill and reaching the maximum depth below the surface of about 70 feet. Las? MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST There is no recollection of the mouth of the ‘“‘cave” and this may have been covered or obstructed. Inside, the crevice enlarged to a cavern which at its maximum meas- ured probably over thirty feet in breadth and twice as much in height. For some distance from the mouth of the cavern the floor of the latter was nearly level or but moderately inclined, then there was a steeper descending slope, and after that the crevice ran irregularly downward and inward. The outer part of the cavern was largely filled with more or less mineralized and consolidated bones of animals, cave detritus, large quantities of bones of bats or small rodents, and nondescript earthy material, the walls being covered with crystals of the ores of zinc and vanadium. The larger bones were distributed unequally through the filling of the cave, in some places there being large quantities of them, in others few or none. They extended to and beyond the descent in the floor. The lowest and innermost part of the cavern was filled by detritus, some bones, and by a considerable layer, or rather layers, of very pure and more or less crumbly lead ore. The ore contained no bones or foreign substance; but it is not absolutely known whether the contents of the farther part of the cavern had a direct connection with the materials in the large outer portion through or under- neath this lead ore. The skull was found at some distance beneath a layer— according to Mr. Zwigelaar’s recollection, about ten feet thick—of this ore. It was not itself embedded in the ore but in a detrital material not mineralized to any extent and containing a quantity of “‘bat’”’ bones. The skull was an isolated object. It lay upright. There was no lower jaw, nor any other bone in apposition. Be- neath it was something which looked like a large, flattened skin bundle, thoroughly mineralized. This may or may not have been merely a natural laminar formation of [158] THE MOST ANCIENT REMAINS OF MAN the lead ore. Barring a few fragments, it was smelted. Somewhere in the vicinity of the lower portion of this “bundle” was found a remarkably straight but otherwise not peculiar, full-sized human male tibia, and lower, at some distance, were portions of a mineralized lion’s skull. In the vicinity there may have been found also one or two other human fragments, but here much is uncertain. The larger part of the bony contents of the main part of the cave was so mineralized that it passed for a good grade of zinc ore and was smelted as such. Various por- tions of the cave fillings, however, were poorer and were brought out and thrown on a dump where, covered by poor rock and débris thrown out subsequently, they still repose. The ground and the débris in the dump are still full of fragments and pieces of bone, teeth, chips of quartz, etc. Only traces of the great cave now remain in the mine, and as the work progresses they will disappear. The opposite wall of the mine shows an even larger old cavern, completely filled with less consolidated and somewhat darker materials than the surrounding rock. This cave has yielded no bones. The main part of the bone cavern was for a long time a habitat or a feasting place of the ordinary Africans, Bush- men or Negroes. The larger bones were none of them brought in by animals, but were the remains of the repasts of the black men. A very large majority were broken for the marrow. Similarly broken human bones suggest cannibalism. There were apparently no human burials in the cave. How the strange Rhodesian skull got in is unexplainable. The skull was found alone in the lowest and most re- mote part of the cave, some distance beneath consider- able accumulations of soft, pure lead ore. There was no lower jaw. There was no skeleton. One human bone, the tibia, and parts of a lion’s skull, it is well established, lay within ten feet of the skull, but at a lower level. [159] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST As to the other human bones deposited at the British Museum with the skull and those now added, all that may be said is that they proceed from several skeletons of modern size and form; that some of them, at least, prob- ably came from other parts of the cave; and that there is no proof, and but a remote possibility, of any of them belonging to the skull. The skull itself is positively not the skull of any of the now known African types of man or their normal variants. Neither is it a pathological monstrosity, such as might be due to gigantism or leontiasis. It is a most remark- able specimen of which the age, provenience, history, and nature are still anthropological puzzles. Morphologically the skull is frequently associated now with the Neanderthal type of Europe. This may be fundamentally correct, but only to that extent. In its detailed characteristics the specimen in some respects 1s inferior, in others superior to anything known as yet of the Neanderthal man. The skull is monstrous, its frontal and most of the facial parts exceeding in primitiveness every other known speci- men of early man. The skullcap, on the other hand, from behind the frontal ridges is of a decidedly higher grade, equaling in many respects, and in some even exceeding, those of the more typical Neanderthal crania. The subject was plainly a very powerful male, of prob- ably over forty years of age. The skull is in no way pathological, though showing some diseased conditions; and it can not be conceived as a near-reversion. It represents a distinct, crude variety of man, which strange- ly combines many ancient, even pre-Neanderthal condi- tions, with others that are relatively modern. It could represent conceivably a very brutish individual develop- ment of the upper Neanderthal or the post-Neanderthal period. The most striking features of the skull are its huge supraorbital ridges. They are not far from twice as stout [ 160 | PLATE 50 The Rhodesian skull, front and side. Notice the enormous develop- ment of the bony ridges over the eyes. After Pycraft PLATE 51 Mr. Zwigelaar, the discoverer of the Rhodesian skull, shortly after the find was made. Photograph presented to Doctor Hrdlicka by Mr. Zwigelaar THE MOST ANCIENT REMAINS OF MAN as in the Neanderthalers. No such immense welts have ever been seen in any other human specimen, nor even, if their thickness alone is considered, in the anthropoid apes. They constitute a huge exaggeration of this ancient characteristic of male primates. Yet these ridges are already human rather than anthropoid in character. The slope of the forehead is as great as it is in some of the apes. In this quality, in its marked metopic ridges, its narrowness, and also in its anterior flare and relative smallness as a whole, posteriorly the Rhodesian frontal approaches closer to the frontal of the Pithecanthropus; though the ridges of the Rhodesian skull are much the heavier. The study of the specimen leaves an impression of anamorphism. It is a combination of pre-Neanderthaloid, Neanderthaloid, and recent characters. It is not a Neanderthaler; it represents a different race or at least variety. The specimen does not seem to belong in its surround- ings. It does not fit with any of the other human remains, skeletal or cultural, saved from the cave. It does not fit with anything, the Negro in particular, found thus far in Africa. It seems impossible to conceive of the specimen as a reversion. Reversions tend as a rule to manifest them- selves in a single character or in a small group of asso- ciated characters. The primitive conditions of the Rhodesian skull are more comprehensive. It seems equally impossible to regard the strain of man represented by the skull as a survival to recent time. There is nothing in anthropological knowledge that would support such an assumption. Yet the diminishing third molars, the shape and size of the other teeth, the extensive caries, and other points, speak against hoary antiquity. The Rhodesian skull is a tantalizing specimen to the student, who is wholly at a loss as to just where it be- [ 161 | MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST longs taxonomically or chronologically. It 1s a comet of man’s prehistory. Professor Elliot Smith shows the volume of the brain of the Rhodesian skull to have been but 1,280 c. c., which is markedly smaller than in any of the Neanderthalers with the probable exception of the Gibraltar female. The cast, very successful, shows the brain to have been in general very definitely human, related to that of the Neanderthalers, and superior to both that of the Pithecan- thropus and Eoanthropus. Mr. Hopwood has identified the mammals of the Broken Hill cave, of which he has the following to say: The study of the mammalian bones found at Broken Hill was under- taken in the hope that they might afford some evidence as to the age of the human remains found in the cave. It seemed reasonable to suppose that, if the contents of the cavern were of any degree of antiquity, there might be found portions of animals which are ex- tinct, or, at any rate, of species which are not at present represented in the fauna of Rhodesia. This hope has been realized only in part. The cave fauna is composed of living forms with the exception of Rhinoceros whitei Chubb and a new species of Serval cat. It is also well to remember that the African continental plateau is of extraordinary stability, and that it has been a land area from very early times. Furthermore, the climate has always been tropical, or sub-tropical, at least to the south of Egypt. Hence, apart from possi- ble change in the rainfall, conditions of life have been comparatively fixed and the fauna is not likely to have altered in character so rapidly as in: other regions, Europe and North America for instance, where great changes in the climate and geography have taken place in com- paratively recent times. For these reasons it is practically impossible at present to estimate the age of African cave deposits by means of the fossil mammals. The fact that two extinct forms are known proves nothing. It is becoming ever more apparent that the mammal- bearing horizons of Central Africa are not comparable in age with those of Europe, and that in dealing with them it is useless to apply Euro- pean standards. On the evidence of the associated mammalian fauna there is no reason to suppose that the human remains are of anything but recent date. [ 162 | THE MOST ANCIENT REMAINS OF MAN CONCLUSION Accounts given in the last four chapters by no means cover all the finds of ancient human remains made thus far in various parts of the globe. But they cover briefly the more important discoveries and will perhaps suf- fice to make clear the nature of the steadily growing evidence upon which is based our knowledge of the remote past of man- kind. We have now dis- cussed the physical side of man’s develop- ment including both the world in which he found himself and also his own _ bodily structure. In doing this, we have pro- ceeded step by step from the known to the unknown, from the comparatively re- cent past back into an antiquity almost inconceivably remote (Fig. 29), reaching a point at last where Fic. 29. Diagrams showing the top and side views of the outlines of the brains of chim- panzee, Pithecanthropus, Piltdown, Neander- thal, and modern man, to illustrate the pro- gressive increase in size. After Osborn man or manlike creatures are indistinguishable from the anthropoids. The table on page 165 summarizes this panorama of man’s physical history. [ 163 ] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST In the remainder of this book we shall deal with the achievements of man’s brain as distinguished from the de- velopment of his body. Beginning with the earliest known traces of his handiwork, we shall follow his rise stage by stage, from the first dawnings of his intelligence to the time when, in both the Old and the New World, he had laid the foundations of the civilization of today. [ 164 | THE MOST ANCIENT REMAINS OF MAN ‘s1yeydacosaur ynq ‘a[qeinseaur Jon f *kpeydaooyoiop iY Sys 03 Surpuay ynq ‘a[qeinsvow Jo 4 *youe yeziqsovsdns ay} Jo uoisnsj0sd y¥a13 ay apnjoul sjuswsinsesU BsaY |, y (oe eemre:e ~7 oLr-orf 1 (Sea Se ern | tas penne o00t—-O16 "9 °d ‘sauIaI} x9 ee ‘pur “deo "ay Fer oSgi-oof1 | ‘0 ‘9 ‘sayeur ‘aduvs al jewuou “des ‘19 zl Lae o$ f1-0fz1 ogti o$St ie er ‘Ayioedes [eruvig poe WITS “Wu qeqared jo ssouysIy TL "WD SUINUWTXB UT ‘{eqUOIy JaJIWUIvIC] 1°6 ynoqy Forres "ud SUIMUTUTU ‘jequOIf JaJIWUIIC] of ‘xapul otpeyday et Sii "Wd SUINUWIIXBUr | _ “ppearq [[N4S fei SaTVIA se A SNdOUHL NVI NVJA| 1VHL aIVIN AOVUIAY aaznvaniny| S21VNSH 8 | -Nvoanuig | NVISddonY | -IFGNVIN NVIGK [| SSLV IN StU AN | VITINOD | ganuvg |NvOrYaWY G10 I OU» S| aber Gt ae "wo SWNWIXBUl ‘ya3u2y [IS + =a SHdV GNV NAW OIMOLSIHAYd ANV NYAGOW JO SHILIOVdVO NIVUA GNV SLNAWAUNSVAN TINNS AO ATAVL AALLVUAVdWOD [ 165 ] CHAPTER UX THE UNFOLDING OF MAN’S INTELLIGENCE WE can say with a fair degree of assurance that Cro- Magnon man appeared in Europe something like 25,000 or 30,000 years ago. With not quite so much certainty we can assign the beginning of the Mousterian culture, so closely associated with Neanderthal man, to a period some- where around 50,000 years ago, more or less. But before that, we recall, there stretched away behind us, ever fur- ther back in the mists of the past, the Acheulian, the Chellean, the Pre-Chellean, and, earliest of all, the Eolithic or “Dawn Stone” Age. The last seems to have begun very far back in the Ice Age, or Pleistocene period, if not indeed earlier still, in the geological period known as the Pliocene. Dr. Albrecht Penck estimated that the Ice Age began somewhat more than half a million years ago. There is reason for believing that, long before that, man had de- veloped enough intelligence to employ sticks and stones in various ways, though without doing anything toward shaping them into more convenient forms. How long ago he began to do this, we can not say. But let us assume, for the sake of illustration, that it was a million years ago. At this figure, at least seventy or eighty per cent of man’s total existence as a tool-using creature had already gone by before he reached even the beginning of the Old Stone Age—the Pre-Chellean epoch. By the opening of the cave-dwelling epoch, when he took to living in grottoes, at the approach of the Wurm glacia- [ 166 ] UNFOLDING OF MAN’S INTELLIGENCE tion, ninety-five per cent of his culture history thus far had been completed. When Cro-Magnon man appeared in Europe, ninety-seven and one-half per cent or more of it had elapsed. By the time the Ice Age had at last come to an end in Europe, ninety-nine per cent was already a thing of the past. The beginning of the Age of Metals and of the knowledge of writing in the most advanced por- tions of the globe occurred only something like 5,000 or 6, 000 years ago. Hence the entire historical portion of man’s existence, the only part which we know through written records, amounts to but one-half of one per cent of his whole career up till now. It is this fraction of one per cent that has witnessed the blossoming of civilization in Babylonia, in Egypt, in India, in China, and elsewhere. It represents the time between the building of the Pyra- mids and the invention of the aeroplane and the radio. Of course, the precise figure of 1,000,000 years for the total length of man’s existence as a tool user is an arbitrary one. It may have to be cut in two on the one hand or doubled on the other, in the light of future discoveries. But for the time being it will serve its purpose of helping us to realize what a very brief space of time is allotted to the historical epoch by contrast with the long prehistoric period that went before. Recent discoveries have shown that during the earlier and by far the greater part of the life history of our race, more than one kind of man existed. The human species of today, in all its various races and subraces, represented at first but one among several different forms of which re- mains are already known. Moreover, there were almost certainly others not yet discovered, or which died out without leaving any traces of themselves in the form of fossils. How long any of these now extinct forms sur- vived we do not yet know. Some may have lingered on in out-of-the-way regions until comparatively recent times, as that strange monster, Rhodesian man, may possibly have done in South Africa. The existing type has achieved [ 167 | MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST the mastery of the globe, slowly and patiently and under conditions of hardship and danger such as we now can scarcely imagine, only because it was on the whole the form best adapted to win in the struggle for existence. Perhaps we can picture to ourselves something of the appearance of primeval man. From the earliest human remains found thus far, we know that very far back man already stood nearly if not quite upright. He was prob- ably covered fairly thickly with hair, of which indeed we still find traces on our own bodies. No doubt it tended to grow longer and thicker on the head and Jaws, and it must have been shaggy and matted. In texture we may be pretty sure that it was neither coarse and straight, like that of the Mongol or the American Indian, nor kinky like that of the Negro, but something in between. Prob- ably, too, it was not black but brownish in color. How man came to lose his body hair to such an extent remains an unanswered question. One of the most plausible ex- planations suggests that some connection exists between this loss of hair and the wearing of clothing. But even this theory has a weak spot, for it seems to imply that all existing races, even those which go about naked today, must have worn clothes at some period of their develop- ment. Regarding the skin color of primitive man, we have reason to believe that it was neither the pale white of the North European nor the sooty black of the darkest Negro, but again something in between—some shade of brown. We have few clues to the features of man earlier than the Neanderthaler, about whose facial structure we know a good deal, but who comes on the stage rather late in the long drama of human progress. It is clear that true chins had not yet developed, for the more primitive lower jaws already found are in this respect quite apelike. The teeth, on the other hand, seem early to have acquired definitely human form, indicating that primeval man was depending more and more on his hands and less and less on his Jaws [ 168 | UNFOLDING OF MAN’S INTELLIGENCE for self-defense and the performance of various tasks. Some of the early races had brows that projected far over the eyes, especially among the old males, to whom they must have imparted a scowling and malignant ex- pression; others, however, almost if not entirely lacked this feature. Noses at first probably resembled those of babies today in flatness and shapelessness, while full and prominent lips such as characterize most modern races can hardly have developed very early. Among apes, true lips are almost, wholly lacking, so that the mouth consists of little more than a straight slit across the lower part of the face. In this respect, the white man of today differs widely from the gorilla, and the Negro even more so. In primitive man resemblance to the anthropoid apes must have been considerably greater than in any existing race. In the last chapter we saw that man, or perhaps his forerunner, had begun to develop a comparatively big brain very far back in his career. The famous Trinil skullcap, for example, indicates that the brain it once covered stood almost exactly halfway in size between that of the highest ape and the lowest human form of today. Piltdown man’s brain was larger still, following well within the human limit. Scientists long debated whether man acquired a nearly erect posture and conse- quent freer use of his hands before he developed a big brain, or whether increase in brain capacity preceded these other anatomical changes. But now there seems to be pretty general agreement that growth of intelligence came first, that the brain led the way in man’s development. The determining factor in man’s success was, of course, this growth of his brain. Physically he was less well fitted for the battle of existence than many other creatures. The wild bull far surpassed him in strength, as did the wild horse and various other animals which he in time domesti- cated and made his obedient servants. The lion, the tiger, and many other species which he has either exterminated or driven to take refuge in the depths of the wilderness, [ 169 ] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST exceeded him in ferocity. But thanks to his superior intellect, he asserted his supremacy first over the animal world and then over inanimate nature. The struggle goes on, though the tiger and the mammoth as man’s most dangerous enemies have given place to insects like the fruit fly and the boll weevil and to small mammals like the rat. His conquest of inanimate nature has gone on much more slowly; in fact even today it has only barely begun. This increase in brain power and the consequent growth of ideas would, however, have profited early men as a group but little if they had not had some means of com- municating with one another. Language in the broadest sense, including gesture as well as sound, began long before man himself first appeared; but only he, of all living crea- tures, was able to develop it and be developed by it. It constitutes the earliest as well as the greatest of the achievements of his genius, none the less important be- cause achieved unconsciously. For untold ages, however, man had to depend wholly on word of mouth and on signs for the communication of ideas, and on the unaided memory alone for their preser- vation, limitations which account, in part, for the ex- tremely slow progress made by mankind in early ages. Only within the last few thousand years has mankind slowly been learning to preserve the results of past ex- perience by putting them down in writing. The keeping of records is even yet far from universal, or even general. The greater portion of mankind, outside of America and western Europe, remains illiterate, although nearly every- where it has come more and more under the control and direction of ruling elements, native or alien, familiar with the art of writing. In fact, largely by this very knowledge have these classes gained the ability to control and exploit their fellow men. The mechanical problems involved in the struggle for existence, of course, far antedate the human race. At first [170 ] UNFOLDING OF MAN’S INTELLIGENCE man had no better means of solving them than had the lower animals. For ages he prowled about, naked and shaggy, depending for his food and his safety solely upon his own hands and teeth and muscles. But there came a time when his dawning intelligence suggested to him that he might make use of tools other than those with which nature had equipped him. The discovery that he could strike his enemy a heavier blow with a broken bough than with his unaided fist, or crack nuts and shellfish more easily with a pebble than with his own back teeth, or hurl Fic. 30. Eoliths from Cantal, France, of the Tertiary Period (preceding the Ice Age) showing how marginal chipping was done on one face only. At left, two views of a scraper; at right, two views of a spokeshave. After Verworn a stone and thus bring down small animals out of the reach of his arm, marked a great step in advance in his age-long struggle to master his environment. He had at last be- come a tool user. At first, of course, after learning this lesson, primitive man merely used such sticks and stones as came handy, throwing them away when the momentary need was over. But through long experience he discovered that certain forms were so much more useful than others as to be worth keeping and carrying about. Then he found that they could be still further improved by a little shaping and trimming. A club was easier to wield if twigs and irregu- lar projections were broken off; a straight, slender branch scraped down to a point made a fairly effective dart; a few chips knocked off the sides of a flint pebble gave it a rough edge with which raw meat could be cut up instead of being torn with hands and teeth. But how infinitely slow [171] * MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST this process of self-education was, the very long duration of the earlier stages of man’s existence shows. When it was completed, however, man had at last attained to the Eolithic or Dawn Stone Age. He had become not merely a tool user, but actually a tool maker as well, even though on the humblest imaginable scale. Sometime during this same early period that other epoch-making discovery, the use of fire, took place. How long ago this happened we do not exactly know as yet. In the Acheulian epoch, during the third interglacial stage, fire was certainly already known and used, as we know from layers of burnt wood and charred bones un- covered on Acheulian sites. But the practice appears to go very much further back still. At Foxhall, near Ipswich, in the east of England, burnt flints, along with bones, flint implements, etc., have come to light, which may be- long to the Eolithic Period. If so, it carries us back, not merely into but actually defore the Ice Age itself. All authorities seem agreed that man knew fire and under- stood how to utilize it and keep it going long before he learned how to kindle it. Many. natu- ral phenomena may start a fire, lightning, for example, or vol- Fic. 31. Primitive method of - 3 = = starting a fire by twirling a Canic eruptions with their ac- stick between the palms of the companiment of white-hot lava hands. Northeast Australia. Pp i After Frobenius Sometimes, during long dry spells, two interlocking branches rubbed together by the wind may burst into flame. But how man found that fire, hitherto only a source of danger and superstitious awe, could be made useful, we can but guess. In any case he knew this ages before he learned to make it. In fact, a quick and easy way of starting a fire [172] ssaisuo0d jo Aiviqry ay3 ut ydessojoyg = “¥daWY YIION UsaIsa A, ‘spuvy OM} 9Y2 UdaMJaq Inv} Ppay Sulays so adaid v jo pre ay? YIM Apyims yous v Suygvyos Aq Suryeu-airy cs ALVId UNFOLDING OF MAN’S INTELLIGENCE is a very recent discovery, the invention of the first really practical matches dating only from 1827. The discovery of the usefulness of fire is one of man’s greatest achievements, without which progress would have been utterly impossible. But at first he must have put it to a very limited number of uses, probably to give warmth and protection against wild animals, and later to prepare food. The primitive camp fire was the first gathering point around which men could meet, so that it wielded enormous influence in encouraging social activities and the inter- play of ideas. For long man looked upon it as something mysterious and uncanny, as a living being with an in- satiable appetite. Even today we are voicing ideas handed down from our remote prehistoric ancestors when we speak of “feeding” the fire to “keep it alive.”” Nowadays such expressions are regarded only as figures of speech; but there was a time when they were meant literally. Because fire had to be tended constantly, while the men were often away hunting or on the warpath, its care fell naturally to the women. Out of this practice arose in later ages the institution of vestal virgins, keepers of the undying fire, found not only among the Romans but among many other peoples both ancient and modern. We have, then, the three basic inventions—speech, tools, and fire—by which man first raised himself definitely above the animals about him and which in time led to further advance. Along with these three basic inventions, although com- ing much later and possessing nothing like equal impor- tance, we may consider the origin of clothing. Funda- mentally this had for its motive the desire for protection, mainly from cold but partly, too, from injuries, whether real or imaginary, that is, of a magical sort. Thus its de- velopment has tended to vary with climatic conditions. In cold countries, the use of animal skins for warmth must date back pretty far. The natives of Tierra del Fuego, at the extreme lower tip of South America, appar- 73 MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST ently represent a very primitive branch of the American Indian stock. Although they occupy an extremely cold and wet region, until recently they wore only a piece of sealskin slung about their necks, which they shifted about so as to keep it on the side from which the wind, sleet, and snow came. This repre: sents only a slight im- provement upon — primi- tive ctatal nudity (Fig. 32). Cutting and fitting skins and sew- ing them to- setihen liao form fur gar- ments, such as the Eskimo wear, repre- sents a much Fic. 32. Native of Tierra del Fuego wearing only a piece of greater ad- sealskin slung BA pe em enon from the cold vance. This stage must have been reached in some countries before the close of the Old Stone Age, for well-finished bone needles have been found in deposits of that period. Skins remained the material for clothing until the invention of weaving; the buckskin garments of our own North American Indians furnish an example. Such clothing belongs more especially to cold regions, or at least to those having cold winters. [ 174 ] UNFOLDING OF MAN’S INTELLIGENCE Skins have, it is true, been worn in warm countries; but the original motive there seems to have been mainly magi- cal. They were thought to confer upon the wearer the qualities of the animals to which they once belonged, just as did necklaces and bracelets of teeth and claws (Fig. 33). It seems to have been for this reason that a leopard skin came to be an emblem of rank and power among the Egyptian Pharaohs. The lion’s skin, which distinguished Fic. 33. Necklace of the later Old Stone Age, from the Grimaldi caves, com- posed of deer teeth, fish vertebrae, and shells. It was found with the skeleton of a young man. After Verneau Hercules, doubtless originated in a similar idea, when lions still existed in the lands about the eastern Mediterranean. Another great idea which must have dawned upon prim- itive man pretty far back in his career was that of fasten- ing things together by tying them. The invention of string enabled man to do countless things he otherwise could not have done, though, no doubt, he realized only very gradually the full extent of its usefulness. The earli- est and for a very long time the only string must have been that provided by nature, in the form of tough vines and tendrils of various sorts. With these, tools and weapons and objects of magic could be more conveniently carried about; for they might now be slung from the waist or over the shoulder or about the neck. With them, too, bundles could be made of firewood, edible roots, and the like, for convenience in transporting or keeping. (apy: MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST Later, man came to employ strips of fibrous bark, the sinews of animals, and thongs cut from skins. These made it possible to lash stone axes and spearheads to their han- dles, and to sew together fitted garments. In time some genius also found that lines of almost any length and strength might be made by twisting fibers together, thus providing cords for fishhooks of shell or bone and har- Fic. 34. Central Australian churinga or sacred object, decorated with totemic devices. It is unlawful for women and uninitiated males even to look on these. After Spencer and Gillen poons of deer antler, as well as ropes for towing canoes up- stream against currents too swift for the pole or paddle. Without the knowledge of string, too, the invention of that most important appliance, the bow and arrow, would have been impossible. The varied uses of cords, ropes, cables, and hawsers in the rigging of ships, or of thread, yarn, and twine in connection with the weaving of cloth, will occur to everyone. Consideration of these things will, perhaps, indicate the vast though often hardly recognized impor- tance of string in the history of human progress. On these bases man’s later achievements rest; what were some of the obstacles which he had to overcome? Among these, perhaps, disease and the fears, beliefs, and prac- tices to which disease gave rise stand first. We make a great mistake if we suppose that perfect health blessed the primeval savage. His fossil remains show that in many cases he suffered severely from pyorrhea and other ail- ments that affect the bone. He was a prey to bacterial and zymotic diseases. Epidemics doubtless occurred; and changes for the worse in diet, caused by alterations in climate, perhaps helped to bring about the extinction of some of the early species of man. [ 176 ] ssaisuoy jo Arvaqry ayy ut quid plo ue woly jo adpayMouy oy) ‘BISY Usa3sva 0} adoiny usdjsom Woy oYyooTe Burypasip peaids aavy 02 waas prumueynyy, Jaye satim3uas ay} ut ajdoad asayy, ‘]]as qeiy uy 4 { i oN | es ALV Id # pu ® F hed Aa UNFOLDING OF MAN’S INTELLIGENCE The modern man finds it difficult to realize how com- pletely early man was a slave to magic. No matter what happened to him, he immediately laid it to some super natural influence, usually evil. Injuries, whether due to accident, to attacks by wild beasts, or to struggles with his fellows, were the result of his being bewitched. Failure in hunting meant that some enemy’s “medicine” was more powerful than his own and was working against him. Nowhere was this belief stronger than in the case of dis- ease, which mankind has ascribed during by far the greater part of its existence to the action of mysterious and malig- nant forces, at first vague, formless, and invisible, but later personified as spirits which might at times appear in bodily shape. The beliefin witchcraft by no means first acquired importance during the Middle Ages. The dominance of magic over the life of early man can not be overestimated. It represented his first attempts to inquire into the secret workings of nature and to con- trol and exploit them for his own benefit. It played the part with him that religion, philosophy, and science oc- cupy with us. It shaped and influenced all his thoughts, and it lies at the root of all his various slow, blundering, and halting steps upward—his gropings toward the light. The primitive medicine man, because of the mysterious knowledge and consequent power attributed to him, was the first ruler and director of mankind. He could, and often did, terrorize whole communities; but woe to him if his magic failed or if he was suspected of imposture, for then nothing could save him from the fury of his dupes. This way of thinking still persists among many peoples, and did until recently among many more. In the struggles of that remarkable Indian, Tecumseh, against the en- croachments of the whites, his followers drew their in- spiration not only from his genius as a leader, but fully as much from the claims to magical powers put forth by his brother, “the Prophet.” When these were discredited by the loss of the battle of Tippecanoe, all Tecumseh’s [177] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST efforts to unite the Indian race against the whites proved useless. And so with disease; only the most enlightened peoples deal with its prevention and cure along scientific lines. Everywhere else, even to- day, it is the medicine man and the witch doc- tor, with their drums and their charms and _ their incantations, who are called upon in case of sickness. From bad habits, as we understand them, early man seems to have been comparatively free. These have come largely with a higher civilization, with increasing knowledge of the various processes by 3 which nature may be con- Fic. 35. African witch doctor or medicine trolled. Alcoholic drinks many wetung mack ond evr pwrrhe of any sort, for example, were discovered only com- paratively late in man’s history, toward the close of the prehistoric period. And even then, at first, man knew none but comparatively mild fermented beverages. He made these from various substances, such as honey, grain, and the juice of different fruits, especially grapes. They were thus analogous to the “‘light wines and beer” of which so much has been heard in recent years in connection with the prohibition controversy. Moreover their use was for long almost wholly confined to ceremonial and sacramental occasions. Primitive man thought that they were imbued with a mysterious divine influence which they could impart to the worshiper. The expression “to drink to one’s health” contains a last linger- [178 ] UNFOLDING OF MAN’S INTELLIGENCE ing trace of this once general belief. Owing both to their low alcoholic content and to their limited use, they did relatively slight, if any, harm. But when, during the past thousand years or so, man learned to subject various fermented fluids to distillation and thereby first produced spirituous or “‘hard’”’ liquor, containing a high percentage of alcohol, the question be- came vastly more serious. By a strange irony of fate, it seems to have been the Muhammadan Arabs, themselves a temperate people, who spread the knowledge of this process through the Old World during the Middle Ages, from Europe on the one hand to China on the other. At first distilled drinks were regarded and used as medicines. We still see a trace of this in our word “‘cor- dial” as applied to certain alcoholic beverages. Readers of Robinson Crusoe will recall that hero’s satisfaction upon finding a ‘‘case of cordials.” Later, particularly in Europe, as distilled liquors became common and cheap, they began to be consumed in enormous quantities. The frightful ravages wrought by the unrestricted drinking of gin among the poorer classes in England during the eighteenth century are an example. Then for the first time the “liquor problem”’ really became a serious menace to the welfare of mankind. It was distinctly a product of civilization. Certain practices which we now regard with abhorrence, such as infanticide or the putting to death of the old and decrepit, were usually based on economic causes. So long as man remained ignorant of any means of growing his food, and so had to depend entirely for his living upon what he could gather or capture, famine remained an ever-present danger. Just as savages try, almost in- stinctively, to kill or chase away intruders upon their special hunting grounds, so they have also felt obliged to restrict their own numbers by doing away: with an excess of newborn infants and those whom age or infirmity have rendered useless as food providers. In this respect [179] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST savage man, constrained by his environment, has been mercilessly logical. Regarding the effects of war upon man’s progress in primitive just as in later times, it is impos- sible to make any sweeping statement. Some wars have ush- ered in striking ad- vances in civilization on the part of one or even both combatants; for example, the con- quest of the Persian Empire by Alexander the Great, .and the spread of the Arab power from Spain to Turkestan. Others have resulted in deso- lation, the blasting of cultures, and the re- tarding of progress for generations, as did the Mongol onslaught upon western Asia and east- ern Europe. War has also been a valuable, if stern, school of social discipline, teaching loyalty, self-sacrifice, Fic. 36. African chief armed with shield and javelins and wearing plumes, necklaces, skin 5 about the waist, and leg-rings; he stands on and cooperative effort the bow of his war canoe. After Frobenius on a large scale. As long as it consisted of hand-to-hand contests involving actively the entire adult male population of any com- munity, it resulted in the survival of those best fitted to perpetuate themselves in their offspring. The weak and [ 180 ] UNFOLDING OF MAN’S INTELLIGENCE stupid perished, while the strong and intelligent survived to transmit their qualities to their descendants. This weeding out of the unfit, going on without ceasing for tens of thousands of generations, could only have a beneficial effect on the quality of the race as a whole. Only in very much later times did war become a struggle between organized armies whose success depended mainly on the possession of means of wholesale destruction. Since then it has been the brave, the patriotic, and the physically fit who have perished, usually before they have had time to found families, while the weak and timid have stayed at home to carry on the race. No intelligent stock breeder would dream of trying to improve his herd in any such way. Yet that is exactly what modern war does. As in so many things, here, too, civilization has checked and even reversed natural tendencies. [ 181 | CHAPTER XI CHE /OLD:STONETAGE Mucu uncertainty still exists regarding the Eolithic or Dawn Stone phase of man’s cultural development, al- though such a stage must have preceded the Old Stone Age. This long and important period is usually con- sidered to have begun with the Pre-Chellean, already men- tioned more than once. Regarding the steps by which that culture period, gradually developed out of the pre- ceding Eolithic, or the region where it did so, we as yet know little, though it probably took place elsewhere than in Europe. Nor have scholars reached full agreement regarding the relation of the earlier culture stages to the different phases of the Ice Age. That the Pre-Chellean falls early in the third interglacial stage is Osborn’s view. He pointed out, for example, that Pre-Chellean implements are never found in the sands and gravels of the higher river terraces, which, as we saw, were laid down earlier in the course of the Ice Age. Other authorities, however, date the Pre- Chellean as early as the second interglacial, while a few even ascribe it to the first. THe Pre-CHELLEAN Epocu The Pre-Chellean culture seems to have reached Europe from Africa, although this, of course, by no means implies that it was the work of Negroes. In fact at that time, and for ages after, the various human races had not yet ac- quired their present-day distinguishing characteristics. Whoever he was, whether of Piltdown or Heidelberg or [ 182 | THE OLD STONE AGE still another stock, Pre-Chellean man appears to have wandered from northern Africa by way of the ancient land-bridges into western Europe. But traces of his pres- ence, in the shape of flint implements in the river gravels, occur so rarely that the population of the time must have been extremely sparse. Into central Europe the Pre- Fic. 37. Pointed types of eoliths, from southeastern England, made by man or his ancestor who lived 500,000 to 1,000,000 years ago, and probably used for boring or punching holes. After Harrison Chellean culture seems not to have penetrated at all, its place there being taken by a form known as pre-Mousterian. This may indicate that different races or even species of men inhabited the two regions; but of this there is so far no positive proof. The climate of Europe then, in marked contrast to that of the glacial stages, was in the main a genial one, even the winters being very mild. Hence both the vegetation and the animal life were rich and varied. In the forests and meadows and along the river banks ranged at least one form of now extinct elephant, if not two; the hippo- potamus; two species of ancient rhinoceros; a primitive horse; deer; wild cattle; hyenas; and apparently the saber- [ 183 ] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST toothed tiger. Man then found food, both animal and vegetable, plentiful, and he had little need for protection from cold. He may have known and used frre, although we have little actual evidence thereof. Probably he wore no clothing, and it is extremely unlikely that Pre-Chellean man had learned to erect even the simplest sort of shelter against inclement weather. His chief if not only need of defense, indeed, must have been against the dangerous wild animals of the time. The wandering life of the primitive * hunter and food gatherer of those far distant days, unlike that of later Mousterian man, was surely on the whole an easy one, entailing little in the way of real hardship, privation, or peril. The stone implements of the Pre-Chellean epoch are very roughly chipped; and the number of different types 1s extremely limited, their forms, indeed, being apparently determined mainly by accident. Pre-Chellean man made them almost exclusively from the cores of pebbles or nod- ules and not from the flakes chipped off from the latter. This distinction between a core and a flake industry is an important one. The Pre-Chellean flint worker clumsily left much of the crust or original surface of the pebble on his implements—something that the more expert tool makers of later periods rarely if ever did. The true coup- de-poing, or “‘fist-ax,” so characteristic of the Chellean and Acheulian epochs which were to follow, was not yet fully developed (Fig. 38), and it is most unlikely that the idea of providing an implement with any sort of handle or haft had yet occurred to man. In fact this device, which seems perfectly obvious to us, appears to have been beyond the inventive powers of so recent a people as the now extinct Tasmanians, who when they first became known to Euro- peans, less than 300 years ago, were still actually living in the lower Old Stone Age. The Pre-Chelleans probably used wood for clubs and perhaps spears, although of such objects we have no actual remains. However, at Piltdown, in the same deposit in [ 184 ] THE OLD STONE AGE which the famous skull came to light, there was also dis- covered a strange implement (see Fig. 24), made of a great slab of bone, sixteen inches long, taken from the leg of an extinct elephant. This had been shaved down to an irregu- lar point at one end and also had a hole bored through it. Men who could do all this with bone must have been familiar with the idea of working in wood. THE CHELLEAN FE Pocu Directly out of the Pre-Chellean arose the true Chellean. This advance also seems to have taken place mainly in Africa, whence it spread both into Europe and; into “Asia. \The climate continued!» Fic. 38.) Pre-Chel- genial, as indeed it seems to have been _ ean type of stone during all three earlier cultural periods. St. Acheul, north. Hence Chellean man, like his predecessors, radi e toon Ub tp lived in the open. Vegetation flourished, incomplete "ehba: and animal life continued with but few Ping After Com changes of species, though the lion had pan now largely if not entirely replaced the saber-toothed tiger and one form of rhinoceros seems to have died out. Fire was probably known, but there is little reason to suppose that Chellean man, any more than his forerunners, erected shelters or wore any sort of clothing. In fact even the Fic. 39. Tasmanian stone implements, typical of the lower Old Stone Age. Tasmanian culture was by far the most primitive that has survived down to recent times. After Ling Roth [185 ] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST lowest of existing or recent savages have probably known far more of the arts of primitive life than he. A considerable improvement in the making and a much greater variety in the forms of its flint implements marked the period. In all there have been distinguished seven or eight types, each apparently adapted primarily to some one particular purpose, though not a few seem to have been “combination tools.” The uses to which they were put included cutting, scraping, piercing, and boring (Fig. 40). The Chellean continued in the main a core and not a flake industry, although occasionally the flakes knocked off from the cores of pebbles were themselves shaped into Fic. 40. Chellean flint tools for cutting, scraping, piercing, and boring. After Commont and Obermaier tools or weapons. The uniformity displayed by these im- plements over large areas shows that as various improve- ments developed they gradually spread far and wide, from one nomadic hunting group to another. Possibly, too, even then race and culture were not coextensive, any more than they are today. That is, two or more races may have used the same types of flint implements; or, on the other hand, branches of one and the same race may have had different “industries.” Thus it is not impossible that both the Piltdown race and that of Heidelberg possessed the Chellean form of culture, though it may be that Heidelberg man was pre- Mousterian. More than one in- vestigator has come to look upon the Neanderthal race, with its Mousterian type of culture, as descended from him, and he seems to have lived in central Europe where the pre-Mousterian culture has been found. [ 186]. THE OLD STONE AGE Of the various types of stone implements made during the Chellean, that known as the coup-de-poing, or “‘fist-ax’’ (because it was almost certainly held in the hand and not hafted), now appears in a much more highly developed form than that which it had in the Pre-Chellean. It oc- curs in several shapes, probably denoting a variety of uses. Perhaps the most typical is a rough, heavy, almond- shaped utensil which must have been used for hacking with the edge and striking with the pointed end. It is sometimes of large size, indicating that it was wielded by a muscular and vigorous race. Chellean implements are found in the river gravels, for their makers and users had no reason to resort to caves for shelter but lived in the open. They may have erected simple windbreaks of hides or bark, but this is purely matter for conjecture. The utmost that can be said is that Chellean man employed some of the tools known as “scrapers” in dressing down the skins of animals pre- paratory to tanning them; on the other hand he may have designed them for fashioning various objects out of wood. It can not be emphasized too often in this connection that what we have today in the way of remains of early cultures necessarily represents but a small fraction of their original total content. Only those objects composed of the most durable substances have survived; and this means, for the earlier periods at least, almost exclusively stone. Yet ancient man must have made even greater use of wood, bone, skins, sinews, vegetable fibers, and many other materials, which have decayed without leaving a trace and whose existence we can therefore only infer. Tue ACHEULIAN EpocH Following the Chellean, at any rate in western Europe, came the culture stage known, from its type station of St. Acheul, in northern France, as the Acheulian. This ap- pears to be a direct development from the Chellean, a fact which implies that there was no break of continuity, such [ 187 ] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST as might have been caused by the intervention of a glacial stage or the intrusion of a different race. It seems pretty clearly to have occurred during the third interglacial stage, and has been divided by archeologists into two phases, an earlier and a later. During the Early Acheulian, the climate of Europe re- sembled that of the Chellean, the chief differences being, apparently, that it was rather cooler, drier, and perhaps more dusty. The animal life of the preceding periods con- tinued with but little change. It included the southern mammoth, the straight-tusked or “‘ancient” elephant, Merck’s rhinoceros, the hippopotamus, lion, hyena, deer, wild bull and horse, bison, wolf, beaver, and many other forms. Man still continued to live in the open; and it is now that we come upon the first absolute proof of his use of fire, in the layers of charred wood and bones found on his ancient camp sites. Little direct evidence bears on his physical characteristics and indeed there may have been more races than one occupying western Europe then. For some have regarded the Piltdown race as belonging to the Acheulian, while there may have been also a Neanderthal element, or at all events one ancestral to the latter. It seems to have been during the Late Acheulian that the chill of the approaching Wurm glaciation began seriously to be felt. Conditions in western Europe now slowly underwent radical changes. Forms of animal life that had survived all the vicissitudes of the three earlier glacial stages now commenced to disappear, replaced by species better adapted to withstand severe cold, including the hairy northern form of mammoth, the woolly rhinoceros, and the reindeer. But even yet the roving bands of hunters and food gatherers still preferred to pitch their camps in the open and only occasionally sought the protection of overhanging cliffs and the mouths of caves. Despite these changes in the physical environment, a great improvement in the forms of its stone implements [ 188 ] THE*OED*STONE AGE characterized the Acheulian type of culture. These were now much more skillfully made and far more symmetrical in shape than those of the Chellean. They had also come to be smaller and lighter and included a far greater variety, of ' ‘types. Acheulian man still used mainly the cores of the nodules, but he also occasionally em- ployed flakes. Dur- ing this period the coup-de-poing or fist- ax reached the acme of its development, heme ».cerefully chipped over its en- tire surface as well as along all its edges; perhaps man had even learned to attach a handle of some kind to it (Fig. 41). Nevertheless even the finest Acheu- lian artifacts, far in advance as they are of anything that had gone before, appear coarse and clumsy by contrast with those of later periods. Certain of the stone implements of Acheulian times would have been well adapted for scraping and dressing hides, and this has led some observers to infer that the people of that day used skins in various ways. There can hardly as yet have been any question of regular clothing, but the increasing cold of the Late Acheulian may have forced upon man the idea of using furs for simple wraps. It is not impossible that during this same Late Acheulian phase burial of the dead began to be practiced. How this custom might have arisen, we have, of course, no means of knowing; but it may have been connected in some way with the growing concentration of the population in cer- tain sheltered localities, owing to the increase of cold. [ 189 ] Fic. 41. Acheulian coups de poing or “‘fist axes.” After de Mortillet MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST THE MoustTerRiAn Epocu Toward the close of the Acheulian epoch the climate grew increasingly severe, as the Wurm glacial stage drew on. The changes in animal forms to which this led have already been noted. A similar alteration manifests itself clearly in the human life of the time. To whatever race Acheulian man may have belonged, the type of culture which he had steadily been developing during the latter portion of the third interglacial now gave way to an- other, that known as the Mousterian. This change, of course, did not take place all at once throughout the whole of western Europe. It may very well have required hundreds if not thousands of years for completion, and no doubt it occurred earlier in some places than in others. Thus in certain regions, like the valley of the.Garonne, in southwestern France, the Mousterian culture seems to have appeared even before the advent of the full Wurm glaciation. Some students have thought that this developed directly though gradually from the Acheulian, in western Europe itself. But fundamentally there seems to have been in the long run an actual replacement of one type of culture by another which had grown up in some different part of the world; for pretty clear evidence exists that the Mousterian culture appeared in western Europe as an intruder from central Europe, out of which the advent of the Great Cold had probably driven it. In other words, while the Acheul1- ans were dwelling in what is now France and the neighbor- ing regions, the Mousterians had been living in Germany and thereabouts. However, men of Neanderthal type may have existed in western Europe also during the Acheulian and even earlier periods. We have as yet far too few actual skeletal remains from the latter to enable us to say definitely to what type, or types, of men the cultures pre- ceding the Mousterian are to be ascribed. Some investigators have thought that there is evi- [ 190 ] THE OLD STONE AGE > « dence of a “‘warm”’ as well as a “cold”? Mousterian; that that particular culture existed in Europe during a milder as well as a more severe climatic phase. But Obermaier, perhaps our leading authority on this point, emphatically denies this. He says: We must strongly insist that in western and central Europe there is no true Mousterian with warm fauna. Such a fauna is found only in the Pre-Chellean, the Chellean, and the Early Acheulian, for, from the Late Acheulian on, we find a cold fauna which lasts through the final Magdalenian. Indubitable Mousterian with warm fauna is found only in southern Europe—as in Italy (Mentone) and Spain—where then and ever since the climate and fauna naturally would be different. To state the length of the Mousterian epoch in terms of years with anything like accuracy is still impossible; but, thanks mainly to the Swedish investigations of the last glaciation, we can make a far better guess than we can for Has 4 y vik eT Lats GHEE WYyez Fic. 42. Mousterian implements from the north of France. At left, a scraper; center, a flint carefully dressed on both faces; right, a long, narrow point. After Commont the still earlier periods. Thus it seems fairly safe to say that in western Europe the Mousterian epoch began some- where between 40,000 and 60,000 years ago, and con- tinued down to something like 25,000 or 30,000 years ago. [191 | MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST We have now arrived at the cave-dwelling period in human history. No doubt man had in earlier times re- sorted to caves occasionally for shelter from the weather or protection from enemies, human or animal; but the first real cave man was the Neanderthaler, whom we find so closely associated with the Mousterian type of culture. Unlike his predecessors of the Acheulian and still earlier periods, he camped in the open very rarely, and then per- haps only during the summer months. But it is a mistake to suppose that he ever permanently occupied the depths of caverns. He lived, on the contrary, only in the portions near their mouths—in their “‘vestibules,” so to speak; for it is invariably in or just outside the latter that remains of his old camp fires are found. Fire, as we have seen, man had known and used for ages, and it seems likely that even before the Mousterian epoch he had learned to kindle it himself. In fact, without this knowledge it is hard to see how the Neanderthalers could ever have survived the terrible damp cold which we know oppressed and desolated Europe during the last great glacial stage. The shapes of certain types of implements of the Mous- terian epoch suggest that they were used for scraping and preparing skins for curing (Fig. 42). It appears certain that man employed pelts and furs in some way as protec- tive coverings during the bitterly cold weather of the time. Probably he did not cut them out or fit them to the body in any way, but wore them merely as loose wraps. It is not impossible that Mousterian man regularly wore a skin around his waist; but if he did we may be sure that it was not from motives of what we nowadays call “‘modesty”’; for the latter feeling is one that has appeared in the world only very late in man’s history, and far from universally at that. It arises only from teaching and habit, and not out of any deep-seated or fundamental instinct. Mousterian man, unlike his forerunners, manufactured his stone implements mainly out of flakes struck off from [ 192 ] THE OLD STONE AGE the pebbles he selected for working, and not out of their cores (Fig. 43). This practice, as already stated, forms one of the fundamental points of difference between the Mousterian “industry” and those which preceded it. At first, it is true, the fist- ax, Or coup-de-poing, a Core “core” implement, con- tinued to be made, but only in degenerate form; and it gradually disap- peared altogether. The instruments _ especially typical of the Mousterian culture were formed from large flakes of flint struck off from a nodule. The inner surface of a flake thus detached from the parent core is of glassy smoothness and slightly bulging form, and _ re- quires no further treat- ment to render it fit for use. Only its outer side needs to be chipped or “retouched” until the flake assumes the desired shape. These flake im- Fic. 43. The core of a flint nodule (above), Plemipmiesstaerptare com, fate crcl! fom it ste) By bined greater ease of cussion indicated. After Schmidt manufacture with un- doubtedly much greater effectiveness. They took different forms, designed for chopping, hacking, scraping, boring, drilling, piercing, cutting, and sawing, so that Mousterian man had a tool kit of no mean proportions. During this period, also, we find the first indications of the regular use of implements made of bone. The latter [193 ] - Point of percussion ~ Bulb of percussion ~ Sear U . ~~~’ Concentric waves Flakes MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST substance seems to have been occasionally employed be- fore, although the only example known thus far is the artificially shaped fragment of an elephant’s leg bone from Piltdown, already mentioned. Now, however, among the instruments employed by Neanderthal man we find bone “anvils,” or chopping blocks, and leg bones of the cave bear worked down at one end, apparently for use in helping to remove the hides from large animals. Undoubtedly the Neanderthalers also utilized wood in many ways, among others in the manufacture of spears, clubs, and perhaps throwing-sticks. They seem to have used a certain type of notched scraper of flint, somewhat after the manner of a modern spokeshave, for dressing down cylindrical wooden objects such as spear shafts. At Claxton-on-Sea, in the east of England, there has actually been found the point of a wooden spear which almost surely belongs to the Mousterian epoch. Quite possibly, too, by this time man had learned the secret of arming spears, and perhaps clubs also, with flint points, to secure greater power of penetration. To us nowadays, the working parts of any tool—the head of an ax, the point of a spear, or the tines of a pitchfork—seem the essential and primary ones. But that was not at all the way in which primitive man looked at it. With him the spear, for example, made entirely of one straight and pointed shaft of wood, came first. Only very long after- ward did the idea dawn on him that if he fastened one of his piercing implements of flint to the end of his spear he could increase its effectiveness. Similarly with implements designed for striking, the plain wooden club must have been used for ages before anybody thought of improving it by fastening to it such things as flint flakes, sharks’ teeth, or fragments of volcanic glass, as various peoples have done. The shapes of some of the flint implements of the Mous- terian epoch make it hard to see how they could have been used with any effect unless fitted with handles of some sort. [ 194 ] THE OLD STONE: AGE But even so, it still remains something of a puzzle how Neanderthal man, with such primitive weapons, could have hunted large and dangerous animals like the mam- moth, the woolly rhinoceros, the cave bear, the wild bull, and numerous others whose bones we find among the refuse of his ancient “‘garbage piles.” It must have been through recourse to superior intelligence and cunning that he was able to overcome them at all. For he did not know the bow and arrow, that most effective of early hunting devices; and the structure of his skeleton shows that he was a slow and clumsy runner, supporting his weight mainly on the outer edges of his feet, and incapable of straighten- ing his knee joints fully. He may have stampeded his prey into running over cliffs (see Plate 21) or into boggy ground or deep snow; or he may have lurked in the underbrush and behind rocks at water holes, so as to take it by surprise. He may have used pitfalls, fire, and possibly poison. Round stone balls have been found which seem to have been used for throwing, perhaps at the end of a thong or even from a sling. As these balls sometimes occur in sets of threes, they may have been attached to one another by skin cords and hurled so as to entangle the legs of running animals, like the well-known 4o/as used by the Gauchos of South America. But whatever the hunting methods used by the Mousterians, they must certainly have been accompanied by a considerable degree of social organiza- tion and discipline, with well-directed cooperation and loyal, intelligent teamwork. Possibly during the summer months, when freer to wan- der about in pursuit of game or to visit localities where especially fine qualities of workable flint occurred, the Neanderthalers erected temporary shelters, of bark or leafy boughs or even skins, against wind and rain; but we have no proof. For the rest of the year we know that they lived in the vestibules of caverns, under the most crowded, unsanitary, and comfortless conditions imaginable. The caves were in general excessively damp and draughty, and, [195 ] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST of course, there was no such thing as “keeping out the cold,” which was often bitter. Doubtless the Neander- thalers accepted as a matter of course hardships which we should regard as unbearable; and the inexorable weeding out of the weak and unfit, particularly in infancy, must have kept the racial capacity for endurance at a very high pitch. Nevertheless, some of the known Mousterian skeletons show unmistakable signs of very severe arthritis, pyorrhea, and other ailments. There are also instances in which bones have sloughed away as the result of injury or disease. Naturally we can infer little regarding the social organ- ization of Neanderthal man. He must have had some- thing of the sort, however, in order not only to hunt the larger aniinals but even to survive at all under the con- ditions of hardship, discomfort, and danger which were his daily portion. Nor can we expect to know very much regarding the nature of his religious beliefs, although it is safe to say that he, like so many present-day savages, made no distinction between the “natural” and the “supernatural.” For everything must have seemed to him perfectly natural and at the same time imbued in varying degrees with magical potentialities. Strong or ferocious animals in particular were undoubtedly thought, in the language of our own Great Plains, to be “‘big medicine.” In the Drachenloch cavern in Switzerland and at Peters- héle in Franconia there have come to light specially ar- ranged skulls and other bones of the cave bear, indicating the existence of some sort of bear cult. Man of the late Acheulian may have practiced burial, occasionally at least, but its indications become unmis- takable early in the Mousterian. Already we find red mineral pigment which may, as in later times, have been used in connection with burials. Vestiges of the custom exist even today in China. Judging from analogies among more modern peoples, the Neanderthalers may have reasoned that life was closely associated, if not actually [ 196 ] PLATE 54 Restoration of Neanderthal man. Note carriage of head; his skeleton shows that he could not quite straighten his knee joints. Courtesy of the Field Museum of Natural History PLATE, 55 Restoration of a Neanderthal woman scraping a hide. The large number of flint scrapers found indicates that the skins of animals were cured in Mousterian times. Courtesy of the Field Museum of Natural History THE OLD STONE -AGE identical, with the blood, and that any substances resem- bling the latter in color possessed, therefore, life-giving, strengthening, and auspicious power. The Neander- thalers also buried with their dead an abundance of finely worked flint implements, shells, and joints of meat from such animals as they most depended on for food. The original motive inspiring these grave-offerings, rep- resenting Neanderthal man’s richest treasures, was prob- ably the desire to keep the dead man or his ghost from suffering the pangs of want and so returning in an angry frame of mind to terrorize his survivors. The same wish to prevent the return of the ghost led in some cases to doubling up the body, with its knees close under its chin, and then tying it securely in that position before con- signing it to the grave. For thus it would be impossible for the dead to walk. We have mentioned (see Chapter VII) the finding in a cave in Croatia of deposits of Mousterian age, including the charred and broken bones of about a score of individ- uals, both adults and children, of a local type of the Neanderthal race. One theory of some plausibility explains these as the remains of a cannibal feast of perhaps a religious nature. But unless further discoveries of a simi- lar sort are made elsewhere, it would hardly be fair to stigmatize the Neanderthalers as habitual cannibals. Signs of any sort of artistic feeling in Mousterian times are almost wholly wanting. The Neanderthalers seem to have worn certain shells, and possibly they smeared them- selves with the red pigment already mentioned in connec- tion with their burial customs. But if so, they can scarce- ly have had any idea of enhancing their own personal charms. Rather they, like more recent savages, regarded such practices simply as “‘good medicine,” sure to place them in a more favorable relation to their environment. From time to time scientists have attempted to recon- struct the bodily appearance of Neanderthal man from his skeletal remains (see Plates 28, 42, and 54), often with [197] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST great care and with close attention to measurements of the originals. Hence, so far as the restoration of the fleshy covering of the bones is concerned, they may be accepted as fairly accurate portrayals. But when it comes to questions of skin color, of the amount of hair covering the body, and other external features, to say nothing of such purely artificial ones as the mode of hairdressing and the wearing of amulets or skins, we can be guided only by inference, analogy, and probability drawn from modern savage life. THE AURIGNACIAN EpocH Neanderthal man and his Mousterian culture, as already stated, gave way, in western Europe at least, to the splendid Cro-Magnon race, with its vastly superior culture known as the Aurignacian. This seems to have developed in Africa from another and earlier “industry” known as the Capsian. The early Cro-Magnon invaders of Europe ap- pear to have advanced from northern Africa toward their new homes by way of the land-bridge which then ex- tended across the Mediterranean Sea from Tunisia to Italy. Their movements apparently began while the Wurm or last great glaciation still held much of Europe in its grip. But it is unlikely that they made any great mass migra- tions across wide stretches of country. That was not the way in which primitive man gradually occupied the earth. Rather, the Cro-Magnons and others advanced slowly, season by season, in whatever direction they found the hunting good and general living conditions favorable. The direction in this particular case happened to be one which eventually carried them up through Italy and so into southern France; but the movement undoubtedly occu- pied many hundreds if not thousands of years before the Aurignacians began to spread out over western Europe. For they do not seem to have done so until well on in the final periods of the Wurm glacial stage. The climate at this time was becoming drier and more [ 198 ] THE |OLD STONE’ AGE bracing. Great glaciers still covered what are now Norway and Sweden, as well as the Alps; but the plains in time became ice-free, and though the winters continued very severe, the summers had become mild, if not actually warm. The animal life changed little from that of Mousterian times, retaining its northern or arctic character, and in- cluding such forms as the hairy mammoth, the woolly rhinoceros, the reindeer, and the arctic fox. Among other species, more adapted for life on the open steppes, were the horse, the wild ass, and a gigantic form of rhinoceros with an enormous single horn situated, unlike that of any exist- ing type, on the forehead above the eyes. Forest- and meadow-loving animals included the brown bear, the wolf, the bison, the wild bull, the stag and the giant deer, some- times miscalled the “Irish elk.’’ The cave lion and the cave hyena were also present, as well as many other forms, some now extinct, while others still survive, in Europe or elsewhere. In time there also appeared the mountain sheep and the musk ox. The Aurignacians were cave dwellers, but cave dwellers of a type in every way superior to the lowly Mousterians whom they replaced. It is clear, however, that, as we saw in Chapter VI, the two races influenced each other to some extent. Very recent finds in East Africa have made this even more evident, for here, too, the Mousterian and the Aurignacian cultures have lately appeared; but instead of the former preceding the latter, as it does in Europe, both forms prove to have existed together during a very long period. In one case, indeed, a Mousterian deposit overlay an Aurignacian one and therefore actually came after it. Eventually the two cultures become fused into one. So far, lack of skeletal material prevents us from saying whether or not the African Mousterian and Aurignacian were the handiwork of different types of man, as they were in Europe. But the existing evidence points that way. These very recent African discoveries thus render it practically out of the question that the Aurignacian cul- [ 199 ] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST ture, connected in Europe with the advent of Cro-Magnon man, could have been developed out of the Mousterian, associated closely as it is with the Neanderthal race. On the contrary, the Aurignacians, on their arrival in Europe, appear to have exchanged a few cultural elements with the Mousterians, and even, perhaps, to have mingled with them racially to an extremely limited degree, but finally to have replaced them entirely. The situation may very well have paralleled the case of. the American Indian and the European settler, although with far less difference in degree of culture. When two peoples come into close and prolonged contact, it is not the less civilized which does all the borrowing of ideas; the more advanced one also almost invariably adopts some culture elements from its humbler rival. Thus to the American Indians, for ex- ample, we owe not only vari- ous food plants, such as potatoes and maize, but also such things as tobacco pipes, hammocks, snowshoes, can- vas canoes (modeled after the birch-bark craft of the abo- rigines), and the game of la- crosse. Authorities have divided the Aurignacian epoch into a Lower, a Middle, and an Fic. 44. Aurignacian implements. Upper phase, during all of No. 1 is a flint point; 2, a scraper hi h seen from the side and end; 3, a which it underwent a steady bone point with a cleft base; 4, a development. Like the Mous- borer. After de Morgan terian but unlike the earlier Pre-Chellean, Chellean, and Acheulian industries, the Aurignacian based its flint-working mainly on the utiliza- tion of flakes and not of cores. Indeed it used far fewer core implements than did even the Mousterian, while the [ 200 ] THE OLD STONE AGE flake tools and weapons were longer, narrower, thinner, and more delicately worked. Cro-Magnon man made flint knife blades, points, borers, scrapers, and planing tools. He used stones both as hammers and anvils and also for throwing, while from horn and bone he made javelin points, drills, and polishers (Fig. 44). He undoubtedly utilized wood to a great extent; indeed many of the flint imple- ments found evidently were meant to be used in working up that material into various objects. Yet the Aurignacians, far ahead as they were of any of their predecessors of the Old Stone Age, still depended wholly for their livelihood upon hunting, fishing, and the Fic. 45. Baton de commandement of reindeer antler, with engravings of wild horses. After Lartet and Christy gathering of such vegetable foods as they found growing wild. They had no domestic animals, not even the dog; nor had they grasped the idea of making pottery, even the crudest. Nothing exists to show that they had canoes, and they seem not to have known the bow and arrow. Yet they probably built huts or wigwams of saplings covered with sheets of bark or with skins, at least for their summer camps. During the Late Aurignacian we begin to find a curious object consisting of a section of reindeer antler with a rounded hole bored through it, generally at the point where the main shaft, or “beam,” and the brow-tine join. At first they ornamented this with rude engravings, but in later times with elaborate carvings. It is commonly called a [ 201 | MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST baton de commandement, or staff of office, but this is merely guesswork (Fig. 45). Was it a sort of war-club, ceremonial or otherwise, or the badge of a medicine man? Was it a toggle used to hold the edges of a fur cloak together? Was it a shaft straightener, or was its purpose that of taking the kinks out of a length of rawhide rope? As yet we can not tell. In the Late Aurignacian also there begin to appear bone needles, at first without eyes; these indicate a considerable advance in the working up and stitching together of skins, probably for clothing. But perhaps the outstanding technical achievement of the Aurignacian epoch was the invention of the burin, or engraving tool, a flint with a sharp angulate point used for incising figures of various sorts on the walls of caves. Their remarkable artistic genius constitutes the most notable thing about the Cro-Magnon race, although, like all art in its beginnings, theirs was inextricably bound up with magical ideas and practices. The Cro-Magnon hunter, like many savage races since, believed unshakably that, if he drew a representation of an animal and then performed over it magical ceremonies of the right sort, he could cause animals of that species to become more numerous or easier to capture, as the case might be. So far as we know now, this represents man’s earliest scheme to increase his own food supply by assist- ing or coercing nature to be more liberal. To us the notion of producing food through the growing of crops or the rearing of animals seems perfectly obvious. It was not so, however, to the primitive hunter and food gatherer, and he must have endured long and painful experiences of scarcity before he finally grasped the idea that he himself could do anything at all to make food more plentiful. When this idea first dawned on him, however, Auri- gnacian man did not set to work right away planting and tending various wild seeds and tubers or catching and domesticating certain wild animals. Such a line of conduct [ 202 ] THE OLD STONE AGE would have been entirely beyond his reasoning powers, based as these were upon a very limited fund of accumu- lated experience. He first attempted to control his food supply by resort to magic, the only means that he knew. That it was a mistaken method does not lessen the funda- mental importance of the step for the future of mankind, for once he had grasped the idea that he himself could in- crease the food available, it was only a question of time until he hit upon the right way of realizing it. In their efforts for the benefit of the larder the Cro- Magnon medicine men performed ceremonies in the deep- est recesses of the caves whose entrances they inhabited. The kinds of animals which they wished to render more plentiful they represented by drawings, images, or masks, with the aid of which they performed rites and incanta- tions. Some of the more backward races of the earth, like the Australian natives for instance, have never progressed beyond this stage, while traces of its former existence sur- vive among many more advanced peoples. The wonderful representations of animals, which the Cro-Magnon artists incised and painted on the walls of caves and molded in the damp clay of their floors (Plate 56) during the latter part of the Old Stone Age, have attracted attention and admiration the world over. Until a genera- tion or two ago modern man did not even suspect their ex- istence, and their discovery and study form one of the most fascinating and romantic chapters in the story of man’s recent inquiries into his own past. Many of these sketches are crude and roughly executed; but in others both drawing and workmanship are of a won- derfully high quality. The animals portrayed include the mammoth, wild bull, bison, cave bear, reindeer, stag, and at least two species of wild horse, as well as many others. Many reasons force us to believe that these works of art —for such they are—were executed mainly for magical purposes and not merely to satisfy a budding esthetic sense or to record incidents in the life of early man. In the first [ 203 ] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST place a great number, including some of the finest of them, occur in the innermost recesses of caves, almost inaccessi- ble even today and quite invisible without the aid of artificial light. Evidently the artists did not intend them primarily to be seen and admired by their fellow tribes- men. Again, the animals represented include almost ex- clusively those upon which men placed their chief reliance for food; others, whose flesh was too tough or too unpal- atable even for the strong teeth and stronger stomachs of the cave people, are very rarely seen. Occasionally the artist represented the subject of his drawing or painting with a dart sticking in it (see Figs. 13 and 62). The motive here was undoubtedly the same which, handed down through the ages, caused the medieval witch to thrust pins into a wax image of the person whose death she desired to bring about. But although the cave artist had as his primary and per- haps only conscious purpose the insuring of a plentiful supply of food animals, his work is often so fine, so sure of itself, so full of energy and life and the close observation of nature, that in many cases genuine artistic feeling evi- dently inspired it (Fig. 46). The cave art foreshadowed in the development of this quality the great art of Greece many thousand years later; in the latter, too, the primary motive was magico- religious, yet it embodied the finest expressions of sheer beauty that the world has ever seen. The Aurignacian artists depicted other classes of objects on the walls of caves, such as representations of human hands, either in silhouette or in outline. The noteworthy thing about these is the frequency with which they reveal mutilation through the cutting off of one or more fingers (see Plate 16). As we have seen, the same practice has been found to occur among certain uncivilized peoples of more modern days, the motive being to express grief or to secure the favor of the Unseen Powers. It may be that similar ideas induced the ancient Aurignacians thus to mutilate themselves. [ 204 ] uanoseg junos Aq ydessoj0yg > 7 sisiiev SYTAT- ( 3 JITIODOUL SUOSI ‘a0uvIy, UIAaYyINoS saqnopny,p INT, Jo aavd dy} Ul ‘sqstZIw UOUDEPY-OID, Aq AID ul payapour SIG 9S ALVId THE OLD STONE AGE Hand in hand with this great art of the caverns went that of engraving and carving, in limestone, soapstone, ivory, bone, reindeer antler, and doubtless in wood. Among the works thus executed occur those statuettes of z Se, Wyn rN Fic. 46. Grazing reindeer engraved on a baton de commandement. The lines in the foreground have been doubtfully interpreted as signifying a pool with vegetation. After Merck very corpulent naked women, already mentioned in Chapter VI, which, in some of the physical peculiarities represented, recall the very ancient Bushman race of South Africa. These statuettes seem certainly to have had a religious significance. Perhaps they represent the first faint beginnings of the belief in a Great Mother Goddess of fertility and life and death which we find so widespread in much later times. Generally speaking, in his attempts at delineating the human form the Aurignacian artist fell far short of the brilliant success which he achieved in the realm of animal portrayal. [ 205 ] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST Though we find a certain similarity between the burial customs of the Cro-Magnons and those of the Neander- thalers whom they replaced, the former made far greater use of red pigment, which they appear to have deemed ab- solutely essential to a properly arranged interment. They likewise buried with the dead circlets, necklaces, gorgets, and coronets of perforated shells; tools and weapons of finely worked flint; and supplies of food. Such funeral furnishings would appear to imply a lively faith in the sur- vival of the ghost ot the dead man, for a time at least. Sometimes, it would seem, the Aurignacians painted the corpse itself red with mineral pigments which, as the body decayed, eventually worked through to the bones. At other times, like so many later peoples, they laid the dead away temporarily until the fleshy parts of the body de- cayed, after which they carefully cleansed, painted red, and once more buried the bones, this time for good. This custom of painting the dead or their bones suggests that the living Aurignacians also probably painted them- selves. If so, the practice undoubtedly had a magical basis, as did the war paint of the American Indians, for example. THE SOLUTREAN FEpocH What finally became of the culture of the Aurignacian hunters and artists which we have briefly sketched in the foregoing paragraphs? In certain areas, especially in Italy, sheltered as it 1s against invasion from the north by the great rampart of the Alps, it seems to have survived with- out radical change for a long period. There it shows no sign of having been influenced by the Solutrean and Magdalenian cultures, and was ultimately replaced only by the Azilian type of human industry. The valleys of the Pyrenees and of northeastern Spain also probably served as refuges for some of the Aurignacian bands who fled thither, apparently before the Solutrean intruders slowly drifting in from the east. , The climate during the Solutrean epoch was in the main [ 206 | THE OLD STONE AGE cold and dry, and much of the surface of Europe then con- sisted of treeless grassland over which swept in summer thick dust storms obscuring the sun, and in winter terrible cold winds and blizzards. Nevertheless, the Solutreans seem to have lived mainly in the open. Possibly they had developed some sort of habitation of skins stretched on poles, akin in principle to the tepee of the Plains Indians or the yurt of the Mongols. Of this, however, we can ex- pect to find no direct evidence. During the Solutrean epoch the animal life differed comparatively little, at least in the generality of its forms, from that of the Aurignacian. In eastern Europe, especially in Poland and Hun- gary, remains of the Mousterian epoch, as already stated, are followed directly by those of the Solutrean. This rather indicates that the latter type of culture appeared in those regions before the Aurignacians had had time to work their way that far east. There seems, at least, to be no doubt that the Solutrean culture originated in the east and gradually extended westward, improving its technique of flint-working as it went. Its impetus, from whatever cause It arose, spent itself before reaching the lands border- ing upon the Mediterranean Sea; for in these it does not occur. At the beginning of the Solutrean epoch the new method of shaping implements which forms its special character- istic, that known as “‘pressure flaking,” was rare and un- important. Later on, however, it developed to a pitch never excelled during the Old Stone Age. The flint implements of this period fall into two distinct classes. The first occurs in one form or another throughout the entire Upper Paleolithic and consists of single and double scrapers, drills, burins, retouched flakes, and the like. The second consists of the “leaf” types of flint blades, which characterize the Solutrean epoch alone and disappear entirely at its close. These, from their shapes, have been aptly called by the French archeologists the [ 207 ] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST “willow-leaf” (narrow) and “‘laurel-leaf’’ (broad) forms (Fig. 47). The latter especially occur in great perfection during the Middle Solutrean, when they attain a marvel- ous perfection both of form and of technique—perfectly Fic. 47. Solutrean flint implements and weapons of fine laurel-leaf type. Above, two forms of shouldered point, perhaps earliest type of barbed weapon. After de Mortillet symmetrical, some- times a foot or more in: lenge thy aid worked down on both sides until in some instances they are actually trans- lucent. The process by which the Solu- treans achieved this result was that known as_ pressure or ripple flaking, whereby long, thin, parallel flakes were taken off right across both faces of the blade. As weapons, nothing else that man of the Old Stone Age achieved approached these leaf points, and they may well have played a large if not decisive part in the spread of Solutrean culture across Europe from east to west. In its more eastern and presumably earlier aspects, the Solutrean culture displays no implements of bone; but farther to the west, perhaps as a result of Aurignacian contacts, objects of that material, such as awls and smooth- ers, and others of reindeer antler, like the déton de com- mandement, become numerous. [ 208 ] PLATE 57 Above, a mammoth carved from ivory from a Solutrean layer at Pred- most, Moravia. After MaSka. Below, a reconstruction drawing designed to bring out the details. From the [//ustrated London News THE (OLD STONE AGE During the Late Solutrean there appeared, more es- pecially in southwestern France, a new type of flint im- plement known as a “‘shouldered point,” which was made with a projection on one side. This is the first sign that man had come to realize the efficacy of a barb in holding a weapon in the flesh of a hunted animal. In the Late Solutrean we find, too, bone javelin points, and also bone needles pierced at one end, exactly like our own save in the material of which they are made. These show pretty conclusively that the art of fitting and sewing skin cloth- ing had made still further progress by this time. In fact it is quite likely that during the greater portion of the Later Paleolithic, including the Solutrean epoch, man wore fur garments not unlike those of the modern Eskimo. While the Solutreans far surpassed the Aurignacians in flint working, in art they fell far behind, so much so that some have doubted whether the Solutrean culture itself had any art at all. They suggest that the examples of artistic achievement belonging to this epoch represent rather the work of surviving Aurignacians who had mingled with the Solutrean intruders. But whoever the artists were, the Solutrean epoch wit- nessed a considerable development of animal sculpture. A noteworthy example is a figure of a mammoth carved out of a fragment of ivory, found at Predmost, in Moravia, several feet beneath the surface of the loess soil, in an undoubtedly Solutrean layer (Plate 57). The carving of animal figures on the d4tons de commandement also under- went a great advance during this period. It is Just posst- ble that statuettes of naked fat women, usually regarded as peculiar to the Late Aurignacian, may also have been executed during the beginning of the Solutrean. If so, they, too, may well have been the work of Aurignacian survivors rather than of the Solutreans themselves. The latter may possibly have been primarily responsible for at least one class of decorative designs, namely, those of geometric and highly conventionalized type (Fig. 48). [ 209 | MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST Ornamentation of this va- riety, as opposed to the more purely naturalistic designs of Aurignacian times, is dis- tinctly east European. But whether they were Solutrean or not, undoubtedly these de- signs also possessed a magical significance. As we have seen, the Solu- trean culture appears to have reached western Europe from the east, perhaps as a result of actual invasion by a new, more warlike, and more ef- ficiently armed people from the steppes of southern Russia or southwestern Si- beria. The possessors of this culture seem throughout their history to have sought the lowlands rather than moun- tainous regions; also they de- pended for food chiefly upon plains-loving species of ani- mals, notably the steppe type Fic. 48. Geometrical design rep- of wild horse. Fesemting: a, Woman, engraved) \in Yet abundant signs indi- ivory. The triangular head, the : breasts, hips, and legs are indi- Cate that the respective cul- cated, From Fredmost, Moravia. tures of the Aurignacians and After Kriz the Solutreans reacted upon each other in many ways. Maybe wherever the Solutreans penetrated, they constituted themselves a sort of ruling class or tribe exacting tribute from their predecessors, the Aurignacians, as the Iroquois Indians did from the Algon- kins in America. Or they may simply have driven the Aurignacians into hilly or densely forested regions where F i 5 rs Sectors eri oo aes [ 210 | THE OLD STONE AGE they themselves, accustomed to life on the open treeless plains, did not care to penetrate. Numerous illustrations of a closely similar state of affairs might be drawn from the contacts between the Plains Indians and their mountain- dwelling neighbors. In Solutrean times, also, men evidently revered, or at least feared, the spirits of their dead, for among the few interments of that period which have thus far come to light we find instances of stone coverings protecting bodies, which in some cases are specially prepared for burial and accompanied by numerous grave-ofterings. One of the Brinn skeletons, for example, was colored with red pig- ment, as were many of the objects buried with it. These included perforated stone disks, ornaments of shell and bone and mammoth teeth, and a fragmentary ivory statuette, apparently of a man. The Solutrean culture is usually considered to have per- sisted in Europe for perhaps a couple of thousand years, after which it came to an end, somewhat abruptly. The total disappearance of the Solutrean technique of flint- working suggests the withdrawal of a race rather than the decline of a culture. It seems probable that this disap- pearance resulted, in the main at least, from a change in climate. For there appears to have been an increase in humidity toward the close of Solutrean times which in- duced the growth of forests. These spread gradually over much of the steppe, rendering it impossible for the Solu- treans any longer to continue their accustomed methods of hunting in western Europe, even had the troops of wild horses and other plains-loving animals been able to remain. But as the forests slowly crowded out the latter, the bands of hunters who depended on them for a livelihood seem to have accompanied them farther and farther east- ward, back toward the regions whence they had originally come. Probably the change in any one man’s lifetime was hardly great enough to be noticed; and we must remember that in those days man possessed no means of recording [arr] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST past events save by oral tradition—literally through “grandfathers’ tales.” Here we may recall the theory, already touched upon in Chapter VI, that the Solutrean hunters were the remote ancestorsiof the tall, narrow-skulled, fair people whom we know as Nordics and who in far later times overran, devas- tated, and conquered great portions of Europe and western Asia. Much further work needs to be done, however, before this hypothesis can be shown to be either true or false. THE MacGpDALENIAN EpocuH The Solutrean epoch, all investigators are agreed, formed only an interlude, although a fairly lengthy one as man looks on time. Immediately on its heels came the Magdalenian culture, whose rise seems fundamentally to have been connected with the re-emergence from obscurity of the Cro-Magnon race. It represents, however, by no means merely a revival of Aurignacian culture, but had a very distinctive character of its own. It has left traces from Spain to central Siberia, but does not occur, at least in its typical form, in Africa, in Italy, or in southern Spain. For these reasons some have thought that it originated in Asia. Others, however, like Obermaier, regard it, perhaps with better reason, as having arisen in the French Pyre- nees, mainly out of the Aurignacian, but modified and stimulated by other cultural influences, including eastern ones. Of two things at any rate we may be sure. One, that the Magdalenian did not develop out of the Solutrean, which it closely followed; the other, that it is associated principally with the Cro-Magnon race. The latter no longer attained the splendid physical proportions of early Aurignacian times. Osborn very plausibly suggests as a cause of this decrease in bodily size the severe climatic conditions which prevailed during Magdalenian times. The Magdalenian culture appears to have arisen during [ 212 | THE OLD STONE AGE fi VAALLaD LA iph Ihe YA a CE oe \ hy ne . ap | } Nahe if \ Oe | | Jj \ \ os es i Fic. 49. Upper: Painted engraving of a horse from the cavern of Niaux, in southwestern France. Wedge-shaped mark behind right shoulder may indicate a spear or an arrow by which horse was “‘killed”’ as part of the magical ceremony. After Cartailhac and Breuil. Lower: The Mongolian wild horse, closely akin to those of the Old Stone Age, now in the National Zoological Park [ 213] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST the first of those three minor advances of the ice which occurred at intervals after the close of the last or Wurm glacial stage. Osborn regards it as beginning about 18,000 years ago, although others have put it rather later. All agree, however, in regarding it as a comparatively long Z A g B BZ A Rea] ‘ @) Fic. 50. Magdalenian flint implements, including a graving tool. After de Morgan epoch, considerably longer than the Solutrean, and lasting altogether not less than 3,000 or 4,000 years. Most pains- taking study, mainly by French investigators, has led to its division into three phases: the Lower or oldest, the Middle, and the Upper. Of these the first seems to have been at least as long as the other two combined. With the gradual increase of both cold and humidity at the end of the Solutrean, the glaciers of the Alps, of Scandinavia, and of Great Britain once more advanced, although not by any means as far as they had done during the Wurm or last really great glaciation. Nevertheless the cold and the heavy falls of wet snow compelled mankind to seek shelter in the mouths of caves or at least under overhanging cliffs. Forests gradually overgrew the low- lands of western Europe, interspersed with meadows and swamps, and around the borders of the greatly expanded ice fields bleak tundra conditions prevailed. This phase of the Magdalenian epoch is that of the Buhl postglacial [214] PH OLD STONE ‘AGE stage in the Alps. During Middle Magdalenian times, a temporary retreat of the ice fields followed, and somewhat more genial climatic conditions returned. Finally, the second postglacial advance, known as the Gschnitz stage in the Alpine region, seems to have coincided fairly closely with the closing period of Mag- dalenian culture, bringing with it a cold, wet climate, although the snow line did not descend as far down the mountain- sides as during the Buhl ad- vance. These climatic fluctuations naturally affected the animal life, although not in any radi- cal way. Both tundra and steppe forms existed, including the reindeer and the horse, upon which the Magdalenians depended largely for food; although, of course, they only hunted them and did not bring them under domestication. The Magdalenians also knew the saiga antelope, distinctly a steppe animal; the musk ox, now a denizen of arctic North America; the bison and the moose, both closely related to existing forms; the ibex, the beaver, the wolverine, the lion, — Fic. 51. Magdalenian bone and the wolf, the fox, and many ivory aR Te After others. The mammoth and the woolly rhinoceros still occurred in western Europe at the beginning of the epoch, although they disappeared before it was over. Thus the fauna was of a typical cold- loving type; for even the lion, which we think of today as [ 215 ] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST a native of Africa and southern Asia, can become habitu- ated to very cold weather, just as the tiger is nowhere so large and fine as in Manchuria and Siberia. During the Magdalenian that loss of skill in stone-work- ing, which seems to have begun with the increased utiliza- tion of other materials during the Aurignacian, further manifested itself. The period had none of the beautiful pressure or ripple flaking which characterized the Solu- trean; but an extraordinary development of skill and artistic taste took place in the manufacture of all kinds of implements from bone, mam- moth ivory, reindeer antler, and probably also from more perish- able materials, such as wood and the horns of bison and wild cat- tle. The simple bone harpoon with ridges and notches, of the Early Magdalenian, evolved in time into a most effective weapon with rows of recurving barbs along both edges. Sharp javelins of reindeer antler bore deep grooves, whether to hold poison or merely to let the blood flow more freely we do not know. Scrapers for dressing skins, as well as awls, hammers, chisels, and stone and horn polishers, were made in profusion. The Magdalenians also produced the Fic. 52. Magdalenian spear- f thrower of reindeer antler so-called baton de commandement, partly restored. Believed to . : répresentaaronce or stare | Olten ‘richly carved, meydeubn am gan. After Piette and Brevil order to increase its magical efficacy. Late in the Magdalenian epoch appeared the spear- thrower, exactly similar in principle to those still used by savage peoples : in many parts of the world (Fig. 52). This [ 216 ] yIed [vo1sO[OO7 [EUOHEN 94} Uy ‘adoiny [evt3us9 pue udoy ou peitqeyut yoody Tetoe[y ayy sSuLInp “puvlusaIy pue BITIOUY YON 9IQOTe ul A[uo punoj MOU ‘jewrue sIy LL ‘XO ASNT os VRE. es age ee = me ‘ ee ie 8S ALV Id PLATE 59 Magdalenian bone needles, awls, and fishhooks, with material and tools used in their manufacture. Double-ended points like Nos. 205 and 206 seem to have been used in fishing. After de Mortillet THE OLD STONE AGE marked a decided advance in armament. It is possible, too, that the bow and arrow were known, although the evidence for this is necessarily indirect, since materials so little durable as those from which these weapons are made could scarcely be expected to survive. Very significant of the clothing habits of the Magdalenians is the abundance of finely made bone or ivory needles (Plate $9), pierced with eyes, which occur in deposits of this period. Up to this point in our study of early man we have been able at the most only to infer the existence of artificial habitations of any kind. We kuow that during certain am GPS cis Fic. 53. Tectiform or hutlike designs from the caves of southern France and Spain, of uncertain interpretation; perhaps wild animal traps. After Breuil cold periods he lived in the mouths of caves; and we can guess that under milder climatic conditions he may even- tually have erected windbreaks, or even huts of some sort, in the open. But during the Magdalenian the evidence for the existence of such constructions becomes much stronger. Thus the type station of La Madeleine, from which the Magdalenian epoch takes its name, is merely a long, shal- low rock-shelter which of itself could hardly have afforded protection from the elements to such large populations as evidently camped there then. The inference is well- nigh irresistible that they must have built, along the shel- tered area at the foot of the cliff, long lines of habitations of some kind. Moreover on the walls of certain caves, like those of Font-de-Gaume, in southwestern France, and of Castillo and Pasiega, in the extreme north of Spain, we find depicted designs which many investigators regard as representations of huts or cabins (Fig. 53), though others have interpreted them as pictures of traps for capturing [ane7 | MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST wild animals.. But in either case they afford pretty clear evidence that so advanced a people as the Magdalenians were quite intelligent enough to erect buildings of some sort. For that matter, they very likely knew how to con- struct both huts and animal traps. The great artistic ability of the Cro-Magnon race which achieved such remarkable results during the Aurignacian epoch underwent a partial eclipse during the Solutrean. But in the Magdalenian it again shone forth more bril- liantly than.ever and reached a degree of excellence un- equaled before, although sometimes foreshadowed during the Late Aurignacian. It culminated in the Middle Magdalenian. After that there came a sudden decline and eventual disappearance, for which various explanations have been offered. Like the Aurigna- cian, the Magdalenian art falls into two dis- tinct but nearly re- lated divisions. The more impressive of the two is that found on the walls, ceilings, and floors of caverns. The other appears often as elaborate decorations on various objects, fcneitaet ate, Reomithe carcbe Gack, 1 Sun as Cools analy se lugues, southwestern France. After Piette ons, particularly of bone and antler (Fig. 54). Nor can we doubt that carving in wood must also have been highly developed. It is quite possible, too, that the Magdalenians painted designs on animal skins, just as the Plains Indians did on buffalo robes. The beginning of this great artistic development co- incided, as we have seen, with a climatic phase in which life conditions were again very severe, driving people to [218 ] THE OLD STONE AGE rock-shelters and the vestibules of caves for protection from the increased cold and dampness. Thus, during the winters at least, there must have been much crowding together, and this invariably leads to active exchange of ideas and consequent rapidity of progress. This has always been so. Cities are invariably progressive, some- i a Fic. 55. A hunters’ feast engraved on a bone pendant. The dead bison is shown partly dismembered, exposing the spinal column. From the cave of Raymonden, southwestern France. After Breuil times even radical; while rural regions, where people are more scattered, are conservative and slow to change. Thus the words “pagan” and “‘heathen” meant originally nothing more than “villager” (paganus in Latin) and “dweller on the heath,” for belief in the old gods still survived in the country districts long after the great centers of population had become Christian; hence, also, “rustic” or “countryman” became equivalent to “non- Christian.” Similarly in Magdalenian days, when people lived crowded together, and blizzards and deep, wet snow en- forced long periods of physical inactivity, minds as gifted as those of the Cro-Magnons must have been stimulated to an exceptional degree. This would lead, as indeed we know it did, to progress in many directions, one of which was in the field of art. This is not at all to imply that the Magdalenians were ever “‘artists” in the present-day sense. Like the Aurt- [219] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST gnacians, they usually executed their engravings and paint- ings in the remotest depths of caverns, in places almost incredibly difficult of access and in darkness hardly to be dispelled by the smoking torches and crude stone lamps of the ancient artists (Fig. 56). Such inaccessible recesses were never picture gal- qos. leries or show places, nena gy but rather Cro-Mag- Whe Sn ey §=onon man’s cathedrals Qe aaa and temples, where, —__ far from the abodes of Fic. 56. Stone lamp from cave of La Mouthe, his fellows, he carried in southwestern France; perhaps it provided yg light for the cave artists. After de Mortillet on his most sacred and awesome rites. Great differences exist in the artistic merits of the vari- ous pictures, showing that some individuals had far greater talent than others. Nevertheless, the changes of style in this cave art follow exactly the same course wherever it occurs, even in the most widely separated regions. This can only mean that active communication and _ inter- change of ideas was going on at this time throughout much of western Europe, at least among the medicine men. One of the striking things about this cave art is the ap- parently purposeless way in which one picture is drawn over another, exactly as though. the latter had not existed (Plate 60). Here we have one of the surest proofs that the motive underlying it all was magical and not merely esthetic, for it shows that after a given design had served its purpose in helping “‘make magic”’ it lost its interest. Earlier drawings meant nothing to later artists. Evidently Cro-Magnon man, like most savages to whom the ceaseless quest for food is the great problem of life, was a strict utilitarian. And like them, too, he doubtless hunted dif- ferent animals at different seasons. The cave artists employed several of the graphic arts— engraving, carving in low relief, painting in one or more colors, and modeling or sculpture. Not infrequently they = are = AD SEE A [ 220 ] PLATE 60 Superposed mural frescoes representing horse, reindeer, bison, and mammoth. The designs were first engraved as above and then painted; the lower picture gives the final effect. After Capitan, Breuil, and Peyrony THEY OLD, STONE AGE combined two or more methods. They showed great abil- ity in modeling figures in clay, like the two bisons in the cavern of Tuc d’Audoubert or the clay bear with a real bear’s skull in the cave of Montespan. In fact they prob- Nar Vie \ \ \N WN ANG al at (: sli f ‘ WS WOR TE YEE an . BINDS ALY Lene A ‘ re Le Fic. 57. Design of a herd of reindeer, engraved on the wing bone of an eagle. From the cave of La Mairie, southwestern France. After Capitan and Breuil ably employed this method a good deal more commonly than its few surviving examples would indicate; for Cro- Magnon man had not learned to bake his clay figures, which therefore must usually have soon gone to pieces. Of these various arts, engraving and painting especially characterized the Middle Magdalenian, when the latter => Ape Fic. 58. A mammoth engraved on ivory, from the station of La Madeleine. One of the earliest and most spirited specimens of the later Old Stone Age art found. After Lartet method in particular reached its height. The artist used ocher and oxide of manganese for pigments, grinding them fine in stone mortars and mixing them with some such [ 221 | MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST medium as animal fat. They kept these paints in shells or in tubes made of the hollow leg bones of animals. What they used for brushes we have no means of knowing, but perhaps some sort of fibrous wood frayed out at the end. They painted mainly in red or black, or in both, but also occasionally used other colors. Sculpture, which began in the Aurignacian, developed continuously to the Middle Magdalenian. That of animals, which seems to have had its rise in the Solutrean,. reached its height in the Early Magdalenian. Nude human figurines were also executed, although these now tended to be naturalistic and comparatively free from the gross exaggeration of the Aurignacian sculptors. But representations of the human form during the Magda- lenian epoch are rather rare and never rival the excellence of contemporaneous portrayals of animal life. Of the different animals depicted, the mammoth, while it lasted, furnished a favorite subject, as did the reindeer, the horse, and the bison. Of the last-named creature it has been estimated that fifty representations occur for one of the wild bull. Birds are rarely shown, but fish are not infrequent (Fig. 59). Representations of masked or otherwise disguised hu- man figures point inevitably to the existence of some sort of ritual. They recall in particular the “hunting dances”’ of certain latter-day savages, in which the performers put on skins of animals of the kind about to be hunted and imitate their characteristic movements. Perhaps the most noteworthy design of this class so far found is one known as “The Sorcerer,” or, as our frontiersmen would have said, ‘““The Medicine Man.” This was discovered a few years ago, deep in the cavern of the Trois Fréres, in southwestern France (Fig. 60). It is placed high on the end wall in a most inaccessible position, from which it dominates the entire chamber, and is engraved, certain of its features being emphasized by the application of black paint. The figure, about two and a half feet long, is that [ 222] [meig pur ovypieqey gay ‘utedg ‘viture3}y Jo SUIDAvS OY) Ul UOSIG B Jo Sugured uvtuapepseyy poarososd ysaq ay, T, 9 WLW Id DHE, OLD; STONE AGE of a man leaning forward and apparently dancing. Long hairy ears and the horns of a stag adorn his head, and a pointed beard seems to be indicated, while he also wears a horse’s tail. We have here, no doubt, a representation of a witch doctor, or shaman, tricked out in all his savage Fic. 59. Red deer and salmon, engraved on a piece of rein- deer antler; scene may represent a herd crossing a stream as indicated by the fish. Marks in the upper right-hand corner may be the artist’s signature. After Piette regalia and stamping and shuffling about in some hunting dance. Since even back in the Aurignacian epoch man seems already to have conceived of supernatural beings as possessing human form, possibly we have here something of the same sort. The figure may not be the representation of any earthly medicine man but of some mythological concept—some “Divine Huntsman,” invoked for aid in the chase. At all events it indicates that Magdalenian man had reached a point in the development of his re- ligious beliefs quite equal to that of many modern peoples and in advance of some. The care which he bestowed upon the burial of his dead further indicates this. Again we see the persistence of customs originating in Aurignacian times, if not indeed earlier still. Bodies were provided with necklaces, girdles, [vat23"] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST and pendants of pierced shells or the perforated and en- graved teeth of various animals, among them the lion and the bear. Evidence of the custom of “secondary inter- ment’’ already described is to be seen in the manner of Fic. 60. The famous figure known as ‘“‘The Sorcerer,”’ partly engraved and partly painted in black, from the cavern of the Trois Fréres in southwestern France. From photograph by Count Begouen putting the disarticulated bones of the dead together again before this final burial. Thus the skeleton found in 1894 in the grotto of Les Hoteaux, in eastern France, had its thigh bones reversed, perhaps so that its ghost could not “walk.” Often the remains are found covered with red [ 224 ] THE OLD STONE AGE ocher and accompanied by various implements. Some- times the head is entirely separated from the body and buried by itself. In not a few cases, the leg bones have been found doubled up so tightly that they must have been held in this position by bandages of some kind, doubtless of skin thongs or strips. In the great cave of La Placard, in southwestern France, there came to light in a Lower Magdalenian layer several human skull-tops which had been cut off with some sharp implement. As these when found were carefully arranged in order, with the concavities turned upward, the inference is that they had been fashioned from the heads either of enemies or of loved ones, to serve as ceremonial cups or bowls (Fig. 61). Evidently the Magdalenians had a well-established cult of the dead, perhaps even an actual ancestor worship, which undoubtedly exerted a profound influence on the life and thought of the time. Some modern investigators, indeed, believe that all religion may be traced back ulti- mately to beliefs and practices connected with the dead. What caused the rapid decline of culture in the Late Magdalenian has not yet been fully explained. Perhaps, as Osborn suggests, the Cro-Magnon race had reached the end of a long cycle of psychic development—had, in other words, arrived at a point beyond which it could progress no further, and decline was therefore inevitable. Some- thing of this sort has occurred repeatedly in the history of various civilized races, for no reason as yet apparent. On the other hand, we know that, coincident with the close of Magdalenian times, great changes came over Europe. The ice fields once more retreated far up the sides of the mountains. Tundra conditions gradually dis- appeared, save in the far north. Although the climate was still somewhat colder and damper than now, forests once again won back the tundra land. Cold-loving species of animals, on which the Magdalenians had depended so largely for a living, withdrew as the conditions favoring their existence slowly changed. And the forms which did [aoe MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST remain became more difficult to hunt successfully as the forests kept on increasing in density. Indications, indeed, exist that at this time fishing slowly replaced hunting as ‘Hie principal means of gaining a liveli- hood. From being an active, courageous hunter of large and often highly dangerous wild animals’) (Crot Magnon man seems to have be- come a fisherman and a gatherer of shellfish. It is likely, too, that about this time the ances- tors of the wide- spread “‘Mediter- ranean” race of today began to invade southern Fic. 61. Human skull-tops made into cups or bowls, probably for ceremonial use. From the cave of Le and western Placard, in southwestern France. After Breuil and Europe, min Obermaier ae g from northern Africa. These people appear to have brought with them a type of culture more advanced in some ways than that of the Magdalenians. Perhaps they had a more closely knit social organization that enabled them to use their armed strength to greater advantage. Or, on the other hand, they may merely have appeared in larger numbers and simply swamped their predecessors. Their undoubted use of bows and arrows, perhaps with poison, may have had something to do with their superiority. The Cro-Magnon race, however, did not die out entirely. Here and there, as skeletal peculiarities clearly show, it still survives, in a more or less mixed form, as an element of the populations of the present day. [ 226 | THE OLD STONE AGE THE CapsiAN CULTURE OF SPAIN We must not close this brief account of the Old Stone Age without making some reference to human activities in Spain during that period. Enough has already come to light in that country to show that it played a part in the story of early man no less important than that of France itself. Nor is this at all surprising, for the Spanish penin- sula has always served as a highway for the migrations back and forth between Africa and Europe of both races and cultures. This has been true throughout historical times, and now research is showing that it was also the case in the prehistoric period. During the Ice Age the lowlands of Spain, owing to their more southern position, escaped burial under great ice fields like those which spread over so much of the North- ern Hemisphere. Glaciers were formed in the mountains, but they did not flow very far down the valleys before they reached their melting point. Obermaier, our leading au- thority in this field, believes that the interglacial stages in Spain included phases when the climate was more humid and others when it was drier than that of the present. He thinks, too, that the vast accumulations of sand and clay which cover the lower slopes of many of the Spanish moun- tain chains were not laid down during the glacial stages but during the more humid interglacial periods. Owing to its milder climate the older “‘warm’” types of animal life, like the southern and the straight-tusked ele- phants, the Etruscan and Merck’s rhinoceros, the hippo- potamus, and the striped hyena, were able to survive far longer in Spain than in most parts of Europe. For the same reason the northern or “‘cold”’ fauna, including forms like the hairy mammoth, the woolly rhinoceros, the rein- deer, and the musk ox, succeeded in getting no farther down than the extreme north of the peninsula. So far Spain has revealed no traces of the Pre-Chellean culture, but Chellean and Acheulian remains occur in all [ 227 ] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST parts of the peninsula, being traceable probably to an ultimate African origin. Mousterian implements, as- sociated in Spain, too, with Neanderthal man, are also widespread. It will only be necessary in this connection to recall the various finds at Gibraltar already described (see Chapter VII). In Spain, as elsewhere in western Europe, the Aurigna- cian followed the Mousterian. In northern Africa a cul- ture already mentioned as very closely resembling, if not actually identical with, the Aurignacian, v7z., that known as the Early or Lower Capsian, followed. The lack as yet of actual skeletal evidence leaves us uncertain whether to ascribe the latter culture to the Cro-Magnon race, but several reasons suggest that it should be so ascribed. In the first place, the Capsians developed a style of art very distinctive in character, but unquestionably derived originally from the same source as that of the Aurignacians and Magdalenians; and the latter, as we know, has been found closely associated with the bones of Cro-Magnon man. Further, it has been stated that the Cro-Magnon type still appears among the Tuareg, an ancient “‘white’’- race now inhabiting the western and central Sahara Desert. It is also thought to have occurred among the Late Stone Age people known as the Guanches, whom Europeans found occupying the Canary Islands, off the northwestern coast of Africa, when they conquered that group some four or five hundred years ago. If these obser- vations should prove well founded, they would establish a presumption that there was a Cro-Magnon strain, at least, in the blood of the Capsian invaders of Spain. But the latter seem also to have included in their racial composition a very large element ancestral to the Medi- terrean race already mentioned in connection with the Magdalenian decline. This stock was destined to form the basis of the population of western and southern Europe, during the Middle and New Stone Ages; and indeed, it still predominates in many regions of that area. A round- [ 228 ] THE OLD STONE AGE headed or broad-skulled element, coming apparently from Asia, was just beginning to appear here and there in west- ern Europe at the very end of the Old Stone Age. After the Aurignacian culture in most of Europe, as we know, came first the Solutrean and then the Magdalenian. In Spain, however, the two latter cultures appear only in the extreme north. In the rest of the peninsula matters took a different course. Somewhere about the close of the Aurignacian epoch in Europe, the Lower Capsian of northern Africa developed into the Upper Capsian, dis- tinguished by its very small stone implements of geometri- cal shapes, its large bone needles, and its curved blades made from the shells of ostrich eggs. This Upper or Late Capsian spread over into southern and eastern Spain, where it succeeded the Spanish Aurignacian and flour- ished during the same period as did the Solutrean and the Magdalenian farther north. The Upper Capsian seems to have brought with it a realistic and very animated style of art, in many respects strikingly like some of that which has been found in vari- ous parts of Africa in very recent years. It differed from the Upper Paleolithic art of the rest of western Europe in attaching great prominence to representations of human beings, and from these we can learn a good deal about _the dress and weapons and the customs of the time. The men went about practically naked, although occasionally they are shown with what appear to be short breeches or trunks. They also sometimes wear fringed bands just below the knee and around the arms, as well as tall head- dresses, apparently of feathers. Figures of women occur very rarely, and are almost invariably clad in rather long skirts, no doubt of buckskin. The male figures frequently carry bows and arrows (Fig. 62), giving us the first indisputable evidence of the existence of that weapon, which was destined to play such an important part in the future history of mankind. Certain jackal-like animals portrayed in the rock-shelter [ 229 ] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST of Alpera, in southwestern Spain, may possibly represent half-domesticated dogs; but this is exceedingly doubtful. Despite certain dissimilarities, this Upper Capsian art of southern and eastern Spain seems to have been de- veloped from the same sources which produced the Auri- | Wee Fic. 62. A stag hunt. Capsian or Spanish art of the Late Paleolithic. Note bows and arrows and apparent feathering of latter. Painted in dark red in the “Cave of the Horses.”’ After Obermaier [ 230 ] THE OLD STONE AGE gnacian and Magdalenian art, and in response to the same psychological stimuli. That is, the animal figures were undoubtedly designed to obtain aid in the hunt or to bring about an increase in the number of food animals. Scenes in which human figures occur appear to have had as their motive the imparting of strength, swiftness, and Fic. 63. Wounded warrior running away at top speed, probably drawn to bring about an enemy’s defeat; painted in light red. From the rock-shelter of La Saltadora, eastern Spain. After Obermaier courage to the warriors of the artist-magician’s own tribe, or the weakening through spells and incantations of their enemies. The latter were accordingly depicted as running away, sometimes riddled with darts (Fig. 63), in the belief that when the actual combat took place the same results would be obtained through the power of magic. This eastern Spanish art, as it is sometimes called, is usually found in shallow and relatively open rock-shelters; for deep caverns, like those in which so much of the Aurignacian and Magdalenian art has been found, very 331 | MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST rarely oceur in this region. It came to an end with the close of the Old Stone Age itself, when the Capsian culture gradually developed into what is known as the Tardenoi- sian, belonging to that phase of human progress called the Mesolithic or Middle Stone Age, to be discussed in the next chapter. With the end of the Old Stone Age, climatic conditions in Europe became more nearly what they have been ever since. Once again, after the close of the Magdalenian epoch, a minor advance of the glaciers took place, known in the Alpine region as the Daun, but it was far less severe than that of the Gschnitz, and still less so than the Buhl. Since then the changes seem to have been not so much in respect of temperature as in that of humidity; certain periods have been less moist and rainy than others. But on the whole, conditions in western Europe once again became favorable to the growth of trees, which, undisturbed by man through long ages, often attained a very great size. From the end of the Old Stone Age down to comparatively recent times, much of Europe was cov- ered with dense, impenetrable forest, the dark and awe- some Urwald, or “Ancient Wood,” of Germanic myth and story. With the comparative amelioration of the climate, many of the animals familiar to the men of the Old Stone Age disappeared from western Europe. Some, like the mam- moth and the woolly rhinoceros, had perhaps already found a temporary haven in northern Siberia, only in the end to die out altogether. Others, such as the reindeer, the musk ox, and the wolverine, still survive in far north- ern regions, where the climate today resembles that of Europe during the Ice Age. Doubtless these migrations of the accustomed food animals played a great, perhaps a decisive, part in the movements and modifications of the human populations of the time. For food habits of long standing are particularly stubborn things, and rapid and compulsory adjustments to changed conditions are ex- | 292:] pesop> pey tadoid potsad Surpamp-aavd ay} Jaqye Buoy ady auojg MaNy ayy Jo dIS1I9}e.ABY st ‘afdtexa soj ‘UMOYsS [Mog Ata}zIO0g =«*paydidap Aynyrouvy aeyMauos ‘aBy auois dy3 Ul FIT 09 ALV Id THE OLD STONE AGE ceedingly difficult to make. Witness the swift degeneracy and partial extinction of our Plains Indian tribes, due in no small measure to the extermination of the vast herds of bisons or “‘buffaloes,” upon which they had been wont to depend. We have come now to the end of the Old Stone Age in Europe. Its story outside of Europe is still a very dis- connected one, rendered more difficult of interpretation, perhaps, by the absence in the warmer portions of the globe of the great time-scale of the Ice Age, with its alter- nating colder and warmer periods. In discussing epochs subsequent to the Old Stone Age the mass of material forces us to lay greater stress on topical than on regional or racial studies, a course per- missible in an attempt to describe the processes by which civilization has been attained. [ 233 | CHAPTER XII THE, MIDDLE STONE AGE For many years archeologists believed that when the Old Stone Age came to an end, not long after the close of the Glacial Period, there followed an interval during which mankind disappeared entirely from Europe. Only with the arrival of new races, bringing with them domestic animals, agriculture, pottery, and polished stone imple- ments, was the Neolithic Period, or New Stone Age, thought to have begun. We know better now, thanks to later discoveries. In various regions of Europe, both north and south, the remains of cultures have come to light, proving that Europe throughout this intermediate period was occupied by human beings, in most cases the direct descendants of the later Old Stone Age races. Moreover, the culture of this time forms in many respects a true connecting link between those of the Old and New Stone Ages. This transitional period is sometimes called Mesolithic— Greek for “Middle Stone.” At its beginning, man seems yet to have lacked any implement capable of cutting down a tree. He still lived mainly by hunting and fishing and gathering wild berries and fruits. At first sight it might appear that he had actually retrograded in culture; for his life seems to have been a wretched one, not unlike that led by the savages of Tierra del Fuego, for example, or others among the least advanced of present-day races. Nevertheless he was making progress, and that in several important directions. It appears, for example, that during this period he [ 234 ] THE MIDDLE STONE AGE invented the stone ax, or rather hatchet, his first means of coping with the jungle (Fig. 65). We can in a measure realize the far-reaching importance of this invention if we pause to think what the ax meant to our own pioneer fore- bears in the settlement of this country. Man had not yet learned to grind and polish his stone implements but still chipped them out, although he gradually gave them better and more effective shapes. He accomplished the hafting often by splitting or boring the end of a stout stick or club and then inserting the stone blade in the cavity, where a binding of animal sinew or rawhide, by its nat- ural shrinkage, held it in place Fic. 64. Flat harpoons of red-deer antler, from the cave of Mas d’Azil. After Piette with a grip almost as strong as iron. The familiar Indian tomahawk was an implement of this description. To primitive man the added Fic. 65. Left, stone hatchet from eastern Australia, with polished cutting edge only. Right, iron hammer from the upper Congo River, retaining ancient hafting method. After Frobenius power which the ax gave him in his struggles with his en- vironment seemed absolutely supernatural. The stone ax was “big medicine” and, like everything else which early man thought much about, was regarded as having a life of its own. The owner must be careful not to offend or mis- use it in any way. He made offerings to it, talked to it, and handled it carefully and reverently. [235 ] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST The superstitious beliefs inspired by the early stone hatchet persisted far down into later times, and the ax remained a symbol of power and authority among certain peoples, even into the historical period. Thus beautifully polished examples in jade were symbols of kingly authority in Bronze Age China, while the ax, especially in its double or two-edged form, retained great ceremonial significance in ancient religious observances in parts of the Mediter- ranean area. Throughout the long earlier periods, before and during the Old Stone Age, man sought refuge from the rain under overhanging cliffs, and from the cold inside the mouths of caves. Probably, too, he learned in time to erect simple windbreaks or lean-tos of bark or leafy boughs. And, as we have seen, certain designs of the later Old Stone Age in western European caves may represent huts or cabins; but with the advent of the stone ax it became a much simpler matter to cut down saplings and make huts roofed with leaves, bark, or skins, like those of so many savage tribes the world over, even today (Plate 63). Primitive man seems sometimes to have erected these for safety’s sake among the branches of trees, on piles over water, or even on rafts moored a short distance from the shore. But further than this man hardly got during this middle period of transition. While Middle Stone Age man can not claim the in- vention of the bow and arrow, which, as we saw, first appeared with certainty in the Upper Capsian, its use probably became general during the Mesolithic Period. As with so many other discoveries of primary impor- tance, we do not know when or where or how the bow and arrow originated. Probably some accident suggested them. It has been held that the idea came from the instrument known as the bow-drill, an implement used even today for drilling holes, kindling fires (Fig. 67), and the like. The invention may also have been made more than once, though this seems unlikely. [ 236 ] THE MIDDLE STONE AGE The use of the bow and arrow resulted in a vast exten- sion of man’s power over his environment. He could now bring down his game or his enemy at much greater dis- tances and with far more precision than ever before. The on Wy, x P . = si Any Ze “wy” a XX Rixtis Fic. 66. Negrito using bow and arrow, Philippine Islands. After Frobenius crude new weapon was one susceptible of vast improve- ment in many ways. As the long bow, the weapon of the English yeomanry during the later Middle Ages, it proved scarcely less effective than gunpowder in bringing low the pretensions of the haughty feudal aristocracy. As the compound bow, the terribly efficient weapon of the hordes of central Asiatic light-horsemen, who for two thousand years threatened civilization in almost every part of the Old World, it has wielded power no less great and decisive. [ 237 | MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST In the Mesolithic we begin to find the earliest crude ex- amples of pottery. Men, or perhaps women, apparently already knew how to weave baskets, and it has been sug- gested that the coating of these with clay, to render them water-tight, may have led to the molding of the first rough Fic. 67. Wooden fire-drill, Madagascar. A step in advance of this was to attach the ends of the cord to a bow. After Frobenius pot. A stubborn, unreasoning conservatism, deeply im- bued with superstition, formed one of early man’s leading characteristics. Thus we find on fragments of ancient pottery, in many parts of the world, the marks of matting or basketry, made while the clay was still soft. To the primitive potter, a pot must bear basketry marks, or it would be unlucky. Later, these marks came to be re- garded simply as decorations, and in time dispensed with entirely. During this same transitional period man seems to have taken the first steps toward the domestication of the animals which have contributed so much to his progress. For it is then that the dog, by far the earliest of all domestic animals, first clearly appears associated with man. We must not suppose, however, that early man caught and tamed the dog because he had reasoned out beforehand [ 238 ] THE MIDDLE STONE’ AGE that that animal would be of any particular use to him. In order to take any conscious step 1n advance, man, both ancient and modern, must have the light of some previous experience to guide him. And hitherto he had known of animals only as something dangerous, to be avoided or else hunted and killed for their flesh and skins. So the likelihood that dogs might be of use to man could not by any possibility suggest itself to the lowly savages of the Middle Stone Age. In fact, to this day, among a great part of mankind, the dog is nothing more than an ownerless scavenger and hanger-on about refuse heaps, otherwise only useful for raising an alarm at the approach of strangers. And that is what he appears to have been at the beginning of his long association with man. Some have said, indeed, that it was not man who adopted the dog, but the dog which adopted man. In some region inhabited by man during this middle period, a species of wild dog seems to have found the pickings better about the haunts of men than elsewhere. In turn its human hosts doubtless ate the dog when they could catch it. Then litters of its young would be brought into camp, where, if not wanted at once for food, their presence would be tolerated for a time. Given this opportunity, the natural play instinct of both puppies and young boys would inevitably assert itself just as 1t does today. These habits of association once formed, in time groups of wandering hunters would naturally come to have their packs of half-domesticated dogs following them about from camp to camp. Valued at first merely as a source of food and for their usefulness in detecting the presence of lurking enemies, in time their aid in following game would be utilized. Thus man at length acquired a domestic animal. Little if any evidence exists to indicate that the men of the later Old Stone Age had any means of traveling over the surface of the water. Their culture, in some respects so like that of the modern Eskimo, gives no hint that they [ 239 ] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST had invented any form of canoe. It is true that they have left us drawings of various water-dwelling creatures, like the seal, the salmon, and the eel; but these are all such as could readily be speared from dry land or perhaps in some cases through the ice. But in this Middle Stone Age, again, we find clear proofs that man was learning how to support himself and control his movements on the water. No doubt he could always Zl CT eee aes Ste i W a SSS Ee SSS Fic. 68. Tasmanian “canoe” made of rolls of bark lashed together. After Ling Roth swim; but hitherto he had been essentially a land dweller. Thus his conquest of the water was a step as momentous in its way as the conquest of the air is to us nowadays. As with all the basic discoveries, we can only surmise the course of this one. Flood waters must often have carried off the camps of hunters and fishermen. The same floods undermined and floated away trees. His instinctive clutching of these would soon show early man that they could keep him from drowning, and even carry him with them for long distances. By pushing with a stick or spear in shallow water or by striking out with his hands and feet where it was deeper, he would learn that he could, in a measure, control their movements. Thus the idea of floats must have arisen. In time man learned to con- struct these for himself out of bundles of buoyant reeds, rolls of bark, and even tree trunks laid side by side and lashed together. Examples of the former have occurred in recent times among some of the more backward races, such as the now extinct Tasmanians; while the shores of the Baltic Sea have yielded traces of a raft big enough to sup- port a floating village and implying a long previous period of development. [ 240 ] ssaisuoy jo Arviqry ay} ut ydvssojoyg =“ worjon4sysuod asnoy UI sdais Ayia suvw aarrurtid jo peaiddy ‘seag ynog ay} UI SpurIS! SaplIqapFy MANY 2Y UT NY peydieya ajduis £9 ALVId SuOIsad pajesedas ATapiA [BtToAds ul punoj JIB sodAq SNOLIvA jo S90Uuevd IVA "SOUISIIOGe UPTTR.ISNY 2ep! JO S90uUBv)d Ye SATII | 19 ALV Id THE MIDDLE STONE AGE The canoe proper, made by hollowing out a log, largely with the aid of fire, developed early, perhaps suggested by the accidental use of a hollow tree trunk. Such a dis- covery might conceivably be made more than once, wher- ever trees grew near water; at least the well-nigh world- wide distribution of the dugout canoe suggests this. From C.W. Bishop ‘ 56% Apr 10, 1923. Sabet ras Draught, 8° = 4 = Fourteen Paddlers on each Side ! Total Crew, 3/ Men. Ms = Z y 2 ? ase = SS a SS = —-— es PEA EE PS PH = ae Se <-> sears FE w= 7; By eof) ye 22 Ge == ——— Fic. 69. Chinese dragon-boat today used only for ceremonial purposes, but employed in actual warfare in China, Burma, Siam, and neighboring regions until middle of 1gth century this improvement we can trace, step by step, the evolu- tion of larger and larger craft, until we reach such tri- umphs of the shipbuilder’s art as the ocean steamer and the battleship of the present day. We still have an intuitive feeling that boats and ships are living things with characters and personalities of their own. That is why we give them individual names. To early man this idea was very real. He felt that by carving the likenesses of a water monster’s head and tail at the bow and stern of his war canoe, he could impart to it magically the swiftness and ferocity of such creatures in a very real sense. The dragon’s head and tail that ornamented the extremities of the old Viking ships and of modern Chinese “dragon boats” have had this for their motive. To primitive folk in general, unfamiliar with the idea of traveling over the water, the sudden appearance of strange people, traders or enemies, skimming over the water in a [ 241 ] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST fleet of canoes, must have brought the same feelings of superstitious awe as did the ships of early European explor- ers to the uncivilized islanders among whom they came. As we have seen, man appears already in the Old Stone Age to have grasped the idea that he might increase his supply of food by his own efforts, although, so far as we know, he never got beyond the point of using magical means. The beginnings of true agriculture are most prob- ably to be sought in this transitional period to which we must ascribe so many inventions of primary importance in man’s further development. Of course, no abrupt change in the practice took place, and but little, consciously at least, in theory. We have learned today that the best way to succeed is by assisting nature. Primitive man tried to control her, for he had not yet reached the con- cept of fixed and invariable natural laws. For a long time, in consequence, he placed much more dependence on magical rites than on actual planting and cultivation. Not so many years have passed since our own immediate ancestors fully believed that, in order to grow best, seeds must be planted while the moon was waxing and not waning. The student of ancient man must never forget that man has had only experience to teach him; and he has often been very, very slow in drawing the right conclusions. At first the primitive husbandman probably did little more than protect certain edible plants by clearing away weeds and keeping birds and animals from destroying them. Since man derived strength from eating them, they were thought to be imbued with “‘medicine”’ ane therefore deserving of respect. Some edible plants are even today only half domesti- cated; water cress and various berries, nuts, and fruits, for example, are still often gathered wild. Progress in agri- culture, just as in everything else, has been so slow and uneven in different parts of the globe that we can still see today almost every one of its various stages 1n actual existence among this or that people. [ 242 | THE MIDDLE STONE AGE From the very first, agriculture seems to have been especially women’s work, due perhaps to two causes, one practical, the other theoretical. The men of any given group long remained hunters, fishermen, and fighters, activities which often took them away from home, so that they had no time to look after the rude clearings where the earliest simple crops were grown. The same sound reasoning led early women everywhere to become the burden bearers and drudges of the group, in order that the men might be ready on the instant, weapon in hand, to repel an attack by human or animal foes. Among savage peoples to this day the women insist upon bearing the loads and doing the drudgery in order that their men- folk may have their hands free at all times to defend them. The other, theoretical motive which left the tending of the crops to women was that they, in some mysterious way, seemed to control all the vital processes. Just as they had the power of perpetuating the race, so, early man reasoned or rather felt, they must have power over all growing things. Not until long ages after, with the advent of the plow and of plow animals, whose management required a man’s strength, did women really become emancipated from doing the bulk if not all of the field work. We can not tell as yet what plants early man first began to assist in growing and in time to domesticate. On the whole, it seems likely that they were those which had edible leaves and roots. The distant ancestors of our radishes, turnips, cabbages, lettuce, and spinach would come within this category. Root and leaf crops have one serious defect—they do not keep well; but the various cereals contain as much or more nourishment, while at the same time they can be kept for long periods. Nothing ap- proaching a real civilization could arise until man began to grow cereals, for only then could he lay up reserve stores of provisions and thus free himself from his ceaseless quest for daily food. At the beginning of the Mesolithic Period man had [ 243 ] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST not yet learned to shape his stone implements by grinding and polishing. Just when and how the change from rough to polished stone took place, we do not yet know. Some have suggested that the origin of planting had something to do with it. Rough and heavy stone hoes are known to have come into existence in more than one part of the world. Examples from North America are almost identical in form with others found in China. But wherever they occur they have one invariable trait in common—along their edges, where they have repeatedly come in contact with the ground, they have become highly polished. Man may have caught the idea of polishing and grinding stone tools from this, for some of the earlier stone hatchets have the edges polished, while the rest of the surface remains rough and merely chipped out. Thus we find ourselves on the brink of the period usually called the Neolithic—the Age of Polished Stone. But the manner of making stone tools is not that which alone, or even mainly, distinguishes this stage of man’s progress above those vastly longer periods which had gone before. The accumulated experience of the race, gathered haltingly, painfully, and with almost infinite slowness, was beginning to bear its well-earned fruit in a thousand advances. How far, then, have we come? We began with man a naked, hairy savage, unarmed save for the teeth and nails with which nature had provided him and a certain cun- ning and slyness which enabled him to think just a step or two ahead of his most intelligent animal foes. In this condition he remained, with only the faintest trace of progress, for hundreds of thousands of years. But slowly his brain was developing. He was becoming more and more human, less hairy, less bestial of appearance, able to stand more nearly erect. Unconsciously and through the working of natural laws, he acquired the power of speech— of exchanging ideas with his fellow men and handing down by word of mouth, as well as by example, the results [ 244 |] THE MIDDLE STONE AGE of his own experience to his children and grandchildren. Then he learned to use tools—sticks and stones—and, still later, to shape them into more efficient forms. Then came the use of fire, of string, and of skins for clothing. These fundamentals comprised the sum of man’s achievements up to the beginning of the Old Stone Age. During that period he made more noticeable progress, the tempo of advance increasing slightly toward its end, so that we see great improvements in the shape and variety of his tools and implements. During the Aurignacian and Magdalenian phases of his Old Stone Age life his artistic powers developed remarkably, though from different motives. from those we understand. With the gradual close of the Old Stone Age, we lose sight of some of the advances in culture which took place, although probably most if not all of them survived in parts of the world as yet unexplored by the archeologist. For it is important to remember the very uneven rate of progress in civilization in different regions of the globe and among various peoples. Finally the Mesolithic or Middle Stone Age witnessed the development of many inventions of primary impor- tance. Then, apparently, mankind first discovered effec- tive means of making clearings and building huts and canoes. Crude pottery, a rudimentary agriculture, and probably the domestication of the dog also then first appear. Man still remained in great part a hunter and a fisherman, such as he had been for hundreds of thousands of years. But he had at last escaped from total de- pendence upon natural products. Henceforth he was able in ever-increasing measure to produce food for himself, both animal and vegetable. yeas | CHAPTER, Xiil THE NEW STONE: AGE To New Stone Age man we owe the development of true agriculture and especially of the growing of cereals, the basis of all later civilization. Where this first occurred we do not know as yet. Doubtless many peoples, once they had reached a certain stage of culture, took to protecting and cultivating and finally to sowing certain wild plants about them which experience had shown to be especially valuable for food. The American Indians, for example, almost certainly entered the Western Hemisphere as mere food gatherers, hunters, and fishermen. Yet by the time they became known to Europeans they had domesticated a great number of plants, embracing such important forms as maize, sweet and “‘Irish” potatoes, pumpkins, squashes, Lima and kidney beans, tomatoes, and tobacco, to men- tion only a few. We have emphasized the great part which magic played in the life of early man and how its influence spread into the vast field of food production. We no longer think it necessary to fertilize our fields with the life-blood of human beings, but primitive man did so through many thousands of years. Only in the nineteenth century was this cruel practice stamped out in British India, and it still persists in certain backward regions not yet under effective civilized control. The custom seems to have arisen through that false association of ideas so common to the emergent human mind. Primitive man observed very far back in his history that life in some mysterious way depended upon the blood. The idea persisted even [ 246 ] THE NEW STONE AGE DY1LIULPY SNVUOID WOLT ain} jnsse yim pazI9uUUOd Ayjaqewigul 31OM SOlUOWIIID UBIIXIJPY JUSIOUB BY} JO Aur “SOYlloes UBWUNY 99317 ‘ol ‘Oy [ 247 ] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST among a people so comparatively high in the culture scale as the ancient Hebrews. Especially when the spirits of cultivated plants, and particularly of certain cereals, came to be thought of as having human form, did the ceremonial shedding of human blood, often in very ‘cruel ways, seem essential to primitive man. Sometimes the victim was regarded as the in- carnation of the god himself. Many peoples had the idea of a dying god who gives his life for his people, and traces of it still persist in the folk tales and beliefs and customs of the peasant population of Europe and Asia. The Aztecs of Mexico carried it to an exceptionally high pitch of dramatic intensity, characterized by the most brilliant pageantry. The offering of human sacrifices in connection with agricultural operations belongs essentially to the Neolithic stage of man’s development. One of the causes which led to its abandon- ment in more ad- vanced regions was the domestication of animals which could be substituted for human beings in these bloody rites. We see a reflection of this in the familiar account of Abraham and Isaac and the “ram caught in a thicket by his Fic. Ths Staghorn pickaxes used for mining horns.” The persist- face Neate omg aon Denese | Vertee ab ae (engi in certain regions, like Mexico, probably resulted in no small part from the lack of suitable domestic animals. Among many of the more advanced planting peoples of the New Stone Age grew up the idea of a divinity called [ 248 ] PLATE 65 Neolithic warrior, with tomahawk and dagger of stone, fiint-tipped arrows, necklace, and plaited cap. Modeled by Mascré under the direction of Rutot ae THE NEW STONE AGE in later times the Great Mother Goddess, patroness of fer- tility and growth and bounteous harvests. Primitive man thought of her as having the power both to give life and to take it. Usually he associated with her in his worship her Divine Son, the latter very often one of those ‘‘dying gods” just ‘mentioned. The Mother Goddess in those early times was commonly represented by crude images in which, to judge from later analogy, she was induced to dwell through the action of spells or prayers. It is of one of her more developed manifestations that the prophet Jere- miah speaks when he rebukes the people for burning i in- cense and pouring out drink offerings to the ‘“‘queen of heaven.” We used to think that mankind everywhere had passed through the same successive stages of development, first the hunting, then the pastoral, and finally the agricultural. We now know that this was not the case. Man began as a hunter and food gatherer, certainly, and in that condi- tion he remained for much the greater part of his exist- ence, until, in fact, a very recent era in his history. But he did not develop next into a herdsman ora shepherd. On the contrary, he be- came a primitive farmer or gardener, or rather his women did, while he himself re- mained a hunter, a fisherman, a tool Fic. 72. Prehistoric stone hatchet from a maker, and a fighter. Swiss lake village. The stone blade inserted in a sleeve of staghorn greatly reduced the The development of liability of the wood to split. After Keller planting resulted, of course, in attaching man to the soil, to definite localities, and finally to specific plots of ground to an extent never found among savages in the pure hunting stage. Still clinging closely to the edges of the forest—for cutting down or even girdling trees with a stone hatchet was by no means an easy task (Fig. 72)—the primitive farmer finally [ 249 ] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST acquired domestic animals in addition to the dog he had already had so long. We do not know what animals other than the dog man first tamed, or how he did it, but we can make several pertinent deductions. First a set of conditions must have arisen which brought man and certain species of animals susceptible of domestication into especially close contact with each other. The plausible suggestion has been made that, as the west-central portions of Asia slowly dried out after the close of the Ice Age, both men and animals tended to be crowded more and more closely together in those areas which still remained well watered. Finally even these shrank until they became mere oases—islands of vegetation surrounded by vast expanses of desert and semidesert. Not only does drought tend to crowd all living creatures together about the water holes; it also robs animals of much of their wildness and instinctive timidity toward man. Thus, among the rest, those wild animals upon which man had largely preyed became less wild. Some such state of affairs may have led to the beginnings of domestication. The process implies first a sufficient degree of intelligence to enable man to appreciate the advantages of having domestic animals at all. Then there must exist animals of species which can be domesticated. The lack of these over a great part of the New World supplies us with a fundamental explanation for the backwardness of the American Indian as compared to the European four hun- dred years ago. Finally, conditions must be such that the animals, after being half tamed and in a measure accustomed to the presence of man, can not easily escape from under his control and become once more truly wild. The more we study early man, the oftener do we find instances in which he was governed by reasons totally different from those which cause us to do some of the very same things that he did. If asked why man domesticated cattle, we should doubtless reply without hesitation, “For [250] THE: NEW STONE AGE their meat and milk and hides and for their labor as pack and draught animals.’ We should probably say also that chickens were domesticated for the sake of their flesh and especially their eggs. But can we imagine primitive man, on seeing a herd of wild cattle crashing through the underbrush, at once grasping the possibility of using their milk for human food or their strength in helping his womenfolk to till the little garden plots in the forest? Or can we conceive of him as able to foresee the development of the wild jungle fowl, in the course of hundreds or perhaps even thousands of years, into the egg-laying strains that exist today? Such possibilities were not in the faintest degree apparent to any one on this earth in the days before the domestication of animals began or for long centuries later. Many of the most important qualities for which we now value animals did not exist at all when they were first domesti- cated and have been developed only by long-continued selective breeding. Superstition, the great driving force in the shaping of man’s actions in early times, played a very large and probably the leading part in the domestication of animals. Its influence in this direction had already begun to appear at least as far back as the later portions of the Old Stone Age. Those animals which played the most important réles as sources of food came in time to be the objects of many ceremonial observances and eventually to be re- garded as themselves sacred and especially fitted for sacrifice. From time to time man would capture in- dividuals of these species and keep them in confinement to be slain at certain festivals, just as the ancient Mexicans used to keep prisoners of war, or as some of the peoples of northeast Siberia keep captive bears, for the same purpose. Moreover, our distant predecessors felt that the pos- session of sacred animals brought good fortune to the group, and on this theory sacred bulls were kept in the temples of ancient Egypt, sacred horses in those of modern [251] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST Japan, and sacred white elephants in Siam. Sometimes early man regarded such an animal both as divinity and as victim—as a god dying for the benefit of his people—the idea that we found so widespread in connection with early agriculture. Such animals were eaten at the sacrificial feasts that their qualities might be communicated to the worshipers. To omit such sacrifices was ‘regarded as an unspeakable calamity, portending terrible things. And yet, as cultivation extended and the originally plentiful supply of wild animals decreased, it happened again and again that the capture of victims as they were needed became more and more uncertain, and sacrifices sometimes failed. To guard against this danger, man probably began to set aside the necessary animals, perhaps even in actual inclosures where he could protect them and prevent them from wandering, until in time they became half domesticated. As their numbers increased under these sheltered conditions, their sacred character came to have less importance and was finally confined only to particular individuals or to certain occasions. By that time we might regard the species as to all intents and pur- poses fully domesticated, although even then the chief uses to which they were put might differ widely from those of later times. We can see this process of domestication at work among the stock-raising peoples of antiquity; and we can also detect its various stages actively going on today among certain peoples. Thus every one of the great peoples of ancient times—the Babylonians, Egyptians, Cretans, Greeks, and Romans, to mention but a few—regarded cattle as sacred. They are still held holy in India and to a less extent in China. Very many superstitious beliefs center about the herds of the great cattle-raising tribes of East and South Africa. Even the bull fight, now the national sport of Spain and her daughter countries, clearly had its origin in association with religion and especially with rites to insure plentiful harvests. [ 252] THE INEW STONE-AGE The Naga tribes northeast of the head of the Bay of Bengal furnish an excellent example of the steps in domes- tication. These still somewhat wild people have an animal of the ox kind, known as the gayal, or mithan, which they permit to roam and feed by day in the forests but which returns at night to the villages. They never employ it for labor, nor do they use its milk. But at re- ligious feasts at which it is sacrificed ceremonially they eat its flesh. Thus we find the gayal now in a stage through which the ox proper passed thousands of years earlier on its road to complete domestication by the peoples of the New Stone Age, probably in western Asia. The peoples dwelling about the great grasslands of the Old World, not unlike our own western prairies, hunted herds of wild horses for the sake of their flesh and prob- ably their skins, just as the Indians used to hunt the bison. The finding at Solutré, in southeastern France, of the bones of something like 100,000 horses leaves no doubt of this use of the horse. To some of the nomadic grassland horse eaters, especially the ancestors of the primitive Aryan or Indo-European speaking peoples, the horse quite naturally became the one animal sacred above all others. It grew in time to be associated with the sun and with running water, and was sacrificed to these. Quite possibly, also, the custom of keeping individuals in cap- tivity arose from the desire to insure a steady supply of horses for such sacrifices. Later the practice of milking the mares sprang up, probably suggested by the use of milk among neighboring agricultural peoples who already had cattle or goats. At first, of course, man used the herds of half-domesti- cated horses only for food and ritual practices, just as he had used their wholly wild ancestors during the Old Stone Age. Their utilization in other ways, such as carrying or hauling loads and, much later, for riding, still lay very far in the future. We find traces of this earlier use of the horse as food animal, as tribal mascot or luck bringer, and [ 253] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST as sacrificial victim, among nearly all the original horse- using peoples of antiquity, as well as among many of more modern times. The feeling of repugnance to eating horse-meat that many people feel arose in a very curious way out of such early associations. So far as its natural qualities go, horse- meat is little if at all inferior to beef, and various races have habitually eaten it. It formed the principal food of some of the peoples of the Old Stone Age, and the later Huns, Mongols, and Tartars also ate it. Before Europe’s conversion to Christianity, horse-meat was much eaten at religious festivals held in honor of the old pagan gods. Because of these associations with heathenism the early Christian missionaries forbade its use, as ““meat offered to idols.”” Hence people gradually came to feel that there must be something repulsive in horse-meat itself, and many still have this feeling without in the least knowing why. With all our machinery we moderns are in danger of underestimating the importance of domestic animals in earlier days. We think of them today mainly as sources of food, leather, and wool; and in large measure certain forms, such as the pig, the sheep, and the goat, have always been so. But others, especially the ox, the horse, and the camel, became chiefly important to man as ani- mated machines, capable of doing his work for him far more effectively than he himself could do it unassisted. Man’s treatment of animals finds several rather inter- esting parallels in his treatment of man, whom perhaps It is not altogether incorrect to call also a domestic animal. All but the more backward races have passed through the institution of slavery. Before its development prisoners of war were killed, often with frightful tortures. Then it occurred to the more advanced peoples that they might do better to spare some and make them do the hard and disagreeable work. Thus slavery in its origin marked a great step in advance in the direction of humanity and belongs probably to the New Stone Age. [ 254] THETINEW (STONE ‘AGE But man has also sacrificed human beings and even eaten them in connection with magical or religious cere- monies, just as he has done with animals. Mankind has rarely practiced cannibalism solely for food, however, but almost always has had the idea of deriving strength and Fic. 73. Dog travois used by the American Plains Indians before they acquired the horse from the whites. After Wissler courage from the flesh of the victim, or of propitiating cruel gods by offering human sacrifices and then partaking of their bodies in a communal feast. Man’s first step in the use of animals for other than food or sacrificial purposes probably took place when he slung a burden over the back of an ox or a horse while shifting camp. It may indeed have been that some tired youngster laid his burden across his dog’s back and thus first demon- strated that animals could be used for this purpose. The dog, in fact, was regularly used as a pack animal by certain American Indian tribes before they obtained horses from the Spaniards. From early times man utilized various animals for car- rying loads, among them, especially, donkeys, cattle, and [255] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST camels, in the Old World, and llamas, distant cousins of the camel, in the New. Then some inventive genius, perhaps inspired by his own tendency to drag things he could not pick up, found that an animal could haul a great deal more behind him than he could carry on his back. This great discovery led step by step to the utilization of animals for drawing plows and carts. Out of this idea grew that of the wheeled cart, the origin of which, however, fades out in prehistoric darkness. Prob- ably some sort of sledge came first, some contrivance like the travois of the North American Indians—two poles lashed to the animal’s sides, with the load placed on the part that trailed along the ground. From something of this sort must have developed a sledge on the order of the “stone boat’’ used by farmers for hauling loads of stones. The inventive powers of Neolithic man in most portions of the world seem to have been unequal to producing the wheel in even its simplest form. The most advanced peoples of the New World, like the Incas, the Mayas, and the Aztecs, remained wholly ignorant of it before the white man came. Even the ancient Egyptians appear to have acquired it late—long after they knew the plow; and it did not reach southern Africa, northern Asia, and the Pacific area till late historic times. In all probability the wheel was invented only once, most likely in southeastern Asia, and from that region it has gradually spread over the whole earth as we see it to- day. We may surmise that it developed out of the log roller which we still see placed under heavy burdens to ease them over the ground. To save himself the trouble of having to pick up rollers after the load had passed over them and then run around and place them on the ground in front of it again, some prehistoric inventor hit on the scheme of driving pegs into the under surface of his sledge to keep the roller dragging along between them as it turned. Next, to lessen the friction against the ground, the middle section of the log was cut away all around, [ 256 ] PLATE 66 ” = eee isis: Wie 22 ka ble Riptide laminin ice Upper: Primitive Chinese cart with two solid wheels and basketwork top, drawn by two bullocks yoked tandem Lower: Chinese two-wheeled cart with built-up wheels, widespread before the invention of true spokes. Photographs by C. W. Bishop THE NEW STONE AGE forming an axle, and the primitive cart appeared in all its essentials—body, axle, and wheels. Even today we see in various parts of the world carts of this type, where a round axle, held in place between pairs of wooden pins, turns with the wheels (Plate 66). In time man cut away part of the solid wheels to lighten the weight, and from this he advanced to the step of as- sembling them from separate pieces, although they still ANNAN { ulti it i i Fic. 74. Primitive Mexican cart, introduced from Spain. From specimen in the National Museum remained attached firmly to the axle so that the latter revolved with them (Fig. 74). Long generations passed before true spokes, all radiating outward from the hub, were invented. In many parts of China today, for ex- ample, one sees a type of wheel in which the axle passes through a massive wooden construction something in the shape of a capital H, instead of true spokes as in Plate 66. From the beginning man seems to have associated the wheel, and along with it the cart, with religious beliefs and practices. One of the earliest uses to which he put wheeled vehicles was to carry symbols or representations of the gods, on the march or into battle. We see proof of this practice in prehistoric rock drawings, ancient models of sacred cars, in the folklore and mythology of many peoples, and in the historical records of some ancient races. Probably the use of chariots in war began in this way. [ 257 ] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST For the early rulers were priests and medicine men, that is, powerful magicians, as well as kings. We find them some- times even regarded as gods, or sons of a god, and so too holy to set foot on the ground. Before carts were known Fic. 75. South African Bushman. woman’s digging stick, weighted with a perforated stone. After Ratzel he used the digging-stick, a pointed implement sometimes weighted with attendants carried such rulers about in litters, both in the Old World and the New. Their presence was necessary at battles in order to insure good fortune to their own side. Their subjects did not expect them to take active part in the fighting, but to devote themselves to beating a drum or otherwise “making medicine,” just as Tecumseh’s brother, the Prophet, did at the battle of Tippe- canoe already mentioned. The modern descendant of the primitive witch doc- tor’s drum still remains part of the paraphernalia of war and until very recently was actually carried into battle. Man of the New Stone Age took a great step forward when he yoked his animals to a plow. In carrying on the rudimentary agri- culture of the early Neolithic Period, stone, for turning up the soil (Fig. Fic. 76. Ancient Egyp- 75), and a crude hoe, at first merely ea kate gee a forked branch, but later equipped Petrie with a blade of stone, shell, or bone. Because of the superficial resemblances in shape be- tween the hoes (Fig. 76) and the plows shown on the Egyptian monuments, people have deduced that the plow [258] RHESNEW STONE “AGE developed from the hoe. This, however, seems not to have been the case, for the working of the two implements differs fundamentally in principle. The hoe is dragged toward the operator, while the plow is thrust away from ths US} aun \ a We PRM NE ae \\ y ; = Wem ise mp, es M) a v Dry, (Thad wy : c. Fic. 77. Caschrom, or foot-plough, used in the Isle of Skye, off the west coast of Scotland. Reproduced from a photograph by courtesy of Mr. E. Cecil Curwan him. In its use, therefore, the latter recalls the primitive digging-stick, and the existence of several intermediate links seems to prove it the true ancestor of the plow. An implement, called a caschrom, for turning up the ground (Fig. 77), is used in the islands of Skye and the [ 259] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST Hebrides, off the west coast of Scotland. This somewhat resembles a primitive plow in shape but is operated by one man, who uses it in much the same way as a spade. Closely similar implements have been reported from various other regions, both in ancient and modern times. These clearly constitute developments of the primitive Vic. 78. Korean three-man spade, still occasionally used in remote parts of the peninsula digging-stick on the one hand and forerunners of the plow on the other. They need, in fact, to make them plows, only the addition of a beam. Apparently a still further step in the evolution of the plow is the so-called “three-man spade,” still used in re- mote districts in Korea (Fig. 78). This consists simply of a heavy spade of crude form, with ropes attached by means of which two extra men add their strength to that of the wielder in thrusting it into the ground. What must have been a closely similar instrument, but worked by half a [ 260 ] THE NEW STONE) AGE dozen men and probably coming nearer to making a con- tinuous furrow, is shown on the Egyptian monuments (Fig. 79). Apparently, then, certain peoples, still in the Neolithic phase of culture, had developed a crude sort of plow, drawn or jerked along by men or women. Perhaps their close asso- ciation with the ideas of fertility and growth led man to use sa- cred animals, es- pecially cattle, tow) ‘help, drag these early implements through the ground. In some such way the true ox-drawn plow of the earliest historical times must have developed. Man had probably learned to make string, including thread and yarn of various degrees of fineness, well back in the Old Stone Age. Possibly then, and certainly during the following Mesolithic, i ui 'y ‘ \) he had learned to weave fibers of various sorts . Fic. 79. Ancient Egyptian man-drawn plough. After Moret and Davy MU into matting and basket- of UT ,, erate: ee thie teas M "ue wt but a step to the weaving of textiles. He had long since grasped the idea of Fic. 80. Prehistoric Swedish rock en- cutting and fitting animal graving of ae ea After de skins for garments, so when the superiority of cloth for this purpose became apparent, he could make the change without difficulty. Different parts of the world used different fibers for weaving: Europe, western Asia, and ancient Egypt used [260 | MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST linen and wool; India, cotton; and southeastern Asia, hemp and silk. Some reason exists for the supposition that the cocoons of the silkworm were at first torn up and shredded and then twisted into thread before it was found that much longer and stronger fibers could be had by simply unwinding them. In most parts of the New World where clothing was necessary at all, skins continued to be used; but even there, in certain regions, weaving became known and reached finally a high degree of excellence. Art had its beginning far back in the Old Stone Age. The earlier of the paintings and carved work found in the caves of southwestern Europe, authorities agree, date at least from 20,000 to 25,000 years ago. And doubtless even before that men and women adorned their bodies with strings of shells and teeth and bright berries, with various painted designs and possibly tattoo marks as well, to say nothing of bright feathers and the skins and even horns of various animals. But primitive man designed none of these primarily for decoration. He meant them for charms, to ward off evil or bring good luck. Every man throughout those long, dark ages doubtless had his ‘“‘medi- cine bag” containing odds and ends of all sorts—bits of crystal, curiously shaped stones and knots of wood, dried portions of the bodies of animals and men—anything, in short, that drew his attention for any reason and seemed to him endowed with mysterious power. The virtue still attached by some people to a rabbit’s foot or to the “hand of glory”—the dried hand of a man who has been hanged—is a last lingering trace of this very primitive conception. Man made an advance upon this when he began to shape his charms artificially. At first, probably for long ages, he confined himself to selecting objects that bore a chance or fancied resemblance to a bird, an animal, or a human face, eventually increasing the likeness by a little pecking and chipping here and there. But during the Aurignacian and Magdalenian epochs of the Old Stone Age artists did [ 262 | nn RHE NEW STONE ‘AGE real carving, much of it of a very high order, in stone, bone, mammoth ivory, and reindeer antler, and probably, too, in wood. During the New Stone Age, also, men undoubtedly did much carving in wood, at least in certain regions. The Maoris, the Polynesian _ na- tives of New Zealand, when discovered _ by European navi- gators, were in a phase of the New Stone Age; and in the carvings on their canoes, the beams. of their houses, and many of . their Fic. 81. Necklace of leopard’s teeth, Congo region, wooden weapons Africa. After Frobenius and utensils, they had attained extremely high artistic merit. Doubt- less New Stone Age man of prehistoric times likewise carved in wood. We must not forget that many—probably the great bulk — of the materials used as a base for decoration in Fic. 82. Wooden ladle, from a Swiss lake village. After Keller all ages have been of a perishable nature. How many, for example, of the wonderful Hawaiian feather cloaks, or the painted buffalo robes of the Plains Indians, or the carved [ 263 ] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST totem poles of the Northwest Coast, will be left after the lapse of a few centuries? Hence, concerning the art of the New Stone Age in such regions as Europe, western Asia, and China, which left that stage of civilization behind Fic. 83. Reconstruction of group of Swiss lake dwellings built out over the water on piles. After Schmidt several thousand years ago, we can know only the com- paratively little executed in such exceptionally durable materials as stone, ivory, or baked clay. Real architecture first appeared during this same Neo- lithic phase of man’s development. Men then learned to build not mere windbreaks or even huts, but groups of substantial timber houses with walls of bark or wattle- work daubed with clay. For defense, they built their villages over the water (Fig. 83) or surrounded them with strong stockades made of logs set on end, side by side, in the earth. They also began to erect earthworks of various sorts—foundation platforms for temples and other im- [ 264 |] PLATE 67 Simple type of loom used by certain American Indians umnasntAy JeUOTIBAT OU UT dno *srouUIWeY auoIs UTM “Spyoo Staddoo yno Sunvaq suvipuy uvorwour W [euonenN 2u7 ul i) y Yim “py 1W¥9q Ipu] I V 89 ALV Id THE NEW STONE AGE portant public buildings, earthen ramparts, and mounds in the shape of various living or mythological creatures, like the famous serpent mound of Ohio—these last, of course, connected with religious ceremonials. Then they commenced to make use of stone also for architectural purposes, first probably in the form of sacred emblems and symbolic pillars often connected with the worship of an- cestors and’ with fertility cults; then for platforms, ter- races, and tombs; and finally for actual buildings, often elaborately carved and decorated. In the New Stone Age we must seek also for man’s first employment of metals, destined later to play such a tre- mendously important part in human development. At first, he merely picked up nuggets of “native” gold and perhaps copper, and hammered and worked them into shape cold, treating them exactly like lumps of some sort of tough, soft stone. True metal-working, with all that it implies, came much later. At the beginning of the New Stone Age man had ad- vanced but little beyond pure savagery—the life of the food gatherer, hunter, and fisherman. Before its close he had learned, in the more advanced regions, to grow large and regular crops; to rear herds of domestic animals; to employ human labor, both free and slave, on a large aad well-organized scale; to make excellent pottery; to weave fine fabrics; to. erect stone palaces and temples; and, finally, to make the first tentative attempts in the working of metals. After remaining almost wholly at the mercy of its environment for many hundreds of thousands of years, man’s genius was at last coming into its own. CHAPTER XIV THE AGE OF BRONZE We divide the story of man’s progress into successive “ages” for convenience only. In reality no sharp breaks separated one period from another. What actually hap- pened was that somewhere, among some particular group of people, a new discovery, a new invention, would occur and then slowly spread until it became a permanent fea- ture of man’s heritage. Thus, during the New Stone Age, men began to notice and work with such metals as they found occurring naturally—nuggets of gold and lumps of copper. Gold proved too soft and too scarce to serve as a suitable material for implements of everyday use. From the be- ginning man held it too precious ever to use for anything but ornaments, and, later on, as a medium of exchange. But copper, though not so widely distributed as gold, occurs in far larger deposits and is harder, two reasons which better adapt it for shaping into tools and weapons. Copper occurs “native,” that is, in the metallic form, in different places both in the Eastern and the Western Hemispheres; for example, in the Lake Superior region of North America. We find accordingly that various tribes of Indians already made copper objects, including orna- ments, axes, and spearheads, hammered out cold, before the white man came. Some areas, like Mexico, Central America, and Peru, had made still further progress, and there we find the ancient peoples practicing a true, albeit simple, metallurgy, including melting and casting. In the Old World, a similar process seems to have begun [ 266 | THE AGE OF BRONZE earlier and developed much faster. This transitional period from the use of stone to that of bronze is some- times called the Chalcolithic, from the Greek words for “copper “and. stone.) Only : very slowly did conserva- tive man give up stone tools and weapons in favor of those made of metal, and for a long time he used both together, just as today we see the horse and wagon still employed side by side with the motor truck. Mining began long before the use of metals. Even back in the Old Stone Age man dug for suitable lumps of flint out of which to shape his various tools and implements. During the New Stone Age he went much further, and learned to sink regular shafts and tunnels in the chalk deposits where flint occurs, using as his chief tool a pick made of a deer’s antler with one tine or prong left on. Examples, of these primitive ancestors of the modern pickax are not uncom- mon in ancient workings (Fig. 84). The devel- opment of min- ing for metals, Fic. 84. Pick made of deerhorn, used by flint miners in once man _ had the New Stone Age. From Grime’s Graves, Norfolk, realized that ams they, too, could be obtained from the ground, presented therefore no difficulties, and we find ancient mines and heaps of slag in various parts of the world, to bear witness to the activities of the primitive miner and metal worker. At first man classed the new material as a kind of stone, as the earliest implements of copper, especially the axes and daggers, clearly show; for long after they had come not merely to be hammered out cold, but actually cast in simple molds, they still kept the shapes of their stone predecessors. [ 267 ] MAN ‘FROM THE’ FARTHESE ‘PAST Probably some accident led to the great discovery that heat would turn these curious stones soft and even make them run. A piece of gold fell into the fire and was melted; or a lump of copper ore was used along with other stones to make a fireplace, and turned soft in the heat. Nor should we ignore the probability that man, once he had reached a certain stage of intelligence, would deliber- ately make all sorts of experiments, Just to “see what would happen.” Pure copper is much more difficult to melt and cast successfully than when alloyed with certain other sub- Fic. 85. Flint-bladed dagger from the Neolithic village of Vinelz, Switzerland. From MacCurdy, after Tschumi stances. It happens that copper ores sometimes contain small quantities of arsenic, antimony, or tin, which when reduced will form natural alloys: so that chance no doubt led man to the discovery of how to make bronze. As one of the earliest alloys, man employed lead. Then he found that tin made a better one, and finally that the most satis- factory proportions were ninety per cent of copper and Fic. 86. Late Bronze Age sword, Switzerland. After Keller ten per cent of tin. This discovery ushered in the true Bronze Age, and it led to more far-reaching developments than the making of superior weapons and tools. For tin occurs in quantity in only a few places, and the demand for it perceptibly furthered the great extension of trade and migration and war, both by land and by sea, which we now know took place during the Bronze Age. [ 268 | . lunasnyyy [BUOHWBNY 943 Ul dnossy *Sd1injUdd JUdSAT UTYIIM BISY Wl uodI Jo asn ay} peusvsy ynq ‘asp ezuo1g on1j ¥ pey 1aAdu soulsiioqe auiddipiyg eYL ‘“spurysy surddipryg ‘dnoss JO1O5] 69 ALV Id THE AGE OF BRONZE The first metal workers used shallow open stone molds for the reception of the molten metal; but, with improve- ment in the technic cf casting and the development of better alloys, they employed molds of earthenware and even of bronze itself, the forms and designs at the same time becoming much more elaborate. The “lost wax” process represents one of the later improvements in cast- ing. An exact model of the desired object was made in wax, and coated thickly with clay. After the latter had dried and hardened, it was heated until the wax melted and ran out. Molten bronze was then poured in, and naturally took the shape of the wax, down to the smallest detail. This method obtained some very beautiful and striking effects. Simple triangular daggers and axes and the halberd characterized the earlier part of the Bronze Age. The halberd consisted of a dagger blade mounted crosswise at the end of a wooden handle, and was essentially a sort of tomahawk with a pointed blade. In certain regions it came to be made of bronze throughout, handle and all, and sometimes with elaborate decorations. But more efiicient weapons, the bronze battle-ax and sword and spear, eventually replaced it. Out of the primitive flint-bladed dagger (Fig. 85), about as ugiy and ineffective a weapon in a fight as the neck of a broken bottle, there evolved, first, the simple and short- bladed triangular copper dagger. With the invention of bronze this was lengthened and in time became a short, straight, double-edged thrusting and stabbing sword, ornamented in various ways characteristic of different localities. Also, the method of hafting—of joining blade and hilt—improved, until finally the ancient armorers cast the entire sword, including the hilt, in one piece. The earlier bronze swords were used only for thrusting and not for chopping, a stroke reserved for the ax.. In time, how- ever, the blade was widened toward its point to make a “leaf-shaped” sword, which could be used for slashing as [ 269 | MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST well as thrusting (Fig. 86). By the time man had devised all these improvements he had learned the use of iron, which gradually crowded out bronze for the manufacture of weapons. In hafting his spears at the opening of the Bronze Age, the armorer naturally copied the method in use with flint spears; that is, he split the end of the spearshaft and in- serted and_ lashed fast the spearhead. Later on he fas- tened it with rivets. Eventually the bronze heads were provided with sock- ets into which was thrust the end of the shaft. We still re- tain both these an- cient methods of hafting in some of Fic. 87. Bronze axes cast with loops for lash- ing to the helve. After Keller our modern tools; for example, we use chisels with tangs and others with sockets, the latter es- pecially for types of work where hammering on the end of the handle would be apt to cause it to split. Bronze axes served both as tools and weapons; with them one might split either firewood or the heads of one’s enemies. In the beginning they were hafted much as stone axes had been. Later in certain regions a sort of socket back of the blade was gradually developed (Figs. 87 and 88). Finally the plan of passing the helve through the ax head, just as we still do, was devised, apparently in southwestern Asia pretty early i in the Bronze Age. The men of some regions of scarce metal copied bronze battle-axes in stone—shape, perforation, and all. Some- [ 270 ] THE AGE OF BRONZE times, no doubt, it was Just a case of the poor man copying the rich man’s bronze battle-ax in a cheaper and more easily obtainable material. But from the beginning man- kind regarded axes as mysterious weapons imbued with magical virtues, so they might easily have attributed the superior power and efhicacy.. of, the bronze battle-ax as a weapon to its shape rather than to the material of which it was made. Thus they would try to copy the former when they could not obtain Fic. 88. Bronze ax with wooden helve; to illus- trate the manner of hafting. From Switzerland. the latter. After Keller During the New Stone Age men had to content themselves with armor made of leather, wickerwork, slats of wood or bone, and the like. But the introduction of bronze weapons brought with it both the need and the material for better shields, helmets, and breastplates. At first defen- sive armor con- sisted of little more than a shield, just as with many modern tribes Of. |. Sana ges. Sometimes this was round Fic. 89. Copper axes and combination ax-adz. From Hungary. After Keller and made of [27nd MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST boards covered with leather, with a knob or spike of bronze in the center, a type of shield especially charac- teristic of the British Isles and Scandinavia. Then the leather or basketwork cap gave place to a hel- met of bronze, often ornamented in various ways with, horns, wings, or crests of horsehair. Bronze breastplates or cuirasses also were devised, first merely as overlapping bands or scales of metal sewed ont) the Teather jerkin, but later as complete suits of armor. Probably the de- mand for protection against the improved slashing swords introduced toward the end of the Bronze Age produced these. Greaves, or “‘shin-guards,” of bronze completed the armor of the typical Bronze Age man-at-arms. Goliath of Gath, whom David overcame, was such a warrior; the Bible story describes him as wearing a helmet, a coat of mail, greaves, and a “target,” or shield, of brass, or as we should say today, bronze. His spearhead, how- ever, seems to have been of iron. His boastful challenge to his opponent, “Come to me, and I will give thy flesh unto the fowls of the air, and to the beasts of the field,” was charac- teristic of the way in which the champions of opposing armies used to defy and insult each other before starting to fight. The practice is not un- known between combatants to- Fic. go. Stone copies of bronze day. battle-axes, central Europe. From In some re ions of cool cli- Childe g mate, people wore woolen gar- ments, consisting essentially of a tunic for both sexes, with trousers for the men and skirts for the women, while a long cloak served the purpose of the modern overcoat (Figs. g1 and g2). These articles were held in place by Popa ssoisuog jo Arvaqry ur ydeasojoyd wor "aay sJayiod jo aoryd sayri Soimsvow v ur Qioddns yiomiayseg ‘vuozuy “saii0d uewom uripuy idopy OL ALV 1d THE AGE OF (BRONZE girdles, belts, and fibulae, or “‘fasteners,”’ usually of bronze, working on the same principle as our modern safety-pins. The types of fibulae differ in various regions and at dif- ferent periods and so help materially in identifying the age and source of Bronze Age deposits. The art of making pottery began, as we have seen, soon after the close of the Old Stone Age, perhaps as an out- growth of basketry. It underwent steady improvement during the Neolithic stage of culture, which probably witnessed the first crude beginnings of that most useful implement, the potter’s wheel. In making a clay pot by hand, the great difficulty was to turn it so that the potter —almost always in early times a woman—could shape it evenly all around. So someone had the clever idea of putting the ball of wet clay into a shallow basket or the hollow of a large piece of broken pottery, and then turning the latter around gradually as the vessel took shape. Later a disk of wood or stone, mounted on a vertical axis, replaced the shallow basket. The potter turned this with one hand while he molded the clay with the other, until it occurred to him to use his foot through the agency of a treadle. This left both hands free to shape the bowl, en- abling him to produce truer and much more artistic forms. It is possible, indeed, that man invented the potter’s wheel before the cart. At all events, it appears in ancient Egypt far earlier than the cart. With the change from making pottery by hand to making it on the wheel, men came to replace women as potters, a substitution which seems roughly to have co- incided with the beginning of the Bronze Age. Few classes of objects are of more importance to the archeologist than fragments of broken pottery. For clay, once baked, is almost indestructible, while different periods and countries and peoples all have their own distinctive styles of shaping and decorating earthenware vessels. The earlier pots and bowls often bore simply the impressions of mats, basketry, string, or even the finger-nail, stamped [273 ] MAN . FROM THE PARTHESE ‘PAS? in while the clay was still soft. Later on greatly elabo- rated shapes appeared, sometimes with ornamental designs in clay, incised, molded, or stuck on the outside, some- times with smoothed or burnished surfaces. In certain areas, both of the Old and the New World, various de- signs, usually if not always of magical meaning, were painted on. Then vessels, in a few countries, were coated with glaze. The glazed earthenware dug out of old Chinese tombs, dating back to about the begin- ning of the Christian Era, often proves to have acquired wonder- ful iridescent hues much _ ad- mired by collectors. True porce- lain, the highest development of the potter’s art, originated in China, where it was brought to perfection only during the past thousand years or so. The use of bronze gave such life to trade as it had never known before. It increased commerce and the intermingling of peoples directly and indirectly. By its contribution to the rise in the Fioh atay Male aestueeret standards of living it helped in- t Age. : : NSLS Keeeee eR spire the demand for new luxuries, to its helve. From Mac- which led enterprising and ener- aac acnieey getic peoples to branch out in all directions, trading, conquering, plundering, destroying. Homer tells us, for example, how the Bronze Age Greeks overthrew and burned the city of Troy. The demand for tin, essential to the manufacture of bronze, led to the establishment of peaceful trade relations with distant peoples. Amber, the fossil resin found especially around the Baltic Sea, held a prominent place in the luxury trade. [ 274 ] THE AGE OF BRONZE The peoples of more southern countries regarded it as a magic talisman possessing wonderful virtues and sought after it eagerly, as they did after gold, ivory, turquoise, pearls, fragrant herbs, and incense. The demand for such things, if it did not actually originate in the Bronze Age, at least greatly increased then, and in time resulted in drawing a large part of the ancient world into a single economic unit, linked to- gether by caravan trails and sea routes extending in all directions. The wheeled vehicle, though well known by this time, was used main- ly in ceremonials, for war, and in farm work, and to some extent in local transport. In many regions the almost total absence of roads rendered impossible its employment for long journeys. The “through freights”” used pack animals—don- keys, horses, mules, and oxen. They made their way often in long trains, over mountain ranges and across plains, by means of the footpaths which had come to seam them in all directions from far back in the Stone Age. LG The camel, destined later on to Uae ae become the most important caravan jn an oak coffin in a grave- anamaleot all, was hardly known ._moundin Denmark bem : : acCurdy, after Montelius during the Bronze Age. Its use did not become general, and then only in certain countries, until the true historic period—about the beginning of the Iron Age proper. Commerce by water became during the Bronze Age almost as important as that by land. Beginning ap- parently in the transitional period between the Old and [275] —SS SSAA SSA = Sow SAA, MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST the New Stone Age, man had developed different craft to support himself on the water. The simple dugout canoe occurred almost the world over. In the far north and in treeless regions, men learned to make canoes by building frames of wood and then stretching over them skins of animals or birch bark. The inflated skins of oxen and goats have also been used in various ways as floats. Whatever the process of construction, however, the standard method of propulsion remained foe a long time an esa i ; iii : iam ml mt it int, Hs i LF cy He Wie Wie ly i My n'lll( } iy i i ih Hien i si Hh a ae tit . ae oe iN Hl ie th ye cel im C i i) Ht mig Fic. 93° So-called “bull-boat” of the American Plains Indians, used for crossing streams; a similar type of craft occurs in Tibet. From specimen in the National Museum the same—a paddle wielded by a paddler sitting or stand- ing with his face to the front. In this way considerable speed might be attained, especially for short spurts; but it wasted energy, for the paddler could not apply his strength to the best advantage. [ 276 | READE 1 in Model fic. i western Pac Caroline Islands, Ing canoe; Outrigger sail National Museum PLATE 72 Chinese deep-sea fishing junk. The “eye” on each bow is a vestige of the time when a ship was regarded as a living thing. From a painting by I. A. Donnelly THE AGE OF BRONZE Of course, canoes were also poled and towed, or “tracked”; but paddling represented the best means of propulsion that man could devise for many thousands of years. At length, however, some bright mind hit upon the scheme of using the boat itself as a fulcrum, and the oar was born. A very primitive form of rowing, in some ways intermediate between paddling and true rowing as we understand it, still survives in parts of China. Here the oarsman stands up, facing forward, just as in paddling, and wields an oar slung to an upright peg on the edge or gunwale of the boat. He therefore pushes instead of pull- ing his oar, and so fails to exert his strength to the fullest advantage. Another method, very common in Far East- ern waters and also used by the gondoliers of Venice, is that of sculling. Here the oar, instead of being held more or less at right angles to the side of the boat, is nearly parallel to it, and 1s moved to and fro through the water somewhat as a fish moves its tail in swimming. But, where the oarsman, facing backward, pulled at the oar instead of pushing it, he could “put his back” into his stroke, utilizing all his strength and weight to the best advantage. Before man reached this stage of propulsion, however, he had taken another epoch-making step forward which greatly increased his mastery over his environment. He had invented the sail. So long as he could progress over the water only by means of his own strength, sea travel labored under a serious handicap. A large canoe or boat had to carry a numerous crew of paddlers in order to secure enough man-power. This meant more mouths to feed and at the same time less room for provisions and cargo. But when some genius found that by raising a mat or piece of cloth on a pole he could sit at ease in his boat, guiding it by a stroke of the steering paddle now and then, while the breeze did all the work for him, the whole com- plexion of affairs changed. Then the crew could be greatly [277 ] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST reduced, with a corresponding increase in the cruising radius and the space for goods of all sorts. Also men wore out, but the wind never did; the size of the sea alone limited the distance potentially traversable with the aid of the sail. To the Bronze Age we owe, then, the type of craft, pro- pelled by oar and sail, which remained in use until the ap- plication of steam to navigation, little more than a cen- Set TL RRP RLS SESS ASSESS > LYMM Ys UW , i) ‘ SS hy AA thes El iM 4, SSS: SS MAU Y AY ROY YP SRNR NYS SA TREE EES ELANY TERED TERRES irae SS 5 SHAN meaean ions seieiyaycandess a idiiehj iit Fic. 94. Roman coin of bronze about 300 B.c._ In stil] earlier times oxen were themselves a medium of exchange. After Hill tury ago. Development in detail there was, of course, but the fundamental principle remained the same. With commerce came money, another great step for- ward made in the Bronze Age. Trade in its literal sense had existed, of course, from the earliest times, ever since men learned that exchanging articles sometimes afforded a better way of acquiring desired objects than hitting their owner over the head and taking them away from him. Barter rernained long in vogue and exists even today in certain backward regions of the globe. Nevertheless, the need of a standard of values came in time to be recognized. This function was fulfilled commonly by the ox. Thus a slave or a wife might be said to be worth so many oxen or [ 278 ] THE AGE OF BRONZE cows. We find a trace of this ancient practice in our word “pecuniary,” which comes from the Latin pecus, meaning a herd or flock. Later, in early historic times, the Romans used as a crude sort of money a rough ingot of bronze, stamped with the figure of an ox, sheep, or pig, recalling the time when these animals were themselves the medium of exchange (Fig. 94). A fixed quantity of grain of one sort or another also served as a standard of values in some regions till recent times. The Japanese, down to the middle of the nineteenth century, com- puted incomes in bags of rice, each holding about five bushels. But the development of a true coinage resulted from the introduction of metal. Man soon realized that bronze ob- jects—rings, tools, and weap- ons—provided him convenient objects to trade with; they were much in demand and in their very nature they came to be more or less standardized in size and weight and quality. Their use, which extended wherever the knowledge of bronze ex- tended in late prehistoric times, represented, of course, only a special form of barter. You “swapped” a bronze ax or hoe or knife for so many furs or so Fic. 95. Early Chinese knife- money of copper; about 650- 250 B.c. After Lockhart much amber. But in time the weight of full-sized bronze tools and weapons presented difficulties, especially on a long trading expedition; so small models of the objects were cast to take their place. Thus token money was devised. [ 279 ] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST The ancient Chinese cast coins of this sort—models of knives and spades (Figs. 95 and 96)—in extremely thin bronze and continued their use until well into the historic period. And in parts of Africa hoes made of iron are still employed as a medium of exchange. Likewise, expanding trade gradually developed systems of weights and measures whereby goods might be valued more exactly than by the rough-and-ready methods in vogue in earlier times. Often the unit of measurement was based upon the dimensions of some part of the human body; such were the foot, the span, the cubit, and the fathom. The feet or hands or arms of no two persons might be exactly alike, but this did not matter very much in those days. Precision in measuring did not come until much later, and even yet has not been fully adopted, even in civilized lands, so that we still continue to sell eggs by the dozen and not by weight, the only exact method. But even with these improved means of buying and sell- ing, commerce in the Bronze Age remained in what we should today consider a very undeveloped state. Owing to the primitive means. otf Ee th transport—the backs ‘of slaves and animals on land and canoes or small ships on the water—only objects of high value and dura- bility in proportion to their weight and bulk Fic. 96. Early Chinese hoe-money of copper; could be carried far or about 650-250 B.c. After Lockhart made to cover the cost of transportation. Such were gold, tin, ivory, amber, furs, and the like. Bulkier and heavier freight, like lum- ber, stone, grain, oil, or wine, could be moved only in small quantity and for short distances, on barges or rafts. [ 280 ] EE, AGE, OF BRONZE Thus we know that the ancient Egyptians, for example, pretty early brought cedar logs for building purposes from Lebanon across the southeast corner of the Mediterranean Sea to their own treeless land. And rafts floated blocks of stone for statues or columns down the Nile and the Euphrates from the quarries to the places where they were to be used. Man of the Bronze Age made remarkable progress also in art and architecture. He did not, apparently, accom- plish much with sculpture in stone except in a few favored regions, notably that along the lower Nile; but at casting in bronze and decorating bronze weapons he displayed great gifts both in Europe and in Asia. Certain regions favored “‘geometric’’ designs—the spiral, frets, triangles, and rows of dots and circles. Others represented various animal and vegetable forms in certain characteristic ways. Sometimes the bronze was plated with gold or the objects themselves made of solid gold. The art of studding metal with precious stones was practiced and led in time to the development of enameling on metal and finally to the wonderful c/oisonné work brought to an especially high degree of excellence in medieval China. Of the so-called minor arts of the Bronze Age, the jewelry merits particular attention. This consisted largely of rings of various sorts—for the neck, arms, wrists, fingers, ankles, and ears—made not only of bronze, but of gold, silver, and even iron, at first very rare and regarded as a precious metal. People wore, too, necklaces of various materials, such as amber, ivory, and gold, as well as belt clasps, sometimes highly ornamented and studded with turquoise. For their hair they used combs of bronze, horn, ivory, bone, and wood. Also they lavished deco- rations on horse trappings. The more advanced groups of mankind had by now progressed very far indeed beyond the cave, the windbreak, or even the thatched hut of earlier days. Man had learned, [ 281 ] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST for one thing, that earth and stone made far more durable building material than wood. The stockaded village, like those once built by many of the American Indians and still in active use in various backward parts of the world, now gave place in certain regions to the walled town. Doubtless this development was gradual. No one in- dividual, however gifted, could have conceived the idea, all at once, of making even adobe bricks and of piling them, Fic. 97. Bronze vase with geometrical ornamentation and with rims perforated for suspension; Denmark, late Bronze Age. After Neergaard one on top of another, to form a wall. We may surmise the probable course of events, beginning with the piling up of alittle earth about the bases of the upright stakes form- ing the palisade, to give them a firmer support. Then it was found that by increasing the amount of earth, so as to form a mound with a stockade running along its top, an even better defensive work might be formed. Regions of scarce trees dispensed with the wooden fence and built the earthen mound high enough and steep enough on its outer surface to form an effective obstacle to marauders. In some cases, as at present in the villages of northern China, [ 282 | THE AGE OF BRONZE tangled masses of savage thorns surmounted the wall to make it still more difficult to scale. As a further step men found that, by ramming down successive layers of earth between retaining frames of planks, they could make the mound much stronger and more durable. Sometimes they embedded logs and bundles of sticks in the clay to give it additional rein- forcement. The original Great Wall of China, built about 210 B.c., but now almost entirely destroyed, was constructed in this way. Finally someone hit on the expedient of making the clay into separate bricks and drying them in the sun, like the adobe bricks still so much used in our own Southwest. It seems curious, in view of the fact that the baking of pottery had long been known, that the hardening of bricks by baking them in kilns instead of by merely drying them in the sun should have remained so long undiscovered. People undoubtedly used unshaped stones for various purposes, including that of building, even before the in- vention of bricks. Already in the New Stone Age, in some regions, huge rough stones had come to be used in various ways, especially in connection with the worship of the dead. Circles, avenues, and monuments, composed of single standing stones, sometimes of gigantic size, occur in various parts of the world, along with dolmens—tombs constructed of three or more upright stones supporting another which formed the ceiling of the funeral chamber. A great mound of earth usually if not always covered the dolmens, though this in some cases has since disappeared. The most famous of all these stone constructions is the “circle” of Stonehenge in England, which seems to have been connected in some way with the worship of the sun and to date from the Bronze Age. Here some of the stones, weighing many tons, had been transported long distances and shaped, dressed down, and provided with sockets and tenons for securing the capstones, involving an enormous amount of work. But we know that even in [ 283 ] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST the New Stone Age man had learned to organize his labor and make the best possible use of the mechanical forces known to him. With endless patience and a large force of workers intelligently employed, he was capable of accom- plishing tasks that excite amazement even today. It seems to have been the development of brick construc- tion-work that led eventually, in certain regions, to the use of regularly squared stones for the erection of walls and buildings. Stone columns were developed from the inspi- ration of wooden supporting pillars; and sometimes rafters and other architectural features, originally of wood, were later imitated in stone. Wall decoration of various kinds began early, as far back, in all probability, as the New Stone Age, when men covered the “‘wattle-and-daub” walls of huts, plastered smooth, with designs of various sorts, mostly of a symbolic or magical nature, intended to bring good luck or to ward off evil. The Bronze Age carried this much further, developing wall painting into a regular art. When stone walls came into use, as in early Egypt, they were covered with carved designs, known as reliefs, which almost invariably had some connection with religion. Sometimes they repre- sented the triumphs of the kings, regarded as themselves actually gods, over their enemies. On the walls of the tombs of important people, they showed scenes of every- day life, intended through magical means to insure to the dead man the enjoyment in the next world of the same kind of existence he had known in this. Thus we find por- trayed on the walls of Egyptian tombs scenes of worship, of war, of labor, and of sport. The designers did not at all intend these for the eyes of the survivors or of poster- ity; unquestionably not, for they sealed them up in the darkness of the tomb, as they supposed, forever. The great number of new inventions which appeared in the Bronze Age found their application to war just as do ours today and with comparable results in the develop- [ 284 ] viuvalAsuuag jo Aqissaatug, ayi Jo Asazinog =‘sAayuop Aq uMvAp puv spaayA INoj ~ =] > e) > Ss fo > i c 9g =) > ~ UIIM SJOTIe YO UBIIOSUUNG JUSTOUY AJOA SUIMOYS S99dp]eydy 94 jo I WUOdf JIesoul ul dsuop “‘piepurys eu L a IEEE PED cal oe an oh cen 3 — nd wr VT ITC" ves cecueseu +990see rey GLI LA Akal ssaisuoy jo Arerqry ul ydvasojoyg ~Ajyinbaur ur pasn aram saovsy Jou “puvqisvarg “ivyjoo oN ‘o'd Arnjuad yjuru fsuol Sununy Goreyo sy ut Sury uviidssy Dy oe asa A: toate Sg OREPES CSeynCes, » Reet ea ay yo Asajqino; "BLIaWIY [BI]Ua> JO SUBIPU] 243 Suowe asn uoWWOD ul {]19s st synYy paydieYy3 jo add} auies ayy “SuIjuied [jem vAvy “Lor “O1Y [ 333] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST which definite meanings came to be attached, and had apparently even reached the point where sounds as well as ideas had begun to be represented. So thoroughly, however, did the early Spanish conquerors do their work of destruction that the key to this writing has been lost. Many efforts have been made to regain it, but so far we can do little more than read the dates which the inscrip- tions often give. Among their other inventions, the Mayas included that of a calendar based in part on the changes of the moon. Although complicated and showing signs of gradual de- velopment, this was accurate and serviceable to an ex- ceptional degree. It says much for the astronomical and mathematical knowledge of its inventors. Of their social, political, and religious systems we know far less than we could wish. It is evident, however, that, as with all early cultures, no clear distinction was drawn between things sacred and things secular. Their whole civilization was closely interwoven with the religion which had inspired and shaped it. There were helpful gods and hurtful ones, and the essence of worship was to gain the good will of the former and keep in check the latter. To help achieve these ends, they threw into the cenofes, or huge sink-holes in the limestone, which often held a pool of water at the bottom, precious offerings of gold and carved jade and living men and women. The Mayas were beginning to acquire some knowledge of metals, including both gold and copper, which were, however, rather rare and served almost or quite exclusive- ly for the manufacture of ornaments, probably all in- vested with a religious symbolism. Apparently they had begun to make no really useful tools or weapons of copper, but only ceremonial forms based on stone originals. The Mayas had also become expert potters and had developed weaving and basket-making to a high point. They cut jade and other semiprecious stones into gro- tesque and fantastic but often beautiful forms. Their [ 334 ] PREHISTORIC MAN IN THE NEW WORLD sculptures and wall paintings show that they made great use, for decorative purposes, of the plumes of various brightly hued tropical birds. The gorgeous headdresses and other ornaments of feathers must have helped give their stately religious ceremonies an aspect of the utmost magnificence. Thanks to the dates on the Maya monuments, we can reconstruct, if only in meager outline, the history of this most interesting people. According to tradition, they came from the north. Their civilization is now believed to have had its beginnings pretty far back in the first millenium s. c. It first reached its full bloom during the early centuries of the Christian Era, in what is known as the Old Empire, centering mainly in Honduras, Guatemala, and southern Mexico. Among ruins belonging to this early period are those of Copan, in western Honduras; Quirigua, Piedras Negras, and Tikal, in Guatemala; and Palenque, in the Mexican state of Chiapas. Between 4.bD. 600 and g60, a shift of the Maya center of civilization took place, for some unknown reason, from the comparatively hilly south to the wide, level, jungle-cov- ered plain of northern Yucatan. Here, between a. p. 960 and 1195 flourished the New Empire. Among the ruins found in this region, along with many others, are those of Uxmal, Chichen-Itza, Labna, and Tuloom. Then followed a period of decline, hastened if not indeed caused by civil war. The appearance of Toltec or Mexican influence, clearly visible in the architecture and sculpture of the time, characterizes this epoch. As we have pointed out, the civilization of the Mayas was never the possession of the whole people, but only of a very small upper class. Hence adverse conditions of any sort easily affected it, and it was already far gone in decay when the Spaniards ar- rived. A remnant, however, survived in the remote inte- rior of Guatemala, about Lake Peten, until the beginning of the eighteenth century, when it, too, was destroyed. It must be emphasized that the surviving Maya ruins [ 335 ] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST are in reality only religious or, to use a modern expression, Civic, centerss./)l he cities themselves, the homes of the common people, built of highly perishable materials, must have stretched for considerable distances about these groups of pyramids, sanctuaries, and so-called ‘“‘palaces”’ of cut stone and concrete and stucco. Traces of these humbler dwellings, in the shape of vast numbers of low mounds, still occur in the depths of the tropical forests, which have long since resumed their primeval sway. There are also remains of boundary walls and even paved roads, suggesting a former numerous population and a lively commercial and social life. It is noteworthy that with few exceptions, as at Tuloom, on the eastern coast of Yucatan, no evidence exists to suggest that the Mayas ever fortified their cities. Nor do they bear any sign of having been destroyed by violence. They were not primarily commercial or military or even political communities in our sense, but were first and foremost religious centers, and ee sacred character doubtless helped protect them from molestation. Further- more, during the greater part of their history there.seem to have been no foreign foes capable of threatening them seriously. The civilization that produced them was essentially re- ligious, artistic, and intellectual in nature, rather than war- like. Nevertheless, as the Spaniards found to their cost, the Mayas could fight, and fight well, and it may be that in the days of their prime they felt their armies afforded them the: protection which some people might seek in fortifications. Be that as it may, their civilization perished, but its influence spread far and wide over the surrounding regions in somewhat the same way as did that of the Greeks in the Old World. And the Mayan people themselves remain, an industrious, cleanly, hospitable, and often highly talented race, forming a valuable element in the present- day population of Central America. [ 336 | PREHISTORIC MAN IN THE NEW WORLD THE To.trec CIVILIZATION The Mexican plateau advanced in civilization more slowly than the Maya region, although in Mexico maize (and through it the possibility of progress) seems to have developed. But in time a somewhat different although related civilization grew up there—that of the Toltecs. Among other structures, these people erected great pyramids, in some instances even larger than those of the Mayas, but in general of poorer construction and there- fore less well preserved. In their architecture the Toltecs made no use of the principle of the vault, so conspicuous in Maya buildings; and they differed in other respects as well. But although not quite so advanced, they seem to have been more aggressive and warlike than the Mayas. While the latter, early in the second millenium a. p., had begun to decline, at the same period the Toltec culture was thriving and expanding. It is accordingly at this time that we find traces of its influence in the Maya civilization. About the twelfth and thirteenth centuries a. p., the culture of the Toltecs, for reasons not yet fully under- stood, also began to decay, though it was very far from disappearing entirely. When the Spaniards arrived, under Cortes, in 1519, certain of their cities and centers of wor- ship were still flourishing. Much of southern Mexico, in fact, was then occupied by civilizations differing from one another to some extent in outward aspect, but essentially akin in their fundamentals. THE Aztec Civi LIZATION We have come, however, to associate the history of the Mexican plateau especially with the people called the Aztecs. The latter, according to their own accounts, began as a barbarous and uncivilized tribe in 4 region to the north of that in which the Spaniards found them. Thence they moved gradually southward. About six [ 337 ] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST hundred years ago, finding themselves at war with their more civilized neighbors, they took refuge in certain swampy islands in the shallow lakes of the valley of Mexico. Here they lived a sort of amphibious life, partly on land and partly on the water, and steadily absorbed more and more of the higher culture of their neighbors. In their island refuge, approximately in A. D. 1325, they founded their capital city of Tenochtitlan, later called Mexico. In time they filled in and built over more and more ground, erecting palaces, temples, and pyramids, as well as great communal houses. Long causeways con- nected this island stronghold with the mainland, the sole other means of approach being by water. Here the Aztecs dwelt secure from attack and by degrees extended their power. About A. D. 1430 they formed with the nearby cities of Tezcuco and Tlacopan a league in which the leading place was held by Tenochtitlan. The war-chief of the latter, who also possessed many priestly attributes, was its supreme head. The Spaniards called Montezuma an ‘‘emperor.”” He was in reality a priest-king of a very ancient type, such as the more advanced peoples of the Old World had outgrown thousands of years before. Aztec society, however, was far removed from simple savagery. It had a highly organized priesthood and what was tending to become a real hereditary aristocracy; it had warriors, craftsmen, laborers, peasants, and slaves. The upper classes kept the masses of the people under a severe social discipline, through which they learned habits of obedience and of submissiveness to superiors. The Aztecs had made great advances in farming, or more properly gardening. Most of the land belonged not tc individuals but to the local village communities. They constructed floating islands, called chinampas, made of rafts covered with earth, where they grew not only vege- tables but also flowers, for which they showed much fondness. They possessed no domestic animals other than the dog, as no wild species suited for domestication then [ 338 |] py Maupy “NeUOID Jay “oorxayy] Jo A119 ay] Mou ‘yeqides dazy JuaToUR syd “URTNYIOUAaT, fo dew ystueds pig 86 ULV Id 7740.44 944 fo Kaogstzy “uaedpry sayy “B[NFOYD Jo uMO} ay} UO quaurystund usipuod paysiyur ‘syuvqiqeyur sy3 Suoww AdYyIveI} JO SUBIS pa}d9}ap ay IVY} Suraaijaq ‘saz109 66 ALV Id PREHISTORIC MAN IN THE NEW WORLD existed in that part of the New World. They did, how- ever, domesticate the turkey, later introduced by the Spaniards into Europe. Pottery was, of course, early known on the Mexican plateau. In time it came to be of high quality. Much interesting work was also done in the carving of jade and other hard stones, in the manufacture of mosaics, in weav- ing, and in the making of baskets. The Aztecs worked gold, silver, and copper to some extent, but the principal material for tools remained stone. For those requiring a cutting edge, such as the knives used by the priests in killing their victims, they employed obsidian, or volcanic glass. They armed heavy hardwood clubs with a double row of obsidian blades, making weap- ons capable of striking a frightful blow, and they used spears and bows and arrows. The warriors, brilliant with war paint, carried round shields adorned with feathers, while officers further protected themselves with helmets in the form of birds and beasts of prey, with tunics of quilted cotton which could stop a stone-tipped arrow, and with wooden greaves for the legs. Montezuma himself, on account of his sacred character, was carried into battle on a litter. There were many divinities, the chief being the war god, Huitzilopochtli. Worship consisted of pageants, dances, processions, and various ceremonies, in which flowers were lavishly used, incense was burned, and music was made on flutes and drums. In the Aztec religion human sacrifice played an almost incredibly great part. The worshipers and often the vic- tims were decked out in brilliant costumes, feather orna- ments, and headdresses. In some instances they regarded the victim as the earthly personification of the god to whom he was destined to be sacrificed, and treated him accordingly with every honor up to the very day of his doom. When, about a generation before the coming of the Spaniards, the Aztecs completed the great central group [ 339 ] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST of temple-pyramids at Tenochtitlan, they accompanied its dedication with a perfect orgy of human sacrifice. Accord- ing to the old chroniclers, tens of thousands of victims of both sexes had their hearts torn out and offered to the bloodthirsty gods. One of the principal aims in Aztec warfare, in fact, was the cap- ture of victims for the in- satiable altars. Like the Mayas, the Aztecs had a sort of writing, and they had also invented a kind of paper, whereon they re- corded events, made official reports, and even attained to the beginnings of true liter- ature. The predominant tone Fic. 108. Design from Aztec sac- of their writings, especially rificial stone; the war god, Huitzil- of their poetry, was one of opochtli, on left, in the costume : : of an Aztec warrior of high rank, sadness and the inevitable seizes a captive, symbolizing the approach of death. capture of the town of Tuxpan, : “The Place of Rabbits,” as indi- Fierce fighters as they were, cated by the sign in the upper the Aztecs offered the Span- right-hand corner. After Spinden . : iards a brave and determined resistance. It is doubtful if Cortes, with all his ability and energy, could have reduced their stronghold in the lake if smallpox had not broken out among them. Even so, he had to storm their great communal houses one by one before their resistance was finally crushed. History has rarely recorded a more savage struggle. When the Span- iards at last conquered, little remained of the once proud aboriginal city of Tenochtitlan but a smoking heap of ruins. THE CIVILIZATION OF THE INCAS Civilization, so far as we now know, began almost if not quite as early in South America as it did on the Mexican plateau. Just as everywhere else in the more advanced [ 340 ] — PREHISTORIC. MAN IN THE NEW WORLD regions of the New World, it gradually developed out of an earlier ““Archaic’’ culture and depended primarily on the growing of maize. High up in the Andes, a kind of buck- wheat known as quinoa came to be raised; and it was in Peru, as we have seen, that the “Irish” potato was domesti- cated. Other plants cultivated included beans, manioc, gourds, and the maguey. The Peruvians terraced the sides of the mountains to form fields, and built aqueducts and reservoirs for irrigation. Western South America has another claim to fame, also, in that it alone of all the regions of the New World ac- complished the domestication of animals other than the dog in aboriginal times. It possessed, fortunately, a wild animal, the guanaco, or huanaco, a distant relative of the camels of the Old World, which could be utilized in this way. From it in time two domestic forms developed—the llama, used mainly for carrying loads, and the alpaca, valued for its fleece. Another wild species, the vicufia, yielded an exceptionally fine wool, reserved in later times for the use of the Inca ruler alone. Such progress toward civilization implies many centuries of settled life, and undoubtedly had already been achieved long before the Incas appeared on the scene. For the Incas came into prominence comparatively late and founded their empire only a few hundred years before the discovery of America. They claimed to be “Children of the Sun” and formed a ruling nobility held in superstitious reverence by their subjects. The Inca ruler was a divine king-god, a good deal like the earlier Egyptian Pharaohs. In order to keep the sacred blood of the royal line absolutely pure, he was required by custom to make his full sister his chief wife. The Inca Empire, when the Spaniards arrived, had come to include not only what is now Peru but also Ecuador, Bolivia, northern Chile, and northwestern Argentina. It was organized in great detail on a basis of state socialism. The common people had almost every act of life from birth [341 |] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST to death closely regulated. Practically no such thing as private property existed for them. The state was every- thing, the individual nothing. On the other hand the state guarded the people against foreign invasion, protected them from injustice, and looked after them in sickness and in health. It relieved them of all personal responsi- bility and freed them from worry about their care in old age. Under such conditions obedience became a habit and the common people little more than animated ma- chines, constantly directed and supervised by the officers of the state. Often whole groups of people were shifted about and settled wherever needed, even in regions far distant from their original homes. In this way, the Incas spread their civilization and rendered it more homo- geneous throughout the empire. They established this in the first place, of course, by force. They raised armies, organizing and handling them with the same attention to detail which marked the con- duct of affairs in peace. The warriors carried the bow, the javelin, the sling, the ax, and the club—practically all of them made of stone, copper weapons being mainly cere- monial and not for use in actual warfare. They had developed mining and metal-working to a cer- tain extent and knew gold, silver, and copper. Some of their recovered implements made of the last-named metal contain tin, and hence are in reality of bronze. It seems almost certain, however, that they did not add this alloy intentionally, but that it resulted from the accidental pres- ence of tin in the copper ore. At all events, Peruvian civilization fell far short of developing a true Bronze Age. At most it was only Chalcolithic—that is, using both stone and copper implements. The Peruvians had developed pottery to an extraordi- nary degree, even though they knew nothing of that useful contrivance, the potter’s wheel. It consisted of plain, engraved, painted, and varnished ware (Fig. 109). Weav- ing was another art carried by the Peruvians to a very [ 342 ] PREHISTORIC (MAN IN THE: NEW WORLD high pitch of excellence. They utilized both cotton and the wool of the alpaca and vicufia, designs being either woven into the fabric, embroidered, painted on, or dyed. Featherwork was also highly developed, as were wood- carving, inlaying, and the manufacture of jewelry studded Fic. 109. Section from design of a painted vase; ancient Peru. Interpreted as portraying a victorious war chief saluting his sov- ereign. After Squier with emeralds. The people regularly wore clothing, some- times of an elaborate character, along with caps, sandals, and necklaces. In architecture the Peruvians carried building in stone to a point in some respects scarcely ever equaled in any land. The Incas understood thoroughly how to handle and transport vast building blocks, with which they con- [ 343 ] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST structed not only temples but mighty fortresses, like that of Sacsahuaman protecting the ancient capital of Cuzco on the north. In building these, they cut enormous stones of irregular shape to fit one another so closely that the joints can scarcely be penetrated by a knife blade. Some- times they dispensed with mortar and occasionally fas- tened blocks together with T-shaped clamps of copper. Yet in all this only stone tools seem to have been em- ployed, for the Incas had no suitable metal ones. They knew the corbeled or “‘false”’ arch, but more often they covered buildings with extremely thick and elaborate roofs of thatch. Like the Mayas, they sometimes coated the walls with stucco; but those of the more important buildings, such as palaces and temples, they lined with plates of gold studded with jewels. The engineering feats of the Incas have aroused the admiration of later times. Some of them—the construc- tion of aqueducts, the terracing of fields, and the moving of blocks of stone weighing many tons—have already been mentioned. They also built bridges, sometimes of great stone slabs on masonry abutments, or suspended on cables of twisted osier. In certain cases mountain streams were crossed by means of a traveling basket slung from a single cable. The Incas also constructed a remarkable system of roads, even at the dizziest heights. These were not, 1n- deed, meant for wheeled vehicles, of which none existed; but they were perfectly well adapted to the passage of swift-marching companies of footmen or strings of laden llamas. Without them the Incas could hardly have kept their vast empire together. In transportation by water, on the other hand, they had remained in the canoe and raft stage. The principal type of craft was the balsa, made of bundles of reeds lashed together, and propelled by means of paddles or poles. The early Spanish narratives speak of a sort of rudimentary sail as occasionally used, but these state- ments all refer to a portion of the coast only a few hundred [ 344 ] —————— PREHISTORIC MAN IN THE NEW WORLD miles south of Panama, where the Spaniards had been for a generation before they seriously undertook the conquest of Peru. Hence it seems just possible that the Peruvians got the idea of a sail from the Spaniards. Thirty years would seem time enough for it to have spread along a few hundred miles of coast. They may, however, have developed it quite independently. Yet with all this high state of civilization, the Incas lagged behind the Mayas and the Aztecs in one important respect. They lacked a system of writing. There is a single assertion by an early Spanish chronicler A&e Neamt RRR . . . (lark \ N ‘ N that in ancient times they ym fF NN 4K y Se ti had had one which was f ‘eel cla Waa \ ; . later forgotten; but this 4 N N N \ Caer. statement lacks the sup- Was |} a iid apt : v" \) port of evidence of any ss Y VW 4 ae ‘ kind, and may almost cer- we Y Oy) SH ‘ 5 A A tainly be disregarded. EXN Ways g J \ The place of writing was Nee Ne OS ken by th pe ee N He eG taken by the use 0 y \ y & knotted cords with which were oN y an \ \ ins records of all sorts were SAIN go N Na Cas a kept. These, however, had w N “Se . . ' N N 75" the disadvantage, like the ) S. @ wampum belts of the ‘aia ON ies ; : > YW G North American Indians, ap Ax @ of being legible to- spe- all ined | I Fic. 110. Portion of a Peruvian guipu of cially trained men on y- in knotted strings, by means of which records other words the knotted were kept, as writing was unknown. strings, or guipus, were fo alae only exceptionally elaborate aids to memory. We some- times use a knotted handkerchief for the same purpose (Fig. 110). That a people without writing should have a literature may seem strange. Yet the Incas had made great ad- vances in this direction. They composed elaborate his- [ 345 ] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST tories, dramas, poems, and other works, though these could only be memorized and were not written down until after the Spanish conquest. As might be expected among a people so devoted to the worship of the heavenly bodies, the Incas had made con- siderable progress in astronomy. A fairly accurate calen- dar had been worked out, based originally on the phases of the moon, but later corrected and modified by observa- tions of the sun. For the Incas, like other early agricul- tural peoples the world over, attached great importance to periodical ceremonies performed to insure an abundant harvest. And these must be held at the right time every year if they were to do the most good. The accurate dating of historical events, which seems so important to us, was only an afterthought with the peoples who originated calendars. Thus the civilization of the ancient Peruvians was bound up with acts of worship to an extent hard for us to realize. They drew no line between things secular and things religious. Everything centered about the adoration of the sun and of his earthly representative, the Inca sovereign. Temples existed in various places, the principal one, naturally, at Cuzco, the Inca capital, in its valley in the Andes over 11,000 feet above the sea. Here solid gold and jewels covered the walls, and at one end shone a huge circular plate of the same metal, representing the sun. This disappeared at the time of the Spanish conquest and has never since been found. The Incas also worshiped the moon, the planets, the rainbow, the earth, and, along the coast, the sea, in addi- tion to many minor divinities. They held gorgeous festi- vals and occasionally offered human sacrifices, although to nothing like the extent that prevailed among the Aztecs. Attached to the temples were convents in which dwelt “virgins of the sun’’—girls chosen for their beauty from all over the empire, some destined for the Inca ruler’s [ 346 ] PREHISTORIC MAN IN THE NEW WORLD harem, and others devoted permanently to a religious life, in which they spent much of their time weaving fine cloth, especially of vicufia wool, for the Inca’s use. For noble youths, there were schools and a sort of order of knight- Ae Fic. 111 Peruvian mythological design showing a combat between the ‘“‘Man of the Earth,” wearing a helmet of animal form with plumes, and the “Man of the Sea,’”’ symbolized as a crab. After Squier hood, the latter to be won only by passing successfully through severe ordeals. In theory, if not actually in practice, all gold and silver belonged to the great Inca. His wealth was almost fabulous. His palace utensils were made of precious metals, and some of his gardens contained full-sized models of plants and animals in gold, silver, and jewels. He himself was thought too holy to set foot to the ground, [ 347 ] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST and hence was carried about on a litter covered with gold and precious stones (Plate 100). At the death of each Inca ruler, his whole palace, with all its contents, was left intact, an entire new equipment being provided for his successor. Thus there accumulated a stock of treasure of well-nigh inestimable value. The last of the Incas, Atahualpa, in his effort to ransom him- self from his Spanish captors, collected in a few days a Fic. 112. Peruvian concept of the God of the Air. After Squier mass of gold objects amounting to between fifteen and twenty million dollars. The total loot gained from the conquest of Peru must have been vastly more than this. The Spanish monarch is said to have received, as his “royal fifth,” fifty million dollars. If these figures are correct the sum total of the plunder gained by Pizarro and his handful of Spaniards must have equaled a quarter of a billion dollars in actual bullion. Whatever the amount, it was enormous, and its dumping all at once on Europe, until then rather poor in the precious metals, was un- doubtedly in part responsible for the disturbances of all kinds which occurred there for a long time afterwards. [ 348 ] PLATE 100 IncA ATAHMALPA ULTIMO del Peru. Atahualpa, called the last of the Incas, though he was a usurper. Below he is seen carried on his sacred litter, while at the top and sides are shown Peruvians engaged in mining operations. From an old print PREHISTORIC MAN IN THE NEW WORLD CONCLUSION In marked contrast to the Old World, nowhere in the Americas at the time of their discovery had civilization developed to any extent in the great river valleys. That it would eventually have done so is hardly to be doubted, although the absence of domestic animals would have been a great handicap. The interesting and highly organized tribe known as the Natchez, for example, found on the lower Mississippi, might in time have developed a civiliza- tion in some ways comparable to those of prehistoric Babylonia and Egypt. So, too, might the mound-building Indians of the Ohio and elsewhere. And many other tribes had advanced far beyond primitive savagery. All these experiments, however, were doomed to failure; none of the tribes had reached the point where they could offer effective resistance to the white man. Before closing this sketch of the higher aboriginal cul- tures of America, we must consider the question of pos- sible borrowings from the Old World. Certain students, mainly Europeans, have thought that they could detect traces thereof. Most American specialists, on the other hand, are convinced that what civilization we find is the result of entirely independent progress under somewhat similar natural conditions. Aside from all other considerations, it must be said that the supporters of the theory of Old World origins for the great American civilizations almost entirely ignore the historical problems involved. Of the latter, one of the most important is the development of sailing craft. The distance from southeastern Asia to the western coast of Central and South America is nearly half that around the whole world. A globe shows this even more strikingly than a map. For canoes driven by paddles alone, voyages of such enormous length, even allowing for stops at islands along the route, would be simply out of the question. Only by sailing craft, before the days of steam, could they [ 349 ] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST have been performed. But no evidence whatever exists to indicate the presence of vessels using sails in the regions of southeastern Asia until about the beginning of the Christian Era. The evidence against it, on the other hand, is plentiful and, it would seem, decisive. The great Polynesian migration, from the East Indian Archipelago to the islands of the Pacific, is now thought to have begun sometime about A. D. 100. It did not reach the eastern Pacific until some six centuries later. This movement depended wholly upon the use of sailing- canoes, and probably commenced not long after the latter had become known. Again, the Chinese began rather early to keep copious records of all sorts, yet these say nothing whatever of sailing craft until as late as the third century 4. D. The Japanese, who have also been mentioned as possi- ble importers of the Old World culture to America, learned the use of the sail from the Chinese, but employed it very little until about the year A. D. 1000. The great American civilizations were founded ages before this. The Mayas and Peruvians had already reached a high degree of development long before the commencement of the Christian Era. It is true that Asiatic junks have been blown across the relatively narrow North Pacific more than once during the past two or three hundred years. Yet there is no sign that their crews ever succeeded in the slightest degree in spreading their civilization among the American Indians. There have been preserved a few traditions of invasions by sea along the northwestern coast of South America, just where, as we have seen, the early Spaniards found the sail in use. It is quite needless, however, to suppose that these were anything more than raids by canoe from other regions farther up or down the same coast. Statements in Polynesian legends, again, have been interpreted as referring to visits to the American continent. Also certain food-plants in the Pacific islands have been [350] PREHISTORIC MAN. IN THE NEW WORLD thought to be of American origin. But if the Polynesian canoe-men, expert and daring as we know they were, ever really reached America, it must have been long after civilization there had attained a high stage of develop- ment. The civilized portions of America, moreover, were not on the coast, where such voyagers would have had to land. On the contrary, their centers were far inland, in regions separated from the Pacific by long stretches of deserts and mountains and tropical forests. The civiliza- tion of the Incas, the Mayas, and the Aztecs was wholly of native American origin, and it is both needless and useless to look for its inspiration anywhere in the Old World. Most aboriginal American cultures are dead. Yet they still live in many elements of our own civilization of the present day. They have contributed to it many extremely valuable cultivated plants, among them such staples as Indian corn and the potato. To them we owe the domesti- cation of certain creatures like the llama, still used for transport over the lofty Andean passes; the guinea pig, invaluable for purposes of experiment in biological labo- ratories; and the turkey, in a far more intimate sense than the white-headed eagle the national bird of the United States. Without the gifts we have received from the ancient American peoples, our own civilization would lack much of value. [351] BIBLIOGRAPHY The following list of books, arranged alphabetically by the authors’ names under the various headings, makes no pretensions to completeness. It has, however, been select- ed with much care, and will serve as a guide to the reader who wishes to learn more about the subjects discussed in the present volume. GENERAL Boas, Franz. Anthropology and modern life. New Nork, 1923. Dawson, CHRISTOPHER. The age of the gods. London, 1928. Dixon, R. B. The building of cultures. New York, 1928. GoLpENWEISER, A. A. Early civilization. New York, 1922. Hovucn, Water. Fire as an agent in human culture. Washington, 1926. Kroeser, A. L. Anthropology. New York, 1923. Levy-Bruu1, L. Primitive mentality. New York, 1923. Linc Rotu, H. The aborigines of Tasmania. Halifax (England), 1899. Lowigz, R. H. Primitive religion. New York, 1924. —— Primitive society. New York, 1925. —— The origin of the state. New York,. 1927. MacCurpy, G. G. Human origins. New York, 1924. Perrier, Epmonp. The earth before history. New York, 2925. Witper, H. H. Man’s. prehistoric past. New York, 1923. WIssLer, CLtark. Man and culture. New York, 1923. [352] BIBLIOGRAPHY ASTRONOMY Assot, C. G. The sun. New York, 1929. Jeans, Sir James. Astronomy and cosmogony. Cam- bridge, 1928. Russet, Ducan, and Stewart. Astronomy. Boston, 1926. GEOLOGY AND CLIMATE Brooks, C. E. P. Evolution of climate. Edinburgh, 1926. CHAMBERLIN and Satispury. Geology. New York, 1906. Huntincton, Exttswortu. The pulse of Asia. New York, 1907. fot. |.) Whe “supface thistory’ ‘of the earth: ‘Oxford, 1925. WeceENER, A. The origin of continents and oceans. 1924. WricuTt, W. B. The Quaternary Ice Age. 1914. PHYSICAL MAN Boute, M. Fossil man. Edinburgh, 1923. FLeure, H. J. The peoples of Europe. London, 1922. Foster and SHore. Physiology for beginners. New York, 1924. Happon, A. C. The races of man and their distribution. Cambridge, 1924. Hrouréka, A. The most ancient skeletal remains of man. Smithsonian Inst. Ann. Rep. 1913, pp. 491-552. Keane, A. H. Man past and present. Cambridge, 1920. ae Sir ArTHUR. Antiquity of man. London, 1928. MacBripe, E. W. Invertebrata; a text-book of embry- ology, vol. i. New York, 1924. [ 353] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST PEAKE and FLeure. Apes and men. New Haven, O27. Prentiss and Arey. Laboratory manual and _ text- book of embryology. Philadelphia, 1920. RipLtey, W. Z. ‘The races of Europe. London, 1900. THE OLD STONE AGE Burkitt, M. C. Our forerunners. London, 1924. Prehistory. Cambridge, 1925. OxserMaleER, Huco. Fossil man in Spain. New Haven, 1925 Osporn, H. F. Men of the Old Stone Age. New York, 1922. Peake and FLeure. Hunters and artists. New Haven, 1927. Sottas, W. J. Ancient hunters and their modern representatives. London, 1924. FOLKLORE AND MAGIC Frazer, Sir JaMES GeorGE. Folklore in the Old Testa- ment. (Abridged edition.) London, 1923. —— The golden bough. (Abridged edition.) New York, 1925. MackenziE, D. A. The migration of symbols. New York, 1926. Marett, R. R. Psychology and folklore. New York, 1920. Murray, Miss M. A. The witch cult in central Europe, Oxford, 1921. Reap, CarvetH. Man and his superstitions. Cam- bridge, 1925. THE DOMESTICATION OF ANIMALS LypEKKER, R. The horse and its relatives. London, IgI2. The ox and its kindred. London, 1912. Tozer, Basti. The horse in history. [354] BIBLIOGRAPHY ECONOMIC PROGRESS Burns, A. R. Money and monetary policy in early times. New York, 1927. Buxton, L. H. Duptey. Primitive labour. London, 1924. ee E. E. Primitive trade. London, 1926. Ripceway, W. The origin of metallic currency and weight standards. Cambridge, 1892. THE DEVELOPMENT OF WATER CRAFT ANDERSON, Romora and R. C. The sailing ship: Six thousand years of history. London, 1927. SmyTH, H. Warincron. Mast and sail in Europe and Asia. London, 1906. Torr, Cecit. Ancient ships. Cambridge, 1894. THE NEAR EAST IN ANCIENT TIMES BreasteD, J. H. A history of Egypt. New York, 1912. Bupce, E. A. Waxtis. Babylonian life and history. London, 1925. CHILDE, V. Gorpon. The most ancient East. London, 1928. Detaporte, L. Mesopotamia. New York, 1925. Erman, Apotr. Life in ancient Egypt. London, 1894. Hart, H. R. The ancient history of the Near East. New York, 1913. Huart, CLemMentT. Ancient Persia and Iranian civiliza- tion. New York, 1927. Jastrow, Morris. The civilization of Babylonia and Assyria. Philadelphia, 1915. Kine, L. W. A history of Sumer and Akkad. London, 1g 10. A history of Babylon. London, 1915. Moret, A. From tribe to empire. New York, 1925. The Nile and Egyptian civilization. New York, 1927. PEAKE and FLeure. Priests and kings. New Haven, 1927. [355] MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST Petrie, Sir W. M. Fuinpers. A history of Egypt. London, 1923. —— Social life in ancient Egypt. London, 1923. SmiTH, G. Exutior. The ancient Egyptians. London, Igat. Woo .tey, C. Leonarp. The Sumerians. Oxford, 1928. ANCIENT EUROPE Burkitt, M. C. Our early ancestors. Cambridge, 1926. CuitpE, V. Gorpon. The dawn of European civilization. London, 1925. The Aryans. London, 1926. Giotz, G. The Aegean civilization. London, 1925. Haut, H. R. The civilization of Greece in the Bronze Age. London, 1928. Lear, W. Homer and history. London, Ig15. MacaulsTer, R. A. S. The Philistines. London, 1913. Mosso, A. The dawn of Mediterranean civilization. New York [no date]. Munro, R. The lake dwellings of Europe. London, 1890. —— Paleolithic man and the Terramara settlements in Europe. Edinburgh, 1912. PEAKE, Hl, The Bronze Age and the’ Celtic world. London, 1922. Rose, .H: J. Primitive culture sin ‘Greece: London, 1926. Tyer, J. M. The New Stone Age in Europe. New York, 1921. Ure, P. N. The origin of tyranny. Cambridge, 1922. Wace and Tuompson. Prehistoric Thessaly. Cambridge, 1g12, THE GRASSLAND PEOPLES Borovka, G. I. Scythian art. New York, 1928. Minns, E H. Scythians and Greeks. Cambridge, 1913. [ 356] BIBLIOGRAPHY Parker, E. H. A thousand years of the Tartars. London, 1924. PEAKE and FLeure. The steppe and the sown. New Haven, 1928. Rosrovrzerr, M. Iranians and Greeks in South Russia. Oxford, 1922. THE FARTHER EAST IN ANCIENT TIMES Laurer, BertHotp. Chinese pottery in the Han Dy- nasty. Leiden, Igog. Mirra, P. Prehistoric India. Calcutta, 1927. Parker, E. H. Ancient China simplified. London, 1908. Racozin, ZENAIDE A. Vedic India. New York, 1902. Smitu, V. A. The early history of India. Oxford, 1914. —— Asoka, the Buddhist Emperor of India. Oxford, 1920. PRIMITIVE AFRICA Burkitt, M. C. South Africa’s past in stone and paint. Cambridge, 1928. Srow, G. W. The native races of South Africa. London, 1905. THE NEW WORLD Gute, C. E. Pueblo pottery making. New Haven, 1925. Joyce, T. A. Mexican archeology. New York, 1914. MarkuaM, Sir Crements R. The Incas of Peru. London, IgII. SPENCE, Lewis. The gods of Mexico. London, 1922. Spinpen, H. J. The ancient civilizations of Mexico and Central America. New York, 1917. Sauier, E. G. Peru: Incidents of travel and exploration in the land of the Incas. New York, 1877. WissLer, Crark. The American Indian. New York, 1922. [357] oats MAN FROM THE FARTHEST PAST METHODS IN ARCHEOLOGY British Museum. How to observe in archeology. London, 1920. Lucas, ALFRED. Antiques, their restoration and preser- vation. London, 1924. Petrie, Sir W. M. Fuiinpers. Methods and aims in archeology. London, 1904. RATHGEN, FriepricH. The preservation of antiquities. Cambridge, 1905. 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- . > 2 INDEX A Acheulian epoch, 43, 54, 65, 67, 72, 187-189 Age of Polished Stone see New Stone Age Agriculture, beginnings of, 243 Egyptian, 297, 298 New Stone Age, 246-249, 327 Peruvian, 341 Alcohol, use of, 178, 179 Algae, fossil, 15 Alligators, Old and New World, 326 Alpaca, fleece of, 341 Alphabet, invention of, 291 Alpha Centauri, nearest star, I, 8 Amber, use of, 274, 275 American Indians, 327, 328 Ammonites, 16 Amphibians, rise of, 15 Angiosperms, rise of, 17 Animals, domestication of, 238, 2395 250-254, 297) 314, 341 draught, 256 pack, 255, 341 related, in Old and New World, 326 sacred, 251, 252 Antevs, E., on geologic time, 7° on Ice Age, 62 Apes, brain of, 45 Arch, corbeled, 33! Architecture, beginnings of, 264 Bronze Age, 281 Cretan, 310 Egyptian, 298, 299 Architecture, Mayan, 331, 332 New Stone Age, 264, 265 Peruvian, 343 Toltec, 337 Aztec, 339 Armor, Bronze Age, 271, 272 iron, 324 Stone Age, 27! Art, Assyrian, 307 Aurignacian, 77, 203-205 beginnings of, 262 Bronze Age, 281 Capsian, 228-232 cave, $1, $2, 203-205, 217-223 Chinese, 322 Cretan, 309, 310 Cro-Magnon, 75, 203-205, 218- plphe eastern Spanish, 231 Egyptian, 299 Magdalenian, 74, 218-223 Mayan, 330-335 New Stone Age, 263 Paleolithic, 75, 229 Peruvian, 343 Solutrean, 209 Aryans, 307, 308, 314, 315 Asia, prehistoric southwestern, 301-308 Asoka, 317 Assyria, 306, 307 Atahualpa, 347 Atomic gradation, law of, 5 Atoms, annihilation of, 4, 7 Aurignac, grotto of, 43 human remains at, 77 [ 365 ] INDEX Aurignacian epoch, 43, 53, 54,725 76-82, 198-206, 228 Aurignacians see Cro-Magnon Ax, cult of the Double, 310 invention of stone, 235 symbol of authority, 236 Azilian epoch, 43, 52 Aztecs, 337-340 B Babylonia, ancient, 302-306 Bacteria, fossil, 15 Balsa rafts of Incas, 344 Bate, Miss, on fauna associated with Galilee skull, 129 Baton de commandement, 201, 202, 208, 209, 216 Birds, age of, 17 Boule, M., on Neanderthal man, 131 Bow and arrow, 217, 229, 236, 237 composite, 323 simple, 323 Brain, evolution of, 45 of apes, 45 Pithecanthropus, 153 Rhodesian man, 162 table of capacities, 165 Brick making, development of, 282-284 Bronze Age, 41, 266-293, 309-312, 319, 329 Bronze, effect on civilization, 274 invention of, 268 Brinn, human remains at, 75 Brix, human remains at, 75 Buckwheat, cultivation of, 341 Buddhism fostered by Asoka, 317 Bull, cult of the, in Crete, 310 Burial, 189 Bronze Age, 292 Cro-Magnon, 206 Magdalenian, 223 Mousterian, 196 ——— Burial, Neanderthal, 197 Burin, 202 Bushmen, 80 Buxton on Neanderthal man, 96 Cc Calendar, of Egyptians, 298 of Incas, 346 of Mayas, 334 Cambrian period, 13 Camels, ancient, 18 Camel, use of, 275 Cannibalism, of Neanderthalers, 197 sacrificial, 255 Canoe, invention of, 241 Capsian culture, 227-232 Carboniferous period, 14 Carving, art of, 205 Carvings of Magdalenians, 218 Caschrom, 259, 260 Casting, development of, 269 Cat, domestication of, 296 Cats, ancient, 18 Cave art, $1, 52, 203-205, 217-223 dwellers, 192, 195, 196, 199, 214, 217, 219 Cells, living, 25-28 Cenotes, 334 Cephalopods, ancient, 13, 14, 16 Cereals, importance of, 243 Chalcolithic Period, 42, 267, 342 Chamberlin and Moulton on origin of earth, 9 Chancelade, man of, 74 Chellean epoch, 43, 54, 65, 67, 72, 185-187 Chelles, prehistoric site, 43, 54 “Children of the Sun’”’ see Incas China, ancient, 317-325 Great Wall of, 283 Chinampas, 338 Chinese Empire, 325 Ch’in Shih Huang-ti, 325 [ 366 ] INDEX Chromosomes, 26-28, 32 Circles of upright stones, 283 City-states of China, 320 Civilization, Aztec, 337-339 beginning of, 295 Chinese, 319-324 Crete first European, 308 Egyptian, 298-301 of ancient India, 313-317 of Incas, 340-348 spread of, 312, 317 Toltec, 337 Climate, of Acheulian, 188 of ancient Spain, 227 Aurignacian, 198, 199 Chellean, 185 Magdalenian, 212, 214, 215, 219, 225 Mousterian, Ig! Old Stone Age, 232 Pre-Chellean, 184 Solutrean, 206, 211 Clothing, absence of, in Chellean, 185 Clothing, in Acheulian, 189 in Bronze Age, 272 Capsian, 229 Paleolithic, 209 of (Cretans,- 310, 311 Magdalenians, 217 Peruvians, 343 Solutreans, 20g origin of, 173 Coins, early Chinese, 280 Continents, shifting of, 10, 63 Copper Age, 42 Copper, use of, 266 Core industry, 184, 186, 189, 193 Corn, Indian, see Maize Coup-de-poing, see Fist-ax Cretaceous period, 17 Crete, ancienty308-—312 Crocodiles, ancient, 17 Croll on Ice Age, 56 Cro-Magnon, human remains at, Th race, 73-82, 178-226, 228 Crot-du-Charnier, human remains at, 75, 78 Crustaceans, ancient, 14 Cults, 225, 310 Culture, Acheulian, 188, 189 Archaic, 328, 329, 341 Assyrian, 306, 307 Aurignacian, 198-206 Aztec, 338-340 central Asian, 319 Chinese, 318-320 Cretan, 309-312 Cro-Magnon, 198-226 Egyptian, 297-301 Magdalenian, 212-226 Mayan, 330-336 Middle Stone Age, 234-245 Mousterian, 190-197 Neanderthal, 192-197 New Stone Age, 246-265 north African, 228 of ancient India, 313-315 Heidelberg race, 186 Incas, 341-348 Piltdown race, 186, 188 Old Stone Age, 184-232, 239- 240 Persian, 308 Peruvian, 341-348 pre-Mousterian, 183 Solutrean, 207 Sumerian, 303, 304 Tardenoisian, 232 Tasmanian, 184 Spanish, 227-232 Cultures, of America, 338, 349-351 of East Africa, 199 remains of, 187 Cuzco, 344 [seri INDEX D Dawn Stone Period, 72 Dawson, Charles, 134 Dead, cult of the, 225 Deer, ancient, 18 Designs, conventionalized, 20g Devil’s Tower, human remains at, 935 94 Devonian period, 14, 15 Diluvial man of Krapina, 103-109 Dinosaurs, 16, 17 Diseases, of Neanderthalers, 196 of primitive man, 176 Divine Son, 249 Dog, of Aztecs, 338 the first domestic animal, 238, 239 Dogs, ancient, 18 Dolmens, 283 Dolphins, ancient, 18 Domestication of animals, 238, 239, 250-254, 297, 314, 341 of plants, 242, 243, 328 Double Ax, cult of the, 310 Drachenloch cavern, prehistoric site, 196 Dubois, Eugene, 18 on ancestry of man, 150 on Pithecanthropus, 145-147 Dwellings, Aurignacian, 201 Bronze Age, 282 Magdalenian, 217 Middle Stone Age, 236 Neanderthal, 195 Solutrean, 207 E Earth, age of the, 2, 3, 8 as building material, 264, 282, 283, 303, 33! crust of the, 9 distance from sun of the, I interior of the, 9 origin of the, 8, 9 Earth, size of the, 1 Eddington on solar energy, 4 Education among Incas, 347 Egypt, prehistoric, 295-301 Ehringsdorf, human remains at, 110-113 Elephant, ancient, 18 domesticated, 315 Embryo, development of, 30, 31 Eoanthropus dawsoni, 134, 135, 140 Eocene period, 18 Folithic see Dawn Stone Period Eoliths, 135 Eras, geologic, 12 Evolution, recapitulated in indi- vidual, 31, 32 theory of, 21 F Fauna, Acheulian, 188 associated with Galilee skull, 129 Aurignacian, 199 Chellean, 18¢ Magdalenian, 215, 225 Mousterian, 95, 98, 105, 124, 191 of Spain, 227 Old Stone Age, 232 Pleistocene, 134 Pliocene, 134 Pre-Chellean, 183 Quaternary, III Rhodesian, 162 Feldhofen Grotto, human re- mains in, 83 Femur see Thigh bone Fighting on horseback, 288, 322 Fire, first use of, 172 “First Emperor” of China see Ch’in Shih Huang-ti Fischer’s Quarry, human remains at, 112 [ 368 | INDEX Fishes, age of, 12, 14 rise of bony, 17 Fist-ax, 184, 187, 189, 192 Flake industry, 184, 189, 192, 200, 207 Floating islands see: Chinampas Forbes Quarry, 89 Fortifications of Incas, 344 Fossils, 2, 10 Fuhlrott on Neanderthal man, 84 Furs as clothing, 189, 192, 209 G Galaxies of stars, 2, 4, 6 Galilee skull, 126-129 Ganoids, ancient, 14 Garrod, Ds -Ay EB.) on. Devil’s Tower site, 94 on Neanderthal man, 95 Gayal, domestication of, 253 Geer, G. de, on geologic time, 69 Gilbraltar skull, 89-92 Glacial Period see Ice Age stages, 66 terraces, 72 Glaciation see Glacial stages Glaciers, 57-61 Gold, use of, 266 Goliath a Bronze Age Warrior, 272 Goodspeed and Olson on effect of X-rays on plant development, Gorjanovic-Kramberger on Kra- pina remains, 108 Grain as standard of value, 279 Great Mother Goddess, 249 Great Wall of China, 283 Greek art, influence of, on East, 316 Greeks, 312 Grimaldi, caves of, 78 human remains at, 79 Grinnell, G. B., on mutilation, 51 Grotte des Enfants, human re- mains in, 78 Guanaco domesticated, 341 Guanches, 228 Giinz glacial stage, 66 Gymnosperms, ancient, 17 H Habitations see Dwellings Hafting, methods of, 270 Handles, origin of, 194 Hatchet see Ax Heidelberg, human remains near, 142 Hen, domestication of, 308 Heredity, mechanism of, 24 History, beginning of, in Egypt, 298, 320 Hoe, invention of stone, 244 Homo, 153 calpicus, see Gibraltar skull mousteriensis, 125 neanderthalensis, 152 see also Neanderthal man Sapiens, 152 Hopwood on Rhodesian fauna, 162 Horse, ancient, 18 archers, 324 as sacred animal, 253 bones, deposit of, 53 bred by Indo-Europeans, 287 importance of, in Babylonia, 305 introduced into India, 314 meat, use of, 254 milk, use of, 253 used, for clothing, 253 for food, 253 for riding, 286 in New Stone Age, 253 Hrdligka, A., on Ehringsdorf re- mains, 113 on human variation, 21 Piltdown skull, 139-140, 141 Pithecanthropus, 147, 152-154 [ 369 | INDEX | Hrdlicka, Rhodesian man, 154-162 Spy skeletons, 101 Huanaco see Guanaco Huitzilopochtli, war god of Aztecs, 339 Hunting, primitive, 196 I Ice Age, 56-70 Ichthyosaurs, 16 Ideographs, 290 Implement, earliest bone, 135, 185, 194 Implements, Acheulian, 188, 189 Aurignacian, 201, 202 Aztec, 339 bone, 135, 185, 193, 194, 201, 202, 208, 216, 217, 328 bronze, 269, 270, 304, 320, 342 Bronze Age, 269 Chellean, 186 copper, 269, 304, 339, 342, 344 farming, 328 horn, 201, 216 iron, 306, 324 ivory, 216, 217 Magdalenian, 216, 217 Middle Stone Age, 244 Mousterian, 192-194 Neolithic, 258, 259, 261 obsidian, 194, 339 Paleolithic, 135, 207-209 Pre-Chellean, 184, 185 reindeer antler, 201, 202, 208, 216 shell, 328 wooden, 184, 187, 194, 201, 216 Solutrean, 207-209 stone, 135, 180, 184, 186-189, 192,\593,, 201, 207-209), 210) 235, 244, 269-271, 297, 328, 339s 342 Inca civilization, 340-348 Empire, 341 Inca, ruler, 341, 347 Incas, armies of, 342 as engineers, 344 astronomy of, 346 state socialism of, 341, 342 India, ancient, 313-317 Indians see American Indians Indo-Europeans, 287, 308 Industry of Acheulian, 189 of Aurignacian, 200, 201 Bronze Age, 269-286 Chellean, 186, 187 Egypt, 297 Magdalenian, 216 Middle Stone Age, 235-238, 244 Mousterian, 94, 97, 99, 115, 124, 129, 192-195 Indus Valley civilization, 313 Infanticide, origin of, 179 Inhabited worlds, possibility of, 2 Interglacial stages, 66 Invertebrates, reign of, 12-14 Iron Age, 41 Iron, introduction of, 306 use of, 315, 324 Irrigation in New World, 328, 341 J Java, Pithecanthropus found. in, 146 Jaw, human lower, 47, 107, 138 Jeans on solar energy, 4 Jewelry of Bronze Age, 281 K Kaempfer’s Quarry, human re- mains at, 112 Keith, A., on Ice Age, 68 on man’s ancestry, 31 on Piltdown skull, 49, 136 Klause, human remains at, 75 ‘Knossos, destruction of, 312 [379] INDEX Kramberger, see Gorjanovic- Kramberger Krapina, human remains at, 103- 109 L La Chapelle-aux-Saints, human remains at, 113-118 La Ferrassie, human remains at, 118 La Madeleine, human remains at, 74 rock-shelter, 43 Lampreys, ancient, 14 Land-bridges, 63, 64 Language, development of, 170 Languages of India, 315 of Sumerians, 304, 305 La Quina, human remains at, 122 Laugerie-Basse, human remains at, 74 “Laurel-leaf” implements, 208 “Laurel-leaf” points, 75 Le Moustier, cave of, 43 human remains at, 125, 126 Lemurs, ancient, 18 Les Eyzies see Cro-Magnon Life, dawn of, 15 geologic record of, 3, 10, 12 of Permian period, 15 Light, speed of, 1 Light-year, 1 Literature of Aztecs, 340 oral, of Incas, 345, 346 Lizards, ancient, 17 Llama used for carrying loads, 341 Loess, 61 Lungfishes, ancient, 14 Luxuries of Bronze Age, 275 M Magdalenian epoch, 43, 72, 73-75, 212-226 man, 74 Magic, belief in, 177, 242 Maize, in New World, 328, 341 Mammals, age of, 12 rise of, 18 Man, ancestry of, 32, 150 brain of, 45, 73 conditions essential for life of, 4,5 development of 23-36 dominance of, 20 first evidences of, 2 in universe, 4 modern, one species, 326 origin of, 22, 326 rise of, 12, 1g primeval, 168 variation in, 21 Manatees, ancient, 18 Mandible see Jaw Mas d’ Azil, cave of, 43, 52 Mastodon, 18 Mauer jaw, 142-144 Maurya, Chandragupta, 316 Empire, 316, 317 Maya ruins, 335, 336 Mayas, civilization of, 329, 336 history of, 335 present-day, 336 Medes, rise of, 307, 308 Medicine bags, 262 men, 177 Mediterranean race, ancestors of, 226, 228 race, in Crete, 309 Mesolithic Period see Stone Age Metallurgy, development of, 266-269, 281 Metals, use of, 265, 279 Middle Stone Age, 43, 67, 234-245 Migrations of primitive man, 198 Milky Way, 2 Mindel glacial stage, 66 Mining, primitive, 267 individual, Middle [371] INDEX Minotaur, origin of legend of, 311 Miocene Period, 18 Mithan see Gayal Modesty, origin of, 192 Mollusks, antiquity of, 13 Money, early Roman, 279 in China, 322 invention of, 278 Monkeys, ancient, 18 Montezuma, 338 Moseley, Henry Gwyn-Jeffreys, 55 Mother Goddess see Great Mother Goddess Mountains, evolution of, to Mousterian epoch, 43, 54, 67, 71, 190-199 Mummification in Egypt, 300 N Naga tribes, 253 Naval power, Crete first, 309, 311 Neanderthal Gorge, 83 mans.46; 67, 715 725,03-138) 197. 198, 352 Nebulae, spiral, 6 Needles, 202, 217 Negritos in southern China, 318 Negroid races of southwestern Asia, 301 Neolithic Period see New Stone Age New Stone Age, 42, 68, 244, 246-265, 309, 318, 319 Nile Valley civilization, 298-301 Nordics, origin of, 212 North America joined to Asia, 326 O Oar, evolution of the, 277 Obercassel, human remains at, 74 Obermaier on Mousterian fauna, 191 on Spanish prehistory, 227 Oceans, changes in, 10 | Old Stone Age, 43, 54, 65, 67, 72, } 75, 182-233 { Oligocene period, 20 : Ordovician period, 13 Ostracoderms, ancient, 14 Ox, ancient, 18 as standard of value, 278 Ozone, 5 P Painted Pottery People, 302 Painting of body, 206 Paleolithic Period see Old Stone Age Paleozoic Era, 13 Pelesati see Philistines, 312 Penck and Brickner on Ice Age, 65 Penck on Ice Age, 68 Permian period, 15, 16 Persian Empire, 308, 315, 316 Persians, rise of the, 307, 308 Peruvians see Incas Petershéle, prehistoric site, 196 Philistines, 312 Philosophy in China, 324 Pictographs, 2g0 Pigment, use of, 196, 206 Pigs, ancient, 18 Piltdown, human remains at, 134-141 Pithecanthropus erectus, 18, 145- 153 Planets, 1, 2 Plants cultivated by American Indians, 328, 341 Pleistocene period, 19, 65, 134, 135 Plesiosaurs, 16, 17 Pliocene period, 18, 134 Plow, origin of, 258, 259 Porcelain, 274 Postglacial Period, 68, 73 Posture, human, 46, 48 Potato domesticated in Peru, 341 [ 372 ] INDEX Potter’s wheel, invention of, 273 Pottery, archeological importance of, 273 beginnings of, 238 development of, 274 of Aztecs, 339 Bronze Age, 273 Mayas, 334 Mesolithic, 238 Peruvians, 342 painted, 319 Pre-Chellean epoch, 43, 65, 67, 725 182-185 P¥edmost, human remains at, 81 Pressure flaking, 207 Priest-kings of Cretans, 311 Primates, ancient, 18 Proto-homo, 152 Pterodactyls, 17 Punjab _ region Persia, 316 Pygmies of southwestern Asia, 301 Pyramids, Egyptian, 299 Mayan, 331, 332 Toltec, 337 Q Quinoa, see Buckwheat Quipus, 345 conquered by Rabbits, ancient, 18 Radium in relation age, 3 Raised beaches, 63 Raymonden, human remains at, 74 Religion, of Aztecs, 339 of Chinese, 319 Cretans, 310 Cro-Magnon race, 202 Egyptians, 299 Incas, 346 Mayas, 334 Neanderthalers, 196 New Stone Age, 248, 249 to earth’s Religion, of Solutreans, 211 origin of, 225 Reptiles, age of, 12, 16, 17 Rhinoceros, ancient, 18 Rhodesian man, 154-162 Riss glacial stage, 66 River terraces, 65 Rock engravings, 52 Rodents, ancient, 18 S Sacrifice, human, 246-248, 291, 292, 310, 319, 328, 3395. 349> 346 of animals, 248, 292 Sail, invention of the, 277, 298 used by Incas, 344, 345 St. Acheul, France, 43 Schwalbe on Ehringsdorf re- mains, III Sculpture, early Egyptian, 299 Magdalenian, 222 Solutrean, 209 Sea lions, ancient, 18 Seals, ancient, 18 Semites, rise of, 304 Sex, determination of, 28 Shang Dynasty, 321 Sharks, ancient, 14 “Shouldered-point” 209 Silhouettes of hands, 204 Silk, early use of, 262 Silurian period, 14 Skeleton, human, 48 Les Hoteaux, 224 Neanderthal, 83-89 Skeletons, Spy, 101 Skull, Cro-Magnon, 73, 74 Galilee, 126 Gibraltar, 89-92 La Chapelle, 117, 118 Neanderthal, 86, 87 implements, [373 | INDEX Skull, Piltdown, 49-51, 136-141 Rhodesian, 160-162 Skulls, as drinking cups, 225 Krapina, 108 ~ prehistoric, 46 Slavery, origin of, 254 Snakes, ancient, 17 Social system of ancient China, 320 of Aztecs, 338 of Neanderthalers, 196 Solar system, origin of, 8 Solutrean epoch, 43, 52, 72, 75, 76, 206-212 Solutré, France, 43 prehistoric site, 53 “Son of Heaven,” 321 “Sorcerer, The,” of Trois Fréres, B90) 904 Sound symbols, 290, 291 South America, ancient civiliza- tion of, 340-349 Space, extent of, 4 Spain, ancient, 227-232 Spear-thrower, 216 Species, origin of, 20 number of, 20 Spectrum of star, 7 Spy, prehistoric site, 96 skeletons, 101 Squirrels, ancient, 18 Star, nearest, 1, 8 Stars, 1, 2, 4, 6-8 State socialism of Incas, 341, 342 Statuettes of women, 205, 209 Steel Age, 41 Steppes, 61 Stone as building material, 283, 284, 295, 298, 331, 332, 343, 344 Stonehenge, circle at, 283 Stones, groups of upright, 283 String, uses of, 175, 345 Sumerians, 302-305 Sun, the, 1,304 Sunken rivers, 63 Syllabary, 291 T Tardenoisian culture, 232 Tasmanians, culture of, 184 Teeth of man, 48 Temple-pyramids of Aztecs, 340 Temples of Crete, 311 of Egypt, 299 Incas, 346 India, 313 Mayas, 331, 332 Tenochtitlan, 338, 340 Thigh bone of man, 49, 89 “Three-man spade” of Korea, 260 Time, calculation of geologic, 3, 10, 69, 70 Tin, in Bronze Age, 268 Toltec civilization, 337 Tools, first use of, 171 Transportation, methods of, 275- 278, 344-345 Trees, fossil, 15 Triassic period, 16 Trilobites, 13, 14 Trinil, Pithecanthropus, found at, 146 Tuareg race, 228 Tundras, 60 Turkey, domestication of, 339 Turtles, ancient, 17 U Ultra-violet rays, 5 Universe, chemical composition of, 5 structure of, 4 Universes, number of island, 2 Vv Variation, mechanism of, 24 Varves, 69 Vegetation, heroic age of, 12, 14 [ 374 | INDEX Vertebrates, rise of, 12, 14 Vicufia, wool of, 341 “Virgins of the Sun,” 346, 347 Virgins, vestal, 173 Ww Wall decorations, 284 War chariot, 285, 287, 288, 306, 322 War, effects of, 180 Warfare in Bronze Age, 284-288 of Assyrians, 306, 307 Cretans, 311 Indo-Europeans, 287 primitive, 180 War god of Aztecs see Huitzilo- pochtli Water craft in Middle Stone Age, 240, 241, 276-278, 344 Water, indispensable to life, 4 Wealth of the Incas, 347 Weapons, bronze, 324 Bronze Age, 269-271 iron, 324 of Aztecs, 339 of Incas, 342 Weaving, invention of, 261 of Mayas, 334 of Peruvians, 342, 343 materials for, 261, 262 Weights and measures, 280 Whales, ancient, 18 Wheel, invention of, 256, 257 Wheeled vehicles in Bronze Age 2 “Willow-leaf” implements, 207 Wood as building material, 264, 282, 283/330 used by Mayas, 330, 331 Wooden spear, 194 Woodward, A. S., on Piltdown man, 135, 136, 138 Women as farmers, 243, 328 Writing, development of, 290 importance of, 289 in ancient India, 314, 315 of Aztecs, 340 of Mayas, 332-334 Wiirm glacial stage, 66, 67, 71 Z Zwigelaar, T., 157 , [375 ] iy ies ih i aug walt bi Yi H a) ae ane j ie: ; eras \ ai i oy 7 7 Pr) yee ’ mm iy ie an ne . Wad’ Mya ‘ i SON ea : og an w 7 Ja t Bet. ith m: te ne : ; woe in i. 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