aS SNS SEN SS MVQVMMHHH8 LO MW » . SS \ ’ ‘ : ‘ QQ Wl 0c (rR OOON0” 000"_—" ">"... FB 0000 TFDnWW OO Ow) \ SS QWWWy ¢ WH 8 ° *: i et NAL] kl "6" ®™ 5®];’ h""l"™l" AX CQO AK NK ! “LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. | “eyee Sa | Obey. > ~ Gopi hee | 6% ng rat UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. ||) J 2 ¥ \ is mens i » ee NU AL THE APIARY. BY uh COOTK, Professor of Entomology IN THE MICHIGAN STATE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, fel 1)» Fei T 1OW,, REVISED, ENLARGED, MOSTLY RE-WRITTEN AND BEAUTIFULLY ILLUSTRATED. ~ CHICAGO, ILLS-: THOMAS Ge NEWDIEAN & SON, Lew 8. T Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1878, by THOMAS G. NEWMAN & SON, In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D. C. 2 TO THE REVEREND L. L. LANGSTROTH, THE INVENTOR OF THE MOVABLE FRAME HIVE, THE HUBER OF AMERICA, AND THE GREATEST MASTER OF PURE AND APPLIED SCIENCE, AS RELATING TO APICULTURE, IN THE WORLD; THIS MANUAL IS GRATEFULLY DEDICATED Jee THE AUTHOR: ELE ie Moc PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION. THE APIARY. Why another treatise on this subject? Have we not: Langstroth, and Quinby, and King, and Bevan, and Hunter? Yes; all of these. Eachof which has done excellent service in promoting an important industry. Each of which pos- sesses peculiar and striking excellences. Yet none of these combine all of the qualities desirable in a popular manual. Hence, the excuse for another claimant for public favor. Every cultured apiarist laments that there is no text-book which possesses all of the following very desirable characters: Simple style, full in its discussions, cheap, disinterested, up with the times. Itis for the bee-keeping public to decide Whether this treatise meets any more fully the demands made by the latest discoveries and improvements, by the wants of those eager to learn, and by the superior intelligence which is now enlisted in the interests of the Apiary. The following is, in substance, the same as the course of lectures which I have given each year to the students of the Michigan Agricultural College, and their desire, as expressed in repeated requests, has led to this publication. It will be my desire to consider subjects of merely scientific interest and value, as fully as scientific students can reason- ably desire ; and, that such discussions may not confuse or perplex those who only read or study with practical ends in view, a very full index is added, so that the whereabouts of any topic, either of practical or scientific value, can be easily ascertained. In considering the various subjects of interest to the bee- keeper, I am greatly indebted to the authors mentioned above, and also to the following journals, all worthy of high commendation: Gleanings in Bee Culture, American Bee Journal, Bee-Keepers’ Magazine, and Bee World. The illustrations for this manual were nearly all drawn by the author from the natural object. MICHIGAN AGRICULTURAL euMA ake LANSING, May 1, 1876. », 4 » Ean ee Feta, Js si Pera Lae Apsde: the aes eae FO Mee fi t a Sita vot tea omg eats ee ee . eg ss: est PeHiets ite ee a it rutin at gical Log bat {i} (eked : nels ii vist) ah ct auciapos) 7 ROR EE Gaee AViSS Rhy pee "pradkes f PE Pere ease We aired 10" wise . a ye dt bes hho is a ves 7) t “ole PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION. I little thought when I sent out, less than two years ago, the first edition—3,000 copies—of my little, unpretending, ‘* Manual of the Apiary,’’ that more than 2,000 copies would be sold in less than one year, and that in less than two years a second edition would be demanded by the apiarists of our country. The very kindly reviews and flattering notices by apiarian, scientific, and other journals, both American and foreign, and the approval, as expressed by numerous friendly letters, of our most eminent apiarists, as also the ‘* unprecedented sale of this little work,” have not only been very gratifying, but also assure me that I was quite right in the opinion that the time was ripe for some such treatise. At the urgent request of many apiarian friends, in response to the oft-repeated desire of my many students, some of whom are sae leading apiculturists in our country, and at the suggestion of many noted apiarists with whom I have no personal acquaintance, I now send forth this second edi- tion, greatly enlarged, mostly re-written, even more fully illustrated, and containing the latest scientific discoveries, and most recent improvements in methods of apiarian man- agement and bee-keeping apparatus. It is impossible for me to state how greatly I am indebted to our excellent American bee periodicals, and enterprising and intelligent apiarists, for many—yea, for most—of the valuable thoughts and suggestions which may be found in the following pages. I am tempted to mention names of those whose aid and favors have been especially useful, but find the list so large that I must, perforce, forego the privi- lege, and only refer to such persons in the text. With the hope that this second edition may reach even more who desire instruction in this pleasing art, and that it may still further advance the interests of scientific apicul- ture, I send it forth to all those who wish to study more deeply into the mysteries of insect life, or to gain further Be cdge of one of the most fascinating as well as profita- e of arts. I make no apology for inserting so much of science in the following pages. From the letters of inquiry which I am constantly receiving, especially from apiarists, I am con- vineed that the people are mentally hungry for just such PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION. food. To satisfy and stimulate just such appetites is, I am sure, very desirable. I recommend notliing in this treatise that I have not proved valuable by actual trial, unless I mention some emi- nent person as advising it; nor do I announce any. fact or scientific truth that I have not verified, except as I give it on the authority of some competent person. For most of the figures of the second edition Iam indebted to one of my pupils, Mr. W. L. Holdsworth, whose skill as. an artist needs no praise. Appended to this volume is a very full index which will be a great aid to the student (COUNT Ea Sy. INTRODUCTION. Meaeeticn weep bees. ...... 22.5 .yaeedevildsdeaae cs ures Mee HES as ek aa da xe MISE «SRE POM MERUGUM Steen Cae oe ces wed oes 2 i Bee. Minoare Specially Interdicted, £22 .o.v.. Lo. eae ciews Ales. inducements to Bee-Keeping .......5..020c00.elesid dec das ace er NEN oe es es. ae lcs oe a 5 PE ARR: EMER le Dp eee Ue. casy ets cee PRE Ma MS. so excellence. as an,.Amateur. Pursuits. 2.2.05 e00.. 0. PBEAOM LO, WOMEN 2... 35 si es od Beeeleo ik as oe Improves the Mind and Observation............... Rese nicnns” HOO, . 6.5. cfc55 s cdieb sau be. ses What Successful Bee-Keeping Requires ................ vere Me 2 cs aria Ament iedrs |. aa halenis edad « ibeperience PNW ecessaryoi li. J: Wyss ieee hd. slatie’e ca were te ioe, sooty Omer Hoist. ah kee fle. ebaibh «aque. PMS EET COMVGULIOUS: . "e212, SLs. tele bles oe POIRROLME Ce, Ie ANIGES oct oes sce s 2s SHEE L sede bets ee AINeCHMCAL. wee LOMTMAIO. UY. 610. Hisdes Me eek h v6! pleanimes tm bee Culitre.. cc. 5. .0. se ewe eaie es rc -eCpers CWidiav Ine Meets ro. occ a oe ele tee mins for bie Apiarists lt s i. Jee. 2 QUI NL AS hanes stroth orm they HoneyBee .......... 66. ees Quinby’s Mysteries of Bee-Keeping............ ES LORE EOR ce eine wien es Meets onthe DALAM meres © OL bee Coleures 2.22 et eg ees MOU ES. enero WORKS. tae t ee hs eee ee aah sists 2k ole 4). (Emenee, oS sk SSAA ee PER SY IEE PP TNGHRRSRAEMN YS | woe oc | Sete ek ae eet S eae se eee 3 Beg = Sl Oe NATURAL HISTORY OF THE HONEY BEE. CHAPTER I. The Bee’s Place in the Animal Kingdom. The Branch of the Honey-Bee......... The Class of the Honey-Bee........... The Order of the Honey-Bee.......... The Sub-Order of the Honey-Bee...... eeeeoeecocee eeceeesr ee eee eee eee ene eee il. CONTENTS. The Family of, the,-Eloney-Bee.. 2256s. ..5.- sae 34 The Genus of the Honey-Bee............ aks. ae 388 The Species of the Honey-Bee...... EAM ie Saye oes Al The Varieties of the Honey-Bee................... 41 German) or ‘Black “Bee... 25... eee ee 47 Italian, or Chiguiiain. 30 hick awa eee en es 41 Fastiata, or Hey ptiais i... (1s eee oe 43 ( JO there Varieties ave cs) A ses) eee ee eae 43 Bibliography..2c. Ve ee ee eee 44 Valuable Books on Entomology.................... AT CHAPTER II. Anatomy and Physiology ............... fe ERA ee 48 Anatomy. of Insects 2. s.ycch ee. 3s osdasaces 48 Organs. ofthe “Hlead.3 ) ..nncct ot aes eee 48 Appendages of =the “DLhorax: 0.00). 3.0 eee ee 50 Internal: Anatomy: va: ...:Q80e seen. ieee 56 SECretOry” (OLGANG: ee 6s Sots vores wee . ..i1 6. suel i. he ween bee's. 185 STNG SEGDEN OE C 92 oie cack is) =) sie.0 30/8 « aiaial ale dtd vlebhd gd SBehens 137 ee UPR CONUITENNY FLTV OG) «. oac.e «ne oie,00 60.0 eceiesom pisiee's mpeehalele @ 139 rerio: Iino hame Five... 0.6... cede kes neces oe bandas 140 SR NOMe AEIOX. 6 808.6 See ole eg weldiciee eebd Sei psldmiaats J. 142 Per MEL OMO) WOX 2825. Siecle wis Rea een Utes i ae OT Rak 143 Pern MISOM, SCCLOM: FTAMEC.. ....c. oad a seine) ven wiwe alavetelalel ers 143 44. Chisel..... PE eee ore Serie Ne Pie ix ais ws os RAS EES ese 144 menOck for Section Making: .. 2... 2... .%..5 slevcildeesls elcaales 145 Peeeinerington, Separator.s. 5... os)... cies. so wasls 146 eV -GALICG. SECUON. «0... ec oe ce be wa ee cies dbawles 146 Pee DS OCHO. os) .zis «Wis, gia wien ais SS. es ay a poe eatew slowed. 147 MPR MULTE RGIS Sos i. joe a aia etal dae om ag ieineachoied = gitialvas bs 148 So. 2G 2), 0 LL STN) eee ee eee re 149 Memeeuunard Ss SCCLION. Hack . ilies finds vende vee cea tee 150 emcees Section Wack 2 .. cod.ws2 2 yaa i a tele es 150 Sopeiventnohage. Of EVergreem. ./oa2% 2 01) .sjraen Po .)eel.. 155 fy Pago r oe Sa ane rene arr) eee en nem 160 Seem eune NOCUEL . oi... 5 tans. fet cas sa ERMY dash lee’ 161 56. Queen-cell Inserted in Comb ...................00006 167 Siesmippimne Omeen, Cages... isl bs kl. ein eed. Jewen odaule. 187 Peer Lb Se MX GEACHOR. fc oh.) oii. dele 225. PL eek 189 seeomb basket for Wxtractor .........s:2.s08s suk teshle 190 BPATINEGS, LOT, LCA OTE. 6 ara 4ie's an ss a ales otal as Ri ndbaee 191 meenire With Curved POMb . coer. cs cae faces ewes tees es 191 Smee NOT yo. So Eire PRO ae ace Bes ve EN pa Ne Peas 196 63. Quinby Smokers........ OE SO ME be PR AE eise 199 Pee cet Olea TIT EMO KOI srk cnys & 3 isy9 vane ens Devel wlais qaig ie Se @auleree 199 PeUEOREENL 1 OUTING ey GON 60.4 2 a's Hiciays scale oSe's apa on os ain 2 se athe 203 cumeomne Koundation Machme...........2.....- 0. 6....6. 205 Vill CONTENTS. 67. Comb Foundation Cutter.. SY dah geoh oF ohat hone: LIRA Ieee 68. Block for Fastening Foundation. We re PERS SEE. Jt: 2a 210 69. Pressér for (blocks fneaGa.e eee eee ae ee pati 10.. Wax EXtraetor-..ccccs Jiece n+ tae eer ee an) 2 ete WL. Prize: Crate: ccc Pare Ce: CDi ye Be een ee te ee en 216 72.. Heddon. @rateny cece. WA ee ee ee 217 Td.> Maple. c.c0R UE eRe ENE AES Te a ea oe 222, 74.) WAlOW fo ence e cee e eea ee eaee 223 75.- Judas Wreetinsd owen ewan wien ee ee ee 224. 16.. American, “WIStaEIa :.0.. cece. 2 os ce ee ee ee 225 77.. Chinese. Wistaniaiinsscee. Soaks oe ee eee 226 1G. ADAT OMT, «cc nenerscndas oaraseier-eneneae' een ap nadelcr over laroheFenc eae eee 226 BO.» WAGE! SAGE oo. eee ects aceve ape adel cher ores ch ey a eae 227 80." White -or Dutch’ Clover. 42 3.240. ee ee eee 228 SI. Alsike: Glovers secocs os. See RL ee kee eee 229 82. Melilot Se Vicwlistdw eleou bocce. kaisten 230 83. Borage... . .280 84. Mignonette.. 231 85. Okra. ae LOST 86. Mint. LOG eee ee 87. Pollen of Milk- Weed. je OBIE ESCs, 5 Saale a er 233 88. Black Mustard.. wis avclie’ oak dost atdla [o:le ae VA ae a 89. Rape oe Nd rR MeE Ser aS 284 BO. PUD. oo. Bane aes a ociwiar Soto woth a, CELE eo ee 235 OL. Teasel yi os vnccei oes he Sas a ee 236 02. CoblOM cs3 28 he8s LOCA ae sd a oo Se eee 236 93... BASSWOOG MS Jay ob ccc der oo oy Gale tee le SEL eee 237 94.0 BIS WOP Ls oo tae ne siaia beside store ay ai sees ee 238 95. Button- Busi sige econ bes oR ee OR ee ee 240 96.. Rocky Mountain Bee Plant 2:2) 2.-22 2s eee eee 239 97. Boneset infec wc) ob eee'e bo ols cae be. oO eee QA1 98. Buckwheatek. ae eh ee ee ee 99:. Golden RO aiid chighs woo beer doe okt oi ee 100... Sum: PVO Wer ci doce dsr aehevene ne ee 243 101. Packing-Box for Winter . He eee that ae 102. Gallery of Moth Marva... -seGi: Heemase: sees 262 103. Moth Larva in ia LEST ait Re Vee gine! 27 (en a 263 104. Moth Larve. 5 ope SateiSe edocs ay al aul alge areca, au cee ee 105. Moth Cocoons.. Age 106. Moth with Wings Spread.. nalinikies . Lae ee 107... Male: and. Female Moths: 2+ ..086. 3. 4. 28: Ghee dot 265 108. - Bee-Kaller oie ikinn) he ea el ee eee 268 109;- Bee. LOUSEC. oi5 oso sin sleek wR he BE ROE. ee ee eee 268 STUDS 11) eh 0 Wall ol aa rls me ee Be {Tie eh nO) INTRODUCTION. WHO MAY KEEP BEES. SPECIALISTS. _ Any person who is cautious, observing, and prompt to do whatever the needs of his business requires, with no thought of delay, may make apiculture a specialty, with almost cer- tain prospects of success. He must also be willing to work with Spartan energy during the busy season, and must persist, though sore discouragement, and even dire misfortune, essay to thwart his plans and rob him of his coveted gains. As in all other vocations, such are the men who succeed in apiculture. I make no mention of capital to begin with, or territory on which to locate; for men of true metal—men whose energy of mind and body bespeak success in advance —will solve these questions long before their experience and knowledge warrant their assuming the charge of large apiaries. AMATEURS. Apiculture, as an avocation, may be safely recommended to those of any business or profession, who possess the above named qualities, and control a little space for their bees, a few rods from street and neighbor, or a flat roof whereupon hives may securely rest (C. F. Muth, of Cincinnati, keeps his bees very successfully on the top of his store, in the very heart of a large city), and who are able to devote a little time, when required, to care for their bees. The amount of time will of course vary with the number of colonies kept, but with proper management this time may be granted at any time of the day or week, and thus not interfere with the regular busi- ness. Thus residents of country, village, or city, male or female, who may wish to be associated with and study natural objects, and add to their income and pleasure, will find here an ever-waiting opportunity. To the ladies, shut out from fresh air and sunshine, till pallor and languor point sadly to 12 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. departing health and vigor, and to men the nature of whose business precludes air and exercise, apiculture cannot be too highly recommended as an avocation. WHO ARE SPECIALLY INTERDICTED. There are a few people, whose systems seem to be specially susceptible to the poison intruded with the bee’s sting. Sometimes such persons, if even stung on the foot, will be so thoroughly poisoned that their eyes will swell so they cannot see, and will suffer with fever for days, and, very rarely, indi- viduals are so sensitive to this poison that a bee-sting proves fatal. I hardly need say, that such people should never keep bees. Many persons, among whom were the noted Klein and Gunther, are at first very susceptible to the poison, but spurred on by their enthusiasm, they persist, and soon be- come so innoculated that they experience no serious injury from the stings. It is a well-recognized fact, that each suc- cessive sting is less powerful to work harm. LEvery bee- keeper is almost sure to receive an occasional sting, though with the experienced these are very rare, and the occasion neither of fear nor anxiety. INDUCEMENTS TO BEE-KEEPING. RECREATION. Among the attractive features of apiculture, I mention the pleasure which it offers its votaries. There is a fascination about the apiary which is indescribable. Nature is always presenting the most pleasurable surprises to those on the alert to receive them. And among the insect hosts, especially bees, the instincts and habits are so inexplicable and marvel- ous, that the student of this department of nature never ceases to meet with exhibitions that move him, no less with wonder than with admiration. Thus, bee-keeping affords most wholesome recreation, especially to any who love to look in upon the book of nature, and study the marvelous pages she is ever waiting to present. To such, the very fascination of their pursuit is of itself a rich reward for the time and labor expended. I doubt if there is any other class of manual MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 13 laborers who engage in their business, and dwell upon it, with the same fondness as do bee-keepers. Indeed, to meet a scientific bee-keeper is to meet an enthusiast. A thorough study of the wonderful economy of the hive must, from its very nature, go hand-in-hand with delight and admiration. I once asked an extensive apiarist, who was alse a farmer, why he kept bees. The answer was characteristic: ‘“ Hvenif I could not make a good deal the most money with my bees, I should still keep them for the real pleasure they bring me.” But yesterday I asked the same question of Prof. Daniels, President of the Grand Rapids schools, whose official duties are very severe. Said he: “For the restful pleasure which I receive in their management.” I am very sure, that were there no other inducement than that of pleasure, I should be slow to part with these models of industry, whose marvelous instincts and wondrous life-habits are ever ministering to my delight and astonishment. A year ago, I received a visit from my old friend and Col- lege classmate, O. Clute, of Keokuk, Iowa. Of course I took him to see our apiary, and as we looked at the bees and their handiwork, just as the nectar from golden-rod and asters was flooding the honey-cells. He became enraptured, took my little “Manual of the Apiary” home with him, and at once subscribed for the old American Bee Journal. He very soon purchased several colonies of bees, and has found so much of pleasure and recreation in the duties imposed by his new charge, that he has written me several times, expressing ~ gratitude that I had led him into such a work of love and pleasure. PROFITS. The profits, too, of apiculture, urge its adoption as a pur- suit. When we consider the comparatively small amount of capital invested, the relatively small amount of labor and ex- pense attending its opperations, we are surprised at the abundant reward that is sure to wait upon its intelligent practice. I do not wish to be understood here as claiming that labor—yes, real hard, back-aching labor—is not required in the apiary. The specialist, with his hundred or more colo- nies, will have, at certain seasons, right hard and vigorous 14 MANUAL OF THE APIJARY. work. Yet this will be both pleasant and healthful, and will go hand-in-hand with thought, so that brain and muscle will work together. Yet this time of hard, physical labor will only continue for five or six months, and for the balance of the year the apiarist has or may have comparative leisure. Nor do I think that all will succeed. The fickle, careless, in- dolent, heedless man, will as surely fail in apiculture, as in any other calling. But I repeat, in the light of many years of experience, where accurate weight, measure, and counting of change has given no heed to conjecture, that there is no manual labor pursuit, where the returns are so large, when compared with the labor and expense. An intelligent apiarist may invest in bees any spring in Michigan, with the absolute certainty of more than doubling his investment the first season. While a net gain of 400 per cent. brings no surprise to the experienced apiarists of our State. This of course applies only to a limited number of colonies. Nor is Michigan superior to other States as a loca- tion for the apiarist. During the past season, the poorest I ever knew, our fifteen colonies of bees in the College apiary, have netted us over $200. In 1876, each colony gave a net return of $24.04, while in 1875, our bees gave a profit, above all expense, of over 400 per cent. of their entire value in the spring. Mr. Fisk Bangs, who graduated at our College one year since, purchased last spring seven colonies of bees. The proceeds of these seven colonies have more than paid all ex- penses, including first cost of bees, in honey sold, while there are now sixteen colonies, as clear gain, if we do not count the labor, and we hardly need do so, as it has in no wise interfered with the regular duties of the owner. Several farmers of our State who possess good apiaries and good improved farms, have told me that their apiaries were more profitable than all the remainder of their farms. Who will doubt the profits of apiculture in the face of friend Doolittle’s experience? He has realized $6,000, in five years, simply from the honey taken from fifty colonies. This $6,000 is in excess of all expenses except his own time. Add to this the increase of stocks, and then remember that one man can easily care for 100 colo- nies, and we have a graphic picture of apiarian profits. Bee- keeping made Adam Grimm a wealthy man. It brought to a MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 15 Capt. Hetherington over $10,000 as the cash receipts of a single year’s honey-crop. It enabled Mr. Harbison, so it is reported, to ship from his own apiary, eleven car-loads of comb-honey as the product of a single season. What greater recommendation has any pursuit? Opportunity for money- making, even with hardships and privations, is attractive and seldom disregarded ; such opportunity with labor that brings, in itse/7, constant delight, is surely worthy of attention. EXCELLENCE AS AN AMATEUR PURSUIT. Again, there is no business, and I speak from experience, that serves so well as an avocation. It offers additional funds to the poorly paid, out-door air to the clerk and_ office-hand, healthful exercise to the person of sedentary habits, and su- perb recreation to the student or professional man, and especially to him whose life-work is of that dull, hum-drum, routine order that seems to rob life of all zest. The labor, too, required in keeping bees, can, with a little thought and management, be so planned, if but few colonies are kept, as not to infringe upon the time demanded by the regular occu- pation. Indeed, I have never been more heartily thanked, than by such persons as named above, and that, too, because I called them to consider—which usually means to adopt— the pleasing duties of the apiary. ADAPTATION TO WOMEN. Apiculture may also bring succor to those whom society has not been over-ready to favor—our women. Widowed mothers, dependent girls, the weak and the feeble, a// may find a blessing in the easy, pleasant, and profitable labors ot the apiary. Of course, women who lack vigor and health, can care but for very few colonies, and must have sufficient strength to bend over and lift the small-sized frames of comb when loaded with honey, and to carry empty hives. With the proper thought and management, full colonies need never be lifted, nor work done in the hot sunshine. Yet right here let me add, and emphasize the truth, that only those who will let energetic thought and skillful plan, and above all promptitude and persistence, make up for physical weak- 16 MANUAL OF THE APTARY. ness, should enlist as apiarists. Usually a stronger body, and improved health, the results of pure air, sunshine, and exercise, will make each successive day’s labor more easy, and will permit a corresponding growth in the size of the apiary for each successive season. One of the most noted apiarists, not only in America but in the world, sought in bee-keeping her lost health, and found not only health, but reputation and influence. Some of the most successful apiarists in our country are women. Of these, many were led to adopt the pursuit because of waning health, grasping at this as the last and successful weapon with which to vanquish the grim mon- ster. Said “Cyula Linswik’’—whose excellent and beautifully written articles have so often charmed the readers of the bee publications, and who has had five years of successful experience as an aplarist—in a paper read before our Michigan Conven- tion of March, 1877: “I would gladly purchase exemption from in-door work, on washing-day, by two days’ labor among the bees, and I find two hours’ labor at the ironing-table more fatiguing than two hours of the severest toil the apiary can exact. * * * J repeat, that apiculture offers to many women not only pleasure but profit * * * Though the care of a few colonies means only recreation, the woman who experiments in bee-keeping somewhat extensively, will find that it means, at some seasons, genuine hard work. * * * There is risk in the business, I would not have you ignore this fact, but an experience of five years has led me to be- lieve that the risk is less than is generally supposed.” Mrs. L. B. Baker, of Lansing, Michigan, who has kept bees very successfully for four years, read an admirable paper before the same Convention, in which she said: “ But I can say, having tried both,” (keeping boarding-house and apiculture,) “T give bee-keeping the preference, as more profitable, health- ful, independent and enjoyable. * * * I find the labors of the apiary more endurable than working over a cook-stove in-doors, and more pleasant and conducive to health, * * * I believe that many of our delicate and invalid ladies would find renewed vigor of body and mind in the labors and recrea- tions of the apiary. * * * By beginning in the early spring, when the weather was cool and the work light, I be- came gradually accustomed to out-door labor, and by mid- MANUAL OF THE APIARY. Ma summer found myself as well able to endure the heat of the sun as my husband, who has been accustomed to it all his life. Previously, to attend an open-air picnic was to return with a head-ache. * * * My own experience in the apiary has been a source of interest and enjoyment far exceeding my anticipations.” Although Mrs. Baker commenced with but two colonies of bees, her net profits the first season were over $100 ; the second year but a few cents less than $300; and the third year about $250. ‘The proof of the pudding is in the eating ;” so, too, such words as given above, show that apiculture offers special inducements to our sisters to become either amateur or professional apiarists. IMPROVES THE MIND AND THE OBSERVATION. Successful apiculture demands close and accurate observa- tion, and hard, continuous thought and study, and this, too, in the wondrous realm of nature. Im all this, the apiarist receives manifold and substantial advantages. In the culti- vation of the habit of observation, a person becomes constantly more able, useful and susceptible to pleasure, results which also follow as surely on the habit of thought and study. It is hardly conceivable that the wide-awake apiarist, who is so frequently busy with his wonder-working comrades of the hive, can ever be lonely, or feel time hanging heavily on his hands. The mind is occupied, and there is no chance for ennui. The whole tendency, too, of such thought and study, where nature is the subject, is to refine the taste, elevate the desires, and ennoble manhood. Once get our youth, with their susceptible natures, engaged in such wholesome study, and we shall have less reason to fear the vicious tendencies of the street, or the luring vices and damning influences of the saloon. Thus apiculture spreads an intellectual feast, that even the old philosophers would have coveted ; furnishes the rarest food for the observing faculties, and, best of all, by keeping its votaries face to face with the matchless creations of the All Father, must draw them toward Him “who went about doing good,” and in ‘“‘ whom there was no guile.” YIELDS DELICIOUS FOOD. A last inducement to apiculture, certainly not unworthy of mention, is the offerings it brings to our tables. Health, yea, 18 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. our very lives, demand that we should eat sweets. It is a truth that our sugars, and especially our commercial syrups, are so adulterated as to be often poisonous. The apiary, in lieu of these, gives us one of the most delicious and whole- some of sweets, which has received merited praise, as food fit for the gods, from the most ancient time till the present day. To ever have within reach the beautiful, immaculate comb, or the equally grateful nectar, right from the extractor, is ' certainly a blessing of no mean order. We may thus supply our families and friends with a most necessary and desirable food element, and this with no cloud of fear from vile, poi- sonous adulterations. WHAT SUCCESSFUL BEE-KEEPING REQUIRES. MENTAL EFFORT. No one should commence this business who is not willing to read, think and study. To be sure, the ignorant and un- thinking may stumble on success for a time, but sooner or later, failure will set her seal upon their efforts. Those of our apiarists who have studied the hardest, observed the closest, and thought the deepest, have even passed the late terrible winters with but slight loss. Of course the novice will ask, How and what shall IL study ? EXPERIENCE NECESSARY. Nothing will take the place of real experience. Commence with a few colonies, even one or two is best, and make the bees your companions at every possible opportunity. Note every change, whether of the bees, their development, or work, and then by earnest thought strive to divine the cause. . LEARN FROM OTHERS. Great good will also come from visiting other apiarists. Note their methods and apiarian apparatus. Strive by con- versation to gain new and valuable ideas, and gratefully adopt. whatever is found, by comparison, to be an improvement upon your own past system and practice. MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 19 AID FROM CONVENTIONS. Attend conventions whenever distance and means render this possible. Here you will not only be made better by social intercourse with those whose occupation and study make them sympathetic and congenial, but you will find a real conserva- tory of scientific truths, valuable hints, and improved instru- ments and methods. And the apt attention—rendered possible by your own experience—which you will give to essays, discussions and private conversations, will so enrich your mind, that you will return to your home encouraged, and able to do better work, and to achieve higher success. I have attended nearly all the meetings of the Michigan Convention, and never yet when I was not well paid for all trouble and expense by the many, often very valuable, suggestions which I received. These I would carry home, and test as com- manded by the Apostle: ‘“ Prove all things and hold fast that which is good.” AID FROM BEE PUBLICATIONS. Every apiarist, too, should take and read at least one of the three excellent bee publications that are issued in our coun- try. It has been suggested that Francis Huber’s blindness was an advantage to him, as he thus had the assistance of two pairs of eyes, his wife’s and servant's, instead of one. So, too, of the apiarist who reads the bee publications. He has the aid of the eyes, and the brains, too, of hundreds of intel- ligent and observing bee-keepers. Who is it that squanders his money on worse than useless patents and fixtures? He who “cannot afford”’ to take a bee-journal. It would be invidious and uncalled for to recommend any one of these valuable papers to the exclusion of the others. Each has its peculiar excellences, and all who can, may well secure all of them to aid and direct their ways. AMERICAN BEE JOURNAL. This, the oldest bee publication, is not only peculiar for its age, but for the ability with which it has been managed, with scarce any exception, even from its first appearance. Samuel Wagner, its founder and long its editor, had few superiors in breadth of culture, strength of judgment, and practical and 20 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. historic knowledge of apiculture. With what pleasure we remember the elegant, really classic, diction of the editorials, the dignified bearing, and freedom from asperities which ~ marked the old American Bee Journal as it made its monthly visits fresh from the editorial supervision of Mr. Samuel Wagner. Some one has said that there is something in the very atmosphere of a scholarly gentleman, that impresses all who approach him. I have often thought, as memory reverted to the old American Bee Journal, or as I have re-read the numbers which bear the impress of Mr. Wagner’s superior learning, that, though the man is gone, the stamp of his noble character and classical culture is still on these pages, aiding, instructing, elevating, all who are so fortunate as to possess the early volumes of this periodical. I am also happy to state that the American Bee Journal is again in good hands, and that its old prestige is fully restored. Mr. Newman is an experienced editor, a man of excellent judgment and ad- mirable balance, a man who demonstrates his dislike of crim- inations and recriminations by avoiding them; who has no special inventions or pet theories to push, and is thus almost sure to be disinterested and unbiased in the advice he offers ; who lends his aid and favor to our Conventions, which do so much to spread apiarian knowledge. And when I add, that he brings to his editorial aid the most able, experienced and educated apiarists of the world, I surely have spoken high but just praise, of the American Bee Journal, whose enviable reputation extends even to distant lands. It is edited by Thomas G. Newman, at Chicago. Price, $2.00 a year. GLEANINGS IN BEE CULTURE. This periodical makes up for its brief history of only five years, by the vigor and energy which has characterized it from the first. Its editor is an active apiarist, who is constantly experimenting ; a terse, able writer, and brimming-full of good nature and enthusiasm. I am free to say, that in practical apiculture I am more indebted to Mr. Root than to any other one person, except Rev. L. L. Langstroth. I also think that, with few exceptions, he has done more for the recent advance- ment of practical apiculture than any other person in our country. Yet I have often regretted that Mr. Root is so MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 21 inimical to conventions, and that he often so stoutly praises that with which he has had so brief an experience, and must consequently know so little. This trait makes it imperative that the apiarist read discriminately, and then decide for him- self. In case of an innovation, wait for Mr. Root’s continued approval, else prove its value before general adoption. This sprightly little journal is edited by A. I. Root, Medina, Ohio. Price, $1.00 a year. BEE-KEEPER’S MAGAZINE. I have read this periodical less, and, of course know less of it than of the others. It is well edited, and certainly has many very able contributors. Both Mr. King and Mr. Root deal largely in their own wares, and, of course, give space to their advertisement, yet, in all my dealings with them, and I have dealt largely with Mr. Root, I have ever found them prompt and reliable. The Magazine is edited by A. J. King, New York. Price, $1.50 a year. BOOKS FOR THE APIARIST. Having read very many of the books treating of apiculture, both American and foreign, I can freely recommend such a course to others. Hach book has peculiar excellences, and each one may be read with interest and profit. LANGSTROTH ON THE HONEY BEE. Of course, this treatise will ever remain a classic in bee- literature. I cannot over-estimate the benefits which I have received from the study of its pages. It was a high, but de- served encomium, which J. Hunter, of England, in his ‘Manual of Bee-Keeping,” paid to this work: “It is un- questionably the best bee-book in the English language.” The style of this work is so admirable, the subject matter so replete with interest, and the entire book so entertaining, that it is a desirable addition to any library, and no thought- ful, studious apiarist can well be without it. It is especially happy in detailing the methods of experimentation, and in showing with what caution the true scientist establishes prin- ciples or deduces conclusions. The work is wonderfully free from errors, and had the science and practice of apiculture remained stationary, there would have been little need of 22 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. another work ; but as some of the most important improve- ments in apiculture are not mentioned, the book alone would be a very unsatisfactory guide to the apiarist of to-day. Price, $2.00. QUINBY S MYSTERIES OF BEE-KEEPING. This is a plain, sensible treatise, written by one of Ameri- ca’s most successful bee-keepers. It proceeds, I think, on a wrong basis in supposing that those who read bee-books will use the old box-hives, especially as the author is constantly inferring that other hives are better. It contains many val- uable truths, and when first written was a valuable auxiliary to the bee-keeper. I understand that the work is now being revised by Mr. L. C. Root. Price, $1.50. KINGS TEXT-BOOK. This is a compilation of the above works, and, like them, is in great need of revision (which I understand is being ac- complished by able apiarists), being away behind the times. Its concise manner and judicious arrangement are worthy of praise. Price, 75 cents. ABC OF BEE-CULTURE. This work, now in progress, is to be issued in eight or ten numbers, the first of which has already appeared. It is arranged in the convenient form of our cyclopcedias, is printed in fine style, on beautiful paper, and is to be well illustrated. I need hardly say that the style is pleasing and vigorous. The subject matter will, of course, be fresh, embodying the most recent discoveries and inventions pertaining to bee- keeping. That it may be kept abreast of apiarian progress, the type is to be kept in position, so that each new discovery may be added as soon as made. The entire cost of this work will probably not exceed $3.00. FOREIGN WORKS. Bevan, revised by Munn, is exceedingly interesting, and shows by its able historical chapters, admirable scientific dis- quisitions, and frequent quotations and references to practi- cal and scientific writers on bees and bee-keeping, both ancient and modern, that the writers were men of extensive reading MANUAL OF THE APIARY. a and great scientific ability. The book is of no practical value to us, but to the student it will be read with great interest. Next to Langstroth, I value this work most highly of any in my library that treats of bees and bee-keeping, if I may ex- cept back volumes of the bee-publications. “The Apiary, or Bees, Bee-Hives and Bee Culture,” by Alfred Neighbour, London, is a fresh, sprightly little work, and as the third edition has just appeared, is, of course, up with the times. The book is in nice dress, concise, and very readable, and I am glad to commend it. A less interesting work, though by no means without merit, is the “ Manual of Bee-Keeping,” by John Hunter, London. Thisisalsorecent. I think these works would be received with little favor among American apiarists. They are exponents of English apiculture, which in method would seem clumsy to Americans. In fact, I think I may say that in implements and perhaps I may add methods, the English, French, Ger- mans and Italians, are behind our American apiarists, and hence their text-books and journals compare illy with ours. I believe the many intelligent foreign apiarists who have come to this country and are now honored members of our own fraternity, will sustain this position. oreign scientists are ahead of American, but we glean and utilize their facts and discoveries as soon as made known. Salicylic acid is discoy- ered by a German to be a remedy for foul brood, yet ten times as many American as foreign apiarists know of this and practice by the knowledge. In practical fields, on the other hand, as also in skill and delicacy of invention, we are, I think, in advance. So our apiarists have little need to go abroad for either books or papers. PROMPTITUDE. Another absolute requirement of successful bee-keeping, is prompt attention to all its varied duties. Neglect is the rock on which many bee-keepers, especially farmers, find too often that they have wrecked their success. I have no doubt that more colonies die from starvation, than from all the bee maladies known to the bee-keeper. And why is this ? Neglect is the apicide. I feel sure that the loss each season by absconding colonies is almost incalculable, and whom must 24 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. we blame? Neglect. The loss every summer by enforced idleness of queen and workers, just because room is denied them, is very great. Who is the guilty party? Plainly, neglect. In these and in a hundred other ways, indifference to the needs of the bees, which require but a few moments, greatly lessen the profits of apiculture. If we would be suc- cessful, promptitude must be our motto. Hach colony of bees requires but very little care and attention. Our every inter- est demands that this be not denied, nor even granted grudg- ingly. The very fact that this attention is slight, renders it more liable to be neglected ; but this neglect always involves loss—often disaster. | =NTHUSIASM. Enthusiasm, or an ardent love of its duties is very desira- ble, if not an absolute requisite, to successful apiculture. To be sure, this is a quality whose growth, with even slight op- portunity, is almost sure. It only demands perseverance. The beginner, without either experience or knowledge, may meet with discouragements—unquestionably will. Swarms will be lost, colonies will fail to winter, the young apiarist. will become nervous, which fact will be noted by the bees with great disfavor, and if opportunity permits, will meet re- proof more sharp than pleasant. Yet, with PERSISTENCE, all these difficulties quickly vanish. Every contingency will be foreseen and provided against, and the myriad of little workers will become as manageable and may be fondled as safely as a. pet dog or cat, and the apiarist will minister to their needs with the same fearlessness and self-possession that he does to his gentlest cow or favorite horse. Persistence in the face of all those discouragements which are so sure to confront inexperience, will surely triumph. In-sooth, he who ap- preciates the beautiful and marvelous, will soon grow to love his companions of the hive, and the labor attendant upon their care and management. Nor will this love abate till it has kindled into enthusiasm. True, there may be successful apiarists who are impelled by no warmth of feeling, whose superior intelligence, sys- tem and promptitude, stand in lieu of and make amends for absence of enthusiasm. Yet I believe such are rare, and certainly they work at great disadvantage. ACR a ERS TL —=c- Ko>—. meee lLURAL HISTORY OF tie VHONEY - DEE. eS es 4 yy) Ppsal vyh” ? = ‘ . hat a rene : pale (Fp 2 2 ° A Se + . et = . : 7 , a, ath, - 3 3 5 j : , rm get t { 3 i _ ' - j is = } ¥ B ~ 7 oA 4 ms | a Ve if ' \ i ) : 1 % Y ‘ 7 pe 4 bi fae ie 7 . >! ae ake 1 Te a 5 ‘ 4 . wr y Le ve es, j We ; ~ “ ae 4 hi . z i ve “yy ; 4 2 trex 7 : ¥ ¥ gh " Sak) fa \ aa 1 = ‘ f! ces A FR Pies ne = 5 BA af Z es 2 5 Rd ‘ i us: f Sax E E aga , A ; ; ag de ees k = F ree =e 3 i 7 ‘ wet ) cS: Wena ys : 7 Nes : - m ¥ alice, a pee) Uk. cos x 4 s : yh = ia ‘ d : : ey pg) Be ae ot is ty On ja ) yh a hs } { ; ) ND a i | | +h 5 r (ay rae uaa NATURAL HISTORY OF THE HONEY-BEE. OHAP PER I. THE BEE’S PLACE IN THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. It is estimated by Heer and other eminent naturalists, that there are more than 250,000 species of living animals. It will be both interesting and profitable to look in upon this vast host, that we may know the position and relationship of the bee to all this mighty concourse of life. BRANCH OF THE HONEY-BEE. The great French naturalist, Cuvier, a friend of Napoleon I., grouped all animals which exhibit a ring structure into one branch, appropriately named Articulates, as this term indi- cates the jointed or articulated structure which so obviously characterizes most of the members of this group. The terms joint and articulation, as used here, have a tech- nical meaning. They refer not only to the hinge or place of union of two parts, but also to the parts themselves. Thus, the parts of an insect’s legs, as well as the surfaces of union, are styled joints or articulations. All apiarists who have examined carefully the structure of a bee, will at once pro- hounce it an Articulate. Not only is its body, even from head to sting, composed of joints, but by close inspection we find the legs, the antennze, and even the mouth-parts, like- wise, jointed. In this branch, too, we place the Crustacea—which includes the rolicking cray-fish or lobster, so indifferent as to whether he moves forward, backward or sidewise, the shorter crab, the sow-bug, lively and plump, even in its dark, damp home under old boards, etc., and the barnacles, which fasten to the bot- tom of ships, so that vessels are often freighted with life within and without. The worms, too, are Articulates, though in some of these, as the leech, the joints are very obscure. The bee, then, which gives us food, is related to the dreaded tape-worm with its hundred of joints, which, mayhaps, robs us of the same 28 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. food after we have eaten it, and the terrible pork-worm or trichina, which may consume the very muscles we have de- veloped in caring for our pets of the apiary. The body-rings of Articulates form a skeleton, firm as in the bee and lobster, or more or less soft as in the worms. This skeleton, unlike that of Vertebrates or back-bone ani- mals, to which we belong, is outside, and thus serves to pro- tect the inner, softer parts, as well as to give them attach- ment, and to give strength and solidity to the animal. This ring-structure, so beautifully marked in our golden- banded Italians, usually makes it easy to separate, at sight, animals of this branch from the Vertebrates, with their usually bony skeleton ; from the less active Molluscan branch, with their soft, sack-like bodies, familiar to us in the snail, the clam, the oyster, and the wonderful cuttle-fish—the devil-fish of Victor Hugo—with its long, clammy arms, strange ink- bag, and often prodigious size ; from the Radiate branch, with its elegant star-fish, delicate but gaudy jelly fish, and coral animals, the tiny architects of islands and even continents ; and from the lowest, simplest, Protozoan branch, which in- cludes animals so minute that we owe our very knowledge of them to the microscope, so simple that they have been regarded as the apron-strings which tie plants to animals. THE CLASS OF THE HONEY-BEE. Our subject belongs to the class Insecta, which is mainly characterized by breathing air usually through a very compli- cated system of air-tubes. These tubes (Fig. 1), which are con- Fie. 1. C= A Trachea, magnified. stantly branching, and almost infinite in number, are very peculiar in their structure. They are formed of a spiral MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 29 thread, and thus resemble a hollow cylinder formed by closely winding a fine wire spirally about a pipe-stem, so as to cover it, and then withdrawing the latter, leaving the wire un- moved. Nothing is more surprising and interesting, than this labyrinth of beautiful tubes, as seen in dissecting a bee under the microscope. I have frequently detected myself taking long pauses, in making dissections of the honey-bee, as my attention would be fixed in admiration of this beautiful breathing apparatus. In the bee these tubes expand into large Respiratory Apparatus of Bee, magnified.—After Duncan. lung-like sacks (Fig. 2, 7), one each side of the body. Doubtless some of my readers have associated the quick movements and surprising activity of birds and most mammals with their 30 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. well-developed lungs, so, too, in such animals as the bees, we see the relation between this intricate system of air-tubes— their lungs—and the quick, busy life which has been proverb- ial of them since the earliest time. The class Insecta also includes the spiders, scorpions, with their caudal sting so venomous, and mites, which have in lieu of the tubes, lung- like sacks, and the myriapods, or thousand-legged worms— those dreadful creatures, whose bite, in case of the tropical centipeds or flat species, have a well-earned reputation of being poisonous and deadly. The class Insecta does not include the water-breathing - Crustacea, with their branchiz or gills, nor the worms, which have no lungs or gills but their skin, if we except some ma- rine forms, which have simple dermal appendages, which answer to branchiee. ORDER OF THE HONEY-BEE. The honey-bee belongs to the order Hexapods, or true In- sects. The first term is appropriate, as all have in the imago or last stage, six legs. Nor is the second term less applica- ble, as the word insect comes from the Latin and means to cut in, and in no other articulates does the ring structure ap- pear so marked upon merely a superficial examination. More than this, the true insects when fully developed have, unlike all other articulates, three well-marked divisions of the body (Fig. 2), namely: the head (Fig. 2, a), which contains the antenne (Fig. 2, d), the horn-like appendages common to all insects ; eyes (Hig. 2, e) and mouth organs; the thorax (Fig. 2, 6), which bears the legs (Fig. 2, g), and wings, when they are present; and lastly, the abdomen (Fig. 2, c), which, though usually memberless, contains the ovipositor, and when present, the sting. Insects, too, undergo a more striking metamorphosis than do most animals. When first hatched they are worm-like and called larvee (Fig. 12), which means masked ; afterward they are frequently quiescent, and would hardly be supposed to be animals at all. They are then known as pupee, or as in case of bees as nymphs (Fig. 13). At last there comes torth the imago with compound eyes, an- tennze and wings. In some insects the transformations are said to be incomplete, that is the larva, pupa and imago differ MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 31 little except in size, and that the latter possesses wings. We see in our bugs, lice, locusts and grasshoppers, illustrations of insects with incomplete transformations. In such cases there is a marked resemblance from the egg to the adult. As will be seen by the above description the spiders, which have only two divisions to their bodies, only simple eyes, no antenne, eight legs, and no transformations (if we except the partial transformations of the mites), as also the myriapods, which have no marked divisions of the body, and no com- pound eyes—which are always present in the mature insect— many legs and no transformations, do not belong to the order Insects. SUB-ORDER OF THE HONEY BEE. The honey bee belongs to the sub-order Hymenoptera (from two Greek words meaning membrane and wings), which also includes the wasps, ants, ichneumon-flies and saw-flies. This group contains insects which possess a tongue by which they may suck (Fig. 21, a), and strong jaws (Fig. 22, ¢) for biting. Thus the bees can sip the honeyed sweets of flowers, and also gnaw away mutilated comb. They have, besides, four wings, and undergo complete tranformations. There are among insects strange resemblances. Insects of one sub-order will show a marked likeness to those of another. This is known as mimicry, and sometimes is wonderfully striking between very distant groups. Darwin and Wallace suppose it is a developed peculiarity, not always possessed by the species, and comes through the laws of variation, and nat- ural selection to serve the purpose of protection. Now, right here we have a fine illustration of this mimicry. Just the other day I received through Mr. A. I. Root, an insect which he and the person sending it to him supposed to be a bee, and desired to know whether it was a mal-formed honey-bee or some other species. Now, this insect, though looking in a general way much like a bee, had only two wings, had no jaws, while its antennze were closer together in front and mere stubs. In fact, it was no bee at all, but belonged to the sub-order Diptera, or two-wing flies. I have received several similar insects, with like inquiries. Among Diptera there are several families, as the Cistridz or bot-flies, the Syrphidae— 32 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. a very useful family, as the larvee or maggots live on plant- lice—whose members are often seen sipping sweets from flowers, or trying to rob honey and other bees—the one re- ferred to above belonged to this family—and the Bombyliide, which in color, form and hairy covering are strikingly like wild and domesticated bees. The maggots of these feed on the larvee of various of our wild bees, and of course the mother fly must steal into the nests of the latter to lay her egos. So in these cases, there is seeming evidence that the mimicry may serve to protect these fly-tramps, as they steal in to pilfer the coveted sweets or lay the fatal eggs. Possi- bly, too, they may have a protective scent, as I have seen them enter a hive in safety, though a bumble-bee essaying to do the same, found the way barricaded with myriad cimeters each with a poisoned tip. Some authors have placed Coleoptera or beetles as the high- est of insects, others claim for Lepidoptera or butterflies and moths a first place, while others, and with the best of rea- sons, claim for Hymenoptera the highest position. The moth is admired for the glory of its coloring and elegance of its form, the beetle for the luster and brilliancy of its elytra or wing- covers ; but these insects only revel in nature’s wealth, and live and die without labor or purpose. Hymenoptera usually less gaudy, generally quite plain and unattractive in color, are yet the most highly endowed among insects. They live with a purpose in view, and are the best models of industry to be found among animals. Our bees practice a division of labor ; the ants are still better political economists, as they have a specially endowed class in the community who are the sol- diers, and thus are the defenders of each ant-kingdom. Ants also conquer other communities, take their inhabitants cap- tive and reduce them to abject slavery—requiring them to perform a large portion, and sometimes the whole labor of the community. Ants tunnel streams, and in the tropics some leaf-eating species have been observed to show no mean order of intelligence, as some ascend trees to cut off the leafy twigs, while others remain below, and carry these branches through their tunnels to their under-ground homes. The parasitic Hymenoptera, are so called because they lay their eggs in other insects, that their offspring may have MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 33 fresh meat not only at birth, but so long as they need food, as the insect fed upon generally lives till the young parasite, which is working to disembowel it, is full-grown. Thus this steak is ever fresh as life itself. These parasitic insects show wondrous intelligence, or sense development, in discovering this prey. I have caught ichneumon-flies—a family of these parasites—boring through an eighth or quarter-inch of solid beech or maple wood, and upon examination I found the pros- pective victim further on in direct line with the insect auger, which was to intrude the fatal egg. I have also watched ich- neumon-flies depositing eggs in leaf-rolling caterpillars, so sur- rounded with tough hickory leaves that the fly had to pierce several thicknesses to place the egg in its snugly-ensconced victim. Upon putting these leaf-rolling caterpillars ina box, I reared, of course, the ichneumon-fly and not the moth. And is it instinct or reason that enables these flies to gauge the number of their eggs to the size of the larva which is to re- ceive them, so that there may be no-danger of famine and starvation, for true it is that while small caterpillars will re- ceive but one egg, large ones may receive several. How strange, too, the habits of the saw-fly, with its wondrous in- struments more perfect than any saws of human workman- ship, and the gall-flies, whose poisonous sting as they fasten their eggs to the oak, willow or other leaves, causes the ab- normal growth of food for the still unhatched young. The providing and caring for their young, which are at first help- less, is peculiar among insects, with slight exception, to the Hymenoptera, and among all animals is considered a mark of high rank. Such marvels of instinct, if we may not call it intelligence, such acumen of sense perception, such habits —that must go hand-in-hand with the most harmonious of communities known among animals, of whatever branch—all these, no less than the compact structure, small size and specialized organs of nicest finish, more than warrant that grand trio of American naturalists, Agassiz, Dana and Pack- ard, in placing Hymenoptera as first in rank among insects. As we shall detail the structure and habits of the highest of the high—the bees—in the following pages, I am sure no one will think to degrade the rank of these wonders of the ani- mal kingdom. 34 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. FAMILY OF THE HONEY-BEE. The honey-bee belongs to the family Apidze, of Leach, which includes not only the hive bee, but all insects which feed their helpless young, or larvze, entirely on pollen, or honey and pollen. The insects of this family have broad heads, elbowed anten- ne (Fig. 2, d) which are usually thirteen-jointed in the males, and only twelve-jointed in the females. The jaws or mandi- bles (Fig. 21) are very strong, and often toothed ; the tongue or ligula (Fig. 20, @), as also the second jaws or maxille (Fig. 20, c), one each side the tongue, are long, though in some cases much shorter than in others, and frequently the tongue when not in use is folded back, once or more, under the head. All the insects of this family have a stiff spine on all four of the anterior legs, at the end of the tibia, or the third joint from the body, called the tibial spur, and all, ex- cept the genus Apis, which includes the honey-bee, in which the posterior legs have no tibial spurs, have two tibial spurs on the posterior legs. All of this family except one parasitic genus, have the first joint or tarsus of the posterior foot, much widened, and this together with the broad tibia (Fig. 2, ) is hollowed out (Fig. 22, »), forming quite a basin or basket on the outer side, in nearly all the species ; and gen- erally, this basket is made deeper by a rim of stiff hairs. These receptacles or pollen baskets are only found of course on such individuals of each community as gather pollen. A few of the Apidze—thieves by nature—cuckov-like, steal un- bidden into the nests of others, usually bumble-bees, and here lay their eggs. As their young are fed and fostered by another, they gather no pollen, and hence like drone bees need not, and have not pollen baskets. The young of these lazy tramps, starve out the real insect babies of these homes, by eating their food, and in some cases, it is said, being una- ble like the young cuckoos to hurl these rightful children from the nest, they show an equal if not greater depravity by eating them, not waiting for starvation to get them out of the way. These parasites illustrate mimicry, already described, as they look so like the foster mothers of their own young, that unscientific eyes would often fail to distinguish them. MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 35 Probably the bumble-bees are no sharper, or they would re- fuse ingress to these merciless vagrants. The larvee (Fig. 12) of all insects of this family are maggot-like —wrinkled, footless, tapering at both ends, and, as before stated, feed upon pollen and honey. They are helpless, and thus, all during their babyhood—the larve state—the time when all insects are most ravenous, and the only time when many insects take food, the time when all growth in size, except such enlargement as is required by ege-development, occurs, these infant bees have to be fed by their mothers or elder sisters. They have a mouth with soft lips, and weak jaws, yet it is doubtful if all or much of their food is taken in at this opening. There is some reason to believe that they, like many magegots—such as the Hessian-fly larvaa—absorb much of their food through the body walls. From the mouth leads the intestine, which has no anal opening. So there is no ex- creta other than gas and vapor. What commendation for their food, all capable of nourishment, and thus all as- similated. To this family belongs the genus of stingless bees, Melipo- na, of Mexico and South America, which store honey not only in the hexagonal brood-cells, but in great wax reservoirs. They, like the unkept hive-bee, build in hollow logs. They are exceedingly numerous in each colony, and it has thus been thought that there were more than one queen. They are also very prodigal of wax, and thus may possess a pros- pective commercial importance in these days of artificial comb-foundation. In this genus the basal joint of the tarsus is triangular, and they have two submarginal cells, not three, to the front wings. They are also smaller than our common bees, and have wings that do not reach to the tip of their abdomens. Another genus of stingless bees, the genus Trigona, have the wings longer than the abdomens, and their jaws toothed. These, unlike the Melipona, are not confined to the New World, but are met in Africa, India and Australasia. These build their combs in tall trees, fastening them to the branches much as does the Apis dorsata, soon to be mentioned. Of course insects of the genus Bombus—our common bumble-bees—belong to this family. Here the tongue is very 36 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. long, the bee large, the sting curved, with the barbs very short and few. Only the queens survive the winter. In spring she forms her nest under some sod or board, hollowing out a basin in the earth, and after storing a mass of bee- bread—probably a mixture of honey and pollen—she deposits several eggsin the mass. The larve so soon as hatched out, eat out thimble-shaped spaces, which in time become even larger, and not unlike in form the queen-cells of our hive-bees. When the bees issue from these cells the same are strength- ened by wax. Later in the season these coarse wax cells be- come very numerous. Some may be made as cells and not tormed as above. The wax is dark, and doubtless contains much pol- len, as do the cappings and queen-cells of the honey-bees. At first the bees are all workers, later queens appear, and still later males. All, or nearly all, entomologists speak of two sizes of queen bumble-bees, the large and the small. The small appear early in the season, and the large late. A student of our College, Mr. N. P. Graham, who last year had a colony of bumble-bees in his room the whole season, thinks thisanerror. He believes that the individuals of the Bombus nest exactly correspond with those of the Apis. The queens, like those of bees, are smaller before mating and active laying. May not this be another case like that of the two kinds of worker-bees which deceived even Huber, an error consequent upon lack of careful and prolonged observation ? In Xylocopa or the carpenter-bees, which much resemble the bumble-bees, we have a fine example of a boring insect. With its strong mandibles or jaws it cuts long tunnels, often one or two feet long in the hardest wood. These burrows are divided by chip partitions into cells, and in each cell is left the bee-bread and an egg. The mason-bee—well named—constructs cells of earth and gravel, which by aid of their spittle they have power to ce- ment, so that they are harder than brick. The tailor or leaf-cutting bees, of the genus Megachile, make wonderful cells from variously shaped pieces of leaves. These are always mathematical in form, usually circular and oblong, and are cut—by the insect’s making scissors of its jaws—from various leaves, the rose being a favorite. I have found these cells made almost wholly of the petals or flower MANUAL OF THE APIARY. a6 leaves of the rose. The cells are made by gluing these leaf- sections in concentric layers, letting them over-lap.. The ob- long sections form the walls of the cylinder, while the circular pieces are crowded as we press circular wads into our shot- guns, and are used at the ends or for partitions where several cells are placed together. When complete, the single cells are in form and size much like a revolver cartridge. When several are placed together, which is usually the case, they are arranged end to end, and in size and form are quite like a small stick of candy, though not more than one-third as long. These cells I have found in the grass, partially buried in the earth, in crevices, and in one case knew of their being built in the folds of a partially-knit sock, which a good house-wife had chanced to leave stationary for some days. These leaf- cutters have rows of hairs underneath, with which they carry pollen. I have noticed them each summer for some years swarming on the Virginia creeper, often called woodbine, while in blossom, in quest of pollen, though I never saw a single hive-bee on these vines. The tailor-bees often cut the foliage of the same vines quite badly. I have often reared beautiful bees of the genus Osmia, which are also called mason-bees. Their glistening colors of blue and green possess a luster and reflection unsurpassed even by the metals themselves. These rear their young in cells of mud, in mud-cells lining hollow weeds and shrubs, and in burrows which they dig in the hard earth. In early summer, during warm days, these glistening gems of life are frequently seen in walks and drives intent on gathering earth for mortar, or digging holes, and will hardly escape identifica- tion by the observing apiarist, as their form is so much like that of our honey-bees. They are smaller; yet their broad head, prominent eyes, and general form, is very like that of the equally quick and active, yet more soberly attired, work- ers of the apiary. Other bees—the numerous species of the genus Nomada, and of Apathus, are the black sheep in the family Apidee. These tramps, already referred to, like the English cuckoo and our American cow-blackbird, steal in upon the unwary, and, though all unbidden, lay their eggs; in this way appro- priating food and lodgings for their own yet unborn. Thus 38 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. these insect vagabonds impose upon the unsuspecting foster- mothers in these violated homes. And these same foster- mothers show by their tender care of these merciless intru- ders, that they are miserably fooled, for they carefully guard and feed infant bees, which with age will in turn practice this same nefarious trickery. I reluctantly withhold further particulars of this wonderful bee family. When first I visited Messrs. Townley and Davis, of this State, I was struck with the fine collection of wild bees which each had made. Yet, unknowingly, they had in- corporated many that were not bees. Of course, many apiarists will wish to make such collections and also to study our wild bees. I hope the above will prove efficient aid. I hope, too, that it will stimulate others, especially youth, to the val- uable and intensely interesting study of these wonders of na- ture. [am glad, too, to open to the reader a page from the book of nature so replete with attractions as is the above. Nor do I think I have taken too much space in revealing the strange and marvelous instincts, and wonderfully varied hab- its, of this highest of insect families, at the head of which stand our own fellow-laborers and companions of the apiary. THE GENUS OF THE HONEY-BEE., The genus Apis includes all bees that have no tibial spurs on the posterior legs. They have three cubital or sub-costal cells (1, 2, 3, Fig. 3)—the second row from the costal or anterior Fig. 3. A.—Anterior Wing of a Bee. 1, 2,3.—Sub-costal or Cubital Cells. B.—Secondary or Posterior Wing, a hooks to attach to Primary Wing. edge—on the front or primary wings. On the inner side of the posterior basal tarsus, opposite the pollen baskets, in the neu- ters or workers, are rows of hairs (Fig. 23) which are proba- bly used in collecting pollen. In the males, which do no MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 39: work except to fertilize the queens, the large compound eyes meet above, crowding the three simple eyes below (Fig. 4), rae 2 Head of Drone, magnified. Antenne. Compound Eyes. Simple Eyes. while in the workers (Fig. 5) and queens these simple eyes, called ocelli (Fig. 5), are above, and the co1apound Fig. 5: Head of Worker, magnified. Antenne. Compound Eyes. Simple Eyes. eyes (Fig. 5) wide apart. The queens and drones have weak jaws, with a rudimentary tooth (Fig. 21, 8), short tongues, and no pollen baskets, though they have the broad tibia and wide basal tarsus (Fig. 16, 7). There is some doubt as to the number of species of this genus. It is certain that the Apis ligustica of Spinola, or 40 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. Italian bee, the Apis fasciata of Latreille, or Egyptian bee, are only varieties of the Apis Mellifica, which also includes the German or black bee. - Mr. F. Smith, an able entomologist, considers Apis dorsata of India and the Hast Indies, Apis zonata of the same islands, Apis Indica of India and China, and Apis florea of India, Ceylon, China and Borneo, as distinct species. He thinks, also, that Apis Adansoni and Apis nigrocincta are distinct, but thinks they may be varieties of Apis Indica. Some regard Apis unicolor as a distinct species, but it is probably a variety of Apis dorsata. As Apis Mellifica has not been found in India, and is a native of Hurope, Western Asia and Africa, it seems quite probable that several of the above may turn out to be only varieties of Apis Mellifica. If there are only color and size to distinguish them, and, indeed, one may add habits, then We may suspect, with good reason, the validity of the above arrangement. If there is structural difference, as Mr. Wal- lace says there is, in the male dorsata, then we may call them different species. The Italian certainly has a longer tongue than the German, yet that is not sufficient to separate them as species. Apis zonata and Apis unicolor, both of the Hast Indies, are said to be very black. Apis dorsata is large, sus- - pends its combs to the branches of trees—in rare cases our own bees have been known to do the same—is said to be cross, to have a very long tongue, to be larger than our common bees, and to make larger cells. Apis Florea is small, only half as large as Apis Mellifica, of different form, while the posterior tarsus of the male is lobed. It would be very interesting, and perhaps profitable, to im- port these various species, and see how marked is the differ- ence between them and ours. Such work can be best accom- plished through our National Association. Very likely, as we come to know these far-off bees as we know the German and Italian, we shall find that their amiability, size, habits of comb-building, and lengthened organs, are only peculiarities developed by climate and surrounding conditions, and shall sweep them all into the one species, Apis Mellifica, to be re- garded as we now regard the Italian and Hgyptian, as only varieties. It seems strange that the genus Apis should not have been MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 41 native to the American continent. Without doubt there were no bees of this genus here till introduced by the Caucasian race. It seems more strange, as we find that all the conti- nents and islands of the Hastern hemisphere abound with representatives. It is one more illustration of the strange, inextricable puzzles connected with geographical distribution of animals. ? SPECIES OF OUR HONEY-BEES. The bees at present domesticated unquestionably belong to the Apis Mellifica. The characters of this species will appear in the next chapter, as we proceed with their anatomy and physiology. As before stated, this species is native exclu- sively to the Kastern hemisphere, though it has been intro- duced wherever civilized man has taken up his abode. 2 VARIETIES OF THE HONEY-BEE. GERMAN OR BLACK BEE. The German or black bee is the variety best known, as through all the ages it has been most widely distributed. The name German refers to locality, while the name black is a misnomer, as the bee is a gray-black. The, queen, and in a less degree the drones, are darker, while the. legs and under surface of the former is brown, or copper color, and of the latter light-gray. The tongue of the black workers I have found, by repeated dissections and comparisons made both by myself and by my pupils, is shorter than that of the Italian workers, and generally less hairy. The black bees have been known no longer than the Italians, as we find the latter were known both to Aristotle, the fourth century B. C., and to Virgil, the great Roman poet, who sung of the variegated golden bee, the first century B. C.; and we can only account for the wider distribution of the German bee by considering the more vig- orous pushing habits of the Germanic races, who not only _ over-ran and infused life into Southern Europe, but have vitalized all christendom. LIGURIAN OR ITALIAN BEE. The Italian bee (see frontis-plate) is characterized as a variety, not only by difference of color, habits, and activity, but also by possessing a little longer tongue. These bees were first described as distinct from the German race by Spinola, in 42 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 1805, who gave the name Ligurian bee, which name prevails in Europe. The name comes from a province of Northern Italy, north of the Ligurian Gulf, or Gulf of Genoa. This region is shut off from Northern Europe by the Alps, and thus these bees were kept apart from the German bees, and in warmer, more genial Italy, was developed a distinct race, our beautiful Italians. In 1843, Von Baldenstein procured a colony of these bees, which he had previously observed as peculiar, while stationed as a military captain in Italy. He published his experience in 1848, which was read by Dzierzon, who became _ inter- ested, and through him the Italian became generally intro- duced intoGermany. In 1859, six years after Dzierzon’s first. importation, the Italian variety was introduced into England by Neighbour, the author of the valuable treatise already re- ferred to. The same year, Messrs Wagner and Colvin imported the Italians from Dzierzon’s apiary into America; and in 1860, Mr. 8. P. Parsons brought the first colonies that were imported direct from Italy. The Italian worker (see frontis-plate) is quickly distin- guished by the bright-yellow rings at the base of the abdo- men. If the colony is pure, every bee will show three of these golden girdles. The two first segments or rings of the abdomen, except at their posterior border, and also the base or anterior border of the third, will be of this orange-yellow hue. The rest of the back or dorsal surface will be much as in the German race. Underneath the abdomen, except for a greater or less distance at the tip, will also be yellow, while the same color appears more or less strongly marked on the legs. The workers, too, have a longer ligula or tongue (Fig. 20) than do the German race, which is usually a little more hairy. They are also more active, and less inclined to sting. The queen has the entire base of her abdomen, and some- times nearly the whole of it, orange-yellow. The variation as to amount of color in the queens, is quite striking. Some- times very dark queens are imported right from the Ligurian hills, yet all the workers will wear the badge of purity—the three golden bands. The drones, too, are quite variable. Sometimes the rings and patches of yellow will be very prominent, then, again, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 43 quite indistinct. But the underside of the body is always, so far as I have observed, mainly yellow. THE FASCIATA OR EGYPTIAN RACE. The word fasciata means banded, as the Egyptian bee is very broadly banded with yellow. I have never seen these bees, but from descriptions by Latrielle, Kirby, and Bevan, I understand that all the bees are rather smaller, more slim, and much more yellow than the Italians. Herr Vogel states that they gather no propolis, but that each colony contains a number of small drone-laying queens. These bees were probably the ones which, with the kine of the ancient goodly land of promise, gave the rich pabulum, that gave the repu- tation: “flowing with milk and honey.” They are thus the oldest of domesticated bees. These, too, are said to have been moved in rude boats or rafts up and down the Nile, as the flower pasturage seemed to require. The beesare said to be very active, to be proof against the cold, and have also been reputed very cross. OTHER VARIETIES. There are several other doubtful varieties which are receiy- ing some attention from the German apiarists, and are honored with attention at the great meetings of Austria and Germany, as we learn from the bee-publications of those countries. The Cyprian bee, from the Isle of Cyprus, as its name indicates, is yellow, and probably an offspring from the Italian or Egyp- tian. So far as we can learn, it has no merits which will make it preferred to the Italian. Some say it is more beau- tiful, others that it is less amiable. Other varieties, which are not probably distinct races, or at least may not be, are the Heath, the Carniolan, the Krainer and the Herzegovinian. They are not considered superior to the German and Italian. A variety of our Italian which has rows of white hairs unusually distinct, is being sold in the United States under the name of Albinos. That they are a distinct race is not at all likely. In fact, I have noticed among our Italian stocks every year, the so-called Albinos. 44 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. BIBLIOGRAPHY. It would be a pleasing duty, and not an unprofitable one, to give in this connection a complete history of entomology so far as it relates to Apis Mellifica. Yet, this would take much space, and as there is quite a full history in books that I shall recommend to those who are eager to know more of this interesting department of natural history, I will not go into details. | Aristotle wrote of bees more than three hundred years B. ©. About three hundred years later, Virgil, in his fourth Georgic, gave to the world the views then extant on this sub- ject, gathered largely from the writings of Aristotle. The poetry will ever be remarkable for its beauty and elegance— would that as much could be said for the subject matter, which, though full of interest, is also full of errors. A little later Columella, though usually careful and accurate in his. observations, still gave voice to the prevailing errors, though much that he wrote was valuable, and more was curious. Pliny, the Elder, who wrote in the first century A. D., helped to continue the erroneous opinions which previous authors had given, and not content with this, he added opinions of his own, which were not only without foundation, but were often the perfection of absurdity. After this, nearly two thousand years passed with no pro- gress in natural history; even for two centuries after the revival of learning, we find nothing worthy of note. Swammerdam, a Dutch entomologist, in the middle of the 17th century, wrote a general history of insects, also, ‘‘The Natural History of Bees.” He and his English cotemporary, Ray, showed their ability as naturalists by founding their systems on the insect transformations. They also revived the study and practice of anatomy, which had slept since its first introduc- tion by Aristotle, as the great stepping-stone in zoological progress. Ray also gave special attention to Hymenoptera, and was much aided by Willoughby and Lister. At this time Harvey, so justly noted for his discovery of the circulation of the blood, announced his celebrated dictum, ‘‘Omnia ex ovo,” —all life from eggs—which was completely established by the noted Italians, Redi and Malpighi. Toward the middle a MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 45 of the 18th century, the great Linnzeus—“ the brilliant Star of the North” —published his “ Systema Nature,” and threw a flood of light on the whole subject of natural history. His division of insects was founded upon presence or absence, and characters, of wings. This, like Swammerdam’s basis, was too narrow, yet his conclusions were remarkably correct. Linnzeus is noted for his accurate descriptions, and especially for his gift of the binomial method of naming plants and animals, giving in the name the genus and species, as, Apis Mellifica. He was also the first to introduce classes and orders, as we now understand them. When we consider the amount and character of the work of the great Swede, © we can but place him among the first, if not as the first, of naturalists. Cotemporary with Linnzeus (also written Linné) was Geoffroy, who did valuable work in defining new genera. In the last half of the century appeared the great work of a master in entomology, DeGeer, who based his arrangement of insects on the character of wings and jaws, and thus discovered another of nature’s keys to aid him in unlocking her myster- ies. Kirby well says: ‘He united in himself the highest merit of almost every department of entomology.” As a scientist, an anatomist, a physiologist, and as the observant his torian of the habits and economy of insects, he is above all praise. What a spring of self-improvement, enjoyment and of public usefulness, is such an ability to observe as was pos- sessed by the great DeGeer. Contemporary with Linnzus and DeGeer was Réaumur, of France, whose experiments and researches are of special in- terest to apiarists. Perhaps no entomologist has done more to reveal the natural history of bees. Especially to be com- mended are his method of experimenting, his patience in in- vestigation, the elegance and felicity of his word pictures, and, above all, his devotion to truth. We shall have occasion to speak of this conscientious and indefatigable worker in the great shop of insect-life frequently in the following pages. Bonnet, of Geneva, the able correspondent of Réaumur, also did valuable work, in which the lover of bees has a special interest. Bonnet is specially noted for his discovery and elucidation of parthenogenesis—that anomalous mode of re- production—as it occurs among the Aphides or plant-lice, 46 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. though he did not discover that our bees, in the production of drones, illustrate the same doctrine. Though the author of no system, he gave much aid to Réaumur in his systematic labors. At this same period systematic entomology received great aid from lLyonnet’s valuable work. This author dissected and explained the development of a caterpillar. His descrip- tions and illustrations are wonderful, and will proclaim his ability as long as entomology is studied, and they, to quote Bonnet, “‘ demonstrate the existence of God.” We have next to speak of the great Dane, Fabricius—a student of Linnzus—who published his works from 1775 to 1798, and thus was revolutionizing systematic entomology at the same time that we of America were revolutionizing goy- ernment. He made the mouth organs the basis of his classi- fication, and thus followed in the path which DeGeer had marked out, though it was scarcely beaten by the latter ; while Fabricious left it wide and deep. His classes and or- ders are no improvement, in fact, are not as nearly correct, as his old master’s. In his description of genera—where he pre- tended to follow nature—he has rendered valuable service. In leading scientists to study parts, before little regarded, and thus to better establish affinities, he did a most valuable work. His work is a standard, and should be thoroughly studied by all entomologists. Just at the close of the last century, appeared the great- est ‘Roman of them all,” the great Latreille, of France, whose name we have so frequently used in the classification of the honey-bee. His is called the Hlective System, as he used wings, mouth-parts, transformations, in fact, all the or- gans—the entire structure. He gave us our Family Apide, our genus Apis, and, as will be remembered, he described several of the species of this genus. In our study of this great man’s work, we constantly marvel dt his extensive re- searches and remarkable talents. Lamark, of this time, ex- cept that he could see no God in nature, did very admirable work. So, too, did Cuvier, of Napoleon’s time, and the learned Dr. Leach, of England. Since then we have hosts of workers in this field, and many worthy of not only mention but praise ; yet the work has been to rub up and garnish, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. AT rather than fundamental. So I will close this brief history with a notice of authors who are very ser- viceable to such as may desire to glean farther of the treas- ures of systematic entomology. Only remarking that at the end of the next chapter I shall refer to those who have been particularly serviceable in developing the anatomy and physi- ology of insects, especially of bees. VALUABLE BOOKS FOR THE STUDENT OF ENTOMOLOGY. For mere classification, no work is equal to Westwood on Insects—two volumes. In this the descriptions and illustra- tions are very full and perfect, making it easy to study the families, and even genera, of all the sub-orders. This work and the following are out of print, but can be got with little trouble at second-hand book-stores. Kirby and Spence—Introduction to Entomology—is a very complete work. It treats of the classification, struc- ture, habits, general economy of insects, and gives a history of the subject. It is an invaluable work, and a great acqul- sition to any library. Dr. Packard’s Guide to the Study of Insects is a valuable work, and being American, is specially to be recommended. The Reports of Dr. T. Harris, Dr. A. Fitch, and of Prof. C. V. Riley, will also be found of great value and interest. I make no apology for this somewhat long discussion, as it is good to hear of those grand men, who have swung wide open the long-closed gates to nature’s secrets, and in so doing have not only advanced to an astonishing degree our tem- poral interests, but have made us co-laborers with them in the glorious work of studying into those hidden secrets, fresh from creative power, and thus partakers of that God-given feast which ministers as nothing else can to the mind and soul of him who partakes in the humble and teachable spirit, which ever characterizes the devout and reverent student of nature. 48 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. CHAPTER ILI. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. In this chapter I shall give first the general anatomy of in- sects ; then the anatomy, and still more wonderful physiology of the honey-bee. ANATOMY OF INSECTS. In all insects the body is divided into three well-marked portions (Fig. 2), the head (Figs. 4 and 5), which contains the mouth-organs, the eyes, both the compound and when present the simple, and the antennz ; the thorax, which is composed of three rings, and gives support to the one or two pairs of wings, and to the three pairs of legs ; and the abdo- men, which is composed of a variable number of rings, and gives support to the external sex-organs, and when present to the sting. Within the thorax there is little more than mus- cles, as the concentrated strength of insects, which enables them to fly with such rapidity, dwells in this confined space. Within the abdomen, on the other hand, are the sex-organs, by far the greater and more important portions of the ali- mentary canal, and other important organs. ORGANS OF THE HEAD. Of these the mouth-organs (Fig. 6) are most prominent. These consist of an upper lip—labrum—and under lip—tia- bium—and two pairs of jaws which move sidewise; the stronger, horny jaws, called mandibles, and the more mem- branous, but usually longer, maxille. The labrum (Fig. 6, /) is well described in the name upper lip. It is attached, usually, by a movable joint to a similar-shaped piece above it, called clypeus (Fig. 6, c), and this latter to the broad epicra- nium (Fig. 6, 0), which contains the antennee, the compound, and, when present, the simple eyes. MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 49 The labium (Fig. 15) is not described by the name under lip, as its base forms the floor of the mouth, and its tip the tongue. The base is usually broad, and is called the men- tum, and from this extends the tongue (Fig. 15, @) or ligula. Fig. 6. Head of Bee much magnified. o—Kpicranium. m—Jaws. e e—Compound eyes. m x—2d Jaws. aa—Antenne. k k—Labial palpi. c—Clypeus. t—Ligula. i—Labrum. ‘On either side, near the junction of the ligula and mentum arises a jointed organ rarely absent, called the labial palpus (Fig. 6, kk), or, together, the labial palpi. Just within the angle formed by these latter and the ligula arise the para- glossee (Fig. 15, d), one on either side. These are often wanting. 50 ' MANUAL OF THE APIARY. The jaws or mandibles (Fig. 6, 7, m) arise one on either side just below and at the side of the labrum, or upper lip. _ These work sidewise instead of up and down as in higher an- imals, are frequently very hard and sharp, and sometimes. senna with one or more teeth. A rudimentary tooth (Fig. 21, b) is visible on the jaws of drone and queen bees. Beneath the jaws or mandibles, and inserted a little far- ther back, are the second jaws or maxille (Fig. 6, ma), less dense and firm than the mandibles, but far more complex. They arise by a small joint, the cardo, next this is a larger joint, the stipes, from this extends on the inside the broad lacinia (Fig. 20, ¢) or blade, usually fringed with hairs on its. inner edge, towards the mouth ; while on the outside of the stipes are inserted the—from one to several jointed—maxil- lary palpi. In bees these are very small, and consist of two joints, and in some insects are wholly wanting. Sometimes, as in some of the beetles, there is a third member running from the stipes between the palpus and lacinia called the galea. The maxillz also move sideways, and probably aid in holding and turning the food while it is crushed by the harder jaws, though in some cases they, too, aid in triturating the food. These mouth parts are very variable in form in different in- sects. In butterflies and moths, two-wing flies and bugs, they are transformed into a tube, which in the last two groups. form a hard, strong beak or piercer, well exemplified in the mosquito and bed-bug. In all the other insects we find them much as in the bees, with the separate parts varying greatly in form, to agree with the habits and character of their pos- sessors. No wonder DeGeer and Fabricius detected these varying forms as strongly indicative of the nature of the in- sect, and no wonder, too, that in their use they were so suc- cessful in forming a natural classification. Every apiarist will receive great benefit by dissecting these parts and studying their form and relations for himself. By getting his children interested in the same, he will have con- ferred upon them one of the rarest of blessings. To dissect these parts, first remove the head and cane feline pin it to a cork, passing the pin through, well back between the eyes. Now separate the parts by two needle points, made. MANUAL OF THE APIARY. dT by inserting a needle for half its length into a pine stick the shape of a pipe-stem, leaving the point projecting for an inch or more. With one of these in each hand commence opera- tions. The head may be either side up. Much may be learned in dissecting large insects, even with no glass; but in all cases, and especially in small insects, a good lens will be of great value. The best lens is one of Tolles’, sold by Mr. Stoddard, of the Boston optical works. These are very excellent and thus high priced, costing $14.00. Gray’s trip- let hand-lenses are very good, are cheap, and can be procured for about $2.00 of any optician. The handle should have a _hole through it to permit of mounting it above the object, so that it will hold itself. Tolles’ lenses are easily mounted, in a stand which any one can contrive and make in twenty min- utes. I value my Tolles’ lens even more highly than my large compound microscope, which cost $150. Were I obliged to part with either, the latter would go. I require my students to do a great deal of dissecting, which they enjoy very much and find very valuable. I would much rather that my boy would become interested in such study, than to have him possessor of infinite gold rings, or even a huge gold watch, with a tremendous charm. Let such pleasing recreation gain the attention of our boys, and they will ever contribute to our delight, and not sadden us with anxiety and fear. The antennz (Fig. 6, a. a) are the horn-like jointed organs situated between or below and in front of the large compound eyes of ali insects. They are sometimes short, as in the house-fly, and sometimes very long, as in the grasshoppers. They are either straight, curved or elbowed (Fig. 6). In form, too, they are very various, as thread-like, tapering, toothed, knobbed, fringed, feathered, ete. It is known that a nerve passes into the antennze, but their exact function is little understood. That they serve as most delicate touch organs no apiarist can doubt. That they serve as organs of smell or hearing is not proved. That insects are conscious of sounds. I think no observing person can doubt. It is proved by the call of the katy-did, the cicada and the cricket. What apia- rist, too, has not noticed the effect of various sounds made by the bees upon their comrades of the hive. How contagious 52 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. the sharp note of anger, the low hum of fear, and the pleas- ant tone of a new swarm as they commence to enter their new home. Now, whether insects take note of these vibrations, as we recognize pitch, or whether they just distinguish the tremor, I think no one knows. There is some reason to be- lieve that their delicate touch-organs may enable them to dis- criminate between vibrations, even more acutely, than can we by use of our ears. A slight jar will quickly awaken a colo- ny of hybrids, while a loud noise will pass unnoticed. If in- sects can appreciate with great delicacy the different vibratory conditions of the air by an excessive development of the sense of touch, then undoubtedly the antennz may be great aids. Dr. Clemens thought that insects could only detect at- mospheric vibrations. So, too, thought Linnzeus and Bonnet. Siebold thinks, as the antennze receive but one nerve, and are plainly touch-organs, they cannot be organs of hearing. Kirby has noticed that some moths turn their antennze towards the direction from which noise proceeds, and thus argues that an- tennze are organs of hearing. Grote, fora similar reason, thinks that the densely feathered antennz of the males of various night moths, serve both for smell and hearing. Prof. A. M. Mayer and Mr. C. Johnson (see American Naturalist, vol. 8, p. 574) have by various ingenious experiments, proved conclusively, that the delicate, beautifully feathered antennz of the male mosquito are organs of hearing. That insects have a very refined sense of smell is beyond question. How quickly the carrion-fly finds the carcass, the scavenger the filth, and the bee the precious nectar. I have reared female moths in my study, and have been greatly surprised on the day of their leaving their cocoons, to find my room swarming with males. These bridegrooms en- tered an open window in the second-story of a brick building. How delicate must have been the sense by which they were led to make the visit, and thus made to grace my cabinet. Bees, too, have been known to dash against a shutter behind which were flowers, thus showing the superiority of their per- ception of odors, as also their poor vision. But odors are carried by the air, and must reach the insect through this me- dium. Is it not probable, that the various breathing mouths of insects are also so many noses, and that their delicate MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 53 lining membranes abounding with nerve filaments, are the great odor sentinels? This view was maintained by both Lehman and Cuvier, and explains this delicate perception of scents, as the breathing mouths are large and numerous, and most so in insects like bees and moths, which are most sensi- tive to odors. How quickly the bees notice the scent of a strange bee or queen, or the peculiar odor of the venom. I have known a bee to sting a glove, and ina trice the glove would be asa pin-cushion, with stings in lieu of pins. Some- times the bees will dart for many feet, guided by this odor. Yet the odor is very pungent, as I have frequently smelt the poison before I would feel the sting. I have tried the experi- ments of Huber and Lubbock, and know that such insects as bees and ants will take no note of food after the loss of their antenne. But we must remember that this is a capital ope- ration. With loss of antennz, insects lose control of their motions, and in many ways show great disturbance. Is it not probable then that removing the antennz destroys the desire for food, as does amputation with ourselves? Kirby believes with Huber, that there isa scent organ. Huber’s experi- ments on which he based this opinion are, as usual, very in- teresting. He presented a coarse hair dipped in oil of tur- pentine—a substance very repugnant to bees—to various parts of a bee engrossed in sipping honey. The bee made no ob- jection, even though it touched the ligula, until it approached the mouth above the mentum, when she became much dis- turbed. He also filled a bee’s mouth with paste, which soon har- dened, after which the bee paid no heed to honey placed near it. This was not so conclusive, as the bee may have been so disturbed as to lose its appetite. I have experimented a good deal, and am inclined to the following opinion: The antennz are very delicate touch-organs or feelers, and are so important in their function and connection that removal produces a se- vere shock, but further we know but little about their func- tion, if they have other, and from the very nature of the prob- lem we will find it very difficult of solution. The eyes are of two kinds, the compound, which are al- ways present in mature insects, and the ocelli or simple eyes, which may or may not be present. When present there are usually three, which if we join by lines, we will describe a 54 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. triangle, in the vertices of whose angles are the ocelli. Rarely there are but two ocelli, and very rarely but one. The simple eyes (Fig. 4, fff) are circular, and possess a cornea, lens and retina, which receives the nerve of sight. From the experiments of Réaumur and Swammerdam, which consisted in covering the eyes with varnish, they con- cluded that vision with these simple eyes is very indistinct, though by them the insect can distinguish light. Some have thought that these simple eyes were for vision at slight dis- tances. Larvee, like spiders and myriapods, have only sim- ple eyes. The compound eyes (Fig. 2, ¢) are simply a cluster of sim- ple eyes, are situated one on either side of the head, and vary much in form and size. Between or below these are inserted the antennz. Sometimes these last are inserted in a notch of the eyes, and in a few cases actually divide each eye into two eyes. The eyes may meet above as in drones (Fig. 4), most two- wing flies and dragon-flies, or they may be considerably sepa- rated, as in the worker-bees (Fig. 5). The separate facets or simple eyes, of each compound eye are hexagonal, or six- sided, and in the microscope look not unlike a section of honey-comb. The number of these is prodigious—Leeuwenhoek actually counted 12,000 in the eye of a dragon-fly—while some butterflies have over 17,000. The compound eyes are motionless, but from their size and sub-spherical shape, they give quite a range of vision. Itis not likely that they are capable of adjustment to accord with different distances, and it has been supposed, from the direct darting flight of bees to. their hives, and the awkward work they make in finding a hive when moved only for a short distance, that their eyes are best suited to long vision. , Sir John Lubbock has proved, by some interesting experiments with strips of colored paper, that bees can distinguish colors. Honey was placed on a blue strip, beside several others of various colors. In the absence of the bees he changed the position of this strip, and upon their return the bees went to the blue strip rather than to the old position. Our practical apiarists have long been aware of this fact, and have con- formed their practice to the knowledge, in giving a variety of MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 5D colors to their hives. Apiarists have frequently noted that bees have a rare faculty of marking positions, but for slight distances, their sense of color will correct mistakes which would occur if position alone was guide. APPENDAGES OF THE THORAX. The organs of flight are the most noticeable appendages of the thorax. The wings are usually four, though the Diptera have but two, and some insects—as the worker ants—have none. The front or primary wings (Fig. 3, A) are usually larger than the secondary or hind wings (Fig. 3, B), and thus the mesathoracic or middle ring of the thorax, to which they are attached, is usually larger than the mettathorax or third ring. The wings consist of a broad frame-work of veins (Fig. 3), covered by a thin, tough membrane. The main ribs or veins are variable in number, while towards the extremity of the wing are more or less cross-veins, dividing this portion of the wings into more or less cells. In the higher groups these cells are few, and quite important in classifying. Hs- pecially useful are the cells in the second row, from the frontal or costal edge of the front wings, called the sub-costal cells. Thus in the genus Apis there are three such cells (Fig. 3, A, 1, 2, 3), while in the Melipona there are only two. The ribs Fia. 7. Thorax of Bee magnified three times. a, a, a—Muscles. : b, b—Crust. or veins consist of a tube within a tube. The inner one forming an air tube, the outer one carrying blood. On the costal edge of the secondary wings we often find hooks, to attach it to the front wings (Fig. 3, B, a). The wings are moved by powerful muscles, compactly loca- ted in the thorax (Fig. 7, a, a, a), whose strength, as well as the | rapidity of the vibrations of the wings when flight is rapid, 56 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. are really beyond computation. Think of a tiny fly outstrip- ping the fleetest horse in the chase, and then marvel at this wondrous mechanism. The legs (Fig. 2, g, g, g) are six in number in all mature in- sects, two on the lower side of each ring of the thorax. These are long or short, weak or strong, according to the habit of the insect. Hach leg consists of the following joints or parts: The coxe (Fig. 24), which move like a ball and socket joint in the close-fitting coxal cavities of the body-rings. Next to these follow in order the broad tracanter, the large, broad femur (Fig. 2, g’, 1), the long, slim tibia (Fig. 2, g’, 2), frequently bearing strong spines at or near its end, called tibial spurs, and followed by the from one to five-jointed tarsi (Fig. 2, g’, 3,3,3,3,3). All these parts move freely upon each other, and will vary in form to agree with their use. At the end of the last tarsal joint are two hooked claws (Hig. 2, g’, 4), between which are the pulvilli, which are not air-pumps as usually described, but rather glands, which secrete a sticky substance which enables insects to stick to a smooth wall, even though it be above them. The legs, in fact the whole crust, is more or less dense and hard, owing to the deposit within the structure of a hard substance known as chitine. INTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS. The muscles of insects are usually whitish. Sometimes I have noticed quite a pinkish hue about the muscles of the thorax. They vary in form and position to accord with their use. The mechanism of contraction is the same as in higher animals. The ultimate fibers of the voluntary muscles, when highly magnified, show the strize or cross-lines the same as do the voluntary muscles of vertebrates, and are very beauti- ful as microscopic objects. The separate muscles are not bound together by a membrane as in higher animals. In in- sects the muscles are widely distributed, though, as we should expect, they are concentrated in the thorax and head. In in- sects of swiftest flight, like the bee, the thorax (Fig. 7, a, a, a) is almost entirely composed of muscles; the cesophagus, which carries the food to the stomach, being very small. At the base of the jaws, too, the muscles are large and firm. MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 5T The number of muscles is astounding. Lyonnet counted over 3,000 in a single caterpillar, nearly eight times as many as are found in the human body. ‘The strength, too, of in- sects is prodigious. There must be quality in muscles, for muscles as large as those of the elephant, and as strong as those of the flea, would not need the fulcrum which the old philosopher demanded, in order to move the world. Fleas have been made to draw miniature cannon, chains, and even wagons many hundred times heavier than themselves. The nerves of insects are in no wise peculiar so far as known, except in position. Asin our bodies, some are knotted or have ganglia, and some are not. The main nervous cord runs along the under or ventral side of the body (Fig. 8), separates near the head, and after passing around the cesophagus, enlarges to form the largest of the ganglia, which serves as a brain. The minute nerves ex- tend everywhere, and in squeezing out the viscera of an in- sect are easily visible. The organs of circulation in insects are quite insignificant. The heart is a long tube situated along the back, and receives the blood at valvular openings along its sides which only permit the fluid to pass in, when by contraction it is forced towards the head and emptied into the general cavity. Thus the heart only serves to keep the blood in motion. Ac- cording to the best authorities, there are no special vessels to. carry the blood to various organs. Nor are they necessary, as this nutritive fluid everywhere bathes the alimentary canal, and thus easily receives nutriment, or gives waste by osmosis. Everywhere surrounds the trachez or air-tubes—the insect’s. lungs—and thus receives that most needful of all food, oxy- gen, and gives the baneful carbonic acid, everywhere touches. the various organs, and gives and takes as the vital opera- tions of the animal require. The blood is light colored, and almost destitute of discs or corpuscles, which are so numerous in the blood of higher ani- mals, and which give our blood its red color. The function of these discs is to carry oxygen, and as oxygen is carried everywhere through the body by the ubiquitous air-tubes of insects, we see the discs are not needed. Except these semi- fluid discs, which are real organs, and nourished as are other: 58 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. organs, the blood of higher animals is entirely fluid, in all normal conditions, and contains not the organs themselves or any part of them, but only the elements, which are absorbed Fig. 8. Nervous System of the Drone magnified four times. by the tissue and converted into the organs, or, to be scien- tific, are assimilated. As the blood of insects is nearly des- MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 59 titute of these discs, it is almost wholly fluid, and is almost wholly made up of nutritious substance. The respiratory or breathing system of insects has already been referred to. Along the sides of the body are the spira- cles or breathing mouths, which varyin number. These are armed with a complex valvular arrangement which precludes dust or other noxious particles. These spiracles are lined with a delicate membrane which abounds with nerves, which were referred to in speaking of them as smelling organs. From these extend the labyrinth of air-tubes (Fig. 2, 7, /), which breathe vitalizing oxygen into every part of the insect organism. In the more active insects—as in bees—the main tracheze, one on each side of the abdomen, are expanded into large air-sacks (Fig. 2, f). Insects often show a respiratory motion, which in bees is often very marked. Newport has shown that in bees the rapidity of the respiration gauges the heat in the hive, and thus we see why bees, in times of severe cold, which they essay to keep at bay by forced respiration, consume much food, exhale much foul air and moisture, and are liable to disease. Newport found that in cases of severe cold there would be quite a rise of mercury in a thermometer which he suspended in the hive amidst the cluster. In the larva state, many insects breathe by fringe-like gills. The larval mosquito has gills in form of hairy tufts, while in the larval dragon-fly the gills are inside the rectum, or last part of the intestine. This insect, by a muscular effort, draws the water slowly in at the anus, when it bathes these singularly- placed branchize, and then makes it serve a further turn by forcibly expelling it, when the insect is sent darting ahead. Thus this curious apparatus not only furnishes oxygen, but also a mode of motion. In the pupe of insects there is little or no motion, yet important organic changes are taking place— the worm-like, ignoble, creeping, often repulsive larva, is soon to appear as the airy, beautiful, active, almost ethereal imago. So oxygen, the most essential—the sine gua non—otf all animal food, is still needed. The bees are too wise to seal the brood-cell with impervious wax, but rather adds the porous capping, made of wax and pollen. The pupze no less than the larve of some two-wing flies, which live in water, have long tubes which reach far out for the 60 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. vivifying air, and are thus called rat-tailed. Even the pup of the mosquito, awaiting in its liquid home the glad time when it shall unfold its tiny wings and pipe its war-note, has a similar arrangement to secure the gaseous pabulum. The digestive apparatus of insects is very interesting, and, as in our own class of animals, varies very much in length and complexity, as the hosts of insects vary in their habits. As in mammals and birds, the length, with some striking excep- tions, varies with the food. Carnivorous or flesh-eating in- sects have a short alimentary canal, while in those that feed on vegetable. food it is much longer. ; : Fie. 9. o—Honey stomach. b—True stomach. c—Urinary tubes. d—Intestine. The mouth I have already described. Following this is the throat or pharynx, then the cesophagus or gullet, which may expand, as in the bee, to form a honey or sucking stomach (Fig. 9, 0), may have an attached crop like the chicken, or may run as a uniform tubesas in our bodies, to the true stom- ach (Fig. 9, 6). Following this is the intestine—separated by some into an ileum and a rectum—vwhich ends in a vent or anus. In the mouth are salivary glands, which in larvee that form cocoons are the source of silk. In the glands this is a viscid fluid, but as it leaves the duct it changes instantly MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 61 into the gossamer thread. Bees and wasps use this saliva in building their structures. With it and mud some wasps make mortar; with it and wood, others their paper cells ; -with it and wax, the bee fashions the ribbons that are to form the beautiful comb. Lining the entire alimentary canal are mucous glands which secrete a viscid fluid that keeps the tube soft, and promotes the passage of food. The true stomach (Fig. 9, 6) is very muscular, and often a gizzard, as in the crickets, where its interior is lined with teeth. The interior of the stomach is glandular, for secreting the gastric juice which is to liquify the food, that it may be absorbed, or pass through the walls of the canal into the blood. Attached to the lower portion of the stomach are numerous urinary tubes (Fig. 9, c), though Cuvier, and even Kirby, calls these bile tubes. Siebold thinks some of the mucous glands secrete bile, and others act as a pancreas. The intestine when short, as in larvee and most carnivores, is straight and but little if any longer than the abdomen, while in most plant-eaters it is long and thus zig-zag in its course. Strange as it may seem, the fecal pellets of some insects are beautiful in form, and of others pleasant to the taste. In some caterpillars they are barrel-shaped, artisti- cally fluted, of brilliant hue, and, if fossilized, would be greatly admired, as have been the coprolites—fossil feces of quadrupeds—if set -as gems in jewelry. As it is, they would form no mean parlor ornament. In other insects, as the Aphides or plant-lice, the excrement, as well as the fluid that escapes in some species from special tubes called the nectaries, is very sweet, and in absence of floral nectar, will often be appropropriated by bees and conveyed to the hives. Imagination would make this a bitter draught, so here as elsewhere in life, the bitter and sweet are mingled. In such insects as suck their food, as bees, butterflies, moths, two- wing flies and bugs, the feces are watery or liquid, while in case of solid food the excrement is solid. SECRETORY ORGANS OF INSECTS. I have already spoken of the salivary glands, which Kirby gives as distinct from the true silk-secreting tubes, though 62 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. Newport gives them as one and the same. In many insects: these seem absent. I have also spoken of the mucous glands, the urinary tubules, etc. Besides these, there are other se- cretions which serve for purposes of defense: In the queen and workers of bees, and in ants and wasps, the poison intruded with the sting is an example. This is secreted by glands at the posterior of the abdomen, stored in sacks (Hig. 25, c), and extruded through the sting sheath as occasion requires. I know of no insect that poisons while it bites, except it be mosquitoes, gnats, etc., and in these cases no special secreting - organ has been discovered. Perhaps the beak itself secretes. an irritating substance. A few exceedingly beautiful cater- pillars are covered with branching spines, which sting about. like a nettle. We have two such. species. They are green, and of rare attraction, so that to capture them is worth the slight inconvenience arising from their irritating punctures. Some insects, likc bugs, secrete a disgusting fluid or gas which affords protection, as by its stench it renders these filthy bugs so offensive that cven a hungry bird or half-fam- ished inxyect passes them by on thc other side. Some insects secrete a gas which is stored im a sack at the posterior end of the body, and shot forth with an explosion in case that dan- ger threatens ; thus by noise and smoke it startles its enemy, which beats a retreat. I have heard tho little bombardier beetle at such times, even at considerable distances. The frightful reports about the terrible horn of the tomato-worm larva are mere nonsense. A more harmless animal does not. exist. My little boy of four years, and girl of only two, used to bring them to me last summer, and fondle them as admiringly as would their father upon receiving them from the delighted children. If we except bees and wasps, there are no true insects that need be feared ; nor need we except them, for with fair usage even they, are seldom provoked to use their cruel weapon. SEX ORGANS OF INSECTS. The male organs consist first of the testes (Fig. 10, a) which are double organs. There may be from one, as in the drone bee, to several, as in some beetles, on each side the ab- dominal cavity. In these vesicles grow the sperm cells or MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 63 ‘spermatozoa, which, when liberated, pass through a long con- voluted tube ; the vas-deferens (Fig. 10, 0, 6), into the seminal sack (Fig. 10, ¢, c), where, in connection with mucous, they are stored. In most insects there are glandular sacks (Hig. 10, d@) joined to these seminal receptacles, which in the male bee or drone are very large. The sperm cells mingled with Fig. 10. | Male Organs of Drone, much magnified. a—Testes. e—Common duct. b, b—Vasa deferentia. ,.9g—Ejaculatory sack. c, e—Seminal sacks. — Penis. d—Glandular sacks. i—Yellow saccules. these viscid secretions, as they appear in the seminal receptacle, ready for use, form the seminal fluid. Extending from these seminal receptacles is the ejaculatory duct (Fig. 10, e, 7, 9), which in copulation carries the male fluid to the penis (Fig. 10, A), through which it passes to the spermatheca of the 64 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. female. Beside this latter organ is the sheath, the claspers when present, and in the male bee those large yellow sacks (Fig. 10, 2), which are often seen to dart forth as the drone is held in the warm hand. Fie. 11. Queen Organs, greatly magnified. a, a—Ovaries. a—Sting. b—Oviducts. e—Spermatheca. e—Oviducet. The female organs (Fig. 11) consist of the ovaries (Fig. 11,, a, a), which are situated one on either side of the abdominal cavity. From these extend the two oviducts, (Fig. 11, b), MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 65 which unite into the common oviduct (Fig. 11, c) through which the eggs pass in deposition. In many insects there is beside this oviduct, and connected with it, a sack (Fig. 11, e) called the spermatheca, which receives the male fluid in copulation, and which, by extruding its contents, must ever after do the work of impregnation. This sack was discovered and its use suggested by Malpighi as early as 1686, but its function was not fully demonstrated till 1792, when the great anatomist, John Hunter, showed that in copulation this was filled. The ovaries are multitubular organs. In some insects there are but very few tubes—two or three ; while in the queen bee there are more than one hundred. In these tubes the ova or eggs grow, as do the sperm cells in the vesicles of the testes. The number of eggs are variable. Some insects, as the mud- wasps, produce very few, while the queen white-ant extrudes millions. The end of the oviduct, called the ovipositor, is wonderful in its variations. Sometimes it consists of con- centric rings, like a spy-glass which may be pushed out or drawn in; sometimes of a long tube armed with augers or saws of wonderful finish, to prepare for eggs; or again of a tube which may also serve as a sting. Most authors state that insects copulate only once, or at least that the female only meets the male bnt once. My pupil, Clement S. Strang, who made a special study of the structure and habits of bugs during the past season, noticed that the squash-bugs mated many times. It would be inter- esting to know whether these females possessed the sperma- theca. In some cases, as we shall see in the sequal, the male is killed by the copulatory act. I think this curious fatality is limited to few species. To study viscera, which of course requires very careful dis- section, we need more apparatus than has been yet described. Here a good lens is indispensable. A small dissecting knife, a delicate pair of forceps, and some small, sharp-pointed dissecting scissors—those of the renowned Swammerdam were so fine at the point that it required a lens to sharpen them —which may also serve to clip the wings of queens—are requisite to satisfactory work. Specimens put in alcohol will be improved, as the oil will be dissolved out and the 66 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. muscle hardened. Placing them in hot water will do nearly as well, in which case oil of turpentine will dissolve off the fat. This may be applied with a camel’s-hair brush. By dissecting under water the loose portions will float off, and render effective work more easy. Swammerdam, who had that most valuable requisite toa naturalist, unlimited patience, not only dissected out the parts, but with small glass tubes, fine as a hair, he injected the various tubes as the alimentary canal and air-tubes. My reader, why may not you look in upon those wondrous beauties and marvels of God’s own handiwork—nature’s grand exposition? Father, why would not a set of dissecting instruments be a most suitable gift to your son? You might thus sow the seed which would germinate into a Swammerdam, and that on your own hearth- stone. Messrs. Editors, why do not you, among your apiarian supplies, keep boxes of these instruments, and thus aid to light the torch of genius and hasten apiarian research ? TRANSFORMATIONS OF INSECTS. What in all the realm of nature is so worthy te awaken delight and admiration as the astonishing changes which insects undergo? Just think of the sluggish, repulsive caterpillar, dragging its heavy form over clod or bush, or mining in dirt and filth, changed, by the wand of nature’s great magician, first into the motionless chrysalis, decked with green and gold, and beautiful as the gem that glitters on the finger of beauty, then bursting forth as the graceful, gorgeous butterfly ; which, by its brilliant tints and elegant poise, out- rivals even the birds among the life-jewels of nature, and make it fit to revel in all her decorative wealth. The little fly, too, with wings dyed in rainbow-hues, flitting like a fairy from leaf to flower, was but yesterday the repulsive maggot, reveling in the veriest filth of decaying nature. The grub to-day drags its slimy shape through the slums of earth, on which it fattens ; to-morrow it will glitter as the brilliant setting in the bracelets and ear-drops of the gay and thoughtless belle. There are four separate stages in the development of insects: The egg state, the larva, the pupa, and the imago. MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 67 THE EGG. This is not unlike the same in higher animals. It has its yolk and its surrounding white or albumen, like the eggs of all mammals, and farther, the delicate shell, which is familiar in the eggs of birds and reptiles. Eggs of insects are often beautiful in form and color, and not infrequently ribbed and fluted as by a master-hand. The form of eggs is very various —spherical, oval, cylindrical, oblong, straight and curved (Fig. 25, 6). All insects seem to be guided by a wonderful knowledge, or instinct, or intelligence, in the placing of eggs on or near the peculiar food of the larva. Even though in many ‘cases such food is no part of the aliment of the imago insect. The fly has the refined habits of the epicure, from whose cup it daintily sips, yet its eggs are placed in the horse-droppings of stable and pasture. Inside the egg wonderful changes soon commence, and their consummation is a tiny larva. Somewhat similar changes can be easily and most profitably studied by breaking and exam- ining a hen’s ege each successive day of incubation. As with the egg of our own species and of all higher animals, so, too, the egg of insects, or the yolk, the essential part— the white is only food, so to speak—soon segments or divides into a great many cells, these soon unite into a membrane— the blastoderm—and this is the initial animal. This blasto- derm soon forms a single sack, and not a double sack, one above the other, as in our own vertebrate branch. ‘This sack, looking like a miniature bag of grain, grows, by absorption, becomes articulated, and by budding out is soon provided with the various members. As in higher animals, these changes are consequent upon heat, and usually, not always, upon the incorporations within the eggs of the germ cells from the male, which enter the eggs at openings called micropyles. The time it takes the embryo inside the egg to develop is gauged by heat, and will, therefore, vary with the season and temperature, though in different species it varies from days to months. The number of eggs, too, which an insect may pro- duce, is subject to wide variation. Some insects produce but one, two or three, while others, like the queen bee and white ant, lay thousands, and in case of the ant, millions. 68 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. THE LARVA OF INSECTS. From the egg comes the larva, also called grub, maggot, caterpillar, and very erroneously worm. These are worm- shaped (Fig. 12), usually have strong jaws, simple eyes, and the body plainly marked into ring divisions. Often as in case Larva of Bee. of some grubs, larval bees and maggots, there are no legs. In most grubs there are six legs, two to each of the three rings succeeding the head. Besides these, caterpillars have usually ten prop-legs farther back on the body, though a few—the loopers or measuring caterpillars—have only four or six, while the larvee of the saw-flies have from twelve to sixteen of the false or prop-legs. The alimentary canal of larval insects is usually short, direct and quite simple, while the sex-organs are slightly if at all developed. The larvee of insects are voracious eaters—indeed, their only work seems to be to eat and grow fat. As the entire growth occurs at this stage, their gormandizing habits are the more excusable. I have often been astonished at the amount of food that the insects In my breeding cases would consume. The length of time which insects remain as larvee is very variable. The maggot revels in decaying meat but two or three days ; the larval bee eats its rich pabulum for nearly a week ; the apple- tree borer gnaws away for three years ; while the seventeen- year cicada remains a larva for more than sixteen years, groping in darkness, and feeding on roots, only to come forth for a few days of hilarity, sunshine, and courtship. Surely, here is patience exceeding even that of Swammerdam. The name larva, meaning masked, was given to this stage by Linnzeus, as the mature form of the insect is hidden, and cannot be even divined by the unlearned. THE PUPA OF INSECTS. In this stage the insect is in profound repose, as if resting after its long meal, the better to enjoy its active, sportive MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 69 days—the joyous honey-moon—soon to come. In this stage the insect may look like a seed; as in the coarctate pupx of diptera, so familiar in the “flax-seed” state of the Hessian-fly, or in the pupa of the cheese-maggot or the meat-fly. This same form, with more or less modification, prevails in butterfly pupz, called, because of their golden spots, chrysalids, and in the pupz of moths. - Other pupz, as in case of bees (Fig. 13, g) and beetles, look not unlike the mature insect with its Fig. 13: ypu el =) WY | ae | Se || Hill: H i Meat} Hii tiake Hi mM | | | UIP) i fi i a ee i 4 Pupa or Nymph of Bee, slightly magnified. antenne, legs, and wings closely bound to the body by a thin membrane, hence the name which Linné gave—referring to this condition—as the insect looks as if wrapped in swaddling clothes, the old cruel way of torturing the infant, as if it needed holding together. Aristotle called pupze nymphs— a name now given to this stage in bees—which name was adopted by many entomologists of the seventeeth and eighteenth centuries. Inside the pupa skin great changes are in progress, for either by modifying the larval organs or developing parts entirely new, by use of the accumulated material stored by the larva during its prolonged banquet, the wonderful transformation from the sluggish, worm-like larva to the active, bird-like imago is accomplished. Some- times the pupa is surrounded by a silken cocoon, either thick, as the cocoon of some moths, or thin, as are the cocoons of bees. These cocoons are spun by the larve as their last toil before assuming the restful pupa state. The length of time 70 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. in the pupa-stage is very various, lasting from a few days to as many months. Sometimes insects which are two-brooded remain as pupa but a few days in summer, while in winter they are months passing the quiescent period. Our cabbage- butterfly illustrates this peculiarity. Others, like the Hessian-fly and codling-moth, remain through the long, cold months as larvee. How wonderful is-this! The first brood of larvee change to pupze at once, the last brood,-though the weather be just as hot, wait over inside the cocoon till the warm days of coming spring. THE IMAGO STAGE. This term refers to the last or winged form, and was given by Linné because the image of the insect is now real and not masked as when in the larva state. Now the insect has its full-formed legs and wings, its compound eyes, complex mouth-parts, and the fully developed sex-organs. In fact, the whole purpose of the insect now seems to be to repro- duce itself. Many insects do not even eat, only flit in merry marriage mood for a brief space, when the male flees this life to be quickly followed by the female, she only waiting to place her eggs where the prospective infants may find suitable food. Some insects not only place their eggs, but feed and care for their young, as is true of ants, wasps and bees. Again, as in case of some species of ants and bees, abortive females perform all, or most of the labor in caring for the young. The life of the imago also varies much as to duration. Some live but for a day, others make merry for several days, while afew species live for months. Very few imago survive the whole year. INCOMPLETE TRANSFORMATIONS. Some insects, like the bugs, lice, grasshoppers and locusts, are quite alike at all stages of growth, after leaving the egg. The only apparent difference is the smaller size and the absence or incomplete development of the wings in the larvee and pups. The habits and structure from first to last seem to be much the same. Here, as before, the full development of the sex-organs occurs only in the imago. MANUAL OF THE APIARY. Tt ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HONEY-BEE. With a knowledge of the anatomy and some glimpses of the physiology of insects in general, we shall now find it easy to learn the special anatomy and physiology of the highest insects of the order. THREE KINDS OF BEES IN EACH FAMILY. As we have already seen, a very remarkable feature in the economy of the honey-bee, described even by Aristotle, which is true of many other bees, and also of ants and many wasps, is the presence in each family of three distinct kinds, which differ in form, color, structure, size, habits and function. Thus we have the queen, a number of drones, and a far greater number of workers. Huber, Bevan, Munn and Kirby also speak of a fourth kind blacker than the usual workers. These are accidental, and are, as conclusively shown by Von Berlepsch, ordinary workers, more deeply colored by loss of hair, dampness, or some other atmospheric condition. Ameri- can apiarists are too familiar with these black bees, for after our severe winters they prevail in the colony, and, as remarked by the noted Baron, “ They quickly disappear.” Munn also tells of a fifth kind, with a top-knot, which appears at swarming -seasons. I am at a great loss to know what he refers to, unless it be the pollen masses of the asclepias or milk-weed, which sometimes fasten to our bees and become a severe burden. THE QUEEN BEE. The queen (Fig. 14), although referred to as the mother bee, was called the king by Virgil, Pliny, and by writers as late as the last century, though in the ancient “Bee Master’s Farewell,” by John Hall, published in London in 1796, I find an admirable description of the queen bee, with her function correctly stated. Réaumur as quoted by “Wildman on Bees,” published in London in 1770, says “this third sort has a grave and sedate walk, is armed with a sting, and is mother of all the others.” Huber, to whom every apiarist owes so much, and who, though blind, through the aid of his devoted wife and intel- 72 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. ligent servant, Frances Burnens, developed so many interesting facts, demonstrated the fact of the queen’s maternity. This author’s work, second edition, published in Edinburgh, in 1808, Fig. 14. Queen Bee, magnified. gives a full history of his wonderful observations and experi- ments, and must ever rank with Langstroth as a classic, worthy of study by all. The queen, then, is the mother bee, in other words, a fully developed female. Her ovaries (Fig. 11, a, a) are very large, nearly filling her long abdomen. The tubes already described - as composing them are very numerous, while the spermatheca (Fig. 11, e) is plainly visible. This is muscular, receives abundant nerves, and thus, without doubt, may or may not be compressed to force the sperm cells in contact with the egos as they pass by the duct. Leuckart estimates that the spermatheca will hold more than 25,000,000 spermatozoa. The possession of the ovaries and attendant organs, 1s the chief structural peculiarity which marks the queen, as these are the characteristic marks of females among all ani- mals. But she has other peculiarities worthy of mention : She is longer than either drones or workers, being more than seven-elghths of an inch in length, and, with her long tapering abdomen, is not without real grace and beauty. The queen's mouth organs, too, are developed to a less degree than are those of the worker-bees. Her jaws (Fig. 21, 0) or mandibles ~ MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 13 are weaker, with a rudimentary tooth, and her tongue or ligula (Fig. 15, a), as also the labial palpi (Fig. 15, d) and maxille are considerably shorter. Her eyes, like the same in the worker-bee (Fig. 5), are smaller than those of the Fig. 15. SBge Beer @s V7 ui EE ve \ TTA ATNA pau Nit ms To IIS a inst a \ ea ar ss y)) Rs CEE immny |! aa 7 NN a mony, moe ina no ah id : (na 41] i } wi | Hi lh Labium of Queen. a—Ligula. b—Labial palpi. d, d—Paraglosse. drones, and do not meet above. So the three ocelli are situated above and between. The queen’s wings, too, (Fig. 14) are relatively shorter than those either of the workers or drones, for instead of attaining to the end of the body, they reach but little beyond the third joint of the abdomen. The queen, though she has the characteristic posterior tibia and basal tarsus (Fig. 16, »), in respect to breadth, has not the cavity and re 74 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. surrounding hairs, which form the pollen baskets of the workers. ‘The queen possesses a sting (Fig. 11, d) which is longer than that of the workers, and resembles that of the bumble-bees in being curved, and that of bumble-bees. and wasps in having few and short barbs—the little projections which point back like the barb ofa fish-hook, and which, in case of the workers, prevent the withdrawing of the instru- ment, when once fairly inserted. While there are seven quite prominent barbs on each shaft of the worker’s sting, there are only three on those of the queen, and these are: Fie. 16. Part of Leg of Queen, magnified. t—Tibia. p—Broadened tibia and basal tarsus. t s—Tarsal joints. very short, and, as in a worker’s sting, they are successively shorter as we recede from the point of the weapon. Aristotle says that the queen will seldom use her sting, which I have found true. I have often tried to provoke a queen’s anger, but never with any evidence of success. Neighbour (page 14, note) gives three cases where queens used their stings, in one MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 745) of which cases she was disabled from farther egg-laying. She stings with slight effect. The queen, like the neuters, is developed from an impreg- nated egg, which, of course, could only come from a queen that had previously mated. These eggs are not placed in a horizontal cell, but in one specially prepared for their recep- tion (Fig. 26, 7). These queen cells are usually built on the edge of the comb, or around an opening in it, which is neces- sitated from their size and form, as usually the combs are too close together to permit their location elsewhere. These cells extend either vertically or diagonally downward, are composed of wax mixed with pollen, and in size and form much resemble a pea-nut. The eggs must be placed in these cells, either by the queen or workers. Some apiarists think that the queen never places an egg in a queen cell, but I have no doubt of the fact, though I never witnessed the act. I have frequently seen eggs in these cells, and without exception in the exact position in which the queen always places her eggs in the other cells. John Hall, in the old work already referred to, whose descriptions, though penned so long ago, are wonderfully accurate, and indicate great care, candor, and conscientious truthfulness, asserts that the queen is five times as long laying a royal egg as she is the others. From the character of his work, and its early publication, I can but think that he had witnessed this rare sight. Some candid apiarists of our own time and country—H. Gallup among the rest—claim to have witnessed the act. The eggs are so well glued, and are so delicate, that, with Neighbour, I doubt the possibility of a removal. The opponents to this view base their belief on a supposed discord between the queen and neuters. This antagonism is inferred, and I have but little faith in the inference, or the argument from it. I know that when royal cells are to be torn down, and inchoate queens destroyed, the workers aid the queen in this destruction. I have also seen queens pass by unguarded queen-cells, and yet respect them. I have also seen several young queens dwelling amicably together in the same hive. Is it not probable that the bees are united in whatever is to be accomplished, and that when queens are to be destroyed all spring to the work, and when they are to live all regard them as sacred? It is true that 76 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. the actions of bees are controlled and influenced by the sur- rounding conditions or circumstances, but I have yet to see satisfactory proof of the old theory that these conditions impress differently the queen and the workers. The condi- tions which lead to the building of queen-cells and the peopling of the same are—loss of queen, when a worker larva from one to four days old will be surrounded by a cell ; inability of a queen to lay impregnated eggs, her spermatheca having become emptied ; great number of worker-bees in the hive ; restricted quarters; the queen not having place to deposit eggs, or the workers little or no room to store honey ; and lack of ventilation, so that the hive becomes too close. These last three conditions are most likely to occur at times of great honey secretion. “A queen may be developed from an egg, or from a worker larva less than three days old. Mr. Doolittle has known queens to be reared from worker larve taken at four-and-a- half days from hatching. In this latter case, the cells adjacent to the one containing the selected larva are removed, and the larva surrounded by a royal cell. The development of the queen larva is much like that of the worker, soon to be detailed, except that it is more rapid, and is fed richer and more plenteous food, called royal jelly. This peculiar food, as also its use and abundance in the cell, was first described by Schirach, a Saxon clergyman, who wrote a work on bees in 1771. According to Hunter, this royal pabulum is richer in nitrogen than that of the common larvee. Itis thick, like rich cream ; slightly yellow, and so abundant that the queen larva not only floats in it during all its period of growth, but quite a large amount remains after her queenship vacates the cell. We often find this royal jelly in incomplete queen-cells, with- out larve. Mr. Quinby suggests that this is stored for future use. What a mysterious circumstance is this : These royal scions simply receive a more abundant and sumptuous diet, and occupy a more ample habitation—for I have more than once confirmed the statement of Mr. Quinby, that the direction of the cell is immaterial—and yet what a marvelous transforma- tion. Not only are the ovaries developed and filled with eggs, but the mouth-organs, the wings, the legs, and the sting, aye, Py MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 77 and the size, form and habits are all wondrously changed. That the development of parts should be accelerated, and the size increased is not so surprising—as in breeding other insects I have frequently found that kind and amount of food, would hasten or retard growth, and might even cause a dwarfed imago—but that it should so essentially modify the structure, is certainly a rare and unique circumstance, hardly to be found except here and in related animals. Bevan has suggested that fertile workers, while larve, have received some of this royal jelly, from their position near a developing queen. lLangstroth supposes that they receive some royal jelly, purposely given by the workers, and I had previously thought this reasonable, and probably true. But these pests of the apiarist, and especially of the breeder, almost always, so far as I have observed, make their appearance in colonies long queenless, and I have noticed a case similar to that given by Quinby, where these occurred in a nucleus where no queen had been developed. May it not be true, that a desire for eges stimulates growth of the ovaries, growth of eggs in the ovarian tubes, and consequent ability to deposit. The common high-holder, Colaptes auratus—a bird belonging to the wood- pecker family, usually lays five eggs, and only five; but let eruel hands rob her of these promises of future loved ones— and wondrous to relate, she continues to lay more than a score. One thus treated, here on the College campus, actually laid more than thirty eggs. So we see that animal desires may influence and move organs that are generally independent of the will. The larval queen is longer and more rapid of development than the other larvae. When developed from the egg—as in case of normal swarming—the larva feeds for five days, when the cells are capped by the workers. The infant queen then spins her cocoon, which occupies about one day. The end of the cocoon is left open. Some one has suggested that this is an act of thoughtful generosity on the part of the queen larva, thus to render her own destruction more easy, should the welfare of the colony demand it, as now a sister queen may safely give the fatal sting. The queen now spends nearly three days in absolute repose. Such rest is common to all cocoon-spinning larve. The spinning, which is done by 78 “MANUAL OF THE APIARY. a rapid motion to and fro of the head, always carrying the delicate thread, much like the moving shuttle of the weaver, seems to bring exhaustion and need of repose. She now assumes the nymph or pupa state (Fig. 26, 7). At the end of the sixteenth day she comes forth a queen. Huber states that when a queen emerges, the bees are thrown into a joyous excite- ment, so that he noted a rise in the temperature of the hive from 92° F. to 104° F. I have never tested this matter accurately, but I have failed to notice any marked demonstra- tion on the natal day of her lady-ship the queen, or extra respect paid her as a virgin. When queens are started from worker larvae, they will issue as imago in ten or twelve days from the date of their new prospects, Mr. Doolittle writes me that he has known them to issue in eight and one-half days. As the queen’s development is probably due to superior quality and increased quantity of food, it would stand to reason that queens started from eggs are preferable ; the more so, as under normal circumstances, I believe, they are almost always thus started. The best experience sustains this position. As the proper food and temperature could best be secured in a full colony—and here again the natural economy of the hive adds to our argument—we should infer that the best queens would be reared in strong colonies, or at least kept in such colonies till the cells were capped. Experience also confirms this view. As the quantity and quality of food, and the general activity of the bees is directly connected with the full nourishment of the queen-larva, and as these are only at the maximum in times of active gathering—the time when queen-rearing is naturally started by the bees—we should also conclude that queens reared at such seasons are superior. My experience—and I have carefully observed in this connection—most emphatically sustains this view. Vive or six days after issuing from: the cell—Neighbour says the third day—if the day is pleasant, the queen goes forth on her “marriage flight ;’ otherwise she will improve the first pleasant day thereafter for this purpose. Huber was the first to prove that impregnation always takes place on the wing. Bonnet also proved that the same is true of ants, though in this case millions of queens and drones often swarm MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 79 out at once. I have myself witnessed several of these whole- sale matrimonial excursions among ants. I have also fre- quently taken bumble-bees in copulo while onthe wing. Ihave also noticed both ants and bumble-bees to fall while united, probably borne down by the expiring males. That butterflies, moths, dragon-flies, etc., mate on the wing is a matter of common observation. That it is possible to impregnate queens when confined, I think very doubtful. The queens will caress the drones, but the latter seem not to heed their advances. That this ever has been done [also question, though many think they have positive proof that it has occurred. Yet, as there are so many chances to be mistaken, and as experience and observation are so excessive against the possi- bility, I think that these may be cases of hasty or inaccurate judgment. Many, very many, with myself, have followed Huber in clipping the queen’s wing, only to produce a sterile or drone-laying queen. Prof. Leuckart believes that successful mating demands that the large air-sacks (Fig. 2, f) of the drones shall be filled, which he thinks is only possible during flight. The demeanor of the drones leads me to think, that the excitement of flight, like the warmth of the hand, is necessary to induce the sexual impulse. -_ I presume, that in all the future, Huber’s statement that the queen must take wing to be impregnated, will remain unrefuted. Yet it will do no harm to keep trying. Success may come. Mating, too, in green-houses or rooms is also impracticable. I have given this thorough trial. The drones are incorrigible cowards, and their inordinate fear seems even to overcome the sexual desires. If the queen fails to find an admirer the first day, she will go forth again and again till she succeeds. Huber stated that after twenty-one days the case is hopeless. Bevan states that if impregnated from the fifteenth to the twenty-first she will be largely a drone-laying queen. That such absolute dates can be fixed in either of the above cases is very ques- tionable. Yet, all experienced breeders know that queens kept through the winter as virginsare sure to remain so. It is quite likely that the long inactivity of the spermatheca wholly or in part paralyzes it, so that queens that are late in mating cannot impregnate the eggs as she desires. This 80 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. would accord with what we know of muscular organs. Berlepsch believed that a queen that commenced laying as a virgin could never lay impregnated eggs, even though she afterwards mated. Langstroth thought that he had observed to the contrary. If the queen be observed after a successful “wedding tour,” she will be seen to bear the marks of success in the pendant. drone appendages, consisting of the penis, the yellow cul-de- sacks, and the hanging thread-like ducts. It is not at all likely that a queen, after she has met a drone, ever leaves the hive again except that she leaves with a swarm. Some of the observing apiarists think that an old queen may be again impregnated. The fact that queens, with clipped wings, are as long fertile as others, makes me think that cases which have led to such conclusions are capable of other explanation. If the queen lays eggs before meeting the drones, or if for any reason she fails to mate, her eggs will only produce male bees. This strange anomaly—development of the eggs with- out impregnation—was discovered and proved by Dzierzon, in 1845. Dr. Dzierzon, who, as a student of practical and scien- tific apiculture, must rank with the great Huber, is a Roman Catholic priest of Carlesmarkt, Germany. This doctrine— called parthenogenesis, which means produced from a virgin —is still doubted by some quite able bee-keepers, though the proofs are irrefragable: 1st. Unmated queens will lay eggs. that will develop, but drones always result. 2d. Old queens. often become drone-layers, but examination shows that the spermatheca is void of seminal fluid. Such an examination was first made by Prof. Siebold, the great German anato- mist, in 1843, and later by Leuckart and Leidy. I have myself made several such examinations. The spermatheca can easily be seen by the unaided vision, and by crushing it. on a glass slide, by compressing with a thin glass cover, the difference between the contained fluid in the virgin and im- pregnated queen is very patent, even with a low power. In the latter it is more viscid and yellow, and the vesicle more distended. By use of a high power, the active spermatozoa or germ-cells become visible. 3d. Eggs in drone-cells are found by the microscopist to be void of the sperm-cells, which - MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 81 are always found in all other fresh-laid eggs. This most con- vincing, and interesting observation, was first made by Von Siebold, at the suggestion of Berlepsch. It is quite difficult to show this. Leuckart tried before Von Siebold, at Ber- lepsch’s apiary, but failed. I have also tried to discover these germ-cells in worker-eggs, but as yet have been unsuc- cessful. Siebold has noted the same facts in eggs of wasps. Ath. Dr. Donhoff, of Germany, in 1855, took an egg from a drone-cell, and by artificial impregnation produced a worker- bee. Such an operation, to be successful, must be performed as soon as the egg is laid. Parthenogenesis, in the production of males, has also been found by Siebold to be true of other bees and wasps, and of some of the lower moths, in the production of both males and females. While the great Bonnet first discovered what may be noticed on any summer day, all about us, even on the house-plants at our very windows, that parthenogenesis is best illustrated by the aphides or plant lice. In the fall males and females appear, which mate, when the female lays egos, which in the spring produce only females ; these again produce only females, and thus on, for several generations, till with the cold of autumn come again the males and females. Bonnet observed seven successive generations of productive virgins. Duval noted nine generations in seven months, while Kyber observed production exclusively by parthenogenesis in a heated room for four years. So, we see, that this strange and almost incredible method of increase, is not rare in the great insect world. About two days after she is impregnated, the queen, under normal circumstances, commences to lay, usually worker-eggs, and as the condition of the hive seldom impels to swarming the same summer, so that no drones are required, she usually lays no others the first season. It is frequently noticed that the young queen at first lays quite a number of drone-eggs. Queen-breeders often observe this in their nuclei. This continues for only a few days. This does not seem strange. The act of forcing the sperm-cells from the spermatheca is muscular and voluntary, and that these muscles should not always act promptly at first, is not strange, nor is it unprecedented. Mr. Wagner suggested that 82 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. the size of the cell determined the sex, as in the small cells the pressure on the abdomen forced the fluid from the sperma- theca. Mr. Quinby also favored this view. I greatly ques- tion this theory. All observing apiarists have known eggs to be laid in worker-cells, ere the cell was hardly commenced, when there could be no pressure. In case of queen-cells, too, if the queen does lay the eggs—as I believe—these would be unimpregnated, as the cell is very large. I know the queen sometimes passes from drone to worker-cells very abruptly while laying, as I have witnessed such a procedure—the same that so greatly rejoiced the late Baron of Berlepsch, after weary hours of watching—but that she can thus control at the instant this process of adding or withholding the sperm- cells, certainly seems not so strange as that the spermatheca, hardly bigger than a pin-head, could supply these cells for months, yes, and for years. Who that has seen the bot-fly dart against the horse’s legs, and as surely leave the tiny yellow egg, can doubt but that insects possess very sensitive oviducts, and can extrude the minute eggs just at pleasure. That a queen may force single eggs, at will, past the mouth of the spermatheca, and at the same time add or withhold the sperm-cells, is, I think, without question, true. What gives added force to this view, is the fact that other bees, wasps and ants exercise the same volition, and can have no aid from cell-pressure, as all the eggs are laid in receptacles of the same size. But the Baron of Berlepsch, worthy to be a friend of Dzierzon, has fully decided the matter. He has shown that old drone cells are as small as new worker-cells, and yet each harbors its own brood. Very small queens, too, make no mistakes. With no drone-cells, the queen will some- times lay drone-eggs in worker-cells, in which drones will then be reared. And will, if she must, though with great reluctance, lay worker-eggs in drone-cells. Before laying an egg, the queen takes a look into the cell, probably to see if allis right. If the cell contains any honey, pollen, or an egg, she usually passes it by, though when crowded, a queen will sometimes, especially if young, insert two or three eggs in a cell, and sometimes, in such cases, she drops them, when the bees show their dislike of waste, and appreciation of good living, by making a breakfast MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 83 of them. If the queen finds the cell to her liking, she turns about, inserts her abdomen, and in an instant the tiny egg is glued, in position (Fig. 26, 6) to the bottom of the cell. The queen, when considered in relation to the other bees of the colony, possesses a surprising longevity. It is not surprising for her to attain the age of three years in the full possession of her powers, while they have been known to do good work for five years. Queens, often at the expiration of one, two, three or four years, depending on their vigor and excellence, either cease to be fertile, or else become impotent to lay impregnated eggs—the spermatheca having become emptied of its sperm-cells. In such cases the workers usually supersede the queen ; that is they destroy the old queen, ere all the worker-eggs are gone, and take of the few remaining ones to start queen-cells, and thus rear young, fertile and vigorous queens. It sometimes happens, though rarely, that a fine-looking queen, with full-formed ovaries, and large spermatheca, well- filled with male-fluid, will deposit freely, but none of the eggs will hatch. Readers of the bee-publications know that I have freqently received such for dissection. The first I ever got was a remarkably fine-looking Italian, received from the late Dr. Hamlin, of Tennessee. All such queens that I have examined seem perfect, even though scrutinized with a high- power objective. We can only say that the ege is at fault, as frequently transpires with higher animals, even to the highest. These females are barren ; through some fault with the ovaries, the eggs grown therein are sterile. To detect just what is the trouble with the egg is a very difficult problem, if it is capable of solution at all. I have tried to determine the ultimate cause, but without success. The function of the queen is simply to lay eggs, and thus keep the colony populous ; and this she does with an energy that is fairly startling. A good queen in her best estate will lay two or three thousand eggs a day. I have seen a queen in my observing hive, lay for some time at the rate of four eggs per minute, and have proved by actual computation of brood cells, that a queen may lay over three thousand eggs in aday. lLangstroth and Berlepsch both saw queens lay at the rate of six eggs a minute. 84 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. The latter had a queen that laid three thousand and twenty- one eggs in 24 hours, by actual count, and in 20 days she laid fifty-seven thousand. This queen continued prolific for five years, and must have laid, says the Baron, at a low estimate, more than 1,300,000 eggs. Dzierzon says queens may lay 1,000,000 eggs, and I think these authors have not. exaggerated. Yet, with even these figures as an advertise- ment, the queen bee cannot boast of superlative fecundity, as the queen white-ant—an insect closely related to the bees. in habits, though not in structure, as the white-ants are lace- wings and belong to the sub-order Neureptera, which includes our day-flies, dragon-flies, etc.—is known to lay over 80,000 eggs daily. Yet this poor helpless thing, whose abdomen is the size of a man’s thumb, and composed almost wholly of egos, while the rest of her body is not larger than the same in our common ants, has no other amusement; she cannot. walk ; she cannot even feed herself or care for her eggs. What wonder then that she should attempt big things in the way of egg-laying? She has nothing else to do, or to feel proud of. : Different queens vary as much in fecundity as do different. breeds of fowls. Some queens are so prolific that they fairly demand hives of India rubber to accommodate them, keeping their hives gushing with bees and profitable activity ;. while others are so inferior, that the colonies make a poor, sickly effort to survive at all, and usually succumb early, before those adverse circumstances which are ever waiting to confront all life on the globe. The activity of the queen, too, is governed largely by the activity of the workers. The queen will either lay sparingly, or stop altogether, in the interims of storing honey, while, on the other hand, she is. stimulated to lay to her utmost capacity, when all is life and activity in the hive. It would seem that the queen either reasons from conditions, is taught by instinct, or else that without her volition the general activity of the worker-bees stimulates the ovaries, how, we know not, to grow more eggs. We know that such a stimulus is born of desire, in case of the high-holder, already referred to. That the queen may have control of the activity of her ovaries, either directly or indirectly, through reflex MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 85 nervous action induced by the general excitement of the bees, which always follows active storing, is not only possible, but. quite likely. The old poetical notion that the queen is the revered and admired sovereign of the colony, whose pathway is ever lined by obsequious courtiers, whose person is ever the recipient of loving caresses, and whose will is law in this bee-hive king- dom, controlling all the activities inside the hive, and leading the colony whithersoever they may go, is unquestionably mere fiction. In the hive, as in the world, individuals are valued for what they are worth. The queen, as the most important individual, is regarded with solicitude, and her removal or loss noted with consternation, as the welfare of the colony is threatened ; yet, let the queen become useless, and she is despatched with the same absence of emotion that charac- terizes the destruction of the drones when they have become supernumeraries. It is very doubtful if emotion or senti- mentality are ever moving forces among the lower animals. There are probably certain natural principles that govern in the economy of the hive, and aught that conspires against, or tends to intercept the action of these principles, becomes an enemy to the bees. All are interested, and doubtless more united than is generally believed, in a desire to promote the free action of these principles. No doubt the principle of antag- onism among the various bees has been overrated. ven, the drones, when they are being killed off in the autumn, make a sickly show of defense, as much as to say, the welfare of the colony demands that such worthless vagrants should be exter- minated ; “‘so mote it be;’ go ahead. The statement, too, that there is often serious antagonism between the queen and workers, as to the destruction or preservation of inchoate queens, yet in the cell, is a matter which may well be inves- tigated. Itis most probable that what tends most for the prosperity of the colony is well understood by all, and with- out doubt there is harmonious action among all the denizens of the hive, to foster that which will advance the general welfare, or to make war on whatever may tend to interfere with it. If the course of any of the bees seems wavering and inconsistent, we may rest assured that circumstances have changed, and that could we perceive the bearing of all the ‘86 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. surrounding conditions, all would appear consistent and har- monious. THE DRONES. These are the male bees, and are generally found in the hive only from May to November ; though they may remain all winter, and are not infrequently absent during the summer. Their presence or absence depends on the present and pros- pective condition of the colony. If they are needed, or likely to be needed, then they are present. There are in Fig. 17. © Drone Bee, magnified. nature several hundred in each colony. The number may and should be greatly reduced by the apiarist. These (Fig. 17) are shorter than the queen, being less than three-fourths of an inch in length, are more robust and bulky than either the queen or workers, and are easily recognized when flying by their loud, startling hum. As in other societies, the least useful make the most noise. This loud hum is caused by the less rapid vibration of their large, heavy wings. Their flight is more heavy and lumbering than that of the workers. Their ligula, labial palpi, and maxillee—like the same in the queen bee—are short, while their jaws (Fig. 21, a) possess the rudi- mentary tooth, and are much the same in form as those of the queen, but are heavier, though not so strong as those of the workers. Their eyes (Fig. 4) are very prominent, meet above, and thus the simple eyes are thrown forward. Their posterior legs are convex on the outside (Fig. 18), so, like the ‘queens, they have no pollen baskets. The drones are without MANUAL OF THE -APIARY. ST the defensive organ, having no sting, while their special sex- organs (Fig. 10) are not unlike those of other insects, and have already been sufficiently described. ; It was discovered by Dzierzon, in 1845, that the drones hatch from unimpregnated eggs. This strange phenomenon, seemingly so incredible, is as has been shown in speaking of Part of Leg of Drone, magnified. t—Tibia. : * ts—Joints of Tarsus. p—Broadened tibia and basal tarsus. c—Claws. the queen, easily proved and beyond question. These eggs may come from an unimpregnated queen, a fertile worker— which will soon be further described—or from an impregnated queen, which may voluntarily prevent impregnation. Such eggs may be placed in the larger horizontal cells (Fig. 28, a), in manner already described. As stated by Bevan, the drone feeds six and a half days as a larva, before the cell is capped. The capping of the drone-cells is very convex, and projects beyond the plane of the same in worker-cells, so that the 88 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. drone brood is easily distinguished from worker, and from the darker color—the wax being thicker and less pure—the cap- ping of both drone and worker brood-cells enable us easily to distinguish them from honey-cells. In twenty-four days from the laying of the egg, the drones come forth from the cells. Of course variation of temperature, and other conditions, as variable amount of diet, may slightly retard or advance the development of any brood, in the different stages. The drones—in fact all bees—when they first emerge from the cells, are gray, soft, and appear generally unsophisticated. Just what the longevity of the male bee is, I am unable to state. It is probable, judging from analogy, that they live till accident, the worker bees, or the performance of their natural function causes their death. The worker-bees are liable to kill off the drones, which they do by constantly biting and worrying them. They may also destroy the drone-brood. It is not very rare to see workers carrying out immature drones even in mid-summer. At the same time, too, they may destroy inchoate queens. Such action is prompted by a sudden check in the yield of honey, and with the drones is most common at the close of the season. The bees seem very cautious and far-sighted. If the signs of the times presage a famine, they stay all proceedings looking to the increase of colonies. On the other hand, unlimited honey, rapid increase of brood, crowded quarters—whatever the age of the queen—is sure to bring many of the male bees. While any circumstances that indicate a future need of drones will prevent their destruction even in late autumn. The function of the drones is solely to impregnate the queen, though when present they may add animal heat. That their nutrition is active, is suggested by the fact, that upon dissection, we always find their capacious stomachs filled with honey. . Impregnation of the queen always takes place, as before stated, while on the wing, outside the hive, usually during the heat of warm sunshiny days. After mating, the drone organs adhere to the queen, and may be seen hanging to her for some hours. The copulatory act is fatal to the drones. By hold- ing a drone in the hand, the ejection of the sex-organs is often produced, and always followed by immediate death. As the MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 89 queen only meets a single drone, and that only once, it might be asked why nature was so improvident as to decree hundreds of drones to an apiary or colony, whereas a score would suffice as well. Nature takes cognizance of the importance of the queen, and as she goes forth amidst the myriad dangers of the outer world, it is safest and best that her stay abroad be not protracted ; that the experience be not repeated, and especially, that her meeting a drone be not delayed. Hence the superabundance of drones—especially under natural con- ditions, isolated in forest homes, where ravenous birds are ever on the alert for insect game-—is most wise and provident. Nature is never “penny wise and pound foolish.” In our apiaries the need is wanting, and the condition, as it exists in nature, is not enforced. The fact that parthenogenesis prevails in the production of the drones, has led to the theory that from a pure queen, however mated, must ever come a puredrone. My own expe- rience and observation, which I believe are those of all apiarists, has confirmed this theory. Yet, if the impure mating of our cows, horses, and fowls, renders the females of mixed blood ever afterward, as is believed and taught by many who would seem most competent to judge—though I must say | am somewhat skeptical in the matter—then we must look closely as to our bees, for certainly, if a mammal, and especially a fowl, is tainted by impure mating, then we may expect the same of insects. In fowls such influence, if it exists, must come simply from the presence in the female generative organs of the germ-cells, or spermatozoa, and in mam- mals, too, there is little more than this, for though they are viviporous, so that the union and contact of the offspring and mother seems very intimate, during. foetal development, yet there is no intermingling of the blood, for a membrane ever separates that of the mother from that of the foetus, and only the nutritious or waste elements pass from one to the other. To claim that the mother is tainted through the circulation, is like claiming that the same result would follow her inhaling the breath of her progeny after birth. I can only say, that I believe this whole matter is still involved in doubt, and still needs more careful, scientific and prolonged observation. 90 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. THE NEUTERS, OR WORKER-BEES. These, called “the bees,” by Aristotle, and even by Wild- man and Bevan, are by far the most numerous individuals of the hive—there being from 1,500 to 4,000 in every good colony. It is possible for a colony to be even much more Fig. 19. Worker-Bee, magnified. populous than this. These are also the smallest bees of the colony, as they measure but little more than one-half of an inch in length (Fig. 19). The workers—as taught by Schirach, and proved by Mlle. Jurine, of Geneva, Switzerland, who, at the request of Huber, sought for and found, by aid of her microscope, the abortive ovaries—are undeveloped females. Rarely, and probably very rarely, except that a colony is long or often queenless, as is frequently true of our nuclei, these bees are so far developed as to produce eggs, which, of course, would always be drone eggs. Such workers—known as fertile—were first noticed by Riem, while Huber actually saw one in the act of ege-laying. Hxcept in the power to produce eggs, they seem not unlike the other workers. Huber supposed that these were reared in cells contiguous to royal cells, and thus received royal food by accident. The fact, as stated by Mr. Quinby, that these occur in colonies where queen-larvze were never: reared, is fatal to the above theory. Langstroth and Berlepsch thought that these bees, while larvee, were fed, though too spa- ringly, with the royal aliment, by bees in need of a queen, and hence the accelerated development. Such may be the true ex- planation. Yet, if as some apilarists aver, these appear where no brood has been fed, and so must be common workers, changed after leaving the cell, as the result of a: felt need, MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 91 then we must conclude that development and growth—as with the high-holder—springs from desire. The generative organs are very sensitive, and exceedingly susceptible to impressions, Fig. 20. i Hg Tongue of a Worker-Bee, much magnified. a—Ligula. 3 ¢, c—Maxille. b, b—Labial palpi. d—Paraglosse. [The average length of a black worker’s tongue, as compared with this from an Italian, would be from base to a.] and we may yet have much to learn as to the delicate forces which will move them to growth and activity. Though these fertile workers are a poor substitute for a queen, as they are 92 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. incapable of producing any but drones, and are surely the: harbingers of death and extinction to the colony, yet they seem to satisfy the workers, for they will not brook the pres- ence of a queen when a fertile worker is in the hive, nor will they suffer the existence in the hive of a queen-cell, even though capped. They seem to be satisfied, though they have very slight reason to be so. These fertile workers lay indif- ferently in large or small cells—often place several eggs in a single cell, and show their incapacity in various ways. The workers, as might be surmised by the importance and variety of their functions, are structurally very peculiar: Their tongues (Fig. 20, a), labial palpi (Fig. 20, 6, 0), and maxille (Fig. 20, c, c), are very much elongated, while the . former is very hairy, and doubles under the throat when not- in use. The length of the ligula enables them to reach into: flowers with long tubes, and by aid of the hairs they lap up the nectar. When the tongue is big with its adhering load of sweet, it is doubled back, enclosed by the labial palpi and Fie. 21. a—Jaw of drone. b—Jaw of queen c—Jaw of worker. maxillee, and then extended, thus losing its load of nectar, which at the same time is sucked into the large honey- stomach. The bees, at will, can force the honey back from the honey-stomach, when it is stored in the honey-cells or given to the other bees. The jaws (Fig. 21, c) are very strong, without the rudi- mentary tooth, while the cutting edge is semi-conical, so that when the jaws are closed they form an imperfect cone. Thus these are well formed to cut comb, knead wax, and perform their various functions. Their eyes (Fig. 5) are like those of the queen, while their wings, like those of the drones, attain MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 93 the end of the body. These organs (Fig. 3), as in all insects with rapid flight, are slim and strong, and, by their more or less rapid vibrations, give the variety of tone which charac- terizes their hum. Thus we have the rapid movements and high pitch of anger, and the slow motion and mellow note of content and joy. On the outside of the posterior tibia and basal tarsus is a cavity, made more deep by its rim of hairs, known as the pollen Fig. 22. Part of Posterior Leg of Worker, outside, much magnified. t—Tibia. ts—Joint of tarsi. h—Rim of hairs. c—Claws. p—Pollen basket. basket (Fig. 22, »). In these pollen baskets is compacted the pollen, which is gathered by the mouth organs, and carried back by the four anterior legs. Opposite the pollen baskets are regular rows of golden hairs (Fig. 23, e), which probably aid in storing and compacting the pollen balls. On the anterior legs of the workers, between the femur and tibia, is a curious notch (Fig. 24, C), covered by a spur (Fig. 24, 94. MANUAL OF THE APIARY. B). For several years this has caused speculation among my students, and has attracted the attention of observing apiarists. Some have supposed that it aided bees in reaching deeper down into tubular flewers, others that it was used in scraping Fig. 23 till Fea nlll i ac , ‘ oe Part of Worker’s Posterior eg, inside, much magnified. e—Rows of hairs. t—Tibia. c—Claws. off pollen, and still others that it enabled bees to hold on when clustering. The first two functions may belong to this, Fig. 24 Anterior Leg of Worker, magnified. though other honey and pollen-gathering bees do not possess it. The latter function is performed by the claws at the end of the tarsi. MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 95 The workers, too, possess an organ of defense (Fig. 25), which they are quick to use if occasion requires. This is not curved as in the queen, but straight. The gland Fig. 25. ~ tt Worker’s Sting, magnified. a—Tube. bd:—Barbed spears drawn out of tube and turned back, c—Poison sack. d—Muscles. which secretes the poison is double, and tho sack (Fig. 25, ¢), in which it is stored, is as large as a flax-seed. The sting proper, is a triple organ, consisting of three sharp spears, very smooth and of exquisite polish. The most highly-wrought 96 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. steel instruments, under a high magnifier, look rough and unfinished, while the parts of the sting show no such inequali- ties. One of these spears (Fig. 25, a) is canaliculate—that is, it forms an imperfect tube—and in this canal work the other two (Fig. 25, 0, 6), which fill the vacant space, and thus the three make a complete tube, and through this tube, which connects with the poison sack, passes the poison. The slender spears which work in the tube are marvelously sharp, and project beyond it when used, and are worked alternately by small but powerful muscles (Fig. 25, d@), so they may pass through buckskin, or even the thick scarf-skin of the hand. These are also barbed at the end with teeth, seven of which are prominent, which extend out and back like the barb of'a fish-hook. Hence the sting cannot be withdrawn, if it penetrates any firm substance, and so when used, it is drawn from the bee, and carries with it a portion of the alimentary canal, thus costing the poor bee its life. Darwin suggests that bees and wasps were developed from the saw-flies, and that the barbs on the sting are the old-time saws, transformed into the spear-like barbs. He does not explain why these are so much shorter and more obscure in the queen, and in other bees and wasps. The honey-stomach or crop in the workers (Fig. 9, 0) is well developed, though no larger than those in the drones. Whether it is more complex in structure, I do not know. The workers hatch from an impregnated egg, which can only come from a queen that has met a drone, and is always laid in the small, horizontal cell. These eggs are in no wise different, so far as we can see, from those which are laid in the drone or queen-cells. All are cylindrical and slightly curved (Fig. 26, 6, c) and are fastened by one end to the bottom of the cell, and a little to one side of the centre. As already shown, these are voluntarily fertilized by the queen as she ex- trudes them, preparatory to fastening them in the cells. These egos, though so small—one-sixteenth of an inch long—may be easily seen by holding the comb so that the light will shine into the cells. With experience, they are detected almost at once, but I have often found it quite difficult to make the novice see them, though very plainly visible to my experienced eye. MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 97 The egg hatches in three days. The larva (Fig. 26, d, e, f, g), imeorrectly called grub, maggot—and even caterpillar, by Hunter—is white, footless, and lies coiled up in the cell till near maturity. It is fed a whitish fluid, though this seems to be given grudgingly, as it never seems to have more than it Fie. 26. Egg and Brood. band c—Hggs. i—Pupa of queen, in queenecell. He va and g— Various sizes of larve. k, k—Caps. —Pupa. wishes to eat, so it is fed quite frequently by the mature work- ers. It would seem that the workers fear an excessive devel- opment, which, as we have seen, is most mischievous and ruinous, and work to prevent the same, by a mean and meager diet. The food is composed of pollen and honey. Certainly of pollen, for, as I have repeatedly proved, without pollen, no brood will be reared. Probably some honey is incorporated, as sugar is an essential in the nutrition of all animals, and we could hardly account for the excessive amount of honey consumed, while breeding, by the extra amount consumed ‘by the bees, consequent upon the added exercise required in 98 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. caring for the brood. M. Quinby, Doolittle, and others, say water is also an element of this food. But bees often breed very rapidly when they do not leave the hive at all, and so water, other than that contained in the honey, etc., cannot be added. This makes it a question if water is ever added. The time when bees seem to need water, and so repair to the rill and the pond, is during the heat of summer, when they are most busy. May this not be quaffed to slake their own thirst ? In six days the cell is capped over by the worker-bees. This. cap is composed of pollen and wax, so it is darker, more porous, and more easily broken than the caps of the honey- cells; it is also more convex (Hig. 26, *&). The larva, now full grown, having lapped up all the food placed before it, surrounds itself with a silken cocoon, so excessively thin. that it requires a great number to appreciably reduce the size: of the cells. These always remain in the cell, after the bees. escape, and give to old comb its dark color and great strength. Yet they are so thin, that cells used even for a dozen years, seem to serve as well for brood as when first used. In three days the insect assumes the. pupa state (Fig. 26, A). In all insects the spinning of the cocoon seems an exhaustive pro- cess, for so faras I have observed, and that is quite at length, this act 1s succeeded by a variable period of repose. ‘The pupa is also calleda nymph. By cutting open cells it is easy to determine just the date of forming the cocoon, and of changing to the pupa state. The pupa looks like the mature bee with all its appendages bound close about it, though the color is still whitish. In twenty-one days the bee emerges from the cell. The old writers were quite mistaken in thinking that the advent of these was an occasion of joy and excitement among the bees. All apiarists have noticed how utterly unmoved the bees are, as they push over and crowd by these new-comers in the most. heedless and discourteous manner imaginable. Wildman tells of seeing the workers gathering pollen and honey the same: day that. they came forth from the cells. This ideais quickly disproved if we Italianize black-bees. We know that for some days these young bees do not leave the hive at all, except in case of swarming, when bees even too young to fly MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 99 will essay to go with the crowd. These young bees, like the young drones and queens, are much lighter for the first few days. The worker-bees never attain a great age. Those reared in autumn may live for eight or nine months, and if in queenless. stocks, where little labor is performed, even longer; while those reared in spring will wear out in three, and when most. busy, will often die in from thirty to forty-five days. None of these bees survive the year through, so there is a limit to the number which may exist ina colony. As a good queen will lay, when in her best estate, three thousand eggs daily, and as the workers live from one to three months, it might seem that four thousand was too small a figure for the num- ber of workers. Without doubt a greater number is possible. That it is rare is not surprising, when we remember the numerous accidents and vicissitudes that must ever attend the individuals of these populous communities. The function of the worker-bees is to do all the manual labor of the hives. They secrete the wax, which forms in small pellets (Fig. 27, a, a) under the over-lapping rings under the abdomen. I have found these wax-scales on both old and young. According to Fritz Miiller, the admirable German observer, so long a traveler in South America, the bees of the genus melipona secrete the wax on the back. The young bees build the comb, ventilate the hive, feed the larvee and cap the cells. The older bees—for, as readily seen in Italianizing, the young bees do not go forth for the first one or two weeks—gather the honey, collect the pollen, or bee-bread, as it is generally called, bring in the propolis or bee glue, which is used to close openings, and as a cement, supply the hive with water (?), defend the hive from all improper intrusion, destroy drones when their day of grace is past, kill and arrange for replacing worthless queens, destroy inchoate queens, drones, or even workers, if circumstances demand it, and lead forth a portion of the bees when the con- ditions impel them to swarm. When there are no young bees, the old bees will act as house- keepers and nurses, which they otherwise refuse to do. The young bees, on the other hand, will not go forth to glean, even though there be no old bees to do this necessary part of 100 ' MANUAL OF THE APIARY. bee-duties. An indirect function of all the bees is to supply animal heat, as the very life of the bees require that the temperature inside the hive be maintained at a rate consid- erably above freezing. In the chemical processes attendant upon nutrition, much heat is generated, which, as first shown by Newport, may be considerably augmented at the pleasure of the bees, by forced respiration. The bees, too, by a rapid vibration of their wings, have the power to ventilate their hives, and thus reduce the temperature, when the weather is hot. Thus they moderate the heat of summer, and temper the cold of winter. Under Surface of Bee, showing Wax between Segments. MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 101 CHAPTER IIL. SWARMING OR NATURAL METHOD OF INCREASE. The natural method by which an increase of colonies among bees is secured, is of great interest, and though it has been closely observed, and assiduously studied for a long period, and has given rise to theories as often absurd as sound, yet, even now, it is a fertile field for investiga- tion, and will repay any who may come with the true spirit of inquiry, for there is much concerning it which is involved in mystery. Why do bees swarm at unseemly times? Why is the swarming spirit so excessive at times and so restrained at other seasons? ‘These and other questions we are too apt to refer to erratic tendencies of the bees, when there is no question but that they follow naturally upon certain condi- tions, perhaps intricate and obscure, which it is the province of the investigator to discover. Who shall be first to unfold the principles which govern these, as all other actions of the bees ? In the spring or early summer, when the hive has become populous, and storing very active, the queen, as if conscious that a home could be overcrowded, and foreseeing such dan- ger, commences to deposit drone-eggs in drone-cells, which the worker-bees, perhaps moved by like considerations, begin to construct, if they are not already in existence. In fact, drone comb is almost sure of construction at such times. No sooner is the drone brood well under way, than the large, awkward, queen-cells are commenced, often to the number of ten or fifteen, though there may be not more than three or four. In these, eggs are placed, and the rich royal jelly added, and soon, often before the cells are even capped—and very rarely before a cell is built, if the bees are crowded, the hives unshaded, the ventilation insufficient, or the honey-yield very bountiful—some bright day, usually about ten o'clock, after an unusual disquiet both inside and outside the hive, a 102 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. large part of the worker-bees—hbeing off duty for the day, and having previously loaded their honey-sacks—rush forth from the hive as if alarmed by the cry of fire, the queen among the number, though she is by no means among the first, and frequently is quite late in her exit. The bees, thus started on their quest for a new home, after many uproarious gyrations about the old one, dart forth to alight upon some bush, limb, or fence, though in one case [ have known the first swarm of bees to leave at once, for parts unknown, without even waiting to cluster. After thus meditating for the space of from one to three hours, upon a future course, they again take wing and leave for their new home, which they have probably already sought out. ‘Some suppose the bees look up a home before leaving the hive, while others claim that scouts are in search of one while the bees are clustered. The fact that bees take a right- line to their new home, and fly too rapidly to look as they go, would argue that a home is preémpted, at least, before the cluster is dissolved. The fact that the cluster remains some- times for hours—even over night—and at other times for a brief period, would lead us to infer that the bees cluster, in waiting for a new home to be found. Yet, why do bees some- times alight after flying a long distance, as did a first swarm the past season, upon our College grounds? Was their journey long, so that they must needs stop to rest, or were they flying at random, not knowing whither they were going? If for any reason the queen should fail to join the bees, and perhaps rarely, when she is among them, they will, after having clustered, return to their old home. The youngest bees will remain in the old hive, to which those bees, if there are any such, which are abroad in quest of stores will return. The presence of young bees on the ground—those with flight too feeble to join the rovers—will always mark the previous home of the emigrants. Soon, in seven or eight days, perhaps rarely a little later, the first queen will come forth from her cell, and in two or three days she will or may lead a new colony forth, but before she does this, the peculiar note, known as the piping of the queen, may be heard. This piping sounds like peep, peep, is shrill and clear, and can be plainly heard by placing the ear to the hive, nor would it be MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 103 mistaken. It is followed by a lower, hoarser note, made by a queen still within the cell. : Some have supposed that the cry of the liberated queen was that of hate, while that by the queen still imprisoned was either of enmity or fear. Never will an after-swarm leave, unless preceded by this peculiar note. At successive periods of one or two days, one, two, or even three more colonies may issue from the old home. These last swarms will all be heralded by the piping of the queen. They will be less particular as to the time of day when they issue, as they have been known to leave before sun-rise, and even after sun-set. The well-known apiarist, Mr. A. F. Moon, once knew a swarm to issue by moon-light. They will, too, as a rule, cluster farther from the hive. The after swarms are preceded by the queen, and in case swarming is delayed, may be attended by a plurality of queens. Berlepsch and Langstroth both saw eight queens issue with a swarm, while others report even more. These virgin queens fly very rapidly, so the swarm will seem more active and definite in their course than will first swarms. The cutting short of swarming preparations before the second, third, or even the first swarm issues, is by no means a rare occurrence. ‘This is effected by the bees’ destroying the queen-cells, and sometimes by a general extermination of the drones, and is generally to be explained by a cessation of the honey yield. Cells thus destroyed are easily recognized, as they are torn open from the side, and not cut back from the end. Swarming out at other times, especially in late winter and spring, is sometimes noticed by apiarists. This is due to famine, mice, or some other disturbing circumstance, which makes the hive intolerable to the bees. 104 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. CHAPTER IV. PRODUCTS OF BEES; THEIR ORIGIN AND FUNCTION. Among all insects, bees stand first in the variety of the useful products which they give us; and next to the silk- moths in the importance of these products. They seem the more remarkable and important, in that so few insects yield articles of commercial value. True, the cochineal insect, a species of bark-louse, gives us an important, coloring material ; the lac insect, of the same family, gives. us the important element of our best glue—shellac ; the blister-beetles afford an article prized by the physician, while we are indebted to one of the gall-flies for a valuable element: of ink. But the honey-bee affords not only a delicious article of food, but also another article of no mean commercial rank —namely, wax. We will proceed to examine the various pro- ducts which come from bees. HONEY. Of course the first product of bees, not only to attract, attention, but also in importance, is honey. And what is honey? We can only say that it is a sweet substance gathered from flowers and other sources, by the bees. We cannot, therefore, give its chemical composition, which would be as varied as the sources from which it comes. We cannot even call it a sugar, for it may be, and always is composed of various sugars, and thus it is easy to understand why honey varies so much in richness, color, flavor, and effects on diges- tion. In fact, it is very doubtful if honey is a manufactured article at all. It seems most likely that the bees only collect. it as it is distilled by myriad leaves and flowers, and store it up, that it may minister to their and our necessities. To be sure, some writers contend that it undergoes some change while in the bee’s stomach ; but the rapidity with which they MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 105 store, and the seeming entire similarity between honey and sugar fed to them, and the same immediately extracted from the comb, has led me to believe that the transforming power of the stomach is very slight, if, indeed, it exists at all. To be sure, I have fed sugar, giving bees empty combs at night- fall, and found the flavor of honey early the next morning, In this case, honey might have been already in the bees’ stomachs, or might have been carried from other portions of the hive. The method of collecting the honey has already been described. The principles of lapping and suction are both involved in the operation. When the stomach is full, the bee repairs to the hive, and regurgitates its precious load, either giving it to the bees or storing it in the cells. Mr. Doolittle claims that the bees that gather, give all their honey to the other bees, which latter store it in the cells. This honey remains for some time uncapped that it may ripen, by which process the water is partially evaporated, and the honey rendered thicker. If the honey remains uncapped, or is removed from the cells, it will generally granulate, if the temperature be reduced below 70°. This is probably owing to the presence of the cane-sugar, and is a good indication, as it denotes superior quality. Some honey, as that from the South, and some ’ from California, seems to remain liquid indefinitely. Some kinds of our own honey crystallize much more readily than others. But that granulation is a test that honey is pure, is untrue ; that it is a sign of superior excellence, | think quite probable. When there are no flowers, or when the flowers yield no sweets, the bees, ever desirous to add to their stores, frequently essay to rob other colonies, and often visit the refuse of cider mills, or suck up the oozing sweets of various plant or bark lice, thus adding, may be, unwholesome food to their usually delicious and refined stores. It is a curious fact that the queen never lays her maximum number of eggs except when storing is goingon. In fact, in the interims of honey-gather- ing, egg-laying not infrequently ceases altogether. The queen seems discreet, gauging the size of her family by the probable means of support. Again, in times of extraordinary yields of honey, the storing 106 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. is so rapid that the hive becomes so filled that the queen is unable to lay her full quota of eggs ;. in fact, I have seen the brood very much reduced in this way, which, of course, greatly depleted the colony. This might be called ruinous prosperity. The natural use of the honey is to furnish the mature"bees with food, and when mixed with pollen, to form the diet of the young bees. WAX. The product of the bees, second in importance, is wax. This is a solid, unctious substance, and is, as shown by its chemical composition, a fat-like material, though not as some authors assert, the fat of bees. As already observed, this is a.secretion formed in pellets, the shape of an irregular pentagon Fia. 27. Under-side Abdomen, magnified. Wasx-Scales in situ, magnified. a, a, etc.— Wax pellets. w—W ax-scale. (Fig. 27,2), underneath the abdomen. These pellets are light- colored, very thin and fragile, and are secreted by and molded upon the membrane towards the body from the wax-pockets. Neighbour speaks of the wax oozing through pores from the stomach. This is not the case, but, as with the synovial fluid about our own joints, is formed by the secreting membrane, and does not pass through holes, as water through a sieve. There are four of these wax-pockets on each side, and thus there may be eight wax-scales on a bee at one time. This wax can be secreted by the bees, when fed on pure sugar, as shown by Huber, which experiment I have verified. removed all honey and comb from my observing-hive, left the bees for twenty-four hours to digest all food which might be MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 107 in their stomachs, then fed pure sugar, which was better than honey, as Prof. R. F. Kedzie has shown by analysis that not only filtered honey, but even the nectar which he collected right from the flowers themselves, contains nitrogen. The bees commenced at once to build comb, and continued for several days, so long as I kept them confined. This is, as we should suppose ; sugar contains hydrogen and oxygen in proportion to form water, while the third element, carbon, is in the same or about the same proportion as the oxygen. Now, the fats usually contain little oxygen, and a good deal of carbon and hydrogen. Thus, the sugar by losing some of its oxygen would contain the requisite elements for fat. It was found true in the days of slavery in the South, that the negroes of Louisiana, during the gathering of the cane, would become very fat. They ate much sugar; they gained much fat. Now, wax is a fat-like substance, not that it is the animal fat of bees, as often asserted—in fact it contains much less hydrogen, as will be seen by the following formula from Hess: Asay Tater craters io ie elerelnial io cole = clalels olele ainie's'e'aie a’ sfelelatsla aire /aiptala sleid c's relate 50 UAB EAR EN UE cs ahaa a lotersiarae oe lniarai alate eloiesa 5 siaielateic «/5 Sidlaiclslecarsieists niece oS (9.30 BERRY ILO MM ea ere alcs och cth toyota lareinle eivtelolelele\alalolefsists elerelefole)c/siela’sie(cle wjslsinieie «ie'e:< 13.20 —but it is a special secretion for a special purpose, and from its composition, we should conclude that it might be secreted from a purely saccharine diet, and experiment confirms the conclusion. It has been found that bees require about twenty pounds of honey to secrete one of wax. That nitrogenous food is necessary, as claimed by Langs- troth and Neighbour, is not true. Yet, in the active season, when muscular exertion is great, nitrogenous food must be imperatively necessary to supply the waste, and give tone to the body. Some may be desirable even in the quiet of win- ter. Now, as secretion of wax demands a healthy condition of the bee, it indirectly requires some nitrogenous food. It is asserted, that to secrete wax, bees need to hang in compact clusters or festoons, in absolute repose. Such quiet would certainly seem conducive to most active secretion. The same food could not go to form wax, and at the same time supply the waste of tissue which ever follows upon muscular activity. The cow, put to hard toil, could not give so much milk. But I find, upon examination, that the bees, even the most aged, while gathering in the honey season, yield up the 108 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. wax-scales, the same as those within the hive. During the active storing of the past season, especially when comb- building was in rapid progress, I found that nearly every bee taken from the flowers contained the wax-scales of varying sizes in the wax-pockets. By the activity of the bees, these are not infrequently loosed from their position, and fall to the bottom of the hive. It is probable that wax secretion is not forced upon the bees, but only takes place as required. So the bees, unless wax is demanded, may perform other duties. Whether this secretion is a matter of the bee’s will, or whether it is excited by the surrounding conditions without any thought, are ques- tions yet to be settled. These wax-scales are loosened by the claws, and carried to the mouth by the anterior legs, where they are mixed with saliva, and after the proper kneading by the jaws, in which process it assumes a bright yellow hue—but loses none of its translucency—it is formed into that wonderful and exquisite structure, the comb. Honey-comb is wonderfully delicate, the wall of a new cell being only about 1-180 of an inch in thickness, and so formed as to combine the greatest strength with the least expense of material and room. It has been a subject of admiration since the earliest time. That the form is a matter of necessity, as some claim—the result of pressure—and not of bee-skill, is not true. The hexagonal form is assumed at the very start of the cells, when there can be no pressure. The wasp builds the same form, though unaided. The assertion that the cells, even the drone and worker-cells, are absolutely uniform and perfect, is also untrue, as a little inspection will convince any one. ‘The late Prof. Wyman proved that an exact hexagonal cell does not exist. He showed that the size varies ; so that in a distance of ten worker-cells, there may be a variation of one diameter. _ And this in natural, not distorted cells. This variation of one-fifth of an inch in ten cells is extreme, but a variation of one-tenth of an inch is common. ‘The sides, as also the angles, are not constant. The rhombic faces forming the bases of the cells also vary. The bees change from worker (Fig. 28, c) to drone-cells (Fig. 28, a), which are one-fifth larger, and vice versa, not MANUAL OF THE APIARY. . 109 by any system (Fig. 28, 6), but simply by enlarging or con- tracting. It usually takes about four rows to complete the transformation, though the number of deformed cells vary from two to eight. The structure of each cell is quite complex, yet full of interest. The base is a triangular pyramid (Fig. 28, e) whose Fig. 28. =— Rhombs, Pyramidal Bases, and Cross-sections of Cells illustrated. aa Honey-Comb. a—Drone-cells. c—Worker-cells. b—Deformed cells. d d—Queen-cells. three faces are rhombs, and whose apex forms the very centre of the floor of the cell. From the six free or non-adjacent edges of the three rhombs extend the lateral walls or faces of the cell. The apex of this basal pyramid is a point where the contiguous faces of three cells on the opposite side meet, and form the angles of the bases of three cells on the oppo- 110 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. site side of the comb. Thus, the base of each cell forms one-third of the base of each of three opposite cells. One side thus braces the other, and adds much to the strength of the comb. Lach cell, then, is in form of a hexagonal prism, terminating in a flattened triangular pyramid. The bees usually build several combs at once, and carry forward several cells on each side of each comb, constantly adding to the number, by additions to the edge. Huber first observed the process of comb-building, noticing the bees abstract the wax-scales, carry them to the mouth, add the frothy saliva, and then knead and draw out the yellow ribbons which were fastened to the top of the hive, or added to the _ comb already commenced. The diameter of the worker-cells (Fig. 28, c) averages little more than one-fifth of an inch—Réaumur says two and three-fifths lines or twelfths of an inch. While the drone- cells (Fig. 28, a) are a little more than one-fourth of an inch, “or, according to Réaumur, three and one-third lines. But this distinguished author was quite wrong when he said: “These are the invariable dimensions of all cells that ever were or ever will be made.” The depth of the worker-cells is a little less than half an inch ; the drone-cells are slightly extended so as to be a little more than half an inck deep. These cells are often drawn out so as to be an inch long, when used solely as honey receptacles. The capping of the brood- cells is dark, porous, and convex, while that of the honey is white and concave. | The character of the cells, as to size, that is whether they -are drone or worker, seems to be determined by the relative abundance of bees and honey. If the bees are abundant and honey needed, or if there isno queen to lay eggs, drone- comb (Fig. 28, a) is invariably built, while if there are few bees, and of course little honey needed, then worker-comb (Fig. 28, c) is almost as invariably formed. All comb when first formed is clear and transparent. The fact that it is often dark and opaque implies that it has been long used as brood-comb, and the opacity is due to the innumerable thin cocoons which line the eells. These may be separated by dissolving the wax; which may be done by putting it in boiling alcohol. Such comb need not be dis- MANUAL OF THE APIARY. i I carded, for if composed of worker-cells, it is still very valuable for breeding purposes, and should not be destroyed till the cells are too small for longer service, which will not occur till after many years of use. 7 The function, then, of the wax, is to make comb, and caps for the honey-cells, and, combined with pollen, to form queen- cells (Fig. 28, d) and caps for the brood cells. POLLEN, OR BEE-BREAD. An ancient Greek author states that in Hymettus the bees tied little pebbles to their legs to hold them down. This fanciful conjecture probably arose from seeing the pollen balls on the bees’ legs. Even such scientists as Réaumur, Bonnet, Swammerdam, and many apiarists of the last century, thought they saw in these pollen-balls the source of wax. But Huber, John Hunter, Duchet, Wildman, and others, noticed the presence and function of the wax-pellets already described, and were aware that the pollen served a different purpose. This substance, like honey, is not secreted, nor manufac- tured by the bees, only collected. The bees usually obtain it from the stamens of flowers. But if they gain access to flour when there is no bloom, they will take this in lieu of pollen, in which case the former term used above becomes a misnomer, though usually the bee-bread consists’ almost wholly of pollen. As already intimated, the pollen is conveyed in the pollen- baskets (Fig. 22, ») of the posterior legs, to which it is con- veyed by the other legs, and compressed into little oval masses. The motions in this conveyance are exceedingly rapid. The bees not infrequently come to the hives, nottonly with replete pollen-baskets, but with their whole under surface thoroughly dusted. Dissection will also show that the same bee may have her sucking stomach distended with honey. Thus the bees make the most of their opportunities. It isa curious fact, noticed even by Aristotle, that the bees, during any trip, gather only a single kind of pollen, or only gather from one species of bloom. Hence, while different bees may have different colors of pollen, the pellets of bee-bread on any single bee will be uniform in color throughout. It is 112 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. possible that the material is more easily collected and com- pacted when homogeneous. The pollen is usually deposited in the small or worker cells, and is unloaded by a scraping motion of the posterior legs, the pollen baskets being first lowered into the cells. The bee thus freed, leaves the wheat-like masses thus deposited to be packed by other bees. The cells, which may or may not have the same color of pollen throughout, are never filled quite to the top, and not infrequently the same cell may contain both pollen and honey. Such a condition is easily ascertained by — holding the comb between the eye andthe sun. If there is no pollen it will be wholly translucent ; otherwise there will be opaque patches. A little experience will make this determi- nation easy, even if the comb is old. It is often stated that queenless colonies gather 3x0 pollen, but this is not true, though very likely they gather less than they otherwise would. It is probable that pollen, at least when honey is added, con- tains all the essential elements of animal food. It certainly contains the very important principle, which is not found in honey—nitrogenous material. The function of bee-bread is to help furnish the brood with proper food. In fact, brood-rearing would be impossible without it. And though it is certainly not essential to the nourishment of the bees when in repose, it still may be so, and unquestionably is, in time of active labor. PROPOLIS. This substance, also ealled bee-glue, is collected as the bees collect pollen, and not made nor secreted. It is the product of various resinous buds, and may be seen to glisten on the opening buds of the hickory and horse-chestnut, where it frequently serves the entomologist by capturing small insects. From such sources, from the oozing gum of various trees, from varnished furniture, and from old propolis about unused hives, that have previously seen service, do the bees secure their glue. Probably the gathering of bees about coffins to collect their glue from the varnish, led to the custom of rap- ping on the hives to inform the bees, in case of a death in the family, that they might join as mourners. This custom still prevails, as I understand, in some parts of the South. MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 113 This substance has great adhesive force, and though soft and pliable when warm, becomes very hard and unyielding when cold. The use of this substance is to cement the combs to their supports, to fill up all rough places inside the hive, to seal up all crevices except the place of exit, which they often con- tract, and even to cover any foreign substance that cannot be removed. Intruding snails have thus been imprisoned inside the hive. Réaumur found a snail thus encased ; Maraldi, a slug similarly entombed ; while I have myself observed a bombus, which had been stripped by the bees of wings, hair, etc., in their vain attempts at removal, also encased in this unique style of a sarcophagus, fashioned by the bees. BIBLIOGRAPHY. For those who wish to pursue these interesting subjects more at length, I would recommend the following authors as specially desirable: Kirby and Spence, Introduction to En- tomology ; Duncan’s Transformations of Insects; Packard’s Guide to the Study of Insects (American) ; F. Huber’s New Observations on the Natural History of Bees ; Bevan on the Honey Bee; Langstroth on the Honey Bee (American) ; Neighbour on The Apiary. I have often been asked to recommend such treatises, and I heartily commend all of the above. The first and fourth are now out of print, but can be had by leaving orders at second-hand book-stores, ve Fi J a yy t ’ \ / Gre i : 4 ay tf; a Dae is anh \ ited The Bs F tu p ‘ ' - / F rie toes i ae Ty § oad r= ee a aa ane uh : ya por et > | wt Pe ter fl ~ (ae i Ae ae By fir efcsy¥ ‘ % ‘ ty oP) : ae , Os ‘ 7” } 5 rs tL © i C a) : Tee!) j S J et ‘ Bas) le 7 =~) < \ is "4 if mh i ; eee t i = , ~ ) 1 & . * " 1 ma , By tos Tele am } eels Tie, Me RUE ch alee wathary tah ‘ae Th: fans eisds Hane he ee: ' ade Ahern wiedit, Ly oh LETTS: ehraliieiant Eye al eg HEE Bee ASS “aes hes Vick ab his pedis Eee PV Caeeert yet ay FAIRS oes pe a3 27 at s i Rood IRR ~ ub = M Pan v '¢ aL : 1 Ole & th hs ee i Bae ly ie mit iid ay yi ; : hx et heey ee Man 0 bE Oe rity Rp 2A ah EEA j Ss Lyre ifs ut iJ eet ae err Be re tok nie ¥ Ls Lechige rea cee dart wita a Mi yates oy Phyo Bey erp ieee are’ Vy * , babe iacl iene RON 'k nye: it ysiek, Jenal eu ae wieogt adhe bartontiact be iepeatian anaes ia) it a Li A) Ll Cast Ae a ie ie a? iilieeeytat: dea) neccearey Med Sea eee nectar ATE held: beta AS ay loge fe 4 is wey tt: e; Lee ve ate Pree they fi), do, 24 mages? ee iy oe tet cen eelecd PD : : coals ae é (a aoawe Shin ny Sh ed a one eS aes , 4 eh: ; ~ ta 1 beg ie Ni i Peake ta ; cs : . mot EARS Gage is "9 ve seapran hid Hie: mh eae l ae diy tiple dopa a * a. 4 7 ' ; tee “7 —! me a ' / \ ha : aK PART SHCON DD. => be oRick PelvAoRVY: Irs CARE AND MANAGEMENT. SS Motto :—“Keep all Colonies Strong!” : ad eee il oy 2), { ~ a = th a 1 . i ifs ’ ite A . i ie c— re At ~ F t . < ; i : 4 oe rigs Cm at CreOovure : to) l= lei ie Ve 1 fy ‘ ee a | we j “ i te te CAM OABBIE,

. SS a ee IN IE = (SIE convenient in the ends of the hives, and can be cut in an instant by having the circular-saw set to wabble. With handles the crate is more convenient, and is more sure to be set on its bottom. The crate should also be glassed, as the sight of the comb will say: “Handle with care.” Mr. Heddon also makes a larger crate (Fig. 72), which is neat and cheap. Muth’s crate is like Heddon’s, only smaller. It is well, too, to wrap the sections in paper, as thus break- age of one will not mean general ruin. However, this would be unnecessary in case the sections were of veneer and glassed, as before described. | aa} = = MANUAL OF THE APIARY. yA LY G In groceries, where the apiarist keeps honey for sale, it: will pay him to furnish his own boxes. These should be made of white-wood, very neat, and glassed in front to show the honey, and the cover so fixed that unglassed sections— and these, probably, will soon become the most popular— cannot be punched or fingered. Be sure, too, that the label, Pre. 72. eens) 1 iis Dy Sey Wn | | WH } _S= with kind of honey, grade, and name of apiarist, be so plain that “he who runs may read.” Comb-honey that is to be kept in the cool weather of autumn, or the cold of winter, must be kept in warm rooms, or the comb will break from the section when handled. By keeping it quite warm for some days previous to shipment, it may be sent to market even in winter, but must be handled very carefully, and must make a quick transit. Above all, let “taste and neatness” ever be your motto. 212 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. CHAPTER XVI. HONEY PLANTS. As bees do not make honey, but only gather it, and as honey is mainly derived from certain flowers, it of course follows that the apiarist’s success will depend largely upon the abundance of honey-secreting plants in the vicinity of his apiary. True it is that certain bark and plant lice secrete a kind of liquid sweet—honey of doubtful reputation—which, in the dearth of anything better, the bees seem glad to appropriate. I have thus seen the bees thick about a large bark-louse which attacks the tulip tree, and thus often destroys one of our best honey trees. This is an undescribed species of the genus Lecaniwm. I have also seen them thick about . three species of plant lice. One, the Pemphigus imbrica- tor, Fitch, works on the beech tree. Its abdomen is thickly covered with long wool, and it makes a comical show as it wags this up and down upon the least disturbance. The leaves of trees attacked by this louse, as also those beneath the trees, are fairly gummed with a sweetish substance. I have found that the bees avoid this substance, except at times of extreme drouth and long protracted absence of honeyed bloom. It was the source of no inconsiderable stores during the terribly parched autumn of Chicago’s great disaster. Another species of Pemphiqus gives rise to certain soli- tary plum-like galls, which appear on the upper surface of the red elm. These galls are hollow, witha thin skin, and within the hollows are the lice, which secrete an abundant sweet that often attracts the bees to a feast of fat things, as the gall is torn apart, or cracks open, so that the sweet exudes. This sweet is anything but disagreeable, and may not be unwhole- some to the bees. Another aphis, of a black hue, works on the branches of our MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 219 willows, which they often entirely cover, and thus greatly dam- age another tree valuable for both honey and pollen. Were it not that they seldom are so numerous two years in succession, they would certainly banish from among us one of our most ornamental and valuable honey-producing trees. These are fairly thronged in September and October, and not unfre- quently in spring and summer if the lice are abundant, by bees, wasps, ants, and various two-winged flies, all eager to lap up the oozing sweets. This louse is doubtless the Lachnus dentatus, of Le Baron, and the Aphis salicti, of Harris. Bees also get, in some regions, a sort of honey-dew, which enables them to add to their stores with surprising rapidity. I remember one morning while riding on horse- back along the Sacramento river, in California, I broke off a willow twig beside the road when, to my surprise, I found it was fairly decked with drops of honey. Upon further examination I found the willow foliage was abun- dantly sprinkled by these delicious drops. These shrubs were undisturbed by insects, nor were they under trees. Here then was areal case of honey-dew, which must have been distilled through the night by the leaves. I never saw any such phenomenon in Michigan, yet others have. Dr. A. H. Atkins, an accurate and conscientious observer, has noted this honey-dew more than once here in Central Michigan. Bees also get some honey from oozing sap, some of question- able repute from about cider mills, some from grapes and other fruit which have been crushed, or eaten and torn by wasps and other insects. That bees ever tear the grapes is a question of which I have failed to receive any personal proof, though for years I have been carefully seeking it. I have lived among the vineyards of California, and have often watched bees about vines in Michigan, but never saw bees tear open the grapes. I have laid crushed grapes in the apiary, when the bees were not gathering, and were ravenous for stores, which, when covered with sipping bees, were replaced with sound grape-clusters, which in no instance were mutilated. I have thus been led to doubt if bees ever attack sound grapes, though quick to improve the opportunities which the oriole’s beak and the stronger jaws of wasps offer them. Still, Prof. Riley feels sure that bees are sometimes 220 MANUAL OF THE APIARY. thus guilty, and Mr. Bidwell tells me he has frequently seen bees rend sound grapes, which they did with their feet. Yet, if this is the case, it 1s certainly of rare occurrence, and is more than compensated by the great aid which the bees afford the fruit-grower in the great work of cross-fertili- zation, which is imperatively necessary to his success, as has been so well shown by Dr. Asa Gray and Mr. Chas. Darwin. It is true that cross-fertilization of the flowers, which can only be accomplished by insects, and early im the season by the honey-bee, is often, if not always necessary to a full yield of fruit and vegetables. I am informed by Prof. W. W. Tracy, that the gardeners in the vicinity of Boston keep bees that they may perform this duty. Even then, if Mr. Bidwell and Prof. Riley are right, and the bee does, rarely—for surely this is very rare, if ever—destroy grapes, still they are, beyond any possible question, invaluable aids to the pomologist. But the principal source of honey is still from the flowers. WHAT ARE THE VALUABLE HONEY PLANTS ? In the northeastern part of our country the chief reliance for May is the fruit-blossoms, willows, and sugar maples. In June white clover yields largely of the most attractive honey, both as to appearance and flavor. In July the incomparable basswood makes both bees and apiarist jubilant. In August buckwheat offers a tribute, which we welcome, though it be dark and pungent in flavor, while with us in Michigan, August and September give us a profusion of bloom which yields to no other in the richness of its capacity to secrete honey, and is not cut off till the autumn frosts—usually about September 15. Thousands of acres of golden rod, boneset, asters, and other autumn flowers of our new northern counties, as yet have blushed unseen, with fragrance wasted. This unoceu- pied territory, unsurpassed in its capability for fruit production, covered with grand forests of maple and basswood, and spread with the richest of autumn bloom, offers opportunities to the practical apiarist rarely equaled except in the Pacific States, and not even there, when other privileges are considered. In these localities, two or three hundred pounds to the colony is no surprise to the apiarist, while even four or five hundred are not isolated cases. MANUAL OF THE APIARY. 221 In the following table will be found a list of valuable honey plants. Those in the first column are annual, biennial or perennial ; the annual being enclosed in a parenthesis thus: (); the biennial enclosed in brackets thus: [ | ; while those in the second column are shrubs or trees; the names of shrubs being enclosed in a parenthesis. The date of commence- nent of bloom is, of course, not invariable. ‘The one appended, in case of plants which grow in our State, is about average for Central Michigan. Those plants whose names appear in small capitals yield very superior honey. Those with (a) are useful for other purposes than honey secretion. All but those with a * are native or very common in Michigan. Those written in the plural refer to more than one species. Those followed by a f are very numerous in species. Of course I have not named all, as that would include some hundreds which have been observed at the college, taking nearly all of the two great orders Compositze and Rosacez. I have only aimed to give the most important, omitting many foreign plants of notoriety, as I have had no personal knowledge of them: DATE. TATU Gets cc oh alte. © April and May. May and June.) May and June. May and June. June to July... June toJuly... JunetoJuly... JunetoJuly... June to July... JunetoJuly... June to August June to August June to frost... June to frost... June to frost... June to frost... June to frost. June to frost... June to frost... see eee ewer aee July to August. July to August. July to August. July to frost.... July to frost.... July to frost.... PATI EHISD: «cai s'6 sis ASUS 8.185% ss August to frost August to frost! August to frost August to frost August to frost August to frost Annuals or Perennials. /Dandelion. Strawberry.(a) *W hite Sage, California *Sumace, California. *CoffeeBerry,California WHITE CLOVER.(a) ALSIKE CLOVER.(a@) *|SWEET CLOVER. | *Horehound. [W eed. \Ox-eyed Daisy — Bad Bush Honeysuckle. i*Sage, Mother-wort. *(Borage.) *(Cotton.) (a) Silk or Milk Weeds. (Mustard)t ..|*(Rape.) (a) St. John’s Wort. (MIGNONETTE.) (a) (Corn.) (a) *(Teasel.) (a) *Catnip.(a) | Asparagus.(a) *(Rocky M’t.Bee Plant) Boneset. Bergamot. Figwort, (Buckwheat.) (a) (Snap-dragon.) (GOLDEN ROD.)t Asters.t |/Marsh Sun-F lowers. |Tick-Seed. |'Beggar-Ticks. Spanish Needles. DATE. March and Ap’] March and Ap’] March and Ap’! March and Ap’1 Apriland May. Apriland May. Wea Vee Sisters: o.oo, eaters May and June.. May and June.. May and June.. May and June..) | Wild-Plum. June i ewww ween eee wee wee wne stew ene ee ee to July ...| Ce od une June Jul ...|(Hawthorns.) a Shrubs or Trees. ‘Red or Soft Maple.(a) |Poplar or Aspen. \Silver Maple. *Judas Tree. ' (Willows)t also Trees. *Judas Tree—South. (Shad-bush.) ...|(Alder.) .|Maples-Sugar Maple(a@) Crab Apple. ( Fruit Trees— Apple, Plum, Cherry, Pear, etc.(a) ( (Currant and Goose- ?_berry.)(a) *(WistariaVine- South) 5 (Chinese Wistaria Vine—South.) (Barberry.) |(Grape-vine.) (a) Tulip-tree. (Sumac.) (Black Raspberry.) (a) Locusts. (RED RASPBERRY.) (a) (Blackberry.) *Sourwood—South. (Button Bush.) BASSWOOD,(a) (Virginia Creeper.) (a) July to August. | July to Sept....| PANO Tone earciso