| A MANUAL =—FOR— Laboratory and Field Studies n= AGRICULTURE “By JOHN M. LECATO, A. B., A. M. Head of the Department of Biology and Agriculture, Marshall College STATE NORMAL SCHOOL HUNTINGTON, WEST VIRGINIA SWAN PRINTING & STATIONERY COMPANY HUNTINGTON, W. VA. 4 w > s % y ‘ A MANUAL Oks Laboratory and Field Studies NE AGRICULTURE JOHN M. LECATO, A. B., A. M. Head of the Department of Biology and Agriculture, Marshall College STATE NORMAL SCHOOL HUNTINGTON, WEST VIRGINIA al aed age eee Oo a The aim of this manual is to give the beginner in Agriculture something concrete to build upon be- sides the ordinary text-book work, which amounts to little unless the student can demonstrate the prin- ciples set forth in the book for himself. My object is to make Agriculture a live subject instead of a lifeless one, which is too often forced upon unwilling ears. The work is planned for a one year’s course, consisting of three hours of recitation and four hours of laboratory work per week. A large number of the exercises are based upon Farmers’ Bulletins pur- posely, rather than text-books, since the Bulletins are available to all, while suitable reference books are next to impossible to procure in many of our schools. I have also kept in mind the fact that many schools cannot afford expensive apparatus, and have arranged the exercises accordingly. The entire equipment for a section of twelve can be purchased for $100.00 or less. I wish to express my appreciation to Professor W. H. Franklin, who has read the manuscript critically ; to Professor W. A. Adamson, who criticised the chemistry part of the manual; and to Miss Mary Donaldson, my associate, who tried out the Tree Key. Above all I wish to thank my wife, Esther Virginia LeCato, without whose help this manual could not have been brought to completion. J. M. LeCATO, June 10, 1915. Marshall College, Huntington, W. Va. ©ociA416319 Noy -9 1915 ya. EQUIPMENT Each student should provide himself with the following equipment: 1. A text-book. 2. A copy of this manual. 3. One 4H drawing pencil. 4. Two Manilla folders for laboratory records. 5. Other equipment will be furnished by the school. DIRECTIONS FOR LABORATORY WORK. 1. The laboratory work is an essential part of the course and the final grade is largely determined by the attitude of the student in the laboratory and the results accomplished. 2. Accuracy of statement is essential in writing up an exercise. Express the facts correctly. The writings must be in ink and must be legible. 3. Drawings should be carefully made with a 4H drawing pencil. Drawings made or inked with a fountain pen cannot be accepted. Grading will be upon neatness, accuracy and clearness. 4. The student is held responsible for any exercise or part of exercise missed by absence. Arrange for making up back work within a week after returning to the class. Credit is not given for exercises worked outside the laboratory. 5. The records of each laboratory exercise will be collected at the close of the laboratory period. No reports will be accepted after the time limit set by the instructor. 6. Do not mark or deface the laboratory tables or other furniture of the laboratory. Injury to a “microscope or other apparatus, caused by careless usage or abuse, or lost parts, are charged against the student. If an instrument is out of order, or if you do not understand anything about it, report to the instructor at once. FORESTRY. A key to the common forest trees of West Virginia. A Leaves linear, flat or awl shaped; cone-bearing ; usually evergreen ec cceec ccc eseenseeeeeneeneenessneteeeene Conifers B_ Leaves needle-like or flattened, single or in clusters. C Leaves in clusters. D_ Leaves and cones more than two inches long, ever@ reer ccc eeeeseeeeneeee Pine (Pinus) DD _ Leaves and cones two inches or less in length, Ce@iQ uous. eee eect Larch (Larix) CC Leaves not in clusters. D Leaves stalked, cones 34-i1ch Vom ge ejects Lemlock (Tsuga) DD Leaves not stalked. E_ Leaves flattened, soft; cones 2-4 inches long, Cre @t cece eee Fir (Abies) KE Leaves 4-sided, harsh; cones 3-6 inches long, pendent... spruce (Picea) BB Leaves scale-like. C Branches flattened ; fruit a CONC cece. cece eee eee AYborvitae or White Cedar (Thuja) CC Branches not flattened; fruit a small blue berry ie eccsecceeeeceeceeneeees Red Cedar (Juniperus) AA Leaves broad and flat, not evergreen. B_ Leaves and buds alternately or spirally arranged. C Leaves simple. D Margin of leaves toothed, saw-toothed or lobed. Bie ranches tOOntMy sees eee eeee le alas TAA RU Aero ies nies US EC auth DB Hawthorn (Crataegus) EE Branches not thorny. F Leaves symmetrical at base. G Leaves not lobed, but coarsely toothed on edges. H_ Leaves elongate. I Leaves 3-5 inches long, shiny beneath. Spray fine; bark steel grey; fruit a small Ry Tineppat ear ul uate koe ah ce Opener OM PERN Ole aL! oo. eS BECO OUTS} II Leaves 4-8 inches long. J Fruit a large bur; bark brownish, vertically furrowed...........Chestnut (Castanea) JJ Fruit an acorn; buds and leaves clustered on end of twig..Chestnut Oak (Quercus) HH Leaves rounded; buds sealy, often sticky ; bark light colored... Poplar (Populus) 3 GG _ Leaves not lobed but finely serrate. H Leaf-blades more than three times as long as brOadiiccccceseceemeeeeeeeen Willow (Salix) HH Leaf-blades not three times as long as broad. | Bark smooth trunksfinted’ a ee a eee ee Water Beech (Carpinus) II Bark not smooth. d) Bark stringy, oreyibrowinn lesen Se ene Lye eee se Tronwood (Ostrya) JJ Bark coming oft in angular black flakes; twigs bitter..........Wild Cherry (Prunus) JJJ Bark ‘coming, jofiiriny dhimerolls3e eet ee ae eee a eee Birch (Betula) GGG Leaves lobed. He Lobes with prickly points... Ree AS eles Searlet, Red, Black and Pin Oaks (Quercus) HH Lobes without prickly points. I Leaves of two kinds on tree, lobed and not lobed. J Leaves thin, glabrous, twigs spicy, aromatic... ec Sassafras (Sassalras ) JJ Leaves thicker, pubescent; twigs exuding milky juice when cut..Mulberry (Morus) II Leaves similar. J Leaves truncate on top....... Rt eae ia ia Ditto db a Tulip Tree (Liriodendron) JJ Leaves not truncate, deeply lobed at base... cscccncrrmrenenn White Oak (Quercus) JJJ Leaves more or less triangular, or star-shaped. K_ Bark peeling, white; fruit a smooth Dall cscsccencneeeee Sycamore (Platanus) KK _ Bark not peeling; fruit a spiny ball Sweet Gum (Liquidamber ) FF Leaves not symmetrical. G Leaves doubly serrate; fruit a samara; tree vase-shaped in ope... Elm (Ulmus) GG Leaves singly serrate. Ti Leaves as long as broad, heart-shaped; fruit nut-like, hanging in clusters... mA Basswood (Tilia) HH Leaves longer than broad, ovate lanceolate; fruit a dark purple drupe..... Hackberry (Celtis) DD Leaf margins smooth, not lobed. E Leaves ovate to lamceolate:; fruit a ripe es cece cccce tee ccece tener Black Gum (Nyssa) EE Leaves lanceolate, petioles pubescent; fruit a Derry ieee Persimmon (Diospyros) KEE. Leaves!roundediatruitica pod sssemes. veut ee as bee le Redbud (Cercis) CC Leaves compound. D_ Twigs or branches armed. Hy TwigsvarmedVWeatlets mot serrate... se ee eee Black Locust (Robinia) EE Twigs unarmed; trunk and large branches armed; leaflets serrate..Honey Locust (Gleditsia) DD Twigs or branches unarmed. E Leaflets entire except at base. Leaves large, exuding milky, evil-smelling juice when broken €. Tree of Heaven (Ailanthus) EE Leaflets serrate. F Leaflets more than 21% inches broad; twigs compact... eaideter Ae. Hickory (Carya) FF Leaflets less’ than 214 inches broad; pith of twigs chambered Walnut (Juglans) BB Leaves and buds oppositely arranged or whorled. C Leaves simple. D) “Leaves: lobediti ict ee kD el RN Se a edie Ve Lem (NRE DD Leaves not lobed. By) Teaves serrate: So ores Je Miles ae Air ta on Te hoe ela 2 Pe eR Nannyberry (Viburnum) KE Leaves entire. FB eaves 3-5 inches lomg, spray: Girne. ccc cece cecetteec testosterone ..Dogwood (Cornus) FF Leaves 5-12 inches long, often whorled; fruit long cylindrical ecapsule..Catalpa (Catalpa) CC Leaves compound. D* eaves digitately compound: ee ee eee Bane Horsechestnut or Buckeye (Aesculus) DD Leaves pinnately compound. EH Leaflets 3-5; samaras|painedsissetw ok ub lis Ree esl ee ae EL eT Box Elder (Acer) HE}: Leaflets, 5-1)),\‘samaras! not, paired!t sek Pr beat Gennes tm a Oe enttaee case We Ash (Fraxinus) GLOSSARY OF TERMS USED IN FORESTRY. Acute—Sharp-pointed. Alburnum—The sapwood. Annual—Y early. Berry—A thin-rind juicy fruit, usually with more than one seed. Blade—The broad part of a leaf. Compound—Having more than one leaflet. Deciduous—Not persistent. Applied to leaves falling in autumn. . Digitate—Applied to a compound leaf in which all the leaflets radiate from the top of the petiole. Drwpe—A single seeded fleshy fruit. Duramen—The heart wood. Fluted—Not round, angular. Glabrous—Without hair of any kind. Internode—The space between two nodes. Lanceolate—Applied to leaves broadest at base and tapering to apex. Lateral—Coming from the side. Latent—Appearing late or dormant. Leaf Scar—Sear left by last year’s leaf. Lenticles—Small breathing pores that appear as dots upon the branches. Linear—Applied to a leaf which is many times longer than broad, as that of the pine. Netted—Veins running into each other. Node—The point on a stem from which a leaf develops. Obovate—Broader at tip than at base. Obtuwse—Blunt or rounded. Ovate—Rounded at both ends. Pendent—Hanging. Petiole—The stem of a leaf. Pinnate—Applied to a compound leaf where the leaflets are arranged on each side of a common petiole. Pome—An apple-like fruit. Pubescent—Downy or hairy. Samara—A dry fruit with a wing-like appendage, as that of the maple. Serrate—Toothed. Spray—tThe twigs at the end of a branch. Stipule—A leaf-like organ at the base of a petiole. Symmetrical—Having both sides exactly alike. Terminal—End. Truncate—Cut off. EXERCISE 1. Leaves: Make an outline drawing of three of the leaves furnished you. Identify and label the following parts: Blade, veins, petiole (stem), and stipules (if present). Describe each leaf, using such of the following terms as applicable. If you do not know the meaning of these terms consult glossary above. BuabE: Simple or compound. VENATION: Parallel, netted, palmate, pinnate. GENERAL Form: Linear, oblong, lanceolate, oval, ovate, obovate. Apex: Acute, obtuse, truncate. Maren: Entire, serrate, dentate, sinuate, lobed. Compounp L#aves: Pinnately compound, bi-pinnately compound, palmately compound. PerioLes: Round, flat. EXERCISE 2. Srems: Study the branch of the basswood or some other common tree. Identify and locate all of the following features present: Node, internode, leaf scars, stipular scars, laizrai buds, term- inal buds, branch scars, lateral bud sear, te?minal bud scars, lenticles, latent buds, and annual rings. Draw and label carefully the features noted. EXERCISE 3. Fruits: Study the fruits of the following trees: Maple, Elm, Walnut, Chestnut, Ash, Apple, Sweet Gum, Sycamore, Persimmon, Black Gum, Basswood, Locust. Write a description of each of the above fruits, using such of the following terms as applicable: Samara, pome, nut, pod, berry, drupe. EXERCISE 4. Frevp Trip: Object to study trees. Each student should provide himself with an old magazine for collecting leaves, a small box for collecting fruits, and a cheap notebook for taking notes. Do not try to write a detailed description of the tree in the field, but see that you have the following points before leaving each tree: (1) common name,(2) branch system, (3) form of leaf, (4) shape of tree as a whole, (5) kind and eolor of bark, (6) fruit, (if present). Return to the laboratory and fill in the following table: 5 (Over ) EXERCISE 4.—Continued. No. of B | BARK NAME OF TREE Species ranch Form of Leaf} Shape of Tree | Fruit Found System Color Texture EXERCISE 5. Classify fifteen of the common trees of this locality according to the outline below: Common Name Genus Branch System LEAVES Simple or Form Compound Venation Fruit EXERCISE 6. Ipentirication By Means or Key. Identify by means of the key the three trees selected. Write down the steps as you go, but do not put anything down until you are reasonably sure you are correct. EXERCISE 7. Ipentirication By Means or Key. Identify as many species as possible. Have the identification of each species approved before youstart to identify another one. EXERCISE 8. TxHeE Strupy oF Sections or OixK Woop. Examine a cross section of a young oak tree. Note three regions: (1) the heart, wood, duramen; (2) the sap wood, the alburnum; (3) the bark. Do you note any difference in color in the three? Ifso, what? Which of the three is the hardest? What special function does each of these regions perform? Notice concentric rings from the pith outward. How many are there in your specimen? Are all of them the same distance apart? If not, why are some closer together than others? Why are these rings called annual rings? Notice the pith rays running across the rings. Are all of them the same length? How can you account for the difference in length? What work do the pith rays do? Draw a surface view of the section, showing all parts studied. EXERCISE 9. THe Stupy or Sections or Woop. Study cubes of oak wood furnished you. Pic- ture in your mind how it was cut. Identify all markings. Locate the following sections: (1) transverse, (2) radial longitudinal (cut parallel to rays), (3) tangential longitudinal (cut at right angles to rays). Describe the appearance of the pith rays in each. Draw a diagram showing how quarter sawn boards are cut. What is the advantage of quarter sawing over flat sawing? Which is the most saving of lum- ber? Why is quarter sawn wood so high priced? Examine some furniture. How ean you tell which has been flat sawn and which quarter sawn? ; EXERCISE 10. Microscopic Sections or Woop. Examine the sections given you with the low power of the microscope or with a hand lens. Is it a cross or longitudinal section? How can you tell the difference ? Note in the center of the stem the pith, made up of thin-walled clear cells. Just outside the pith note the wood or xylem. Can you see large openings in the wood? These are the tracheal ves- sels. Their use is to take water and minerals from the roots to the leaves. Is there any regularity in their distribution? Notice between the tracheae the wood fibres, small cells with thick walls. On the outer edge of the xylem note a ring of thin-walled brick-shaped cells, the cambiwm. This is the dividing line between the bark and the wood. It is the growing region of the stem. All of the tissue on the outside of the cambium layer is known as the phloem. How many different kinds of tissue do you see? Do all of the cell walls in this region have the same thickness? On the very outside of the phloem note a single layer of cells called the epidermis. Note the pith rays running from the pith outward. EXERCISE 11. Tue Estimation or THE NuMBER OF BoarRD Fret PER AcRE. Count all trees in a circular area of 118 feet in diameter (14 acre) ; measure several trees and select one as nearly the average as possible. How many 16 feet logs may be cut from it? Estimate the diameter of the tree inside of the bark at top and bottom; then add these figures and divide the result by 2. Square this number, then sub- tract 60, multiply by 8; this gives the number of board feet in a 16 foot log. Multiply the number of board feet by the number of 16 foot logs found in the average tree. This will give you the number of board feet found in the average tree; then multiply this number by the number of trees found in one- fourth of an acre and you will get the number of board feet in this area. REFERENCES ON FORESTRY AND RELATED SUBJECTS. Selected from Farmers’ Bulletins. Bulletin No. 99.—Insect Enemies of Shade Trees. Bulletin No. 134.—Tree Planting on Rural School Grounds. Bulletin No. 173.—Primer of Forestry, Part I. Bulletin No. 113.—The Apple and How to Grow It. Bulletin No. 181.—Pruning. Bulletin No. 358.—Primer of Forestry, Part II. Bulletin No. 467—The Control of the Chestnut-bark Disease. Bulletin No. 482.—The Pear and How to Grow It. Bulletin No. 491.—The Profitable Management of the Smail Apple Orchard on the General Farm. Bulletin No. 492.—The More Important Insect and Fungous Enemies of the Apple. Bulletin No. 582—The Use of Chestnut Timber Killed by the Bark Disease. Bulletin No. 600.—An Outfit for Boring Taprooted Stumps for Blasting. Bulletin No. 622.—Basket Willow Culture. Bulletin No. 631.—Growing Peaches. Bulletin No. 632.—Growing Peaches. Bulletin No. 633——Growing Peaches. SECTION II.—SOILS. EXERCISE 12. Tue Strupy or Som Partictes. Examine samples of gravel, sand, peat, clay, loam, and silt. Do you note any difference in size of particles? Take some of each and rub between thumb and forefinger. Which has the smailest particles? Take very small samples of each soil and put them on a 8 slide. Examine with the hand lens or with the compound microscope. Are all of the grains the same size, color, and texture? If not, what are the chief differences?- Which has the most decayed plant matter in it? Is the amount of decayed plant matter and the color associated in any way? Describe each soil and draw several particles of each. If one particle is five times larger than another, denote size by 5X. Denote the smallest by X. EXERCISE 13. Tue Strupy or Som Particues. Fill five jars half full of water, then put into No. 1 four spoonfuls of sand; into No. 2, clay; into No. 3, silt; into No. 4, loam. Shake each thoroughly for two minutes, then set aside. Which became clear first? Has the time of settling any relation to the size of particles ? EXERCISE 14. Cuay anp Sanpy Soms. Clay is called a heavy soil, and sand a light soil. Fill two cans of equal weight, one with clay and the other with sand; pack both down and weigh. What results? Take a shallow pan and fill it three-quarters full of clay. Take another and fill it three-quarters full of sand. Put half a pint of water on each, then work both with a stick. Which works the easier? Put both away until the next laboratory period. Describe the appearance of both. Would you advise a farmer to plow just after a rain? Do the terms heavy and light refer tu the actual weight of soils or to the ease or difficulty of cultivation ? EXERCISE 15. Tue Porosrry or Soms aNnp THe Capacity to Honp Rainrauu. Fill five soil tubes with different kinds of soils. Compact each tube by jarring it lightly upon the table, then weigh. Pour water into each tube just rapidly enough to keep the surface soil covered. Time the interval until the first drop appears in the receptacle. Stop pouring water into the tube at once, but put a piece of rubber cloth or waxed paper over the top of the tube to prevent evaporation. Weigh each tube as soon as it stops dripping. Figure out per cent. of gain in each case. This represents the soil’s water holding capacity. Make several practical applications of the principles brought out in this experiment. EXERCISE 16. Tuer Apiuiry or Soms to Take Moisture FROM Lower LeEvets. Set up this experi- ment exactly as in Exercise No. XIV., but this time immerse the sofl tubes into jars of water. Record the time it takes the water to reach the surface of each soil. Upon what physical action does the rise of the water in the tube depend? Discuss this action thoroughly and give its practical bearing in farming. EXERCISE 17. Tue Errect or a Mutcu. Take three pans and fill them nearly full of loam. Wet the soil in each thoroughly, but do not have an excess of water. Press the soil in one pan down; leave the second just as it is; and put a layer of sand over the third. Weigh the three and set aside until the next laboratory period, then re-weigh. Record results. What is a mulch? Would you advise a farmer to cultivate frequently during a drought? Give reasons for your answer. EXERCISE 18. Tue Errect or Lime on Ciay anp Sanpy Sorts. Take two quart cans and fill each three-quarters full of clay; add three spoonfuls of lime to one, wet both with an excess of water and stir until the clay and the lime are thoroughly mixed. Examine both after several days and see which is the more easily crumbled. Why the difference? What do you mean by a well flocculated soil? Repeat this experiment with sand. What differences do you note in the effect of lime on each soil? EXERCISE 19. Tue Per Cent or AiR IN Sorts. Put 250 ec. of sand, elay, silt, loam, and humus in five different beakers. Pour water into each beaker from a graduate until it reaches the surface of each soil. The volume of water required to wet the different soils is approximately the volume of air in each soil. Find the percentage of air in each soil. Can you see any reason why seeds often fail to come up in marshy soils? EXERCISE 20. Tur Action or Frost oN Chay. Take a pint of clay and mix it thoroughly with water and work it into a ball; bake it for twenty minutes, moisten it and then set it out in the open for several nights during freezing weather. Make another ball of clay the same way, but do not let it freeze. Examine both after three days. Describe the appearance of each. From the results of this ex- periment do you think fall plowing of clay land advisable? Can you give any other advantages in fall plowing? EXERCISE 21. Tue Errect or Coton ON THE TEMPERATURE OF Sor. Fill a shallow box full of sand which has been darkened with lampblack; fill another with sand that has been whitened with lime; fill a third with sand and do not change its color. Lay each box flat upon the ground and insert the bulb of a thermometer about half inch under the surfaces of each. Record the temperature hourly of each on a sunny day. Other things being equal, what color of soil would you try to get if you were growing early vegetables. Give reasons for your answer. EXERCISE 22. Tue Errect of DRAINAGE ON THE TEMPERATURE OF Som. Take two quart cans and fill both with the same kind of soil. Wet the soil of each thoroughly, but drain one can by punching holes in its bottom. Insert the bulb of a thermometer half inch under the surface of each soil and set them in the sunlight, and record hourly temperatures. Which of these soils could be worked earliest in the spring, and which would keep crops growing the longest in the fall? 9 EXERCISE 23. Tue Errect or Exposure TO Tite SUN ON THE TEMPERATURE OF Soru. Fill three boxes about four inches deep with the same kind of soil and set them out on a sunny day. Place one level, the second inclined to the south, and the third inclined to the north at the same angle. Insert the bulb of a thermometer about one inch under the surface of each and record the hourly temperatures. Which is the warmer, a flat field, one that slopes to the north, or one that slopes to the south? Which do you think would be the driest by April 15th? EXERCISE 24. Som anp Sussom. Take a spade or soil auger and collect the soil and subsoil from several nearby fields. Note carefully the color of each. To what is the dark color in the surface soil due? How far down does it extend? Which soil is the more compact? Which contains the most moisture ? EXERCISE 25. Tue Propuctiviry or Som anv Sussom. Take two flower pots, fill one with soil and the other with subsoil. Plant several grains of wheat or some other grain in each. Record the growth of each for three weeks. Why did the wheat grow better in one spot than in the other? What effect upon the fertility of the field has the rapid washing away of the surface soil? EXERCISE 26. Tue Revative AMouNT oF WATER AND ORGANIC MATTER IN THE Som AND SUBSOIL. Take 20 grams of soil and put it into a crucible which has already been weighed. Put the soil in an oven and heat for one hour at 110 degrees. Re-weigh. This drives all of the water out of the soil. Burn this same soil in a crucible or iron bowl for one hour then weigh again. This removes the humus. Repeat this experiment with the subsoil. Using the above data, fill in the following table. Fill in second column with data taken from another student. Soil Subsoil Soil Subsoil Weight of erucible EXERCISE 27. Metrnops or TESTING THE AcIDITY OR ALKALINITY OF Som. Take two soils, one of which is known to be slightly acid or alkaline, put a blue piece of litmus paper in each. What results? Repeat, using pink litmus. Are your results the same? If pink paper turns blue, the soil is said to be alkaline or sweet. If, however, the pink paper remains pink, the soil is acid or sour. Next, take a little lime and put it into the can which is acid. Test again and record your results. The lime neutralizes or destroys the acidity of the soil. Any excess of lime above that necessary to do this makes the soil alkaline. Do you know any reason why clover will not grow on acid soil? Does sheep sorrel show the presence of acidity or alkalinity in soil? What is the best remedy for acid soils? (Norte to TEAcHER)—If acid and alkaline soils cannot be collected in your locality you can make the soil acid by adding a little diluted sulphuric acid; alkaline by adding a diluted solution of potassium hydroxide. 10 EXERCISE 28. Frevp Trip. OxBsect, To Stupy Sors in Ts Locariry. Hach student should bring with him a rough note book and several pieces of litmus paper. Note the general lay of the land. Would you class the land as hilly, level or rolling? Are the streams rapid or slow flowing? What use is made of the steep hillsides? - What is done to prevent them from washing? Do the crops vary in any way with the exposure? Why are the valleys generally fertile? Is the soil clay, sand, or loam? Is it sweet or sour? (Test with htmus paper.) What crops are grown on each soil? EXERCISE 29. Fertiizers. Examine samples of several well-known fertilizers. Note especially color, size of particles, odor. Put a small bit of each in a test tube and soak it in water for one hour. Which is the most soluble? Which the least? Which of the fertilizers do you thing would be the most quickly available for the plant? What elements are supplied in each fertilizer? What three elements are usually lacking in soil? What one element may be supplied by growing leguminous crops? REFERENCES ON SOILS AND RELATED SUBJECTS. Selected from Farmers’ Bulletins. Bulletin No. 77.—The Liming of Soils. Bulletin No. 138.—Irrigation in Field and Garden. Bulletin No. 245.—Renovation of Worn-out Soils. Bulletin No. 263.—Practical Information for Beginners in Irrigation. Bulletin No. 266.—Management of Soils to Conserve Moisture. Bulletin No. 371.—Drainage of Irrigated Lands. Bulletin No. 373.—Irrigation of Alfalfa. Bulletin No. 404.—Irrigation of Orchards. Bulletin No. 406.—Soil Conservation. Bulletin No. 421.—Control of Blowing Soils. Bulletin No. 494.—Lawns and Lawn Soils. Bulletin No. 524.—Tile Drainage on the Farm. SECTION II]—THE PLANT. EXERCISE 30. A Srep-BEARING Puant. Study a common plant of your neighborhood. Give its common name. Note four chief regions, (1) Root, (2) Stem, (3) Leaf, (4) Flower. What is the chief work of each of these parts? How is each part especially adapted to do this work? (a) THe Root: Would you classify this root as fibrous or fleshy? Shallow or deep-rooted? Are the branch roots given off according to any system? Why are some roots highly prized by man and animals? Name three roots eaten by man. (b) THE Stem: Is this stem woody or herbaceous? Climbing or upright? Are the branches given off according to any system? What? The place where a bud or leaf is given off is called a node, the region between two nodes is called an internode. How many nodes are there on this plant? (c) Tue Lear: Are the leaves simple or compound? What is their shape? Is the veining netted, parallel or palmate? (d) THe FLower: Identify the following parts: (1) Sepals, (2) Petals, (3) Stamens, (4) Pistil. How many sepals has this flower? What is their color?’ Their use? The sepals taken collectively is called the calyx. Count the number of petals. Why are they colored? Do flowers that bloom at night have brightly colored petals or are they mostly white? Can you give any reasons for the difference? The petals taken collectively are called the Corolla. How many stamens has this plant? Note that each is made up of a long slender stalk-like part, the filament, and an enlarged part, the anther. The anther is filled with a yellow dust, the pollen. Examine some of the pollen under a hand lens or a microscope. What is its shape? Its use? In’the center of the flower locate the pistil or pistils. It is made up of three parts: The ovary is the large bulbous part at the bottom of the pistil. Cut a cross section of it. How many compartments is it divided into? What are in these compartments? Arising from the ovary note a slender portion, the style. What are its functions? Describe the stigma at the top of the style. Why is it broad and flattened? Draw a complete plant, labeling parts noted. Also draw a flower, show- ing its parts. EXERCISE 31. THe ApsorPTioN or WATER FROM THE Som. Take two flower pots and put the same amount of soil in each; plant three grains of corn in one; water each pot daily with the same amount of water until the corn in the one is at least three inches tall. Weigh both pots, then quickly tie a rubber cloth or a piece of waxed paper around each, leaving only room for the corn to protrude through. Let each pot stand for one week, remove the paper and re-weigh. What percentage of its weight did each lose? What conclusions do you draw from this experiment? EXERCISE 32. Osmosis. Take a piece of bladder or animal membrane and tie it over the end of a thistle tube; now fill the tube with a solution of water and molasses; immerse the tube into pure water and record the height of the liquid in the tube daily. What is osmosis? Why is this experiment given? Com- pare this apparatus with a cell. 11 EXERCISE 33. THe Errect or SOLUTIONS OF iIJIFFERENT STRENGTH ON Roors. Take several radish seedlings, put one in distilled water, another in water the volume of which is one-fifth molasses, and a third in a solution which is one-fifteenth molasses. Examine each at the end of twenty minutes. Are the seedlings changed? How? Explain fully. Why should farmers avoid putting strong fertilizers near tender seedlings? Why is a salt put on meat to preserve it? EXERCISE 34. PuLants Ger Foop MareriAu FRoM THE EartH. Take two quarts of sand and burn it until all of the humus has been completely burned out. Now make a soil solution by mixing two quarts vr rich soil taken from beneath a manure heap with six quarts of distilled or rain water; stir thoroughly and drain off this water. Next, plant two grains of corn in each pot of the humus free soil, water one with rain or distilled water and the other with the sil solution. Water as needed and record the growth of the corn in each pot for four weeks: Is the difference in the seed planted or is it due to some other reason ? EXERCISE 35. Puanvrs Give Orr Moisture. Take a plant that has several well developed leaves on it. Select a piece of cardboard the size of the pot or a little larger and cut a slit in it large enough to go around the plant. Seal the slit with wax or tallow so no moisture can escape from the pot below. Cover the plant with a tumbler and set in a warm sunny place. Note the number of minutes before moisture will be condensed on the inner surface of the glass. If a square inch of leaf surface gives off half gram of water per hour, how much water will be given off in a day (12 hours) by an oak which has 600,000 leaves, each leaf averaging eight square inches of surface ? EXERCISE 36. Puants MaNnuractureE Foop ONLY IN THE PRESENCE OF SUNLIGHT. Take some com- mon plant, as the geranium, and put it in the sunlight for a day. At the same time take another plant and put it in a dark room or cover it with something that excludes all of the light. Toward evening pick some of the leaves from each plant and boil them in alcohol, (this removes the green coloring matter of the leaf). Lay these leaves on a white plate and cover them with iodine. If there is any starch in the leaves it will turn black or bluish in color. What two lessons do you learn from this experiment? EXERCISE 37. Carson anp Carson Dioxipg. Take a piece of green wood and burn it in a test tube where only a small amount of air can get to it. Keep burning it until all gas and smoke is given off. What have you left? Give its color and any other noticeable characteristics. Soak it in water for half an hour. Does it dissolve? Pour some weak acid upon it, what results? Do you think a plant could take any of this substance in through its roots? Why not? Now, take a piece of this same substance and hold it over a flame. Does it burn readily? Where does it go since there are no ashes left? What do we mean when we say a substance is oxidized? How do plants get their carbon? The gas formed by the burning of earbon is called carbon dioxide. Its pres- ence may be detected with lime water. Take a tube of lime water and blow your breath into it several times. If a whitish film comes to the surface of the lime water it indicates the presence of carbon dioxide. Why are growing plants often recommended for sickrooms? EXERCISE 38. THe Location or THE GROWING REGION oF 4 Root. Take several vigorous corn seed- lings which have been germinated in a moist chamber. Mark each at intervals of one-quarter inch from tip of root to grain, either with waterproof ink or by tying pieces of dark cotton around the root. (Do not injure the root or expose it too long to the dry air of the room.) Examine at the end of two days. Why is it especially harmful to cut the tips off growing roots? EXERCISE 39. Tae Dissotvinc Action or Roors. Take a piece of smooth marble about the size of a cigar box and one-quarter inch in thickness; put it into the box, cover it with humus, and plant corn in the box. At the end of three weeks pull up the corn and carefully wash the dirt off the stone. Can you see traces of the roots etched in the stone? Does this experiment help you to understand why plants can grow in cloddy and rocky soil? EXERCISE 40. Funer. Take a piece of bread and dampen it, then expose it to the air of the laboratory for a few minutes. Observe every three days. By the end of a week there should be a cob- webby growth over the surface of the bread. What is the common name for this substance? Two kinds of fungi are likely to appear, a green one with fan-like heads, (Penicillium), and a gray or blackish one with globular heads, (Rhizopus). Are these plants parasites or saprophytes? Compare them with the green plant just studied. The black heads of the gray fungus are fruiting hodies. Notice that within each head is a number of spherical bodies, the spores. Spores differ from seed by the fact that seeds are never formed without the union of the male germ with the egg, while spores are without sex, and may reproduce the plant with- out uniting with another spore. How did the spores get to the bread? What is your opinion concerning their numbers? Draw a filament of one of these fungi and show several fruiting heads. EXERCISE 41. Bactrerta. Take several lima beans and place them in lukewarm water for forty- eight hours. At the end of this time note a film on the surface of the water; put some of this substance on a clean slide and observe under a microscope. Three different types of bacteria should be present: 12 ‘ (Over) (1) a round form, (2) a rod-like form, (3) a cork-screw form. Notice their methods of locomotion. Have they legs? Bacteria reproduce by simply dividing into two parts. Do you see any doing this? Draw the forms noted. If a single bacterium divides once every fifteen minutes, how many descendents will it have at the end of twelve hours? EXERCISE 42. Bacteria on Lecumes. Dig up a clover plant or some other legume and wash its roots carefully. Do you see small tubercles on the roots? Are they more abundant on the main or branch roots? About how many are there to the linear inch? What causes them? Why do farmers lime fields that are to be planted in leguminous crops? What element do leguminous crops bring to the soil? Name four other leguminous crops planted in this locality. : SECTION IV. PROPAGATION OF PLANTS. EXERCISE 43. Tue Corn Kernen. Examine the corn kernel carefully. What difference do you note between the two broad sides? On the upper surface observe the sear left by the silk. Now examine a soaked grain. How many seed coats has it? Remove the seed coats and locate the “‘germ’’ or embryo. What per cent. of the whole grain does the embryo comprise? Surrounding the embryo note a white sub- stance, the starchy endosperm. What is its use? Surrounding the starchy endosperm note an extremely hard substance, the horny endosperm. ; Carefully remove the embryo; the part nearest the top of the kernel is called the plumule, the part nearest the tip is called the radicle. What does each of these parts form? EXERCISE 44. Tue Brean. Compare a soaked with a dry lima bean. Which is the larger? Note the external markings. The scar in the center is called the hilum. What caused it? Near the hilum locate a small opening, the micropyle. It is the place where the pollen entered to fertilize the bean. Can you think of any other use it may have? Remove the seed coats. How many has this seed? Within the seed coats note two fleshy parts, the cotyledons. Between the cotyledons locate the plumule. The part below the plumule is called the hypocotyl. What is its function? Make two drawings (1) showing the hilum and micropyl, (2) a half bean showing cotyledon, plumule, and hypocotyl in their proper positions. Write a description of a bean, comparing it with a corn kernel. EXERCISE 45. Tse Corn Seepuinc. Identify in the seedling all parts studied in the mature kernel. Select a series showing different stages of growth. Draw. Carefully deseribe the changes which have taken place. What disposition is being made of the endosperm? Compare the growth of plumule and radicle. EXERCISE 46. THe Bean Seepiinc. Locate in a drawing all parts studied in the mature bean seed and deseribe the changes that have taken place during germination. Trace the process of germination step by step from its beginning until the first leaves are fully opened. What structures do you find that were not present in the mature seed? EXERCISE 47. Yetuow Lupine. Seect ten good lupine seeds and put them into a glass of water. Examine at the end of three days. How many have swelled? What does swelling indicate? Stick half of those not swelled with a pin and set aside for two days. How many have germinated by this time? Why didn’t all of them germinate at once? Why did all of those stuck germinate? Is it an advantage or dis- advantage to the plant to have seeds germinating at different times? Give reasons. Why is it clover will not all come up the first year? EXERCISE 48. Factors Necessary ror GERMINATION: Air, Morsturp, Heat. Take four good corn kernels and put them into a bottle of water that has been recently boiled, but not hot. (Why boil the water?) Now pour slowly some kerosene on the surface of the water. What does this do? Observe and record any changes in the grain. Take four good corn kernels and plant them in some perfectly dry earth. Observe at the end of a week. Have they germinated? Why not? Take four good corn kernels and plant them in some moist soil that has been kept in a refrigerator for at least six hours. Replace them in the refrigerator and cbserve at the end of a week. Have they germinated? What three factors are necessary for germination? 13 EXERCISE 49. GrRMINATION TABLE. putting name of seed and date planted. Fill in the following table: Plant seeds of at least fifteen different plants. Label each pot, $$$ KIND OF SEED No. of Days to Appear | [encerenenceecennncnnscennncsencnencnae Seed Forced Above Ground Seed Remaining Below Ground No. of Seed Leaves € EXERCISE 50. PropaGation By Spores. Take some of the spores of the black mould found on bread and put it on various parts of a cut sweet potato. Keep the potato moist and in a warm dark place for a few days. In three or four days note the young whitish growth of mould on the inoculated parts. Take another sweet potato and cut the same away but do not inoculate it. Compare results. EXERCISE 51. Propagation By Stems. THe IrisH Potato. Identify the proximal or attached end of the potato and the ‘‘eyes’’. What are the ‘‘eyes’’? Are they arranged according to any system? If so, what is the system? At which end of the potato are they more abundant? Judging from position and relation to the stem, are there rudimentary leaves on the potato? Does the potato in any way serve the function of a root? Is it a root or a stem? Give all evidences for your conclusion. Draw, showing all points studied. Make a cross-section of the potato and examine the cut surface for different regions of tissue. What different regions do you find? Examine a thin section of the potato under a microscope. What are the grains and what is their relation to the cell of the potato? Study the structure of a single starch grain under the high power of the microscope. Draw. Trace the food material stored in the cells of a potato from its manufacture in the leaves of the plant to its consumption in the development of a shoot of next season. What is the func- tion of the potato tuber? Explain the absence of seeds in some varieties of potatoes. Compare a potato with the skin intact with one from which it has been removed for twenty-four hours. What is the function of the skin? Observe the lenticels in the skin. Should potatoes be stored in a very dry atmosphere? Should they be allowed to sprout in storage? Explain. If sprouts are removed will others appear? Cut a potato into several pieces, some with eyes and others without eyes. Plant those with eyes in one flower pot and those without eyes in another pot. Compare at the end of ten days. EXERCISE 52. Propacation By Roots. THE Sweer Potato. Examine sweet potatoes which have started to grow. Do you find anything that corresponds to the ‘‘eyes’’ of the Irish potato? Is there any system in the arrangement of the small roots and the shoots which have started to grow? If so, what is that arrangement? Which end of the potato bears the majority of the new shoots? Does this depend on which end of the petato is uppermost while it is germinating? How do you explain this? From what kind of buds do the new shoots arise? What relation exists between the new roots and the new shoots? Of what advantage is this in the propagation of the plants? Draw, showing above points. Is the sweet potato a root or a stem? State clearly the distinction between root and stem. What is the principal function of the sweet potato? How does this compare with the tuber of the Irish potato? How are sweet potatoes propagated ? EXERCISE 53. Propagation sy Curtines. (a ) Soft cuttings. Select a vigorous shoot from a geranium, rose, begonia, tomato, or sweet potato, and divide it up into parts having two or more nodes; trim the leaves to about half of their surface. Why do this? Insert the cutting in moist sand about half of its length. Dig up a cutting every five days. How long is it before the first roots are formed? (b) Hard euttings. Select shoots of dormant mature wood of last season’s growth from grape and willow. Divide the shoot in pieces from four to six inches long, so as to include two or more buds. These may be planted at once in moist, well-packed sand, or kept over winter in the cellar and planted the following spring. EXERCISE 54. Propagation sy Buppine. Select a bud stick which has plump, well-matured buds on it. Pare off the buds by eutting a shield-shaped incision around each bud, leaving a small bit of the wood tissue on the bud. Cut the leaf blade off below the bud, but leave the petiole on to form a handle for the bud. Now, select a good healthy seedling which is at least as large as an ordinary pencil. Make a T-shaped incision in the seedling about two inches above the ground. Loosen the bark on both sides of the incision and insert the bud (using the leaf petiole as a handle) until the cut surface of the bud comes in contact with the cut surface of the stock. Tie the bud firmly in place with raffia or worsted string, but see that the string does not press against the bud itself. At the end of two weeks examine the bud. If it is dried and shriveled, the seedling should be re-budded. In either case cut the binding string. Why? The oper- ation is now complete until the following spring; then cut off the seedling just above the bud. Why is this necessary ? The more successful fruit growers always bud on the north side of the seedling. Can you give any reason for this practice? Name five trees that can be budded successfully. EXERCISE 55. Tue Maxine or Grarrinc Wax. Weigh out 10 grams of resin, 5 grams of beeswax and 214 grams of tallow or linseed oil. Melt these three ingredients together until each is thoroughly liquified, then pour the liquid into cold water. Grease your hands with tallow and begin to pull the wax as soon as it becomes cold enough to handle; keep working and pulling it until it becomes tough and straw- colored. 15 EXERCISE 56. PropaGation sy Grartine. Cut off a branch one to two inches in diameter, being care- ful not to loosen the bark from the stub. Split the end of the stub with a grafting tool, then imsert a wedge in the cleft to keep it open while the scion is being inserted. The scion should always be of mature last season’s growth, and should contain several buds. The lower end of the scion, which is to be placed into the cleft, should be cut into the shape of a wedge, with the outer edge thicker. The scion should be so cut that the lowest bud comes just to the top of the wedge. It is often advisable to put two scions ¢ opposite each other on the same stock. This will double your chance of success and the weaker may be cut off if both live. After the scion is securely adjusted, grafting wax should be put on all exposed places. Why is this necessary? To make the stock and scion unite, what tissues must come together? What name is given to this particular kind of grafting? REFERENCES ON PLANT PROPAGATION. Selected from Farmers’ Bulletins. Bulletin No. 157—The Propagation of Plants. Bulletin No. 181.—Pruning. Bulletin No. 204.—The Cultivation of Mushrooms. SECTION V. PLANT DISEASES. EXERCISE 57. Fire Buigut or APPLE AND PEAR. Examine diseased and healthy twigs. Note the character of the bark of each. Is the line of disease demarcation sharp cr not? Cut the twigs crosswise. Do you note discolorations of any kind? How far down the twig do they extend? In what tissue do they extend the fartherest? Is this much farther than the external indication of the disease? How will this knowledge help you in controlling this disease? Can you ascertain the point of infection? Why are the twigs bearing blossoms infected more often than others? If the disease attacks a branch it produces cankers. How do you suppose the branch became infected? How deep is the canker? What do you think will be its ultimate effect upon the branch? This disease is caused by Bacillus amylovorous, a bacterium. Tt cannot be killed by spraying, but its numbers can be greatly reduced by cuting out the affected parts. These parts should be burned and the wound sterilized with formalin. Why is this necessary? EXERCISE 58. Crpar anp AppLe Rust. How does this disease affect the cedar? Describe the cedar apple, giving its size, color, location on twig, ete. Cut the apple open and locate the spores. Contrast the appearance of this disease on the cedar with its appearance on the apple. Is there any way of telling it is the same disease? Scrape some of the diseased spots on the apple leaf and examine them under the microscope. Describe the spores. The life history of this disease is as follows: The disease lives over winter on the cedar tree, forming cedar apples; the following spring the cedar apple gives off a number of reddish yellow spores, called teleutospores. These blow from the cedar to the young leaves of the apple; there they germinate and produce the discolored places on the apple leaf. The fungus lives all summer on the apple. In the fall it produces rounded spores called uredospores; these are blown to the cedar, where they infect it, causing the cedar apple. What is one obvious method of controlling this disease? Draw a cedar apple and a diseased leaf. EXERCISE 59. Brown Ror or PeacH snp PLumM. Examine some fruit affected with this disease. What are its superficial characteristics? Does it affect the twigs or leaves or only the fruit? Serape off some of the small tufts found on the outside of the fruit and examine it under the microscope. What are they made up of? Examine some of the old mummies found clinging to the trees. What has become of their tissue? Soak one in water and examine part of it under the microscope. Do you see spores? Is it advisable to destroy the old mummies? Why? One remedy for this disease is to spray with strong Bordeaux mixture in the winter. What makes this effective? Another remedy is to spray with self-boiled lime sul- phur in the summer. Why is this effective? Why not use strong Bordeaux mixture all of the time? EXERCISE 60. Oar Smut. Examine affected heads. What parts does it attack? What is the black sooty mass made up of? Examine some under the microscope. What shape are the spores? Is this dis- ease of any importance in your community? How do you think it is spread? One of the standard reme- dies for this disease is to soak the seed for ten minutes in one pint of formalin diluted with thirty gallons of water, or about 1 cc. of formalin to 240 ce. of water. To see if the formalin lowers the vitality of the seed, perform the following experiment, using twenty seed in each test: Give per cent. of germination. Per cent. of germination. ¢ Soaked amiiwater, tengmimubesean eee We | Bee eect Ek oe rs tt cls WE CU Soaked in formalin solution ten minutes... Soaked in formalin solution twenty minutes. Soaked :in formalin jsolutionithirtyaminupes sc ote eal 2 aE et Be i Soaked in double amount of formalin for ten minutes... SN NE Ne ee 16 EXERCISE 61. Puant Disease Taste. Tabulate the five most common diseases in your neighborhood, using the following table as a guide: NAME OF DISEASE CAUSE Bacteria Fungi Name of Plant Affected) Part of Plant Affected Remedy | nneeeeenennee: enbennnarneneannnnnnnaneennne EXERCISE 62. Tuer PREPARATION OF Bordeaux Mixture. The formula for ordinary Bordeaux mix- ture is 5 pounds of bluestone (copper sulphate), 5 pounds of lime and 50 gallons of water. This is too great a quantity to be made in the laboratory. It may be made by dissolving half pound of bluestone in two pounds of water. At the same time slake half pound of lime in two pounds of water. Strain the lime and water through cheese cloth and fill with water up to the 244-pound mark. Now pour the bluestone into the lime water and mix well. The object is to get Just enough lime to combine with the copper sul- phate but an excess of lime does no harm. Pour some of the solution into a cup, then blow your breath on it. If there is an excess of lime present your breath will cause a flaky film to form on the surface. If no film is formed, more lime is needed. An excess of copper sulphate can be told by testing with a shiny nail or a bit of shiny iron. Put the nail into the solution; if there is an excess of copper sulphate the nail will become coated with a rusy film. SECTION VI. INSECTS. EXERCISE 63. THe GrassHopper, A TypicaL CHEWING INsEcT. Locate the following main divisions of the body: (1) Head, (2) Thorax, (3) Abdomen. Locate the following organs and tell upon which divisions they are situated, their use and number: Legs, Wings, Spiracles, Antennae, Mouth, Eyes, both simple and compound, and Auditory organs. The mouth parts consist of the following structures, and must be worked out with extreme care: The labrum, or upper lip, is the hinged flap-like piece attached to the front of the head. It nearly covers the other mouth parts. Just beneath the labrum locate two thick short pieces, the mandibles or jaws. Note tooth-like projections on the inner surface of the jaws. What are they for? Directly beneath the mandibles is a second pair of jaws, the mazillac. Notice attached to each maxilla there is a five-jointed antenna-like organ, the palpa. These are used as feelers and tasters. Forming the under part of the mouth we have the labiwm or under lip. Note that it also has two palpa but these consist of only four segments. Carefully dissect these parts out, place them in their natural order and draw them 5X. What kind of spray would you use to kill an insect that,has mouth parts like the grasshopper? EXERCISE 64. THe SquasH Bue, a Typican Suckine Insect. Can you locate the same divisions of the body and organs on this insect as you did on the grasshopper? How do this insect’s wings differ from those of the grasshopper? Why are the insects belonging to this group often called the half wings? The mouth parts are much harder than those of the grasshopper to work out, and require some patience, but with a little effort may be discerned. The upper lip (labrum) is a sharp pointed, triangular unsegmented piece that fits over the groove in the under lip. The under lip (labium) is a long four-jointed tube-like organ that sticks out far beyond the head. The mandibles and maxillae resemble each other so closely that it is difficult to distinguish them apart. There is one pair of each and they are long, hair-like organs with sharp points on the end. These organs are used to pierce the tissue of the plant and to start the flow of sap so it may be readily sucked up. What kind of spray would you use to destroy this insect? Would Paris green kill them? Why not? EXERCISE 65. THe Lire History or aN Insect as ILLUSTRATED BY THE CABBAGE BUTTERFLY. Col- lect some cabbage caterpillars. What color are they? Are they smooth or hairy? How many true legs do they have? Have they biting or sucking mouth parts? Feed them fresh moist cabbage leaves every morning. At the end of ten days, and perhaps before if the worms are large, they will change into a chrysalis. Does the chrysalis resemble the caterpillar? How does it differ? Are there any points of likeness between the two. Keep the chrysalis for another ten days, at the end of which time it should turn into a white butterfly. How does the butterfly differ from the caterpillar and chrysalis? The butterfly is the adult stage of this insect and will not undergo any more transformations. Its work is to lay eggs, which hatch into caterpillars. Do butterflies and moths do any damage in the adult stage? Have the adults biting mouth parts? What kind of spray would you recommend to kill caterpillars? Nore to TEAcHER: The various stages may be collected in the summer and kept in a four per cent. ae solution if they cannot be procured when wanted, but it is best to use fresh specimens whenever possible. EXERCISE 66. THe San Jose Scare. Examine trees in an orchard infested with this pest. Note the appearance on both large branches and small twigs. Do you note any difference in appearance? Take some of the scale to the laboratory and study it under the hand lens. Find three forms: (1) The adult female. These are brown to grayish in color, with a prominent nipple-like projection in the center. (2) The Male. These resemble the females very much but the nipple is at one end instead of in the center. The winged males are hard to procure and if not found should be studied from drawings, but wherever possible study the specimen itself. (3) The half grown stage, known as the ‘‘nigger’’ stage, can be recog- nized by its carbon black color and its size. Carefully remove the external scale from the insect itself. What is its color? Shape? Examine under the hand lens or low power of the microscope. Has it legs, wings, eyes, or antennae? Locate its sucking apparatus. Where is it located? Make drawings of the different stages and the insect with the scale removed. 18 ( EXERCISE 67. Inseor Pest Tasue. Tabulate ten destructive insects of your locality, using this table as a guide: | MoutH Parts DAMAGE DONE AS | NAME OF INSECT Plant Affected) Control Biting Sucking Larvae Adult EXERCISE 68. THe Preparation or Lime SunpHur. The common formula for lime sulphur is twenty pounds of lime, fifteen pounds of sulphur, and fifty gallons of water. It may be made in the lab- oratory as follows: Slake 25 grams of lime in 200 ce. of water, then add 40 grams of flowers of sulphur. Shake vigorously for five minutes, then pour into an open vessel and heat for 45 minutes; stir occasion- ally to prevent the liquid from boiling over. Let stand for fifteen minutes then notice color, density and odor of the solution. Is there any sediment? What is its character? Now test with the Baume hydro- meter for its specific gravity. To use as a winter spray for the scale dilute as follows: Reading of Hydrometer in Degrees Baume Number of Gallons of Water to One Gallon of the Concentrate 35 9 34 834 33 84, 32 8 31 7% 30 TA, 29 634 28 614 27 6 26 534, 25 a4 24 5 23 41h 22 4, 21 334 20 314 19 34 18 3 17 234 16 214 15 24 14 74 EXERCISE 69. Tue PREPARATION OF KEROSENE EMuusion, A Contact INsEecTicipE. The formula for making this insecticide is as follows: Hard soap, 14 pound (finely shaved) ; hot water, 1 gallon, (soft) ; Kerosene, 2 gallons. Dilute with 50 gallons of water. This insecticide may be made in the laboratory by dissolving 1 gram of soap in 16 ee. of boiling water; after the soap has dissolved add 30 ce. of kerosene. Now shake the liquid thoroughly until the solution is emulsified. What is its color now? Do you see any particles of free kerosene? This solution is too strong to be put on tender plants and should be diluted with 500-600 ce. of water. This preparation is very effective against plant lice of various kinds. How does it kill them? EXERCISE 70. Puriry Test ror Paris GREEN. Paris green is often diluted with other materials which do no harm to insects, but cost the farmer a great deal of money. Collect samples of Paris green from several local dealers. Bring some of it to the laboratory and weigh out 1 gram. Put it into a breaker and add 25 ce. of ammonia of water. Stir vigorously for five minutes, then let it stand for ten. Is the solution a clear dark blue or is it murky-looking? Is there a solid residue left? Murkiness and a solid residue indicate impurities. REFERENCES ON PLANT DISEASES, FUNGICIDES AND RELATED SUBJECTS. Selected from Farmers’ Bulletins. Bulletin No. 221.—Fungous Diseases of the Cranberry. Bulletin No. 243.—Fungicides and their Use in Preventing Diseases of Fruits. r Bulletin No. 284.—Insect and Fungous Enemies of the Grape. Bulletin No. 345.—Some Common Disinfectants. Bulletin No. 440.—Spraying Peaches for the Control of Brown Rot, Scab, and Curculio. Bulletin No. 467.—Chestnut-bark Disease. Bulletin No. 476.—The Dying of Pine in the Southern States. Bulletin No. 488.—Diseases of Cabbage and Related Crops. Bulletin No. 489.—Two Dangerous Imported Plant Diseases. Bulletin No. 492.—The Fungous Enemies of the Apple. Bulletin No. 507—The Smuts of Wheat, Oats, Barley and Corn. Bulletin No. 544.—Potato-tuber Diseases. Bulletin No. 555.—Cotton Anthracnose. Bulletin No. 618.—Leaf Spot, a Disease of the Sugar Beet. Bulletin No. 625.—Cotton Wilt. 20 Bulletin No. Bulletin No. Bulletin No. Bulletin No. Bulletin No. Bulletin No. Bulletin No. Bulletin No. uBlletin No. Bulletin No. Bulletin No. Bulletin No. Bulletin No. Bulletin No. Bulletin No. Bulletin No. Bulletin No. Bulletin No. Bulletin No. Bulletin No. Bulletin No. Bulletin No. Bulletin No. Bulletin No. Bulletin No. Bulletin No. Bulletin No Bulletin No REFERENCES ON INSECTS AND INSECTICIDES. Selected from Farmers’ Bulletins. 99.—Inseet Enemies of Shade Trees. 120.—Insects Affecting Tobacco. 127.—Important Insecticides. 172.—Seale Insects and Mites on Citrus Trees. 178.—Insects Injurious in Cranberry Culture. 264.—The Brown Tail Moth. 275.—The Gypsy Moth. 442.—The Treatment of Bee Diseases. 444.—Remedies and Preventatives Against Mosquitoes. 447.— Bees. 450.—Some Facts About Malaria. 453.—Danger of Spread of the Gypsy and Brown-tail Moths. 456.—Our Grosbeaks and their Value to Agriculture. 459.—House Flies. 478.—How to Prevent Typhoid Fever. 500.—Control of the Boll Weevil. 503.—Comb Honey. 506.—Food of Well-known Birds. 512.—The Boll Weevil Problem. 540.—The Stable Fly. 543.—White Grubs. 547.—The Yellow Fever Mosquito. 557.—The Potato Tuber Moth. 564.—The Gypsy and the Brown-tail Moths. 593.—Arsenate of Lead as an Insecticide. 606.—Collection and Preservation of Insects for Class Use. . 626.—The Carpet Beetle. . 630.—Common Birds Useful to the Farmer. 21 EXERCISE 71. SECTION VII. VEGETABLE GARDENING. THE RECOGNITION OF VEGETABLE SEED. tables. Classify them according to the following table: NAME SHAPE Spherical Flat Oblong SURFACE Smooth Rough Angular see neeeneeeeeneneeseeneeeeennsseteeeeasees|senes senereceeseccseseeneerenasereeeeaees Examine seed of 25 of our common vege- EXERCISE 72. THe CLASSIFICATION OF VEGETABLES. Classify the vegetables grown in your locality according to the following table: NAME Root Bulb Tuber Foliage Stem Fruit 23 EXERCISE 73. THE MARKETING OF VEGETABLES. Visit several local stores or markets to see how vegetables are sold. Before leaving each store see that you have the following points: (1) Note how the vegetables are packed and displayed. (2) Price. (3) Whether home or foreign grown. (4) Variety. (5) Quality. Hand in a written report of this trip tomorrow. EXERCISE 74. PuantiInG of STUDENT GARDENS. Suggest a planting for the plots on page 25, keep- ing in mind that in every garden we should have (1) variety; (2) a succession of vegetables; (3) spring and fall crops. 24 i ot WJ SZXZI ‘830[q UONwysucUIDG s,10}9NI}sU] ZZ—1Z SLOTd *s30[d u99M30q "33 Z-T “IJ SZXOL 23d SIUSPNIS OZ—TI SLOTd el €l PIM 73 € ATE Y SIl BIUIZIIA 3S9AA ‘UOPSUUNTY ADATIOO TIVHSUVW ‘NAGUVD LNACNLS W 6S Sh “St Sate EXERCISE 75. PuantinG Taste. Fill in the following table for our common vegetables: NAME Part Planted Date of Planting in Open PLANTING DISTANCE pave Wo Rows Plants in Rows . 27 a inet ee i ae in emer yay i Papakea Rm Nee A. ¥/ an A ay ee i f \ a hi : “ Oy i eC Paul a mi ; say sn Lane Shpall aly pine tne ne EXERCISE 76. Home Garpen. Draw a plan of your ideal home garden, size 50 by 100 feet. Lay it off in beds and rows and show what plants you would have in it on June 1st. ie 29 REFERENCES ON VEGETABLE GARDENING AND RELATED SUBJECTS. Selected from Farmers’ Bulletins. Bulletin No. 61.—Asparagus Culture. Bulletin No. 62.—Marketing Farm Produce. Bulletin No. 121.—Beans, Peas and Other Legumes as Food. Bulletin No. 154—The Home Garden. Bulletin No. 185.—Beautifying the Home Grounds. Bulletin No. 213.—Raspberries. Bulletin No. 218.—The School Garden. Bulletin No. 220.—Tomatoes. Bulletin No. 224—Canadian Field Peas. Bulletin No. 232.—Okra. Bulletin No. 254.—Cucumbers. Bulletin No. 255.—The Home Vegetable Garden. Bulletin No. 256.—Preparation of Vegetables for the Table. Bulletin No. 282.—Celery. Bulletin No. 289.—Beans. Bulletin No. 324.—Sweet Potatoes. Bulletin No. 354—Onion Culture. Bulletin No. 359—Canning Vegetables in the Home. Bulletin No. 407.—The Potato as a Truck Crop. Bulletin No. 483——Cabbage. Bulletin No. 434—The Home Production of Onion Seed and Sets. Bulletin No. 460.—Frames as a Factor in Truck Growing. Bulletin No. 521—Canning Tomatoes. Bulletin No. 548.—Marketing Sweet Potatoes. 30 SECTION VIII. FIELD CROPS. EXERCISE 77. Porators. Examine samples of several local varieties. Are the seed home or foreign grown? What are the advantages of foreign grown over home grown seed? Make a detailed study of the samples, using the outline below as a guide: VARIETY Color Average Weight Shape EYES Condition Many Few Deep Shallow 31 EXERCISE 78. Amount or WASTE IN DIFFERENT VARIETIES OF PoTaToEs. Weigh and pare three potatoes of about the same size of each variety, being careful not to take off more paring than is neces- sary. Re-weigh. What per cent. did each variety lose in paring? What variety would be the cheapest for home consumption ? EXERCISE 79. Tue DisrriputTion oF PoraTons IN THE UNITED States. Use the data below, selected from United States Year Book, 1913. Show the distribution of potatoes by putting one dot for every 100,000 bushels on the map on ‘the next page. State Bushels State : Bushels IU EW oe ypeat oe ete 0 SPR Den eee a 28,160.000 IVIGSO UI Se nt EE 3,230,000 New Hampshire. wu. 2,074,000 North Dakota... ... 9,100,000 Wermon free .. 3,175,000 South Dakota... ... 4,680,000 Massachusetts .. 2,835,000 Nebraska. ........ w. 9,664,000 Rhode Island... 650,000 Kansas .- "2220. oe 2,920,000 Connecticut ..... .. 2,208,000 Kentucky <1. dt 2,450,000 New YiOnKas a2) .. 26,640,000 Tennessee .. 2,432,000 New Jersey ......... .. 8,930,000 Alabama .......... emer enee ere) NLS 01010) Pennsylvania - 23,320,000 Mississipp) =... ee 960,000 Delaware ........... . 997,000 ThOWISTaN Gna ee ea 1,750,000 Maryland ... 3,741,000 ROX AG. eo sts ee 2,340,000 Wireinias 9,870,000 Oklahoma” J. a ee 1,920,000 West Virginia... 3,984,000 PAK AMIS AS) eho 1,800,000 North Carolina. 2,400,000 UIC) si 70: ee nn eee Oe LT 5,040,000 South Carolina. 800,000 (Wyoming... See . 1,680,000 Georsiag 972,000 Coloraddiz. 2S ee 9,200,000 Florida. ..... = 912,000 New Mexico... ee 612,000 Ohowee. .. 10,240,000 JAPIZON A). caches eee ee 75,000 Indiana. ... 3,975,000 italy 222220 Se 3,600,000 Tllinois ...... .. 9,750,000 INGVad 8) cccccc as Ee 1,760,000 Michigan . .. 33,600,000 idaho ene oe 5,780,000 Wisconsin ... .. 32,155,000 Wishing tony. boas eee 7,380,000 Minnesota .. .. 30,250,000 Oregon ............. .... 6,750,000 Tonic Aes RES | Ee a ee el 7,200,000 @ahitornia (2.2 eee 8,092,000 32 ~—— | a a ' \ ae Se S75 \ | 1 = \ ay ss Iw | (om i i| “Wd Se em ! fy sill ( ! VS a ae \ J \ { we aN } ! f eae es yw MIN, ‘ 2 eae ye aaets eer oS 7 ) | ; ae). \ \ 4 ) ' % ed H f * ( x ‘OW L \St Seater mee Dae, i | i \ ai ee ‘0109! ‘ | See ee tn, i } QIHO.| NL aa 4 } in| ; ZS = # | (Ss 1 ) > =~ ‘oT aes oes A, i ee ce NIN | RE aa | / Seas = ve) \ | { / i eee \ | U i ~ 21W ee = OA SS } ws | Spe aah ea ‘SIM ~------- -e i \ ! ‘ 2G ' I Ginn See ele ; | | LNvow | i “AS yy ‘aW ‘SPYSNg YOO‘OOT S[eNbe Jop euQ ‘so}e}g po}taA oy} UT Seoyejod Jo UOTNGIAYsTp oy} SutMoys deyy EXERCISE 80. Corn. Study ears of as many types and varieties of corn as are represented locally. Fill in the following table for each variety studied: VARIETY NAME Weight of 10 grains Wedge Spherical Conical Rounded Flat Shape of Top ! Dented COMMENT 35 MGs ; A; ihc juah OS ede eet ease hs fed vk sheep An oe I ik: aevkYeyr] Mbinere hs ey, = ant eee hge hie dere hth TH) ‘ ciehehi enh yak te 1 At (Ave tae felipe urd tm pity vee eat er vice bla wa YY on eb 12. 13. EXERCISE 81. Corn Jupere. SCORE CARD CORN Scale of Points. Mrueness to ype. ee hate ee eect 10 Maturity and Market Condition... 10 Shapertod Wars bee lobe Maire MeL oo 10 Menothh ot) iar! fel oieer owes. 2 tse Ee 10 Pircumference: of War. 28.2 eee Re 5 Surabohimess OLMROWs mses te ee 5 Space between Rows... sie oe. ao SS EAE! SOME G0) 0 Naa tee ter sa Bi Ua a AN I 10 Ear No. Mo tals Muay weit ree ee ae VARIETY STANDARDS. Recognized Varieties. Yellow Length Circumference Revd viellowy Dente: iio ot 10 to 10% 74 to 7% Weaning Le. 10 to 10% 7% to 734 Legal Tender to 101% 7% to 7% White Boone, Countiyeiw nites. 2s 101% to 11 7144 to 734 sity (Claeidlesy \\ (layla Ae ee Fee ee liebe eee 10 §=to 10%, 74 to 7% Other Varieties. Yellow ODTE RANE al sn LA a Stor 94, 714 to 7% ier @barlesmWello wy: ces. u de eett h eee 4 10% to 11 7% to 734 White PSU Pe NMinna eyenene pe enema amet E i 9 to 9% 7 to 7%, OMMSOM Come Wikite ee: ste Meares eet 101% to 11 71% to 734 Varieties Judged. 1. 2 37 EXERCISE 82. Seep Tester. A seed tester may be made by sawing off the top of an old box four inches from the bottom. Put two inches of thoroughly wet sawdust or sand in the box. Cover this with a piece of white muslin which has been marked off in 2-inch squares. Number the squares from 1 up; then take six kernels from the ear to be tested, two from the butt, two from the tip and two from the middle of the ear. Put these kernels in square No. 1 and number the ear 1. Why do this? Put the kernels from as many ears as are to be tested in their respective places. Now cover the tester with sev- eral thicknesses of cloth or blotting paper. Wet thoroughly every other day for eight days. On the ninth day examine; if some of the kernels are not well germinated wait another three days and examine again. Figure out percentage of perfect germination. Tell another way you could make a seed tester at your home. Give two reasons why all seed should be tested before planting. EXERCISE 83. Tue DISTRIBUTION OF CoRN IN THE Unitrep Srates. Use the data below, selected from United States Year Book, 1913. Show the distribution of corn by putting one dot for every 100,000 bush- els on the map on the next page. State State INU ea} (eee el ae ee ee 608,000 Missouri: iene 129,062,000 New Hampshines = = 814,000 North Dakota... . 10,800,000 AViGTEIN OMG eee reese Ap Dee te 1,665,000 South Dakota... ee 67,320,000 Missa ChiiS bis (ee ee ee. 1,944,000 Nebraska) 2.2.20 noch ee 114,150,000 hodes sland seeeaess es ee ee. 402,000 KGa Sas) .. 23,424,000 Connecticut ..... ... 2,348,000 Kentucky .. . 74,825,000 IN Gry COT koeet te eae ee cee ee ne 15,020,000 Tennessee ... .. 68,675,000 INOW? UCTS CY ee ee ee 10,862,000 “Alaibaman iee< 6.) Seen ae ae .. 55,360,000 Pennsylvania 57,057,000 IVISSISSIP ll Seas en nee eee .. 63,000,000 Delaware ........... 6,206,000 Louisiana .. .. 41,800,000 Maryland .... 22,110,000 MINOR AS © sion cree eee 63,200,000 Wimeoinitay seen 51,480,000 Okdalboma® 2.) joss. 52,250,000 North Carolina... 55,282,000 Arkansas 222-3 een 47,025,000 South Carolina . 38,512,000 Wotan 2225 ociscee cean ee 882,000 WiestuVirginia 222) eee 22,692,000 Wiyomime 232s ee 493,000 Georgia. .......... .... 63,023,000 @olorado: 222 ee 6,300,000. HQLOTTG ay), cline eines alee Rone Ee Ae ls 10,125,000 New Mexico... . 1,572,000 Ohio ,200, Arizona . 476,000 Indiana 176,400,000 Witahves ee ee . 340,000 TOUS ee ES eee 282,150,000 Neward aire sce cate one z 34,000 Machi gant 2 w es ese Neen eee 56,112,000 Idaho) 22 . 448,000 WisGonsiny 2350 te ee ee 66,825,000 Washington . . 952,000 MET eSO Gaye eae 96,000,000 Orervone. == . 598,000 IIS OGWY hi es tre eo rere ccce nee 338,300,000 California) 2.022. ee 1,815,000 Qo wm gb -_---—- c= ¢ ™——----._ ~- ~_- ~— -— . ‘SIM ‘SPPYSNq YOO'OOL Sfeube yop xug 1 ! | ma ! | \ Ree fe ae j I { | | See is ‘O10! ! } = Ste loan, Lae ad | ant } 1 ; be : ! Ins ‘OT ~~. _ BENS peed See —- | | { ssIWw j (_-- i i] X iL J yaw | Bo ees f ae L___ ‘x43aw Man, fIuy / ‘So}B}G po} Taf) ey} Ut U4od Jo MOTNqIA}sIp oy} SutMoys dey A | ? wilaacht EXERCISE 84. Wueat. your observations in the following form: Variety Leth. of Culm to ¢. d. Bearded . Beardless Length of Beards Arrangement of Glumes No. kernels to Spike Kernels) 22. a. Color Select several local varities of wheat. Study them carefully and record 41 ‘ i ary ‘ ome lbitey e's 0 Ve pal hee Dh Me Mt ms j Te Span panic i iets Soci A AG NI is hy aay v i) { (tt este olny sth abil ate pt i Boman dal sth = aatye fire farteas Jet au pae de hy Ligh pate ae EXERCISE 85. THE DISTRIBUTION OF WHEAT IN THE UNITED STATES. Use the data below, selected from United States Year Book, 1913. Show the distribution of wheat by putting one dot for every 500,000 bushels on the map on the next page. State. NT @ Meee be ener ok LL Be es! ee 76,000 AW (eG yh To a ree ee 24,000 INaRUE Sid Lee St eee ee ee 6,800,000 INET pte OLS ELV creme eee ee eM ear nas 1,408,000 Rennsyvanial 2.2 eek see wat oY 21,862,000 Ue layer at Ne Bete 1,638,000 iene sync pees ene eee a MO As A es 8,113,000 \Witirepacr it Wie), 8 SE PSG Re UN a oa 10,608,000 BVVes tem Valeo 3) en eR ee ge 3,055,000 PN Orsi Care in aye ee ee el 7,078,000 NO Uni @ ar olin sy ae. 2. ee ee 972,000 Cr COT ON aes eee a ee eS 1,708,000 Oli pee eats DW wae Be Nae 35,100,000 TENG RENEE, EOD A a RE, eee Se WOR Ue ee ek aa 39,775,000 TAUB ava gS) ee BME es a eA er Lea ate 41,888,000 RVIn(chincrsirimer nae ee A eerie! ie Se 12,776,000 WAI QO1C 1ST ea aE alee 3,665,000 WMUDURWANEISTOUE), 4 phe OEE M.S ARB eetoeet ict enone Piet ge 68,040,000 Towa) 2s... .. 16,395,000 INES (OFUITER, |< oN aE I Tie Rede ee 39,586,000 IN Oat iam Dep Ofer we TE a eee ee coe ee 78,855,000 EXERCISE 86. Comparison or Oats, RyE, AND BARLEY. State. SOUt ED) ako tapeeee eee ae ne Le Sal Bee 33,975,000 Ne lpirais alge. ce meee oe prea kee Abert Te 62,325,000 CATS AS ae OR een hce ee ernese aaa are ee etree 86,983,000 TSS(ESOH ITE) S75 ieetade cece ete eer 9,860,000 PINES CSS C8 ye pase a es ok ee 8,400,000 PAU eailo aun) apse ert edt Po eee mt rf oe DE 374,000 AVIS SSISSI OO Up eee eeea me ate» een eerenee ees 14,000 (NOSEEYS| I i UE Eee Se ee ee 13,650,000 (OEM soya) 17,500,000 DANG: KUT S 1S ee etme eae 1,313,000 TAS POSaY Fey oY 2 cere eas a eae a 20,673,000 ARV TaAND DEN cg Sea a Aa ee Soe 2,250,000 Co Vortec I ites gk 9,680,000 INewalexd coe mene. ere Ne ea, 1,221,000 JNTESV ADI OVE) ve th os I a er en as he eee eer 928,000 [teat pees recreate et LR Se eg 6,420,000 ING aid alee enneme ya need eae Se ote ee cies hae 1,081,000 VICK eT Vay Age eT EL Ae ane ec a 14,094,000 AW hats Fair frac eer ae 53,300,000 Oregon .............. 15,717,000 California 4,200,000 Compare these three cereals as to (1) method of growth, (2) length and shape of blades, (3) culm, (4) head, (5) grain. Which of these three cereals is grown the most abundantly in your locality? What is each used for? 43 an hy wasnt WW phy mineh et Llpainn see Oe ee enria Hii es Ly chine \ eo ae te: Ty i a it tela iy piblece stimu Tc "ath a PP hi ie Liar tie re het eB allt de NR Wh sh Oy an a pia Me ees hl oth eth 8 tf ina -» : ¥ real af Coyne ae Penalty) iD) eee 4 ATL anwar! oe mi) ren , phy Ea pe Lh dkhe ped vara hme 4 fie Ais eis. oh re aM ke sine ern Pe: eT |. PD, by oA edt Mae: oka Ea) le i a ees Ta eRe i 4 MAS Hani i if ‘ . RA it i ipa eae or : Wye ie pan rath CO AE: ty wedaltie: a rato Bh HHL He DED OT A UROL ak (ithagas sft ae Gon ae a eG : Te } Ae, te foal ty OK When Vt A FT KUT SIF, Ta Ns PA ALE tare this aCe eh cman uN ote (vied AE Teh aaT sen nf ale 7 ie? Anil TOS ode fa 7 1 ! | ' ) ! l = I yay oe ! f ay ee lee Bee ee Wool TLL ama, ‘speysug QOO‘OOG S[eube yop eug 9 “se}yV}G po}rUy~ oy} UT Joya JO WoOTNGIAystp oy} SuTAOYS deyy ry t at “yh ’ { ‘ i . * dale to eau : i E { | ; i j ; a 1 Ls v f t , i fet fl y Wa \ 1 ¥ 4 " 1 ~ i Y | - . “a ‘ ’ . . cL 1 vik . mt h iwi) ths . TY PP te art ‘ ms { LL ee sms ‘ 4 i x aX ‘ ‘ . he ih 1 ) h Wi, rong i r pv i VR Uae " Var nk A REFERENCES ON FIELD CROPS AND RELATED SUBJECTS. Selected from Farmers’ Bulletins. Bulletin No. 81.—Corn Culture in the South. Bulletin No. 139.—Emmer. Bulletin No. 229.—The Production of Good Seed Corn. Bulletin No. 249.—Cereal Breakfast Foods. Bulletin No. 253.—The Germination of Seed Corn. Bulletin No. 272.—A Suecessful Hog and Seed Corn Farm. Bulletin No. 292.—Potatoes and Other Root Crops as Food. Bulletin No. 298.—Food Value of Corn. Bulletin No. 303.—Corn Harvesting Machinery. Bulletin No. 313.—Harvesting and Storing Corn. Bulletin No. 348.—Cultivation of Tobacco in Kentucky. Bulletin No. 365.—Farm Management in Northern Potato-growing Sections. Bulletin No. 395.—Sixty Day Oats. Bulletin No. 399.—Irrigation of Grain. Bulletin No. 400.—A More Profitable Corn-planting Method. Bulletin No. 414.—Corn Cultivation. Bulletin No. 415.—Seed Corn. Bulletin No. 420.—Oats; Distribution and Uses. Bulletin No. 424—Oats; Growing the Crop. Bulletin No. 427.—Barley Culture. Bulletin No. 428.—Testing Farm Seeds in the Home. Bulletin No. 436.—Winter Oats. Bulletin No. 443.—Barley; Growing the Crop. Bulletin No. 448.—Better Grain-sorghum Crops. Bulletin No. 466.—Winter Emmer. Bulletin No. 501.—Cotton Improvement. Bulletin No. 518.—Winter Barley. Bulletin No. 523.—Tobacco Curing. Bulletin No. 534.—Durum Wheat. Bulletin No. 537—How to Grow an Acre of Corn. Bulletin No. 546.—How to Manage a Corn Crop in Kentucky and West Virginia. Bulletin No. 552.—Kaffir as a Grain Crop. Bulletin No. 553.—Popcorn. Bulletin No. 554.—Popcorn for the Market. Bulletin No. 565.—Corn Meal. Bulletin No. 601.—A New Method of Cotton Culture. 47 Sh ite " cia a ae zeit ilies Ney feenkiba iyi. wine) abatind begs ned \ erasv es y tae" He th dan? Bits. Roite . ; Oe URS en ee ee dy a Rd jn ann My fibety Mitr Oe) gulayint ‘ apr, 3 Me it Peers Jin pair tie te Pinal dmare ORK rod fea yaa diy RD tit Dvin. “CUMING AT + tae af en Dr a built as , ; \ Ot a Dy, we) EXERCISE 87. Tue Grasses. SECTION IX. FORAGE AND PASTURE CROPS. The following eight grasses are the most common in the United States. If, however, others not given here are grown more commonly in your locality, substitute them. Timothy, Red top, Kentucky Blue Grass, Meadow foxtail, Orchard grass, Meadow fescue, Smooth brome grass, Crab grass. a 9 e. Midrib d. Open, folded d. Compressed Hay P Use } Pasture Study each grass carefully, then record your observations in the following form: NN er apse nage Medium U indistinct 49 Het 'hs ; ; , rent stacy tists eave ant tower td) eRe: Wen) He! a ar or hem ie sn a weer Pte se 1 Fivetiont aohinslh, fai ‘ tort bid maul ane tile Deni Wile tit ene te M eared as bat Le ee —— j eee Us © od | Ae opagee eh 5 > , ‘a / i ible ms mn pm goto real e nal las al al aio Las pial ieredbiesSe! itedae eee A eS i + tain ¢ Ber lr 5 PR A vei debe « r ‘ j Tyee oe P vs hy ? ’ { ; ) Pe mes RARE ST SS SERRE CONE acs eer Ree EP Pat ve rey . % iF bi bil ' 1 rey ha aad he Sal cad aera eat ee et sy enggh ts ehh. ja siilaes bat) apn? ry ¢ A y rv \ 7 ‘de tener ntulbieedbheetah and: laeslalie (Li kL cen ee eons oto ann ee ne fo ater nap! Fees h ie n UA (el ye i nt oe mee nee A a i ee bey mire a a rT] eee te Ml eet Ty sey ae ee ek ir : at, Vig : he i , dna t te 4 y 1 J . are sOirigmn on Gi pad na 7 nt Pe ae ht dace 408 by gE tks pe aay Duty -« ee err 11 FTN dene ery ae rap) Hote 7 i . oP ay gir g ' eT ee oe ee " bik te Oh by se alee yy aay tng e’ wr, the i Cl. eee ee " - i i phim stile A «edie 751 Ch ihe dal aati tek AA ho id Pig ice dein Pas beh tsi Soe Are 56) ree raped oma lh rl cembanies D ry i i ' , A beard U baie Vets ae. d Sys Shy ens oy wed (ome! bay) Pa gi Mi er a Th) soewinn qt hiv ¥ met Das eDiets Cems wll ed im sh Linge panei eed oto hes bend | - ‘ + tenes: 4 | eh 7 ' mee) t ' - i) } ; ry Oe ie lS Cee ’ yee pet ordi ghee arsarsslctegion, bs) EXERCISE 87.—Continued. g. Furrowed h. Foliage { giandant 2. Leaf Blade a Warned Ris eee Prominent e. Midrib { Medium Indistinet d. Open, folded 3. Flowering head . a. Color d. Compressed Hay 4. Use } Pasture 5] mscoeernie ciate piamerns eens aan . ms that Ae v ae Teale 1 pit i is i iyi seat i \ f { f y \ SGA es Ab we Aal” Ay thy a Ay (esol Sea Nise a aaa ible na yten tie arene ny late tpl ssa bot ag st! iene ro meh hig a ta ie eG > A bgt toss aaa vie Nees « i) vt , rahe Nie pate et ibd terrhenerrege etieeyi thers ea, a 4 ¥ y 5 " i ‘ , \ ashy aa TN Og ry : es ‘ ea t i TAN NPALDADA. oily nf aud Niven ee wNNPHty Cogs Oy time UE) WEny ens N ty «ated ccf eure ea el) 4 eta Lob 1h dae gpa ph Hh poieielte ff Pemvewy Aydin ip kd de @ NS ata md + i weaes i 4h : y ¥ ian ; ; f ; ivy { y ‘ A i : { WE 1}! Pa y f } mt ’ MY eA CTO aa ar Alpe ave ERROR fei hi hirae--ivrtarg’ Subp Db eli flags \\ ysis Malki meets dude a Pan eo Sct oe th aul 4 ei a} i . V. f fe ‘ y 1 alan Hed ual Ate tnayna lA beef jodbon pati abe ga dpo Pf Wow ynen sytem cll Axeeoen peel namawa ahaa atben mh chats Lig nidshiewn q \ , | { i ; i i ' i ek Os ee Vohropye th beep elena mer (4p Ldaldhay doops Haya eh ede aac Pik A Ld pea Moke we aegaes daa a * H ' bw Die Le vireo | j gad Pig pre ayt ers gen, oh nity BOAR bakb be i iy i HR A ahh he fad ey ens hint § ep Thee weston vied een ARN hd ane cen 6d NY Agden oh vlan wean ebibie lle hints Ants beens { SEB VNU ident) pmo dady a snilial Sa ye dapweg mgs yicatepy ‘ CL pam 6 } ) , PDD ty tr ek start 4 5E) oy vind ae ligy eh eyed rte vas 4 Vgt den A. Heh NE A rr 6 eno dap Ba Abe tly erie ean A etek afte pal i ' ' ’ ARE ai) video ee Lhevase wD) oat end ’ ; 1 i i f ’ ! i "i " meee | gaye +e soail 05 | eoerig burg (he ANY peanbauradraee be dea ig te sdee on) dobilliinnd 69 i oy Hele uy ot be shoe diet dary 1199 CUA Cad ae V { Heyer ilar ld j poppe alimancah Ain delights ae ay, r j eed anil ah vay tie (ida Was} Maell ed apn fda Memancen ab ar eh aly ix dh ang mre Ae Lag) yi tend anal i og gh annie g bxiraareginat po) iAYh : q j abil ey ; >? 5 i pe r 4 - a vais | SRM beth ho ibaed ee ee iOPr Try t Cire ter prtmaryer taf ee) 6 lara Wnt i | } i “ ve ‘agent indie - " ‘ . a * A y ny 7 were ‘ al ve oH R y | 1 i ; "i ) . ' Find Ty PA RUE pete ake et es Pate pmdl Die nesr 6h tc uwpl sine eees rea | Vine iy va i 1 Vth warp fiek.sbad aa : 1 oya heat | ter alia ras puaieds ivi . , mf scant hips taeda we arnt F * i I ‘ - 7 ' aed a ' - Mehtipy MOR £))54 (ok a ssh era ldiiideat mint arene te cape onda Kop lanlinnee gli snatch fa 1 A ey EXERCISE 88. Tue IDENTIFICATION oF GRAss SEED. given in Exercise 87. Study carefully pure samples of the grasses Some grass seed are naked like the kernels of wheat, in which case it is called a caryopsis. Other seed are covered with husks, (technically the glumes) as the oat. In the latter case we speak of the ‘‘flowering glume’’ rather than the seed itself, which the glume covers. Another import- ant character of grass seed is the rachilla, which is the stalk to which the seed are attached on a double seeded spikelet. There is no rachilla on a single seeded spikelet. First locate the flowering glume, the rachilla and a caryopsis, then fill out the table below. 1. VARIETY . Blunt or pointed... . Straight or curved . Awned or awnless e. f. Smooth, hairv......... . Rachilla a. Present or absent... Jol) IU (oraveay FHaVoy etree e. Slender, broad d. Smooth, hairy 4, Weight of 100 seed..... 5. Important means of identification " com Be oor ie pee “yl a pate sa ie bah Sela, ‘toting teas ¢ Ay. skis ie cus f opal ial visa wet | lca oan sf ek op soir, ate tattered Sad = pk 1 i mi } 4 ¥ > Ti ) ‘a ye” aos 7 r ¥ y \ \ ah : at emt > ems Aleta hee einin'y se hematoma Ae pone metal te a me pe et ce mpage aes a ne a ” ‘a rt Leta i : uss bc ry ; " ara MON LS oh 50h ase thig ieta od , s Blns Va tia phe) i ph hea ar sa ) a i 4 i mi r “pee \ j f PA Ls ty 164 epee nabbed : ‘ ' a i ‘ \ i ‘ } i i are I D Baabed 1 te nh Le py bod vectra Pe Liet init f= tml | Alay . i i ve vu i aT] FPO ech wins) llr ine sh a eee " f 5 i 4 i yay, ae if or ery Pi eae ine AN ae yin | Winks nega Aipelrash de Far iabybibiowih| dy «\ nryyeh write de mea'es ob ig tale th ig Habs ' : : ' ‘ j yh ae sh De ‘ PT tSat hes oa Main , nd i 1 i tod Avid OY 1. eagatvr aad S| ge h ' 4 q f . , hat in DEERE. Hep rvs a 1 STARR ae A eye yee bah ae ml f 0 «, 1 4 i b vf . 1’ f , , i f f | i i er) ¥ P vee ‘ . et } A () ' t 5 PA Tiers Navy 28 af preeink Ailiall ce pce nga tO pore. wot ca } : er, ' ’ { f Ps ieee niile t Paitin nt old Baath " 7 Le EXERCISE 88.—Continued. 1. VARIETY b. Blunt or pointed... e. Straight or curved d. Awned or awnless f. Smooth, hairy........... . Rachilla a. Present or absent... b. Long, short c. Slender, broad d. Smooth, hairy 4, Weight of 100 seed...... 5. Important means of identification 5d fies a Sign ne aime ae {ee bean ae seyithe ve Se Er ee a6 Pog vhs) i i pps “a Sey tr, cee) et a AA ip sienna nied pee ti cota jas is 1 y hi 4 i : Vitae : \ i Pei erence Oo FOR enbam T eAmerinn sb aam ei ie vrei ists I.) geahPNiy ida keane be wblkply eg Ag ii denembew naples mol bebe if . t Hy a | i et eam meg Pm ty U0) \ q y \ erty dey Rank oy tgp gs rset Lp igre 14) yds pavbo wie vibebe ns « : i f |e ed od ophl we dieet eeermwe j j r y t FH parm onan pares fe tt) Pee The ee i , Vi dpaee i Waplradenay iviagees (PAIR ray omelet bbl 4 dow splay amd ey ; { oo | P 4 i i f } Ae { i A { f | / ! ye j ny A : (i } r CO errr 4 sf dkny A Ag ipl pf wp h hglans , Av 1g AMR p ads oe debi t Piss leah f we ie Fy Mpa Arlee hye oh bare Pleo t hy pr debe elles tenon mmm eagpetley te en ee CU Cr ttre Tairit rene 5 aw i \ hee eat jade tele panty thames EXERCISE 89. Tuer Lecumes. The following legumes are the most common in the United States, but substitutions should be made if any of the eight legumes listed here are not grown locally: Alfalfa, Red Clover, Alsike Clover, Crimson Clover, Sweet Clover, Cowpeas, Hairy Vetch, Black Medic. Study each carefully and sketch a leaflet of each. Record your observations in the form below: VARIETY a. Arrangement b. No. of leaflets c. Palmate or pinnate d. Smooth or hairy...... e. Edges entire or serrate a. Height b. Circumference at base ec. Erect or trailing... d. Round or square... e. Smooth or hairy...... . Flowers b. Borne in a raceme, umbel or head 57 }» if | meen aac = caneks eae ee nena iene yn tte teers ey b a } he bi pw tree rm ie tee y Ne i mi apr joa er hn ta tyme has Vea § : : i 4 i ‘ eH j ?¢ Lan i Paes Pree eer Te te tr Aaah ney ee nine thesii-aradnevsierevunts sive beguareante Jy Sanger tees neti sae neneaageptaneaten ee eee eee Uk ee Ds tee! oe ol en ope nae ne sma th ' y f { 3 ~~ ‘ 3 j u } 5 a serpy age ap aed enti, Bx punene ed opiege pewelatnree-iereney i wile ane srl Cd Ne NitnNaren oe U i i i = 1 ay ‘ { eh , 4 an Y , iy f Poewka hie tina Gece RLS Fe roe ie dee ta A Maan ee sedi) PMO ND cep NNT Oa A tig8 pap eh pe des be lg eds ro ean 4 an ra)! See eae 8 ys pen eee nn een Neer fare ty Patty Tiss b ; ' ' . ,} Lan ; tee proved nena mtn! A sno sg Ng sem a eG gym ane i ny DU 59 Nie ed teow Hi setae Pear thaereag tt i i a ae. es) ee ee oT ver Le eee eee ns Beas ae . j q ; ei erwtbas +h oben te Setnipne «ohms Paehs n dpm Rv Gel oer inas bn Aa POY ie paaspativastrs ins stenyonahnnds tihng pare avnsendauiianeeone'eniawace dene ye ) ft y" : : : i 7 , IF i : ; : fb f ; F ¥ A os ' . had i) t J i, ~ ~ o . Antena be Fee ve i sdavee er ee cor i fh oemayes ly EXERCISE 89.—C VARIETY a. Arrangement b. No. of leaflets e. Palmate or pinnate d. Smooth or hairy. e. Edges entire or serrate a. Height base e. Erect or trailing d. Round or square... e. Smooth or hairy . Flowers OOO) see | b. Borne in a raceme, umbel or head ontinued. Se vies ant aby oth ae j ; % Peg Oth Nha Wy Te ‘ wo VF inlay ed Ny as tila ee en pd ia if ¥ ai relia eae: Pe tes ote aay Coal as idtieres eat Bt hh CaN i eee Meru Me! whee Unc ited Mb la) vy toy ant em angle wa ae Be 1 A ¥ et i Pieter nar at hiinerabearertass ced fae aliyy eyes atenh feng ; i i haat ‘ ty ed fe ir Vat They rid t my 1 fe wy aint Lives ses ogi beh ele ae i \ it ! mre cad Tr Fyne) BY aie : te Sr ee Cee ee ee 1s hf Bree Daag em a be ob eek t : ¢ | acne oat chiles pa ose bteietheetloacertik i e} ait ialtey 8 te ell t ‘ -, } \ . * od laws | La era pqni gyn Ld yellows t EXERCISE 90. Tue IpEntTIFICATION or LEGUME SEED. Compare an alfalfa seed to that of the bean studied in a previous exercise. What are the points of likeness and difference? Study carefully pure sam- ples of the Legume seed given in Exercise 87, but before filling out the form below be sure that you know the location of both radicle and hilum in each seed. 1s Ts} a d SEED hape, view from largest diameter. . Spherical . Elliptical 2. Shape, view from smallest diameter a. b. g. h. . Yellow . Reddish Yellowish brown .. . Dark Olive Green... 6. Radicle a b . Tip prominent . Tip not prominent td eet sessed ne eal 61 asec eeeeewaesaseeeeeseeeeeeeneeeneneeeeeee) sind ay aR ale ‘ski ah, abies. rad parti Fl ten pa spitivtiee eer Cn Re cin ys na ct teeters hate eee oe eae - - --- See «i Aken emcee epee atthe A dae St ene eael ay tie et eRe tent ee bat ae sm ; TU ae fe 4 a ee ney ee See ia emer ra jpeeeepnaded aed Stave esa ota ri . ee .. Se ahisdaadaneicninaanl Pita tees NE, teehee chy socadlereih ia ee teenie tial , i tee Baleet pendent end wr btnenra’ clay Pipe nce ten tpeantind sa piats emia pelle ewe ins ——v hn — yt 3 fs ht RMR pie { j ‘ i ‘ , ; ( ! ) Fame hE bg ager tA amt slides | ep ey Soe Ps Sr al aan esl PRA ncn na is oy eo (Aubin b raeennnf Pu lla Paleo de j 4 ; 4 bar ij { t } ; eet t i@ ‘ hors a, le ; i. | t abe, + ae Leah dr Preeln2405 ay etme ctern N ee tae fined scape aa fey bch haa) ronmnaa tenes Fay sage ptiotids rice i 1 | ie ( : a j j : f : \ ‘ PA a ee Valid dete me genie tont ree anny Upainienen et janis prow ointet (ha aenmyes meegsy Palas pray te ub eveatnsn doy “pssst aptreabet i } 7 U 7 N } | ae ; 4 + 7 ‘ ‘ ae , ry hPa hey Pan deed ears en Np Spey liget ad shy utente A habe wb tasent cy Nome npr ES ere i a8 be i i " ti ‘ raat WAT ! 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; ; fv r wh hi ' ’ ; ' " Bees -s vel sees |b edahly alert iprelidaraiets hrahavign, Je b cen joa l aia te Delp Co pa on'eila ne dvbemreley yy Lia WoAaipcivns Laced ighdel 6664 banat : ‘waaay Rump 8 loiter even ee eee Sk eS ae (aa. enthe .c0c ne Apap tm tm hi pew a’ ; f 7 : ry : ohm * — ay , 7 a ee io ‘ & } ¢ i) i ’ t oe MP iba EXERCISE 94. Carrie. Cattle are bred in the United States for two purposes, beef and dairy. Each type has reached a high state of perfection and should not be confounded one with another. Name three breeds of beef cattle and three dairy breeds. Which breed of each is the most popular in your locality ? Reasons. Make out a table as in Exercise 93 on horses, and compare the two types in as many respects as you can. EXERCISE 95. Sueep. Sheep are of two general types, mutton and wool. The wool type is repre- sented by the Rambouillet, while the Southdown may be taken as the mutton type. Contrast these two breeds in as many respects as possible. fh im Kn he he ct ea Heir AR: a hue 1a ie bay aie M0 ane = bin At 44] be inn ott dobar ve AEH FAN Bey VR Hi oe yd son i EXERCISE 96. Swine. Among swine we have two chief types; namely, the bacon type and the lard type. The types are divided into several breeds, all of which are readily distinguished by certain characters. Select the four chief breeds in your locality and record their characteristics in the follow- ing form: BREED 71 ae eth) yGewemenaiane racer petal eaten Et synthe atifb | PONE (ANE pfs MING: od Ne aa ay tg a bos Jota tage arpa mt yin ny f Wo p> ciymaintaleondnalat sy CRON sAlilbe 0 Aise viper h ch.date hsodkh dss Mal Pemed ies Stephan = ec i he Ailaderyt eran { i ee | i h ‘ Salant a ah Aly ee eee it roiiner iy ibe » wf a , © i ; i Pome ties Cee am oh -i10 él) mse be yl iph taint heidi th. 9 bh) aeledny ne UN Me bapny omy iri a 0 , ‘ j Ppa « rt ee a ee eer i matte eay Fits, Ved, pl fateh mo ty A 5a ah ad nt a oiling dg arr acqueng® ia Aides p i ' ay ee ea Hdiehh | 800 vp ey Pattern Magione Mania yy “ae fm By preset iL rep edhay cage, “ete cram : f ee shh ety Uroomaudiiehy, © Beh aie & : | pre ae ae . . i Ve & a F 14 if Tie Font ‘ ' , Mike ‘ Viaggi ee mies 4 ial) AA re et FF iim arg al wil 5 Vf Re ee Pe ee 4 " ” . e ip. & et ten et 1 Bk be, vy oes an A re , i i ‘ 7 fi ‘ vi , : " if i ;4 a pid axe jo pl Si dh tal a + 6 frac hay] gata! © rn Ney abo). Liew Menger gan Veviy bray , , i y i ‘ 1 ti ‘ 4 i 1 dy j | f Ti ae él Nich 3 BIR sake fies A Ma neh dD: dna 'Y sie Sa seer vit bh 6 a6 toot tects epee ees op ote wl vn th paleo tala pene aay ream Ry eg Aa se } tek ; f t ¢ } i a os! | ‘ ey i ‘ LU ie ee fh ib r , : Pails Tee dvby He) ede! Vex a LR, ve vo) ee er ee eo (ee waaay Ne al i Pe ee ete . “ EXERCISE 97. Poutrry. There are two common types of chickens, the meat type and the egg type. The meat type, as the name indicates, is grown for its superior quality of meat. The egg breeds are much smaller than the meat breeds, and are raised especially for the great number of eggs they lay. Name four breeds of chickens found in your locality. Record the characteristics of each breed in the follow- ing form: ee ———E—EeEeEeEEeE EEE EEE Ee eee eae i BREED Plump Body { Rangy ( Nervous Disposition 1 Sluggish _ Feathered L Not e. Great production .. f. Small production .. Large Comb 1 Small 73 ee ‘hia ot tt Ti, | én Set yates be Ee aatt agree: Gen renireap neni iniie ammfsascdlil gh aot ipl al Lae Mie ast ee ee 4 fm Oe redo ed satin Ayan UDG a eaten dir rates 6 ium del wp eg be ‘cae ppehon ele pga, Percent» rp Ate ¥6 | aman eed BT Patty Papa § 8 1¢8. S54 | 0 ae it I - } i ¥ t 1 _ “e dsl Weta tbh wes PE ph Aah Pema cdg vest deen fea gl Neh ht pe sey At g eepy § An aie-ipw ' abpemes «scat lee pliliee eBoe -9 ny me omc om ets Wi a lie ao | ' 7 rt j EXERCISE 98. A Roueu ANatysis or Mix. Take some fresh milk, shake it well, then put a drop of it on a slide and examine it. Note especially the number and size of the fat globules. Also look for any impurities in the milk, as manure, dirt, hair, ete. Now examine a drop of skimmed milk. How do the two differ? Place one pint of pure milk in a quart jar and heat to 70F., then shake until lumps of butter col- lect. Now strain the milk through cheese cloth several times. The milk that runs through is called milk serum. Set the milk serum in a warm place for twelve hours until it has turned to clabber. Now put the clabber into a cheese cloth bag and squeeze it. The watery liquid which runs out is whey. The white solid remaining in the bag is curd or casein. EXERCISE 99. Tuer Bascock Trst ror Fat 1 Mink. Hach student should bring a sample of milk from home or his local dairyman to be tested. The test is made as follows: (1) Measure 17.6 ec. of milk with the pipette into the test bottle. (2) Shake this sample, being care- ful not to spill a drop. (3) Add 17.5 ce. of commercial sulphuric acid whose sp. gr. is 1.83. (4) Place the test bottles into the tester and whirl five minutes at the rate of 1000 revolutions per minute. (5) Now add enough hot water to the test bottle to bring its contents up to the shoulder. (6) whirl two minutes more. (7) Fill the bottles with water to near the top of the graduations. (8) Whirl again for two minutes. (9) Read the fat. The distance between two large divisions represents per cent. EXERCISE 100. Tur Pasteurization or Minx. Take five test tubes and wash them thoroughly in boiling water. Fill each half full of milk, then stopper with a cotton plug. Heat a pan of water to 150F. and put the test tubes of milk into it. (Keep the water hot by adding more hot water as needed.) Remove a test tube at intervals of five minutes. Cool the samples as taken from the hot water to a tem- perature of 70F. then set aside at room temperature. Examine each sample carefully every day for five days. Compare with a tube of milk that was not pasteurized. What can you say as to the value of the pasteurization of milk? What is the difference between pasteurization and sterilization? What causes milk to sour? bas | on