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FOREST POLICY IN. Ni alte

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SiR WM. SCHLICH, KOLE,

LIBRARY
FACULTY OF FORESTRY
UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO

Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2010 with funding from
University of Toronto

http://www.archive.org/details/manualofforestry01 sch

A
MANUAL OF FORESTRY.

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YATEHEO Wo. ee

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SCHLICH’S

MANUAL OF FORESTRY

VOLUME I.

FOREST POLICY

IN THE

BRITISH EMPIRE,

BY

SLAY WM. SCHLICH> kKcrs.
F.R.S., F.L.S., PH.D., M.A. Oxon.,

LATE INSPECTOR-GENERAL OF FORESTS TO THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA,
AND LATE PROFESSOR OF FORESTRY, UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD.

FOURTH EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED.

LIBRARY |
FACULTY OF FORESTRY z\ we
UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO ay

LONDON :
BRADBURY, AGNEW, & CO. LD., 10, BOUVERIE STREET.
1922.

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PREFACE.

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Tue third edition of Volume [. of my “ Manual of Forestry ”
contained an exposition of the General Foundations of Forest
Policy, and a short account of the state of forest conservancy in
the greater part of the British Empire. That account was, I
believe, the first attempt of the kind, but it was incomplete owing
to the difficulty of obtaming reliable information on many points.
In July, 1920, the Imperial Forest Conference received thirty-four
Statements from the different parts of the Empire containing a
flood of new information, of which I have made full use in this
fourth edition. The original statements cover 517 foolscap pages
of close print, of which my friend, Mr. R. L. Robinson, the
Technical Forestry Commissioner, has prepared an excellent
summary and attached it to the Proceedings of the Empire Forest
Conference. In this volume I have taken a middle course by
recording all essential facts given in the Statements and omitting
matter of less importance to the general reader. I have added,
as regards each country, my personal views on the steps to be
taken in the immediate future.

I hope that I have succeeded in giving a readable account of
the condition of forest conservancy in the Empire as it stood in
July, 1920. At any rate, the contents of the book may serve as a
basis by which future progress may be judged.

I had intended to illustrate the book fully, but I had to abandon
that project owing to the high cost of production at the present
time. Nor have I added the conventional Index, which, in a book
of this kind, would have been of doubtful utility. On the other
hand, I have given a detailed Table of Contents, which should
enable the reader to find without difficulty the desired subject.

It should be mentioned that, in the case of those parts of the

vi PREFACE.

Empire with which I am not personally acquainted, the names of
the trees have been given as recorded by the local authorities.

I desire to express my special thanks to my eldest daughter,
as well as to my wife, for the assistance they have rendered to me
in passing this book through the Press.

W. ScHLIc#.

OXFORD,

April 24th, 1922.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

——

INTRODUCTION

PART I—THE FOUNDATION OF FOREST POLICY

CHAPTER I.—THE UTILITY OF FORESTS
SECTION I—THE DIRECT UTILITY OF FORESTS.

he

Mason PRODUCE.

2. Minor PRODUCE .
SECTION II.—THE INDIRECT UTILITY OF FORESTS

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EFFECT OF FORESTS ON TEMPERATURE .
Errect oF Forests oN MOISTURE

. MEcHANICAL Errect oF ForRESTS :
. INFLUENCE UPON HYGIENE, ASSTHETICS AND

Eraics

SECTION IJI.—SUMMARY OF CONCLUSIONS.

CHAPTER II—THE FACTORS OF FOREST

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PRODUCTION .

NATURAL FORCES :

THE CAPITAL OF FORESTRY .

LABOUR IN FORESTRY . ,
EFFECT OF THE FACTORS OF Teen eae
ForEsTRY AND AGRICULTURE COMPARED

CHAPTER III—THE STATE IN RELATION

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TO FORESTRY

. DUTIES OF THE STATE Gaon

Strate Forests : F
ForESsTs OF COMMUNES AND OTHER Gameiiel:
TIONS ;

Private Forests

PRotTecTION FoRESTS

Forest PoLicy oF THE STATE

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Vill TABLE OF CONTENTS.

PAGE
PART II. FORESTRY IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE 45
A.—_ GENERAL SUMMARY 5 ‘ 45
HistoricaL, 46; AREA OF THE ThiemwaTe: 48:
OwneERSHIP, 48; Types oF Forest, 49; oe
LATIONSHIP OF THE STATE TO Forestry, 50;
THe Forest Autuority, 50; Forestry Epuca-
TION, 51; ResEarcH, 52; INCREMENT AND
UtinizaTion, 52; Exports AND Imports, 54;
INCOME AND EXPENDITURE, 54; SUMMARY AND
OutLook, 55; THe British Emprre ForRESTRY
CONFERENCE, 56.
B.—FORESTRY IN GREAT BRITAIN AND
IRELAND : F 60
SECTION I.—CONFIGURATION, SOIL AND CLIMATE . eal
SECTION IlL—THE FORESTS AND THEIR PRODUCE . 63
Main Types oF Forest, 63; AREA OF
Forests, 65; OwnersHIP, 66; INCREMENT OF
THE Forests, 67; Imports AND EXPORTS OF
TIMBER, 67; SOURCES OF IMPORTED TIMBER, 68 ;
Imports OF OTHER PRopuCcE, 70; Forest IN-
DUSTRIES, 71; AcTIvITy OF CORPORATIONS AND
PRIVATE PROPRIETORS, 72; SOCIETIES, 73;
EpucAaTION AND RESEARCH, 74; IMPORTANCE
oF ForEestry To THE Nation, 78.

SECTION II—THE FORESTRY SUB-COMMITTEE OF
1916—1917 : ‘ : : 5 ; : 81

InTRopucToRY, 81; War EXPERIENCE, 83;
ADEQUATE Forest Poticy, 84; REPLACEMENT
oF ImporTED BY Homer-GROowN TIMBER, 86;
FuturE Forest Pouicy, 88; METHODS OF
AFFORESTATION, 92; REPLANTING CLEARED
AREAS, 95; AFFORESTATION AND EMPLOYMENT,
96; Foop Suppry, 97; Promotion oF SILVI-
CULTURE, 98; PuBLic BurRDENS, 100; RatLway
Rates, 101 ; Tiweer Inpustry, 101 ; WoopLanpD
Inpustrigs, 102; Frvancran Aspect, 103; THE
Forest Funp, 108; THe Forrest AUTHORITY,
108 ; Summary OF PROPOSALS, 109.
SECTION IV.—THE FORESTRY ACT, 1919, AND AFTER. 111

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

C.—FORESTRY IN BRITISH INDIA ° .

SECTION I.—SHORT DESCRIPTION OF THE COUNTRY

CONFIGURATION AND DratnaGeE, 115; GEOLOGY
AND So1zs, 118; Ciimars, 119.

SECTION II.—THE FORESTS OF INDIA
Types oF Forest, 126; AREA AND OWNERSHIP,
130; Important Propucts, 131; ANNUAL
INCREMENT, 134; Exports AND Imports, 135;
Home CoNsuMPTION OF TIMBER, 135.

SECTION IIl.—IMPORTANCE OF THE FORESTS TO THE
NATION ; : . 3 , :
CLIMATE, 137; REGULATION oF MoistuRE, 137;
TRRIGATION, 138; MercHanicaL AcTION, 139;
REQUIREMENT OF Propuwce, 141.

SECTION IV.—DEVELOPMENT OF FOREST CONSERVANCY
HistoricaL, 142; Lercaisuation, 144; Forest
Pouticy DEFINED, 145; ORGANISATION, ADMINIS-
TRATION AND STAFF, 146; RECRUITMENT AND
EpucatTion, 148.

SECTION V.—PROGRESS OF FOREST ADMINISTRATION .
PERMANENT STATE Forests, 150; Forest Sur-
vEY, 152; Worxine Puans, 153; MertTHops oF
TREATMENT, 155; Sowrna AND PLANTING, 158 ;
AFFORESTATION OF NEw AREAS, 159; PROTECTION
AGAINST Fire, 160; Grazina AND Grass, 161;
ComMMUNICATIONS, 161; DisposaAL oF PRODUCE,
163; Ovt-TuRN, 164; Exports AnD Imports,
166; FrinancraL Resutts, 167; Researcu, 168.

SECTION VI.—FUTURE DEVELOPMENT OF FOREST CON-
SERVANCY

D.—FORESTRY IN CANADA

SECTION I.—SHORT DESCRIPTION OF THE COUNTRY
ConFIGURATION, 174; GEOLOGY AND SoIzs, 176 ;
Cimmate, 177.

ix

PAGE

114
114

126

136

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

PAGE

SECTION II.—THE FORESTS OF CANADA . . a aS
AREA AND OWNERSHIP, 178; TypEs oF FOREST,
180; Propucts, 181; THe STATE AND THE
Forests, 185; Private Activities, 191 ; Incrs-
MENT AND UTILIzATION, 192; ExPoRTS AND

Imeorts, 193; Forest [npustrriss, 193.
SECTION IIlL—SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK . : . 193
E.—FORESTRY IN NEWFOUNDLAND . . 28s

GENERAL Notes, 195; Tue Forests, 196; THe
STATE AND THE Forests, 197; INCREMENT AND
UritizaTion, 199; Exports anD Imports, 200;
SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK, 200.

F.—FORESTRY IN THE UNION OF SOUTH
AFRICA . : ‘ : : : . 202

SECTION I—SHORT DESCRIPTION OF THE COUNTRY . 202

TopoGRAPHy, 203; GroLoGy AND Soin, 204:
CLIMATE, 205.

SECTION I.—THE FORESTS . ; é 4 . 206
Argas, 206; Typrs, 206; Propucs, 208; THE
STATE AND THE Forests, 209 ; Private ACTIVITY,

212; INCREMENT AND UTILIZATION, 213; Exports
AND Imports, 214; Inpustrigs, 215; SumMMARY
AND OUTLOOK, 215.

G.—FORESTRY IN THE COMMONWEALTH
OF AUSTRALIA ; : : , « 2

SECTION I—THE COMMONWEALTH GENERALLY . ee
TopoGRAPHy, 218; Ciimate, 219; AGRICULTURE
AND INDUSTRIES, 221 ; THE Forests, 222; AREA
oF Forests, 223; THr STaTE AND THE FORESTS,
223; INCOME AND EXPENDITURE, 226; EXPorRTsS
AND Imports, 227.

SECTICN IL—FORESTRY IN THE AUSTRALIAN STATES. 228
QUEENSLAND, 228; New Souta WALES, 232;
VicroriA, 238; SourH AUSTRALIA, 244; WESTERN
AUSTRALIA, 247.

TABLE OF CONTENTS. xl

PAGE

H.—FORESTRY IN THE DOMINION OF NEW
ZEALAND ; : ‘ : A -. 25D
SECTION I—SHORT ACCOUNT OF NEW ZEALAND PATS,
SECTION Il—THE FORESTS OF NEW ZEALAND . . 260

AREAS, 260; Types, 261; THE STaTeE AND THE

Forests, 262.

SECTION IIl—SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK . : . 264

THE CROWN COLONIES AND PROTEC.
TORATES . . ' ‘ p . 266

Cyprus, 266; Cryton, 269; THe Matay STATES,
278; Kenya Cotony, 286; Ucanpa, 293;
NYASALAND, 296; Swazitanp, 299; SouTHERN
Raopesia, 300; Nicer, 306; THe Gop
Coast Cotony, 316; (Gamera, 319; SrerRa
Leong, 320); Trrntpap AND Tosaqo, 321; THE
Banamas, 326; British Honpuras, 328 :
Britis Guiana, 331; OTHER BRITISH POSSE¢-
SIONS, 389 (Jamaica, Bermupa, WINDWARD AND
LrEwarp Istanps, THE SEYCHELLES, Hone Kone,
WEIBAIWEI, THE SUDAN).

FOREST POLM§CY.

INTRODUCTION.

Most people know what a forest is, but a definition of it, which
suits all cases, is by no means easy to give. Manwood, in his
treatise on “‘ The Lawes of the Forest,” 1598, defines it as
follows :—

“A forest is a certain territory of woody grounds, fruitful
pastures, privileged for wild beasts and fowls of forest chase,
and warren, to nest and abide in, in the safe protection
of the King, for his princely delight and pleasure, which
territory of ground, so privileged, is meered and bounded
with unremovable marks, meers and boundaries, either
known by matter of record, or else by prescription.”

This shows that in Britain a forest was formerly an area set aside
for the Royal chase. In modern times, when the economic
aspects of forests came into the foreground, that definition gave
way to others. In the early part of the nineteenth century,
forest was defined as an area which contained wild growing trees.
This definition is not correct, as many of the existing forests were
artificially created. Another definition, given about the same
time, defined a forest as “‘an area which has been set aside
principally for the production of wood, and which, at any rate for
the greater part, is covered with trees.” Many areas are, however,
classed as forest which do not contain trees, while others, such as
avenues and hedgerows, bear trees and produce wood, although
they cannot be classed as forests.

Owing to the difficulty of drawing up a definition which suits
all cases, the Indian Legislature, when preparing a Forest Act for
India, provided merely that “the Government may declare
certain lands to be forest and as such be subject to the provisions

of the Indian Forest Law.”
VOL. I. B

2 FOREST POLICY.

Manwood’s definition referred to what may be called ‘‘ Primeval
Forest,” whereas more modern definitions refer to ‘‘ Economic
Forests.” The former are the result of the action of natural
forces only ; the latter are produced, for the greater part, by
man’s interference with those forces.

By “ Forestry ” is understood the human action directed to the
production and utilization of forest produce. It is based upon
the yield of the land and forms, therefore, part of agriculture in its
widest sense. Forestry, as now understood, was developed by
degrees in the course of time. The greater part of the dry land
of the earth was at one time covered with forest, which consisted
of a variety of trees and shrubs grouped according to the climate,
soil and configuration of the various localities. When the old
trees reached their limit of life they disappeared, and others took
their place. The conditions for an uninterrupted regeneration of
the forests were favourable, and the result was continuous produc-
tion. Then man came and interfered by degrees, until in the
more advanced countries of the earth the area of the forest was
seriously reduced. Moreover, the creative power of the soil in the
remaining forest lands had become more or less impaired. Steps
had then to be taken to arrest a further reduction of the forest
area, artificial sowing and planting had to be done and the creative
power of the land restored, a task which forestry had to undertake.

As long as the forests occupied a considerable part of the area,
their produce was considered the free gift of nature, like air and
water ; man took it, used it, and even destroyed it without let
or hindrance. Thus, Forest Utilization is the oldest branch of
forestry.

With the gradual increase of population, more land was
required for the production of food for man and domestic animals,
and this was taken from the forest area. Reckless cutting and
burning consumed more forest, and a time came when it appeared
doubtful whether the natural woodlands could continue to yield
the required produce for any length of time. This caused
proprietary ideas to develop ; people claimed the ownership of
forest lands, proceeded to protect them against outsiders, and thus
developed that branch of forestry which is called Forest Protection.
Gradually the protection designed against man was extended to
measures which had for their object the preservation of forests

INTRODUCTION. 3

against injurious attacks by animals, especially insects, noxious
plants, in particular fungi, natural phenomena and other agencies.

By degrees it was found that mere protection was not sufficient,
that steps must be taken to enforce a more efficient treatment and
to limit the extraction of produce to what the forest was capable
of producing ; in other words, to determine the annual or periodic
production, and to regulate the yield accordingly. Thus the
branch which deals with the Preparation of Forest Working Plans
sprang into existence.

Something more was, however, required. With the increasing
demand it became evident that the ordinary natural regeneration
could not keep pace with the rate at which the mature trees were
removed. It became necessary to assist regeneration by artificial
means, either by arranging the cuttings so as to favour and assist
natural regeneration, or by sowing and planting. Moreover, the
young trees required special tending so as to produce the most
useful description of produce. In this way a fourth branch of
forestry was developed called Silviculture.

As time went by, forests rose in value ; they became articles of

exchange or sale, and it was found necessary to devise a system
of readily ascertaining their value. This produced another

branch called Forest Valuation or Forest Finance.

Originally the protection which the owner of the forest could
give to it was sufficient to guard it against mischief and inter-
ference. This proved no longer sufficient, and the owner appealed
to the State for help. It was also found that certain forest lands
were of special importance to the community as a whole, either on
account of their produce, or for climatic reasons, or on account of
the protection which they afforded to the soil of the forest and to
adjoining lands. To regulate these matters, the State had to pass
laws which are known as Forest Laws and Regulations.

With the development of Political Economy it was asked
whether, and to what extent, forests need be maintained in a

country, whether the State, as such, should hold the forests or

whether their maintenance might be left to private enterprise.

‘Thus, a further branch called Forest Policy, was created. It deals

with the social and economic aspect of forestry, and considers
especially the duties which the State has to perform as regards

forests, so that they may, in the highest possible degree and the
B2

4 FOREST POLICY.

most economic manner, meet the demands which are made on
them in the interests of the community as a whole. The task of
Forest Policy is of considerable extent, being practically a sum-
mary of conclusions based on the experience gained in the exercise
of the several branches of the forestry business. It may, for the
present purpose, be divided into the following two parts :—

Part I.—The Foundations of Forest Policy, dealing with the
utility of forests, the factors of production, and the State in
relation to forestry.

Part JJ.—Forestry in the British Empire, showing the
manner in which the different parts of the Empire have
shaped their forest policy in the past.

(Go)

PARE Wd:
THE FOUNDATION OF FOREST POLICY.

CHAPTER I.—THE UTILITY OF FORESTS.

Forests are, in the economy of man and of nature, of direct and
indirect utility, the former through their produce, and the latter
through the influence which they exercise upon climate, the
regulation of moisture, the stability of the soil, and their sanitary,
ethic and esthetic effect upon man.

The utility of forests may be considered from the point of view
of the owner or from that of the State. The private owner
considers chiefly the benefits which he personally derives from the
forests ; the State considers also the effects which they have upon
the welfare of the people and the country asa whole. Hence, the
former is chiefly concerned with the direct effects, and the State
with both the direct and indirect effects.

SECTION I.-THE DIRECT UTILITY OF FORESTS.

It is divided into Major or Principal produce, comprising wood,
and Minor or Secondary produce, comprising all other items.

1. Magyor PRODUCE.

The yield in wood is obtained from periodic thinnings, or inter-
mediate cuttings, and from the final cuttings at the age of maturity.
The strength of the thinnings and the time of their execution are
the most important matters with which the forester has to deal.
If they are made too light, the remaining trees will not receive that
growing space which is best for their future development ; if they
are too heavy, the final returns are likely to be seriously reduced
in quantity and quality, while the soil is exposed to deterioration
through exposure. At the same time, the yield from thinnings
favourably influences the financial results of forestry, provided

6 THE UTILITY OF FORESTS.

that any gain thus obtained is not neutralised by a deficiency in
the final returns. or even more than neutralised. To make the
thinnings of the right strength and at the right time is the best
proof of the forester’s skill.

The yield in wood is generally divided into timber and firewood,
or fuel. Formerly the production of firewood was of great
importance, and is still so in countries deficient in coal or other
substitutes and in means of transport. In the more favoured
countries the object now is to encourage the greatest possible
production of timber, firewood being of small value compared with
that of timber. Whether, and to what extent, the demand for
wood fuel may increase again in the future, when its substitutes
begin to diminish, it is impossible to predict. Under any circum-
stances, the production of timber is always accompanied by that
of a certain amount of firewood.

The proportion between timber and firewood depends on
species, rotation and market conditions. The greatest possible
outturn of the former has a great influence on the financial success
of forestry. In the case of conifers, the percentage of timber can
be brought up to 90 per cent., but broad-leaved species rarely
give more than 50 per cent. With advancing age, the percentage
of timber increases as a rule. Good means of transport make it
profitable to export classes of timber which would, in their
absence, be converted into fuel. The same holds good as regards
the distance between the forest and the market. The conditions
of trade and of industrial development generally also influence the
percentage of the lower classes of timber which can be disposed of.
The more flourishing they are, the higher is that percentage.
Generally speaking, the cultivation of species which naturally
give a high percentage of timber has for some time been
favoured, while that of other species has been reduced ; this, and
their rapidity of growth, explains the extended cultivation of
conifers.

The great increase in the percentage of timber is further due to
the fact that new industries have sprung up using wood which
formerly was used as fuel, such as the manufacture of wood pulp
for paper. Beech, formerly the staple firewood, is now used for
furniture, floors, packing cases, pavements, heels of ladies’ boots
and railway sleepers.

MINOR PRODUCE. 7

2. Mrnor PRODUCE.

Apart from wood, forests yield a great variety of produce, such
as bark, especially for tanning, turpentine, rosin, rubber, gutta-
percha, catechu, numerous other dyestuffs, gums, pitch, tar, oils
of various kinds, vegetable fibres, lac, honey, wax, bamboos, canes,
leaves, flowers, fruits, seeds, grass, moss, peat, stones, various
valuable earths, game, and other items.

In Europe the value of minor produce is sometimes estimated
at a low rate, hence the name of minor produce ; but even there
some of the items, such as grass, grazing, leaves and litter, are of
considerable importance to agriculture, especially in the poorer
districts. In many other parts of the world the minor produce is
frequently of much greater value than the wood produced in the
forests.

Many of the minor products can be obtained without seriously
interfering with the production of wood, but in the case of some
this is not the case. Of the latter, the removal of litter is probably
the most important. Forest soil of poor and even middling
quality cannot stand the removal of litter except perhaps once
every 6 to 10 years, as the annual removal would exhaust the
nourishing substances and deprive it of the protection against
injurious atmospheric influences. The result would be a great
reduction in the production of wood, if not complete sterility.

Forest grazing is of importance in most parts of the world, and
its value is frequently very considerable, whether paid for or given
free. If properly regulated, so that areas under regeneration
and young woods are properly protected, its effect upon the
production of wood is small, but if such protection is not given,
great damage and even the destruction of whole woods may be
the consequence.

The damage due to the utilization of turpentine differs much
according to species and the age of the trees when tapped. Any
damage resulting from it should at least be made good by the sale
of the turpentine and rosin.

The lopping of trees for fodder is decidedly injurious ; except
in years of scarcity, it should not be permitted.

To illustrate the relative importance of forest products, an
abstract is given of the value of imports into the United Kingdom
in 1913, the last complete year of returns before the war :—

8 THE UTILITY OF FORESTS.

Import oF Forest PRODUCE INTO THE UNITED K1nGpom IN 1913.

Value.
Timber : £

Unmanufactured ‘ : ; . 33,789,000
Manufactured : : : . (3;583;000
Wood Pulp. ; ; : é . 4,618,000

Total Wood , : ; . 41,990,000

Other Forest Produce :

Caoutchouc ; : . 3 . 14,000,000
Gutta-percha.. : : ; : 500,000
Cork . : : : : : . 1,075,000
Dye-stuffs . , : : : 600,000
Mirobolans ; : ; ; . 1,500,000
Bark for Tanning : : 253,000
Gums of various kinds : ; . 1,900,000
Oil of Turpentine . ‘ : 900,000
Rosin. : ; 2 : . : 800,000
Galls . : ; : : 4 ; 80,000
Pitch and Tar . : : : : 140,000
Vegetable Fibres . : : 800,000
Oils and Fats of various eee : . 4,900,000
Valonia d : : : , 165,000

Total other produce . ; . 27,613,000

Grand Total of all produce . . 69,603,000

It will be observed that the value of imported timber and pulp
wood amounted to 42 million pounds sterling, and that of other
produce to 27 millions, making a total of 69 millions.

The value of timber used in Europe before the war amounted
to more than £200,000,000 annually, and it is more than double
that sum now. The quantity of timber consumed in various
countries differs very much. Before the war, the annual con-
sumption per head of population amounted in France to 7 cubic
feet, in Belgium to 12, in the United Kingdom to 14, and in
Germany to 18 cubic feet. On the whole it may be said that in
western and central Europe the consumption of timber depends
on the degree of industrial development.

INDIRECT UTILITY. 9

SECTION II.—THE INDIRECT UTILITY OF FORESTS.

A piece of land bare of vegetation throughout the year is
exposed to the full effects of the sun and air currents and the
climatic conditions which are produced by these agencies. If, on
the other hand, a piece of land is covered by a growth of plants,
and especially by a full crop of trees, it enjoys the benefit of certain
agencies which modify the effect of sun and wind on the soil and
the adjoining layer of air. These agencies are the following :—

(1) The crowns of a full crop of trees provide a dense roof at a
certain distance from the ground which intercepts the rays of the
sun and the falling rain, obstructs the movement of air currents
and reduces radiation of heat during the night.

(2) The leaves, flowers and fruits, augmented by certain plants
which grow in the shade of trees, form a layer of organic matter
or humus, which protects the soil against changes of temperature
and greatly influences the movement of water and air in it.

(3) The roots of the trees penetrate into the soil in all directions
and bind together a loose soil or loosen a too firm soil.

The effects of these agencies have been observed and recorded
from time immemorial. In all such cases, however, other agencies
were also at work at the same time, and the observations were not
always sufficiently accurate and direct to decide in how far the
produced effect was due to those other causes. The effect of
forests is modified by many matters, such as geographical position,
elevation, aspect, gradient, general configuration of the locality,
the nature of soil and subsoil, the extent of the wooded area and,
last but not least, the composition and density of the forest.
Hence, it is difficult to apportion correctly the effect of the
different agencies. The consequence was exaggerated confidence
and belief on the part of some observers and doubt and unbelief
on the part of others. This led in modern times to the commence-
ment of accurate observations, first by Becquerel in France, and
Noerdlinger and Krutzch in Germany. A thoroughly practical
and conclusive method was, however, not introduced until the
year 1867, when Mathieu in France and Ebermayer in Germany
started so-called parallel or double stations, one being situated
inside a fully stocked forest and the other at some distance from
its boundary in the adjoining open country, all other conditions,
such as soil, elevation, etc., being as near as possible the same in

10 THE UTILITY OF FORESTS.

both cases. Mathieu started three double stations near Nancy,
and Ebermayer seven in various parts of Bavaria. Soon after-
wards Switzerland followed with similar stations in the Canton
Bern, also Austria, Italy, several other German States, Sweden,
Russia and others. The result has been a rich crop of observations.
Although many questions await a final solution, much has been

learned which will be indicated in the following pages. In order
to concentrate the data, they will be given according to seasons
as :—

Spring comprising March, April and May.

Summer 5 June, July and August.

Autumn 5 September, October and November.

Winter Me December, January and February.

1. Errect oF ForRESTS ON TEMPERATURE.

(a) The Temperature of the Air —Observations have shown that
forests near the 50th degree of northern latitude slightly reduce
the mean annual temperature of the air, on an average by about
1 degree Fahr. as compared with the temperature on open land,
the measurements being taken at 5 feet from the ground in both
cases. The difference is less in the crowns of the trees ; it is more
in mountainous districts than in the plains. Evergreen forests
with a dense leaf canopy have the greatest effect, while deciduous
thin-crowned woods exercise little effect. Small as the decrease
is, it has, as will be shown further on, a decided effect upon
evaporation and the preservation of moisture.

Of more importance is the difference during the four seasons of
the year. It amounts in spring to 1-24 degrees, in summer to
2:54, in autumn to 1:13 and in winter to 0-61 degrees. The
observations further show that the mimimum temperature at
night and the maximum during the day showed the following

increases, -+, and decreases, —, as compared with those on open
ground :—
Minimum Maximum Range of
at night. in day. difference.
Spring . . +081 o — 3:87 a 4-68
Summer . +315 oe — 7:42 i 10-57
Autumn . + 2-59 as — 4-00 by 6°59
Winter . . +0-°95 5 — 1-96 ey 2°91

Mean of year. +- 1-87 ne — 3-9] 1 5:78

EFFECT OF FORESTS ON TEMPERATURE. 11

The temperature in forests is higher during the night and lower
during the day than on open ground, the differences being most
pronounced during summer. Hence, forests tend to moderate the
extremes of heat and cold. The effect depends, however, much
on the geographical position, the extent to which the localities are
exposed to, or protected against, air currents, and on the species.
Fully stocked beech woods have, during summer, twice as much
effect as spruce or Scots pine woods ; on the other hand, during
January, spruce woods have twice the effect of beech woods, due
to the dense foliage of beech during summer and its leafless
condition during winter.

The reduction of temperature in the interior of forests is
communicated to the surrounding country, owing to the con-
tinuous interchange of air between the two. To ascertain the
extent to which this takes place, a system of so-called radial
stations has been established, that is to say, a series of points of
observation commencing in the centre of a considerable block of
forest and extending at regular intervals into the open country
surrounding the forest. In this way it has been ascertained that
the effect of forests on the temperature of the air in the open
country diminishes rapidly with the distance. If, however, the
percentage of forest in a district is very high, the effect may be
greater. On this point Dr. Woeikof, late Director of the Meteoro-
logical Institute of Petrograd, published some years ago data
giving the mean temperature for several series of places, each
series being situated as nearly as possible on the same degree of
latitude, reduced to the same latitude and altitude above sea level.
In this way he obtained the following figures for July and the
50th degree northern latitude :—

Guernsey. ; : . 59-5 degrees Fahr.
Brussels : ; , . 62°6 3
Wuerzburg . ‘ ; . 68-0 i
Promenhof . : F . 644 S
Prague : : ; . 68-0 5
Hochwald (Moravia) £6527 eS
Troppau : . ; . 68-0 ,
Arvavaralji (Hungary) . . 64:2 Kg

Lemberg ; j y Tenoo x

2 THE UTILITY OF FORESTS.

Kiew . : : . 66-2 degrees Fahr.
Charkow : . 681 is
Szemipalatinsk : , 122 5

Although there is a steady rise of temperature along this line,
reductions occur at Promenhof, Hochwald and Arvavaralji.
These three are situated close to extensive forests. The late
Mr. Blanford, while Meteorological Reporter to the Government of
India, drew a similar line across the gangetic plains into Assam,
Sylhet and Cachar, which gave data pointing to similar results.
They are interesting, but should be received with some caution,
as it is very difficult to assess the effect of other causes, such as
exposure to air currents and the presence of sheets of water.

(b) The Temperature of the Soil follows that of the air overlying
it. The following is an abstract of observations made near the
50th degree northern latitude :—

DIFFERENCES OF MEAN TEMPERATURE OF SOIL BETWEEN FOREST
AND OPEN GROUND IN DEGRRES FABR.

On the 1 foot 2 feet 3 feet 4 feet

| surface. below. | below. below. below.
Spring . . | —4-45| —3-33 | —3-17 | —2-84 | —243
Summer . | —6-99 | —6-71 | —6-80 | —6-84 | —6-64
Autumn . | —2-29 | —2-41 | —3-02 | —3-29 | —3-64
Winter . . | —0-20 | —0-41 | —0-01 | —0-00 | —0-29
Mean of year . | —4:14 | —3-02 | —3-24 | —3-20 | —3-17

The mean annual temperature of forest soil is decidedly lower
than that of soil in the open ; in summer by nearly 7 degrees, and
very little in winter, while spring and autumn hold intermediate
positions. The difference for the whole year is greatest near the
surface, but about the same at one foot below and beyond. It
decreases in spring from the surface downwards, while it increases
in autumn ; it is about the same in summer.

The effect differs considerably according to species. It has
been found in Switzerland that the reduction produced by spruce
woods amounts to 4-81, that by beech to 3°01, and that by larch

EFFECT OF FORESTS ON MOISTURE. 13.

to 2-21 degrees. It has also been found that frost penetrates less
deep into forest soil than into soil in the open.

(c) The Temperature of Trees——A point of interest is that the
temperature of living trees differs from that of the surrounding air.
It is lower by about 2 degrees near the foot of the tree, and by
about 14 degrees in the crown, the actual amount depending on
the species.

The data given as regards temperature seem to justify the
following conclusions :—

(1) The climate of forest countries is more equable than that

of open countries.

(2) The mean temperature of air and soil in forest countries is

lower than that in open countries.

(3) Vegetation awakens later in spring in well stocked forests.

than in the open country.

(4) Plants growing under the shelter of a forest crop are less.

lable to suffer from late and early frosts, or from drought,
than those growing in the open.

2. Errect oF ForESTS ON MOISTURE.

Air can hold only a certain maximum quantity of vapour,
which varies with the temperature. When the maximum has.
been reached and more vapour is introduced, a part becomes.
condensed. The absolute vapour in the air is measured by its:
tension upon a column of mercury, as in a barometer. The
proportion of the absolute to the maximum tension of vapour, at
a certain temperature and pressure, is called the relative humidity
of the air. Although the humidity of the air depends in the first
place on the general distribution of heat and air pressure over
the earth, the vegetation on it also affects it locally. That
effect may be felt in the degree of humidity of the air, the amount
of precipitation, the degree of evaporation, and in the feeding of
springs and rivers.

(a) Humidity of the Air.—The observations so far available show
that forests have little or no effect upon the absolute humidity of
the air; at any rate the effect is negligible. It is different with
the relative humidity. As the temperature of forest air is lower
than that of air in the open while the absolute humidity remains
the same, it follows that the relative humidity of forest: air must

14 THE UTILITY OF FORESTS.

be greater than that of air in the open, more especially in summer.
Observations show, near the 50th degree of northern latitude, that
the increase in per cent. may amount to 5-70 in spring, 9-28 in
summer, 5:22 in autumn and 5-24 in winter, with an annual
average of 6-36. There is, however, a decided difference according
to altitude; the effect is smaller in low lands and greater in
mountains. Further differences have been recorded according to
species. Beech acts most powerfully in summer and firs in
winter, while the action of pines is considerably smaller. This
action of forests explains why dry air currents passing through
woodlands become relatively moist, so that precipitations may
take place, if not of actual rain, of dew.

(b) Precipitations, or Rainfall—The question whether, and in
how far, forests affect the rainfall has been actively discussed for
years past. That forests can affect precipitations follows from
the facts that their temperature is somewhat lower and their air
relatively moister, while the trees mechanically obstruct the
movement of air currents; but, on the other hand, the rainfall
depends chiefly on other much more powerful agencies, in com-
parison with which the effect of forests is small. Numerous
observations have been made, but those which seem to indicate
a decided effect of forests on the rainfall are in many cases of
doubtful value. The great difficulty is to separate the effect of
forests from other influences. More particularly, elevation above
sea level affects the rainfall most powerfully, as air cools on rising,
causing increased precipitations, whether there are forests or not.
For instance, the observations made at the Prussian stations show
an increase of the rainfall in forests as compared with that on open
land between the sea and 328 feet elevation of 1-25 per cent.,
between 328 and 656 feet 14-2 per cent., between 1,969 and
2,297 feet 19 per cent., and between 2,297 and 2,625 feet 46 per
cent. It is impossible to accept these effects as being produced
by the presence of forests alone. All they seem to show is that at
low elevations forests have very little effect upon the rainfall, if
any at all, but that their influence becomes considerable with
elevation in mountainous districts.

The results of 33 years’ observations made at the Nancy stations
show an increase of rainfall in the forest equal to 23 per cent. over
that in the open ground. Objection may, however, be taken to

EFFECT OF FORESTS ON MOISTURE. 15

these results, because the two stations are not placed at the same
elevation, and they are too far apart with the town of Nancy to
some extent between them.

Other evidence is available of which the following may be
mentioned :—

(1) Ebermayer’s observations in Bavaria, started in 1867 and
carried out with great care, do not justify any final con-
clusion as to an increase of the rainfall due to the action of
forests. He states that in the plains the effect of forests
is certainly very small, but that it increases with elevation.

(2) Extensive observations made in Sweden, on 400 stations
during a period of 15 years, show that the difference
between parts of the country with 56 per cent. of the land
under forest and those with only 17 per cent. under forest
is certainly not more than 3 per cent. increase in favour
of the former.

(3) The Government of India has during late years investigated
the subject, and the results obtained do not justify any
direct conclusions beyond the fact that, if forests influence
the rainfall at all, the effect is insignificant.

To sum up it may be said that various physical factors act
towards rendering forests condensers of vapour; this faculty is
more evident in elevated positions than in low lands and in the
vicinity of the sea, where it is swamped by other more powerful
agencies. Certainty about these phenomena can be obtained only
through further extensive observations.

In connection with this subject it should be mentioned that a
forest crop prevents a portion of the rainfall from reaching the
ground, because it is intercepted by the crowns of the trees. Light
showers may be altogether intercepted, and the water may
evaporate before any part of it reaches the ground. In the case
of heavy showers or continued rain, a considerable part of the
intercepted water will run down the branches and stem. Accord-
ing to observations, the average loss has been estimated at about
+ of the total rainfall, though the actual amount depends on the
total rainfall and the species of trees.

The question whether forests reduce the formation of hail has
been much discussed. Investigations show that the effect is very
small, if it exists at all.

16 THE UTILITY OF FORESTS.

(c) Evaporation from the Soul—Owing to the lower temperature,
the greater humidity of the air, and the quieter state of the
atmosphere, evaporation is considerably smaller in forests than
in the open. This has been conclusively proved by direct obser-
vations which have shown that it amounts to a reduction inside
forests of as much as 60 per cent. of the amount of evaporation on
open ground. In this respect the covering of the soil is of great
importance. Ebermayer’s observations show that if :—

Evaporation of water in the open is placed

at : 3 ; : : - 100 parts.
Evaporation from forest soil, without leaf

mould is , ; y ; 5 ae
Evaporation from forest soil with a full

layer of leaf mould, is. ; 2s

In other words, forest soil covered with a good layer of humus
evaporates less than } of the water evaporated from soil in the open.

(d) Summary—The above data are general averages. The
actual figures for a special locality depend on a variety of condi-
tions such as species, the density of stocking, the temperature and
other climatic factors. On the whole, there can be no doubt that
forests preserve humidity to a considerable extent. On the other
hand, a forest crop consumes a considerable amount of water
through the action of the leaves. What that quantity is, has not
been definitely determined, nor how it compares with that
required by field crops. HEbermayer estimated that a well stocked
beech wood consumes a rainfall of as much as 14 inches. Coni-
ferous woods, especially those stocked with pines, require much
smaller quantities, while he estimated that required by a crop of
clover at 5 inches. In connection with these data it may be
mentioned that in India successful cultivation of forests is not
possible with a rainfall of less than 15 inches, even with little
exacting species. The consumption of water by forest crops
causes the soil in the region of the roots to be drier than below it.

Attempts have been made to draw a balance between the water-
preserving and water-consuming capacity of forest crops. As far
as the available data permit any conclusion, it may be said that,
in the plains, forests probably consume more water than they
add to the rainfall, or even preserve by reducing evaporation.
With elevation in the hills, the reverse may be the case. Hence,

MECHANICAL EFFECT OF FORESTS. 17

mountain forests have, from time immemorial, been looked upon
as the great preservers of moisture.

3. MECHANICAL EFFECT OF FORESTS.

The mechanical effect of forests makes itself felt chiefly with
regard to the distribution of the rain water, the preservation of
the soil on sloping ground, the binding of shifting sand, the
prevention of avalanches, the moderation of air currents and the
aeration of the soil and subsoil.

(a) Feeding of Springs and Rwwers——Most of the rain-water
falling on a bare slope rushes down into the nearest watercourse
in a comparatively short time, thus causing a rapid rise in the
level of streams. Only a comparatively small portion sinks into
the soil and becomes available for the feeding of springs. Of the
rain falling over a forest, close on one-fourth is intercepted by the
crowns of the trees, and the other # fall upon a layer of humus
which possesses a great capacity of absorbing water and of
retaining it for a time. It has been shown, for instance, that
mosses of the genus Hypnum, which grow under the shelter of
conifers, can absorb up to five times their own weight of water,
and peat mosses of the genus Sphagnum up to seven times, while
the leaf mould found in a middle-aged well-preserved beech wood
can absorb and retain for a time a considerable quantity of water.
Some of that water evaporates from the soil covering, but the
greater part penetrates into the soil ; some of it is taken up by the
roots, and the balance becomes available for the feeding of springs.
In this manner well-preserved forests have a decided effect upon
the sustained flow of springs.

The interesting point is to determine the proportion of the
annual rainfall which actually reaches the under-ground water
level. The problem is very complicated, as its solution depends
on a great variety of factors, such as the amount of rainfall and
its distribution over the different seasons of the year. It should
also be remembered that about one-fourth of the rain is inter-
cepted by the leaf canopy, and in the case of a light shower every
drop of it may evaporate and never reach the ground. In this
respect the species of tree causes great differences. Of the
ordinary Kuropean trees the firs retain more water than the pines

or the deciduous broad-leaved species. On the whole, the view
VOL. I. 0

18 THE UTILITY OF FORESTS.

has been expressed that on level ground less water reaches the
underground water reservoirs in forests than in open ground.
In so far, forests would act unfavourably as regards the feeding
of springs. On hilly ground, however, a smaller proportion of
the rainfall rushes straight away into the water channels in forests,
giving the rest time to infiltrate into the soil. Observations
made in the Russian Steppes and in Northern Russia indicate
that the water level was lower in forests than outside. Similar
results were obtained in France. On the other hand, observations
made in Bavaria, Alsace and Switzerland have shown that no
general rule can be laid down on the subject. Asa matter of fact,
the underground water level depends chiefly on the nature of the
‘geological formation, that is to say, on its permeability. The
configuration of the ground also causes great differences.

The above considerations govern also the water level in rivers,
in so far as forests retain a large portion of the falling rain, if not
permanently, at any rate for some time, thus enabling rivers to
spread the discharge of their water over a longer period of time,
resulting in a reduction of the flood level.

When the forest humus has been saturated with water, and rain
continues, its effect as regards inundations must cease, because
the additional water follows the law of gravitation and finds its
way into the valleys. Hence, these effects are of limited extent,
a matter which has been frequently overlooked. To moderate
inundations to any appreciable extent, it is necessary to keep a
very large proportion of the catchment area under forest. On the
other hand, well-stocked catchment areas produce a steady flow
of water during the dryer part of the year, and thus keep up a
higher level in rivers at these seasons for the supply of water for
irrigation and other purposes.

(b) Protection of the Soiul.—Water rushing down a bare hillside
possesses a great mechanical power, by means of which it loosens
the soil and carries it downhill. In this way landslips are
{frequently caused, ravines formed, and fertile lands at the foot
of the ravines covered with silt and rendered useless. Frequently
the debris collects in the rivers and forms obstructions, which are
followed by a diversion of the bed and erosion of fertile lands.
The rate at which this damage proceeds depends on the geological
formation and the formation of the surface ; the less binding the

MECHANICAL EFFECT OF FORESTS. 19

soil and the looser the formation, the greater will be the damage.
If, on the other hand, such a slope is covered with a well-preserved
forest, the roots of the trees and the layer of humus keep together
and protect the soil against the action of water; besides, the
crowns intercept and retain, at any rate for a time, a considerable
portion of the water. On the whole, a series of obstacles are
opposed to the movement of the water, which reduce its velocity
and force it into numerous small channels, thus dividing it. The
beneficial effect of tree vegetation in this respect can be observed
in most mountain ranges, as in the Alps from France to Austria.
Wherever in these parts extensive deforestation has taken place
the consequence has been the gradual formation of a series of
torrents in all places where the surface did not consist of hard
rock ; the debris brought down has covered more and more land
at the base of the torrents, and this evil had grown to such an
extent that efforts have been made to re-afforest the denuded
areas at a great outlay. In such cases, afforestation had to be
preceded by the construction of dams, dykes, walls, etc., to steady
the surface, to enable the new forest growth to establish itself
and once more to lay hold of the surface soil.

The importance of maintaining a complete cover of vegetation
in all such cases was recognised centuries ago, so that already in
the Middle Ages so-called “ Protection Forests ”’ existed, which
the then existing laws protected against devastation.

Forests protect the soil also in low lands, wherever it consists
of shifting or moving sand, along the sea shore as well as inland.
The action in this case is due, partly to moderating the force of
air currents, and partly by keeping the soil together through the
action of the roots, by the formation of humus and the retention
of moisture. Along the sea-coast frequently artificial dunes have
to be constructed before afforestation can be attempted. In this
way the Landes of France have been converted from a dreary
waste into extensive forests, fields and vineyards.

(c) Protection against Avalanches.—Although most avalanches
in the higher mountains originate above the upper limits of tree
growth, there are many cases where the presence of a well-
preserved forest protects towns and villages lying below, by
preventing the formation of avalanches, or by stopping their

forward movement while they are still small. When they
02

20 THE UTILITY OF FORESTS.

have reached some size, however, even forests will not stop
them.

(d) Protection against Air Currents —Forests break or moderate
the force of air currents and in this way afford protection to lands
lying beyond them against cold or dry winds. They also afford
shelter to cattle, game and useful birds. Their importance in this
respect should not be overlooked. The presence of birds, the
great enemies of injurious insects, depends often on that of wood-
lands, though in this respect hedgerow trees are equally, or even
more, effective.

(e) Aeration of the Soul.—This is a large subject which cannot be
dealt with in this place; but it should be mentioned that the
action of the root system of trees takes part in enabling air and
water to penetrate into the soil, more particularly in the case of
binding soils and subsoils.

4. INFLUENCE UPON HyGIENE, AUSTHETICS AND ETHICS.

Forests, as part of the vegetation of the earth, take their share
in keeping a proper balance of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere ;
they dissect it, keeping the carbon and setting free oxygen ; the
process is reversed when wood is burnt or decays.

Observations appear to show that forest air, like sea air, is much
richer in ozone than air in the open country and especially in
towns. Ebermayer, who made extensive observations, found
up to five times as much ozone in the forest as in the manu-
facturing town of Zwickau. He found the greatest difference
during winter, which seems to show that the presence of ozone
does not depend on the action of the leaves. French investi-
gators have further ascertained that the number of bacteria in
forest air is only a fraction of that found in Paris air.

Based on observations of these kinds it has been asserted that
forests have a considerable influence in counteracting disease.
Instances are not wanting where forests are said to have given
protection against the germs of malaria, but there are others in
which they are believed to have had the opposite effect. However
that may be, the author is inclined to think that any beneficial
effect of forest air is chiefly due to the absence of smoke, dust and
injurious gasses and, above all, to the greater tranquillity of the
human mind, free from worry while in rural parts of the country.

INFLUENCE UPON HYGIENE, “STHETICS AND ETHICS. 21

The esthetic and ethic effect of forest life and scenery should
not be overlooked. The ever-increasing growth of towns and of
industries demand periodic changes from such centres to more
invigorating conditions. They have been found in continental
countries in forest-clad districts, while in the British islands visits
to the seaside have been the more general rule. The latter are
often practicable only for the wealthier classes ; for the poorer
classes forests situated within a short distance from the towns are
of real importance. They can be reached in a short time and at
small expense, and experience has proved that such visits have a
most beneficial effect upon the working classes. Visitors to Paris
have, no doubt, seen masses of working men, with their wives and
children, stream into the Bois de Boulogne with their luncheon
or tea baskets. In the same way, the people of Brussels go to the
Bois de la Cambre and the adjoming Forét de Soignes. The
importance of Epping Forest to the East End of London is well
known. We are now in a period in which the welfare of the
working classes is a prominent item of politics ; and part of it is
to make their life more enjoyable than it has frequently been in
the past. The Forestry Commissioners entrusted with the
realisation of the new afforestation scheme should not overlook
this matter, but see that woodlands are provided in the vicinity
of large towns, whenever land can be secured on reasonable
conditions. Municipalities and county councils should give active
assistance in this direction. Such woodlands will not only serve
as recreation grounds for the people, but their produce will find
a ready sale at good prices, so that their establishment under
rational treatment need not be a financial burden.

SECTION III—SUMMARY OF CONCLUSIONS.

The various ways in which forests exercise an influence in
the economy of man and of nature may be summarised as
follows :—

(1) Forests supply timber, fuel and a variety of other produce.

(2) They offer a convenient opportunity for the investment of

capital and the profitable utilization of inferior land.

(3) They produce a demand for labour in their management and

working, as well as ina variety of industries which depend
on them for raw materials. (See next Chapter.)

22 THE UTILITY OF FORESTS.

(4) They reduce the temperature of the air and soil and render
the climate more equable.

(5) They increase the relative humidity of the air, reduce
evaporation and maintain a more continuous degree of
moisture in the soil.

(6) They tend to increase precipitation of moisture.

(7) They assist in regulating the water supply, produce a more
sustained feeding of springs, reduce violent floods and
render the flow of water in rivers more continuous.

(8) They assist in preventing erosion, landslips, avalanches,
the silting up of rivers and low lands, arrest shifting sands,
consolidate too loose soils and assist the aeration of too
firm soils.

(9) They reduce the velocity of air currents, protect adjoming
fields against cold or dry winds, and afford shelter to
cattle, game and birds.

(10) They increase the artistic beauty of a country, may, under
certain conditions, increase its healthiness, and at any
rate have a beneficial effect upon the human mind.

(11) Forests render considerable assistance in the defence of a
country.

CHAPTER II.—THE FACTORS OF FOREST
PRODUCTION.

In forestry, as well as in the cultivation of field crops, the
factors of production may be arranged under three heads :
Natural Forces, Capital and Labour.

1. NaturRAL ForCEs.

They are represented by :—
(a) The chemical and physical properties of the soil; and
(6) The climate, which depends on the geographical position
and the local conditions governing the intensity of the
sun’s rays, and the condition of the atmosphere
generally,
The summary of these forces is in forestry called the “ locality.”

NATURAL FORCES. 23

The extent to which they exercise their effect determines the
“yield capacity ” or “ quality ” of the locality.

(a) The Action of the Soil—While the carbon required by trees
is principally taken from the atmosphere, the soil provides the
mineral substances and the water required for the formation of
wood. These are of the same kind as those required by field
crops, the most important being potash, lime, magnesia, and
phosphoric acid. As regards quantity, it has been proved that
an average forest crop requires only about one-half (54 per cent.)
of that necessary for an average field crop. The greater part
(46 per cent.) of the mineral substances is deposited in the
leaves, and, if these are allowed to decay in the forest, their
mineral substances are returned to the soil, so that only about
8 per cent. are removed with the wood. Consequently, exhaus-
tion of the soil is much slower if used for forestry than for the
production of field crops; on the contrary, an improvement of
the yield capacity may take place under careful forest manage-
ment without artificial manuring.

Whether, and to what extent, the nourishing substances in the
soil become available for the production of wood, depends on the
physical properties of the soil, such as its degree of density, the
extent to which heat and moisture are retained, and its depth.
The latter is essential for the development of a sufficient root
system, and it improves the physical properties generally. On
the degree of density depends a proper aeration of the soil and
the retention of moisture and heat. In this respect, the presence
of a suitable layer of humus is of great importance ; it loosens a
too firm soil and binds a too loose soil, in either case improving
the fertility.

(b) The Action of the Climate-—The productive action of the
chemical and physical properties of the soil is possible only if the
climatic conditions correspond with the requirements of the
species of trees which it is proposed to grow. In addition to a
sufficient rainfall, a certain minimum of heat is necessary, both
as regards the average temperature of the year and that of the
growing season. The degree of heat also influences atmospheric
precipitations.

The temperature of a locality is determined by the geogra-
phical position, the elevation above sea level and other local

24 THE FACTORS OF FOREST PRODUCTION.

conditions, such as exposure to, or protection against, cold or
strong air currents, the aspect and slope of the locality. Generally,
trees do best in the centre of their natural distribution, which
may be called their “ optimum.” Towards the limits of the dis-
tribution area, whether it is approached by increasing latitude or
rising in the hills, growth decreases until it ceases. Even too high
a temperature, though it may stimulate production, is not
favourable in the long run.

2. THe CAPITAL OF FORESTRY.

The capital of forestry consists of : (1) permanent works, such
as buildings, means of transport, as permanent roads, forest
railways, timber slides, wire tramways ; (2) the soil; and (3) the
growing stock. The part mentioned under (1) represents in some
cases a considerable capital, but in the majority of cases it is of
comparatively small amount if compared with the value of the
soil and growing stock. The latter two represent the main part
of the forest capital. The soil is called the “ fixed,” and the
growing stock the “ shifting,” or “‘ movable,” capital of forestry.

In the case of a single wood of even, or approximately even,
age, the capital represented by the growing stock is small while
the wood is young, but it increases with advancing age. It
disappears when the wood is cut over, and it is built up again by
the accumulation of successive annual increments produced by a
new crop. When the forest consists of a number of woods and the
management aims at the realisation of a sustained and approxi-
mately equal annual return, the growing stock must consist of a
series of age gradations, or age classes, of which the oldest is cut
annually or within a limited number of years and replaced by new
increment. Hence, there is the same amount of growing stock
permanently in the forest called the “ normal growing stock.”

The proportion between the value of the soil and that of the
normal growing stock depends on the species, the method of
treatment, the length of the rotation and the yield capacity of
the locality. In coppice woods the fixed may be greater than
the movable capital, but in high forest, where the object is to
produce timber of some size, the growing stock is usually of
considerably greater value than that of the soil, and under a
high rotation the proportion between the two may be as much

THE CAPITAL OF FORESTRY. 25

as 10 to 1 and evenmore. If, under such conditions, forests yield
a higher return than, for instance, that from field crops, it depends
on the rate of interest used in the calculation whether the one
or other method of utilising the soil is the more profitable.
Generally speaking, good land yields a higher percentage on the
invested capital under agriculture, and inferior land under
forestry. Although, therefore, forest soil is ordinarily of much
smaller value than agricultural soil, under the system of a sus-
tained annual working the forest capital is frequently of greater
value than that required for agriculture. In any case, the interest
on the capital forms part of the cost of production, and the
forester must make sure that any increase of the permanent
capital is justified by a corresponding increase in the yield.
The deciding element is the length of the rotation. The higher
that is, the greater will be the growing stock for the same area,
and consequently the cost of production. The net income
culminates under a certain rotation, beyond which it diminishes.
Other considerations may justify the adoption of a higher
rotation, such as, for instance, the production of a special class
of produce required for a particular purpose, or the necessity of
keeping a certain stock of timber in the country to safeguard it
in case of an emergency.

The value of the soil or the growing stock can be ascertained
as the cost—expectation—or market value. In the case of the
sustained annual working, the value of the growing stock is
obtained by capitalising the net annual income and deducting
the value of the soil. The details of the calculations are given in
Forest Valuation.

3. LABouR IN FORESTRY.

Forests require labour in a variety of ways, which may be
brought under one of the followimg three headings :—

(1) General administration and management, including forma-

tion, tending and harvesting.

(2) The transport of produce.

(3) Industries which depend on forestry for their raw material.

The quantity of labour required under the first heading depends
chiefly on the intensity of management and the quantity and
value of the produce ; in other words, on the care bestowed upon

26 THE FACTORS OF FOREST PRODUCTION.

the treatment of the woods and the yield capacity of the locality.
In a general way it may be said that in Britain 4 days’ labour
are annually required for every acre of systematically-managed
forest. This would represent about one-tenth of the labour
required per acre of field crops, but about ten times that required
in the case of light grazing on mountain and heathland. Very
little of the labour here under consideration can be replaced by
the use of machinery except in the case of clear felling of areas of
some extent.

The transport of forest produce is a business of considerable
magnitude, as that produce is very bulky. It is carried by water
whenever possible, as that is the cheapest method of transport.
For land transport in the forest and in its vicinity, roads are, under
ordinary conditions, the most suitable means, because by them
not only the material obtained from final cuts, but also that of the
periodic thinnings can profitably be moved. Moreover, roads
serve as divisions between blocks and compartments and as fire
lines ; finally, they are indispensable for communication and the
proper control of operations. In the working of extensive areas
additional means of transport may be indicated, such as railways,
tramways, wire tramways, timber slides, &c. Such establish-
ments will, however, not be financially successful unless large
quantities of produce are carried over them. It has been esti-
mated that the amount of labour required for transport comes to
about half that necessary for administration and management.

In forest industries labour is required to work up the raw
material yielded by the forests. Its amount is at least double
that required in administration, management and transport put
together. It includes labour required in saw-mills, house con-
struction, shipbuilding, carpentry, and in a large variety of other
industries, some of which can exist only in or near forests.

No accurate statistics showing the actual amount of labour
required in various countries under the above three headings are
available, but it may be mentioned that in Germany such labour
is estimated to occupy 12 per cent. of the total population of the
country.

An important point is that a great part of the work is indepen-
dent of the season of the year, and that it can be done when
work in other industries is slack, especially in agriculture.

EFFECT OF THE FACTORS OF PRODUCTION. 27

4, EFFECT OF THE Factors oF PRODUCTION.

Natural forces, capital and labour produce effects according
to the proportion in which they are applied to a locality. Under
the action of natural forces only, the effects are generally of
moderate intensity ; with the addition of capital and labour the
intensity of management increases. Accordingly, a considerable
number of methods of treatment, or silvicultural systems, have
been evolved in the course of time, their intensity increasing in
the proportion of capital and labour being added to natural
forces.

The most primitive form is that represented in primeval
forest, where some trees are cut for utilization, while others die,
are thrown by wind, or killed by fire or disease. The restocking
of clear spaces is left to nature. Gradually man took steps to
regulate the selection of trees to be cut with a view to assisting
and accelerating regeneration by natural means. Thus what is
known to foresters as the regulated “‘ Selection System ”’ came into
existence.

Further changes were introduced with a view to concentrating
the work on one part of the area at a time and to separating the
age classes and establishing them on separate areas, leading to
the system known as the ‘‘ Compartment or Uniform System.”
Subsequently the annual or periodic coupes were further reduced to
strips or to groups, known as the “ Strip and the Group Systems.”
In all these systems regeneration may be by natural or artificial
means, or by the two combined.

A different method is that of ““ Coppice Woods,” where regenera-
tion is effected by shoots which spring from the stools after the
wood has been cut over. The system is applicable only to species
which produce a full crop of stool shoots or root suckers. By
combining the coppice system with seedling forest, a combination
system is produced known as the “Coppice with Standards
System ” (or stored coppice).

The desirability of the several systems depends on local
conditions and the objects which the proprietor has in view.
When small material is required, the coppice system may be
indicated ; where also a limited amount of timber is required,
the coppice with standards system may be adopted; when
the largest possible quantity of high-class timber is wanted, one

28 THE FACTORS OF FOREST PRODUCTION.

of the high forest systems with either natural or artificial regenera-
tion would be the best. Again, a proprietor may be satisfied
with intermittent returns, or he may aim at a sustained annual
yield of approximately the same amount. Accordingly, the
several methods differ much in intensity. The uniform system
of high forest or one of its modifications, aiming at a sustained
annual yield, is generally the most intensive, and it should give
the most favourable financial results. On the other hand, it
requires the greatest capital, more labour, and the most intelligent
management on the part of the forester. To what extent extra
outlay is justified depends chiefly on the yield capacity of the
locality. If its fertility is fairly good, the employment of
increased capital and labour will, as a rule, be justified, but
frequently not so on localities of inferior yield capacity. Outlay
and results must be in due proportion ; in other words, additional
outlay is justified only if it results in an adequate increase of the
return, either in the form of quantity or quality of produce or in
some other form, according to the proprietor’s aims and objects.

The private proprietor will, in the majority of cases, adopt that
method and degree of intensity which gives him the highest net
revenue, or rather the highest interest on the invested capital ;
the State, on the other hand, has frequently to consider the
interests of the community as a whole and to aim at other results
which may reduce the financial net results, such as, for instance,
to keep a certain stock of timber in the forest to meet special
emergencies, or to produce certain indirect effects. Considera-
tions of this class frequently lead to a degree of intensity below
that which is indicated by the yield capacity of the locality. The
difference in the results thereby produced must be accepted as the
loss incurred by the realisation of the special objects.

5. ForEStTRY AND AGRICULTURE COMPARED.

Forestry, being based on the yield capacity of the land, com-
petes with a variety of other industries similarly situated. In
most cases it has to give way for financial and other reasons. The
case which interests the forester specially is that of “ forestry
versus agriculture proper.” Even in that case agriculture
demands first consideration, because it produces food for man
and animals, whereas forests produce chiefly cellulose and acces-

FORESTRY AND AGRICULTURE COMPARED. 29

sory produce. And yet, under certain conditions, forestry may
be more desirable than agriculture. What these conditions are
will be indicated in the following remarks :—

(1) Foodstufis cannot be produced in profitable quantity and
for any length of time without manuring and intense working of
the soil so as to produce and maintain those physical and chemical
conditions which are essential for obtaining a full crop. Field
crops must be cultivated in rotation, because different crops make
different demands on the more important nourishing substances
inthe soil. Trees are far less exacting in this respect, especially as
regards the rarer and more important mineral substances ; more-
over, trees with their deep-going roots possess the faculty of
procuring mineral substances from the subsoil, which would not
be accessible to ordinary field crops. For these reasons forestry
can be successfully carried on without manuring in localities which
are unfit for the cultivation of field crops. As a consequence,
the more fertile lands are allotted to the cultivation of field
crops, and forestry must generally be satisfied with the poorer
classes of soil, the rougher climates, and the slopes in hilly locali-
ties. Only grazing grounds may compete with forestry in such
cases, and it depends on local conditions whether the one or other
is preferable. Only little exacting species of trees can be grown
on mountain and heath lands in Britain to begin with, such as
pines. They can, however, be followed by more exacting species
when the soil has been improved by continued protection and
the accumulation of leaf mould.

(2) In forestry the proprietor has to reckon with long periods
of time, and newly created forests do not yield a return until after
the lapse of a considerable number of years. The length of that
period depends on a variety of conditions, such as the species,
the yield capacity of the locality, and the method of treatment.
In a few cases, as in the culture of willows for basket work, returns
may begin after a year or two, but such cases form a very small
percentage of the whole. In other coppice woods returns may
commence after about 8 or 10 years, and in the case of timber
production thinnings do not commence until after 15 to 30 years,
according to species, the first thinnings being generally of small
value. Final cuttings in timber forests rarely come earlier than
after 40 years, and they may take 100 and more years. In

30 THE FACTORS OF FOREST PRODUCTION.

agriculture, on the other hand, returns are received within a
year or so from starting.

(3) Owing to the delay in returns, the expenses incurred in
starting forests are accumulating with compound interest until
they are recouped by returns, and, as a result, forestry does not
yield a high interest on the invested capital. In a general way
it may be said that agriculture is more remunerative on good land
and forestry on inferior land. The latter may, on financial
grounds, be called “ forest land.” Foresters distinguish between
absolute and relative forest land. By the former is understood
land which is absolutely unfit for profitable cultivation with field
crops or where forest must be maintained for the benefit of the
community as a whole ; relative forest land means land of better
quality which would yield better results under forest than under
field crops. The limit between the two is not easy to determine,
nor is it a fixture, as it may change with altered conditions.

(4) The weather, natural phenomena, animals, fire and other
sources of danger threaten the produce of the land. In the case
of field crops the produce of only one or a few years at a time is
exposed to such danger, but in forests the whole of the growing
stock, that is to say, an accumulation of many years’ produce, is
liable to be affected. On the other hand, a forest crop is, as a rule,
less susceptible to damage than the more tender field crops. The
greatest dangers of a forest crop are those from fire, insects, fungi,
storms, snow and rime. Damage by these agencies can, however,
be kept within narrow limits by careful management.

(5) Timber and fuel are bulky articles which do not bear
transport overland to the same extent as the more valuable
classes of field crops ; hence, forest produce must be grown within
a limited distance from the place of consumption, unless water
carriage is available.

(6) The danger of trenching on capital is much greater in the
case of forestry than in other industries, because the more valuable
part of the capital consists of the growing stock, that is to say,
material of the same class as that of which the legitimate annual
yield consists. An unscrupulous or ignorant forester can consume
a considerable part of the capital in the shape of annual incomes
without detection or even without becoming aware of it ; hence,
the importance of a reliable and competent staff. In this respect,

FORESTRY AND AGRICULTURE COMPARED. ol

it is of great importance that the thinnings are made in the right
way, as too heavy thinnings may disastrously affect the final
returns. As a consequence forests are not always suitable as
security for loans, nor fit objects for leasing.

(7) Forests more than other lands are burdened with rights
and privileges belonging to third parties, such as the right to take
produce from the forest or to use the land for grazing cattle on it.
These rights usually interfere much with the management and
usefulness of the property.

(8) As forest work is to a great extent independent of the
seasons of the year, it can be combined with agricultural work.
In many civilised countries a deficiency of agricultural labourers
has become very pronounced. The deficiency has partly been
made good by the introduction of machinery, but that has not
met the whole case. It is here that forestry can help. The bulk
of forest work can be done between late autumn and early spring,
when work in the fields is at a mimimum. Consequently, a larger
number of agricultural labourers will be available from early
spring to late autumn, if the same men are also employed on
forest work during winter. By developing an arrangement of
this kind on estates both agriculture and forestry would benefit.
The system is of special usefulness in providing healthier condi-
tions in districts like those of the Scotch Crofters. By afforesting
part of the area, work is provided for the crofters during winter,
which will enable them to live more comfortably than if they have
to rely on their small holdings only. It is also useful to small
holdings generally, provided the forests are distributed over the
country in blocks of suitable size. As long as each block is large
enough (say 500 acres and upwards) to make it worth while
putting a man in charge of it, it can profitably be managed for a
sustained yield.

All these points should be considered in allotting the land to
agriculture and to forestry respectively.

32 THE STATE IN RELATION TO FORESTRY.

CHAPTER III.—THE STATE IN RELATION TO
FORESTRY.

1. DuTIES OF THE STATE GENERALLY.

Ir is the duty of the State to make laws which, on the one
hand, afford sufficient latitude to the individual for personal
activity and development, and, on the other hand, prevent his
interference with the activity of his neighbour. In the majority
of cases, the State must also make laws for the purpose of subor-
dinating the interests of the single individual to the joint interest
of the community as a whole, whenever the two clash. The
nature of such laws depends to a considerable extent on the degree
of education, the moral sense and the customs of the people.

The action of the State must frequently also aim at directly
furthering the welfare of the people, by removing obstacles which
obstruct the action of the individual, or by creating institutions
which strengthen his working power. Such cases occur when the
power of the individual is not sufficient to attain objects which are
essential for general development ; when the advantages to be
derived are not sufficient to induce individuals to take up the
task ; when the action of the individual endangers the interests
of the community ; and generally when it is preferable that the
State should guard the interests of the community in cases where
permanent institutions must be made independent of personal
interests, fancies and wishes. In such cases the State alone
affords sufficient guaranties for continuity of action in a given
direction.

From the above remarks it will be seen that there are certain
matters of general interest which are better kept under the care
and management of the State, while others may be left to the free
action of the individual. The limit between the two classes is by
no means easy to draw, nor can it be fixed permanently; it
depends on the degree of civilisation and the character of the
people, the economic condition of the country, and on political
events.

Applying now what has been said to the case of forestry, it
follows that the State must interfere, sometimes limiting and
sometimes furthering, whenever the welfare of the community

DUTIES OF THE STATE GENERALLY. 33

demands it ; beyond that it should not go. The nature and extent
of the measures depend on the special conditions and require-
ments of the country, and especially on the safety and facility of
obtaining a sufficient quantity of forest produce from outside in
all cases where the forests of the country are not of sufficient
extent to provide it. Under any circumstances, every effort
should be made to safeguard the country in the case of an
emergency. Matters differ in various countries in this respect.
In some countries no State control is as yet exercised ; in others
it is restricted to “* protection forests ”’ and to State forests ; in
others it is extended to corporation forests, and in others even to
private forests.

The control of the State over forests, whatever the proprietor-
ship may be, must be regulated by law. In some countries such
laws are incorporated with the general laws; in others special
forest laws have been passed.

2. Strate Forests.

There are few countries in which the State or the Crown does
not own forests. As a rule, such forests were originally at the
disposal of the ruler of the country, but by degrees they became
in most cases the property of the State, forming an important part
of the national property. On reference to the data given on
page 42 it will be seen that the percentage of State forests ranges
from 66:4 per cent. in Russia to 2-4 per cent. in the United King-
dom. In India the whole of the soil was, in Akbar’s time,
considered the property of the Emperor; subsequently large
areas were surrendered to communities and private persons, so
that at present only about 70 per cent. of the existing forest
area belongs to the State.

As the State appears in this respect in a double capacity,
namely, as the power which lays down the general forest policy
of the country and also as the proprietor of part of the forest
area, the question may naturally be asked whether it is desirable
that the State should continue to possess forests in its own
country, or whether the forest industry should be altogether in
the hands of private persons? It has been asserted—

(1) That it is below the dignity of the State if the Government

and private persons compete in the open market.
VOL. I. D

34 THE STATE IN RELATION TO FORESTRY.

(2) That the State cannot manage forests as profitably as
private persons.

(3) That State domains act injuriously, because they interfere
with the development of industries and reduce the
opportunity for paying enterprise on the part of private
persons.

These arguments possess, no doubt, some weight, but much can
be said on the other side. As regards the first argument, a great
change has taken place during recent years: the State is now
called upon to interfere in so many directions with commercial
matters that the addition of forestry cannot make much difference,
if any. As regards the second point, there are many cases to
prove that the State has managed forests as profitably, and even
more so, as private proprietors. With reference to the third
objection, it must be pointed out that the objects of the two
parties differ. In economic forestry the object of the private
proprietor centres generally in the realisation of the greatest
profit ; the State, on the other hand, considers the interests of
the community as a whole. It has to take note of other require-
ments besides pure financial results, such as the production of a
special class of material or the realisation of indirect effects of
forests. Again, forest crops take a long time to mature, and
continuity of action is an essential matter in economic forestry.
This can, in the majority of cases, be secured only by the State ;
it must make sure that a sufficient quantity of produce of the
required kind is provided, and in many cases from the smallest
possible area, so as not to interfere with the production of food
or with the utilisation of land for other important purposes.
Again, forestry can be profitable only if conducted on a fairly
large scale, which requires a large capital, such as is not always
at the disposal of private persons. It is essential for the produc-
tion of a steady, lasting supply, without which no regular market
can be secured. It may also happen that in the case of emergen-
cies, as happened during the late war, the necessary requirements
of timber for the conduct of the war, for construction and indus-
tries, especially for coal mines, are not forthcoming. In such
cases State forests represent a reserve which can be drawn upon.

In summing up, it may be said that, on the one hand, not all

forests need be State property, and, on the other hand, that, in

STATE FORESTS. 3D

the majority of cases, a wise administration will keep in its own
hands a certain percentage of the forests. What that percentage
is depends on the special conditions of each country.

The system of management to be applied to State forests
should be that which secures to the country the greatest possible
advantage, whether it be represented by high financial returns
or by other important considerations. As forests represent
capital, their management should, in the first place, be determined
by financial considerations, but the management thus indicated
should be modified in so far as other considerations may demand.
The financial loss thereby incurred represents the amount to be
paid for the realisation of special objects.

3. FoRESTS OF COMMUNES AND OTHER CORPORATIONS.

By a commune is here understood a group of persons enjoying
the rights of a juristical person. Communes may hold joint
property, of which forests frequently form an important part.

Communal forests have been originated in various ways, such
as purchase, gift, planting of communal lands, or by prescription.
The Indian forest law provides for the allotment of Government
land to communes to form village forests. Corporation forests
have been established by the afforestation of the catchment
areas of water works. Epping Forest was made over by the
State to the City of London.

The returns from such forests benefit the members of the
community, either by the receipts gomg to the communal
exchequer to defray the general expenses of the community,
or the yield in material or cash goes direct to the members of
the community. In the latter case, the right of participation
may be attached to personal membership or to the possession of
land or a house.

In many countries the communal forests amount to a consider-
able portion of the total forest area: in Switzerland to 67 per
cent.; Hungary, 52 per cent.; Italy, 43 per cent.; France,
23 per cent. ; in Germany to 19 per cent. ; and in Austria 18 per
cent. Although communes should have a large measure of liberty
in managing their affairs, in regard to their forest property a
certain amount of supervision on the part of the State is frequently
indispensable for the following reasons :—

D2

36 THE STATE IN RELATION TO FORESTRY.

(1) The personal interests of the members of the commune are
likely to injure the sustained yield of the forests; the
poorer members especially urge more extended utilization
than the forests can stand permanently.

(2) Communes which are in debt or propose special works,
such as the construction of roads or communal buildings,
are inclined to meet their liabilities by overworking the
forests. To meet this difficulty the French law lays
down that 10 per cent. of a communal forest is to be
kept in reserve.

(3) The forests of communes are not always of a sufficient
extent to secure a competent manager for them at a
reasonable outlay.

(4) The maintenance of communal forests tends to consolidate
communal life, especially in small communes such as
villages, which, in many cases, meet all expenses with the
receipts from the forests.

The manner and extent of State control depend on the congtitu-
tion of the commune and on the degree of political education of
its members. In the case of towns, supervision by the State is less
frequently necessary than in the case of rural communes. It is of
importance that supervision should not go beyond what is really
required. It suffices to ensure that the forests shall be managed
economically and their yield capacity not reduced. The State
supervision differs much in different countries. In some cases it
suffices to prohibit devastation, the sale or division of the forests,
their conversion into fields or meadows without previous sanction
in each case. In other cases, the State insists on the forests being
worked in accordance with previously approved working plans.

In various countries the communal forests are managed by
Government forest officers in the same way as State forests.
Where the forests of a commune are not large enough to occupy
a fully competent manager, they are managed together with those
of neighbouring communes, or with State forests. This method
of management has yielded excellent results. It is essential that
in all these cases the communal authorities co-operate with the
manager. The disposal of the yield is, as a rule, left to the com-
mune, and also the appointment of the subordinate staff subject
to the approval of the supervising authority.

PRIVATE FORESTS. oW

Forests belonging to endowment funds, universities, &c., are
in some countries treated as communal and in others as private
forests.

4. Private Forests.

The question whether private forests should be subject to State
supervision, and if so, to what extent, has been much discussed.
It is said that amongst the general duties of the State is included
the obligation of seeing that articles necessary for the welfare of
the people are forthcoming, and that the forests are suitably
distributed over the country. Wood, it is said, is an important
article of consumption which is absolutely necessary. Private
persons, it is argued, cannot estimate the total requirements of
the country, nor arrange the management of the forests accord-
ingly. It is further said that the economic means of private
persons are not sufficient to meet the case, and that such persons
frequently have not the necessary knowledge for conducting a
systematic management. Moreover, the returns of forestry occur
so late that he who sows rarely reaps ; hence, private owners are
inclined to favour their own momentary interests to the disad-
vantage of future generations by over-cutting their forests. The
consequence might be overstocking of the market at one time
and a deficiency at others. All this tends towards the conclusion
that State supervision may be necessary.

The argument on the other side is somewhat on the following
lines: ‘“ There is no reason to consider the forest industry as differ-
ing from other industries ; the best guarantee for a reasonable
management is the prospect of an adequate profit. Should an
owner not be able to realise that, the forests would be sure to pass
into more capable hands. The supply of forest produce would be
regulated by the demand, and prices established accordingly.
The fear of a wood famine is unnecessary, because it would not
come suddenly, so that it could be met in time. [The fallacy of
this argument has been proved by the late war, and similar
emergencies may occur again.| State supervision is mischievous,
because even the State is not always able to determine future
requirements. As a consequence, State interference in this
direction is liable to be harsh and unjust ; it destroys the desire
of private owners to take up forestry. Instead of obstructing
private forestry in this manner, the State should stimulate it by

38 THE STATE IN RELATION TO FORESTRY.

removing all obstacles to it, such as facilitating the construction
of means of communications, providing good laws for the protec-
tion of forest property, the commutation of forest rights, and
advances to planters at rates of interest equal to that at which
Government can borrow money. If that is not successful, the
State should acquire a sufficient area of forest to safeguard the
welfare of the State. At any rate, private forestry should be free
of State interference, whenever the State and communes possess
already a sufficient area for the purpose of guarding against an
emergency.”

In the United Kingdom the area of State forests is very small,
and there are, as yet, few communal and corporation forests,
while there is no interference with private forests except in the
case of settled estates. In the latter case, timber (which means
oak, ash and elm) is under control, so as to prevent present holders
utilizing more than their proper share. The case of the United
Kingdom is exceptional, owing to its favourable position as regards
imports of timber and the available substitutes for firewood,
excepting always sudden emergencies.

In continental countries conditions are less favourable. In
most cases the means of transport are less developed, and the
quantities of substitutes for wood smaller. There, the State is
called upon in many cases to interfere in the interest of the
common welfare. In Prussia, where the State and communal
forests amount to 51 per cent. of the total forest area, private
forests are free from supervision, but in most other German States _
they are under a certain amount of control. They are also under
control in Austria, Hungary, France and Switzerland. They are
partially under control in Italy, Sweden and Denmark. These
remarks do not refer to ‘‘ Protection Forests,’ which will be dealt
with below.

The measures provided for the supervision of private forests
partly tend towards an increase in the quantity and quality of
forest produce, and partly guard against extravagance in the
consumption of such produce. They refer to :—

(1) Prohibition to convert forests into fields or meadows, or to

use them for other purposes, without permission.

(2) Compulsory afforestation of certain lands.

(3) Prohibition of devastating existing forests.

PROTECTION FORESTS. 39

(4) Rules for the management of existing forests.

(5) State management of private forests, if necessary.

(6) Prohibition of dividing or selling private forests.

(7) Regulation for the use of forest produce.

The establishment and maintenance of private forests should be
encouraged ; hence, the measures of control should be reduced to
the smallest possible minimum, and this should be imposed only
when absolutely necessary in the interest of the community as a
whole.

5. Protection Forests.

By Protection Forests in the present sense are understood
forests which must be maintained on account of their influence
upon natural phenomena and their effect upon climate. Such
forests may be the property of the State, communes, other
corporations, or private persons. The law of the country should
provide for their formation if they are required for purposes like
the following :—

(a) The preservation of the soil, especially on hillsides, so as to
prevent erosion, denudation, landslips, the formation of ravines,
the silting up of fertile land at the foot of the hills and the
extension of shifting sands.

(6) Preservation and regulation of the water supply in springs
and rivers, so as to secure an even flow and prevent floods, the
supply of water for irrigation, the reduction of evaporation, and
the prevention of the defilement of the water in catchment areas.

(c) Protection against injurious air currents, such as gales, hot
or cold winds.

(d) For the benefit of the public health.

(e) For the prevention of avalanches.

(f) For the defence of the country.

Protection forests may be made subject to special regulations
as regards the manner of cutting and working generally, the
execution of planting or sowing, the construction of accessory
works, such as dams, weirs, erection of fascines, fixation of shifting
sands, the regulation or prohibition of cattle grazing, the removal
of litter and similar matters.

The procedure followed in declaring protection forests differs
considerably in the various States ; in some, a selection of such
forests has been made, in others they are declared from time to

40 THE STATE IN RELATION TO FORESTRY.

time as necessity arises. Before the State is justified to interfere,
and thus to impose restrictions in the management of the forests,
certain conditions must be fulfilled, such as :-—

(1) The object to be realised must be of public importance.

(2) The advantages to be derived from the restrictions must be

greater than the disadvantages caused thereby.

(3) The realisation of the object must be assured, without any

other cheaper way being available.

(4) Compulsion should be resorted to only if private efforts are

unable to realise the object aimed at.

(5) Owners who are subject to loss or curtailment of rights

should be compensated.

The measures to be taken against threatening dangers differ
much. In some cases it suffices to insist on the maintenance of
existing forests, and to prevent their devastation ; in other cases
the afforestation of bare lands may be necessary. The division of
protection forests should be subject to State sanction. If the
number of proprietors is large, the State should have authority to
undertake the management of the forest. There should also be
power of expropriation, if the desired object cannot be realised in
any other way, but the final decision, whether expropriation is to
be carried out, should rest with the law courts. The compensa-
tion to be given should at least be equal to the market value of the
property ; in some cases a certain percentage over and above such
value is indicated. The compensation may be paid in cash, or
other land may be offered.

6. Forrest Poticy oF THE STATE.

Forestry is an industry based upon the productive power of
the soil, which satisfies certain requirements of a country.
This industry differs from others, and especially from agriculture,
chiefly by the long time required for the maturing of the produce ;
hence, continuity of action extending over a long period of time
is an essential condition of successful forestry. A country
requires a sustained annual supply of forest produce, for which,
in the case of timber, a regular succession of age gradations, or
age classes, is essential, whether they are mixed with each other
or separated on different areas. In the latter case, especially, an
area of some extent is required which is, in the majority of cases,

FOREST POLICY OF THE STATE. 4]

not in the possession of private persons ; hence, the State must
step in and hold some of the land. In some cases, corporations
are able to relieve the State in this respect. Under any circum-
stances, the State must lay down a distinct forest policy so as
to secure adequate future requirements.

The first question for consideration is whether, and to what
extent, the beneficial action of forests is required in the country,
as indicated by its special conditions. As regards the dvrect
efiects, the following considerations are important :—

(1) The quantity of forest produce required in the country, or

for export.

(2) The quantity and quality of substitutes for forest produce
in the country.

(3) The position of the country, its communications with other
countries rich in forests, the control which it exercises
over them, and the safety of future supplies from them.

(4) The density of population and the area required for the
production of food and other requirements.

(5) The price of land and labour, and the return which land
yields under forest as compared with other modes of
utilization.

(6) The area of waste and surplus land available for afforesta-
tion.

(7) The amount of capital available for investment.

A country so situated that the importation of forest produce
is easy and cheap by sea or navigable rivers coming from countries
rich in forests, and which is intersected by railways or other
means of communication, or one which has control over other
countries rich in forests, such as colonies, does not require forests
to the same extent as those with reverse conditions. The same
holds good as regards richness in coal, lignite, peat, or other
substitutes for wood. In such cases, the area of forest can be
reduced to that which suffices to make the country safe in case
of an emergency, The financial aspect also affects the question ;
where the interest derivable from forests is lower than that obtain-
able by using the land for other purposes, capitalists would not
be inclined to invest in forestry. If the population of a country
is very dense, all suitable land may be required for the production
of food, which must always be the first consideration. If, on the

42 THE STATE IN RELATION TO FORESTRY.

other hand, surplus or waste land is available, afforestation will
provide additional work, and may give higher returns from the
land than it did in the past.

As regards the indirect effects, the important points are the
climate and the configuration of the country. A sea-bound
country is, apart from wind breaks, less in want of forests than
an inland country ; a mountaimous country is more in need of
them than low-lying districts on account of their beneficial action
as regards erosion, landslips, avalanches, the carrymg away of
soil, sudden floods, and the sustained feeding of springs.

All these matters must be considered in estimating the area.
and nature of forests required in a country. No general rule can
be laid down in this respect ; the question must be determined in
accordance with the special conditions of each country. To show
the differences actually existing in some European countries, the
subjoined data are given :—

AREA OF FORESTS IN A NUMBER OF COUNTRIES.

Country. poricad of | | total'asa 7 Uaieaeeag eee

population. under wood, State or the Crown.
Sweden. . 9-41 2 47-6 ats 33-2
Norway . ep a 21-0 cee 28-5
Russia in Europe. 4-60 ms 37-0 nis 66-4
Hungary . . 1-40 o 35-0 * 16-0
Austria. > eed -10 oA 33°0 si 7-0
German Empire ._ 0-62 sie 25-9 ie 33-7
France ; np 0:62 = 16-2 0 12-0
Denmark . . 0°25 i 6-3 ae 23-8
Belgium. . 0:20 a Lin a 4-8
Portugal . . 0-16 be 3°5 se 8-0
United Kingdom. 0-07 <n 4:03 .. 2-4

Europe, Average 1-95 “3 31-03

It will be observed that the area of forest per head of population:
varies from 9-41 acres to 0-07 acre, and the percentage of the
total area of the country under forest from 47-6 to 3-5 per cent.
Sweden, Norway and Russia, especially the latter, have as yet
more forest than they require for their own consumption. Hun-
gary and Austria were exporting countries before the war ;

FOREST POLICY OF THE STATE. 43

whether they will be so in future, and to what extent, is uncertain.
All the other countries in the list import timber, headed by the
United Kingdom and closely followed by Germany and Belgium.
The extent of imports depends on the area of forest, the degree of
industrial development of the country, and on its substitutes for
wood.

After a full consideration of all these points, the State authority
should draw up a definite forest policy in accordance with the
special requirements of the country. The forest policy should
be given the force of law by incorporating it in an Act or Ordi-
nance. The details depend on local conditions, but special
attention may be drawn to the following requirements :—

(1) Power should be provided to declare what areas shall be
considered as forests and as such come under the pro-
visions of the forest law.

(2) Power to provide for the establishment of State forests
sufficient to safeguard the country in the case of an
emergency, or to make good any deficiency in the supplies
from corporation and private forests; also to prohibit
the disposal of State forests without the approval of
Government.

(3) Power to determine the extent of rights in forests possessed
by third persons, to regulate the exercise of such rights,
or to commute them if their exercise should prevent a
rational management of the forests.

(4) To prevent the establishment of new rights in areas declared
as forests under the law.

(5) To manage the State forests for a sustained yield, and to
authorise the State forest authority to take over the
management of corporation and private forests, if neces-
sary for the welfare of the country as a whole.

(6) To provide for the efficient protection of the forests and
their produce against fire, theft or other damage by third
persons, and for the punishment of offenders against the
forest law.

(7) To provide for research in questions which have a bearing
upon the best possible management and yield of forests
and their protection against injurious agencies.

(8) To provide instruction in forestry and allied subjects, and

44 THE STATE IN RELATION TO FORESTRY.

to organise a competent staff for carrying out the forest
policy ; also to determine the powers and duties of the
forest staff.

(9) Power to control corporation and private forests in so far
as the welfare of the community demands, and especially
as regards the establishment and management of Protec-
tion forests.

(10) Power to apply the provisions of the forest law to corpora-
tion and private forests, with the object of assisting their
formation and development, wherever desirable.

( 45 )

PARI RE

FORESTRY IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE.

A. GENERAL SUMMARY.

Tue British Empire comprises approximately the following area
and population :—

Area, Population
Square Miles. Total, 1911. Per Square Mile.
In Europe. ; IANS) a 45,878,000 .. 378
In‘Asia’ . = 1 *25068;850° © ..) || 323,359:000' tena P56
In Africa . ee as O02. | .4' 615989;000 =u 13
In America S689, 9110) 4 ox. Ope sOO0ms te 3
In Australasia . 3,190,660 .. 6,198;000" 3 2
Total 3 1339451959" 2. 8440081000)". =. 32

It consists of the United Kingdom, India, the self-governing
Dominions of Canada and Newfoundland, the Union of South
Africa, the Commonwealth of Australia, the Dominion of New
Zealand, and the following Crown Colonies and Protectorates :
In Europe, 2; Asia, 10; Africa, 19; America, 11; and in
Australasia, 3.

In this mighty Empire all sorts of conditions are met with.
All shades of climate are represented, from eternal ice and snow
to the highest tropical heat ; the rainfall ranges from absolute
aridity to over 500 inches a year ; extensive low lands and plains
alternate with mountainous regions rising to the greatest elevation
on the face of the earth. Many parts of the Empire are densely
populated, while others contain few inhabitants, or none at all.
It is evidently impossible to deal with the forest question of such
an Empire in a wholesale fashion ; that question must be studied
and decided for each part of the Empire separately in the light of
local conditions and requirements, but also with due consideration
of the Empire as a whole. To do justice to the task a detailed
knowledge of the conditions in all parts of the Empire is required.

46 FORESTRY IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE.

Until lately such knowledge was available only for some parts,
and very deficient as regards others. Much useful information
has now been collected in connection with the Empire Forestry
Conference held in 1920, and this has been fully utilized in the
following pages.

1. HistToricat.

It is a curious fact that Great Britain, which was the last
European nation to establish a forest department, had forest laws
more than a thousand years ago. No doubt, the forest laws of
William the Conqueror did not deal with the provision of forest
produce. Their object was to secure and develop the King’s chase;
they were harsh and even cruel. Still, the fact remains that
actual State, or Crown, forests existed. With the awakening of
more rational ideas, these laws were gradually ameliorated and
finally abolished. Remnants of the once extensive Crown forests
now remain, such as the Forest of Dean, the New Forest, and some
others, representing 24 per cent. of the forest area existing in these
islands at the present time.

With the reduction of the old Crown forests and the ultimate
abolishment of the cruel forest laws, private forests sprang up,
probably in the first place for the purpose of amenities and the
improvement of the shooting. The economic aspect, however,
developed in the same degree as the forest area diminished, and
already, in the seventeenth century, John Evelyn, in his “ Sylva,”
wrote * “‘ That we had better be without gold than without
timber.” As a result, the area of private forests in the United
Kingdom amounts at the present time to about 3,000,000 acres.
On the other hand, the State remained indifferent on the question
of forestry. In the year 1855 an event occurred in India which
had the greatest effect upon the development of forest conser-
vancy, not only in the British Empire but also outside of it, and
more particularly in the United States of America. Local
attempts at forest conservancy had been made in India ever since
the beginning of the nineteenth century, but with indifferent
results. In the year 1855 Lord Dalhousie, Governor-General of
India, took the matter in hand and appointed a qualified superin-
tendent of the Pegu teak forests. That was the starting point of

* Quoted by Lord Lovat in his address at the Guildhall on the 7th July,
1920.

HISTORICAL. 47

systematic forestry in India, and it developed into the establish-
ment of the Indian Imperial Forest Department in the year 1864.
The existing forests were explored, and those belonging to the
State taken under the control of the Forest Department. A
“ Forest Act’ was passed in 1865 but superseded in 1878 by a
more comprehensive Act which greatly enlarged the functions and
powers of the department. Working on the lines of that Act,
the department proceeded to select suitable areas and to declare
them permanent State forests; up to date, over 100,000 square
miles of reserved State forests have been established. Working
plans have been, or are being, prepared for them based on the
principle of a sustained yield; the areas are protected against
damage by fire and other sources of injury, and the regeneration
of the forests forms a prominent part of the department’s activity.
As a result, the net revenue from the State forests is now more
than ten times what it was in 1864.

The example thus set by India attracted the attention of other
parts of the Empire, with the result that similar steps were taken,
and, in many cases, the services of Indian forest officers were
asked for. India has, as far as possible, met these requests ;
officers have been lent to Ceylon, the Federated Malay States,
Mauritius, New Zealand, Australia, South-, West- and Kast-Africa,
the Sudan, Cyprus, the West Indies and British Honduras. The
development of forest conservancy in Canada has also been
influenced by the example set by India. Last, but not least, the
first scientifically trained forest officer employed in the British
Crown forests was a distinguished Indian forest officer, and
several Indian foresters have held, and are still holding, profes-
sorial chairs at British Universities.

The great indifference of the Government as regards forest
conservancy in the United Kingdom commenced to be disturbed
about the year 1883. Foresters, committees, commissions and
associations urged the necessity of State interference, but it took
36 years and the great war to bring about the passing of the Forest
Act of 1919, immediately followed by the establishment of the
Forestry Commission as the forest authority of the United King-
dom. Almost the first work of that Commission was to organise
an Imperial Forest Conference to which delegates from all parts
of the Empire were invited. In sending out these invitations the

48 FORESTRY IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE.

Commissioners asked for a statement describing the position of
forestry in each part of the Empire, to be used as a basis upon
which proposals for an Empire forest policy could be elaborated.
Thirty-four such statements were received and printed, covering
517 foolscap pages. Some of these statements contain the
required information, while others are deficient in various direc-
tions. Extracts showing the more important matters, with such
critical remarks as appear called for, are recorded in subsequent
pages. In this Summary attention may be drawn to a few points.

2. AREA OF THE FORESTS.

Although the available data are not complete so as to deal with
all parts of the Empire, those given below for the greater part of
the area may be of general interest :—

Area, Per cent. of

square miles. total area.
Forests, marketable : 4 : 685130 os 8
» unmarketable or inaccessible 1,112,030 .. 12
» unclassed : : : 40:000 Fe —
Forests, total area. 4 i a. RSSTAIGOmS 20
Agricultural land . J : » > eb 1003075. Li’
Other land . E 5 : »| [YTS OS0N ter 63
Grand total of area dealt with . . 9,160;220° | 52 ae

The area given in the above statement represents about three
acres per head of population, or 13 times that in Europe.
Moreover, the 5? million square miles of ‘‘ Other land” may be
found, on further examination, to contain considerable additions
to the now known forest area.

3. OWNERSHIP OF THE FORESTS.

Of the total forest area, 1,387,020 square miles are classed as
State forests, equal to about 76 per cent. The rest belongs to
corporations and private persons. The lowest percentage of
State forests occurs in the United Kingdom with 24 per cent. In
other parts of the Empire it is still high ; in South Africa, 37 per
cent.; in Australia, 69 per cent.; in India, 75 per cent.; in
Canada, 93 per cent. ; and in British Guiana, 100 per cent. In

TYPES OF FOREST 49

some parts, as in West Africa, the bulk of the forests belongs to
native corporations.

The proportion of State forests dedicated to timber production
varies much ; on an average it may be placed at 29 per cent.

4. Types or Forest.

The factors on which forest vegetation depends are temperature,
moisture, light, and the physical and chemical condition of the
soil. The first two of these agencies are greatly influenced by the
configuration of the country, and especially by elevation and
aspect. They differ so much in the several parts of the Empire
that it is impossible to give here a summary of them.

The forests may be arranged into three great classes :—
(1) Hardwood forests, (2) Conifer forests, and (3) Mixed forests.
The first, really consisting of broad-leaved species, prevail in the
tropical and semi-tropical parts, and they contain the most
valuable species, such as Teak, Mahogany, Sandalwood, Ebony,
Cedrela spp., Dipterocarps, especially Shorea, Eucalypts, and a
very large number of other species. In temperate climates are
found Oaks, Chestnuts, Maples, Beech, Birch, Elm, Alder and
many others.

The greater part of the conifer forests is found in the temperate
parts, but also in the sub-tropical and tropical parts. The more
important species are Spruces, Pines, Larches, Firs (Silver and
Douglas), Deodar, Podocarpus spp., Callitris spp., Juniperus spp.,
the New Zealand Agathis australis, the Queensland Araucarias
and others.

The number of species of trees found in the Empire amounts
to thousands ; indeed, it may be said that, with few exceptions,
it contains all species. While there is no danger at present of
the Empire running short of hardwoods, the case is different as
regards coniferous timber. No doubt, conifers occupy more than
one half of the Empire’s forests, but the consumption of such
timber amounts to something like 90 per cent. of the total require-
ments. ‘The distribution of the conifer forests is very uneven, the
greater part being situated in Canada, Newfoundland, India, East
Africa, New Zealand, and a few parts of Australia. The result is
that many parts of the Empire, while exporting hardwoods, are
obliged to import coniferous timber. Naturally, the effort at

VOL. I. E

50 FORESTRY IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE.

afforestation throughout the Empire is directed chiefly to the
local production of conifers, wherever the climate is suitable for
them.

5. RELATIONSHIP OF THE STATE TO FORESTRY.

Under this heading, legislation, administrative methods,
assistance given to forestry and allied subjects are dealt with.
It is a large subject and the progress made in the several parts of
the Empire will be found in the notes given further on. Special
attention is invited to India and the United Kingdom. In the
former country the Forest Act of 1878, with its offshoots, still
forms the basis of Indian forest policy, and it has been fully
utilized in drawing up forest acts and ordinances in other parts
of the Empire. The British Forestry Act of 1919 represents an
excellent example of forest legislation. In both these cases the
principle of working for a sustained yield in the future is laid
down, this being the foundation of sound forest management.
Good progress has also been made of late years in this direction
in some of the Australian States.

6. THe Forest AUTHORITY.

This varies very much. It consists of a Commission in the
United Kingdom, in New South Wales, Victoria and South
Australia; of a single Head in each of the Indian Provinces,
Canada, Queensland, Western Australia, New Zealand, South
Africa, and in the Crown Colonies generally. In several parts of
the Empire the Head Officer is assisted by a consultative com-
mittee. A rudimentary authority, or none at all, exists in some
of the colonies and protectorates. India has, in addition to the
provincial authorities, an Inspector-General of Forests, who is the
chief adviser to the Government of India.

As regards the general organisation, it has been recognised that
a territorial agency is essential for an efficient conduct of the
business. The details depend on local conditions. As an illus-
tration it may be stated that in India the unit of executive charge
is the Range, while a number of ranges form a Division, or
controlling charge, and a number of the latter form a Circle, or
administrative charge, presided over by a Conservator of Forests.
In provinces which contain several Circles, a Chief Conservator

FOREST EDUCATION. 51

is appointed to act as an intermediary between the Conservators
and the provincial Government. The recruitment of the superior
staff is practically now restricted to men who have taken a degree
or diploma at a recognised School of Forestry. The subordinate
staff is generally recruited locally and trained in local forest
schools.

7. Forest EpucaTION.

The first School of Forestry in the British Empire was started
at Dehra Dun in India, in 1875, and actual theoretical instruction
commenced in 1878. This school was originally destined for the
education of Rangers and Foresters. A few years ago a course
of instruction for the provincial part of the superior staff was
added, while the education of the subordinate staff has been
provincialised. In addition to Dehra Dun, there are now schools
for the education of Rangers at Coimbatore in Madras, at Pyin-
mana in Burma, and at Dharwar in Bombay. There are also
elementary schools for the education of Foresters and Guards in
nearly all provinces.

On behalf of the Government of India, the first School of
Forestry in Great Britain was organised in 1885 in connection
with the Royal Indian Engineering College at Coopers Hill; it
was transferred to the University of Oxford in 1905. A lecture-
ship for forestry was established at Edinburgh University in 1889,
and another at Bangor in 1904. Instruction in forestry has also
been provided at Cambridge University, at the East of Scot-
land College of Agriculture, at Aberdeen, Glasgow, Durham
College of Science, and at the Royal College of Science at Dublin.
For the training of foresters and woodmen, schools exist in the
Dean, at Chopwell Woods, Burley, Beaufort and at Avondale in
Treland.

Canada has schools of forestry at the Universities of Toronto,
Laval, and in New Brunswick. Australia provides forestry
instruction at the University of Adelaide; a school for the
instruction of forest apprentices exists in Victoria, and another in
New South Wales. A scheme for the establishment of a high
class Commonwealth school of forestry in New South Wales is
under consideration. A school for the instruction of subordinates

exists at Tokai in South Africa.
B2

52 FORESTRY IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE.

8. RESEARCH AND EXPERIMENTS.

Research connected with forestry questions was commenced
in India about 100 years ago. In the earlier days, botanical
questions chiefly occupied the investigators. From about 1860
onwards, silvicultural questions were taken up, as well as the
structure and properties of timbers and statistical matters. Part
of these investigations were carried out by Government agency,
but the greater part was the result of individual private exertions.
During the period from 1860 to 1905 research and experiments
produced a very large amount of new knowledge, as testified by
the excellent publications issued during that time. Then, in 1906,
the Dehra Dun Research Institute was organised, divided into the
five sections of Silviculture, Economics, Botany, Zoology and
Chemistry. The institute has fully justified its establishment, and
a further extension on a grand scale is now under consideration.
Research work is also done in the several provinces of India in
connection with the institute at Debra Dun.

A fair amount of research and experimental work has been done,
in a somewhat disjointed way, by private persons, institutions and
Government departments in Great Britain and Ireland. The
Forestry Commission has been very active during the short time
of its existence ; it has already published preliminary Volume
Tables for the Scots pine and the larch, as well as Yield tables for
larch, Scots pine and spruce, with preliminary tables for Douglas
fir, Corsican pine and Japanese larch. The Commission has also
studied the insect conditions following the heavy war fellings, and
problems connected with afforestation work generally. The
fungoid diseases of the larch have been investigated and the results
published. Fair progress has been made in the investigation of
the mechanical properties of home-grown and colonial timbers.

In Canada, forest products have been dealt with at MeGill.
In Australia, systematic work has been commenced on the rate
of growth of indigenous trees. Valuable experimental work has
been done in South Africa in connection with afforestation. The
trial of exotic species has been specially taken up in Great Britain
and Ireland, in South Africa, Australia and New Zealand.

9, INCREMENT AND UTILIZATION.
The balance between Increment and Utilization is of the first
importance, because on it depends the possibility of a sustained

INCREMENT AND UTILIZATION. 53

yield in the future. Unfortunately, the information supplied by
the several parts of the Empire consists—a few cases excepted—
of mere rough estimates, and in some cases not even of that.
Picking out the countries for which an estimate has been given,
the results are as follows :—

[NCREMENT ON AREAS UNDER STATE CONTROL (EXCEPT THOSE
IN THE United KiNnapom).

Baiatee ies Increment in million cubic feet. Per Acre. |

5 , gross | loss. | net. cubic feet.
United Kingdom | _ 5,180 41-6 42) 37-4) 14:3
British India . | 126,310] 1,212°5 | 35-5 | 1,177-0 | 14-7
British Columbia | 149,340} 796-5 | 302°3 | 494-2 5-2
Quebec. . | 213,490 658°5 | 261-2 | 397-3 2°9
Queensland ee @ O0) 2973 | (22-00) T3.| 50
Victoria . : 9,380 180-0 | 30:6 149-4 | 24-8
Petal . . | 514,700 | 2,918-4 | 655-8 | 2,262-6 6-9

|

These data show that the average net increment on 514,700 square
miles of forests amounts roughly to 7 cubic feet per acre a year.
It is, however, impossible to say whether the same ratio applies
to the rest of the forests. At the same time there is no doubt that
under proper treatment the increment can be raised to several
times the present amount.

The data given of the Utilization, although fairly accurate in
some cases, are also unsatisfactory, because some of them are
pre-war and others post-war figures; also in some cases only
timber is given, while in others firewood is included. Such as they
are, the data are as follows :—

United Kingdom . 80 million cubic feet.
British India. Hi ZEON ‘
British Columbia eit ELEOK aes B,
Quebec. , oh 240ie ey te
Queensland ‘ 52) Bla ey ¥;
Victoria . ‘ oc WAGE By ty

Total ; i BO. Le, ‘

The figures would indicate that the annual utilization amounts
to only 36 per cent. of the increment.

54 FORESTRY IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE.

10. Exports AND Imports.

The several parts of the Empire can be arranged into two classes
according to whether there is a net import or a net export. To
the former belong the United Kingdom, British India, Australia,
South Africa, Southern Rhodesia, the Malay States, British
Guiana, and several of the smaller countries. To the net-
exporting countries belong Canada, Newfoundland, the Gold
Coast, Nigeria and British Honduras. The available data may
be arranged as follows in million cubic feet :—

Net Exports. Net Imports.
United Kingdom : oo Mi 546-40
British India : . = Oe 2:70
Canada ; , ; . 360-60 - —
Newfoundland . : : 0-17 Be —
Australia. : : oo >. 10:80
New Zealand : ; : 2 Bb 2
South Africa, the Union — ae 19-50
Southern Rhodesia ; wo eS ie 0-23
Kenya Colony. ae SOA is ~-
Nigeria : ‘ : Sam) 210) “ —
Gold Coast . : : } 1-04 ee —
West Indies ; : oo -e 1-30
British Honduras , \ 0-57 A —
British Guiana . : — i 0-22
30 —
Total : . 363-42 a 581-15

Net Imports : 217,730,000 cubic feet.

11. INcoME AND EXPENDITURE OF THE STATE ForEstTs.

The results differ enormously according to the special conditions
of each part of the Empire. There is a surplus of income over
expenditure in some cases and a deficit in others. It has not been
possible to prepare a general abstract for all parts of the Empire,
but, as an example of the effects of systematic management on the
principle of a sustained yield during the last 50 years, the case of
India may be given. The Department was organised in 1864
and the following figures show the average annual results of
periods of 5 years :—

INCOME AND EXPENDITURE OF THE STATE FORESTS. 59

Income, Rs. Expenditure, Rs. Surplus, Rs.
Period 1864—1869 . 3,740,000 2,380,000 1,360,000
» 1884—1889 . 11,670,000 7,430,000 4,240,000

» 1904—1909 . 25,700,000 14,100,000 11,600,000
» 1909—1914 . 29,600,000 16,370,000 13,230,000

During these 50 years the income has risen eight-fold and the
surplus tenfold. Since the year 1914, the figures have been
practically doubled, but that represents a rise which is chiefly
due to the effect of the war, and it is impossible to say whether a
reaction will come or not.

12. Summary.

An attempt has been made to draw the balance between
Increment, Utilization, Exports and Imports from and into the
Empire. Unfortunately the necessary data are not, in all cases,
complete. All that can be said at the present time is that the
annual net increment is about equal to double the annual con-
sumption. Satisfactory as this appears at first sight, it is less so
when the following qualifications are considered. In the first
place, it would appear that in most cases the increment refers to
all species, while the consumption refers to the better kinds of
timber trees, the stock of which has in many cases undoubtedly
decreased of late years. Moreover, firewood is included in some
returns and only timber in others. On the other hand, in the
majority of cases the data refer chiefly, if not altogether, to the
forests which are at present accessible, while additional supplies
can be made available by opening out the unmarketable and
inaccessible forests. At the same time, the fact remains that
between 4 and 5 million loads of timber have of late years been
imported annually from foreign countries. This is partly due to
the fact that the bulk of the Empire conifer forests are situated in
Canada and Newfoundland. The imports into the Empire have
steadily increased, certainly since 1884, so that they are now more
than double what they were 38 years ago. If it is added that
future supplies from foreign countries are anything but secure,
it seems clear that efforts must be made to render the Empire
independent of such imports. With this end in view, action must,
without delay, be taken somewhat on the following lines :—

(1) Every part of the Empire must lay down a definite forest

policy on the basis of a Forest Act or Ordinance.

56 FORESTRY IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE.

(2) The establishment of an efficient forest staff fit to carry out
that policy.

(3) The selection and demarcation of an area of State forests
sufficient : Hither to provide permanently the produce
required by the country, with due consideration of the
Empire as a whole ; Or, at any rate, to make the country
safe against an emergency, and encourage and assist
corporations and private parties to produce the required
balance of produce.

(4) Efficient protection of the forests especially against damage
by fire, and the prevention of waste.

(5) Regeneration of the forests, especially of the valuable
species, and the planting of an adequate proportion of
conifers, wherever soft woods are deficient.

(6) Construction of suitable means of transport and the opening
out of at present unmarketable or inaccessible forests
according to requirements.

(7) The establishment of systematic research, so as to improve
the methods of treatment, the quality of the produce and
the development of local industries which rely on forest
produce for their raw material.

(8) The introduction into the markets of species hitherto
unknown, or considered inferior for use.

13. THe British EmMprrRE ForESTRY CONFERENCE.

The conference, consisting of 43 delegates from practically
all parts of the Empire, was opened on July 7th, 1920, by the
Right Hon. The Lord Mayor of London at the Guildhall. It
considered, with the above indicated information before it, the
desirability of a rational forest policy of the Empire and, after six
days’ discussion, it passed the following resolutions, which have
been brought by the delegates to the knowledge of their respective
Governments :—

(1) Forest Policy —In view of the great importance to the
Empire as a whole, as well as to each of its component parts, of
producing a sustained yield of all classes of timber, and of
encouraging the most economical utilization of timber and other
forest products, and of maintaining and improving climatic con-
ditions in the interests of agriculture and water supply, each

THE BRITISH EMPIRE FORESTRY CONFERENCE. 57

of the Governments of the Empire should lay down a definite
forest policy to be administered by a properly constituted and
adequate forest service.

(2) Survey of Resources—The foundation of a stable forest
policy for the Empire and for its component parts must be the
collection, co-ordination and dissemination of facts as to the
existing state of the forests and the current and prospective
demands on them.

(3) Constitution and Status —In order to attain continuity in
the development of forest resources it is desirable that certain
elements of stability be secured in the constitution of the forest
policy. This may be done by the following measures :—

(i.) The definition, where this has not been done already, of

forest policy in a Forestry Act or Ordinance.

(u.) The reservation for the purpose of economic management
and development of forest land under conditions which
prevent the alienation of any which is primarily suitable
for forests except for reasons consistent with the
maintenance of the forest policy as a whole.

(i1.) The assurance to the Forest Authority of funds sufficient
to carry out the accepted policy for a series of years.

(iv.) The grant to members of the forestry service of the status
of civil servants with due provision for pension.

(v.) The appointment as the chief officers of the forestry
service of persons having a high standard of training in
forestry, their selection and promotion being by merit
alone.

(vi.) The establishment in each of the larger parts of the Empire
and for the Colonies not possessing responsible govern-
ment collectively, of an officer, or officers, having
special duties of advising as to forest policy and survey-
ing its execution.

(4) Organisation of Forest Industries —It is extremely
desirable that the Forest Authority should be in close touch and
consultation with organisations representing the interests con-
cerned in the extraction and utilization of timber and other forest
products.

(5) Publicity.—It is the duty of the Forest Authority in every
part of the Empire to adopt and encourage methods of education

58 FORESTRY IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE.

and publicity in order that the people may be fully informed of
the aims and purposes of forest policy and may thus be induced to
co-operate towards its successful fulfilment.

(6) Distribution of Forest Plants——The Conference have had
brought to their attention the advantages which have accrued
in several parts of the Empire from the wide distribution of forest
plants, and desire to bring the method of encouraging tree-planting
by distribution of plants either from Government or private
nurseries gratuitously or at cost price to the earnest attention of
their Governments.

(7) Terminology and Trade Nomenclature—The following
questions should be referred to the proposed Imperial Forestry
Bureau immediately on its formation :—

(i.) Standardisation of forest terminology ;

(11.) Correct identification of timbers, and standardisation of

their trade names.

(8) Research—The scheme of research work drawn up by a
Committee receives the approval of the Conference, and is
recommended to their Governments for early consideration and
approval by them.

This takes the form of the report from a Committee appointed
to prepare a draft scheme for the organisation of that research
work which is essential to the progress of forestry, including both
the production and utilization of forest produce, the Committee
to pay particular regard to the importance of avoiding overlapping
and of co-operation with existing institutions. The report deals
with the organisation and sub-division of research, with the
relation of the different parts of research to one another and to
education and practice, and with the subjects of research both
generally and in relation to the needs of the different parts of the
Empire.

(9) Education.—It should be a primary duty of Forest
Authorities throughout the Empire to establish systematic
schemes of forestry education. It has been found for climatic
and other reasons that it would not be possible for each part of the
Empire to establish a complete scheme of forestry education of its
own, and therefore it is essential that those parts of the Empire
which are willing and able to establish complete systems should,
as far as possible, frame such schemes with a view to combining

THE BRITISH EMPIRE FORESTRY CONFERENCE. 59

for meeting the needs of those parts which can only themselves
make a partial provision for their requirements.

Part of this subject has been dealt with by a Committee whose
report, which refers mainly to the higher training of forest officers,
is approved by the Conference.

The main principles embodied in this report are as follows :—

(i.) That one institution for training forest officers be estab-
lished in the United Kingdom.

(ii.) That students be selected from graduates having taken
honours in pure or natural science at any recognised
University.

(iii.) That it be an integral part of the work of the institution
to arrange supplementary courses at suitable centres for
students requiring special qualifications and also special
courses for forest officers from any part of the Empire,
whether at the institution itself or at centres of training
in other parts of the world. The Governments should
recognise these courses as part of the ordinary duties of
the forest officers, at any time during their service, and
the Governments concerned should give special facilities
to forest officers in their service to attend such courses.

(iv.) That a Department of Research into the formation,
tending and protection of forests be associated with the
training institution.

(v.) Encouragement should be given to the existing provision
made by Universities and Colleges for forestry instruc-
tion for those who do not desire to take the full course
suggested for the forestry service. It appears that this
is especially applicable to the United Kingdom.

It is also desirable to make adequate provision for woodmen’s
schools for the training of foresters as distinct from those which
are intended for forest officers.

(10) Forestry Bureau.—The Conference approve the sugges-
tions and recommendations for the constitution of an Imperial
Forestry Bureau which are contained in the report of a Committee
and strongly urge upon their respective Governments that they
should contribute to the support of the Bureau. They feel that
it will be largely upon the work of such a Bureau that the
proper development of the forestry resources of the Empire will

60 FORESTRY IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE.

depend, and they therefore cannot over-emphasise its importance
as a part of Empire organisation.

(11) Future Conferences—The Conference is convinced that
the holding of Conferences of Representatives of the Empire on
forestry matters is of great service. They desire to thank the
Forestry Commission of the United Kingdom for causing the
Conference to be assembled and for making the necessary arrange-
ments. They recommend that the next Conference be held in the
year 1923 and that, if the Dominion Government approves, it be
convened in Canada.

The discussions were throughout of a high standard, and it may
be said that, with one exception, the resolutions were agreed to
unanimously. The one exception referred to the question of the
education of the superior staff. The majority of the Delegates
were in favour of establishing a high-class central School of
Forestry for the Empire away from any university, whereas a
strong minority pressed its establishment in connection with a
University. A compromise was arrived at by suggesting the
appointment of a special committee to consider the question
further. That Special Committee has since been appointed and
reported in favour of attaching the new School to a university.

Apart from the subjects covered by the 11 resolutions, the
Conference also discussed the desirability of establishing an
Empire Forestry Association, and this has now been organised
under influential patronage.

The Conference must be pronounced a complete success, and it
is confidently expected that a sound forest policy will now be
adopted in all parts of the British Empire.

The British Forestry Commission, by organising the Conference
and guiding it to a successful end, deserves well of the Empire,
quite apart from its remarkable activity in the introduction of a
sound forest policy into Great Britain and Ireland on the basis of
the Forestry Act of 1919.

B. FORESTRY IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

Great Britain and Ireland have an area of 121,309 square miles
and a population of 45,500,000 people. It is situated between the
50th and 59th degrees of north latitude and 2 K. and 11 W. longi-
tude. The conditions affecting forest growth in these islands

CONFIGURATION, SOIL AND: CLIMATE. 61

change so rapidly that it would lead too far to give a detailed
account of them in this place, but a few notes will not be out of

SECTION I—CONFIGURATION, SOIL AND CLIMATE
1. GEOLoGIcAL FEATURES.

The northern, western and south-western parts of Great
Britain are mountainous or hilly and composed of hard primary
or metamorphic rocks, while the centre and south of England are
undulating in character and built up of soft secondary, tertiary
and quaternary strata. In the latter areas are two belts of
jurassic limestone running from the Cliveland Hills in Yorkshire
to the Dorset coast, and more or less parallel with them run beds
of chalk. The latter enclose three basins known as the London,
the Weald and Hampshire basins. Considerable areas of sandy
heath exist here, partly covered with pine woods in the Hampshire
basin and in parts of the London basin ; the Weald is heavy clay.
The south-west of England consists chiefly of Devonian and
carboniferous shales and grit with an area of granite on Dartmoor.
The Midland plain in the centre of England is shut in on the west
by the Welsh hills and broken up on the north by the Pennine
Chain, which forms the backbone of England from Derbyshire to
the Scottish border. The Pennines are composed of carboniferous
rocks flanked on the west by the rugged Lake district. They rise
to an elevation of 2,892 feet. The highest point in the Lake
district rises to 3,210 feet.

The hill country in the south of Wales has the carboniferous
series of the South Wales coal fields, which are succeeded to the
north by old red sandstone ; further north are silurian, ordovician
and cambrian rocks culminating in Snowdon with an elevation of
3,560 feet above the sea.

In Scotland, the border district and the country to the north
of it are known as the Southern Uplands, the rocks being mainly
silurian and ordovician shales and grits with igneous rocks, the
mountains rising to more than 2,000 feet. The central lowlands
stretch from the Firth of Forth on the east to the Firth of Clyde
on the west, and include rocks of carboniferous age and igneous
rocks of various ages. They are succeeded on the north by a
broad band of old red sandstone.

62 FORESTRY IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

Practically the whole of the remainder of Scotland consists of a
complex series of igneous and metamorphic rocks, which form the
wild mountain scenery of the Highlands. In it are many moun-
tains over 3,000 feet elevation, culminating with Ben Nevis,
4,406 feet elevation, the highest mountain in the British islands.
The western coastline is broken by numerous inlets from the sea.
The watershed lies close to the western coast, and the rivers flow
towards the lower ground bordering the North Sea. The heavy
glaciation of the past has produced numerous lochs, as it has done
in the Lake district and in North Wales. |

In Ireland, a central limestone plain occupies about half the
country marked by the presence of glacial deposits and peat. It
is surrounded by hills. ‘The Wicklow mountains consist of silu-
rian, granitic and metamorphic rocks, and they rise to 3,000 feet.
In the southern counties old red sandstone mountains rise to
about 2,500 feet ; the south-west country is rugged and broken
and composed chiefly of old red sandstone, mountain limestone
and millstone grit. In the Killarney district elevations of 3,400
feet are reached.

2. SoILs.

Owing to the diversified surface of the country it is very
difficult to give even a general account of the soils. In some parts
they bear a fairly direct relation to the underlying strata, but in
other districts, and especially in the lowlands, that relationship
is frequently obscured by glacial drifts. In the mountainous
districts glacial deposits generally take the form of moraines or
of deposits of clay usually associated with peat. The question
of peat generally is of great importance ; it is of varying character
and covers large areas. Only in rare cases can such areas be
reclaimed for agriculture, but they are of special importance as
regards further afforestation of the country.

3. CLIMATE.

The prevalence of the west and south-west winds and the inci-
dence of the warm waters of the Gulf Stream on the western shores
of the islands render the climate equable and moist. There are
no extremes of cold in winter and of heat in summer. The mean
temperature of January ranges from 38 degrees in the east to 44 in

THE FORESTS AND THEIR PRODUCE. 63

the south-west with the isotherm of 40 running almost north and
south through the centre of the islands. The mean temperature
of July ranges from 55 degrees in the north of Scotland to 67 in the
south-east of England, while the isotherm of 60 passes from west
to east through the centre of Ireland and England. The mean
annual temperature varies from 47 in the north to 51 in the south.
Winter temperatures below 10 degrees and summer temperatures
above 90 degrees are uncommon.

The rainfall is heaviest in the western mountainous districts,
showing an average of 50 to 60 inches, with a maximum of
200 inches on Snowdon. It decreases gradually to 25 inches on
the east coast of England and Scotland, and to about 30 inches on
the east coast of Ireland. The rainfall is fairly distributed over
the four seasons of the year, though spring is the driest and
autumn the wettest season; drought of sufficient intensity to
kill other than newly planted trees is of rare occurrence.

The relative humidity of the atmosphere is almost always high ;
fogs and a cloudy sky are of frequent occurrence. Snow falls in
most winters, but, except in the mountains, rarely lies for more
than a few days.

There is a difference between the climate of the east and that
of the west, the former being colder and drier than the latter.
Certain species coming from a more southern climate do well only
in the south-west of England and Iveland ; also, firs and spruces
attain a better development in the west, and pines in the east, but
otherwise the differences are not sufficient to inhibit in the one
region the growth of any tree species which flourishes in the other.

SECTION II—THE FORESTS AND THEIR PRODUCE.

1. THe Marin Tyres or Forest GRowrTH.

During the great Ice Age all tree vegetation, with the exception
of some arctic forms, was swept away. When the ice receded the
trees of historic times came in, and of these the following are
considered indigenous :—Scots pine, the common juniper, yew,
oak, ash, beech, alder, hazel, birch, cherry, hornbeam, wych elm,
holly, field maple, white beam, white willow, black poplar, aspen,
and mountain ash, or rowan.

It has been held that the glacial epoch in Central Kurope was

64 FORESTRY IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

followed, in order, by tundra, steppe and, finally, by forest, the
latter continuing to the present time, but the three periods do not
seem to be strongly marked in the British Isles. At the height
of the forest period probably the greater part of the country was
covered with forest, except the highest mountains. Remnants
of oak and Scots pine have been found up to an elevation of
2,500 feet above sea level. The indigenous forests have been
classified as follows :—

(1) On alluvial deposits : Willow, alder, ash and poplar, chiefly
along rivers.

(2) On dry sandy soils: Oak, beech, birch, Scots pine; on
sandy heaths of Surrey, Hants and Dorset.

(3) On soils over old silicious rocks: Oak and birch; in the
hilly districts of western and northern England, Wales and
southern Scotland, they were of great extent.

(4) Indigenous pine forests : In many parts of the British Isles
particularly in the eastern highlands of Scotland.

(5) Beech woods: On the chalk downs of South England, also
on the carboniferous limestones; associated with the
beech was the yew.

(6) Ash woods: On fissured limestone, in Somerset, Derbyshire
and in Ireland.

(7) Oak forests : On the clay soils of lowlands.

(8) Oak-ash forests: In lowland districts on mar! soils.

Great changes have occurred in these forests, due partly to
nature and partly to the action of man. The forests on alluvial
soil have made room for agriculture. The ash, beech and birch
forests have degenerated or been planted with conifers. The oak
forests on old silicious rocks have, to a great extent, disappeared
by changing into grassy or bracken-covered hills ; parts have been
destroyed or felled for fuel, timber, and charcoal making ; parts
have been maintained as coppice ; other parts were replanted with
conifers, such as larch, Scots pine, spruce and lately with exotic
species ; other parts remain in the hilly district ; the soil of all
these parts is fit for the growth of first-class coniferous timber.
The indigenous pine forests are gradually being cut. Of the beech
forests considerable remnants are found in the Chiltern Hills.
Of the ash woods and oak-ash woods small fragments remain,
the rest having been converted into pasture lands. The oak

AREA OF EXISTING FORESTS. 65

forests on clay have mostly disappeared, the largest remnants
being found in Northampton and the weald of Sussex.

The present distribution may be described as follows :—The
broad-leaved, mixed broad-leaved and conifers, and coppice
woods of England occur chiefly in the southern and western
districts. Sussex, Kent and Surrey are the best wooded districts,
containing 20 per cent. of the total woodlands of England and
Wales, most of them being coppice or coppice with standards.
The Scots pine dominates on the sandy soils of Surrey and
Hampshire. Larch is widely distributed but commonest in the
hills of England and Wales. In Scotland two-thirds of the woods
are situated in the north-eastern and highland districts. Along
the east coast, the valley of the Dee and Strathspey, Scots pine
predominates. On the west coast larch is the most common
conifer. Stretches of poor oak and birch are still found on the
whole west coast of Great Britain. In Ireland the south alone is
well wooded, the indigenous forest having there been replanted
with conifers, especially with larch.

2. AREA oF Existinc Forssts.

There is little exact evidence showing the progressive deforesta-
tion of Britain with the increase of population. In the earliest
accounts the country is described as covered with forest. In the
reign of William the Conqueror the woods were still very numerous
and extensive, and in the time of Edward IV. England is described
as an overgrown country. It is stated that the first attack of any
consequence upon the forest was made during the reign of
Henry VIII., followed by a continued increase of consumption of
oak timber in consequence of the gradual extension of commerce,
the increasing requirements of the Royal Navy, and of house
construction during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries,
apart from the extension of agriculture. The progress of depletion
was considerably hastened during the civil wars.

An attempt at planting was made in the early part of the
eighteenth century, but it does not appear that the area under
wood was materially increased. During the latter half of that
century the timber outlook became serious, and the State then
evinced an active interest in the matter. It was found that the

Crown forests were providing only a fraction of the timber
VOL. I. ¥

66 FORESTRY IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

annually required for the Navy. Arrangements were made for
planting 100,000 acres, and by 1823 over 50,000 acres had actually
been planted, chiefly on Crown lands. Later on it was found that
oak was no longer required for the Navy, but the Crown forests
were maintained, and, during the last 20 years, even slightly
increased. On the whole, however, there has been a slow but
steady decrease in the area under wood. In Scotland large
plantations of conifers were made between 1780 and 1830,
especially of larch, many of which were felled in the latter part of
the nineteenth century and not replanted. Until a quite recent
date the wooded area of Ireland has steadily decreased.

The subjoined table shows the distribution of the land and the
areas of forest in square miles at the outbreak of the war :—

| Country. REN ae Forest. Other Land. brads Ve |
England and Wales | 48,340 2,940 6,750 58,030
Scotland 21,770 1,780 6,250 29,800
Ireland 26,970 460 4,210 31,640
United Kingdom . | 97,080 5,180 17,210 | 119,470
Percentage . 81:3 4-3 14-4 100

During the war 470 square miles were cleared, but endeavours
will be made to restock the cleared areas.

3. OWNERSHIP OF THE FORESTS.

The details of ownership of the forests are shown below, the
areas being given in square miles :—

Country. The State. | Corporations. Piss Total.
England 102 54 2,784 2,940
Scotland 2 1 Lad 1,780
Ireland 30 — 430 460
United Kingdom . 134 55 4,991 5,180
Percentage 2:6 lig 96-3 100

The State forests are really Crown forests, but each Sovereign,
on accession, hands them over to the State together with other
Crown estates in return for the grant of the Civil List.

ANNUAL INCREMENT OF THE FORESTS. 67

4. ANNUAL INCREMENT OF THE FORESTS.

The data available for estimating the actual increment of home-
grown timber are very limited, and the following figures must be
accepted with reserve. More accurate data on the production of
timber have lately been published by the Forestry Commission
in Bulletin No. 3, but they refer to well-stocked coniferous
woods and make no allowance for understocking.

The estimated average annual increment during the years
1909—1913, after allowing 10 per cent. for loss by fire, decay,
waste, &c., amounts to 47 million cubic feet. It is estimated
that, owing to the felling of about 750 million cubic feet on
470 square miles during the war, the increment in the immediate
future is not likely to exceed 37 million feet annually, unless the
cleared areas are replanted without delay.

5. Imports AND Exports oF TIMBER.

The import of timber into the United Kingdom began to grow
during the second half of the eighteenth century; reliable data
are available only from the year 1843 onwards. They show the
following average annual imports of unmanufactured timber :—

Periods. Loads. Value, £. Value, £ per Load.
1843—1852 .. 1,867,000 .. 2 2
1853—1862 .. 2,720,000 .. 9,058,000 .. 3-34
1863—1872 .. 4,155,000 .. 12,154,000 .. 2-93
1873—1882 .. 5,880,000 .. 16,438,000 .. 2-80
1883—1892 .. 6,624,000 .. 15,146,000 .. 2-29
1893—1902 .. 8,795,000 .. 20,527,000 .. 2:36
1903—1912 .. 9,596,000 .. 23,675,000 .. 2:47
1913 only .. 11,590,000 .. 33,789,000 .. 2:92

The above statement shows that the average increase per
decade amounts to 1,288,000 loads, with a maximum of 2,171,000
loads during the decade 1893—1£02. Another maximum seemed
to have commenced in 1913, when the outbreak of the war
altered the usual conditions. Of the imported timber 90 per cent.
was coniferous wood and 10 per cent. so-called hard woods.

The figures also show that the price per load fell from 1853 to
1892. About the latter year it had reached a minimum ; since
that time the price has risen slowly but steadily, so that the

increase between 1892 and 1913 represents 28 per cent. On
FB 2

68 FORESTRY IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

examining the data in more detail the actual increase was found
to represent not less than 30 per cent.
There was a small export of timber before the war. The

following figures show the average annual exports and net imports
during the years 1909—1913 :—

Imports. . 10,203,000 loads, valued at £27,560,000
Exports. : 121-000 — 5 y £1,015,000
Net Imports . 10, 082,000 a a: £26,545,000
It may be added that immediately before the war the average
annual consumption of timber per head of population came to 14
cubic feet.

6. THe Sources oF ImportTeD TIMBER.

SouRCES OF SuppLy oF UNMANUFACTURED TIMBER. ANNUAL
AVERAGE OF THE YEARS 1909—1913.

(Quantities in thousands of loads, value in thousands of £.)

Conifers. Hard Woods. Totals.
Source of Supply.
Loads. £ Loads. ao Loads. “5,
British Possessions.
Canada A 5 1,035 | 3,374 20 142 | 1,055 | 3,516
Newfoundland f 4 3 8 — — 3 8
British Honduras . 5 — — 12 106 12 106
British West Africa 3 — — 35 296 35 296
British India. : 3 — — 36 610 36 610
Australia F F : — — 39 166 39 166
New Zealand ‘ Z 4 33 — =—— 4 33
Other British Possessions 1 6 11 90 12 96

Total British Possessions. | 1,043 | 3,421 153 || 1,410.) (T3196 | S483

Foreign Countries.

Russia . , j . | 4,566 | 10,558 26 244 | 4,592 | 10,802
Sweden : ‘ yn eo 79) ||) Sige — — MSA ex (hike
Norway : ; ; 495 | 1,394 — — 495 | 1,394
France . : ‘ 837 743 — — 837 743
Portugal : : : 311 264 -- —- 311 264
Spain . : : 4 81 69 — — 81 69
Germany : ; : 183 619 18 123 201 742
Austria-Hungary . — - 6 100 6 100
United States of America Ziel) aoa 261) W637 788 | 3,959
Cuban - : ‘ , - — 12 83 12 83
Mexico : — — 4 32 4 32
French West ‘Africa - — — 30 232 30 232
Siam . : — — 10 165 10 165
Java. — — 4 53 4 53
Other Foreign Countries . 30 106 27 210 57 316
Total Foreign Countries . | 8,609 | 19,850 398 | 2,879 | 9,007 | 22,729

Grand Total. - | 9,652 | 23,271 551 | 4,289 | 10,203 | 27,560

THE SOURCES OF IMPORTED TIMBER. 69

It is of special interest to know whence the imported timber
came. The appended statement exhibitsthe average amount of un-
manufactured timber imported annually during the years 1909—
1913. From that statement and a similar one for the year 1899
prepared by the author and published in the Journal of the Society
of Arts, of March 1st, 1901, the following conclusions can be
drawn :—

(1) Of the imports, 12 per cent. came from British possessions
and 88 per cent. from foreign countries, the corresponding
figures for 1899 being 22 and 78 per cent.

(2) Coniferous timber imported during the years 1909—1913
occupied 95 per cent., and hardwoods 5 per cent.

(3) The three main centres of supply are Northern Kurope,
South-western Europe, and North America.

Russia, Sweden and Norway are the most important countries in
Northern Europe ; they sent 6,666,000 loads, of which 6,640,000
were coniferous timber, including about 2 million loads of pit-
wood. There has, however, been an important change since the
year 1899, which the following figures will illustrate :—

Year. From Russia. | From Sweden. | From Norway. | Total, Loads.
W399)! . | 2,241,928 | 2,305,599 | 836,127 | 5,383,654
1909—1913 . | 4,592,000 | 1,579,000 | 495,000 | 6,666,000
Increase . | 2,350,072 | — 1,282,346
Decrease : — | 726,599 | 341,127 --

The imports from Norway and Sweden have fallen off by more
than a million loads, while those from Russia have been more than
doubled, thus covering not only the decrease from Sweden ana
Norway, but also that from Canada.

France, Portugal and Spain have sent 1,229,000 loads of pit-
wood, which came mainly from maritime pine forests ; they were
absorbed by the South Wales coalfields.

The United States of America sent 788,000 loads, of which
527,000 were conifers and the rest various kinds of hardwoods.
The imports from Canada amounted to 1,055,000 loads, of which
1,035,000 were conifers and the balance hardwoods. Some years
ago the greater part of the timber exported by Canada came to
the United Kingdom and the rest went chiefly to the United

70 FORESTRY IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

States, but now the position has been reversed, and it seems likely
that this change will be further intensified as time goes on, owing
to the ever increasing requirements of the United States.

The above-mentioned three main sources of supply provided
9,738,000 loads, including practically allthe coniferous timber. The
balance of 465,000 loads include teak from Burma, Siam and Java,
mahogany from the Gold Coast, Honduras, French West Africa,
Cuba, Mexico, and other places. Other furniture woods came from
the United States, Australia, Canada, South Russia and a variety
of other countries. Austria sent a small quantity of oak and
walnut ; the imports from Germany were mostly trans-shipments.

As regards future supplies it may be said that those of hard
woods generally are not endangered, as there are great stocks
available in many parts of the earth, some of which have not yet
been touched. The supply of coniferous timber depends chiefly
on Russia and Canada. Both have areas of coniferous forests so
extensive that either of them could supply all other nations for
ever, if the forests were managed on the principle of a sustained
yield. It is impossible to say at this moment what the fate of the
Russian forests may be; hence, the United Kingdom takes a
special interest in the management of the Canadian forests. On
it depend the measures to be taken in Britain to secure an adequate
supply of coniferous woods in the future.

7. Imports oF OTHER Forest PRODUCE.
Of these the following may be mentioned :—

IMPORTS AND Exports oF Woop MANUFACTURES AND OTHER
Forest PRODUCTS.

(Annual average of the years 1909—1913.)

Type of Produce. Imports, £. | Exports, £. Net Imports, £
Wood Manufactures . p 2,695,000 | 2,212,000 483,000
Pulp of Wood : : é 4,058,000 123,000 | 3,935,000
Minor Products . 3,814,000 | 1,332,000 | 2,482,000
Materials Manufac tured by
Chemical Processes . : 2,257,000 128,000 | 2,129,000
Total . Z 12,824,000 | 3,795,000 | 9,029,000

Add Rubber partly Natural a partly Planted, about 14,000,000 | in 1913
AddVegetable Oils, ery Natural and ney Planted,
about : 5 5,000,000 } only.

Total . 5 . | 28,029,000

FOREST INDUSTRIES. fe

The following notes indicate the principal sources of the various
articles :—

Wood Manufactures: United States, 40 per cent. ; Russia,
18 per cent.; Germany, 13 per cent.; Sweden, 7:5 per
cent. ; France, 6-5 per cent.

Pulp Wood: Norway, £1,218,000; Sweden, £1,967,000 ;
Canada, £155,000 ; Russia, £315 ,000 : Germany, £266,000 ;
Newfoundland, £66 ,000.

Minor Produce: Cork, £1,075,000, from Portugal, Spain and
France ; gutta-percha, £914,000, from Germany, Dutch
Guiana, Venezuela; myrobolans, £171 ,000, from India ;
kauri gum, £627 ,000, from New Zealand ; oeeecd:
£40,000, from British West Indies and este: ; lac dye
gum, £443,000, from British India.; tanning substances,
£253,000, from Natal and Belgium ; valonia, £165,000,
from Turkey ; cutch, £91,000, from British India, Straits
Settlements and British Borneo.

Materials manufactured by Chemical Processes : Resin,
£1,003,200 ; turpentine oil, £882,000, from United States
Russia, France; acetate of lime, £41,000, from United
States and Canada; acetone, £107,000, from United
States, Germany and Austria- Hungary; acetic acid,
£84,000, from Netherlands, Belgium, Norway, Coa,
and United States ; tar (other than coal tar), £83,000 from
Russia, Sweden, Germany, United States ; methyl alcohol,
£56,000, from United States, Germany, exraae and other
foreign States.

8. Forest INDUSTRIES.

The available data showing the extent to which industries are
dependent on forest produce are not complete enough te make it
worth while giving them here. That dependency is much greater
than is frequently supposed. In order to show this the foliowing
data, taken from the Census of Population of 1911, of the number
of persons employed in connection with forests ara their products
are given in the table on p. 72 :—

72 FORESTRY IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

Number of Persons Employed.

ia iagend Scotland.| Treland. Total.

Woodmen, Nursery and Seedsmen 42,209 d,;bL5 697 48,421
On Ships and Boats . ; ‘ Slew 10,224 7,687 49,686
On Vehicles : , - | TO1.208 9,560 3,405 | 114,173
Musical eeianeecise 5 16,754 802 246 17,802
Tackle for Sports and Games. TVo2 1,540 104 12,796
Buildings and Construction . | 214,422 29,771 | 24,824 | 269,017
Wood, Furniture, PODER etc. . | 114,613 12,672 5,079 | 132,364
Wood and Bark A a re IBY Oa 21,124 5,350 | 139,526

Total : : ; . | 645,185 91,208 | 47,392 | 783,785

The forester is specially interested in the proper utilization
of small wood, which is not fit for timber, or used as fuel.
Such wood can be utilized (a) In dry distillation leading to the
manufacture of charcoal, acetone, methyl alcohol and other bye-
products. (6b) Small wood, such as is derived from coppice of
ash, oak, beech and birch, which is not fit for pit-wood, is used
for chair legs, tool handles, bobbins, barrel hoops, toy-making,
hurdles, turnery generally. Industries of this class have been
established in the Chiltern hills, Tintern woods and elsewhere.

9. AcTIVITIES OF PRIVATE INDIVIDUALS AND CORPORATIONS.

It has been shown above that 96-3 per cent. of the existing
forests are private property. As a matter of fact, the amount of
enterprise in forestry shown by private proprietors has been an
outstanding feature in the past. They had to work out the best
and most remunerative methods of treatment of the indigenous
species as well as to experiment with exotic species, such as Douglas
fir and Sitka spruce, which promised to be more remunerative than
the former. In nearly every case the incentive to progress came
from individuals and not from the State or corporations. Only
in recent years has a change come, when the State has taken up
the subject of forestry, and when Corporations set about to secure
the catchment areas of rivers for their water supply. Some of the
latter have adopted schemes of afforestation of parts of the
catchment areas, and up to date about 10 square miles have
actually been planted.

The catchment areas have been estimated to contain some

SOCIETIES INTERESTED IN FORESTRY. 13

1,450 square miles in which the water rights are held by 250 local
authorities and 14 private companies. The catchment areas are
for the most part situated on high ground ; they contain a good
deal of unplantable land, but also a fair proportion of land fit for
afforestation, which, it is hoped, will be put under forest during
the next 20 years. The Corporations of Liverpool, Manchester,
Leeds and Birmingham have taken the lead in these planting
schemes.

Some of the university colleges and semi-State departments are
also holders of woodlands, such as :—

The Ecclesiastical Commissioners . 17 square miles.
The Duchy of Lancaster . : a 3 9 3
The Duchy of Cornwall . : , eee 03
Oxford Colleges. é : “| a > >
Cambridge Colleges. : eee Ss
Total ° . , o4 ” ”

The Duchy of Cornwall has recently begun planting at the rate of
250 acres a year on Dartmoor, and intends to work up to 8 square
miles in the locality.

The City of London is the holder of Epping Forest covering
some ten square miles. It was made over to the City by the
State, and it serves as an amenity wood, more especially for the
East End of London.

10. Soctretres INTERESTED IN FORESTRY.

Forestry in the United Kingdom has undoubtedly been
materially advanced by various societies interested in the subject.
They have kept the importance of forestry before the public,
stimulated private endeavour, urged upon Government action on
the part of the State and supported forest development generally.
The following are the more important of these societies :—

(1) The Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society, founded in
1854, and comprising now 1,750 members. The society
publishes T'ransactions half-yearly.

(2) The Royal English Arboricultural Society, founded in 1882,
with 1,450 members at the present time. It publishes the
Quarterly Journal of Forestry.

74 FORESTRY IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

(3) The Irish Forestry Society.

(4) The English Forestry Association, which deals principally
with the organisation of the market for British timber,
and the distribution of information on forestry generally.

(5) The Landowners’ Co-operative Forestry Society of Scotland,
performing commercial functions in connection with
forestry.

The following societies are also interested in forestry :—The
Surveyors’ Institution, the Land Agents’ Society, the Royal
Agricultural Society of England, the Highland and Agricultural
Society, and several others.

11. EDUCATION AND RESEARCH.

Systematic forestry education was commenced in 1885, when
the first School of Forestry in the United Kingdom was organised,
on behalf of the Government of India, by the author of this book
in connection with the Royal Indian Engineering College, Coopers
Hill. On the closing of that College, the School was transferred,
in 1905, to the University of Oxford. Instruction in forestry was,
by degrees, organised at other universities and colleges so that at
the present time such instruction is obtainable at the following
institutions :—

Oxford University ; Cambridge University; University of
Wales, Bangor; the Armstrong College, University of Durham ;
Edinburgh University ; Aberdeen University ; Edinburgh and
Kast of Scotland College of Agriculture ; Royal College of Science,
Dublin.

The Oxford School of Forestry is the best known of these
establishments, where the great majority of the Indian forest
probationers have been educated, first at Coopers Hill and, since
1905, at Oxford, as well as a considerable number of other forestry
students, who have found professional occupation in practically
all parts of the British Empire. The course of study comprises
now the following subjects :—

(1) The elements of Physics, Chemistry, and Biology.

(2) The formation and properties of Soils, including the

elements of Geology.

(3) Systematic Botany with special reference to trees, shrubs

and other plants of interest in forestry.

EDUCATION AND RESEARCH. 75

(4) Forestry in all its branches.

(5) Forest Engineering and Surveying.

(6) A practical course extending over not less than six months.

The elements of Biology comprise a botanical and a zoological
part ; the former includes a course on the structure and function
of the stem, leaf, root, flower, fruit and seed of plants; the
zoological part deals specially with the animals which are of
interest to the forester and with the classification of insects.

Forestry is divided into (a) the Economics of Forestry and
Forest Policy; (6) Silviculture; (c) Forest Protection, including
special courses on forest insects and on fungi; (d) Forest Utiliza-
tion, with a special course on the structure and quality of timber ;
(e) Forest Mensuration; (jf) Forest Management; (g) Forest
Valuation and Finance.

Practical work in the woods accompanies the theoretical
instruction during term time in Bagley Wood, situated within
two miles of the University, where broad-leaved woods and
extensive plantations of conifers are studied, including a series of
experimental plots used for statistical purposes, and a forest
nursery.

The Practical Course is taken during the vacations, partly in
the Dean, High Meadow Woods, and the Tintern Crown woods,
and partly by visits to other British and continental forests.

Students who have satisfied the examiners in the above sub-
jects, which they can do in the course of two years, receive the
Diploma in Forestry. Those who have passed Responsions and
remain a third year are also awarded the B.A. degree. Special
courses are arranged, as required, in British Estate Forestry and
in subjects wanted by Probationers for the Indian Forest
Service.

A Research Institute is attached to the School of Forestry,
which has, up to date, dealt with the diseases of trees, especially of
the larch, soil surveys and entomological questions. The com-
parative rate of growth of important forest trees is studied in
sample plots established on silvicultural lines in Bagley Wood.

The University of Cambridge instituted instruction in forestry
in 1907 by appointing a Reader in Forestry. A Diploma in
Forestry is offered to those who satisfy the examiners in forestry
and the allied sciences in a course extending over two years.

76 FORESTRY IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

The degree of B.A. in a group of subjects including forestry, is
open to candidates who keep three years’ residence at Cambridge.
Facilities for practical work are provided on the Midhurst Estate
in Sussex. Investigations are carried on regarding timber
technology, identification of colonial timbers, and the properties
of timber in respect of dye-stufis.

The University of Wales, Bangor, in addition to the B.Sc.
degree after three years study, provides a two years’ diploma
course designed to meet the requirements of students who cannot
afford the time necessary for obtaining the higher qualifications
of a degree. Before obtaining the diploma at least six months
must be spent in practical training in forestry. An experimental
area of 50 acres in extent has been laid out, and investigations
regarding the rate of growth of the principal trees have been
conducted on a number of private estates. Research regarding
the influence of heredity from seeds and damage done to trees
by smoke and chemical fumes were interrupted by the war.

The Armstrong College, University of Durham, offers no degree
in forestry, but agricultural students may take forestry as a
subsidiary subject for the degree examination and the College
Diploma in Agriculture. There is also a special course in forestry
including practical work and demonstration in the Chopwell
woods. These woods, extending over 900 acres, are now systema-
tically managed. Experimental plantations at Cockle Park are
also available for demonstration. Before the war research on the
preservative treatment of timber was conducted.

Edinburgh University gives a three years’ course for the
B.Sc. degree in forestry, the syllabus being similar, im general
character, to that followed at Oxford University ; practical
courses are conducted in woods in Scotland and at the forest of
Dean. Visits to the Continent, as usual before the war, have
been resumed. A two years’ diploma course, open only to officers
and others who have served in H.M. Forces during the war, is also
provided.

Aberdeen University provides a degree course of three years
duration, a diploma course of two years, and an applied science
course which may extend over a single session only. A forest
garden at Craibstone affords scope for training the students in
practical work for experiments and demonstration. There are

EDUCATION AND RESEARCH. (a

also extensive forest areas in the neighbourhood of Aberdeen.
Research work is beg pursued on the germination of beech
seed and the subsequent growth of the seedlings; also into the
classification of forest soils according to geological characters and
the determination of the most suitable species for afforestation.

The Edinburgh and Kast of Scotland College of Agriculture
holds at present only evening classes under the College scheme of
extension work.

The Royal College of Science for Ireland, Dublin, awards a
Diploma in Forestry to successful students, the course of instruc-
tion extending over four years. Research has been carried out
on the hybridisation of various species of trees, particularly
poplars ; also on the distinguishing features of the Oregon and
Colorado Douglas firs.

Schools for Forest Apprentices, intended for working men only,
are conducted departmentally by the Forestry Commissioners.
The courses extend over two years, and the number of apprentices
at each school is limited to about 24. The men are chosen on
their merits. The first school was established at the Forest of
Dean in 1904 and has worked satisfactorily. In future the
apprentices will receive a fixed allowance and will be lodged and
catered for free of charge in hostels attached to the school.
Class-room instruction is limited to 14 days per week, the
remainder of the time being spent working in the woods under
trained foremen, and performing the ordinary work of a forester.
Schools for forest apprentices have now been established at:
Parkend in the Forest of Dean; Burley, in the New Forest ;
Chopwell, Rowlands Gill, near Newcastle; Beaufort, Beauly,
Inverness-shire ; Avondale, Rathdrum, Co. Wicklow. The estab-
lishment of further schools is under consideration. Courses of a
few weeks for landowners are also held annually.

The Research Department of the Imperial College of Science
and Technology, London, has, during the last 12 years, conducted
investigations on the mechanical values of timber from home-
grown and foreign woods ; timber used in aircraft ; Scots pine
for use in paving blocks; the relation of timber to various
adhesives ; structure of wood for purposes of identification and
in relation to shrinking, warping, &c.; the loss of water from
wood with reference to kiln-drying ; improvement of the proper-

78 FORESTRY IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

ties of timber such as water-proofing, fire-proofing and the
preservative treatment of wood.

Research and Experimental Work under the Forest Authority :
Before that Authority was established, over 30 permanent sample
plots were established in 1913—1915 in woods of larch, Scots pine
and other species, seventeen of which have already been re-
measured. The selection of additional plots is proceeding in
England and Scotland. Comparative plots are selected, where
possible, and different grades of thinning applied to study the
influence of treatment upon the increment of woods. During
the years 1917—1920, a statistical survey has been carried out, in
the course of which over 1,100 sample plots were measured in
coniferous woods throughout the British Isles, mostly in woods
felled during the war. From the data thus obtained have been
constructed : (a) Volume Tables for Larch and Scots Pine, and
(b) Yield Tables for European Larch, Scots Pine and Norway
Spruce, also preliminary tables for Oregon Douglas Fir, Corsican
Pine and Japanese Larch. These yield tables are incorporated in
Bulletin No. 3, published by the Forestry Commissioners.

Investigations on forest insects are being carried out by the
Commissioners’ Entomologist. The results so far obtained have
been published in Bulletin No. 2. Experiments on the control
of the pine weevil, Hylobius abietis, are being continued ; also,
progress has been made in investigating the biology of the
Douglas fir seed fly, Megastigmus spermotrophus. The aphis,
Chermes cooleyi, attacking the Douglas fir, is receiving attention.

12. THe ImporTANCE OF FORESTRY TO THE NATION.

The esthetic effects of forests have caused the establishment in
the British Islands of fine parks and artistically placed woodlands,
which render the country so beautiful and attractive. By
developing a taste for the charms of landscape, forests exercise a
beneficial influence upon the moral and physical development of
the people, and contribute towards the peace and contentment
of the human mind. The effect is by no means confined to the
rural population ; it is of equal, if not greater, importance to the
dweller in the towns, and especially to the working classes.
Woodlands in the vicinity of the towns should, if possible, be
established to which the people can go on free days to enjoy pure

IMPORTANCE OF FORESTRY TO THE NATION. 79

and fresh air. This will have a most beneficial effect upon them
during the week’s labour, as well as upon their children. Corpora-
tions and County Councils should take the matter in hand, and the
Forestry Commissioners will, doubtlessly, not lose sight of it.

The effects of forests upon the rainfall of these islands is small,
if it exists at all; besides, there is quite enough rain, and in many
places, too much. On the other hand, forests have a decidedly
beneficial effect upon the preservation of moisture, especially
during spells of dry weather, as they greatly reduce evaporation.

The mechanical effect of forests on the stability of the soil on
sloping ground is considerable. Up to the present time, water
rushing down bare hillsides has not done irretrievable damage in
these islands, but the beginning of such action can be seen in the
northern counties of England, or on the route from Chester to
Holyhead, where the water has cut into the hillsides and produced
indentations which will certainly increase, if nothing is done to
arrest the action. Unless the mischief is stopped in time it may
afterwards necessitate the construction of costly works, such as
embankments, dams and weirs. In all these cases afforestation
acts beneficially.

There are signs in various parts of the country that peat bogs
are increasing owing to the unprotected state of waste lands, such
as are found, for instance, in the New Forest. Indeed, some
observers are of opinion that the peat bogs in Ireland came into
existence since the original forests were destroyed.

The protection which well distributed forests provide against
strong winds is of great importance in Great Britain and Ireland.
Such woods also provide breeding places for useful birds, the great
insect destroyers in agricultural districts, though, in this respect,
hedgerows are, perhaps, more useful. Nor should it be forgotten
that woods provide considerable assistance in the defence of the
country, as has been proved during the late war.

While the indirect effects of forests are frequently difficult to
estimate, it is comparatively easy to assess the benefits which a
country derives from woodlands through their produce. Some
details have been given above of the variety of articles which
forests yield, apart from timber and firewood. Some of these
articles can be produced in this country, such as fruits, leaves,
flowers, grass and grazing, all useful in husbandry in the poorer

80 FORESTRY IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

districts ; others are chiefly imported, such as rubber, gutta-
percha, dye-stuffs, gums, turpentine, resin, pitch and tar, fibres,
oils and others. The value of these imports into these islands in
1913 reached the enormous sum of £26,120,000.

Extensive areas are used in this country for the rearing of red
deer, grouse, pheasants and even rabbits, the first two especially
in Scotland. The forester is chiefly interested in rabbits, a plague
which more and more endangers a rational utilization of the land.
If a minute investigation were made into the damage done by
rabbits, not only to forests, but especially to agricultural crops,
people would be astonished at the amount. No doubt rabbits
provide a certain amount of food, especially to the poorer classes,
but that does not compensate for the damage done by them.
Fortunately, as will be seen further on, the Forestry Act gives
power to deal with the matter satisfactorily as far as forests are
concerned.

No doubt, shooting rents are a convenient source of income.
If, however, the areas are compared with the income derived from
them, it will be found that the rent is not nearly as large as is
sometimes assumed. On an average, shooting rents fall short of
a shilling an acre ; there are areas which yield half a crown, or even
more, but there are also extensive areas which yield only a few
pence anacre. On the other hand, much of the land can be made
to yield a considerably higher return if put under forest.

The demand for firewood in this country is much smaller than
in continental countries, where the supply of substitutes and the
means of transport are less favourable. Before the war, the price
of firewood in many parts of the country barely covered the cost
of preparing it, and frequently not even that. During the war,
the demand and the price increased very considerably. It was
wanted not only for military operations, but also for domestic
use owing to the shortness of the coal supply, as well as for the
manufacture of charcoal, acetone and other substances. It is
impossible to say what development in this direction the future
may bring, but there will always be a considerable quantity of
firewood available from coppice woods and all the parts of trees
which are not fit for timber.

Although the requirements so far enumerated demand atten-
tion, the crux of the question of forestry is the supply of the

THE FORESTRY SUB-COMMITTEE. 81

necessary timber and pitwood. It has been shown above that
during the period 1909—1913, the average annual consumption
of timber and pitwood amounted to about 11 million loads, of
which about 1 million loads were produced in the country. It
has also been shown that the future supply of the 10 million loads
of imported timber rests on a very unsafe basis even in peace
time. The great war, in proving that it was practically impossible
to obtain the necessary timber from outside, brought it home to
the nation that the time had arrived for the adoption of a decided
forest policy. This led to the appointment, in July, 1916, of the
Forestry Sub-Committee of the Reconstruction Committee, and
the passing of the Forestry Act of 1919, to be dealt with in the
following pages.

SECTION III.—THE FORESTRY SUB-COMMITTEE OF 1916-17,

The Forestry Sub-Committee consisted of fourteen members
with the Right Honourable F. D. Acland, M.P., as Chairman.
The terms of reference were :—

“To consider and report upon the best means of conserving
and developing the woodlands and forestry resources of the
United Kingdom, having regard to the experience gained
during the war.”

After strenuous work extending over 10 months, the Committee
submitted their report in May, 1917. The following pages give
a contracted account of the report, with such remarks as the
author of this book (a member of the Sub-Committee) considers
desirable to add. The report served as the basis of the Forestry
Act of 1919, which lays down the future forest policy of Great
Britain and Ireland.

1. InrTRODUCTORY.

Already in the Middle Ages attempts were made to protect
certain forests which, at that time, served principally as the
hunting grounds of the King. During a long period, however,
destruction of the forests was a prominent feature, and, as
mentioned above, it was not until towards the end of the eigh-
teenth century that the timber outlook became really serious.
Arrangements were then made under which over 50,000 acres

principally of oak woods were added to the Crown forests for the
VOL. I. Q

82 FORESTRY IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

future requirements of the Royal Navy. As it was found in the
nineteenth century that oak timber was no longer required for
the Navy, no further efforts of afforestation by the State were
made.

About the year 1880 questions were raised as to the more
profitable management of the Crown Woods, the utilization of
waste lands and the more extended production of coniferous
timber. A Parliamentary Select Committee investigated these
questions, and suggested, in the first place, the establishment of
a School of Forestry either on the lines of that at Coopers Hill, or
in connection with it; also the establishment of a Forest Board
to deal with educational matters. Practically, these suggestions
were not carried out, but they were followed by a series of other
Committees and Commissions, such as :—

The Departmental Committee of the Board of Agriculture,
1902.
The Departmental Committee on Irish Forestry, 1907.
The Royal Commission on Coast Erosion, 1909.
The Departmental Committee on Forestry in Scotland, 1911.
The Advisory Committee on Forestry, 1912.
The report of the Royal Commission of 1909 led to the establish-
ment of the Development Commission.

It is not necessary to record here in detail the proposals made by
the above-mentioned committees, but to state that the results
were not up to expectations. Two schools for forest subordinates
were established at the Dean and at Avondale in Ireland, and
lectureships at several agricultural colleges and universities. In
Ireland, forest surveys were started and some land for afforestation
and some depleted forests acquired. A Railway Fire Act was
passed. The Development Commission assisted to some extent
education, research, experimental work, provided funds for
advisory work on private estates, and gave some moderate grants
to assist the afforestation of waterworks catchment areas. With
the exception of Ireland no real progress was made in the afforesta-
tion of additional areas, except what was done by the Commis-
sioners of Woods. The latter acquired the Clearwell and Tintern
Woods, which, with the Dean and High Meadow Woods, represent
a wooded area of over 17,000 acres; they also acquired the
Inverliever estate of 12,000 acres in Scotland.

EXPERIENCE GAINED DURING THE WAR. 83

The author of this book took up the question of improved
forestry and extended afforestation soon after his return from
India in 1885, and placed his views before the public by writing,
lecturing, and practical advice given to forest proprietors. In
this task he was, after a time, followed by others, more especially
by Dr. J. Nisbet and Mr. W. R. Fisher. Some progress, though
slow, was made in drawing attention to the importance of
forestry, and in 1895 the late Sir Stafford Howard, Commissioner
of Woods, took up the task of improving the management of the
Crown Woods. He had reports on the Dean and High Meadow
Woods drawn up by a distinguished Indian forest officer, and in
1899 he appointed the first scientific forester to assist in the
management of the Dean, High Meadow and Tintern Woods.
Subsequently these woods came under the management of the
scientifically tramed Forestry Inspectors of the Board of Agricul-
ture, who continued and further developed the system of manage-
ment. These areas are now the most instructive forests in the
country, and they show the paramount importance of entrusting
the management of forests to scientifically tramed men. They
also prove that the State is quite capable of successfully carrying
out schemes of afforestation and of providing effective manage-
ment. Thus, by 1914, a considerable number of people had
recognised the importance of the systematic management of
forests and the necessity of a considerable extension of their area,
but it required a further stimulus to convert this movement into
action, and this was provided by the war.

2. EXPERIENCE GAINED DURING THE WAR.

Within a month of the outbreak of the war, fears arose that the
British coal mines might run short of pitwood, owing to the rapid
reduction of the imports of such wood. Enquiries were set on
foot to ascertain :—

(a) What quantities of home-grown pitwood were available.

(6) Whether the available amount was sufficient for the needs

of the collieries until normal conditions would once more
obtain.
The enquiries showed that the total existing quantity would be
used up in about two years, exclusive of existing stocks and
further supplies from outside. Soon afterwards timber for
a 2

84 FORESTRY IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

general consumption also began to fail, and, above all, the require-
ments of timber necessary for an efficient conduct of the war
assumed gigantic proportions. The submarine warfare interfered
more and more with the imports of timber, especially from the
Baltic. They reached in 1915 only 75 per cent. of those before
the war, and sank to 63 per cent. in 1916. At the same time,
prices rose enormously, so that the country had to pay £37,000,000
more for the wood imports during those two years than it would
have paid before the war.

In the meantime the quantity of available shipping had rapidly
decreased, and every possible step to increase the tonnage had to
be taken. As the imports of timber required some 6 million tons
annually, a quantity approximately equal to that required for the
import of grain, it was decided, in January, 1917, to prohibit the
import of timber except by licence, to obtain the timber required
for home consumption chiefly from British woods, and that for
the conduct of the war, as far as possible, from French forests.
A timber supply department was established in France, and the
home timber supply department thoroughly organised and
considerably enlarged. Canadian lumbermen were obtained, men
not fit for general service were transferred to forestry battalions,
sawmills were hired and bought. ‘The transport of the material
presented great difficulty ; there were no horses available, and
mechanical traction difficult to obtain, owing to the large demand
for military purposes ; nor were the roads in many parts of the
country sufficiently solid to bear the heavy traffic. The war
found the home timber market in an unorganised condition
and unable to meet efficiently the sudden demands made upon it.

3. NECESSITY OF AN ADEQUATE Forest Po.icy.

What has been said so far justifies the following conclusions :—

(1) The supply of home-grown timber is altogether insufficient
to meet, even in times of peace, the ever-increasing
requirements.

(2) The supply of imported timber in the future is uncertain,
and this is a grave source of weakness in time of war or
any other emergency.

(3) Afforestation would increase the productiveness of large
areas of land in the country, which are now little more

NECESSITY OF AN ADEQUATE FOREST POLICY. 85

than waste land, and which would benefit a considerable
part of the population if placed under forest.
These points show that the forest policy of the State in the past
was inadequate. The following remarks will further strengthen
this assertion :—

The surprise of the war has been the enormous amount of wood
consumed by military operations. To carry this, as well as the
timber and pitwood urgently wanted at home, required a very
large amount of shipping which was urgently wanted for the
transport of war material and food. Moreover, the timber could
be procured only by a heavy loss due to inflated prices of freight
and insurance, loss of cargoes sunk by the enemy and by deprecia-
tion of the rate of exchange. Owing to these difficulties and the
urgent necessity of setting free the timber carrying shipping for
other purposes, the Government was forced to prohibit the import
of timber in 1917, except by special licence. The country was then
forced to fall back on its own timber resources, and serious inroads
have been made on British woods during the war, in fact, so much
so, that, if the war had lasted another year, disastrous consequences
would have resulted. Of hardwoods there is still a fair amount
in the country, as, with the exception of ash, the demand for it
was comparatively small, but the balance of coniferous timber fit
to cut would not have been sufficient for even one year’s require-
ments. Fortunately, the timber required for the front could be
obtained from French forests. As a consequence, the people and
the Government of the country recognised at last the necessity of
immediate action, not only to restock the cleared areas but to
increase substantially the area under wood, so as to have a
considerably larger stock to fall back upon in the case of any
future emergency.

Apart from the considerations so far mentioned, a policy of
extended afforestation is justified and desirable on account of the
substantial benefits which it confers on the people, especially in
the sparsely populated districts, such as the Highlands of Scotland
and the hilly districts of northern England, Wales and Ireland.
In those parts large areas are now devoted to the rearing of sheep
and deer, while the reclamation and equipment for agricultural
operations is possible only if some other industry can be carried
on at the same time, which provides occupation to the small

86 FORESTRY IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

farmer and his family during winter when they would otherwise
be idle. In these cases, forestry and the industries based on it can
help. By afforesting mountain and heath land the amount of
labour will be considerably increased as compared with light
grazing, thus enabling the small holder to exist in decent comfort.
Forestry fits in with farm work better than any other industry, as
most of its work can be done in winter when the farm requires
little attention. It should not be overlooked that afforestation
can be made a means of dealing to some extent with the formidable
question of the unemployed.

The question as to how far afforestation leads to an increase of
national wealth deserves consideration. Such increase may be
effected in a variety of ways, such as higher returns from the land,
or, to express it differently, by a higher rate of interest yielded by
the invested capital, by the increased safety of the country in case
of an emergency, the more economic utilization of the land not
required for agriculture or other useful purposes, the development
of industries using forest produce as their raw material, the extra
amount of work provided, the retention of capital in the country
and, last but not least, the amelioration of the conditions of life in
the poorer parts of the country.

4. REPLACEMENT OF IMPORTED BY HOME-GROWN TIMBER.

Before formulating a new forest policy for the future, it is
necessary to consider whether, and to what extent, home-grown
timber can be substituted for imported timber.

An analysis of the official returns of timber imported in 1913,
the last complete year before the war, shows that the main classes
of timber were represented in the following proportion :—

Coniferous timber . . 60-2 per cent.
Pitwood P 4 : : | OSES ee
Oak timber. 4 5 : ee
Staves, big and small : ; . Saha
Teak, Mahogany and Fancy Woods. 38 ,,
Miscellaneous timbers. ‘ . 24

Total f ‘ . 100 2

Coniferous timber and pitwood together amounted to 90 per cent.

REPLACEMENT OF IMPORTED TIMBER. 87

of the imports, and these can all be replaced in Great Britain and
Ireland by larch, pines, spruces and firs. Oak, ash and some
other species included under Miscellaneous Woods can also be
grown at home. On the other hand, teak, mahogany, and most
of the fancy woods come from tropical countries. Wood pulp is
made almost entirely of spruce and pine, and it can be prepared
from home-grown material.

It has been said that home-grown timber is of inferior quality
compared with that of the same species imported from abroad.
As to the quality of home-grown oak and ash, it is well known
that it is at least equal to that of imported oak and ash, and in
many cases superior. The same holds good in the case of beech
and larch. It is true that inferior spruce and pine has frequently
been produced at home in the past, but it is equally true that this
was the result of faulty silviculture. Thinnings during the first
half of the life of the woods were too heavy, and pines were, in the
majority of cases, cut before they had formed heartwood. More
rational treatment will remedy this. The greatest obstacle to
successful forest production in Great Britain and Ireland is the
westerly, and especially south-westerly, winds, but proper treat-
ment modifies the effect of these winds very considerably. Woods
should never be opened out on the side whence the prevailing
winds blow, but on the opposite side.

On the whole, it may be said that the question of reducing
Britain’s dependence on imports of timber and wood derivatives
depends on the area of land available for afforestation and the will
of the nation to plant it. The chief difficulty in the way of affores-
tation is the fact that the bulk of the mountain and heath land is
private property. In some cases proprietors are not inclined to
plant, and in others they cannot afford to meet the initial expense
of planting, or to forego the present small income from the land
until the plantations begin to yield a return. In these circum-
stances three ways of meeting the difficulty present themselves :—

(a) The State may encourage afforestation by private proprietors

by giving them financial assistance when necessary.

(6) Municipalities and other corporations may acquire land and

convert it into corporation forests.

(c) The State may acquire land, either by purchase or long

lease, and afforest it.

88 FORESTRY IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

All three agencies should be put into motion, and the State should
ordinarily restrict its action to that part which private proprietors
and corporations are unable or unwilling to undertake.

There remains, however, the financial aspect of the undertaking.
In this place attention will be drawn to one fact, which has been
somewhat overlooked: The price of imported timber fell from
1871 to 1884 in consequence of the development of trade generally
and the rapid increase of the mercantile fleets. From 1884 to 1892
prices kept, with some oscillations, on about the same level. Then
a rise set in which lasted until the outbreak of the war; during
that period the average price of coniferous timber and pitwood
rose by 30 per cent. of the price in 1892. At present prices are
abnormally high, and so is that of labour. What the price of
both may be when the effect of the war has disappeared it is
impossible to say, but there cannot be any doubt that they will
rise and fall together and in due proportion. These variations
will have no effect in the long run on the financial aspect of
forestry, and intending planters need not have any fear as regards
high wages of labourers, because they will be compensated by
corresponding higher prices of timber.

5. Tue Forest Poiicy or THE FUTURE.

The forest policy of the future must be based on the facts that
the present production of home-grown timber is altogether
insufficient, that the prospect of obtaining future supplies is un-
certain, and that in the case of any future emergency security can
be obtained only by having a sufficient stock of timber at home.

The problem of providing adequate home supplies is divided
into two parts :—

(a) The improvement of existing woods including the replanting

of the areas cleared during the war.

(6) The afforestation of additional areas.

Beginning with the existing woods, which covered before the war
just over 3,000,000 acres, it is stated that about 300,000 acres were
cleared during the war, so that, for some time to come, the annual
yield will be much below even the small figure which it had
reached before the war. Not only have mature crops been felled
in all parts of the country, but many thousands of acres of young
immature woods have been cleared for pitwood and other purposes

THE FOREST POLICY OF THE FUTURE. 89

or have been thinned to a degree which renders clearing and
replanting essential. All this refers to coniferous woods. Hard-
woods, especially those of oak, have experienced less drastic
treatment. Under these circumstances, the existing woods, even
under systematic treatment, could not provide the necessary
timber to meet periods of national emergency. These woods
yielded before the war about 47,000,000 cubic feet annually, or
about 15 cubic feet per acre and year, and in their present
condition they are not likely to reach, for a considerable period
of time, a yield of more than 30 to 40 million cubic feet annually,
even under proper management. This small production it is
considered advisable to allot to meeting any further increase in
the demand for timber, and to leave it out of consideration in
calculating the area of new afforestation.

The average annual imports of wood (timber and pulp-wood
calculated as growing crops) during the years 1909 to 1913 which
could be grown in Great Britain and Ireland were as follows :—

Conifers :

Cubic Feet. Total.

Unconverted timber : . 175,000,000
Converted timber . ‘ . 360,000,000
Pulpwood . : ; . 85,000,000

—— 620,000,000

Hardwoods :

Unconverted Oak and others . —_: 10,000,000
Converted. i ; ; 8,000,000

= — 18,000,000

Grand total, Conifers and Hardwoods. . 638,000,000

To provide all this wood, the following areas will be required.
The Sub-Committee estimated the yield, final cuttings and
thinnings, in the case of conifers at 70 cubic feet annually per acre
of afforested land, and at 35 cubic feet in the case of hardwoods.

Hence, the required areas would be :—
Acres.

For Conifers . 620,000,000, divided by 70, equal to 8,857,143
For Hardwoods . 18,000,000 ERO ae a7, 514,286

Total area to be afforested . ; : . 9,371,429

90 FORESTRY IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

which would be equal to 12 per cent. of the total area of Great
Britain and Ireland. The two classes of timber stand, however,
on a different footing. |

Dealing first with conifers, the Sub-Committee pointed out that
there is no necessity to provide a home supply of 620 million
cubic feet annually, as in normal times imports may come in as
before the war ; all that the country requires is to have sufficient
timber at home to make the country safe in time of an emergency.
Whatever the area under systematic management may be, the
different age gradations will always be represented running from
one year up to the age of rotation, say 80 years. In normal times
the oldest gradation, 80 years old, is cut every year, but in a case
of emergency more than one gradation may be cut, say, up to five,
and this might be repeated for, say, 3 years, making the country
safe for 3 years. There would then be left a series of age grada-
tions running from | to 68 years old. The deficiency in the normal
stock could then be replaced by cutting below the normal yield for
some years after the emergency period is passed. In adopting
such a system, only one-fifth of the above-mentioned area will be
required to make the country safe for 3 years.

The case of hardwoods is different. While the afforestation
of conifers will be effected on land which is not fit or wanted for
the production of agricultural crops, hardwoods require as a rule
better land than conifers, and, apart from the area already under
wood, ‘little land of the desired quality is obtainable without
encroaching upon agricultural land. A limited amount of hard-
wood must be grown with conifers for silvicultural and protective
reasons, but that rarely reaches proper timber size and quality.
Under these circumstances the State should buy woods and
especially devastated or cleared areas, and manage them for
the production of hardwoods on the principle of a sustained
yield.

The required areas would thus stand as follows :—

Acres.
Area to be afforested with Conifers . , . 1,770,000
Area required for the production of Hardwoods . 100,000

Total area to be afforested . F : . 1,870,000

THE FOREST POLICY OF THE FUTURE. 91

If it should be considered necessary to make the country safe for
a longer period than 3 years, the area to be afforested would have
to be correspondingly increased.

Under a rotation of 80 years for conifers, theoretically one-
eightieth of the area should be planted every year, but as the
remaining stock of timber has sunk to a very low figure, the Sub-
Committee proposed to plant two-thirds of the total area during
the first 40 years, leaving one-third for the second half of the first
rotation. For hardwoods it is sufficient to afforest at the rate
of 1,000 acres annually. It is thus proposed to plant during the
first 40 years 1,180,000 acres with conifers and 40,000 acres with
hardwoods. It is further pointed out that caution during the
early years of the operations is highly desirable, and that, there-
fore, the planting during the first 10 years should be reduced from
the normal amount of 295,000 acres to 200,000 acres, in addition
to pushing on the replanting of areas cleared durmg the war.
What the latter area may be cannot be stated at present, but the
Sub-Committee hopes that it will not Fe less than 50,000 acres.
The deficiency of 95,000 acres can be made good in the second
period of 10 years.

Hedgerow timber has not been dealt with by the Sub-Com-
mittee. It is closely connected with agriculture and left to that
Department to deal with, at any rate for the present.

In selecting the areas required and available for afforestation
it should be understood that, excepting small areas for the
production of hardwoods, no land fit or reclaimable for agriculture
should be planted. It may even be possible to bring areas which
are now too isolated into cultivation in connection with afforesta-
tion. The Forest Authority must look to land classed as mountain
and heath land, of which the following areas exist :—

Acres.
In Great Britain. : ; ; . 12,801,974
Add area of deer forests . : : ee oN be A ayitey

16,321,652
Deduct land over 1,500 feet elevation con-
sidered unplantable . : ; £ 3,537,172

Balance available for selection . ; . 12,784,480

92 FORESTRY IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

Two-thirds of the area are situated in Scotland. From this area
large deductions must, however, be made on the basis of detailed
investigations in Dorset and Hampshire, in Glen Mor in Scotland,
and in the west of Scotland, by excluding poor tillage lands, deep
peaty soil, rocky surfaces, exposed positions, &c. After making
very liberal deductions in this way the Sub-Committee were
satisfied that there are certainly between 4 and 5 million acres of
planting land available, including some 500,000 acres in Ireland.
This area is more than double that which it is proposed to plant
during the next 80 years.

The allocation of the land to be afforested in England, Wales,
Scotland and Ireland must be left to the Forest Authority, but as
the main argument for afforestation centres in the defence of the
country, it is necessary to record certain aspects of the task. The
nearer the growing wood is to the place of consumption, the less
labour and transport is required. In normal times large manu-
facturing and mining centres are the chief consumers of timber,
and, other things being equal, the forests should be as near to
them as possible. Another important point is that enormous
quantities of wood are required in modern warfare, which makes
it essential that supplies should be available within reasonable
distance of the firing line. Nor should it be forgotten that forests
have great value in the defence of the country. All these, and
other, considerations make it essential to distribute the forests as
evenly as possible over the country. It follows that the new
forests should not be concentrated too much in one of the King-
doms, or in a limited number of districts, but that they should
be distributed as evenly as the presence of suitable land permits.
The initial outlay may be increased somewhat, but the timber will
presumably be close to the centres of utilization and therefore
have a higher value.

6. MetHops oF AFFORESTATION.

The land to be afforested and the bulk of the land to be
replanted are private property, and it is highly desirable that as
much as possible of the afforestation should be undertaken by the
proprietors of the land, that is to say, by private owners and
corporations, while the State should do that portion which the
other agencies decline or are unable to undertake. In view,

METHODS OF AFFORESTATION. 93

however, of the urgency and importance of the matter, it is highly
desirable that the State should show the way by afforesting the
main part of the 200,000 acres to be planted during the first
10 years, thereby stimulating and encouraging private proprietors
to do likewise. Too much should not be expected from the latter
during the first years, but it is hoped that private participation
will increase as the work proceeds ; in the same degree as that
increases, the amount of afforestation by the State can be
decreased. That process may be accelerated by monetary
assistance to private proprietors or by a co-partnership of private
proprietors and the State, as will be explained further on. The
Sub-Committee estimated the following division of the work
during the first 10 years :—

Acres.

Afforestation by direct State action . ‘ . 150,000
Afforestation by Co-partnership : , . 25,000
Afforestation by Corporations and Private Owners 25,000

Total new afforestation : . . 200,000
Replanting of cleared areas by proprietors . . 50,000

Grand total of operations during first 10 years . 250,000

Afforestation by the State.—In so far as State or Crown lands are
not available, the necessary area must be acquired, either by
purchase or long lease. In selecting the land to be acquired, care
should be taken to ascertain whether a sufficient area is obtainable
in any district to form an administrative and silvicultural unit,
and to arrange the sequence of planting operations accordingly.
It is, however, not necessary to disturb the present holders of the
land for more than one or two years ahead of the actual planting.

Purchase of land is necessary when the required area cannot
be obtained in any other way. It involves a heavy outlay at
starting, and it has, therefore, been proposed to try renting the
land on a long lease, which should run for not less than one
rotation. If this scheme succeeds, the immediate outlay would
be greatly reduced; nor would it be necessary to secure land
more than four years ahead of planting. To induce proprietors
to lease land for afforestation, they might be given the right of

rT]

94 FORESTRY IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

taking over the wood at any time at a satisfactory valuation of the
outlay, with interest, on the part of the Forest Authority.

It is desirable that as much as possible of the required land,
whether by purchase or lease, be secured by voluntary contract,
but power of compulsory acquisition must be given to the Forest
Authority, so that a single owner may not hold up the develop-
ment of a scheme that has been undertaken.

The Method of Co-Partnership.—tt is proposed that the owner
should provide the land and the local management, while the
State would contribute the money for the cost of afforestation
and control the management; the net receipts would then be
divided equitably according to the amount of capital put in by
each partner. The advantage on the part of the State would be
that the immediate outlay would be much reduced as compared
with direct purchase, that the experience and local knowledge of
the landowner would be utilized, and that the number of men in
direct State employment would be much reduced. The advan-
tage on the part of the landowner would be that he retains
possession of the land, and that the experience and expert advice
of the Forest Authority are at the back of the venture, which
might incline him to take a risk otherwise inexpedient to him.
The Sub-Committee was hopeful that this system would be
successful.

Afforestation by Local Authorities—Many large cities have
become the owners of considerable tracts of land which serve as
the catchment areas of their water supply. The best way of
utilizing these lands is to put them under forest, as this tends to
equalise the run-off during the different seasons of the year and
to fix the surface soil, thus reducing the amount of silt carried into
the reservoirs. It should be the rule that in catchment areas
all suitable land will be afforested, and that local authorities
should be eligible to receive assistance from the State in the same
way as private proprietors.

Attention should also be drawn to the value of forests as recrea-
tion grounds, especially in the neighbourhood of the towns. The
shade in summer and the protection against cold winds render
forests in this respect more serviceable than open parks, while the
use by the public need not appreciably reduce the return of timber
and other produce derivable from the areas. The establishment

REPLANTING OF CLEARED AREAS. 95

of such recreation grounds should be encouraged by local authori-
ties and the Forest Authority of the country.

Assistance given to Private Proprietors.—Although it is essential
that a certain proportion of the forests should be the property of
the State as a safeguard in the case of an emergency, the afforesta-
tion by private landowners is really of the first importance in the
case of Great Britain. The Sub-Committee paid, therefore,
special attention to the question of giving suitable assistance to
private landowners, to induce them to plant. After careful
consideration, the Sub-Committee decided to offer a contribution
of about half the cost of planting, that is to say, £2 in the case of
conifer plantations, and up to £4 in the case of hardwood planta-
tions, per acre. These were appropriate rates before the war,
but they have been upset, at any rate temporarily, by the
enormous increase in the cost of labour and the rate of interest
at present obtainable from safe investments. That interest has
risen to 6 per cent. against about half the amount before the war.
Under these circumstances, not much progress in planting by
private landowners can be expected just at present, and until
the cost of labour and rate of interest have once more approached
normal conditions.

Instead of a contribution to the cost of planting, the assistance
may take other forms, such as loans at a somewhat reduced rate
of interest, relief from public burdens and taxes during the early
years of the forest’s existence, &c. In all these cases the total
value of concession should not exceed the sums of £2 and £4
respectively given above.

The grant of assistance would, of course, be conditional to a
certain control by the Forest Authority, such as the selection of
the land to be planted, approval of the working plan, and an
undertaking that the wood is maintained for a minimum number
of years, say 30, so that the State may derive some benefit from
the planting.

7. REPLANTING OF AREAS CLEARED DURING THE WAR.

The replanting of areas cleared or devastated during the war is
of the greatest importance. The area felled during the war is
at present estimated at about 300,000 acres, and the Sub-Com-
mittee considered the question of compulsory replanting by the

96 FORESTRY IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

*

owners, on the ground that the proprietors had received much
higher prices for the timber than they would have obtained in
ordinary times. This was, however, not the case in all instances,
and, considering the moderate yield of most of the wcods before
the war, it is very doubtful whether any of the proprietors realised
more than a fair return on their previous outlay. It should also
be remembered that it would be an unsound policy to attempt the
immediate replanting of the large areas, from which coniferous
timber has recently been felled, on account of the danger from
insect pests. Under these conditions the Sub-Committee consi-
dered it unwise to employ immediate compulsory methods, but
they drew attention to the fact that the State can take any
necessary measures, when considering the general question,
whether an owner is making the best use of his land in the national
interest. If land previously under timber is not put to better use,
the onus will be upon the owner to show why it should not again
be put under timber. This will act as an indirect compulsion to
replant all the areas which cannot be used to greater profit in some
other way. In the meantime the Sub-Committee recommend
that grants up to the maximum of £2 and £4 respectively made
for planting new ground with conifers or hardwoods, should also
be admissible in the case of clear-felled and devastated areas,
each case being considered on its own merits.

8. AFFORESTATION AND KMPLOYMENT.

The scheme of State afforestation recommended by the Sub-
Committee begins with the planting of 3,300 acres in the second
year, to be increased by regular steps to 30,000 in the tenth year.
Assuming that, on an average, one man will be required for each
scheme involving the planting of 10 acres per annum, the number
of men permanently settled on the land would be 330 in the second
year and 3,000 in the tenth year, in each case exclusive of
supervision.

After the plantations have been established, and up to the
fifteenth year, they require comparatively little attention,
consisting of weeding for 2 or 3 first years after planting, and
occasional repairs of fences and drains. From about the fifteenth
year onwards the plantations require to be thinned, first lightly
and gradually more strongly ; roads will have to be made and

AFFORESTATION AND EMPLOYMENT. 97

the material obtained from the thinnings prepared and hauled to
the market or railway station, so that the amount of labour will
steadily increase. By the fortieth year it may be found advisable
to begin, on a small scale, the clear-felling of the first planted
areas. Timber fit for sawing would begin to be cut about 10 to
15 years later, and by the eightieth year the forests should be in
full yielding. The Sub-Committee estimated that then about
one man will be permanently required for every 100 acres (the
author thinks that 75 acres is nearer the mark) for all work to be
done inside the forest. The conversion of timber will give
employment to about the same number of men as the forest itself.
The running of the total afforested area of 1,870,000 acres would
thus employ 18,700 men. Deducting 2,000 sheep farming men
displaced by afforestation, the net gain would be 16,700 men,
and if the conversion of timber and wood manufactures are added
the net gain amounts to about 33,400 men. If 25,000 families
supply that number, about 125,000 persons would be provided
for, living under healthy conditions with continuity of steady
employment.

Whether, and to what extent, afforestation can be utilised to
meet periods of unemployment, is perhaps difficult to say.
Schemes of afforestation to be successful, must be carried out
according to a set plan, but it may be possible to expand planting
operations for a limited period without seriously upsetting
working plans ; the area to be planted could be doubled for 3 or
4. years, or roads could be constructed in advance, thus providing
extra work for unemployed men. This plan has since been
adopted.

On the other hand, afforestation offers an opportunity for the
settlement of demobilised soldiers. The number of men who can
be permanently settled under the proposed scheme depends on
the rate at which it develops. There would be room for 330 men
in the first year, rising by degrees to 3,000 in the tenth year. If
required, it would be easy to speed up operations so as to
accommodate a larger number at the outset.

9. AFFORESTATION AND THE Foop Suppty.

The afforestation of grazing lands would result in a reduction of
the food supply, which the Sub-Committee estimates at perhaps

VOL. I. if

98 FORESTRY IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

10 lb. per acre a year, and, in the case of deer forest land, at 2 lb.
annually per acre. This would cause a loss of about 0-4 per
cent. of the total meat requirements of the country. The with-
drawal of 1,770,000 acres would be gradual and spread over a
period of 80 years, thus causing a sacrifice so diminutive that it
cannot be considered when compared with the object in view
of making the country self-supporting in timber in an emergency
like that of the recent war.

10. THE PROMOTION OF SILVICULTURE.

The Sub-Committee has made proposals under a variety of
heads, which will, in this place, only be mentioned shortly.

Surveys are necessary towards the institution of schemes of
afforestation. Some progress has already been made with the
inspection and classification of uncultivated lands, but the work
requires speeding up, and it should ultimately be extended to
include all woods.

The Office of Woods and the Board of Agriculture have sown
considerable quantities of seed, and lined out the resulting seed-
lings in extensive nurseries. This work is to be steadily con-
tinued, so that operations can now be commenced and gradually
extended as indicated above.

For carrying out the scheme proposed by the Sub-Committee,
three classes of officials will be required, forest officers, foresters,
and foremen. Some men of the first class are available ; addi-
tional men will pass through a special forestry course at one of the
recognised universities, and their practical training should be
given a distinctly British bias, to which visits to instructive
continental forests should be added. The Sub-Committee points
out that there are at present more schools of forestry of the
university type than are necessary to train all the officers required
for the British Empire, and that this involves a great waste of
money ; hence, the Forest Authority should select one or perhaps
two, of the best schools for the instruction of their cadets and
assist them in making the instruction as complete and suitable as
possible. For the purpose of practical instruction, the Forest of
Dean, the High Meadow Woods and the Tintern Crown Woods
are rapidly becoming good demonstration areas. Others will be
added as the work proceeds. After all, the best demonstration

THE PROMOTION OF SILVICULTURE. 99

areas are forests managed according to correct silvicultural
principles. There is, unfortunately, no demonstration area in
Scotland. Students from Scotland should, for the present, make
use of the above-mentioned areas in England.

The Sub-Committee proposes that the foresters and foremen
should be recruited by taking young men at the age of 18 or 19
into elementary forestry schools. It is desirable that these men
should have had some experience of woods. The schools should
be open to young workmen, who have attended continuation or
secondary schools. All would enter the forestry school as
workmen and receive wages, performing the ordinary operations
of forestry, and receiving instruction during six months. Those
who have proved to be intelligent and energetic will be allowed to
attend further courses for 18 months. Some of the latter would,
at the end of the two years’ course, be fit for immediate appoint-
ment as foresters, others would obtain such appointments after
further experience as foremen, others would remain foremen,
others might be kept on as skilled woodmen. Several schools
suitable for the training of these men already exist, and others
will be organised as required. It is essential that men sent
by private proprietors should be admitted to these schools.

The methods prevailing in British forestry in the past have
yielded a considerable amount of experience of what, and how,
to do, as well as what, and how, not to do. The experience thus
gained will enable the Forest Authority to commence operations
in a rational way, but the further development of silviculture
requires a considerable amount of laboratory research and
experiments in the forest. On the intelligent prosecution of these
will depend the ultimate success of the scheme of improving
existing woods, creating and tending others, and the adoption of
the best method of treatment. Forestry can as little do without
continual research as any other branch of industry. The various
problems awaiting research and experiment in the woods are too
numerous to be dealt with in this place ; they all tend towards
providing the most favourable conditions for a healthy and
vigorous development of the growing woods, such as the action of
different soils on tree growth, the effect of climatic conditions, the
damage likely to be done by insects and fungi, the rate of growth,

the quality of timber and endless others.
H2

100 FORESTRY IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

The Sub-Committee recommend the continuance of the advisory
system introduced in 1912 in England and in 1917 in Scotland,
by appointing officers to advise private proprietors on the manage-
ment of their woods. In Ireland the regular forest officers of the
Board of Agriculture have done similar work. The measure has
produced good results in the past in promoting a wider under-
standing of scientific forest management.

11. Pustic BURDENS RESTING ON WOODLANDS.

It is stated that woodlands may be subject to one or all of the
following burdens :—

(a) Local rates.

(6) Income tax, including super-tax.

(c) Death and succession duties.

(d) Excess profit tax.

(e) Land tax, tithe rent and similar charges.

(f) Special payments in respect of extraordinary traffic on

public roads.

This is not the place to deal in detail with the different burdens ;
the following short notes will suffice. Some of the items, as
(c) and (d), are not peculiar to forestry, but apply to all sorts of
property, and they need not be considered here. Local rates and
land tax differ practically from place to place. Special payments
in respect of extraordinary traffic are altogether an unjust charge,
because woodlands pay taxes over the whole lifetime of the wood,
whether there is any traffic over public roads or not. By demand-
ing extra payment when the wood is cut over, the proprietor is
asked to pay road cess twice over.

There is only one just method of assessing taxes on woodlands,
namely, to calculate the tax on the basis of the net income which
the woodland is capable of yielding. That basis should be
utilized for the assessment of both income tax and local rates.
Fortunately the Revenue Authorities have recognised the justice
of the method by allowing forest proprietors to be assessed under
Schedule D, which proprietors should do. Under this system an
account is kept of all outlay and income, the tax being calculated
from the difference of the two. The taxation under Schedule D.
has, however, drawbacks, as it now stands. A proprietor may
spend more money than is necessary, and the management may

RAILWAY RATES. 101

be so inferior that the returns are lower than they should be.
When the new Forest Authority has time to take up the question
it may be possible to draw up tables based on average results,
giving the net yield which woods can give if managed according to
sound silvicultural principles, on which taxation can be based.
Such tables should be graded according to quality classes of
locality and species.

12. Rattway RaATEs.

The high cost of transporting home-grown timber by rail has
been the source of many complaints by timber growers. They
argue that timber is deserving of a lower classification than
that actually assigned to it, that imported timber receives more
favourable consideration, and generally that rates should be
reduced to a level permitting home-grown timber to compete in
the open market with imported material. To these arguments
the railway companies answer that home-grown timber is
placed on rail intermittently and in small lots, that it takes up
much space in proportion to its weight, and that the maximum
rates fixed by Parliament have not been exceeded. The Sub-
Committee believed that the timber industry has been unduly
hampered by railway rates, and that large quantities of valuable
home-grown timber fail to reach their most useful market owing
to the heavy railway charges. The question is, however, beset
by considerable difficulties, especially at the present time. It
should be inquired into in any case, as it is highly desirable that
rates should, if possible, be granted between the main producing
and consuming centres which would make timber growing fairly
remunerative. Time will, no doubt, remove one difficulty. In
the same degree as silviculture improves, will the main argument
of the railway companies disappear. Timber will be produced
which in shape resembles that now imported from abroad ; it
will pack better and be delivered on rail in larger quantities and at
regular intervals.

13. ORGANISATION OF THE TIMBER INDUSTRY.

The difficulty of improvising in time of an emergency like that
of the late war an organisation to provide increased home supplies

102 FORESTRY IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

of timber was due to the disorganised state of the home timber
market in the past. This must be changed in the future ; there
must be close and systematic co-operation between growers and
dealers, and the State should assist and encourage them in every
possible way. Producers should ensure regularity, continuity and
uniformity of supplies, so that dealers and consumers may know
when and in what quantity and shape timber is coming into the
market. The prejudice against home-grown timber will then
gradually disappear, and it will be used for many purposes for
which it has been rejected in the past. In the latter respect,
Government departments have much sinned. The Sub-Committee
was of opinion that the Forest Authority should include in its
organisation an Intelligence Branch, to deal with questions
relating to the organisation of the home timber trade, the
methods of improving the utilization of forest produce, and
generally the issue of information which would be useful to owners
of woodlands and to users of timber.

14. ENCOURAGEMENT OF WOODLAND INDUSTRIES.

The Sub-Committee has quite rightly drawn attention to the
importance of industries which use wood for their raw material
and especially those parts of wood growth which cannot be
classed as timber in its narrower sense. They are principally the
produce of coppice woods and the small pieces which remain over
in the process of timber conversion. Such industries, if properly
organised, provide a considerable amount of remunerative work,
and they prevent the wastage of a large percentage of the
wood increment produced in the forests. Industries of this kind
existed before the war in various parts of the United Kingdom,
as, for instance, in the Chiltern Hills, the Tintern Crown forests
and in other places. Wood distillation was carried on which
yielded a variety of produce ; tools of various kinds and shapes
were manufactured, but the greater part of such articles were
imported from Germany, Austria and the United States. An
effort should now be made to produce them at home, preferably
by private enterprise and, if necessary, assisted and encouraged
by State action. The care of the woodland industries should
be committed to the Intelligence Branch of the new Forest
Authority.

THE FINANCIAL ASPECT OF AFFORESTATION. 103

15. THe Frnanctat Aspect oF AFFORESTATION.

Although the main object of afforestation is to make the
country safe in case of an emergency, the Sub-Committee consi-
dered it desirable to deal shortly with the financial aspect of the
undertaking.

The profit or loss of afforestation is, naturally, represented by
the difference between the returns and the costs of producing them.
The latter consist of the interest on the value of the land, the cost
of planting, and the expenses incurred in tending the woods while
growing. ‘The receipts depend on the quantity and quality of the
timber and other produce valued as standing in the forest, in
other words, the market value minus the cost of cutting and
preparing it for the market. The items of receipts and expenses
occur at various times spread over a whole rotation ; hence the
calculation of profit or loss must be made for one and the same
moment, and compound interest must be allowed for all items,
income as well as outgoings. The best time to make the
calculation is at the commencement of the rotation when, it is
assumed, the soil has been acquired. In the case of new planta-
tions, the value of the soil and the cost of planting can be ascer-
tained with fair accuracy, but all other items of receipts and
expenditure are more or less problematic ; they can be estimated
only on the basis of past experience. The difficulty of the
forester is much reduced if he has at his disposal suitable yield
tables, which represent averages for the several soil classes and
species. The data in such tables are generally given for fully
stocked areas.

The Sub-Committee adopted the following method * of
calculation :—The Cost value of the soil, Se, is ascertained
in the year 0, when operations are commenced. This value
is placed equal to the Expectation value of the soil, Se,
calculated for the year, 0, from all receipts and expenses,
giving the following equation :

Yr-+ Tax l-op"*-+ Tb x 1: op**+...
Beet An lop ex Bop e

ee op

* The Method was evolved and published by the author of this book, in
1904, in a pamphlet entitled ‘‘ Forestry in the United Kingdom.”

104 FORESTRY IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

where Yr represents the value of the final yield in the year r;
Ta, Tb. . . Tq the values of thinnings, &c., in the years a,b, .. .
q, ¢ the cost of formation ; e the annual expenses for administra-
tion, &c.; and p the rate of interest, under which Sc is equal to
Se. The object is to determine the value of p corresponding to a
certain cost value of the soil which is the average rate of interest
yielded by the invested capital. It changes with every change
in the value Sc of the soil.

Unfortunately, the above equation is mathematically not
soluble, so that a graphical solution must be resorted to.
Different values of p are introduced into the right side of the
equation and the corresponding values of Se ascertained. These
values are plotted and a curve drawn through them, from
which the per cent. corresponding to different cost values
of the soil can be read off. It is, of course, necessary to con-
struct a curve for each species or even for each quality of soil,
though that is, to a large extent, expressed by the cost value
of the soil. The Sub-Committee were satisfied to make the
calculation for a soil of average quality for each species. It
selected the five species which are likely to be planted on a
large scale, and determined the following matters for each of
these species :—

(1) Length of rotation for Douglas fir (green variety), 60 years ;

larch, 70 years; Sitka spruce, 70 years; Scots pine,
80 years ; and Common spruce, 80 years.

(2) The quantity of timber likely to be produced by each
species in the course of one rotation on fully stocked areas
managed according to efficient silvicultural rules, that
is to say, under a 100 per cent. efficiency. The data were
obtained in the following way : For Scots pine and spruce
from statistics collected and tabulated in continental
yield tables, modified by measurements made in this
country and by local experience; for larch and
Douglas fir from measurements made in this country ;
for Sitka spruce from a comparison with common
spruce and the somewhat meagre records available in
this country.

(3) The average prices obtained for the different classes of
timber immediately before the war.

THE FINANCIAL ASPECT OF AFFORESTATION. 105

(4) The average cost of plantations before the war, £5 10s. per
acre.

(5) The cost of administration and protection, 4s. per acre and
year.

(6) The cost of construction and maintenance of forest roads
and other improvements, 2s. per acre and year.

(7) Taxes were assumed to be covered by shooting rents, and
both items were omitted from the account.

With these data the value of Sc for the different species and

jor, Ale

Probable Yield per Uent. on Invested Capital.

Price which may be paid for the Lund. in Pounds per Acre.

different per cents. was calculated on what may be called the
maximum or 100 per cent. efficiency scale. It was, however,
pointed out that such high efficiency cannot be expected in
actual work, and the Sub-Committee decided to be satisfied
with a 70 per cent. efficiency. Accordingly, the data of
yields were reduced by 30 per cent. and a fresh set of calcu-
lations of Sc with different per cents. made. With the results
the appended curves were constructed. (See example for larch
below.) From these curves the values of p for successive values

of the cost of the soil were read off and placed in the following
table :—

106 FORESTRY IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

RELATION BETWEEN THE Cost Prick oF LAND AND THE CORRE-
SPONDING INTEREST PER CENT. REALISED ON THE INVESTED
CaPITAL—70 PER CENT. EFFICIENCY.

! |

ety. | Douglas. | Larch. sprice, | Seots Pine. | Common | Average.
Pighen Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent. Per Cent.
, det : 3:0 2-8 3°8
2 46° | 42 3°6 2-9 2-7 3°6
3 4-5 4-0 3°5 2-8 2-6 3°5
4 4-3 3°9 3-4 2-7 2:5 3:4
5 4-2 3-8 3:3 26 2-5 3-3
6 4-] 3°6 3°2 2°5 2°4 3°2
i AO 1}, Sab ol 2°5 2:3 ol
8 3°9 ord 3°0 2-4 2-2 3°0
9 io a 3:0 2°3 2-2 2-9
10 Suh tall Roce 2:9) are 2-1 2-9
(U5) SO de ene 2-0 1-9 2:5
20 3:0 2:6 2°3 1-7 1:6 2-2

In the above table the average per cent. has been calculated on
the assumption that one-fifth of the area is planted with each
of the 5 species. If more than one-fifth is planted with the better
paying species, Douglas and larch, the average can be considerably
increased. The author is also of opinion that a 70 per ceng. of
efficiency is somewhat low, and that it might well have been
raised to 75 or 80 per cent. He is of opinion that on soil worth not
more than £5 an acre the average result should reach 4 per cent.
under systematic and economic treatment.

The above calculations have been made with pre-war prices,
namely, the value per cubic foot of a mature crop of larch at 12
pence, Douglas and Scots pine at 8 pence, Sitka and common
spruce at 6 pence. It has also previously been stated that the
price of timber has steadily risen between 1892 and 1913 by about
30 per cent. During the war prices rose enormously, but they
are sure to fall again, though not likely to the pre-war rates.
Wages are at present so high that they might well frighten the
landed proprietors, but they also will come down again to more
normal rates, a process which has already commenced. At any
rate, it may safely be said that wages and prices of produce will

THE FINANCIAL ASPECT OF AFFORESTATION. 107

be sure to rise or fall in due proportion, so that these changes
should not, in the long run, seriously affect the rentability of the
forest industry. It cannot, however, too earnestly be impressed
upon planters that the strictest economy should be practised in
all forest business. Extravagance has no place in economic
forestry. A rise of even | penny per cubic foot of timber, brought
about by more economic management, would considerably raise
the forest per cent., amounting in the case of spruce, for instance,
to some 16 per cent., quite apart from any general rise in prices.

Example of Calculation for Larch—The following table gives the
returns from larch grown on land of average quality under
a rotation of 70 years :—

————

Age of Character of Quant ibys eubstects Value per c. ft. Total Value,
Wood. Felling. aineieney® Standing, pence. Shillings.
20 | Thinning . 105 6 53
30 Ms , 210 6 105
AQ: > | % : 390 7 204
50 is ‘ 390 8 233
60 BS : 280 a 210
70 Final Yield. 2,450 12 2,450
Total Yield. 3,745 | 3,255

Calculation made with 2 per cent. :—

2,450 + 53 x 1-02°9+ 105 « 1-0249+ 204 « 1-0230 +
+ 233 x 1:027° + 210 x 1-021 —110 x 1-027° 6

= 1-0279 —] ~ 0-02

This gives Sc = £40 19s.; in other words, If the planter is
satisfied with 2 per cent. interest on his invested capital, he can
afford to pay £40 19s. for each acre of land. By making the same
calculation with 3, 4 and 5 per cent., the following values are
obtained: With 3 per cent., £14 4s. 9d.; with 4 per cent.,
£3 2s.8d.; with 5 per cent., —£2 2s. This shows that, under the
given conditions, 5 per cent. is not attaimable. Even if the soil
value was nil, not more than 4-6 per cent. could be obtained.
The points indicated by these values have been marked by black

108 FORESTRY IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

dots on the above illustration. A higher degree of accuracy in
drawing the graph is obtained by calculating also the values for
intermediate half per cents.

16. ESTABLISHMENT OF A Forest Funp.

The Sub-Committee estimated that a sum of £3,425,000 will be
required to meet the expenses of the first 10 years. This amount
should be paid into a Forestry Fund, upon which the Forest
Authority would draw according to requirements, subject to
Parliamentary control. As this estimate was based upon pre-war
prices, the above-mentioned sum will not suffice to carry out the
proposed scheme ; it will have to be contracted unless additional
credits are sanctioned.

The cost of the whole scheme was estimated to amount to
£15,000,000 at pre-war prices, spread over 40 years, when the
Department would become self-supporting. That sum is equal
to about one-fifth of the extra cost of the timber required during
the war.

17. THe Forest AUTHORITY.

At first sight it might be considered that Agriculture and
Forestry should be administered by the same authority, as they
are on an ordinary estate. In such cases, a certain part of the
area is kept under wood, with the primary object of providing the
necessary amount of forest produce for the estate, any surplus
being disposed of. Such a combination has the further advantage
that, as already indicated, the same labourers can be employed
throughout the year, from spring to autumn on field work and
during the winter on forest work. At the same time there are
great differences between the two methods of soil utilization,
which have been explained in the early part of this book. The
chief difference lies in the fact that, while in agriculture, the crops
mature within | or 2 years, in forestry sowing and harvesting are
separated by a long series of years, which may amount to 100
years and more. Hence, the forester must elaborate plans for
the management of the woods for long periods of time. In the
case of a large scheme, like that here under consideration, many
practical difficulties present themselves. If there were one
agricultural department in the United Kingdom, it might have

THE FOREST AUTHORITY, 109

been possible to attach to it a strong Forestry Branch, the head
of which would deal direct with the Minister of Agriculture, but
there are three such departments, each independently responsible
to Parliament through a different Minister; all these have
been responsible for forestry in the past. The results have been
altogether disappointing ; their primary duty and chief interest
lay in other directions, and the matter might be aggravated in the
future under the new development of agricultural policy. If the
scheme of afforestation is to be successful, there must be a central
authority, working out a consistent policy for the whole of the
country, and allotting the areas to be afforested to those parts of
it where the conditions are most favourable for success. In this
respect, the widely varying systems of land tenure prevailing in
the different parts of the country are of great importance. The
comparatively modest cost of a new branch of the public service,
the Sub-Committee felt sure, will be saved several times over in
the long run. Further, the establishment of a separate adminis-
tration will make the afforestation policy of the State as little as
possible liable to be disturbed by political changes, although it
must, of course, be subject to Parliamentary control. In the
case of a single central authority, however, it will be most desirable
that, in the actual execution of the work, it should closely
co-operate with the Departments of Agriculture in the different
parts of the country. The executive work should be, as far as
possible, decentralised, and an organisation should be set up in
each part of the kingdom, which will avail itself of local know-
ledge and experience.

18. SUMMARY OF PROPOSALS.

Based on the above considerations, the Sub-Committee

proposed the following scheme :—

(1) There should be set up a Forestry Commission consisting of
six members, three of whom being whole-time salaried
officials and the others unpaid, one of the latter being a
M.P. to represent the Department in Parliament. The
Forestry Commissioners should be given complete respon-
sibility for carrying out the task which the Government
may assign to them. A hope is expressed that three
unpaid Commissioners will be found who are willing to

110 FORESTRY IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

give to the scheme, at any rate during its critical early
years, the value of their influence and experience. One
of the Commissioners should be nominated Chairman,
and at least one of those in receipt of a salary should
be a technically trained Forest Officer.

(2) The chief executive officers of the Commission should be
Assistant Commissioners; one of whom should be
appointed for each of the parts of the United Kingdom
which are independent units for agricultural adminis-
tration. Their chief duty would be to carry out the
policy of the Commission in close touch with the agricul-
tural authorities.

(3) There should be Consultative Committees for England,
Wales, Scotland, and Ireland, to assist the Commissioners
in their work, containing representatives of the interests
affected by the work of the Commission; on these
Committees the Board of Agriculture should be
represented.

(4) For the purpose of securing a certainty of steady and
systematic development, a Forestry Fund should be
created to cover the expenses during the first 10 years,
upon which the Commissioners can draw as seems to be
required by the progress of the work. An account of the
expenditure of each year, and a forecast of that of the
next year, should be placed before Parliament, and the
work of the Commission would, of course, be subject to
audit in the usual way.

(5) The powers and duties of the Commission should be defined.
Powers must be taken to purchase and to lease land for
afforestation and purposes connected therewith, to
manage and develop any land so acquired, to dispose by
sale or lease of land not suitable or not required for the
purposes of the Commission, and generally to do all
things incidental to the business of forestry. Various
other powers now exercised by other departments,
having reference to forestry, should be transferred to the
Commission. It should be in a position to undertake,
on behalf of the body concerned, the charge and manage-
ment of the Crown forests and woods now under the

THE FORESTRY ACT, 1919, AND AFTER. 111

Office of Woods, and those under other departments.
The duties of the Commission would be to carry out
the scheme of afforestation here outlined, and to
encourage and improve the management of existing
woods ; also the collection and preparation of statistics
relating to forestry, the utilization of timber, the develop-
ment of forest industries in general, the education of a
competent staff, and the development of research on
questions connected with forestry.

SECTION IV.-THE FORESTRY ACT, 1919, AND AFTER.

On the basis of the Sub-Committee’s Report the Forestry
Act of 1919 was passed. Its principal provisions are as
follows :—

Clause 1 provides for the appointment by His Majesty of
8 Forestry Commissioners, of whom at least one shall be a
person -having scientific attainments and a technical know-
ledge of forestry. Not more than 3 of the Commissioners
shall be paid a salary. One of the unpaid Commissioners
shall be a member of the House of Parliament.

Clause 2. The Commissioners may, subject to the approval
of the Treasury, appoint such officers and servants for the
purposes of the Act as they think necessary, and may
remove them.

Clause 3. The Commissioners shall be charged with the duty
of promoting the interests of forestry, the development of
afforestation, and the production and supply of timber in
the United Kingdom. The Act also transfers to them
certain powers exercised by other departments, both as
regards forestry and the destruction of insects and other
pests injurious to trees and timber. It empowers the
Commissioners, subject to the directions of the Treasury :—

(a) To purchase or lease land for afforestation, manage,
plant and otherwise use it, sell or let any land not
required, or exchange such land for other land.

(6) To purchase and sell standing timber and promote the
supply and utilization of timber generally.

(c) To assist financially persons and authorities in respect
of afforestation or replanting.

112 FORESTRY IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

(d) To undertake the management or supervision of woods
belonging to private persons or corporations.

(e) To establish woodland industries or assist in establishing
them.

(f) To collect, publish and distribute statistics relating to
forestry, promote instruction in forestry, and conduct
or assist research.

(g) To aid, or aid in making, enquiries for securing an ade-
quate supply of timber in the United Kingdom, and
to promote the production of timber in the Empire.

In this and the preceding clauses the expression
“timber ” includes all other forest produce.

Clause 4. Where trees or tree plants are being, or likely to be,
damaged by rabbits, hares or vermin, the Commissioners
may, after due notice, cause the rabbits, hares or vermin to be
killed and taken, and recover from the occupier the net cost
incurred by them. For this purpose vermin includes squirrels.

Clause 5. For the purpose of exercising the administrative
powers and duties of the Commissioners, they shall appoint
three officers to be Assistant Commissioners for England and
Wales, Scotland and Ireland.

Clause 6 provides for the establishment of Consultative Com-
mittees for England, Scotland, Ireland and Wales, such
Committees to include representatives of various bodies as
well as persons having expert knowledge of forestry.

Clause 7 gives power for compulsory acquisition of land.
Excepted lands are parks, demesnes, gardens, pleasure
grounds, home farms, lands required for amenities, and a
variety of other lands.

Clause 8 establishes a Forestry Fund of 34 million pounds and
all receipts of the Commissioners, to meet the expenses of the
first 10 years commencing on April Ist, 1919. It provides
also for the rendering of an annual account to the Comptroller
and Auditor-General, annual reports to Parliament, and
control of the Fund by H.M. Treasury.

Clause 9 gives the Commissioners or their servants power to
enter and survey land.

Clause 10 deals with the superannuation of the Commissioners
and their staff.

THE FORESTRY ACT, 1919, AND AFTER. 113

The Forestry Commissioners were appointed on November 29th,
1919. Considerable progress has been made in the organisation
of the Department. The purely executive work is in charge of
the three Assistant Commissioners, with headquarters at London,
Edinburgh and Dublin. Under the Assistant Commissioners are
Divisional Officers, 5 for England and Wales, 4 for Scotland, and 2
for Ireland, each with a definite territorial charge. The Divisions
in the aggregate cover the whole of Great Britain and Ireland.
The Divisional Officer is an experienced forest officer and he is
assisted by District Officers who will ultimately all be academically
trained men. The Divisional Officer is responsible for all State
forest work in his division, as well as for advice to private owners.
The District Officers are his assistants for survey, reporting on land
for acquisition, preparation of working plans, and similar tech-
nical matters. The supervision of planting operations, forest pro-
tection, and other routine work are placed in charge of Foresters.

The Commissioners reserve to themselves the general control
of education, research and publication, but the executive work
with regard to the foresters’ schools and experimental work is
attended to by the Assistant Commissioners. For the control of
these subjects, there are attached to the headquarters of the
Commission an Education and Publications Officer, an Experi-
ment officer, an Entomologist, and a Co-ordination officer, the
latter to secure co-ordination in technical procedure in the
different parts of the United Kingdom.

The Commission meets once a month for the decision of matters
of policy and to review progress. At these meetings the Assistant
Commissioners usually attend, as well as such other officers as
may be required. The Commissioners keep in touch with actual
operations by frequent local inspections.

Finance is in charge of a Finance officer who is responsible to
one of the Commissioners. The keeping of accounts for the
individual estates is done by accountants, of whom one is attached
to each divisional office. The estimated net expenditure for the
financial year 1920—1921 was expected to be £379,000.

The general business of the Commission is done by the Secretary.

In collecting their technical staff, the Commission have been
able to secure, on the one hand, the services of men who made a
study of British forestry in pre-war time, and who were actively

VOL. I I

114 FORESTRY IN BRITISH EAST INDIA.

engaged in timber supply work during the war, and, on the other
hand, young men who had been trained at the Universities, but
had not entered the profession owing to war service, or had been
trained, when partially disabled, during the later stages of the
war. In future it is proposed that men of the Forest Officer class
shall be recruited from University trained men, and that Foresters
shall be trained in the foresters’ schools, which the Commission
are running departmentally.

The Commission will publish an Annual Report. They have
set to work with great vigour, and they are proceeding on the
lines laid down in the Reconstruction Sub-Committee’s Report.
By June, 1920, they had secured some 60,000 acres of land and
were negotiating for the acquisition of an additional area of
90,000 acres. Although no actual planting was proposed for the
first year, a commencement was made by stocking during the
winter of 1919—1920 an area of about 1,500 acres. The schemes
of assistance to private proprietors and corporations are in the
stage of discussion between the Commissioners and the Consulta-
tive Committees. Lectures to landowners, land agents and others
interested in forestry have been started, while Divisional Officers
are ready to advise private owners. On the whole, a very good
beginning has been made to safeguard the country in the case of
a future emergency.

When this book was prepared for the press, the first Annual
Report of the Commissioners for the forest year ending Sep-
tember 30th, 1920, appeared. The acquired area amounts now
to 103,100 acres, of which 68,100 acres are classed as plantable.
The area actually planted had risen to 8,000 acres. With a view
to assisting in giving work to unemployed, it has been arranged
to speed up work by planting during the year 1921—1922 an
area of 15,000 acres.

The work of the Commissioners in connection with the Imperial
Forestry Conference has already been dealt with above.

C. FORESTRY IN BRITISH EAST INDIA.
SECTION I—SHORT DESCRIPTION OF THE COUNTRY.

India is a very large country, extending from the 8th to the
37th degree northern latitude and from the 62nd to the 100th degree

CONFIGURATION AND DRAINAGE. 115

eastern longitude. Its length north to south is about 2,000 miles,
and its greatest breadth, including Burma, is about the same.
The total area and population, according to the census of 1911,
are as follows :—

Area, Population, Per Square
Square Miles. Total. Mile.
British Territory. 1,092,994 .. 244,221,377 .. 223
Indian States. TO9;T18 Ss =%0;864,99b a2) «100
Total . = 1802412) 2s SLO Groize >. LS

It is beyond the scope of this book to give a detailed account of
all the points on which the forest policy of India depends ; a few
notes on the physical configuration of the country, its geology,
soils and climate must suffice.

1. CONFIGURATION AND DRAINAGE.

Apart from Burma, India has, on the whole, a triangular shape
with the Himalayas on the north, the Arabian Sea on the west,
the Indian Ocean on the south, and the Bay of Bengal on the east.
Burma lies to the east of the latter. India proper may be divided
into three great sections: the Himalayas, the Indo-Gangetic
plain and the Peninsula.

The Himalayan range stands out like a lofty wall on the north,
separating India from the high plateau of Thibet. Commencing
in the west, it runs first in a south-easterly and then in an easterly
direction from one end of India to the other ; on the west and the
east other ranges run almost due north and south. The space
within these three ranges, immediately to the south of the
Himalayas, forms a broad belt of low land, commencing in the
west at Kurrachi on the Arabian Sea, including Sind, the Punjab
plains, the greater part of Rajputana, the United Provinces,
Behar and Lower Bengal down to the Sunderbuns beyond
Calcutta on the Bay of Bengal. This belt of mostly alluvial land,
not more than a few hundred feet above the level of the sea, is the
richest part of India.

Proceeding across this belt of low land in a southerly direction
stiff escarpments are met, indicating the commencement of the
great highland plateau of the Indian Peninsula which, at eleva-

tions varying from 2,000 to 8,000 feet, extends to the southern
12

116 FORESTRY IN BRITISH EAST INDIA.

extremity of India at Cape Comorin. A section drawn from
the Thibetan plateau in a south-westerly direction until it reaches
the Indian Ocean at Travancore, would present the shape given
in fig. 2, except that the elevations have been greatly exaggerated.

Fig. 3 gives an idea of the proportionate extent of each of the
regions.

The river system of India next claims attention. It is a
curious fact that India receives the drainage of both slopes

Bias 2:

30,000
hea ao

25,000

20,000

NORTH-EAST SOUTH-WEST

= Thibetan plateau, mean height about 14,000 feet.

= Himalayas, maximum height 29,000 feet.

= Indo-Gangetic plain, height a few hundred feet above the sea.

= Peninsula, height varying from 2,000 to 8,000 feet.

= The sea.

— Points where the clouds coming from the sea must rise, cool, and drop
their moisture.

*o QS 8

of the Himalayas. At the back of that mountain chain three
rivers take their rise in fairly close proximity to each other ;
one, the Sutlej, immediately breaks through the Himalayan chain
and descends into the Punjab ; the other two run parallel to the
Himalayas, the one in a north-westerly and the other in an easterly
direction. The former breaks, after some time, through the
Himalayas and emerges into the Punjab plain as the River Indus,
finding its way, through Sind, into the Arabian Sea. The latter
of the two rivers, after running for hundreds of miles to the north
of the Himalayas, also breaks through that mountain chain and
appears in Upper Assam as the Bramaputra ; it then proceeds

CONFIGURATION AND DRAINAGE. BET

down the Assam valley, through Lower Bengal, and joins the

Ganges shortly before reaching the Bay of Bengal.
The southern face of the Himalayas is drained, in its western

Ihceh Sh

a=
ey
——_ 5}
G
=
S)
> =
S
K
be -| el
= | >
°
& ;
=fu =
KJ= 5
uj= >
Wis S
24a bo %
=
=
a1 |
x

I. Himalayas. IV. Peninsula. VIL. Thibetan Plateau.
II. Indus Plain. V. Burma. 8,9, 21. Mean Annual Rain-
VI. The Sea. fall, in inches.

III. Ganges Plain.

part, by the Punjab rivers which join the Indus. East of

Simla the Jumna and Ganges emerge from the hills, and join at
Allahabad. The Ganges takes in a series of streams which drain
the southern slopes of the range from the United Provinces to

118 FORESTRY IN BRITISH EAST INDIA.

Sikkim. To the east of this point the drainage goes into the
Bramaputra. The drainage of the Peninsula is arranged in the
following manner :—The Ganges receives the drainage of the
northern edge. Next, two rivers, the Narbada and Tapti, run in
close proximity in a western direction into the Arabian Sea. A
series of short streams run from the Western Ghat to the sea,
but by far the greater portion of the plateau sends its water in an
eastern direction into the Bay of Bengal, because the highest part
of the Peninsula is close to the sea on the west.

The two principal rivers in Burma are the Irawadi and the
Salween. A third river, the Sittang, runs between the two.
They run from north to south, but the Salween also takes in a
large feeder, the Thaungyin, which comes from the south-east.

2. GEOLOGY AND SOILS.

The peninsula is one of the oldest formations on the earth and
the Himalayas one of the most recent. The rising of the latter,
apparently, caused the formation of the Indo-Gangetic plain, as
well as that of the Assam valley. In the peninsula, crystalline
schists, gneisses and plutonic rocks are common. These old
formations have withstood folding, the features of the land being
the result of differential erosion. In many parts they are covered
by various systems known as the Gwaliors, Vindhians, Cuddapahs
and Kurnools. The rocks of the last three are chiefly sandstones,
shales and limestones. No marine fossils are found in them. At
a later period these formations were covered over an area of
200,000 square miles in Bombay, the Central Provinces, Berar
and Hyderabad by volcanic ashes and lava, in some places to a
depth of 6,000 feet. These deposits are known as the Deccan trap.

The rest of India belongs to a later geological period ;
the rocks south of the Himalayan snowy range bear no fossils.
When the Himalayas rose, the sea alternately receded from Upper
India and Burma, and submerged again part of the country ;
hence fossiliferous rocks of marine origin are common, the oldest
being the Salt Range in the Punjab. Quarzite, shales, slates,
dolomite, limestone, conglomerate, granite and sandstones are
among the rocks in the Himalayan north-west frontier, Assamese
and Burmese regions, eruptive action being apparent in Balu-
chistan and Burma. Towards the foot of the Himalayas, no

rea. emi

CLIMATE. 119

evidence of marine action has been found, so that subsequent
deposits must have been formed in fresh water. The Sivaliks
running along the foot of the Himalayas are river deposits of
sandstone, clay and conglomerates; similar formations of the
same age occur in Assam and in Burma. The alluvial deposits in
the plains of the Indus, Ganges and Brahmaputra are of recent
origin ; no boulders or pebbles are found in them. They consist
chiefly of sandy, micaceous and calcareous clays. The older
alluvium is distinguished by the nodular segregations of carbonate
of lime known as “ kankar.”

It will be easily understood that the nature of the soil differs
enormously. Those of alluvial origin are the most extensive,
and their consistence ranges from loose drift sands to stiff clays.
On the Deccan trap formation the soils are thin and poor on the
higher levels, but the well known fertile black cotton soil pre-
dominates in the low lands. On the rest of the peninsular area
the soils are derived chiefly from crystalline rocks ; they vary
very much in appearance, depth and fertility.

3. CLIMATE.

Owing to the great extent of the country and the varying condi-
tions prevailing in the several parts, it is not possible to speak of
the climate of India ; there are quite a series of climates, but they
may be arranged into the following four main groups or types :—

(1) The climate of Tropical India.

(2) Ms North-western India.
(3) rs 7 North-eastern India.
(4) ‘ 5 The Himalayas.

About one-half of the area of India, comprising the greater part
of the Peninsula and Burma, is situated south of the tropic.
These are the hottest parts of India as far as the average of the
whole year is concerned ; but the highest temperature is found
further north. The arrival of the south-west monsoon mitigates
the summer temperature in tropical India; on the other hand,
this region enjoys little or no cool season, except at high elevation.

The second type of climate is found to the north of the tropic
in the dry, and in some cases almost rainless, plain of the north-
western part of India, comprising the area which is traversed by
the river Indus and its feeders. Here the highest summer

120 FORESTRY IN BRITISH EAST INDIA.

temperature is found, due to a greater length of day and a later
arrival of the monsoon rains than in tropical India; this region
receives to some extent compensation by 4 or 5 months of cool
and even cold weather during winter, representing at that time
a climate which has been compared with a south Italian summer.

The third type of climate is found in Assam and north-eastern
Bengal. Here humidity of the air reigns supreme, although there
is a distinct summer and winter; in either case the extremes of
temperature are moderated by the effects of a relatively large
amount of moisture in the atmosphere, which produces fogs in
winter and interferes in summer with the full effect of the sun’s
rays on the land.

Finally, the Himalayan mountains present, according to the
elevation and position of each locality, a more or less temperate
and even Alpine climate with frost, snow, sleet and bitter winds
in winter and a moderate heat in summer.

Between these four types, any number of intermediate climates
are found. However large their number may be, and however
much the various climates may differ, they are, apart from eleva-
tion, the result of a system of atmospheric changes, which are
comparatively simple. The main-springs of the Indian climates
are the following :—

(1) In spring and summer the extensive plains and table lands
of India are heated to a much higher degree than the surrounding
sea ; during winter the air overlying the sea is warmer than that
over the land, from which at that season of the year heat freely
radiates. The results are sea breezes during summer and land
breezes during winter.

(2) The greater or smaller tendency with which moisture-laden
air presses during spring and summer from the south towards India.

(3) The effect produced by the snowfall of the Himalayas on
the movement of dry air currents coming from the north-west and
penetrating into the Peninsula.

It will be useful to enter somewhat into the details of these
phenomena. In spring, which shall here comprise the months of
March, April and May, the highest temperature is found over the
centre of the Peninsula (Nagpur, Hyderabad), while it falls as
much as 5 to 10 degrees on proceeding towards the sea on the east
and west, and about 10 degrees on proceeding to the foot of the

eA eye

CLIMATE. 121

Himalayas or to the Punjab plain. ‘The effect is that the air over
the centre of the Peninsula expands, lifts the higher layers of air,
causes them to flow away on all sides and produces a centre of
comparatively low pressure. Into this centre presses the heavier
atmosphere from the sea, causing the sea breezes so characteristic
of the spring months.

These air currents deviate, however, from their original course
in consequence of the law that everything moving over the
northern hemisphere presses towards the right. ‘The consequence
is that the winds, which hit the Madras coast at this time of the
year, are mostly south-easterly breezes, those which hit the
southern half of the west coast come from the south-west, while
those which hit the land to the north of Bombay become gradually
more and more north-westerly winds. These phenomena have
the result that Madras and the southern part of Bombay are passed
over by moist sea winds which drop a portion of their moisture,
producing during this period a rainfall of 3 to 6 inches. The
above-mentioned north-westerly breezes, however, descend from
the table land of Baluchistan ; they are dry and become more so
in passing over the heated plains of Sind, Cutch and Kathiawar.
These are the breezes which are known as the hot winds in the
Bombay Presidency, in North-Western and Central India. At
times they find their way as far as Bengal and Orissa and far down
into the Peninsula.

Up to May the sea winds are light, and they bring only a
moderate amount of rain, as the air is then drawn chiefly from the
sea immediately surrounding the Peninsula. With the advancing
season towards the end of May, the winds become stronger and
stronger bringing more and more rain, until, in the course of three
or four weeks, they have invaded the whole of the west coast of
India and the northern and eastern coasts of the Bay of Bengal, an
event which is known as the bursting of the monsoon. Now the
winds are a northern continuation of the south-east trade winds
coming from more distant equatorial regions, the great reservoir of
moist air. Of late the theory has been advanced that the south-
west monsoon is due to, or assisted by, a system of low pressure at
the head of the Persian Gulf and a consequent indraft of the south-
east trade winds. It seems to require further confirmation.

The strength of the monsoon rains differs greatly in different

122 FORESTRY IN BRITISH EAST INDIA.

parts of India; it depends on the configuration of the country
and the extent to which the sea breezes succeed in overcoming and
pushing back the north-westerly dry air currents. The monsoon
currents enter the Bay of Bengal from the south-west and they
strike against the coast of Tenasserim in full force, rise and pour
out a copious rainfall. This holds good in a varying degree along
the coast of Burma, in Chittagong, Cachar and Assam. Along
this line the rain clouds meet with hill ranges at moderate dis-
tances from the shore, which cause them to rise, cool, and drop
their moisture, while the Lower Bengal plain receives a somewhat
smaller rainfall. After passing through Lower Bengal and on
approaching the Himalayan chain that mountain-range opposes
itself to the course of the current and divides it into two parts.
The larger part continues its north-easterly course and hits full
on the Garo, Khasi and Naga hills, producing the highest rainfall
in the world (over 400 inches at Cherrapunji), and finally giving
a considerable rainfall to the Assam valley. The smaller part of
the divided current is diverted towards the north-west and west,
plentifully waters the face of the mountains and spreads a certain
amount of rain over the plains of Behar and the United Provinces.

Lower Burma is plentifully watered, but a part of Upper Burma,
on both banks of the Irawadi, receives but a scanty rainfall; the
latter increases again on approaching the hills in the northern part
of Burma.

On the west coast of the Peninsula the monsoon blows directly
athwart the coast line. As the western part of the Peninsula
rises very rapidly from the sea to an elevation of up to 8,000 feet
at the Ghat range, the clouds are forced to rise, cool and drop an
enormous amount of rain. At the same time, the western edge
of the peninsular plateau is its highest part, and the clouds, or
what remains of them, having overcome this, descend again in
their north-easterly progress; hence, the rainfall diminishes rapidly
on the eastern side of the Ghats to about one-sixth of that on the
western slopes. This extends over a strip of 100 to 200 miles in
breadth and comprises part of the Deccan, the Mysore table land
and the Carnatic, areas which are much subject to drought.

Between the north-easterly course of the peninsular monsoon
and the westerly course of the wind which, diverted by the
Himalayas, moves up the Gangetic plain, lies a broad belt of

CLIMATE. 123

debatable ground, comprising part of the Central India States, the
Satpura range, the greater part of the Central Provinces, the table
land of Chutia Nagpur, Orissa and western Bengal. In this broad
belt the rainfall is higher than to the south or north-west of it,
chiefly because numerous storms, generated near the Bay of
Bengal, travel along it from east to west, their passage being
accompanied by heavy rain.

The country which lies to the north-west of this belt is under the
effect of the western branch of the monsoon. Part of this passes
through Gujarat, Rajputana, Cutch and Sind towards the Punjab,
where it drops varying quantities of rain according to the con-
figuration of the country. On the whole, however, the air current
from the north-west becomes dryer, as it no longer comes from the
ocean, but successively from Arabia, Persia, Baluchistan and
Afghanistan ; hence, the rainfall decreases rapidly to the north
of Bombay.

As long as the sea winds are sufficiently strong to keep in check,
and even force back, the north-westerly winds during summer,
all is well; but every now and then the reverse is the case, that
is to say, the north-west wind forces back the sea winds and
proceeds further and further east and south-east into the United
Provinces, Behar and even Bengal and Orissa, or it forces its way
down into the Peninsula. If it keeps its sway over the sea winds
for some period, a failure of the monsoon rains is the consequence,
an event which is followed by scarcity or famine. It is believed
that the strength of this dry air current from the north-west is
intimately connected with the snowfall on the Himalayan ranges ;
when that fall is heavy the north-west winds are strong and vice
versa. Further observations seem, however, necessary to
establish the absolute correctness of this view.

The copious watering of the surface of the land, in its turn,
reduces the temperature, so that in some parts of the country the
rainy season is actually the coolest time of the year. Indeed,
this reduction is almost proportionate to the rainfall. Hence,
districts which receive little rain, such as Sind, Western Rajputana
parts of the Punjab, and also the Carnatic, show the highest
temperature during summer. On the other hand, the tempera-
ture of Assam is comparatively little affected, because here rain
falls copiously even in spring.

124 FORESTRY IN BRITISH EAST INDIA.

In September the monsoon commences to decline, but in 5
Bengal, Assam and Burma the rains last well into October. In
the beginning of the latter month the winds in the western part
of the Bay of Bengal begin to blow from the north-east, and now
for the first time the hitherto scantily watered Carnatic receives
a copious rainfall ; these rains go on until December, when they

Fic. 4.

ee

one AVERAGE ANNUAL
- RAINFALL

OF

EONeP TA

‘English Miles
too

200-300 +00 500
peas oe Ss : oe

ap
iis

AOL

gradually move southwards to Ceylon. They are followed by a
dry, steady, north-east wind which gradually extends over the
whole Bay of Bengal and is known as the north-east monsoon.
An easterly wind at that period also takes possession of the
Arabian Sea.

Meanwhile in Northern India the temperature, after a
temporary slight rise on the cessation of the rains, has fallen
rapidly during November and December, producing a cool air

CLIMATE. 125

and cloudless skies. About the end of the year, however, clouds
begin to gather on mountain peaks, warmer breezes from the
south set in, the skies become overcast, followed by a fall of rain,
or snow on the hills. These winter rains are most frequent in
the Punjab and the north-western Himalayas, but occasionally
they extend also to Rajputana, Central India and Bengal. They
become more frequent in January, February and March. And
then a new round of seasons sets in.

It is not possible to give, in a limited space, an adequate idea of
the endless differences in the climate and rainfall. By way of
illustration, the table below is added in which a series of main
groups have been formed. More detailed data must be looked for
in the Reports of the Meteorological Reporter to the Government
of India, from which the table has been compiled.

To illustrate further the distribution of the rainfall, a map of it
is attached. The first of these maps was prepared by Sir Dietrich
Brandis in 1872; it has been further elaborated by subsequent
observations. The map now given is the latest edition of the
Meteorological Department.

ABSTRACT SHOWING THE CLIMATE AND RAINFALL OF THE
DIFFERENT PARTS OF INDIA.

Mean | Mean
Annual Mean Annual
Tempera- Annual Relative Annual
Region. ture in Vapour | Humidity,} Rainfall
Degrees Tension in per in inches.
Fahren- | in inches. cent. of
heit. ‘Saturation.
Himalayas : ; ; 58 | -332 | 73 93
Indus Plain j ‘ , Plo al) caoe 47 21
West Gangetic Plain . : 1o) s=d09 62 37
East Gangetic Plain and
Assam . , ; ; 77 ‘748 80 ah
Peninsula : Northern Edge . 74 Ait .|\\ 54 42
Peninsula : West Coast and |
Ghats . : : ; 75 -700 79 132
Peninsula: Centre. : 80 |! -561 | 56 36
Peninsula : Kast Coast : 82 eee! “OF 38
Lower Burma . 4 : 79 SOTA TG 125
Bay Islands. 80 ‘871 81 114

126 FORESTRY IN BRITISH EAST INDIA.

SECTION II—THE FORESTS OF INDIA.
1. Types or Forest.*

Owing to the great variety of climatic conditions in India and
Burma, the flora is extremely varied, from full tropical develop-
ment over more than half the area to intermediate conditions,
desert and Alpine forest.

The types of forest depend chiefly on the rainfall, but also on
the temperature, elevation above the sea, tidal and riparian
positions. According to the heaviness of the rainfall the following
four zones have been formed :—

The Wet zone with a rainfall of over 75 inches.

The Intermediate zone with a rainfall of 30 to 75 inches.

The Dry zone with a rainfall of 15 to 30 inches.

The Arid zone with a rainfall of less than 15 inches.
The wet zone is the home of the Evergreen forest ; the intermediate
zone, of the Deciduous forest ; the dry zone, of the Dry forest ;
and the arid zone is mostly treeless. Additional types are Hill
and Alpine forests in the mountains, Tidal and Riparian forests.

(a) The Evergreen Forests are found chiefly on the west coast
of the Peninsula, on the lower slopes of the eastern Himalayas,
in Assam, Eastern Bengal, Chittagong, Burma and the Andaman
Islands. The humidity and comparatively even temperature of
these tropical and sub-tropical localities favour vigorous growth,
so that some of the trees attain a height of 200 feet and a propor-
tionate girth, but many of the trees are of small value.

On the west coast the rainfall is generally over 100 inches, the
mean annual temperature 75 degrees, and the relative humidity
close on 80 per cent. In the Assam valley the mean annual
rainfall exceeds 75 inches, with 410 inches at Cherrapunji in the
Khasia hills ; mean annual temperature 77 degrees, and humidity
80 per cent. In Burma the evergreen forests are chiefly found in
the coast districts extending well into the valleys of the rivers.
Lower Burma has a mean annual rainfall of 125 inches, a mean
temperature of 79 degrees and a humidity of 77 per cent. On
going north a much dryer area is met with, but on approaching
the hilly parts of Upper Burma the rainfall increases again,
Much of the Andaman Islands forest is evergreen, the climate

resembling that of Lower Burma.
* For a detailed description, see Troup’s “Silviculture of Indian Trees.”’

TYPES OF FOREST. LT

The number of species of trees found in the evergreen forest is
very great. Some of these are found in all the three groups, such
as Calophyllum, Cinnamomum, Eugenia, Ficus, Garcinia, Mangi-
fera, Mesua ferrea, Michelia, Cedrela Toona and Lagerstramaa.
Others are found only in one or two of the three groups. Thus
Assam has several species of Quercus and Castanopsis, also
appearing in Upper Burma. The latter country is particularly
rich in Dipterocarps. A little teak (Tectona grandis) appears in
some of the evergreen forests on the west coast and in Burma.

(b) The Deciduous Forests occur over more than half the area
of India ; they are the home of the most valuable species of trees.
Of these, the following are conspicuous: T'ectona grandis (Teak),
Shorea robusta (Sal), Chloroxylon Swietenia, Pterocarpus santalinus,
Hardwickia binata, Albizzas, Xylia dolabriformis, Mimusops
indica, Bassia latifolia, Dalberqias, Lagerstremias, Anogeissus
latifolia, Terminalias, Dupterocarps, Bombax malabaricum, Butea
frondosa, Acacia Catechu, Cedrela Toona, Schleichera trijuga,
Buchanania latifolia, Careya arborea, Stephegyne parviflora, Adina
cordifolia, and many species of Bamboos.

Teak grows naturally throughout the Peninsula proper, south
of the 26th degree of latitude, not on the east coast, but it extends
into the evergreen forest of the west coast. In Burma it grows
between the 16th and 26th degree, but not in the coast districts.
In the Pegu Yomah it goes up to nearly 3,000 feet. Teak is rarely
found in pure woods ; it is generally found mixed with many other
species, of which the most valuable companion in Burma is Xylia
dolabriformis. It has been estimated that the teak forests of Burma
contain only about 10 per cent. of teak onan average. In India
proper, it is usually accompanied by Chloroxylon Swietenia, Dal-
bergia latifolia, Hardwickia binata, Ougenia dalbergioides, Ptero-
carpus Marsupium and santalinus, Santalum album, and others.

Sal grows in two distinct tracts. The first of these is the submon-
tane country from Kangra to lower Assam, ending in the Garo
Hills. The second tract is situated south of the Ganges, comprising
the Sonthal Pergunnahs, the Chutia Nagpore Division, Orissa, the
Tributary Mehals, the northern part of Madras, and the eastern
districts of the Central Provinces, with a solitary patch around
Pachmari. ‘The sal is gregarious, and the only place where it is
found with teak is in the eastern part of the Central Provinces.

128 FORESTRY IN BRITISH EAST INDIA.

The sandalwood (Santalum album) is evergreen and occurs in
the deciduous forests, chiefly in Mysore, Coorg, Bellary, Salem
and Coimbatore in Southern India. The red sanders (Pterocarpus
santalinus) is deciduous and grows in the dry hills of Cuddapah
and North Arcot districts of Madras.

Certain species of Dipterocarpus (chiefly D. twperculatus) form
in Burma a type of forest called In or Eng forest, usually on
laterite soils. They are accompanied by a limited number of
other species such as Dullenia pulcherrima, Shorea obtusa,
Buchaniana latifolia, Diospyros birmanicus, Dalbergia cultrata,
Xylia dolabriformis, Careya arborea and Pterocarpus indicus.
Pterocarpus dalbergioides (Padauk) is the most valuable tree of the
Andamans, where it grows in deciduous and semi-evergreen forest.

(c) The Dry Forest occupies the plains of the Punjab, the
western half of Rajputana and Sind as far as the rainfall suffices.
Wherever that sinks below 15 inches, the tree growth becomes
stunted and then disappears in the desert. In this region the
highest and lowest shade temperatures (125 and 25) are recorded.
The small trees develop enormously long roots, wherewith to
reach the low-lying ground water. The principal trees found in
this zone are Bombax malabaricum, Butea frondosa, Acacias,
Prosopis spicigera, Grewias, Capparis aphylla, Salvadora, Cordia,
Anogeissus pendula.

There is a second dry zone in the Peninsula to the east of the
Ghats, comprising the Deccan, Mysore, and several Madras and
Bombay districts ; but elevation above sea level produces local
exceptions where the rainfall rises above 30 inches. The principal
trees are Prosopis, Capparis, Santalum album, Pterocarpus
santalinus, Zizyphus, Acacia arabica, Albizzia amara and others.

(d) In the Arid Zone are found Acacia arabica, Prosopis, Capparis
aphylla, Populus ewphratica, Salvadora, Tamarix dioica and gallica.
Whenever the rainfall is much below 15 inches these trees show
poor development or cannot live at all, unless the areas are
artificially irrigated or occasionally inundated.

(e) Hill Forests and Alpine Forests—The idwalhnat forests
differ not only according to elevation, but also according to
position, due to the great difference of the climate. The hills of
the North-west Frontier have a rainfall of about 15 inches; in
the Punjab hills it amounts to some 40 inches, and it increases in

TYPES OF FOREST. 129

going east, exceeding 100 inches in the eastern Himalayas. The

relative humidity is generally high except in the north-west

frontier districts. As a general rule, the rainfall decreases in the
inner hills. In the North-west Frontier the chief trees are
species of juniper. In the Punjab and United Provinces hills
the following trees are the most important :—

Pinus longifolia between 2,000 to 5,000, and locally to

7,000 feet.

Cedrus Deodara between 4,000 and 10,000 feet.

Pinus excelsa between 4,000 and 11,000 feet.

Picea Morinda between 6,000 and 10,000 feet.

Abies Webbiana between 7,000 and 11,000 feet.

These conifers are generally associated with oaks, of which—
Quercus incana is found between 2,000 and 6,000 feet.
Quercus dilatata is found between 6,000 and 8,000 feet.
Quercus semecarpifolia is found between 8,000 and 11,000 feet.

Then follow Betula Bhojpatra, and Juniperus Wallichiana up to

14,000 feet. Other trees found in this zone are species of Acer

Aisculus, Buxus sempervirens, Juglans regia, Populus ciliata,

Cypress and Yew.

The above-mentioned trees generally reach perfection in the
centre of their elevation, and they gradually fall off in vigour
towards the upper limit of it. Spruce and silver fir are
frequently mixed, but they are also gregarious, while Quercus
semecarpifolia is nearly always so. Pinus Gerardiana is found
in the inner hills to which little rain penetrates.

In the eastern Himalaya, in Sikkim, with its heavy rainfall,
oaks, chestnuts, magnolias, laurels and tree rhododendrons are
the prevailing species over 4,000 feet elevation ; above 9,000 feet
they are replaced by numerous dwarf rhododendrons. Pinus
longifolia is found in Sikkim at moderate elevations in valleys,
and Abies Webbiana at high elevations up to 12,000 feet. In
Bhutan, Pinus excelsa is found, also Picea Morinda. At high
elevation in Sikkim T7'suga Brunomana and Larix Griffithii are
found. Pinus Khasya is found on the Assam hills.

In the Burma hills Pinus Khasya is found from the Assam
frontier to the Southern Shan States at elevations of 2,000 to
7,000 feet, gregarious at the higher elevations, and often mixed
with deciduous trees on lower elevations. Pinus Merkusii is

VOL. I. K

130 FORESTRY IN BRITISH EAST INDIA.

found between 500 and 1,500 feet, chiefly on the sandstone hills
of the Thaungyin valley in Tenasserim, extending to the Shan
States. The remaining hill forests of Burma resemble the oak
and other forests of the eastern Himalaya.

(f) The Tidal Forests occupy alluvial land on the sea coast and
in the estuaries of rivers, especially in the Sunderbuns, the
Andamans and on the Burma coast. Mangrove forest grows on
ground which is submerged at high tide ; it commonly consists of
representatives of Brugwiera, Ceriops, Kandelia, Rhizophora and
Sonneratia. Above high water-level are found Casuarina equiseti-
folia, Erythrina indica, Excecaria Agallocha, Heritiera Fomes,
Pandanus tectorius, and Pongamia glabra.

(g) The Riparian Forests can be treated as a type in so far as
they are due to inundation or to percolation. They occur on
swampy ground in Burma and Assam, where they are of com-
paratively little value. On the other hand, the forests of this
type on the Indus and its tributaries are very valuable. Here
the chief species are Acacia arabica, Dalbergia Sissoo, Populus
euphratica and two species of Tamarix. Other trees, found in
Tiparian forests in India, are Acacia Catechu, Anogeissus
acuminata, Bombax malabaricum, Eugenia, Ficus glomerata,
Lagerstremia Flos Regina, Pongamia glabra, Salix, Terminalia
Arjuna, and Vitex negundo.

2. AREA AND OWNERSHIP OF THE FORESTS.

The following table gives the areas of forests arranged accord-
ing to ownership, and those of other lands :—

Claasestofalandl Area in Percentage of

Square Miles. Land Area.
State forests, for Timber production 126,309 .. 11-6
Other State forests : : . 125,159” aie
Total State forests } A ~ 951,468 os ., sae
Forests of Corporate Bodies . 8,000 .. |
Forests of Private Individuals : 77,000 .. Tl
Total of all forests ; ' ~ 336,468 <i 309
Agricultural Land : , . 4317896, «0.0 Bob
Other land . : : ; . 822430 64 9. 2oes

Grand total of Land Area : 1,090,794 .. 100-0

AREA AND OWNERSHIP OF THE FORESTS. lay

The figures for Corporate and Private forests are estimates.
The above data show that the forest area is equal to 30-9 per cent.
of the total land area, which is about the same as the correspond-
ing figure for the Forests of Kurope. On the other hand, the forest
area per head of population in India is -9 of an acre, which is about
one-half of what it is in Europe.

3. THE ImporTANT PRODUCTS OF THE FORESTS.

Owing to the great number of types of Indian forests, coupled
with the diversity of climate, the number of species of timber
trees is very large, and they are very unevenly distributed. While
Sind has only 10 species of timber trees, Burma has about 2,500
with a similar number of other woody species.

Teak (Tectona grandis) takes first place, being the most impor-
tant timber of India, if not of the whole earth. It yields the best
timber for shipbuilding and is used for numerous other purposes.
The tree reaches its highest perfection in Burma; good teak is
also produced in western and southern India. There is always
a strong demand for teak even of small dimensions, such as is
produced at its northern limit of distribution. The present
annual output is approximately 260,000 tons, of which 225,000
tons are produced in Burma.

Sal (Shorea robusta) takes second place. It is a large gregarious
tree, yielding a hard and very durable wood, which is used for
building, bridge construction, piles, railway sleepers, and many
other purposes. The total area of the State sal forests comprises
approximately 6,700 square miles, and besides there are extensive
sal forests in Nepal, estimated at 3,000 square miles. The
annual output from the State forests is about 128,000 tons.

Deodar, also called “‘ Himalayan cedar ”’ (Cedrus Deodara), with
blue pine (Pinus excelsa), chir pine (Pinus longifolia), silver fir
(Abies Webbiana) and spruce (Picea Morinda), are the most
important trees in the part of the Himalayas which is situated
between the watershed of the Indus on the west, and the water-
shed of the Ganges on the east, comprising an area of 9,000 square
miles of these forests. This tract yields some 280,000 tons of
coniferous timber annually and is capable of yielding at least
three times that quantity under systematic management working

for a sustained yield. At present one-third of the area is under
K 2

152 FORESTRY IN BRITISH EAST INDIA.

State control, the rest being situated in Indian States. Deodar
yields excellent timber, which is largely used for railway sleepers,
building, carpentry and construction of all kinds. The utilization
of the other conifers has, until lately, been very restricted, but it
has rapidly increased of late. Their creosoting was attempted
45 years ago, but without success at that time, while improved
methods have now made it possible. The Pinus longifolia is
extensively tapped for resin.

Of the many species of Indian trees a large proportion have at
present little or no value. Still the timber of several hundred
species is used for some purpose or other, and their number is
steadily increasing. Some of these timbers are of good quality,
a fact which must be made known, but it would be beyond the
scope of this book to enter into the details of the question.

Apart from timber and firewood, the Indian forests yield a
great variety of other produce. Some of these have been utilized
since time immemorial; others have been introduced with
varying success since the establishment of forest conservation,
others again, have only of late attracted attention. The following
items may be mentioned by way of illustration :—

Bamboos, of which there are well over 100 species, big and
small, are found over enormous areas ; many millions are cut for
building materials for the people, and they promise to become one
of the most important raw materials in the manufacture of paper.

Grasses of various kinds are utilized for paper making, but their
chief use is for fodder and grazing. Many millions of cattle graze
in the forests in ordinary years, and in times of scarcity enormous
quantities of cut and pressed grass are transported to the
threatened districts to keep especially the draft cattle alive.

Tanning materials exist im large quantities. Terminalia
Chebula yields the myrabolan, of which large quantities were
exported before the war. Some other sources are the young
leaves of Anogeissus latifolia; the fruit of Zizyphus Xylopyrus,
the hill oaks, chestnuts and of Sonneratia apetala ; the leaves of
Heritiera minor, of other mangrove trees and of Napa fruticans.
The bark of the following trees gives good tanning material :
Shorea robusta, Terminalia Arjuna, Woodfordia floribunda,
Cassia auriculata (almost exclusively used in the Peninsula) ;
the pods of Cesalpinia digyna ; the bark of Acacia arabica is

THE IMPORTANT PRODUCTS OF THE FORESTS. 133

chiefly used in Northern India, as well as the pods; Odina
Wodier, Cutch, the extract of the heartwood of Acacia Catechu,
is used for tanning and as a dying material.

Essential oils are obtained from sandalwood (Santalum album),
Eucalyptus oil from plantations established in the Nilgiris, the
important Rosha oil from the grass Cymbopogon Martini ; lemon
grass oil from Cymbopogon citratus ; Saussurea Lappa yields the
valuable costus oil; Gaultheria fragrantissima yields “ winter-
green,” as first found by Puran Singh, Chemical Adviser at the
Forest Research Institute at Dehra Doon; from winter-green
natural salicylic acid and natural sodium salicylate can easily be
prepared.

Oleo-resins—The pine tapped for its oleo-resin is Pinus longi-
folia, and the process has now developed into a big industry, the
annual out-turn having of late been 2,400 tons of rosin and
156,000 gallons of turpentine. Only 100,000 acres have, so far,
been tapped, so that the industry is capable of considerable
extension. Boswellia serrata yields a gum-oleo-resin, which it
is intended to take up shortly. The Dipterocarps of Burma yield
the “‘ wood-oil”’ of that province, used for the manufacture of
torches, for oiling soap and caulking boats ; it has been suggested
as a solvent for caoutchouc. The oleo-resin derived from Mela-
norrhea usitata is used in Burma for lacquer work; many
enquiries have been received as to the development of the industry.

Gums are produced by a large number of Indian trees, but only
a limited number give gums of commercial value. That obtained
from Acacia arabica, the “‘ babul”’ tree, resembles gum arabic ;
it is collected in large quantities in India.

An important astringent gum is obtained from Pterocarpus
Marsupium, known as gum “kino.” Anogeissus latifolia, the
“ dhaura ”’ tree, gives a gum used extensively for sizing paper and
in calico printing. The gum obtained from Bauhinia retusa is
collected in considerable quantities in the outer Himalayas and
used for medicinal purposes. The gum from Odina Wodier is
used in fixing whitewash, sizing paper and in medicine. Coch-
lospermum gum is used by shoemakers, in medicine, and as a
substitute for other gums. Buchanama latifolia yields large
quantities of gum, which deserves further attention. The gums
of Gardenia lucida and gummifera are used in cutaneous diseases.

134 FORESTRY IN BRITISH EAST INDIA.

India rubber is yielded by the indigenous Ficus elastica, a large
evergreen tree found wild in moist forests of the outer Eastern
Himalayas, Assam and Upper Burma. It has been artificially
planted, but it cannot compete with the Para rubber tree. The
Forest Department introduced the latter into India, and having
proved the suitability of the climate of Tenasserim for the tree,
sold the plantations to a private company. Since then further
extensions have been made in South India, so that over 6,000 tons
of rubber were exported from India in 1918—1919.

Drugs and Spices are collected from the forests, such as aconite
belladonna, nux vomica, podophyllum, barberry, violet, wild
pepper, cardamoms, pods of Cassia Fistula, tamarind and others.

Edible products are yielded by trees, shrubs and herbs, forming
an important natural supply of food for the various jungle tribes,
which is of considerable importance in time of scarcity. Special
mention should be made of the flowers of Bassia latifolia, the
“mohwa ”’ tree, the corolla of which is eaten fresh or dried, or
distilled into intoxicating liquor; recently they have been a
source of supply of acetone and alcohol.

Amimal products.—Lac, the production of Tachardia lacca, is
one of the most important animal products of the forest, which is
artificially propagated on a large scale. India has practically a
monopoly of the lac industry, and its importance may be judged
by the fact that the export of lac of various kinds in 1917—1918
was valued at 38 million rupees. Silk is another product
capable of further development. Horns, hides, bones and ivory
are other animal products.

It has been stated above that the percentage of land under
forest in British India is about the same as that of the forests in
Europe. There is, however, a great difference in the produce.
While, at present, the European forests yield far more timber
per unit of area than the Indian forests, the latter yield much
greater quantities of valuable other so-called ‘“‘ minor produce.” *

4, Tae ANNUAL INCREMENT OF THE FORESTS.

It is impossible to give any estimate of the increment of the
corporation and private forests. And even as regards the State

* For further details see Troup’s pamphlet ‘‘ The Work of the Forest
Department in India.”

THE ANNUAL INCREMENT OF THE FORESTS. 135

forests the necessary information is available only for those
classified as set aside for timber productions. It is as follows :—

Area of Timber forests in square miles . 126,309
Increment per square mile : 9,600 cubic ft.
Total Increment, rounded off A «EZ TSO00, 000 BO '§,
Loss by fire, waste, decay, &c. : : 36,000,000" -3, °°" 3;
Net Increment. ’ i Se HBR OOOOOO is oh ho recss

5. ANNUAL Exports AND Imports oF TIMBER.

The average annual exports and imports during the 5 years,
1914-1919, are given as follows :—

Quantity,

Cubic Feet. Value £.

Imports :
Railway sleeper wood 744,750 .. 12,019
Deal and pine timber : 816,150 .. 141,079
Jarrah timber : : ‘ 18-800) >. e195
Teak timber . ; : ORS 00m a ooo!
Other timber . : : SL bO0 30) antea LOCROLe
Total Imports : 1 Aolo oO) 2s JOolesod

Exports :
Teak timber . ! ei 4625750) &24 6379,378
Other timber . } ; ; 1851008 for oko :517
Total Exports ; G4 850 Sa) 1395,895
Excess of Imports over Exports 2,725,300 .. 235,958

6. Home CONSUMPTION OF TIMBER.

A large proportion of the wood consumed in India comes from
the private, and from what has been given above as “‘ Other State
Forests.” No data are available regarding the quantities
obtained from these sources. The material is mostly small, and
the stocks in the private forests, at any rate, are somewhat
rapidly diminishing.

It has been shown above that the increment of the 126,309

136 FORESTRY IN BRITISH EAST INDIA.

square miles of State timber forests is estimated, after the deduc-
tion of loss, at 1,177 million cubic feet. The quantities annually
removed from these forests are given as 174 million cubic feet of
timber and 173 million feet of firewood, making a total of 347
millions. This would represent less than one-third of the annual
increment. In the past most of the timber was, however, taken
from the best kinds, while the increment given above refers to
the increment of all species. The amount of wood per head of
population obtained annually from these forests comes to about 13
cubic feet, and the total consumption may be placed at about 3
cubic feet, as compared with 15 cubic feet in the United King-
dom. On the other hand, the people of India use enormous
numbers of bamboos for construction.

Until quite lately, out of the thousands of species, only a small
number were used as timber, which in many places have been
overworked. At the same time the average increment per acre
is estimated at 15 cubic feet, and this will increase in the same
proportion as the management of the forests improves. The
population is also increasing, but there can be no doubt that the
Indian forests will continue to yield all the timber required by the
people for along time to come. At the same time the following
measures are highly desirable :—

(1) Increased reproduction of the merchantable species ;

(2) Introduction of the better species at present unmarketable
into the market, either in their natural state or after
suitable treatment ;

(3) The opening out of forests at present inaccessible by the
construction of roads and other means of transport.

SECTION III—IMPORTANCE OF THE FORESTS TO
THE NATION.

In former times certain forests were carefully protected as
game preserves for the pleasure of kings, princes and great
nobles. These areas were of small extent when compared with
the area of the whole country. The idea of preserving forests
for the supply of timber, fuel and other forest produce, or on
account of their indirect effects on climate, rainfall, the regulation
of moisture and the stability of the soil on sloping ground is of
modern origin. It would lead too far to discuss the subject here

FORESTS IN RELATION TO CLIMATE AND RAINFALL. 137

in all its details, but the main issues may be shortly mentioned.
They are :—

Forest in relation to Climate and Rainfall.

The Regulation of Moisture.

Forest Produce required by the Country.

1. Forests In RELATION TO CLIMATE AND RAINFALL.

This relation is of a very peculiar nature. On the one hand, a
covering of forest vegetation reduces the temperature of the air
and soil, increases the relative humidity and tends to increase
precipitation. On the other hand, the exceptionally high
temperature prevailing in spring and early summer over the
centre of the peninsula is one of the agencies which bring about
the summer monsoon rains. Thus afforestation might produce
local precipitations, but it might also weaken the force of the
south-west monsoon, or delay its arrival. Moreover, investiga-
tions instituted of late years by the Government of India, have
shown that the effect of forests on the rainfall is so small, at any
rate in the low lands, that it can be neglected; it could not
compensate for any interference which extensive afforestation
might exercise upon the arrival of the south-west monsoon. As
a matter of fact, three-fourths of the areas here under considera-
tion is utilized for cultivation and grazing grounds. The south-
west monsoon must, therefore, remain the main source of moisture
in India. On the whole, the climate and rainfall of India are
subject to influences compared with which the effect of a limited
area of forests must always be very small. At the same time, the
shade of forests and of trees generally will be gratefully accepted
in a country as hot as India.

2. THe REGULATION OF MOISTURE.

The regulation and husbanding of moisture in a country with
an uncertain rainfall like India is of great importance as regards
evaporation of moisture and the mechanical action of water.

The difference in evaporation between a forest-clad area and
one exposed to the full effect of the sun and air currents is much
greater in a tropical climate than it has been proved to be in a
temperate climate. Hence, the presence of forest acts highly
beneficial wherever the rainfall is limited, or unfavourably distri-

138 FORESTRY IN BRITISH EAST INDIA.

buted over the seasons of the year, or altogether uncertain, as is
the case in many parts of India and also in some parts of Burma.
In this respect the action of forests in India is highly beneficial.

3. IRRIGATION.

The beneficial action of forests upon the preservation of
moisture becomes of special importance in countries like India
where artificial irrigation is of national importance. In a primi-
tive manner, irrigation has been carried out in India from time
immemorial, but it was not done on a scale sufficient to prevent
the horrors of periodic famines. One of the early measures taken
by the British Government of India was to increase and systema-
tise irrigation on lands in those parts of the country where the
rainfall was not sufficient to secure the growth of food crops.
Now, the existing irrigation systems have reached such an extent
that starvation during periods of scarcity is no longer to be
feared. Sufficient food for man and fodder for cattle can be sent
by the existing railway systems in a comparatively short time.

The irrigation systems existing in 1914 are classified as
follows :—

57 Productive Works irrigating . 16,320,500 acres.

30 Protective Works irrigating . 553,200 ,,
119 Minor Works irrigating. : 4.750, 100» «3
37,000 Tanks irrigating ‘ io 8;27b 200

Total : . | - 24.899 G00) ses

Add Areas irrigated from Wells . 10,000,000 _,,

Grand total of irrigated Area. 34,899,600 _,,

These areas are distributed over the several provinces of India,
more particularly in the Punjab with 7-8 millions, Madras with
7-1 millions, Sind with 3-6 millions, United Provinces with
3°5 millions. The value of the crops produced on these areas
amounts to 800,000,000 rupees (£80,000,000) annually.

Of the total irrigated area, about 10 million acres rely on water
taken from rivers which are fed by the enormous snowfields of
the Himalayas; the remaining areas derive their water, directly
or indirectly, from the rain which falls on the heated surface of

MECHANICAL ACTION OF FORESTS. 139

moderately high hills and low lands. The larger the proportion
of the catchment areas, whence this irrigation water comes, is
shaded by forest growth, the more sustained will be the supply of
water. Here then isa mission which forestry in India has to fulfil.

4. MecHaNnicAL AcTION OF FORESTS.

The mechanical action of forest vegetation on sloping ground
is not without importance in India. There is sufficient evidence
to show what careless or injudicious clearing of forest may do.
Anyone who has ever stood on the hills behind Hushiarpur in the
Punjab and looked down upon the plain stretching out towards
the south-west, has carried away an impression which he is not
likely to forget. In that part the Siwalik range consists of an
exceedingly friable rock. Formerly the range was covered with
a growth of forest vegetation, but some time ago cattle owners
settled in it, and under the combined attack of men, bufialoes,
cows, sheep and goats, the natural growth disappeared, while the
tread of the heavy beasts loosened the soil. The annual monsoon
rains, though not heavy, commenced a process of erosion and of
carrying away the surface soil. Gradually ravines and torrents
were formed which have torn the hill range into the most fantastic
shapes, while the debris has been carried into the plain, forming
fan-shaped accumulations of sand reaching for miles into the
plain, covering and rendering sterile extensive areas of formerly
fertile fields. The evil will grow in extent unless curative
measures are taken. Means of checking the mischief were con-
sidered for many years, and by 1896 the destruction had extended
over an area of about 150 square miles. Grazing and wood
cutting were then limited, and in 1913 steps were taken to deal
systematically with afforestation in the affected areas. [See
page 140.]

Although the case of the Hushiarpur Chos, as they are called,
is the worst of its kind in India, there are other instances which
prove that afforestation is essential on hill sides, wherever the
rock is friable and likely to be dissolved and carried away by the
continued action of water. It would, however, be a mistake to
assume that every hillside requires to be under forest. This is
not the case, wherever the rock is firm and capable of holding its
own without the steadying help of a growth of forest vegetation.

140 FORESTRY IN BRITISH EAST INDIA.

HiGeeb:

Sn cio ae op PSR ARERGR
a” ‘a ay hes re

ege! aadateg sR 4
PORE TARR

Tue HusHIARPUR CHOS.

Showing the result of erosion on a sandstone formation.

FOREST PRODUCE REQUIRED BY THE COUNTRY. 141

5. Forest PRopUCE REQUIRED BY THE COUNTRY.

Although India has an extensive seaboard, along which forest
produce can be landed, it does not derive as much benefit from
this fact as might be assumed, because it is such a vast country.
The distance between the sea shore and the place of consumption
in the interior of the country amounts frequently to many
hundreds of miles. Railways are as yet not as common as in
England, and forest produce is, for the most part, bulky ; hence,
only the coast districts would profit by the import of forest
produce, even if it could be brought in sufficient quantities from
other countries. As has been pointed out above, the imports in
the past have been on a small scale, and these may be further
reduced owing to increasing demands by other countries. There
can be no doubt that India must rely on the timber and firewood
produced in the country. There are considerable beds of coal in
India, but they are inconveniently distributed over the country,
and coal is at present used chiefly for industrial purposes and for
export.

All the teeming millions of India use wood fuel for their firing,
and, if this is not available, dried cow dung. Their using coal
is out of the question for a long time to come, because the mass
of the people have neither the necessary firing arrangements, nor
could they afford to pay for the coal. For domestic firing India
must maintain large areas under wood and an adequate area to
provide for the annual requirements of timber for construction,
boat building, tools, agricultural implements, public works and
railways. And, judging by the standard which applies to
continental countries of Europe, it may safely be estimated that
India should permanently maintain a forest area of $ an acre per
head of population, or, in round figures, 190,000 square miles in
the British provinces, in order to secure a sufficient quantity of
timber and firewood. That area would be equal to 18 per cent.
of the total area of British India, or equal to about 75 per cent.
of the area of the existing State forests.

It has been stated above that the estimated increment of the
better half of the State forests is about 15 eubic feet per acre,
while the consumption during the last few years has been about
3 cubic feet annually per head of population, so that less than
4 an acre per head should suffice for all purposes. It should,

142 FORESTRY IN BRITISH EAST INDIA.

however, be remembered that the greater part of the increment
is at present laid on by trees which are of little or no value, and
that this process will continue until the proportion of valuable
trees has been considerably increased, a process which will require
something like a whole rotation. Besides, great demands are
made on these forests for other produce, while the population is
rapidly increasing. Moreover, there should now be a great
development of forest industries and of export.

The Indian census of 1911 gave 1,191,367 people and their
dependents employed on forest industries in British India, an
estimate which was probably much below the actual. With the
opening up of the forests, the extension of systematic working,
the wider use of known products, and the discovery of new pro-
ducts, a steady development of industries dependent on the forests
is sure to take place.

SECTION IV.—DEVELOPMENT OF INDIAN FOREST
CONSERVANCY,

1. HiIsToRIcat.

If such evidence as is now available can be relied on, the greater
part of India was in former times covered with forests. Subse-
quently, settlers opened out the country along fertile valleys and
streams, but the destruction of the forests on a larger scale was
done by nomadic tribes which, moving from pasture to pasture,
fired alike hills and plains wherever they went. Many of these
tribes consisted of Arians who had come across the Himalayas.
This lasted for many centuries. With the advent of British rule,
the destruction of the forests became more rapid than ever. The
order of the day then became “ extension of cultivation at the
cost of the existing forests,” a process which was carried on for
many years without any enquiry as to the ultimate effects. To
this was gradually added an increasing demand for timber, as well
as for pasture for rapidly multiplying herds of cattle, which
roamed far and wide through the forests. Shifting cultivation and
fire did the rest. Then railways came, and with their extension
the forests disappeared with greater rapidity than ever, partly
on account of the increased demands for timber and firewood
used in construction, and partly on account of the fresh impetus
given to cultivation along the lines.

DEVELOPMENT OF CONSERVANCY. 143

Ultimately, when failures to meet the demands for public works
were brought to notice, it was recognised that a grievous mistake
had been made in allowing the forests to be recklessly destroyed.

The question of forest conservancy in some parts of the country
had already attracted attention in the very beginning of the
nineteenth century, because difficulty had been experienced in
providing the necessary timber for the Bombay dockyard and
other works. A Government timber agency was established, but
again abolished in 1823, in consequence of serious complaints
having been made against it. In 1843 Mr. Conolly, Collector in
Malabar, arose as a great advocate for the protection of the teak
forests in that part of India, and he started a plantation which is
now well known as the Nilambur teak plantation. Dr. Gibson
was appointed Conservator of Forests in Bombay in 1847.
Dr. Cleghorn commenced forest conservancy in Mysore in 1847,
and he was appointed Conservator of Forests in Madras in 1856.
These are some of the earlier pioneers of forest conservancy in
Southern and Western India. In the meantime, in 1852, Pegu
had been annexed, and the question of the Burma teak forests
occupied the Government of the time. It was at this juncture
that Lord Dalhousie, the great administrator, took up the matter
and for the first time laid down a comprehensive forest policy.
The steps which he took are indicated in paragraph 82 of his
“Minute,” dated February 28th, 1856, reviewing his adminis-
tration in India from 1848 to 1856. One of his last measures in
connection with forest administration in 1856 was the appoint-
ment of Dr. Brandis (afterwards Sir Dietrich Brandis) to the post
of Superintendent of the Pegu forests. This officer, in his
endeavour to preserve the fine Burma teak forests, carried on a
determined struggle with the mercantile community of the
province, whose object was to see the forests thrown open to
private enterprise on the plea that the supply of teak was inex-
haustible, and with the object of getting the greatest possible
profit out of the forests in the shortest possible time. Lord
Dalhousie having then left India, victory hung long in the balance,
but with the help of Major Phayre (afterwards Sir Arthur Phayre),
Dr. Brandis was ultimately victorious, and the greater part of the
Burma teak forests was saved, forests which now yield an average
annual net revenue of 15 million rupees.

144 FORESTRY IN BRITISH EAST INDIA.

In 1862 Dr. Brandis was called to Simla to advise Government
on forest conservancy in other parts of India. At the outset he
worked in conjunction with Dr. Cleghorn, and in 1864 he was
appointed the first Inspector-General of Forests to the Govern-
ment of India. From the year 1862 until 1883 he laboured
steadily on the introduction of systematic forest management into
the various parts of India.

2. Forest LEGISLATION.

The first duty of the new Department was to ascertain the
position and extent of the remaining forests, and more especially
of the portion which was still the property of the State. During
the long continued struggle between human action and the effort
of self-preservation on the part of the forests, the latter succumbed
wherever the climatic conditions were unfavourable ; hence, what
remained of forests was situated in localities with a heavy rainfall,
or where a scanty population had carried on a feeble warfare
against the woodlands.

To enable the Forest Department to bring the forests under
proper management and protection, a Forest Law was passed in
1865. This law empowered Government to declare certain areas
to be “ State Forests ”’ but without interfering with the rights and
privileges of the people. The claims of the latter were on such an
excessive scale that real forest conservancy became practically
impossible. The result was that a new Forest Act was passed in
1878, which, with certain subsequent modifications, is now in
force. Its main provisions are the following :—

(1) Power to declare Government lands to be Reserved State
Forests, after an enquiry into and settlement, or, if
necessary, commutation of private or public rights in
the area ; also power to prevent the springing up of any
new rights.

(2) Power to declare any Government land a Protected forest ;
in that case existing forest rights may be ascertained and
recorded, but not definitely settled, nor is there any bar
against the springing up of new rights.

(3) Power for the establishment of Village forests, to be
managed for the benefit of village communities.

(4) Power to provide for the proper protection and management

THE INDIAN FOREST POLICY DEFINED. 145

of State forests, and for the protection of forest produce
in transit.
(5) Power to provide for suitable punishment of offenders
against the forest law and regulations made under it.
The Act is in force throughout India except in the following
areas for which separate Acts or regulations have been passed :
Madras, Burma, Assam, the North-west Frontier Province,
British Baluchistan and Ajmer. These separate enactments,
while conceived in the same spirit as that of the Indian Forest
Act, of 1878, provide for local requirements. °

3. THe Inp1iAN Forest Po.ticy DEFINED.

The general forest policy of the Government of India has been
developed by degrees. In 1894, after great progress had been
made in the organisation of the department, the Government of
India issued a resolution, further augmented in 1904, laying down
that the classification of the areas under the control of the Forest
Department should be as follows :—

(a) Forests the preservation of which is essential on climatic

and physical grounds.

(6) Forests which are managed chiefly for the supply of useful

timber for commercial purposes and general construction.

(c) Minor forests which afford a supply of wood, fodder,

grazing and other produce for local consumption,
especially for the agricultural classes.

(d) Pasture lands, or grazing grounds, managed by the Forest

Department.
It cannot be said that this resolution is happily worded, since it
is practically impossible to separate the forests into the desired
classes, as most of them serve several of the indicated purposes.

To class (a) belong the areas preserved for purposes of indirect
utility, such as the effect of forests on climate, rainfall, water
storage and the prevention of denudation. A special enquiry
into the subject was conducted by the Government of India
during the years 1907 to 1914, the results of which were (1) that
the effect of forests on rainfall is probably very small, and (2) that
denudation of the soil following the destruction of forests has been
definitely established. Class (6) shall be managed chiefly for the

production of the greatest possible quantity of useful timber for
VOL. I. y

146 FORESTRY IN BRITISH EAST INDIA.

commercial purposes, without, however, excluding the supply of
the requirements of the surrounding population. Classes (c) and
(d) contain the areas which are managed chiefly, or entirely, for
the production of the forest produce necessary for the local
population. In some parts of India these latter forests are the
most important, inasmuch as the supply to the agricultural
classes of the necessary produce is a paramount duty of the
State, whenever the supply from private forests is not sufficient.
The activity of the Indian forest department should not be judged
from the revenue point of view only, but also, and frequently
chiefly, by the degree of efficiency in supplying the population
with the necessary forest produce. This is of special importance
in a country like India, where frequent periods of scarcity, if not
of famine, occur. At such times the classes (c) and (d) of forests
are essential to the very existence of the people and their cattle.
Unless the latter are in fair condition, the fields could not be
ploughed for the next food crop. Even in ordinary years very
large quantities of produce are given free of charge from the
State forests or at reduced prices, whenever necessary, so as to
assist the local cultivator.

It has been stated above that in many parts of India dried
cow dung is used as fuel, and thus taken away from its legitimate
useasmanure. In the year 1873 the author of this book suggested
the formation of fuel reserves in the Province of Behar, so that
cow dung should be used for manure. No action was taken on
this suggestion, but, some 20 years later, Dr. Voelker, the agricul-
tural expert, brought the matter forward as one of great
importance in the improvement of agriculture. Then more
attention was paid to the establishment of fuel and fodder reserves
by means of afforestation, wherever the existing forests were not
sufficient to yield the necessary quantities.

4. ORGANISATION, ADMINISTRATION AND STAFF.

As already mentioned, the organised Indian Forest Department
dates from the year 1864. The forest administration is placed
under the Local Governments, which in future will be presided
over by Governors in Council. Their action is, however, con-
trolled by the Government of India. What shape that control
will take in the future is as yet somewhat uncertain, as great

ORGANISATION, ADMINISTRATION AND STAFF. 147

changes in the government of the country are taking place at this
moment. Hitherto the control of the Government of India over
the provincial Governments in forest matters was exercised chiefly
as regards general forest policy, financial matters, the appoint-
ment of the head forest officers, the provisions of the forest law
and of the Civil Service Regulations and the Civil Accounts Code,

The forestry business of the Government of India is dealt with
in the Department of Revenue and Agriculture. The Inspector-
General of Forests is the Chief Adviser to the Government of
India, and, as such, the Head of the Forest Department. Local
Governments also may obtain his views on the management of
the forests in their Provinces. The Inspector-General may
correspond direct with the local heads of the service on professional
matters, when he requires information or desires to make sugges-
tions, but copies of any important letters are communicated to
the Government of India and the Local Government. He keeps
himself informed of the progress of the work by tours through
the forests during a considerable part of the year. He is also
consulted in the preparation of Forest Working Plans.

Until comparatively recent years, each Province had one
Conservator of Forests, who administered the forest business
under the control, and on behalf, of the Local Government.
Owing to the increase of the work, the larger Provinces have been
divided into several Conservatorships, or Circles, with a Chief
Conservator for the Province. The Chief Conservators or
Conservators, as the case may be, are the immediate advisers of
the Local Governments. Each Circle is divided into the following
charges :—

(a) Divisions, or Controlling Charges.
(b) Each Division into Ranges, or Executive Charges.
(c) Each Range into Beats, or Protective Charges.

The Forest Service, or Staff, comprises three branches :—
(1) The Imperial Service, consisting at present of :—

Inspector-General of Forests. a : 1
Chief Conservators of Forests
Conservators of Forests. , 25

Deputy and Assistant Conservators of Forests. 225

Total Imperial Service . : ; 257

148 FORESTRY IN BRITISH EAST INDIA.

(2) The Provincial Service, consisting of :—

Extra Deputy Conservators of Forests : 58
Extra Assistant Conservators of Forests. 202
Total Provincial Service ; ; 260
(3) The Subordinate Service, consisting of :—
Forest Rangers : ; : s 840
Deputy Rangers and neers : : - = oon
Forest Guards . ; : : ; . 11,500
Total Subordinate Service . ; : 15,240
Grand total, cadres. ; ; : 15,757

The posts of Inspector-General, Chief Conservators, Conser-
vators, and the more important Divisions are held by members
of the Imperial Forest Service. Some of the Divisions, generally
the less important, are held by members of the Provincial Service.
Ranges are held by Forest Rangers, who in many cases are
assisted by Deputy Rangers and Foresters. Guards hold charge
of Beats.

Apart from the territorial charges mentioned above, there are
a number of non-territorial charges, or special posts, connected
with the preparation of forest working plans, research, education
and other special duties. Most of these charges are held by
members of the Imperial and Provincial Services enumerated
above ; others are held by Specialists.

5. RECRUITMENT AND EDUCATION.

When the Forest Department was started in 1864 it contained
no specially trained forest officer. Up to that time the leading
foresters were mostly military officers, including several medical
men. They did excellent work during the early introduction of
forest conservancy and for a series of years afterwards. Sir Dietrich
Brandis, the first Inspector-General, considered it very important
that early steps should be taken to secure a staff of specially
trained officers, and under his advice it was arranged to train a
number of young Englishmen on the Continent of Kurope. This
was in 1866. In the same year two highly trained forest officers
were obtained from Germany to assist in the immediate develop-

RECRUITMENT AND EDUCATION. 149

ment of the department. The latter joined at once in India, and
the students were sent, half to Germany and the other half to
France, for instruction in forestry. Subsequently, in 1875, the
English forestry students were concentrated at Nancy. Ten
years later, in 1885, matters were considered ripe for starting a
school of forestry in England in connection with the Coopers Hill
Engineering College. The task was entrusted to the author of
this book, who organised and presided over this, the first School
of Forestry in the United Kingdom, during 20 years. When
Coopers Hill College was closed, the forest branch was, in 1905,
transferred to the University of Oxford, of which it has been a
branch until the present time. The number of Indian Forest
officers educated under these arrangements up to 1914 was as
follows :—

Educated in France , uinatZ
Educated in Germany . soR026
Educated at Coopers Hill : . 153
Educated at Oxford : 101 95

Total . d : . 345

Of the officers trained on the Continent, only 3 remained at the
end of 1914, and 4 were trained at Cambridge. Hence, out of an
Imperial Staff of 230 in 1914 as many as 223 were educated by the
author of this book.

In consequence of action on the part of the Universities of
Cambridge and Hdinburgh, the Secretary of State for India,
in 1911, threw open the education of the probationers for the
Indian Forest Service to any British University which satisfied
him as having a course of instruction in forestry of a standard
sufficient for the requirements of the Indian Government. Since
then 7 officers from Cambridge and 5 from Edinburgh had joined
by the end of 1919.

Owing to the war practically no recruiting took place between
1914 and 1918. Since then about 80 demobilised Officers have
been appointed Probationers for the Indian Imperial Forest
Service. Of these some are now on their way to India.

Owing to the great changes lately introduced into the system
of Indian Government, the method of training the future members

150 FORESTRY IN BRITISH EAST INDIA.

of the Imperial Forest Service is oncemore underconsideration, and
it is impossible to foresee what further changes will be introduced,
The Provincial Service members are recruited in India and
trained in connection with the Forest Research Institute, Dehra
Dun ; a certain number of posts in the service are, however, filled
by the promotion of specially promising Rangers. The teaching
is supplemented by practical instruction in various parts of India.
The adequate instruction of the Subordinate Service was first
suggested by the author in 1873, when he was Conservator
in Bengal. Sir Dietrich Brandis was then on leave in Europe,
and after his return to India in 1874, he took up the subject, and
practical training was commenced at Dehra Dun in 1875. A
complete course of instruction had been established by 1878. It
is the oldest School of Forestry in the British Empire. The
instruction extended to Rangers and Foresters. Since then
schools for Rangers have been established at Pyinmana in Burma,
at Coimbatore in Madras, and at Dharwar in Bombay. Other
similar schools for Rangers are proposed. The training of subordi-
nates below the rank of Ranger has been provincialised. There
are now elementary forest schools in Madras, Bombay, Bengal with
Behar and Orissa, the United Provinces, Punjab with the North-
west Frontier Province, Burma, Central Provinces and Assam.

SECTION V.—PROGRESS OF FOREST ADMINISTRATION,

1. ESTABLISHMENT OF PERMANENT STATE ForEstTs.

When the Forest Department was organised in 1864 the first
duty of the comparatively small staff consisted in ascertaining
the position, extent, and general character of the forests, while at
the same time organising a system of protection and exploitation
according to the condition of the several areas. Many of the
forests were more or less ruined by the careless exploitation of the
valuable species and by the ravages of forest fires. In drawing
up preliminary working schemes, the principle of a sustained yield
was recognised from the outset. This, however, caused a good
deal of friction between the forester and the timber dealer. The
former insisted on not only maintaining the present yield capacity,
but also on increasing it in the future, while the timber dealer
declared the supply of timber to be inexhaustible, a view which
was in many cases supported by the civil authorities. The

ESTABLISHMENT OF PERMANENT STATE FORESTS. 151

struggle between the contending parties was long, but ultimately
sound views obtained the upper hand, and then more rapid
progress became possible. The area placed under the adminis-
tration of the Forest Department increased until it reached the
present area of 251,000 square miles.

As soon as the Indian Forest Act of 1878 had been passed, the
Department set to work to establish a sufficient area of permanent
State forests, called “‘ Reserved Forests ” in the Act. As reserva-
tion has to be preceded by a forest settlement and accompanied
by the demarcation of the boundaries of the reserves, it represents
an immense amount of work, which even now has not yet been con-
cluded, as the following data will show. It has been stated above
that to meet the future requirements of forest produce, an area of
190,000 square miles of permanent State forests, equal to 18 per
cent. of the total area, should be established. The progress made in
that direction up to 1914 is shown in the subjoined statement :—

TABLE SHOWING THE PROGRESS MADE UP TO 1914 IN THE SELEC-
TION OF PERMANENT STATE FORESTS.

| Forest Area in Square Miles. Percentage
Total Area of Forest
Province. | Square | ~ ay aie! rae | to Total
ee Reserved. | ¢, ne Unclassed.| Total. caren
| |
|
1. Madras . | 142,402] 18,863} — 802 | 19,665 13-8
2. Bombay and | |
| Sind ; “ad ¥e 23,316) 11,857 385 — 12,242 9-9
| 3. Bengal . : 8,875 ALS TIE eal 4.030 | 10,612 13-5
4. United Pro- | |
vinces . . 106,773; 4,121 3e 39 4,193 | 3-9
5. Punjab . é 96,650 2,165 | 5,203 946 8,314 | 8-6
Oeebnrma . : 224,854| 27,332); — 114,111 | 141,443 62-9
7. Behar and Or- |
issa : ; SP O73, Leg eODS _- 2,785 | 3-4
8. Assam . ; 48,915 4,381 — 18,401 | 22,782 | 46-6
9. Central Pro-
vince and Behar 99,876, 19,684} — = 19,684 19-7
10. Coorg : 1,582 520]; — _- 520 | 32:9
11. N.-W. Frontier
Province . , 13,184 2367|) — — 236 | 1-8
12. Ajmer ; : 2,767 142; — — 142 5-1
13. Baluchistan : 54,228 313) — 472 785 | 1-4
14. Andamans and
Nicobars . ; 3,143 Sone 2,124 2,209 | 70:3
Total in 1914 . | 1,079,638; 96,297 | 8,390 | 140,925 | 245,612 22:7
Total in 1920 . ie 080, 814 103,003 | 7,941 | 140,005 | 250,949 | 23-2

152 FORESTRY IN BRITISH EAST INDIA.

It will be observed that the area of forests under the control of the
Forest Department is about one-fourth of the total area of
British India. The percentage of the Reserved, or Permanent,
State Forests, is only 10 per cent. of the total area of the British
part of India; it should, by degrees, be raised so as to come
nearer the area required to supply India permanently with the
necessary forest produce, that area having been estimated at
18 per cent. of the total area of the country. There are extensive
private and village forests which yield a considerable amount of
grazing, fuel and small timber, but they have been much reduced
in yield capacity, a process which is still going on, so that the
people are coming more and more for produce to the State forests.
Still, the private and village forests will continue giving a certain
yield, so that not the full 18 per cent., or 190,000 square miles,
need be converted into permanent State forests. It will probably
suffice if their area is gradually brought up to, say, 150,000 square
miles, leaving about 100,000 square miles available for further
extension of cultivation, village grazing grounds and other
purposes. Unfortunately, the percentage differs very much, and
it is especially small in those provinces where an extension is most
wanted. While Burma and Assam have as yet more forests than
they permanently require, Behar, the United Provinces, the
Punjab and some other provinces have too little. In most of the
latter provinces areas are urgently required for fuel reserves, so
that the cow dung, which is now burnt, may be made available
for manure.

A most important work is the settlement of rights in the
permanent State forests. This is done in connection with the
reservation proceedings by specially appointed Settlement Officers.
Up to the year 1914 the settlement extended over 101,585 square
miles of reserves, or proposed reserves, and 6,414 square miles of
protected forests. The demarcation of boundaries extended over
a length of 165,051 miles, keeping pace with reservation.

2. Forest SuRVEY.

As sufficiently detailed maps are essential for systematic
management, a special Forest Survey Department was organised
in 1871 and subsequently amalgamated with the general Indian
Survey Department. Up to 1920 a forest area of 87,001 square

FOREST WORKING PLANS. 153

miles had been surveyed and mapped, mostly on a scale of 4 inches
to the mile.
3. Forest WorKING PLANS.

The management of Forests depends on the objects which the
proprietor has in view ; they may be of direct or indirect utility
as explained in Part I. of this book. All forests, to do justice to
the object for which they are maintained, must be managed in
accordance with well considered working plans, or schemes,
drawn up on scientific and economic lines, so as to secure con-
tinuity of action and the best possible results. In some cases
they may be of a simple nature, but for regular timber forests
the plans must be of a more complicated description.

The advisability of a systematic working of the Indian forests
for a sustained yield was recognised during the early days of forest
administration in India, and a start of drawing up working plans
was made in 1856, when Sir D. Brandis commenced preparing
so-called “preliminary working plans” for the Burma teak
forests. These plans were naturally drawn up on general lines,
but on conservative principles to guard against overworking.
When Brandis became Inspector-General of Forests he introduced
the same system into other provinces. All his working plans
aimed at a sustained yield. Their preparation devolved to a
great extent upon himself, until the arrival of efficiently trained
Assistants to help him. Subsequently it became difficult to
prevent the working of the forests in excess of their permanent
yield capacity, and, on the proposal of the author, the Government
of India, with the approval of the Secretary of State for India,
established in 1884 the “‘ Working Plan Branch” under the direc-
tion of the Inspector-General of Forests. The preparation of the
plans continued to be carried out by local agency and under the
control of the Local Government and the technical advice of
the Inspector-General of Forests. A plan once approved can-
not be departed from without the previous sanction of Govern-
ment. This step has been described as one of the epoch-making
events in the history of Indian forest management. It sanctified
the principle of a sustained yield of the forests, and it afforded the
means of bringing together statistical data bearing on the future
management and improvement of the forests. The preparation
of working plans requires a competent staff and involves much

154 FORESTRY IN BRITISH EAST INDIA.

labour. Under the Regulation of 1884 and subsequent amend-
ments, progress has been so satisfactory that by 1914 plans had.
been sanctioned for an area of 53,926 square miles, distributed

as follows :— Square Miles,

Madras . . ‘ ; F : 8,091
Bombay E : é : vy G7G5
Bengal . : ; ‘ ; . 4,965
United Provinces . ; ; ; 4,077
Punjab . : : é : wid, 968
Burma . . ‘ , ; : 7,933
Behar and Orissa. , : : 1,460
Assam . é , ‘ : 2 1,134
Central Provinces . : é . 943632
Coorg . ; : 207
N.W. Frontier Province . , : 236
Ajmer . . ‘ : ‘ 3 140
Andaman Islands . ; : 4 317

Total, 1914 : : 153926

Total, 1920 3 : . 59,520
Under preparation . s 3 ame <7 (U):

Grand total " : . 68,224

The most important forests were taken in hand first. It is
estimated that in the immediate future plans are required for an
additional area of 20,663 square miles. For some of the remaining
areas plans are not required at present, but, as time goes on,
working plans will, no doubt, ultimately be necessary for all forests.

Instructions, defining the manner in which working plans shall
be drawn up, are given in the Indian Forest Code. They give
sufficient latitude to allow for local conditions, and are divided
into Part I. Summary of Facts as the Basis of Proposals, and
Part II. Future Management discussed and prescribed. When
it is proposed to draw up a working plan, a short preliminary
report is prepared setting forth the lines on which it is proposed
to proceed. This report is submitted to the Inspector-General
for an expression of his opinion, which he sends to the local
Government. When the working plan is ready, a copy is for-
warded to the Inspector-General, who may further criticise it
or accept it. Then the local Government issues the necessary

METHODS OF TREATMENT. 155

orders to the local Conservator for carrying out the provisions of
the plan, with such modifications as it may deem desirable. If
any difference of opinion between the Local Government and the
Inspector-General cannot be amicably arranged, the Government
of India passes final orders on it.

4. MetrHuops oF TREATMENT.

The original system of managing high forest in India is that of
Selection Fellings. The forests are gone over periodically, mature
trees removed and so-called improvement cuttings added, that
is to say, unmarketable species, which interfere with the valuable
kinds, are girdled or cut down. The result is that the annual
work is scattered over very large areas, and in the majority of cases
results were anything but satisfactory. As early as 1868, the
author proposed more concentrated working of the Burmese teak
forests, but the proposal was at that time rejected. When the
author held the position of Inspector-General of Forests he
selected the Tano forests in the Dehra Dun for a trial of concen-
trated working according to the system known as the “ Uniform or
Compartment System.” Later on the adoption of more rational
systems, based upon the silvicultural requirements of the species
and of their regeneration, found more favour, and quite recently
the subject has been vigorously taken up by the late Inspector-
General, Mr. Hart, and especially by the Assistant Inspector-
General, Mr. Troup (both former pupils of the author). This, it
may safely be said, is likely to become another epoch-making
step in the management of the Indian forests. The improved
systems are being introduced cautiously, and the areas treated
under them are as yet small, as the following data will show :—

Square Miles.
System of Clear Felling : : 263
The Uniform Compartment System , : 552
The Group System : 95
Selection Method with ia penene Fellings . 15,914
Simple Coppice. : , i > 1,009
Coppice with Standards j . 7,060
Method of Improvement Cutting sae . 12,254
Unallotted . ; : 3 ; f was 5 4239 15;

Total . F ; d : : Da dOZ

156 FORESTRY IN BRITISH EAST INDIA.

These data do not include the forests of Madras and Bombay
which are worked under the provisions of working plans. The
most important point in the selection of the system is, apart from
local conditions, to secure an adequate amount of regeneration
of the valuable species. By far the greater part of the Indian
forests is regenerated by natural means, that is to say, by young
growth springing up from seed falling from the old crop, assisted
by cuttings so regulated that regeneration takes place within a
reasonable period of time.

5. SOWING AND PLANTING.

Artificial regeneration by sowing and planting is not excluded.
It has to assist natural regeneration where that fails, and it is
the only means in the case of afforestation, as well as in the system
of clear felling in high forests. The following statement gives the
area of plantations in 1914, in acres :—

Province. Reerat pilsttatienia! Total.
Madras f HUET O4Ae ye se 2,905.00 oo tdOA4t9
Bombay . LohmB08ine te — a. 7,808
Bengal Hh ips GK cri lie 220i te 1,492
United Provinces. G470m bas — ay 6,470
Punjab ; ; 1 MS 4 ele — = 1,115
Burma : : 3,361 ow so T6342 rah. Toes
Behar and Orissa. 909) yest — ‘7 909
Assam : 2 BeeUOl od. 5] “8 3,367
Central Provinces. GAT) sit G;828c anne 6,975
Coorg. L : BOR Hs. DeNTD verter 4,251
Ajmer LS2S it) a: — as 182
Baluchistan : Ona” oi — < 46
Andamans . : LOU sa -: LA 1,018

Total » 65.755 .. 87880

By 1920 the total area had risen to 168,000 acres.

This statement does not, however, include old plantations which
have passed into the condition of forests, such as the Changa
Manga plantation in the Punjab, with an area of 11,000 acres.
It was started in 1868 and is so successful that it yields now
8 per cent. on the invested capital. The plantation was made on

157

AND PLANTING

SOWING

siunddng pure biopnayny ‘nasbrords sidosoig yo Surpyutids e oouezstp oy) Uy ‘soul Gy] Jopun ‘[yeyurey
‘Surjued o1ozaq pur] oy} Jo ornjeu oy} Surmoys ‘uoyrzurpg esueyy esueyq) oy],

‘9 “DIT

158 FORESTRY IN BRITISH EAST INDIA.

Fig. 7.

Tbe Changa Manga Plantation, 17 years after planting commenced.
oD oD 2 o>

(From a photograph by the late Mr. D’Arcy.)

AFFORESTATION OF NEW AREAS. 159

practically desert land by irrigation with the surplus water of the
Bari-Duab canal. The appended illustrations show the land in
its natural condition and 17 years after the planting. The best
known instance of successful plamting is the Nillambor teak
plantation in Madras now up to 75 years old ; it gives a handsome
return.

The most important class of plantations are the taungya
(hill garden) plantations of teak in Burma. It is a combination
of the rearing of field crops with the sowing (or planting) of teak
seed. By establishing them on selected concentrated areas, the
production of teak in the future will bea multiple of what it is
now, especially as marketable mature trees will be produced in a
much shorter time than in the existing natural forests. As the re-
generation of Bengal Sal forests by natural means has met with
great difficulty, the system of clear-cutting followed by planting
has lately been recommended in the Duars forests, the idea having
been based chiefly on the results of a Sal plantation made by the
author in the year 1875 in the Buxa reserve.

6. AFFORESTATION OF NEw AREAS.

It has been explained above that the percentage of State forests
is small and not sufficient to provide permanently for the require-
ments of several provinces. This remark refers to the United
Provinces, the Punjab, Bengal, Behar, the North-western Pro-
vinces, Ajmer and Baluchistan. In some of these provinces fuel
reserves are specially wanted, so that the cow dung, which is now
burnt, may be made available for manure. The matter was
considered in 1882 as regards the establishment of fuel and fodder
reserves in the United Provinces. Thirty years later the Govern-
ment of the latter provinces announced, in 1912, a definite policy
of afforestation of ravine lands and the formation of fuel and
fodder reserves in the dry tracts of the plains. To give effect to
this policy, an afforestation division has been established. A
systematic survey of waste lands has been started in Jhansi,
Hamirpur, Jalaun and Etawah districts, and the work of reclama-
tion and afforestation has been taken in hand.

In the Punjab, plantations in the rakh districts were started
52 years ago. Numerous plantations were established especially
along the railway lines, including that at Changa Manga already

160 FORESTRY IN BRITISH EAST INDIA.

mentioned. It is now proposed to add 50,000 acres in connection
with the irrigation projects of the Doab. Measures like these,
which affect so closely the well-being of the agricultural popula-
tion, should have far-reaching results, and it is hoped that similar
works will soon be undertaken in other provinces.

7. PROTECTION AGAINST FIRE.

Before the author started for India in 1866, Sir Dietrich
Brandis told him that the Indian forests could be divided into the
following two classes :—

(1) Forests which were burnt every year, and

(2) Forests which were not burnt every year.

As a matter of fact, by far the greater part of the forests were
annually overrun by surface fires, which burnt the undergrowth,
including the seedlings of trees, and injured, more or less, the
older trees. Thus, they interfered, in the majority of cases, with
regeneration and caused disease in trees, though the latter may
not become apparent until many years afterwards.

As early as 1846 Lieutenant (afterwards General) Michael tried
to stop forest fires in the Anamalay hills in Madras, but the first
really successful attempt was made by Colonel Pearson in the
Bori reserve in the Central Provinces about the year 1860. Since
then the area artificially protected has risen to 49,970 square
miles. Of this area 5-4 per cent. on an average were burnt
annually. Fire protecting measures consist chiefly in maintaining
cleared external and internal lines, organising an efficient system
of patrols, enlisting the co-operation of the local population,
burning inflammable grass lands early in the season and extin-
guishing any fires which may break out.

In by far the majority of cases the forests have greatly
benefited, and there can be no doubt that in most types of forest
the improvement which has taken place in the growing stock is
due mainly to the effect of fire protection. At the same time it
must be admitted that in certain cases fire protection has inter-
fered with the natural regeneration of the forests, as the encourage-
ment given to the growth of evergreen shrubs and strong weeds
has wholly or partially prevented the springing up or the survival
of seedlings of the valuable species. This result has been observed
in the moister types of teak forest in Burma, and also in the sal

GRAZING AND GRASS OPERATIONS. 161

forests of the Bengal and Assam Duars. The measures to be
taken in such cases are now under consideration in connection
with the more concentrated working of the teak forests, and of
the sal forests in the Duars.

8. GRAZING AND GRASS OPERATIONS.

Forestry in India is closely connected with grazing ; its inten-
sity varies much in different localities. It is essential, on the one
hand, that liberal arrangements are made for the necessary village
grazing, and, on the other hand, that the valuable forests are
protected against damage by grazing animals. Above all,
browsers, such as camels, goats and sheep, must be excluded from
important forests, if not permanently, at any rate at times when
regeneration is expected. Accordingly, certain areas are closed
against grazing, while others are opened for it. In 1914 the
following classification existed :—

Square Miles.

Areas closed to all animals, whole year. . 43,591
Areas closed to all animals, part of year B 6,699
Areas closed to browsers only, whole year . 23,302
Areas closed to browsers only, part of year . 436
Area open to all animals. : ; . 175,336

Total . . ‘ : P . 249,364

These data show that 30 per cent. of the total area were closed in
various ways, and 70 per cent. were open to grazing.

In times of famine or fodder scarcity, grass operations form an
important part of the work of the Forest Department, especially
in Bombay, the Central Provinces, the United Provinces, and
Madras. At such times, not only are closed areas thrown open
to grazing, but large quantities of grass are pressed into bales and
sent to the affected districts.

9. COMMUNICATIONS AND BUILDINGS.

The successful management and working of the forests depends
largely upon the extent to which facilities for inspection and for

extraction of the produce are provided. Hence, it is necessary
VOL, I. M

162 FORESTRY IN BRITISH EAST INDIA.

to construct inspection paths, roads, slides, tramways, ropeways
and other mechanical compliances, according to local require-
ments ; in many cases streams must be made fit for floating and
rafting. The latter operations were commenced in Burma more
than 60 years ago, when an Inspector and a working party
blasted rocks in streams throughout the dry season, year after
year.

Generally, the Department has been very active in constructing
means of communication, as far as the means at its disposal
permitted. The use of mechanical transport in the extraction of
forest produce is being more and more appreciated, and this
question was specially considered by the Board of Forestry in
1913. The conclusion arrived at was that, under Indian con-
ditions, there was much scope for narrow-gauge forest tramways,
and that experiments should be made with other means of
mechanical transport likely to lead to cheaper methods of
extraction.

While mechanical transport should be fostered, it should not
be overlooked that in Europe the construction of roads is now the
first care of the forester. They make the forests accessible,
produce can be extracted along them by carts, waggons, trollies
and road trains, and, if necessary, light railways can be laid on
them at any time, if properly constructed. Thus, road traffic
has, in most parts of Europe, superseded floating, and the expen-
sive works erected for the latter purpose have been abolished.
It may be mentioned that as early as 1875 an officer of the Royal
Engineers was attached to the Department in Northern India to
superintend forest engineering works. Now, after a long interval,
a special Forest Engineer has been appointed, and is engaged on
various projects. It seems clear that soon each province will
have its own special Engineering establishment.

The Government of India have lately selected a number of
men trained in mechanics and sent them for a year to the United
States of America, where they have studied modern methods of
transport and exportation of forest produce. They have lately
joined the Indian Forest Department as Forest Engineers.

Quarters for the subordinates and rest houses for the inspecting
officers are essential for the preservation of health in a climate like
that of India. Efforts were made from the early days of the

COMMUNICATIONS AND BUILDINGS. 163

Department onwards, but funds were limited. With the increase
of the revenue more could be done, so that now considerable sums
are devoted to such construction. During the five years 1909—
1914 the average annual expenditure on communications and
buildings was :—

Rupees.
On Communications : ; 849,363
On Buildings ; . 843,202
On Other Works . t - 123,700
Total i f iH W816)265

This is at present equivalent to £181,626 a year.

10. MerHops oF REMOVAL AND DisposaL OF PRODUCE.

Fuel, small timber, grazing and various kinds of minor produce
required for local consumption near the forests are disposed of by
special arrangements with the people. Large quantities of these
classes of produce are given free of payment or at reduced rates.
The removal of produce for commercial purposes is done either by
private or Government agency. The question as to which of
these agencies should be adopted has given rise to considerable
discussion. Although general principles may be laid down, the
choice of agency most suitable to any particular province or forest
must depend on local conditions. The first duty of the trained
staff is to administer, conserve and improve the forests, and the
second is to secure, as far as the first permits, the greatest benefit
to the proprietor. To obtain the latter, departmental or private
agency should be employed as circumstances dictate. Provided
that the systematic treatment of the forests is not interfered with,
and that the proprietor receives a fair price for the produce,
private agency may be freely employed, leaving the trained staff
free for the first of the above-mentioned objects. But when it is
found impossible to employ private agency on suitable terms,
departmental working must step in. If this cannot be under-
taken by the available trained staff without prejudice to the work
of conservation and improvement, a separate staff, efficient in

commercial exploitation, should be employed. In some cases,
M 2

164 FORESTRY IN BRITISH EAST INDIA.

departmental working is essential, as, for instance, in the
extraction of little known timbers or other produce, for which it
is desired to create a market, or when trade manipulations and
the creation of a monopoly have to be prevented. On the whole,
the Government of India are inclined to believe that in some parts
of the country departmental working might profitably be
employed more extensively than has been the case of late
years.

There has been a noticeable increase in the demand for forest
produce since 1914, and various industries dependent on the
forests for their raw material have been started. Of these may
be mentioned the utilization of bamboos, grasses and suitable
woods for the manufacture of paper pulp, the extraction of
tanning materials, the manufacture of matches, the utilization of
new species of timber for railway sleepers, the impregnation of
timbers with antiseptic substances, the manufacture of rosin and
turpentine from crude resin obtained by tapping certain pines
(Pinus longifolia) in the Himalayan forests, and other cases.
The attempts to utilize most of these substances are not new ;
they were begun many years ago. The manufacture of paper
pulp from bamboos was attempted in 1884, when the author was
Inspector-General of Forests. Paper of excellent quality was
produced by Messrs. Routledge & Co., but at that time the
process employed did not permit the manufacture at a sufficiently
low price. Sir Dietrich Brandis made a great effort to introduce
the creosoting of Himalayan pines some 45 years ago, but the
difficulty of keeping the creosote in a good condition was so great
that the attempt had to be givenup. Now the progress of science
has been so great that such difficulties have disappeared, and the
present day staff of the Department are fully alive to the impor-
tance of the commercial development of the forests ; they recog-
nise that efforts to secure commercial success are as much part
of their duty as the scientific management of the property
entrusted to their care. It may be added that of late a com-
mercial branch of the Forest Department has been established.

11. OuT-TURN OF THE FORESTS.

The out-turn of the Indian State forests in the year 1913—1914
was as follows :—

OUT-TURN OF THE FORESTS. 165
I.—Woop, IN Cusic FEET.
Agency. Timber. Fuel. Total.
|
Government 7,655,518 | 13,632,994 21,288,512
Purchasers 81,809,626 | 124,457,870 206,267,496
Free Grants . 4,299,819 | 18,894,872 23,194,691
Right Holders 3,460,207 40,432,417 43,892,624
Total in 1913 97,225,170 | 197,418,153 294,643,323
Total in 1920 =a | is 339,515,833

II.—OrHer Propucre, VALUE IN RUPEES.

Agency. Bamboos. Sous au Other Produce. Total.
Government 47,367 162,578 508,868 718,813
Purchasers 1,170,509 | 2,940,611 | 2,104,757 | 6,215,877
Free Grants . 29,401 607,302 280,140 916,843
Right Holders 58,276 | 2,670,618 217,914 | 2,946,808

Total . |. 1,905,553 _| 6,381,109 | 3,111,679 | 10,798,341
In 1920 — = —- 12,877,188

The produce came from the following classes of forest :—

Class of Forest.

Reserved forests
Protected forests
Unclassed forests

Total .

Average of the 5 years,
1909—1913

. | 268,854,543

Cubic Feet.

. | 185,988,403

26,629,457
82,025,463

. | 294,643,323

Timber and Fuel.

Per Cent.
of Total.

63
i)

Minor Produce.

Value in
Rupees.

8,211,087
1,353,532

1,233,722 |

10,798,341

10,071,396

Per Cent.
of Total.

76
13
ll

166 FORESTRY IN BRITISH EAST INDIA.

It will be observed that the greater part of the produce comes
from the reserved State forests. As they contain 61,630,088 acres,
the out-turn is equal to 3 cubic feet per acre and year. This is,
no doubt, as yet a small yield, but it should be noted :—

(1) That a large proportion of the area is allotted to grazing,
fodder grass and other minor produce ;

(2) That large areas were in a reduced condition when the
Forest Department took charge of them ;

(3) That of the great variety of trees only a very limited
number are as yet used for timber, while others are
coming only gradually into use.

The out-turn from the protected forests amounts to 5 cubic feet
per acre and year, and that from unclassed forests to about
1 cubic foot. The demand on the State forests is rising steadily,
in the same degree as the yield capacity of private and
communal forests decreases and the population increases.

12. Export oF Forrest PRODUCE.

The export of forest produce in 1913—1914 is shown in the
following table :—

Articles of Forest Produce. Spey Value gis eis ae
Per Ton,
Caoutchouec, raw . : al ge fe 867, 293| 6,765
Lac, Button ; , s/H6093 1,307,089 | 1,196
Lac, Shell . i : | U3s768 16,978,138 | 1,233
Lac, Sticks and others . el 200% 1,372,774; 655
Cutch and Gambier . . | 2,943 932,438 317
Myrobolans . : . | 61,820 5,694,385 92
Cardamoms. ' ; : 167 749,919| 4,491
Sandal, Ebony, Ornamental
Woods. ; : ; 2 1,948,537 2
Teak ». ; : . | 50,737 7,864,761 155
Other timbers : : TAN PIEOSD 709,784 89
Total . ‘ ; — 45,425,118; —
Average of 5 years, 1909—1913 —- 43,322,185; —
In 1920 . : — 117,826,638) —

FINANCIAL RESULTS. 167

Nearly half of these values is due to that of lac, and nearly
one-fourth to that of timber, chiefly teak. On the whole, the
exports of timber represent only about 3 per cent. of the yield of
the State forests ; all the rest is used in the country, in addition
toimports. The value of the forest produce given away free or at
reduced rates in 1913—1914 amounted to Rs. 7,404,994, and in
1920 to Rs. 8,759,546.

13. FINANCIAL RESULTS.

The subjoined table gives the annual averages for periods of
5 years since the establishment of the Indian Forest Department
in 1864 :—

Percentage of

Quinquennial Revenue, Expenditure, | Net Surplus, (Surplus to Gross

eriod. Rupees. Rupees. Rupees. Hevenucis per
1864—1869 | 3,740,000 | 2,380,000 | 1,360,000 36
1869—1874 5,630,000 | 3,930,000 | 1,700,000 30
1874—1879 6,660,000 | 4,580,000 2,080,000 31
1879—1884 8,820,000 | 5,610,000 | 3,210,000 36
1884—1889 | 11,670,000 | 7,430,000 | 4,240,000 36
1889—1894 | 15,950,000 | 8,600,000 | 7,350,000 46
| 1894—1899 | 17,200,000 | 9,800,000 | 7,920,000 45
1899—1904 | 19,660,000 | 11,270,000 | 8,390,000 43
1904—1909 | 25,700,000 | 14,100,000 | 11,600,000 45
1909—1914 | 29,600,000 | 16,370,000 | 13,230,000 45
aay t| 33,301,000 | 17,543,000 | 15,758,000, 47
1919—1920 | 52,243,199 | 30,340,840 | 21,902,359 42

During the 50 years, up to 1914, the revenue has increased
nearly tenfold, and the net surplus tenfold. The percentage of
net revenue to gross revenue was steady at 36 per cent. from
1864 to 1889. Owing to the occupation of Upper Burma it then
rose to 46 per cent., and it kept fairly steady up to 1914. The great
rise in revenue between 1914 and 1920 was due to the effects of
the war, and there may be a temporary reaction, but on the
whole the revenue is sure to rise for many years to come.
Forty years ago the author predicted that the forest revenue would
some day become a set-off against the declining opium revenue,

168 FORESTRY IN BRITISH EAST INDIA.

and it seems that the realisation of this prediction is not far off,
provided that the conservation and rational management of the
Indian State forest is maintained. The value of the produce
given free is not included in the above table.

14. RESEARCH.

It has been shown above that the activities of the Forest
Department were, until the commencement of the present
century, chiefly directed to the selection, settlement and demar-
cation of an enormous forest estate, as well as to its organisation
and systematic management. Moreover, protection and exploita-
tion occupied much of the time of the very moderate staff. The
latter increased only slowly and not in proportion to the increase
of the work. Nevertheless, a very considerable amount of
scientific work was done during the first 40 years after the
establishment of the Department in 1864, partly at the instance
of the Government, but chiefly as the result of individual effort
on the part of enthusiastic members of the staff.

Naturally, botanical questions were the first to occupy foresters.
The flora of the forests was studied in most parts of India. In
this connection may be mentioned Brandis’ “ Flora of North-west
and Central India”; Kurz’ ‘“ Forest Flora of Burma” ;
Gamble’s ‘Indian Timbers”; Beddome’s “ Forest Flora of
Madras”’; Brandis’ “ Indian Trees,” a monumental work
commenced many years ago, though not published until 1906 ;
Gamble’s ““ Indian Bamboos,” and others. By the establishment
of the Working Plan Branch in 1884, the foundation was laid for
the collection of statistics on matters referring to the silviculture,
management and yield of the forests. Numerous investigations
were recorded in many reports and other publications.

Another branch which occupied the staff from the early days
of the Department was the introduction to the market of timbers
which were as yet not appreciated by the people and commerce of
the country. To illustrate this point it may be mentioned that
as early as 1876 thousands of sleepers of a variety of species were
cut and placed into several railway lines to test their durability,
Experiments were made about the same time to creosote so-called
inferior species which at that time were not successful, because
the creosote obtained from England would not keep in good

RESEARCH. 169

condition. While the author was Inspector-General of Forests
consignments of bamboos were sent to England, from which,
as stated above, Messrs. Routledge manufactured paper, some
of which was used by the author for letter writing. The possibility
of manufacturing paper from Indian bamboos was thus estab-
lished, but was not started at that time on commercial lines,
because the process of treating the bamboos was not sufficiently
developed to make the undertaking financially successful. These
difficulties have now been overcome, and there is no reason why
the manufacture of paper from bamboos should not develop into
a flourishing industry.

The condition of forest conservancy in India at the beginning
of the twentieth century, as described above, was the result of
the labours of a staff which had seen and learned to appreciate
the results of systematic management and of research as practised
in continental European countries in the course of more than a
century. The forest estate was now ready, and the time had
arrived for more independent action. An Institute for organised
Forest Research was established in 1906, at the instance of
Sir Sainthill Eardley-Wilmot, at that time Inspector-General of
_ Forests, in connection with the Forest College, at Dehra Dun.
The Research Institute is in the charge of a President, who is under
the administrative control of the Inspector-General of Forests.
It is divided into the five main branches of Silviculture, Forest
Economic Products, Forest Botany, Zoology and Chemistry, each
branch being in the charge of a Research Officer with the required
number of Assistants. The research officers are picked members
of the general forest staff. There are also Specialists, temporarily
appointed, for investigations in subjects of special economic
importance, such as cellulose and tannin experts.

The work of the Silviculturist comprises a study of the require-
ments of the more important species of trees, the collection of
statistics relating to the rate of increment and volume production
of forest crops, the improvement of methods of treatment and
management generally, the preparation of working plans on
improved lines, and allied subjects.

The activity of the Forest Economist covers a wide field, such
as the properties and uses of timbers, their durability, the anti-
septic treatment of timber, its suitability for railway sleepers,

170 FORESTRY IN BRITISH EAST INDIA.

the manufacture of paper pulp from bamboos and other vegetable
produce, the utilization of Indian timbers for industrial purposes
such as for matches, pencils, paving blocks, railway waggons,
investigations about minor produce such as tan, bark, gums, resin,
oil seeds, grasses, fibres, and the production of lac, a subject of
the first importance, especially from a financial point of view.

The Forest Botanist deals with systematic botany, the identifi-
cation of specimens for forest officers, the measures taken for the
preparation of local floras and lists, the ecology of important
species and their diseases, the study of forest grasses and allied
subjects; the present holder has made a special study of soil
aeration.

The Forest Zoologist deals chiefly with injurious and useful
forest insects, the identification of specimens for forest officers,
the upkeep of the entomological collection, ete.

The Forest Chemist works in close touch with the other research
officers, especially with the forest economist. He has lately been
occupied with the tanning value of barks and other products, the
distillation of oil from grasses, pine needle and Deodar waste, the
improvement and standardisation of Indian turpentine and rosin.
Since the outbreak of the war the Forest Chemist has been
intimately concerned with the manufacture of thymol and
salicylic acid. He produced oil of wintergreen and salicylic acid
from the leaves of Gaultheria fragrantissima, leading to aspirin.
There is every prospect that other substances will be manufac-
tured for which the forests yield the raw material.

The results of all investigations are published in leaflets,
pamphlets, bulletins and memoirs. Of these more than 150 have
already appeared, indicating the zeal with which the investigators
have taken up the work. In all research work it is essential to
aim at a high standard.

When the Working Plan Branch was established in 1884 it was
foreshadowed that after a time the work must be provincialised.
In the same way it was soon realised that one research institute
was not sufficient for such a large country as India with its great
diversity of climate and other conditions. Some classes of
research work can be done at a central institution, but others must
be done locally, and this is specially the case with forest research.
More particularly, questions connected with silviculture and

FUTURE DEVELOPMENT OF CONSERVANCY. ial

working plans must in the first place be investigated in the forest.
While Dehra Dun will remain the central institute, a beginning
has been made in the appointment of provincial research officers,
a measure which will, no doubt, soon lead to the establishment of
local institutes; they will, however, remain in close communica-
tion with the central establishment at Dehra Dun.

In various respects, the Dehra Dun institute has already pro-
duced good results, but research takes time, and patience must
be practised. There can be no doubt that in time research will
considerably further advance the great results obtained in Indian
forest conservancy during the first 40 years of the Forest
Department’s existence.

SECTION VI—FUTURE DEVELOPMENT OF FOREST
CONSERVANCY,

The development of Indian forest conservancy up to date has
had a decided influence upon the management of the forests in
other parts of the British Empire. It has acted as an illustration
of what should be done, and from an early date onwards the
Governments of other parts of the Empire have asked the loan
of Indian forest officers to advise them. Officers have been lent
to Ceylon, the Federated Malay States, Mauritius, New Zealand,
Australia, South, West, and East Africa, the Sudan, Cyprus and
the West Indies. It has had even an influence upon the develop-
ment of forest conservancy in the United States of America and
of Canada. Last, but not least, the results of forest conservancy
in India have awakened, or intensified, the knowledge in the
United Kingdom that systematic forestry resting on a scientific
basis has become an absolute necessity for all parts of the Empire.

In the meantime, India is not satisfied with the results achieved
in the past ; she is determined to advance further. As has been
shown, the financial results have developed so well that the means
required for further expansion are available. Stimulated by the
experience gained during the war, action is being taken in a
variety of directions. As already stated, the average annual
yield of the State forests is as yet small, about 3 cubic feet per
acre. This yield is, however, taken from the more conveniently
situated parts of the forests and selected species, while extensive
areas are as yet inaccessible to traffic. Under these conditions,
the efforts of the Department in the immediate future will be

172 FORESTRY IN BRITISH EAST INDIA.

directed towards the introduction of improved methods of treat-
ment and the construction of roads and other means of transport.
As regards the former, the usual selection system should be
replaced by more concentrated methods, such as the uniform
system of regeneration or one of its modifications. A commence-
ment has been made in that direction, and the conversion should
now be extended to larger areas. During this process care should
be taken to increase the percentage of the more valuable species,
though it would be a doubtful proceeding in the case of several
species to produce pure woods. Observation in the forest, com-
bined with research in the laboratory, will show the best way of
achieving the object. The opening out of the country by means
of roads and other works is of great importance. As early as
1875 a Royal Engineer officer was attached to the Department to
assist in the construction of such works, and the plan now is to
organise a special Engineering Branch of the Department. By
these two measures combined it will be possible to increase, in the
course of time, the production of valuable species, and to bring
them to the centres of consumption, when, in consequence of the
exhaustion of the unreserved and private forests, the demand on
the permanent State forests has increased.

Other important measures are the introduction into commerce
of hitherto rejected or unknown species, the extended utilization
of produce other than timber, and a vigorous development of
forest industries. With this end in view, a number of experts
have lately been engaged who are now at work on timber
testing, timber seasoning, preparation of paper pulp, wood
technology and preservation, tanning materials, &c.

All these measures and others depend, however, on the employ-
ment of a thoroughly competent staff, and it should be the
Government’s first care to see that the education of the recruits
of the Department is of the highest-possible standard. It should
be on a par with that of the highest branch of the Government
service, so that the members of the Forest service may take that
place in the State which belongs to them by virtue of their being
the guardians of practically one-fourth of the area of the country,
containing an asset of enormous potential value, capable of a
degree of development far beyond that which it has as yet obtained.

The Indian State forests are throughout managed on the

FORESTRY IN CANADA. 7S

principle of a sustained and increasing yield, and this has been
brought about without interferimg with the acknowledged rights
of the people. In the early days of forest conservation, no doubt,
some friction occurred between the forest staff, the people, and the
civil officers, but that was chiefly due to the unsettled condition
of the rights of the people. As the settlement of the State forests
proceeded, these difficulties disappeared. It may safely be said
that, in many parts of the country, the people now recognise the
importance to themselves of the proper preservation of the
yielding power of the forests.

The example set by the Government of India has been followed
in most of the Indian States, by introducing forest administration
on lines similar to those adopted in the British part of the country.
The Government have readily assisted in this by lending officers
and educating recruits for the Indian States at Dehra Dun.

There can be no doubt that the development of systematic,
economic forest management in India is something to be proud
of. An eminent Indian Administrator had no hesitation in
stating publicly that it ranks amongst the great achievements
realised during the long and glorious reign of Her Most Gracious
Majesty, the late Queen Victoria and Empress of India.

THE BRITISH DOMINIONS.
D. FORESTRY IN CANADA.

SECTION I,-SHORT DESCRIPTION OF THE COUNTRY.

The Dominion of Canada occupies the northern half of North
America. The boundary between it and the United States runs
from the Bay of Fundy in latitude 45, in a somewhat zig-zag way,
to Lakes Ontario, Erie, Huron and Superior, then on close to
Winnipeg, from which place it follows the 49th degree of northern
latitude to Vancouver Island. Alaska is the only part to the
north of this line which is not Dominion land. The latter covers an
area of 3,729,665 square miles, of which 125,755 square miles are
water. The population amounted, in 1911, to 7,209,643 people.

The area between the southern boundary and the 60th degree
of latitude is divided into the undermentioned 9 provinces.
Above the 60th degree are situated Yukon and the North-west
Territories.

174 FORESTRY IN CANADA.

Fie. 8.

49th degree.

Sketch Map, showing the relative position of the several Provinces

of Canada.
1. Prince Edward Island. 5. Ontario. 9. British Columbia.
2. Nova Scotia. 6. Manitoba. 10. Yukon.
3. New Brunswick. 7. Saskatchewan. 11. North-west Terri-
4. Quebec 8. Alberta. tories.
Population in 1911.
Area, Per
Province. Square Miles. Total. Square Mile.
1. Prince Edward
Island. , 2,184 .. 93128) 2 aacte
2. Nova Scotia QUiA28 yee 492,388 .. 20
3. New Brunswick . 27,985 394,889 .. as
4, Quebec 706,834 2003200 | ee) ae
5. Ontario 407 262 2,523,274 6
6. Manitoba . 251,832 455,614 2
7. Saskatchewan 251,700 492,432 2
8. Alberta 255,285 374,663 1:5
9. British conan 355,855 392,480 1-1
10. Yukon 207,076 8,512 0-04
Lt NOW. meted 1,242,224 18,481 0-01
Total 3,729,665 7,209,643 2-0

1. CoNFIGURATION.

Canada, extending from the 42nd degree of latitude to the arctic
regions, and from the 56th to the 141st degree of West longi-

CONFIGURATION. 5

tude, has a somewhat complicated physical configuration. The
maritime provinces, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, New
Brunswick, as well as the part of Quebec south-east of the
St. Lawrence, are hilly, though the highest points do not reach
any great height. There are coal measures at the bottom of the
valleys which in Nova Scotia extend a considerable distance under
the sea. Prince Edward Island has gentle, rounded hills with rich
soil and low shore cliffs. There are extensive areas of low lands
in the St. Lawrence valley, as well as in the southern part of
Ontario. These lowlands extend over 35,000 square miles and
support 4 out of the 7 millon inhabitants.

Quebec, Ontario, Manitoba and the eastern part of the Terri-
tories are arranged around Hudson Bay. All around the latter,
enormous areas of lowlands are found, but on receding from the
bay the ground rises, though only exceptionally to 1,500 or
2,000 feet above sea level. In these areas, situated in Quebec
and Ontario, the great forest wealth of Eastern Canada is
found.

On going west towards Winnipeg the prairie country is reached.
These plains extend for some 800 miles westward to the foot of
the Rocky Mountains in Alberta. The plains are, however, not
quite level; at Winnipeg the prairie is 700 feet above sea level,
while Calgary has an elevation of 3,400 feet, showing an average
rise westward of over 3 feet per mile. The rise is not uniform;
in the southern part, two abrupt rises occur so that three distinct
sections can be observed at the average elevations of 800, 1,600
and 3,000 feet above sea level. These differences are much less
distinct in the north; indeed, there is a slow descent, so that
Edmonston lies 1,200 feet lower than Calgary. There occur also
numerous local elevations over the general level. On going west
the plains pass gradually into the foothills and then into the Rocky
Mountains, which here form the south-western boundary of
Alberta. They extend from the 49th degree for at least 1,100
miles in a north-western direction, and they are continued for
an additional 500 miles by the Mackenzie Mountains to the Arctic
Ocean. Between the eastern chain of Rockies and the Pacific
coast lies a broad belt of mountaimous country called the
Cordillera, which extends south through the western United
States and on to the Andes of South America, though they differ

176 FORESTRY IN CANADA.

much in different parts. In Canada, the Cordillera consist of four
ranges of mountains of which the Rockies are the highest, rising
in the central parts to 13,000 feet with a distinctly alpine
character. The timber line is at 7,500 feet elevation. The
cuast ranges seldom rise to 9,000 feet. The Klondike region
and the country around it is described as a tableland with the
highest elevation of 3,500 feet above the sea. In the south-west
corner of Yukon the St. Ehas range rises up to 18,000 feet
elevation.

A great part of the outermost coast range in British Columbia
is submerged, leaving Vancouver Island and Queen Charlotte
Islands above sea. The former has beds of excellent coal, many
of the mines being under the sea, just as those in Nova Scotia.
Vancouver Island consists of a great mass of mountains rising to
9,000 feet elevation.

2. GEOLOGY AND SOILS.

The geological features are very varied in such an enormous
extent of country. The Rocky mountains consist chiefly of
paleozoic rocks, also the islands on the west coast. The coast
range is chiefly granitic. The intervening ranges are of mixed
formations varying from rocks of sedimentary origin to granites.
To the east of the Rocky Mountains in the prairie country, the
underlying rocks are of sedimentary origin of the tertiary and
mesozoic ages. The basin of the St. Lawrence river and the
great Lakes contain a variety of geological types, partly of the
southern Laurentian type and partly of sedimentary origin of the
paleozoic age. The rock formation in New Brunswick is largely
mesozoic with areas of granite. In Nova Scotia the proportion
of granite is greater with large areas of late pre-cambrian or
cambrian rocks. The most fertile valleys in the last-mentioned
two provinces are underlaid with Mississippian paleeozoic rock.
Prince Edward Island is built up of permian and upper
carboniferous rocks.

The best soils are concentrated in the valley bottoms of the
hilly parts and in alluvial deltas. The soil in the great interior
basin is rich and fertile, forming an agricultural and pastoral
country. The land in the Lake region and in the St. Lawrence

CLIMATE. 177

valley is of great agricultural value, on which more than half the
population of Canada lives.

3. CLIMATE.

It will easily be understood that the climate of Canada differs
considerably in the various parts of the country. These
differences are best illustrated by the rainfall. The high moun-
tains of the west intercept the rainbearing clouds from the Pacific
Ocean, producing, along the west coast, a strip of high rainfall up
to 100 inches. A somewhat diminished but still considerable
rainfall is experienced up to the watershed of the Rockies. After
passing that chain, the remaining clouds descend in their eastern
passage, and the rainfall diminishes considerably, so that Calgary,
in Alberta, shows a fall of only 16 inches, Regina, in Saskatchewan,
of 18 inches, and Winnipeg, in Manitoba, 20 inches. Proceeding
further east the rainfall increases again, the country coming under
the influence of easterly air currents, as well as under that of the
Lakes and of Hudson Bay. Thus, Toronto, in Ontario, has a fall
of 34 inches, Montreal, in Quebec, 41 inches, Charlottetown, in
Prince Edward Island, 42 inches, Fredericton, in New Brunswick,
44 inches, and Halifax, in Nova Scotia, 55 inches. Precipita-
tions decrease, not only on proceeding from both coast lines
towards the interior, but also on going north. Over the greater
part of Canada much of the precipitation is in the form of
snow.

Southern Canada lies within the cool temperate zone with
rather cold winters and hot summers. On going north the
temperature falls and the severity of the winters increases, until
vegetation disappears, so that three distinct zones may be
distinguished :—

(1) The Temperate Zone, comprising (a) the eastern or Atlantic

forest region, extending to the Great Lakes, (b) the central
_ drier region of prairies, and (c) the western or Pacific
forest region.

(2) The Sub-arctic Zone, a continuous area of coniferous
forests, less luxuriant than the forests of the temperate
zone, stretching obliquely across the entire continent.

(3) The Arctic Zone, comprising mainly desolate stretches of
treeless country known as “ tundra.”

VOL. I. N

178 FORESTRY IN CANADA.

SECTION II._THE FORESTS OF CANADA.
1. AREA AND OWNERSHIP.

Canadian Statisticians have, for practical purposes, divided the
country into the following two parts :—

(1) Area north of latitude 60, comprising 1,242,225 square

miles.

(2) Area south of latitude 60, comprising 2,487,440 square

miles.

The former of these two areas is situated in the sub-arctic and
arctic regions, and it cannot, for many years, become an important
source of agricultural or forest produce.

As far as the available data permitted, the area of Canada has
been classified as follows :—

Forests.

Agricul-
tural U fit One Total.
Land. | Merchant- Deis “| Total
able. Remote.

Square Miles . | 689,062 | 390,625 | 541,791 | 932,416 | 2,108,187 | 3,729,665
Percentage of
total area. | 18-48 10-47 14-53 25:00 | 56-52 100-00

The agricultural lands and the merchantable forests are ali
situated south of the 60th degree of latitude, while the unprofitable
and remote forests stretch across it. Of the agricultural land
about one quarter is occupied as farm land, of which 66,566 square
miles were under field crops in 1917. There is thus plenty of
room for extensions. It will be seen that the total forest area is
about one quarter of the total area. Of that area only 390,625
square miles are estimated to contain saw timber above 10 inches
diameter on the stump, and of that area much is as yet inaccessible
due to the difficulty of transportation. Much of the material
below 10 inches is profitable to cut wherever a demand exists
for pulpwood, crossties, poles and minor produce.
The Dominion Government administers the following areas :—
(1) The Crown lands in the three Prairie provinces Manitoba,
Saskatchewan and Alberta.
(2) The Crown lands in the Railway belt, 20 miles broad on
each side of the Canadian Pacific Railway main line in
British Columbia.

td

AREA AND OWNERSHIP. 179

(3) The Crown lands in the Peace River block in northern
British Columbia.

(4) The Crown lands in the North-west Territories.

The Crown lands in the several Provinces are administered by
the local Governments.

In Nova Scotia the geater part of the timber lands has become
private property. In New Brunswick over 7,000 square miles
of forest land is owned by railway companies and other private
concerns or individuals. In Quebec about 9,500 square miles
have been disposed of, and in Ontario about 7,800 square miles.
In British Columbia about 2,000 square miles are privately owned,
but the title to all the other timber lands has been retained. The
policy of disposing of the title to lands fit only for the production
of timber has now been virtually abandoned in every part of
Canada.

The following statement shows the present state of ownership ;
it was not possible to separate the areas owned by corporate and
private individuals :—

Area belonging to the State.
Corpora-
tions and
Dedicated | Other Erlvate A
to Timb Total. .
Production.| Forests. a
Square miles . . | 234,341 635,575 869,916 62,500 932,416
Percentage of tota
forest area . F 25-14 68-16 93-30 6-70 100-00
|

The following statement shows the distribution and classification
of the 234,341 square miles of Crown forests dedicated to timber
production :—

Province. Beever tl teres | Obata ltaitane amie
rich Colnmbia 0) 2,719 90 1,028 | 3,837
Alberta iain ASA 6,744 26,178
Saskatchewan : 9,303 — — » |. 19,303
Manitoba . .| 3,729 Pe Mies (I uerT OO
Ontario — 22s | | OD AS |
Quebec a 168,746 | ~— | 168,746

Total . . | 35,185 | 191,384 | 7,772 | 234,341

180 FORESTRY IN CANADA.

2. Types oF Forest GRowTH.

The Pacific Slope Forests —These are divided into four types ;
The Coast, Dry Belt, Wet Belt and Interior Mountain Forests.

The Coast Type includes the forests of Vancouver Island,
Queen Charlotte Islands and the coast of the opposite mainland,
all of which have a moderate temperature and a heavy rainfall.
This type consists almost entirely of conifers with a small quantity
of cottonwood,* birch, alder and maple. The chief conifers are
Douglas fir, 29 per cent.; western red cedar, 28 per cent. ;
western hemlock, 25 per cent. ; balsam fir, 9 per cent. ; spruces,
7 per cent. ; and yellow cypress, 2 per cent.

The Dry Belt, away from the coast, contains a mixture of
western yellow pine, Douglas fir and western larch, with a rainfall
of 14 to 25 inches.

The interior West Belt type is composed of a mixture of western
red cedar, hemlock, Engelmann spruce, and a variety of other
species.

The interior Mountain Forests contain chiefly spruce types with
alpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa) and lodge-pole pine. Associated with
these are poplars, willows, birch, alpine larch (Larix Lyalli) and
mountain hemlock in the higher altitudes.

Some of the above-mentioned important species of British
Columbia extend into the western part of Alberta, but not to any
great distance.

The Atlantic Forests.—These include all the Canadian forests to
the east of the Rocky Mountains. Sufficient information is not
available to give a detailed description of the various types, which,
on the whole, do not seem to vary much in character.

The northern limit of the forests is indicated by a line running
from the mouth of the Mackenzie river to the mouth of the
Churchill river on Hudson Bay, round the latter and on to Labra-
dor peninsula, except the north-east corner of Quebec. In the
northern part of this tract the climate is severe and the growth
more or less stunted ; on going south conditions improve gradually.
The principal species are white spruce, jack pine, balsam fir,
tamarack and black spruce, with an admixture of aspen and
poplar. To the south and east conditions improve greatly, spruce

* For systematic names of trees, see pages 181 to 184.

TYPES OF FOREST GROWTH. 181

and balsam fir prevail and become the great pulpwood district of
Eastern Canada.

On entering the St. Lawrence basin the type changes into forests
of white pine, red pine, cedar and valuable hardwoods, such as
yellow birch and maple. In the maritime provinces and Quebec
the red spruce is a conspicuous component part of the coniferous
forest. This is the most important timber producing part of
Eastern Canada.

The southern part of Ontario was originally an almost pure
hardwood forest, which has now given way to agriculture.
Certain species are still found along the northern shores of Lakes
Erie and Ontario, which do not occur elsewhere in Canada, such
as the tulip tree, sycamore, chestnut and black walnut;
cottonwood also appears here.

3. THE PRODUCE OF THE FORESTS.

The principal products of the Canadian forests are sawn lumber
and pulpwood. At least 130 species reach timber size, of which
about 70 are sawn into lumber. ‘The conifers are by far the most
important trees, while the broad-leaved trees give only about
3 per cent. of the produced lumber. Other products are railway
sleepers, poles, piles, mining timber, fencing material, firewood,
wood for distillation, tanning bark, maple sugar and syrup,
balsam, spruce gum, nuts, and other items.

The trees mentioned in the following notes are arranged
according to their importance as sources of the various products :—

Spruces, 6 species, of which 5 are of commercial value.

(1) White Spruce (Picea canadensis), of moderate size,
appears in every province, important as timber and
pulpwood.

(2) Sitka Spruce (P. Siutchensis), a very large tree, confined
to low altitudes along the coast of British Columbia,
valued for airplane construction and for pulpwood.

(3) Red Spruce (P. rubra), of moderate size, confined to eastern
Quebec and the maritime provinces, lumber and pulp-
wood.

(4) Engelmann Spruce (P. Engelmanni), a larger tree than the
white and red spruces, but smaller than Sitka, found in
British Columbia, used for lumber but not yet for pulp.

182 FORESTRY IN CANADA.

(5) Black Spruce (P. mariana), a swamp species throughout
the Dominion, the smallest of the spruces, occasionally
sawn into lumber and much used for pulpwood.

White Pine, 2 species.

(6) Eastern White Pine (Pinus Strobus), formerly the most
important tree of Canada, but now much reduced in
quantity, highest development near the great lakes,
reaches up to 150 feet in height and 3 to 4 feet diameter,
used for building construction and cabinet work, not
used for pulpwood.

(7) Western White Pine (P. monticula), even a larger tree than
the former, but not very plentiful, found scattered in
the south-western districts and the interior wet belt of
British Columbia.

(8) Douglas Fur (Pseudotsuga Douglasi), in British Columbia in
the southern part of the coast region, and throughout the interior
to about the 55th degree of latitude and extending to the foot hills
of the Rockies in Alberta ; very large tree, Canada’s finest wood
for structural purposes, height up to 250 feet and 8 feet diameter
in the southern part of the coast range, smaller in the interior,
used for lumber, sleepers, piles, mining wood, block paving, and
many other purposes.

Hemlock, 3 species, of which 2 are of commercial importance.

(9) Eastern Hemlock (Z'suga canadensis), found in South
Ontario and Quebec and throughout the maritime
provinces.

(10) Western Hemlock (Z's. heterophylla), found in British
Columbia throughout the coast region, also in the
interior wet belt as far north as the upper Fraser valley
and in Alaska; a larger tree than the eastern hemlock,
and its wood is of superior quality ; the second most
important pulpwood species in British Columbia.

Cedar, 2 species, also known as Arbor-vitee.

(11) Western Red Cedar, or Giant Arbor-vitee (Thuya plicata)
found in regions of abundant precipitations in British
Columbia, reaching in Vancouver island a height of 175
feet and 10 feet diameter, extends along the coast into
Alaska, missing the dry belt and re-appearing in the
interior wet belt, extending to the upper Fraser valley.

THE PRODUCE OF THE FORESTS. 183

(12) Eastern Cedar (Th. occidentalis), found from East Manitoba
to the Atlantic seaboard in moist situations, a smaller
tree than the western species.

The wood of both species is durable, but the texture
is rather coarse, the eastern species being more uniform
in texture.

(13) The Red Pine (Pinus resinosa) is found in eastern Canada
in the same region as the white pine. Its wood is stronger and
more resinous.

(14) The Balsam Fir (Abies balsamea). This is the most
important of four species. It is found throughout Canada, but
is most important in Ontario, Quebec and the maritime provinces.
The tree is sawn into lumber. but more important as pulp-wood
in connection with spruce.

(15) The Western Yellow Pine (Pinus ponderosa) is confined to
the interior dry belt of British Columbia, where it forms the
key tree of that region; its wood is intermediate in quality
between white and red pine.

Birches, 7 species, of which 3 are of commercial value.

(16) The Yellow Birch (Betula lutea) is the most important
hardwood of Canada, appearing from the maritime
provinces to the east end of Lake Superior, and
reappearing between the west end of that lake and the
Lake of the Woods. Used extensively for flooring,
cabinet work, vehicle stock, and handles; takes a fine
polish.

(17) The Western Birch (B. occidentalis) is confined to south-
western British Columbia and is used for lumber and
cabinet work.

(18) The Paper or Canoe Birch (B. alba var. papyrifera) is the
most widely spread birch in Canada; inferior to the
other two species for lumber, but valued for turnery and
fuel.

Larch or Tamarack.

(19) The Eastern Larch (Larix laricina) is a swamp tree ;
appears in all provinces of the Dominion, never abun-
dant; has been almost entirely destroyed in eastern
Canada by the larch saw-fly. Wood very strong, hard
and durable ; used for lumber, sleepers and shipbuilding.

184 FORESTRY IN CANADA.

(20) The Western Larch (L. occidentalis), a much larger tree
with similar wood ; height up to 180 feet and diameter
3 to 4 feet. Valued for railway sleepers, poles, struc-
tural purposes and shipbuilding.
The following species are of local importance, and in some cases
also for export :—
Maples :
(21) Sugar Maple (Acer saccharum), for the manufacture of
sugar, and also valuable as timber.
) Silver Maple (A. saccharinum).
) Red Maple (A. rubrum).
24) Broad- leaved seats im aie oe:
25)
)

26 Lodgepole Pine (P. Murrayana), a western species. Both
these pines will grow on poor sites.

(27) Beech (Fagus grandifolia), a fairly valuable wood.

(28) The Rock Elm (Ulmus fulva), valuable wood for waggon
work.

(29) The Wild Elm (U. americana), valuable wood for waggon
work.

(30) Basswood (Tilia americana), a soft wood, prized for
joining.

(31) Aspen (Populus tremuloides), widely distributed ; often a
weed.

(32) Balm (P. balsamifera), widely distributed ; often a weed.

(33) The Western Cottonwood (P. trichocarpa), a valuable
timber in south-west British Columbia.

(34) White Ash (Fraxinus americana), a valuable species ; wood
used in vehicle work.

(35) White Oak (Quercus alba).

(36) Red Oak (Q. rubra). The supply of both these oaks is
almost exhausted. There are 10 other species of oak
of less importance.

(37) The Yellow Cypress (Chamecyparis nootkatensis), a British
Columbia species, yielding timber of high technical
value for shipbuilding and joinery; comparatively
scarce and scattered.

A few valuable cabinet and vehicle woods are found in small

quantities in south-western Ontario, such as Chestnut (Castanea

RELATIONSHIP OF THE STATE TO THE FORESTS. 185

dentata), hickory (Carya cordiformis, alba, glabra, and microcarpa),
butternut (Juglans cinerea), walnut (J. nigra), cherry (Prunus
serotina), tulip tree (Liriodendron tulipifera), and others.

4, RELATIONSHIP OF THE STATE TO THE FORESTS.

(a) Legislation —The Government forests in the three Prairie
Provinces and certain lands in British Columbia are under the
direct management of the Dominion Government, while those in
the other provinces are under the control of the provincial
Governments. Some of the Dominion Acts apply to all provinces,
and others only to the areas under the direct administration of
the Dominion Government.

The Dominion.—The existing legislation on forestry is scattered
through a number of Acts, of which the most important is the
Forest Reserves and Parks Act, passed in 1906 and subsequently
frequently amended. It authorises the setting aside of unoccu-
pied land for Forest Reserves and Dominion Parks, to be subject
to Regulations issued under the authority of the Governor-
General in Council. The objects of these reservations are :—

(1) The maintenance of the timber supply.

(2) The conservation of the minerals, game and fish therein.

(3) The preservation of the water supply.

(4) The preservation of historic sites.

No power is granted to interfere with rights granted on lands
included in the reservations, but timber births, cut over or given
up, may be reserved. Power is given to forest officers to seize
and summarily arrest in case of infraction of the Regulations.
The latter govern the use of fire for legitimate purposes, the
disposal of timber by permit or sale, the grazing, hay-making,
fishing, hunting, mining, and the establishment of town sites
and summer resorts.

A feature common to the timber administration of the Dominion
Government and that of the provinces of Ontario, Quebec,
New Brunswick and British Columbia is that the law prohibits
the alienation of the land in issuing timber-cutting licences,
which give only the right to cut timber. All such licences also
prohibit the export of unmanufactured timber cut on the lands
covered by the licences.

The patrol of railway lines is compulsory throughout the

186 FORESTRY IN CANADA.

Dominion for the prevention of fires caused by locomotives and
railway operations generally.

British Columbia.—By the Forest Act of 1912, with subsequent
amendments, the forest branch of the Department of Lands has
entire charge of the forests, including the collection of revenue
from woodlands, sales and tenancy of timber lands. Before
licences to cut timber are granted the land must be examined ;
the timber may be auctioned or disposed of by tender. The
Timber Royalty Act of 1914 fixed the charges, and they are
revised every 5 years. The Forest Fire Act provides a close
season from May Ist to October 1st, during which period burning
in forest areas is allowed only by permit. Debris arising from
forest operations must be burned.

Ontario.—The Forest Fires Prevention Act of 1917 provides
for the appointment of a Provincial Forester to enforce its pro-
vision for a closed season as regards fires. The Forest Reserves
Act provides for the setting aside of forest reserves, and empowers
the Lieutenant-Governor in Council to issue regulations governing
these reserves.

Quebec.—The forests are administered by the forestry branch
of the Department of Lands and Forests. Timber lands are
virtually leased in perpetuity to licence holders, the Crown
retaining a title of the land. Licence holders are required to
patrol their own limits, and a close fire season is provided.

New Brunswick.—The Forest Act of 1918 establishes a forest
service under the Ministry of Lands and Forests, which
administers all statutes and regulations respecting forestry,
hunting, fishing, game protection, fire protection, improvements
on Crown forests and re-afforestation. It is aided by a forestry
advisory board. The Act provides a close season for fires. The
Lieutenant-Governor in Council has power to revise the regulations
and rates of stumpage from time to time. Pulpwood cut on
Crown lands must be converted into pulp in the country.

Nova Scotia.—The greater part of the timber lands has passed
into private ownership. Leases of timber lands are granted for a
term of 20 years, the title in the land remaining with the Crown ;
the rental charge is fixed by the provincial land surveyor with a
minimum of 1 dollar per acre. The Forest Protection Act of 1913
provides for fire protection.

RELATIONSHIP OF THE STATE TO THE FORESTS. 187

(b) Administrative Methods—The forests of the Dominion of
Canada are administered with the object of maintaining a per-
manent supply of timber and firewood, in the first place for the
people of the country, and in the second place for export. Hence,
the forests must be administered for a sustained yield. Unfor-
tunately in some parts of the country a large proportion of the
best forests-has been permanently disposed of to private people,
but it is stated that the policy is now to retain the title to the land
wherever this is still possible. Efforts are also made to control
the execution of the leases, more particularly to see that the
operations under each lease are completed at the fixed time, and
that they are executed in such manner that they do not seriously
interfere with the natural regeneration of the forests.

There can be no doubt that a great effort is being made to keep
down forest fires, which in the past have destroyed far more
material than even the most reckless exploitation. There are
forest Fire Acts in practically every province ; a regular system
of fire guards has been established ; close seasons for lighting fires
in the forests have been introduced ; special contrivances have
been elaborated for the discovery of fires, so as to extinguish them
before they have attained an unmanageable extent. In this way
it is hoped to reduce the destruction by fire, but the task is very
difficult owing to the huge extent of the areas to be controlled.

(c) State Assistance given to Forestry —The Dominion Govern-
ment provides for the distribution of tree-planting material and
furnishes expert advice to private owners.

In British Columbia the shortness of the staff has, so far, pre-
vented assistance being given to private holders of timber lands,
and no provision has been made to provide nursery stock for them.

Ontario distributes nursery stock, gives expert advice, an
annual grant to the Canadian Forestry Society and, in supporting
Toronto University, gives indirectly assistance to forestry
education at that institution.

Quebec distributes nursery stock, gives expert advice and a
grant to the Canadian Forestry Society. The province supports
the School of Forestry at Loval University. Provision is made
for the creation of township and communal forests. Land orders
are given to settlers and others for each acre of land planted with
forest trees.

188 FORESTRY IN CANADA.

New Brunswick has not yet made provision for the distribution
of nursery stock, but expert advice to timber holders is said to be
available. An annual grant is given to the Canadian Forestry
Society. Financial assistance has been given to the Dominion
Bureau of plant pathology and to the Dominion entomological
branch for the balsam bud-worm investigation.

In Nova Scotia no assistance is given to forestry.

(d) The Forest Authorities—The forest authorities of Canada
are not easy to describe. They are very numerous and it is
difficult to say, from the records to hand, where and to what
extent they overlap. Each province has its own arrangement as
well as the Dominion Government. Under these circumstances
it will suffice to indicate the duties and powers of the authorities
in the Dominion, some of which hold good in the provinces.

The timber lands are administered by three different branches
of the Department of the Interior of the Federal Government.
They are :—

(1) The Forestry Branch—It has its headquarters at Ottawa
and is presided over by the Director of Forestry. Its activity
extends to the administration of forest reserves, fire protection,
forest surveys, tree planting and products research.

Kach reserve of sufficient importance has a Forest Supervisor
with the necessary staff. The reserves are arranged into four
Inspections, each in charge of a District Inspector, who organises
and controls the general administration of the reserves. Forest
Rangers are in charge of smaller reserves.

Fire protection in reserves and in their immediate vicinity is
carried on by the reserves staff. For Dominion lands outside
forest reserves a special staff has been organised under a specialist
at the head office. The protection of forests from fire along
railway lines on Dominion lands is under a separate organisation.

Forest Survey work is under the charge of the Chief Surveyor
at the head office, who organises the required number of survey
parties and controls their work, which includes reconnaissance
surveys to determine the suitability of Crown lands for forest
production, and the estimation of standing timber on certain
areas.

The Forest Statistician at head office compiles and publishes
statistics on forest products and investigates wood-using industries.

RELATIONSHIP OF THE STATE TO THE FORESTS. 189

The forestry branch also maintains at headquarters a technical
Forester, who gives advice to farmers and woodowners throughout
Canada free of charge, except travelling expenses.

The Chief of the Tree-planting Division, with headquarters at
Indian’ Head, Saskatchewan, has charge of the nurseries and the
distribution of plants to farmers and ranchers in the three Prairie
provinces. Plants suitable for the local conditions are to be put
out in accordance with the instructions given by the tree-planting
Promoters, who work under the Chief of the department. They
inspect the proposed localities, and, if suitable, the plants are
given free of charge. The tree planting Promoters inspect the
sites annually until the plantations are established.

Experimental plantations of about 200 acres have been made
in the reserves under the direction of the Chief of the Tree-
Planting Division.

Forest Produce Laboratories are maintained by the Forest
Branch, where research is carried on in timber testing, timber
physics, pathology, wood preservation, and pulp and _ paper
manufacture. Each division is under a technical chief.

The annual expenditure of the Forest Branch is approximately
£150,000 (taking the £ at 5 dollars) ; receipts £16,800.

Vacancies in the staff of the Forestry Branch are filled under
the direction of the Civil Service Commission. Technical foresters
are required to have graduated from a recognised University course
in Forestry, or to have had equivalent training and experience.

The Director of Forestry publishes an annual report, and
technical bulletins contain the work of research and of other
important matters connected with the forestry branch.

(2) The Timber and Grazing Lands Branch administers the
timber, grazing and hay-making on Dominion lands outside
forest reserves; it also administers these matters in reserves
where licences or permits were issued prior to the establishment of
the reserves. The Dominion lands are divided into 7 districts,
each in charge of a Dominion Land Agent, who is ex-officio Crown
Timber Agent and Mining Recorder for the district. Timber on
Crown lands is disposed of by this branch, by licensed birth,
covering timber of all classes. No technical foresters are
employed by this branch.

(3) The Dominion Parks Branch.—Dominion parks have been

190 FORESTRY IN CANADA.

established as national playgrounds, and they imclude areas
wherein the scenery, fishing, hunting and historic associations are
attractive to Canadian and foreign tourists. The greatest parks
are situated in the mountain regions of the western provinces and
smaller parks throughout the Dominion. The timber in these
parks is protected by the parks branch and disposed of when
desirable, so that the parks may act as forest reserves dedicated
to a certain extent to timber production, fish, game and birds.
In some parks, buffalo, elk, moose, deer and other animals are
also preserved. During the war the average annual expenditure
amounted to £60,000, and the receipts to £10,000, including £340
from the disposal of timber.

Commission of Conservation.—This Commission consists of
20 members appointed by the Governor in Council, in addition to
ex-officio members. They hold office at pleasure. The Ministers
of Agriculture, the Interior and Mines, as well as a member of each
provincial Government, who is charged with the administration
of the natural resources of such province, are ex-officio members
of the Commission. The duties of the Commission are to consider
questions relating to the conservation and better utilization of the
natural resources of the country, to make inventories, collect and
disseminate such information, conduct investigations, and frame
such recommendations as seem conducive to the accomplishment
of those ends. The Commission does not act in an executive
capacity ; its duty is to inform and advise. The Commission is
divided into a number of Committees, one of which deals with
forestry assisted by an expert on the subject. Two special lines
of investigation occupy the Committee, namely, the extent and
character of the forest resources of the several provinces, and the
study of the conditions of reproduction and growth in the pulp-
wood forests of Eastern Canada. The Commission publishes each
year a report on the work of the year ; also special reports and a
monthly bulletin entitled ‘‘ Conservation.”

Board of Railway Commissioners—Fire Inspection.—The Board
supervises fire protection on a length of railway lines extending
to 38,624 miles. Along the whole of these lines all measures
necessary to prevent forest fires must be taken, such as the
removal of unnecessary combustible matter, the provision of
efficient spark arresters, the prohibition of dumping of fire, live

RELATIONSHIP OF THE STATE TO THE FORESTS. 191

coals and ashes upon the right of way, the placing of fire guards,
the establishment of special fire patrols by railway companies,
the instruction by the companies of their staff relating to reporting
and extinguishing of fires. The work is supervised by the field
staff of the Fire Inspector’s Department of the Board. The
results have, on the whole, been very successful of late years.

Arrangements similar to those indicated above exist in the
several provinces. They are of a very complicated nature and it
is difficult to believe that the results are satisfactory.

(e) Education Complete courses leading to the degree of
Bachelor of Science in Forestry are available at the University of
Toronto, and at the University of New Brunswick at Fredericton.
At either place the course extends over 4 years, the first two being
devoted chiefly to the study of auxiliary subjects and the others
to the theory and practice of forestry proper.

A School of Forestry was founded by the Quebec provincial
Government in 1910, for training men for its own forest service.
Subsequently the course of instruction was enlarged to a 4 years’
duration leading to a Diploma.

In connection with the re-establishment of returned soldiers,
a Rangers’ School has been established at the University of
British Columbia at Vancouver. The course lasts 5 months.

The Ontario Agricultural College at Guelph has a Forestry
Department, in which instruction is given chiefly in those subjects
which are of importance to owners of wood lots.

5. Private Forestry ACTIVITIES.

A great number of private individuals in Eastern Canada are
planting up waste lands in a small way, thus indicating that the
idea of afforestation is gaining public interest and co-operation.
Interest in scientific forestry has been evinced by Canadian wood-
using corporations. Their trained foresters have done a consi-
derable amount of surveying and mapping, and they have, in a
preliminary and experimental way, occupied themselves with
silvicultural questions. Fourteen companies, manufacturing
paper and lumber in eastern Canada, have foresters in their
employ, and the number would be greater, were experienced
technical men available. They have done a fair amount of
planting, advisory work, estimating timber, classifying land, and

192 FORESTRY IN CANADA.

experimental work. Foresters in the employ of Corporations
have done similar work, as well as exploration, mapping, cruising,
surveying and research. The value of working plans has been
recognised by the Quebec Government, and it is hoped that they
will soon be introduced.

The Canadian Forestry Association is an educational body of
11,000 members, founded in 1900, to promote public interest in
the protection and development of the forest resources, the
encouragement of tree planting on the prairies, and kindred
objects. The Association publishes monthly the Canadian
Forestry Journal and other educational literature bearing chiefly
upon forest fire protection and silvicultural questions. It em-
ploys lecturers who move about in many parts of the Dominion.
There are also numerous voluntary lecturers.

The Canadian Society of Forest Engineers aims at instructing
the members in the theory and practice of forestry by discussions,
and it issues publications.

6. ANNUAL INCREMENT AND UTILIZATION.

No statistics are available by means of which the annual incre-
ment could be estimated with any degree of accuracy. The
increment measurements which have been made apply to such
small areas that the data obtained are altogether insufficient to
provide a basis for even a rough estimate.

The Dominion Director of Forestry states that an attempt has
been made to estimate the increment of the forests in British
Columbia, by placing it on an average at 100 feet board measure,
or say 8 cubic feet, per acre and year. It is also stated that this
estimate, if correct, cannot be used as a basis for an estimate
covering the Dominion, since growth is far more vigorous in
British Columbia than elsewhere in Canada. Taking, by way of
illustration, the average increment throughout the Dominion
forests at 5 cubic feet per acre and year, the total annual increment
of the 932,416 square miles of forest would amount to about
3,000,000,000 cubie feet annually. On the other hand, the
Director of Forestry states that the loss by fire, decay, insects,
fungi, windfall, floods, and landslides might possibly reach
2,500,000,000 cubic feet annually, leaving a balance or net annual
increment of 500,000,000 cubic feet.

EXPORTS AND IMPORTS. 193

The annual utilization is given as :—
Saw timber . . 898,769,457 cubic feet.
Pulpwood . . 208,118,542 is

Total . a Le 106;837-999 |;
The utilization seems to be considerably more than the net
increment and thus reveal a serious position.

7. Exports AND IMporRTs.
The average annual figures for the period 1910 to 1914 are :—

Exports : Quantity, Cubic Feet. Value, £.
Sawn timber E . 356,689,402... 6,153,096
Pulpwood . § + LOZ: 93333 Tora “282.498

Total . ; . 459,622,739 .. 7,485,594

Imports : .

Sawn lumber ; = 1 99070912, %... . 21205723
Excess of Exports. 360,551,827 .. 5,314,871

8. Forest INDUSTRIES.

Only lumbering and pulp manufacture are mentioned by the
Director of Forestry, the figures given being :—

Timber Consumed, Value of Persons

Cubic Feet. Produce, £. Employed.

Lumbering. #898, 1691451, 5) 13,958,189. on... .o4,189
Pulp manufacture 100,580,107 .. 2,629,118 .. 15,308
Total . 999,349,564 .. 16,587,907 .. 50,097

SECTION III.—SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK.
In the subjoined statement a balance is drawn between produc-
tion, loss, imports, exports and home consumption, in million
cubic feet :—

Saw Timber. Pulp Wood. Total.

Utilization z £8998 rd ep 2OSe0osi4)» yO

Imports . : SWiWeOO Aesth nubcessiy <i 99

Total Production. 998 .. 208... 1,206

Exports . ; 5, pods Se AOL 460

Home Consumption . 641 .. 105 .. 746
oO

VOL. I.

194 FORESTRY IN CANADA.

If these data are anywhere near the actual facts, the results
would be :—

A net annualincrement ofabout 500,000,000 cubic feet.
An annual utilization of . . 1,107,000,000

33

An annual deficit of about . 607,000,000

This deficit occurs on 932,416 square miles of forests, leading
gradually to bankruptcy, unless decided steps are taken to reduce
the enormous losses by fire and other causes, in fact, the introduc-
tion of a more economical management in the future. Above all,
fire protection must be made more successful than it has been in
the past. It is, considering the extensive area of the forests, a
herculean task which the people and Government of Canada have
energetically taken in hand. Still, according to all accounts, the
damage is as yet very great. These fires not only prevent a
sufficient regeneration of the forests, but they also destroy large
masses of old timber. The local authorities have estimated that
the forests contain a total of 62,500 billion cubic feet of mer-
chantable saw timber, and 81,000 billion cubic feet of pulpwood ;
that the former would last for about 70 years, and the pulpwood
for 400 years. Not very many years ago it was estimated that
fires alone destroyed some 10 times the quantity of timber
utilized, and though fire protection has made good progress of
late years, there seems to be no doubt that fires still destroy
several times the quantity of utilized timber. Under these
circumstances it is very doubtful whether the existing stocks of
timber will meet the demands for anything like the number of
years at present estimated. The demand for pulpwood has, and
still is, rapidly increasing, and diligent research is going on to find
a substitute for it.

All these considerations indicate the necessity of a change in
the system of management, namely, the concentration of the
energies of the Forest Department on the more valuable and more
favourably situated parts of the forests. Steps should be taken
at the earliest possible date to select a sufficient area for the
establishment of ‘‘ Permanent State Forests,” to demarcate them,
place them under special protection, and manage them for a
permanently sustained yield. The longer this measure is delayed,
the greater will be the difficulties. If taken in hand now there

9

SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK. 195

should be no difficulty in selecting, say, 100,000 square miles of
merchantable timber and pulpwood forests (including areas to
be planted in the Prairie provinces), suitably distributed over the
Dominion, and placing them under intensive management and
working. These areas could, by managing them under well-
prepared working plans, be converted into forests yielding
permanently several times the quantity which the existing forests
now give. In considering these suggestions it should be remem-
bered that Canada hopes to build up a population far larger than
that at present existing. Such an increase will be accompanied
by a corresponding increase in the demand for forest produce.
Nor should it be forgotten that the supply of coniferous wood to
other parts of the earth depends to a great extent on the quantity
which Canada can spare. Canada should work for an increase
in the export of coniferous timber, in the same degree as such
supplies in other countries decrease. After all, an area of 100,000
square miles represents only 4 per cent. of the area of Canada
situated south of the 60th degree of latitude.

EH. FORESTRY IN NEWFOUNDLAND.

1. GenERAL NOTES.

The Dominion of Newfoundland is situated between the 46th and
52nd degree of northern latitude and the 53rd and 59th of western
longitude. It has an area of 42,734 square miles and a population
of 238,670 [in 1911], giving an average of under 6 inhabitants per
square mile. The population consists of a white English-speaking
element ; the people are powerfully built, robust and hardy.

Newfoundland is a hilly country, but the highest elevation is
only 2,000 feet above sea level. It has a great many inlets along
the coast, so that no portion of the country is more than 60 miles
from the sea. There are numerous rivers, and great potential
water power is available in many places.

The climate of Newfoundland is moderately temperate as
compared with the neighbouring continent of Canada.

The three principal industries of the country are fisheries,
mines, and forestry. As regards the latter, the information at
present available is contained in the following documents :—

(1) The reports of a Royal Commission sent to Newfoundland
o 2

196 FORESTRY IN NEWFOUNDLAND.

in 1914 shortly after the outbreak of the war. The
members of the Commission were: (1) Mr. G. E. Turner,
Deputy Minister of Agriculture and Mines ; (2) Mr. R. F.
Horwood, Managing Director of the Horwood Lumber
Company ; (3) Mr. Vincent 8. Jones, Vice-President of the
Anglo-Newfoundland Development Company.
(2) A paper read by Sir Daniel Morris before the Royal Society
of Arts.
(3) A memorandum by the High Commissioner of Newfound-
land, presented to the Imperial Forestry Conference of
1920.
These documents deal with the same subject and, though differing
somewhat in detail, they aim at the same object, namely, to set
forth the importance of developing the exploitation of the
Newfoundland forests, without any recommendations as to the
restocking of the cleared areas.

2. THe Forests orf NEWFOUNDLAND.

The forests are estimated to extend over about 10,000 square
miles, equal to 23 per cent. of the total area. The timbered areas
are generally found in the valleys of the larger rivers and their
tributaries, and on the banks of lakes and ponds, in many cases
consisting of strips from 1 to 2 miles wide. The forests consist
chiefly of conifers with a moderate admixture of other species.
The principal species are :—

(1) The White Pine (Pinus Strobus) is the most useful of the
pines, but its supply has fallen off. It is said still to be found in
some quantity here and there, but only scattered elsewhere.
Most of it is devoted to local purposes ; it is not used for pulp
manufacture.

(2) The Red Pine (P. resinosa) grows fairly plentifully, and it is
largely used in the construction of vehicles and household furni-
ture. Owing to its resinous character the timber makes excellent
railway sleepers.

(3) The Black Spruce (Picea muriana) forms an appreciable
proportion of the timber trees of Newfoundland and Labrador,
it is considered the best material for pulp making.

(4) The Balsam Fir (Abies balsamea) is said to be abundant in
the central districts. It is extensively used for pulp.

THE FORESTS OF NEWFOUNDLAND. 197

(5) The White Spruce (Picea alba) is said to be fairly abundant,
but is not specially mentioned as being utilized for pulp purposes.

(6) The Tamarack (Larix americana) thrives in certain areas.
It is reported to be used for schooner construction and for the
flooring of buildings.

Of broad-leaved trees the following may be mentioned, some of
them being used for pulp :—

(7) The White or Paper Birch (Betula papyrifera) grows to a
good height and gives a light, strong, tough and close-grained
wood.

(8) The Yellow Birch (Betula lutea) gives a close-grained, satiny
timber used in the manufacture of furniture.

(9) The Cherry Birch (Betula lenta) yields a heavy, strong and
hard wood used for furniture.

(10) The Sugar Maple (Acer sacharum) is found in southern
Newfoundland ; it gives not only sugar but also a splendid timber
with a curled and contorted grain, known as bird’s-eye maple,
used for cabinet work.

(11) The Black Ash (Fraxinus sambucifolia) grows to a large
size in swamps and along the banks of rivers in southern New-
foundland ; its timber is coarse-grained but durable.

(12) The American Elm (Ulmus americana) is present in the
island as a large tree ; it yields a heavy timber.

(13) The Balsam Poplar and the Aspen yield light timber,
which may be used for pulp purposes.

Spruce and balsam fir, with a small percentage of white pine,
constitute the bulk of the utilizable timber of the country. The
spruce and fir grow very thickly, but not to a large size. It is
stated that it does not pay to undertake logging operations of the
scattered white pine and larger spruce and fir for lumber purposes
as a separate operation, and that, apart from local requirements,
the lumber industry for export should be combined with the
simultaneous development of the pulp and paper industry, for
which the spruce and fir are eminently suitable, water power
being available for conversion.

3. RELATIONSHIP OF THE STATE TO THE FORESTS.

Legislation.—Forest fire protection is carried out under the
authority of Acts passed in 1905 and 1911. Under the former the

198 FORESTRY IN NEWFOUNDLAND.

Governor-in-Council appoints a Chief Ranger, who appoints the
wardens where necessary. Under the Act of 1911, the fire
wardens are appointed by a Central Committee, which consists of
the representatives of the different lumber companies and the
Minister of Agriculture as Chairman. The cost of fire protection
is met by Government votes and voluntary contributions of the
licensees of timber limits. Mr. Horwood, in his report, states :
“The loss to forest wealth to date is very slight from the use of
the axe compared with the ravages of fire. Something has
recently been done to check this enormous waste by the estab-

lishment of a small, poorly supported fire patrol... . This
criminal waste of public wealth should be dealt with, for it con-
stitutes the most serious problem in conservation. . .. The

question of reproduction calls for some scientific attention as well
as that of general forest conservancy.”

It is prohibited by law to export unmanufactured lumber, such
as pit-props or pulpwood, from Newfoundland. This law was
suspended during the war, but it seems to be in force again,
though not in Labrador during the next 10 years.

Administrative Methods.—The forests within 3 miles of the sea-
shore have been reserved by the Government for the benefit of the
inhabitants, who are mostly fishermen, and who make excellent
woodmen during the time of the year when fishing is suspended.
During the war considerable amounts of pit wood were cut in
these belts for export to the United Kingdom. It is not known
what area is included in these coastal forests. Practically all
other forests inside the coastal belts are held under licences by
private parties or by companies under the following conditions
(Mr. Turner’s Statement) :—‘“‘ The licence gives the holder the
right to cut timber on the leased land for a term of 99 years on
the payment of an annual rental of 2 dollars per square mile (or
about 1 penny for every 7 acres), on the area conveyed under the
licence. The licensee has to erect and operate a saw-mill within
3 years, of a capacity to cut at the rate of 1,000 feet board measure
(83 cubic feet) for each 10 square miles of land licensed ; or to
spend 50,000 dollars for each 500 square miles licensed within
5 years in the erection and equipment of a building and plant for
the manufacture of pulp and paper. A royalty of 50 cents. per
1,000 feet board measure is payable to the Crown on all timber

RELATIONSHIP OF THE STATE TO THE FORESTS. 199

cut on the limit, except such timber as is manufactured into pulp
and paper, which is not subject toa royalty.’ These conditions
apply to all timber lands in the island, except those operated by
the Anglo-Newfoundland Development Company, which holds
the lands under a Charter authorised by a special Act of the
Legislature.

There do not appear to be any provisions for the regeneration
of the natural forests, or for the replanting of cleared areas.
There is no regular Forest Authority, nor has anything been
attempted for Research or for the Education of a technical staft
of forest officers.

4. ANNUAL INCREMENT AND UTILIZATION.

No attempt has been made to estimate the annual increment.
Owing to the great damage done by fires, the net increment cannot
be large, until fire protection has become more efficient than it
seems to be at present. For Canada it has been estimated that
of the actual annual increment something like 83 per cent. is
destroyed again by fire, waste in conversion and disease. Apply-
ing this to Newfoundland it is clear that the net increment is not
likely to be large.

Nor is it possible to arrive at a clear idea as to the amount of
the annual utilization. Some data have been given on this
subject, but they are not complete. Those referring to the
operations of the Anglo-Newfoundland Development Company
are given by Mr. Vincent Jones as follows :—

Area held by the Company, 3,300 square miles.

Annual cut, about 4,500,000 logs, containing about 17,000,000
cubic feet quarter girth measurement, equal to 8 cubic feet per
acre, or more than the net increment estimated for the forests of
Canada. Out of this material, the Company obtains about
60,000,000 superficial feet of lumber, or 120,000 cords of pulp-
wood. If the Company converts the whole of the annual cut

into lumber, it would pay to the State, according to the general
rates :—

Annual rental on 3,300 square miles : . 6,600
Royalty on 60,000,000 superficial feet lumber at
50 cents. per 1,000 . : : } . 30,000

———

Total . : : ; : . 36,600

200 FORESTRY IN NEWFOUNDLAND.

which comes to about 1 cent per 4:65 cubic feet ; in other words,
the Company pays about a halfpenny for every cubic foot of
timber taken out of the forest. If the whole of the cut is used as
pulp-wood, the Company pays to the State no royalty and only
6,600 dollars rent, so that it would pay 1 penny for every 12 cubic
feet of timber, quarter-girth measurement, taken out of the forest.*
In case the Company should pay, under its Charter, at rates
differing from the rates paid by other licensees, the above figures
would require modifications accordingly.

5. Exports AND IMPORTS.

The above-mentioned Forestry Commission give the following
data for 1909—1912 :—
Annual Export of Timber ‘ . 306,440 cubic feet.
Annual Import of Timber é . 136,040 3

Excess of Exports over Imports. 170,400 a”

The exports of paper and pulp were as follows :—

Paper, Tons. Pulp, Tons.
1910 : et i U0 os 6,900
1911 3 = 21,100 ne 27,200
1912 ; . 26,800 a8 48,400
1913 ‘ . 44,400 - 57,500

While the export of timber had considerably decreased before the
war, the export of paper and pulp had rapidly increased.

6. SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK.

It is not possible, with the information at present available, to
prepare a proper balance-sheet of increment, utilization, consump-
tion, export and import. Only a very rough estimate can be
made, somewhat on the following lines :-—

Mr. Horwood, in his report, estimates the average contents per
acre of wooded land at 10 cords of pulpwood and 1,000 superficial
feet of lumber, which together represent about 800 cubic feet
solid of quarter-girth measurement. If the forests are worked
like those of the Anglo-Newfoundland Development Company,
that is to say, at the rate of 8 cubic feet per acre all round, the

* The same rate applied to coal would give to the proprietor of the mine
about 4 pence royalty per ton of coal raised.

SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK. 201

present stock would be sufficient for 100 years, and if reproduction
were to replace the annual cuttings, the present system of working
might go on for ever. The “if” is, however, a powerful one.
In the first place, Mr. Vincent Jones stated distinctly in his report
that the black spruce, the most important pulpwood tree, grows
comparatively slowly. In the second place, fire has, in the past,
destroyed several times as much as has been taken out by cutting,
and, unless fire protection is more effective than it has been up-to-
date, the existing stock may come to an end very much sooner
than in 100 years. In the third place, the demand may, and is
most likely to, increase as time goes on. If it were to double and
fires to go on, the out-turn could be kept up for a moderate
number of years only. The requirements of the United States
are constantly increasing, and it is more than doubtful whether
the States around the Baltic will be able to supply the United
Kingdom with 6 million loads of timber annually, as they did
before the war.

Most undoubtedly the Government of Newfoundland should
bestir itself without loss of time. It cannot, it is feared, cancel
now the licences by which it alienated the forests for a period of
99 years, but’it should do what is now possible in the following
directions :—

(1) To watch and control the work in the forests, and to resume
all areas the holders of which fail to comply with the
conditions laid down in the licences.

(2) To organise a really efficient system of fire protection.

(3) To assist the natural regeneration of all areas which are
still in a condition to answer suitable silvicultural
measures, and to replant or sow up all areas which are
below that condition.

(4) To secure without delay the services of an efficient Forestry
Expert as head of the Forest Department with an
adequate staff to carry out the forest policy of the
Dominion in the above and other directions, such as a
survey of the resources of the forests, the rate of growth,
the local consumption, and the early preparation of a
balance sheet of increment, utilization, exports, imports
and consumption.

The execution of such a programme will, no doubt, cost money,

202 FORESTRY IN SOUTH AFRICA.

and it is much to be regretted that the Government has alienated
this great national wealth for so longa period and for such
inadequate payments, as indicated above. The Government
has, apparently, done this in the desire to develop the working
of the forests and thereby provide work for the population
during times of the year when the fishing is slack. This was, no
doubt, a laudable object, but it could have been obtained at a
less disastrous sacrifice. There can be no excuse for extending the
licences over so long a period as 99 years, and though the rates
of rent and royalty had to be low for a number of years, it should
have been recognised that those actually fixed are so low that this
valuable State property has practically been given away for
almost nothing. Unless the working of the licences permits an
enhancement of the rates, future payments for forest conservancy
measures will represent the penalty which the State will have to
meet to make up for the want of foresight on the part of past
Governments.

The above notes do not apply to Labrador, the available
information for which is too meagre to permit of a description of
the forestry question in that part of the Dominion.

F, FORESTRY IN THE UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA.
(No. 12 on Map).
SECTION I.SHORT DESCRIPTION OF THE COUNTRY.
The Union consists at present of four States, which are situated
between the 22nd and 35th degrees of southern latitude and

the 17th and 33rd degrees of eastern longitude. Their areas
and population are as follows :—

Name of State. Sainne Meilea: Tot. tn eee aus Mile.
Cape Colony : . 216;99D. 2... 2,000,000): = amma
Natal F ; . O0,01L oo TS OnG een
Orange Free State . 60;392° ... “jD26,000) amie
Transvaal . : . 110,426 ..° 68h.000 {Se
The Union . 4 473, 184 .. 5,973,000 13

The population had dei during the previous 7 years by
15 per cent., and it was expected that it would be doubled in
about 50 years. Of the population only 1,276,000 were Europeans

SHORT DESCRIPTION OF THE COUNTRY. 203

about one-half British and the other half Dutch. Four-fifths of
the people were coloured.
South-West Africa, lately a German Colony, has now been

Fic. 9.

Sketch Map of Africa showing the position of the several Colonies and

Protectorates.
1. Gambia. 5. Egypt. 9. Tanganyika.
2. Sierra Leone. 6. The Sudan. 10. Nyasaland.
3. The Gold Coast. 7. Uganda. 11. Southern Rhodesia.
4. Nigeria. 8. Kenya. 12. Union of South Africa.
13. Bechuanaland. 14. South-West Africa.

added to the Union, but the information regarding it is not
sufficient to deal with it in this place.

1. TopoGRAPHY.
The Union territory consists of three main regions :—
(1) A strip of low land lying along the sea coast from the mouth

204 FORESTRY IN SOUTH AFRICA.

of the Orange river to northern Zululand. It varies in width
from a mile or two to 30 and even more miles.

(2) A range of hilly ground rising by degrees behind the coastal
strip. Near Capetown the hills are quite close to the sea; on
going inland they become higher, till they reach heights of 3,000
to 4,000 feet at a distance of 30 to 40 miles from the sea, and from
5,000 to 6,000 feet at 60 miles. These hills, intersected by
valleys, are the spurs of a long range of mountains running from
Capetown to the Zambesi valley. The height ranges from 3,000
to 7,000 feet, and in Basutoland as much as 11,000 feet are
reached. Geographers call these hills the “ Drakenberg or
Quathlamba Range.”

(3) Behind the Quathlamba range the country spreads out into
a vast tableland, partly flat, partly undulating, sometimes inter-
sected by ridges of rocky hills, forming the third region. Its
height above sea varies from 3,000 to 5,000 feet, and some of the
hills reach 6,000 feet. Thus the Quathlamba range may be
regarded as the escarpment of the tableland. The latter occupies
seven-eighths of South Africa.

There are no rivers in the true sense, since the rivers usually
contain little water during three-fourths of the year; nor are
there any lakes of any importance.

2. GEOLOGY AND SOIL.

There seems to be much uncertainty on some of the main
points in the geological record of South Africa, in the determina-
tion of the relative age of the more ancient sediments and of the
great intrusion of granite rock in them. However, geological
formations do not appear to have any great influence in deter-
mining the distribution of the forests, which occur with little
change in their general character on different formations.

Generally, the soils in forest areas are poor in plant food,
especially in lime and phosphoric acid. The soils most suitable
for afforestation are those derived from granites, table mountain
sandstone and dolorites. The soils of South Africa are generally
not characterised by any great depth, although hillside soils in
Natal are good in this respect so that their physical properties are
excellent. On account of the long, dry season, depth of soil is of
great importance, and is one of the important points to be

CLIMATE. 205:

considered in selecting areas for planting. Hard pan occurs
over large areas which should be avoided, and so should stiff
black clay soils. In the forest zones, much soil is sour and
requires thorough working before it can be planted, making
planting expensive.

3. CLIMATE.

Owing to a combination of latitude and topography, the
temperature is remarkably even throughout the Union. The
mean annual temperature of Capetown is 62 degrees Fahr., and
that of Pretoria, 1,000 miles north of it, is 63-5. The mean
annual range differs from 12 degrees on the south coast to
28 degrees on the Transvaal plateau. The extreme shade
temperature on record is 125 degrees in January, and 6 degrees
in June. Frosts are practically unknown on the coast, but occur
in the interior. Especially early frosts are doing damage to
plantations on the higher parts of the country. Indigenous
forests are only rarely touched by frost, and then the damage is
generally of a trivial character.

The rainfall in the different parts of the Union differs very
much, both as regards the quantity and the time of year during
which it falls. In the western and south-western coastal district
most of the precipitations occur during winter; the rest of the
Union is essentially a summer rainfall area, the weather during
April to September being practically dry. Generally the rainfall
increases from west to east, and is greatest along the mountain
ranges of the south, south-east and east forming the great
escarpment. The indigenous forests follow the rainfall and are
thus found along the coastal belt on the seaward slopes of the
escarpment from the Cape Peninsula to the Zoutpansberg
mountains. They seldom occupy any extensive area con-
tinuously, but are almost always found in isolated patches, from a
few to a few thousand acres, in the kloofs or ravines and facing
south or south-east. In the interior also the rainfall becomes
heavier on going east. Thus, in the western part of the Orange
Free State and the Transvaal, the average annual fallis about 17
inches which increases in the eastern Orange Free State to about
28 inches, and in the eastern Transvaal to about 38 inches. The
western and central interior part of the Cape province is very dry,

206 FORESTRY IN SOUTH AFRICA.

the rainfall being from 5 to 15 inches, and tree growth is absent
except along river banks. Hail is frequent and often causes
severe damage to forests.
SECTION II—THE FORESTS OF SOUTH AFRICA.
1. AREAS AND OWNERSHIP.

The division of the Union land is as follows :—

Area in Per cent. of

Square Miles. Total Area.
Agricultural land. - 20,928 aie 4-4
Forests sate : 2,361 es 0-5
Other land . ; . 449,807 a 95:1

Total : . 473,096 — 100-0

Agricultural land includes only the areas under agricultural crops
and fruit and the areas lying fallow in 1918, while the areas under
pasturage and waste lands are included under “ Other Lands.”
It has not been possible to split up the forest area under
“*Merchantable”’ and ‘ Unprofitable or Inaccessible.”” The
total forest area, however, does not include the wooded area of
Native locations and reserves.
The ownership of the forests is as follows :—

Per cent. of
Square Miles. Total Forest Area.
State forests . 5 3 880 ie 37:3
Corporation forests . = 35 fe 1-5
Private forests. : ep L446 ok 61-2
Total. « 2,000 rs 100°0

The above areas actually carry trees. In addition, the Forest
Department holds an area of about 2,430 square miles which is
treeless but serves as a protection of the head waters of streams.

Of the 3,310 square miles comprising the State forest reserves,
77 per cent. are demarcated and 23 per cent. undemarcated.
Forest land once demarcated cannot be alienated without the
consent of Parliament.

2. Types or Forest GROWTH.

South African Foresters distinguish four types of woodland
vegetation: forest, scrub, bush-veld, and palm-veld.

TYPES OF FOREST GROWTH. 207

(1) Forest—Vegetation of the woodland type occupies a very
small portion of South Africa. It occurs in the Knysna and
Humansdorp districts of the Cape, also elsewhere in smaller areas.
These forests are generally confined to the kloofs, steep valleys
and flanks of the mountains facing the sea. They are mostly
evergreen, the principal species being: The Yellowwoods (Podo-
carpus Thunbergu, elongata and falcata); the Sneezewood
(Ptaeroxylon utile); the Stinkwood (Ocotea bullata); the Black
Ironwood (Olea laurifolia) ; Lemonwood (Xymalos monospora) ;
the White Ironwood (Toddalia lanceolata) ; Candlewood (Pteroce-
lastrus variabilis) ; the Assegai Wood (Curtisia faginea) ; White
Pear (Apodytes dimidiata) ; the Saftron (Ele@odendron croceum) ;
~ Wild Elder (Nuaia floribunda); the Cape Box (Buxus Mac-
Owani), and many others.

There are also a considerable number of shrubs between the
trees. Lianes and epiphytes are plentiful. In the forests near
Clanwilliam the Clanwilliam Cypress (Widdringtonia juniperoides)
(Callitris arborea) occurs.

(2) Scrub.—It is a marked feature of the south-western coast
region of the Cape. The leaves of the plants are, as a rule, small
and leathery. The dominant shrubs and plants belong to the
Proteacee, Ericacee, Restionacee, Thymelewacee, Penwacea,
Grubbiacee, Rutacee, Brunniacee and Ficoidee.

(3) Bushveld —This woodland vegetation occurs in the extreme
north-west corner of the Union territory, and also on a much
larger scale in the north-east. It generally bears a parklike
appearance. The prominent trees in the western part are
Acacia albida, A. Karroo, A. giraffe, Combretum primigenum,
Euclea pseudebenus, Tamarix austroafricana, and Ziziphus mucro-
natus. The southern edge of the Transvaal bushveld is composed
of Acacias, Combretum veld, Rhus lancea and Faurea saligna.
Further north appear Parinarvum mobola, Pterocarpus erinaceus,
Zyzygium cordatum, Kigelia pinnata and Trichilia emetica. Along
the northern boundary of the Transvaal Baobab (Adansonia
digitata), Acacia pallens, Combretum por phyrolepis and Bolusanthus
speciosus are plentiful.

(4) Palm veld.—This woodland vegetation comprises a narrow
littoral strip extending from East London to the northern limit of
the Union. Its characteristic is the presence of palms, such as

208 FORESTRY IN SOUTH AFRICA.

Phenix reclinata and Hyphene crinita. Mimusops caffra is
dominant in the southern part, and there are various species of
Aloe and Euphorbia. The northern portion of this area is more
tropical in character, presenting dense bush and swamp forests
of mangroves composed of Avicennia officinalis, Rhizophora
mucronata, Bruguera gymnorhiza, Ceriops candolliana, with
Raphia vinifera. The coconut palm (Cocos nucifera) is often a
dominant feature of the landscape.

3. PROMINENT TIMBERS AND OTHER PRODUCE.
Timbers.

(1) The Yellowwoods are large trees of the first economic
importance up to 120 feet high with little taper, a superior
substitute for imported pine. The timber is rather harder and
heavier than the latter, stronger, and of better appearance; used
for a great variety of purposes. It is the most abundant species
in the forests, but it has been heavily cut.

(2) Stinkwood is a large evergreen tree up to 90 feet high and
5 feet diameter; of first economic importance. Wood, heavy,
hard, very strong and durable in contact with the soil. Used for
a great variety of purposes, but the supply is limited.

(3) Assegai, a smaller tree, up to 60 feet high, 14 feet diameter.
Wood very hard, heavy, moderately strong. Used principally
as a waggon wood. Supply limited.

(4) Black Ironwood is a large tree up to 90 feet high. Wood
very hard, heavy and strong. Used for waggon work, piles,
bridges, telegraph poles, and railway sleepers. Supply rather
limited.

(5) White Pear, an important tree, up to 70 feet high. Best
wood for felloes in waggon construction.

(6) Sneezewood, a small tree up to 50 feet high. Wood very
strong, permeated with an oily substance which makes it very
durable in contact with the ground. White ant and Teredo
resistant.

(7) Cape Box, small tree up to 20 feet high. Exported to
Britain and used in place of Buxus sempervirens.

Other Produce.

(1) Wattle Bark, obtained from Acacia decurrens var. mollis,

introduced from Australia about 50 years ago. To-day about

RELATIONSHIP OF THE STATE TO THE FORESTS. 209

312,000 acres are under wattle, of which about 240,000 acres are
in Natal. Large quantities of this tanning bark are exported
either chopped up or as an extract ; 62,000 tons in 1919.

(2) Buchu, used for medicinal purposes, consists of the dried
leaves of several species of Barosma, shrubs which grow on the
mountains in the south-west of Cape Colony. The most valuable
kind is B. betulina. Export in 1919 amounted to 67 tons.

4. RELATIONSHIP OF THE STATE TO THE FORESTS.

Legislation.—The existing forest legislation is contained in the
Union Forest Act, No. 16 of 1913 and its amending Act, No. 14
of 1917. The former Act was designed to consolidate and amend
the forest laws previously in force in the four provinces of the
Union and relates to forest tenure, forest demarcation, the
regulation and protection of forests, etc. There are demarcated
and undemarcated reserves. Demarcated reserves cannot be
alienated except with the consent of both houses of Parliament.
The Act gives the power of expropriation for forestry purposes
and provides that no new rights can spring up by prescription in
forest estates. Private proprietors can have all or any of the
provisions of the Act applied to their forests. The Act also
provides for hunting and fishing in forests. Act No. 14 of 1917
merely strengthens the principal Act in respect of demarcations
undertaken before 1913.

Administrative Methods.—(a) Fire Protection.—Clean fire traces
are maintained around indigenous and artificial woods, and these
are periodically ploughed up, hoed, or burnt off. The planting of
Acacias around the areas has not been found as effective as
maintaining clear traces. Owing to the evergreen character of
the indigenous forests and the moist condition usually associated
with the forest floor, internal fires are very rare. In plantations
however, in addition to external traces, internal belts are either
left unplanted and kept clear, or planted with less inflammable
species, such as belts or lines of Eucalyptus in pines, the litter
being swept up over 5 feet on either side of the belts. The forests
and plantations are regularly patrolled.

(b) Regeneration of Natural Forests—The indigenous forests are
worked on the selection system. In some of them, especially in
the east, natural regeneration is very deficient, but in others, as

VOL. I. e

210 FORESTRY IN SOUTH AFRICA.

in the Knysna and Transkeian forests, it is more abundant. In
the majority of the forests, the conditions for favourable regenera-
tion are not good, owing to faulty treatment in the past. Almost
all the species are said to be of slow growth, and a long time must
elapse before much mature timber from them will again become
available. The silvicultural requirements of the species are as
yet imperfectly understood, and, if the yield is to be improved,
much more time, attention and money must be devoted to the
subject than has been the case in the past.

(c) Roads and Paths —Many of the forests are already linked
up with public roads, but a great deal remains to be done in this
direction. Bridle and inspection paths are more numerous, and
there is hardly a forest which is not intersected with them.

(d) Planting Waste Areas—Owing to the very restricted
natural forest resources of the Union and the great need of aug-
menting the timber supplies, afforestation of vacant waste lands
is the main channel along which the activities of the Department
are directed. Numerous exotic species are employed, those yielding
the ordinary softwoods of commerce and durable hardwoods,
such as some of the Eucalypts, the selection differing in various
parts of the country according to the factors of the localities.

It has been estimated that it will be necessary to plant 300,000
acres with conifers if the country is to become independent of
imports. Up to March 31st, 1918, the following areas had been
planted :—

Forest Department plantations . 51,104 acres.

Railway sleeper plantations. . 23,225 ,,

Added since then . : s2L Sadi:
Total up to 1921 ; «, OB Ate

Of the older plantations a considerable proportion were of an
experimental nature ; others will serve only to supply fuel, poles
and rough farm materials; others have not been successful.
Allowing for these matters, some 20,000 acres of the older
plantation must be deducted as far as the supply of timber in the
future is concerned.

(e) State Assistance given to Forestry.—The Forest Department
disposes of plants and seeds of forest trees at very low rates,
upwards of 5 million transplants having been sold in one year.

RELATIONSHIP OF THE STATE TO THE FORESTS. 211

Most of these were planted in the Transvaal and Orange Free
State on the treeless high veld.

The Department is always ready to give advice without charge,
as to the selection of species, methods of cultivation, valuation
of plantations, &c. The Department’s officers also give lectures
on forestry questions.

The Government Land Bank of the Union advances money to
farmers for planting at 5 per cent., for 30 years. Tree planting
competitions are held under the auspices of the Natal Agricultural
Union and the Natal Royal Agricultural Society. The scheme
is being continued by the Union Government. The result of
these competitions up to date has been the planting of 2,115 acres.

Forests and plantations are taxed at the same rate as land
without trees on it; that is to say, the forest or plantation, as
such, bears no burden beyond the ordinary land tax.

(f} The Forest Authority —The Department is controlled by the
Chief Conservator ; it is a branch of the Department of Agricul-
ture. The Union is divided into 7 conservancies, each presided
over by a Conservator of Forests. Each conservancy is divided
into a number of districts. The number of District Forest
Officers is at present 25, but a considerable increase is under
consideration. Each district comprises a number of forest
stations or patrols in charge of foresters.

Attached to the office of the Chief Conservator are 3 forest
officers who devote their time to research and technical matters.

(g) Education.—No forest school for the instruction of members
of the superior staff exists in the Union, as the number of recruits
is only one or two a year. Such officers are recruited, as far as
possible, from South African students wholhave obtained the degrees
or diplomas of recognised European or American forest schools.

The subordinate staff is recruited from South African youths
who have served a satisfactory apprenticeship at a forest station
and thereafter passed through the school for foresters and forest
apprentices conducted by the District Forest Officer at Tokai,
Cape Peninsula, who is guided by, and directly responsible to,
the Chief Conservator of Forests. The course comprises 1 year
and 9 months.

(h) Research—The Department has as yet no laboratories for

research, and mycological, entomological and chemical work has
P 2

212 FORESTRY IN SOUTH AFRICA.

in the past been done by officers of the Department of Agriculture.
The advantage of such work being done by forest officers has been
recognised, and it is hoped shortly to have departmental labora-
tories. Botanical research is undertaken by the professional
Assistant of the Chief Conservator. An expert is investigating
the properties and qualities of South African timbers and the
best methods of handling and seasoning them.

(i) Experimental Work.—During the existence of the Depart-
ment a great deal of valuable experimental field work has been
done, and the present silvicultural practice of the Union has been
largely moulded by it. This refers, more particularly, to the
nursery practice, the methods of planting and direct sowing, the
planting distance best suited to different species, the most suitable
mixtures of species, the most appropriate degrees of thinning, and
above all, the selection of suitable species for planting in the
different parts of the Union. In the past the experimental work
was largely the result of individual action. Now all this work has
been placed on a systematic basis, so as to secure the publication
of results, and to make them generally useful.

(j) Income and Expenditure.—The average annual income and
expenditure for the 3 financial years 1916—1919 were as follows :—

Forest Railway

Department. Plantations. Total.
£ £ =
Income . : . §L3DD 9... 1 OO eee
Expenditure. . 129,515 .. 25,750 .. 159,265
Deficit . . 58,160’ ©: “18. bb1 2 forme
Cost of Plantations only 64, 118 y lees 029 (Cig

The cost of the plantations is, in realithe a capital expenditure.
Allowing for this, it will be seen that there is really a surplus of
£10,436. The older plantations have commenced to give a return,
and, judging by the results so far obtained, there seems to be no
doubt that the plantations will be a financially successful under-
taking, apart from the fact that the country will have been made
independent of foreign supplies.

5. Private Forestry ACTIVITY.

The importance of tree planting has been recognised as early
as the seventeenth century. It is on record that in 1679 one of

PRIVATE FORESTRY ACTIVITY. 213

the early Governors urged his burgher councillors to plant oaks
and other kinds of trees. South Africa owes to the early Dutch
settlers the introduction of such trees as the Stone pine (P. pinea),
the Cluster pine (P. maritima), the oak and the poplar. In order
to improve their properties, millions of trees are planted annually
by private individuals. Many municipalities have initiated
afforestation schemes, of greater or lesser extent, on commercial
lines, and practically all have devoted some attention to the
planting of street and roadside trees as a means of improving the
local amenities. The gold mining companies on the Rand have
established plantations of their own as near to the mines as
possible, and to-day the country all along the Rand, once devoid »
of trees, is fairly well wooded. The black wattle industry is
essentially in the hands of private individuals and companies,
and the success that has met their efforts is proved by the pros-
perity of the industry they have built up.

Many societies are interested in forestry and the timber supply
of the country, and the Department never lacks their support.
Public opinion strongly favours a forward movement in afforesta-
tion as soon as an adequate, trained staff has been secured.

6. INCREMENT AND UTILIZATION.
The Increment has been estimated as follows :—

Indigenous Forests. Plantations. Total.
Area Area Area
. 2 Increment, z Increment, eae Increment,
Square | Cubic Feet. | S40! Cubic Feet. | S4uale| Cubic Feet.
State Forests . 764 | 15,157,760 116 | 11,136,000 880 | 26,293,760
Other Forests . 759 9,715,200 722 | 60,312,000 | 1,481 | 70,027,200
Total 1,523 | 24,872,960 838 | 71,448,000 | 2,361 | 96,320,960

In the above table the increment per acre of plantation has been
placed at 150 cubic feet, that of indigenous State forests at
31 cubic feet, and for other forests at 20 cubic feet. These
estimates are believed to be fairly accurate. The data represent
gross increments, as the local authorities did not feel able to
estimate the loss by fire, waste, &c. It is, however, stated that
the loss by fire is very small and probably not more than 1 per
cent., that waste in plantations is small, but that in the indigenous

214 FORESTRY IN SOUTH AFRICA.

forests is likely to be high. On the whole, a deduction of 20 per
cent. seems fully adequate, leaving a net increment of 77,000,000
cubic feet.

The Annual Utilization is estimated as follows :—

Indigenous Forests. Plantations. Total.
Timber, C. Feet :
State Forests . 960,898 .. 661,858. 2. 16227755
Other Forests’. 12,117,100 .. 6,063,400 .. 18,180,500
Total Timber. 13,077,998 .. 6,725,258 .. 19,803,256
Fuel, C. Feet:
State Forests .- 1,806,145 .. 1,561,768" <. >%3,36m9I3
Other Forests . 2,800,335 .. 39,970,376 .2 42,77031%
Total Fuel . 4,606,480 .. 41,532,144 .. 46,138,624
Timber and Fuel . 17,684,478 .. 48,257,402 .. 65,941,880

It will be observed that the utilization of home-grown wood is
about 11 million cubic feet less than the estimated net increment.
This is, however, neutralised by the fact that until now about
one-half of the 40 million cubic feet obtained by the cutting of
bark wattles is not utilized for want of demand, and thus left
rotting on the ground.

7. Exports AND Imports.
The data given in the “ Statement ”’ are incomplete ; they are
as follows :—

Quantity,
Cubic Feet. Value, £.
Exports :
Unmanufactured . ; $ 2 MM, 3,300
Manufactured ; : : 2 af 5,700
Total Exports . 2 fi 9,000
Imports :
Unmanufactured . : in; LD 61S OCD armen 980,800
Manufactured : , » |, 3, 8820007 ies 577,700
Total Imports . ; .. 19. 500; 000) as 1,558,500

Excess of Imports over Exports g .. 1,549,500

FOREST INDUSTRIES. 215

About two-thirds of the imported unmanufactured timber came
from Scandinavia and the rest from the United States, Australia
(Eucalyptus) and India (Teak). The manufactured timber came
chiefly from Scandinavia.

8. Forest INDUSTRIES.

The principal branches of industry are, approximately, the
following :—

Material, £. Produce te: maplored:

Working in wood generally. 830,469 .. 1,294,683 .. 4,256
Vehicle construction. 5 sold.947 5 4094840) 2 a 0ls
Ship and boat-building 20100 15, <AGS129" (wu M45
Parmunremanutacture « 002,053... 757,163. ... 2:23b
Total .. : S TD NG569" Ss aloooale =... OkOo4.

9. SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK.

In the following statement a balance is drawn between utiliza-
tion, export, import consumption and increment :—

Cubic Feet.
Utilization. ; ' ; ‘ . 65,941,880
Add Imports . ‘ : : : . 19,500,000
Total»; : - ! ! . 85,441,880
Deduct Exports (Estimate). 77,000
Total Consumption : . 85,364,880
Net Increment (Estimated) . . 77,000,000
Excess of Consumption over Increment . 8,364,880

The number of cubic feet (77,000) exported has been estimated
from the value of the exports (£9,000) by assuming that the value
per cubic foot exported is the same as the value per cubic foot of
the imported timber.

For some years to come the excess of consumption over incre-
ment will, however, in reality be greater than appears from the
above balance sheet, because three-fourths of the present incre-
ment is laid on by plantations, most of which are as yet too
young to give a return. By continuing the system of planting
the deficiency should disappear after a limited number of years,

216 FORESTRY IN SOUTH AFRICA.

when the country will be independent of imports, with the
exception of limited quantities of timber which cannot be grown
in South Africa. The extent of future planting should take into
consideration the probable increase of population.

Next to India, South Africa was the first of the British Colonies
to devise and execute a rational forest policy. Finding the area
of indigenous forests altogether insufficient to supply the country
with timber and firewood, and being poor in workable coal seams,
the Government of Cape Colony started plantations in 1876 at
Worcester, consisting of Blue Gum (Lucalyptus Globulus). Many
others followed, consisting of a variety of exotic species, being
under the impression that the indigenous species were too slow
growing and, in some cases, too difficult to rear. The three main
classes of plantations are pine plantations for light woods,
Eucalyptus for timber, and Wattles for tanning bark. The
principal pine species are P. insignis, P. maritima and the
Canary Island pine. Of late years some Mexican conifers
have been tried to suit changes in the local conditions of the
several parts of the Union.

Much as the general policy is to be approved, there is one point
for serious consideration, and that is the neglect of the indigenous
species, more particularly of the Yellowwoods. These woods
(Podocarpus spp.) yield excellent timber, superior to the introduced
pine species, but it is reported that they are difficult to rear, owing
to their requiring protection while young. In the indigenous
forests they reach a height up to 120 feet, and they are healthy.
On the other hand, the cluster and insignis pines are already liable
to disease, and it has been suggested to replace them in certain
parts of the Union by the Himalayan Chir pine (P. longifolia),
and perhaps by Canary pine, or Mexican conifers. It would,
however, appear that the failure in rearing the Yellowwood might
be overcome by planting it in the existing bush or scrub, so that
the latter may provide the necessary shelter to the young plants
and to be cut away when the Yellowwood does not require any
further protection. This method has been extensively used with
success in Hurope in converting coppice woods into high forests,
and there does not seem to be any reason why it should not be
successful in South Africa. Indigenous species are less likely to
fall victims to disease than exotic species.

THE COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA. 217

G. FORESTRY IN THE COMMONWEALTH OF
AUSTRALIA.

SECTION I1—THE COMMONWEALTH GENERALLY.
The Commonwealth consists of the following States :—

Population in 1911.

Name of State. Square Miles. Total. sone Mile.
Queensland . -OF0:500" . 605,813 .. 0-9
New South Wales . 309,482 .. 1,646,734 .. 5:3
Victoria . ‘ Si7e884—... Lslbpb! -. 15:0
South Australia a oS0.070), A08/558")... Leil
Western Australia . 975,920 .. 282,114 3. 0-3
North Territory >] B2s1620) ==. 3,010 .. 0-006
Tasmania ; : PASO ee (S20 ies
Federal Territory. 940) ae Tle MS eS
The Commonwealth . 2,974,581 .. 4,455,005 .. 1:5

The mainland of Australia lies between the 10th and 39th degree
of southern latitude, about one-half of the country being situated
inthe tropics. Tasmania lies between the 41st and 44th degree of
latitude.

The population of the Commonwealth is practically all white,
and efforts are being made to keep it so; whether this will
succeed, is another question.

Without going into the details of the establishment of the
Australian Colonies, it may be stated that all, except Western
Australia, were granted responsible government in 1855. Western
Australia receiving it in 1890. The constitutions of the several
States, while marked by minor differences, are all upon the same
model, with legislative assemblies and legislative councils. The
Commonwealth of Australia was inaugurated on January Ist,
1901. Under its constitution the States retain all the powers
which belong to them as self-governing communities, except those
which they have surrendered to the Commonwealth, such as
defence, tariffs, and -postal matters. Trade between all the
States is free. Each State manages its forests independently of
the Commonwealth authorities.

218 FORESTRY IN AUSTRALIA.

1. TOPOGRAPHY.

At a moderate distance from the east coast the Great Dividing
Range runs from the northern part of Queensland through New
South Wales to Victoria, when it sweeps round to the west in the
direction of South Australia. In Queensland the Dividing Range
is of moderate elevation, from 3,000 to 5,000 feet at the southern

Fig. 10.

Sketch Map showing the Positions of the several Australian States.

1. Queensland. 4. South Australia. 6. Northern Territory.
2. New South Wales. 5. West Australia. 7. Tasmania.
3. Victoria.

boundary. In New South Wales it is more elevated, reaching
near the Victorian boundary its greatest height, 7,300 feet,
Excepting a belt of low land along the coast the country between
the sea and the dividing range consists of broken ground present-
ing a series of interrupted plateaux between which numerous
short streams find their way to the sea. On the west of the
dividing range the ground descends much more gradually,

TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE. 219

forming elevated plateaux, drained in the southern part by
the Murray river and its tributaries, and in the northern part
by the Eyre river system, down to an elevation of less than 500
feet.

In South Australia the greater part of the land lies at a low
elevation, the principal hills being the Mount Lofty Range near the
Gulf of St. Vincent (1,000 to 2,000 feet) and the Flinders Ranges,
east of the Gulf of Spencer (1,000 to 3,000 feet). Proceeding to
Western Australia, the belt of low land near the sea runs along
the south and west coasts of that State, and also the whole of the
north coast. In the south-western part of Western Australia the
land soon rises on going east to a plateau of an average elevation
of about 800 feet, which bears the main timber wealth of that
State.

The central part of Australia consists practically of a quasi-
desert extending over some 14 million square miles, the general
elevation being between 1,000 and 2,000 feet, with isolated parts
rising to 3,000 and even 4,000 feet. The information as regards
the northern half of Australia, the tropical part, is at present
deficient, with the exception of that portion which is situated in
Queensland.

The island of Tasmania may be said to be a continuation of
the eastern Dividing Range, separated from it by a submerged
part. It is throughout a hilly country, the highest part reaching
an elevation of just over 5,000 feet.

2. CLIMATE.

The mean annual temperature in the coastal belt is moderate ;
the following data being given :—Brisbane, 69, Sydney 63,
Melbourne 57, Adelaide 65, Perth 64, and Hobart 54 degrees.
The temperature in the interior is much higher ; it is stated to
rise to 130 degrees during the summer.

The rainfall differs very much. It is heaviest on the north-east
coast, reaching 145 inches at one place, and heavy along the coast
belt in the east, south-east and south-west (30 to 50 inches). It
diminishes rapidly on going inland, and reaches its minimum in
the neighbourhood of Lake Eyre, in the centre of the mainland,
with only 5 inches. There are regular zones of rainfall from the

220 FORESTRY IN AUSTRALIA.

coast inland. On the whole it may be said that these zones
comprise the following areas :—

Under 10 inches rainfall. . 1,105,452 square miles.
From 10 to 20 inches rainfall . 943,431 a
From 20 to 30 inches rainfall . 530,558 _
From 30 to 40 inches rainfall . 210,621 e
Over 40 inches. : : 190,489 -

Mean Annual Rainfall.

(From the Oxford Survey of the British Empire.)

In a general way it may be said that all land which has a
rainfall of 10 inches and over in the year (and in some cases
even less) is useful for pasturage, while areas with more than
20 inches are sufficiently watered for all purposes. The latter
include practically the whole of the coastal areas and the
Island of Tasmania with the exception of parts of the coastal
area of South Australia and the north-western part of Western
Australia.

AGRICULTURAL PURSUITS AND INDUSTRIES. 221

3. AGRICULTURAL PURSUITS AND INDUSTRIES.

Australia is at present primarily a pastoral country. New
South Wales leads the way in the number of sheep, while Queens-
land occupies first place with regard to cattle. The latter are bred
principally for beef in the Northern Territory and in Queensland,
but Victoria has more milking cows than Queensland. Dairying
is making great strides throughout the Commonwealth. Both
sheep and cattle suffered severely from the drought of 1902—1903,
when their numbers were greatly reduced, in the case of sheep
from 98 million to 534 millions. By 1910, however, the loss had
been made good. In that year the exports of Australian wool
were valued at 28 million pounds sterling. Next in importance
to wool comes the export of frozen mutton and lamb. It was
begun in 1879 on a small scale, and it has now reached large
proportions.

Second in importance to sheep farming is the cultivation of
wheat, which is grown in all the States. They all export wheat
now with the exception of Tasmania and possibly Queensland.
The harvest of 1911—1912, the largest on record, yielded
95,100,000 bushels from 7,370,000 acres. A rainfall as low as
16 inches on light soil gives paying crops of hard wheat. In
Western Australia, where the rainfall is-regular, even an annual
rainfall of 12 to 14 inches suffices.

Numerous other crops are grown, but on smaller areas than
wheat, such as oats, maize, green fodder plants, potatoes, sugar-
cane, barley, rye, flax, fruits of many varieties, grapes for wines
&c. The total area under crops has risen from 188,000 acres in
1860—1861 to 18,528,000 in 1915—1916 ; since then a temporary
falling off has occurred, due to the war.

Coal was the first mineral discovered in Australia. New South
Wales provides nine-tenths of the total output, but seams have
been opened in every State. Gold was first found in 1851 in New
South Wales, then in Victoria and finally in all States. Copper
is available in immensely rich deposits. Silver, silver-lead, and
also zine are obtained from the Broken Hill mines in New South
Wales. Tin is mined in all the States. Extensive iron deposits
are available in New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia,
Western Australia and Tasmania.

Indirectly it is due to the discovery of gold in Australia that the

222, FORESTRY IN AUSTRALIA.

manufacturing industry has now grown to such large dimensions
in the Commonwealth. When the alluvial gold mines began to
fail, the surplus labour took partly to agriculture and partly to
manufacturing. At present New South Wales and Victoria do
the bulk of the manufacturing work of Australia.

4, THe ForRESTSs.

The valuable forests of Australia are stocked principally with
Eucalypts and Wattles; they are found in the coast belt with
a rainfall of 20 inches and over. That belt is estimated to contain
about 860,000 square miles, of which about one-half is situated in
tropical Australia. The forest area in the belt is estimated at
about 138,660 square miles. On proceeding from the coastal
belt towards the interior, the quality of the forest diminishes
rapidly ; still, there are enormous areas stocked with an inferior
class of forest which is very useful for local consumption, although
it does not affect at present the general question of the timber
supply of the country.

It is stated that the forest area in the coast belt was formerly
much larger than it is now, that a great part of the forest had to
make way for settlement, and that great damage was done by
forest fires, which destroyed considerable areas, or, at any rate,
caused unsoundness in the remaining timber. The Eucalypts are
strongly light demanding, and, in consequence, thin out naturally ;
the regrowth is irregular, and the leading trees easily dominate
the smaller stems, which then are liable to die. Forest fires
accelerate the process and the forests are, for the most part, thinly
stocked. Asa result, the forests now remaining cannot, in their
present condition, supply permanently all parts of Australia with
the necessary timber, especially as the area covered with coniferous
light woods is very small, except in Queensland. While a certain
quantity of hardwoods is exported, especially from Western
Australia, the imports of coniferous timber are very large and
steadily increasing. All this has led to the idea of cutting down
natural forests and replacing them by artificial plantations of
conifers. On the other hand, it is pointed out that, while artificial
plantations would involve an enormous expenditure, by proper
organisation and sound silviculture the regeneration of the natural
forests could be effected by a comparatively small expenditure.

AREA OF THE FORESTS. 223

There can be no doubt that Australia will have to take energetic
measures to save and improve the remaining timber forests, in so
far as this can be done without unduly hindering settlement.
In addition, coniferous light timbers should be grown to replace
in time those which are now imported. If that policy is adopted,
the import of coniferous light woods should gradually disappear,
while the export of hardwoods could be very considerably

increased.

5. AREA OF THE FORESTS.

The areas of the forests are given as follows in square miles :—

AREA OF FORESTS IN SQUARE MILES.

State. Merchantable.| Umer Total. Far cent..of
Queensland . . | 10,000 50,000 60,000 9-0
New South Wales. | 17,190 — 17,190 5-D
Victoria ; 4,690 7,810 12,500 14-2
South Australia 250 5,750 6,000 1:6
Western Australia. 4,770 21,000 20,110 2°6
Tasmania 940 16,260 17,200 65-6
The Commonwealth | 37,840 | 100,820 | 138,660 4-7

The actual area of wooded land is probably greater than that
given in this table.

6. RELATIONSHIP OF THE STATE TO THE FORESTS.

All the States have Forest Departments, but the staff is
described as deficient. At a conference of the Premiers of all the
States held lately at Melbourne, at which the Commonwealth
Government was also represented, it was decided to establish an
Australian School of Forestry of a high standard in New South
Wales, the cost and maintenance being borne by contributions
from the several States and from the Commonwealth. The
Schools now existing will be mentioned in the accounts given of
the several States. In the meantime a few Australians have
come to Oxford to study forestry, and this move might be con-
tinued until Australia has completed the establishment of a
high-class school of its own.

224 FORESTRY IN AUSTRALIA.

The next step should be to consolidate the Forest Laws of the
several States. Whether it will be possible to have one uniform
law for the Commonwealth, it is impossible to say. Under that
law an area sufficient to secure the future requirements of the
country should be selected, demarcated and declared permanent
State Forests. This is the most urgent question in Australian
forestry. The area depends not only on present requirements,
but on the probable increase of population, the progress of
settlement and the development of industries. It has been
estimated that not less than 74,000 square miles of permanent
State forests are necessary in the extra-tropical part of Australia.
What further areas may be required in the tropical part cannot
be stated at present. The question was dealt with at a recent
forest conference held at Melbourne, when it was decided to set
aside an area of 38,281 square miles (243 million acres) as per-
manent National forests. This would be about one-half of the
area previously considered necessary. An area of, say, 40,000
square miles should, under efficient systematic management, yield
for ever not less than 40 million loads a year, which would satisfy
not only Australian requirements, but also allow for an extensive
export of hardwood, especially as the unreserved forests would
continue to provide a considerable part of the locally required
material.

The reserved State forests should as speedily as possible be
organised, that is to say, arranged into suitable charges and
subdivided into workable units, so that an orderly management
can be introduced. Working plans for a number of years should
be drawn up, beginning with the forests of greatest importance.
These plans, once approved, should not be deviated from except
with the previous sanction of Government.

Every effort should be made to preserve and improve all
permanent State forests. Their regeneration should, if possible,
be effected by natural means, supplemented, if necessary, by
artificial help. The idea of replacing the natural forests by new
plantations of fast-growing species should be definitely discarded.
Such a procedure would be very expensive and risky. Besides,
most of the Eucalypts are so fast growing that it would be
difficult to find any exotic species worth cultivating which would
grow faster than the Eucalypts and at the same time yield good

RELATIONSHIP OF THE STATE TO THE FORESTS. 225

timber. New plantations should be restricted to the production
of light woods in which Australia is deficient, while a brisk export
in the highly appreciated heavy Eucalypts should be maintained
or extended.

Special attention should be paid to fire protection by the
division of the forests into suitable blocks isolated from each other
by broad strips of cleared areas, which could be utilized as grazing
areas, thus recouping at any rate, part of the cost of fire protection.

While the ordinary forest conservancy belongs to the several
States, the question arises whether there is not room for a federal
forest administration, not to compete with the State forest
administration, but to supplement it at points where forestry
assumes a national rather than a local aspect. The Union of
South Africa and the Dominion of Canada have such central
forest authorities, which have answered very well. In this
respect, attention may be drawn to the fact that, in the past,
forestry has been too much at the mercy of politics. One Minister
has done his best for it, while his successor has acted in the opposite
direction. Ministers should not attempt forest management, but
leave it to be conducted on a continuous policy by experts. The
object should be to get national forestry away from direct political
control, and a Federal Forestry Authority might be the means
of achieving this. In this respect, a more healthy public opinion
has of late been developed, than existed in the past.

The hygienic and esthetic aspects of forestry should not be
overlooked. Australia suffers from the same evil as that existing
in Britain, the preponderance of urban over rural population, and
the difficult problem has to be solved how to make country life
more attractive, so as to reduce the great discrepancy between
town and country population. In this respect, forestry can do
something ; properly organised forests give permanent employ-
ment under healthy conditions. The number of men and their
families so employed depends on local conditions and on the
general progress in the management of the forests. That the
number would be very large can be seen when it is remembered
that for every systematically managed 100 acres one person will
be required all the year round. Life in the rural districts acts as
an important means of preserving a stalwart race of men in the

country.
VOL. I. Q

226 FORESTRY IN AUSTRALIA.

The exploitation of timber in Australia is said to be inefficient
and costly, chiefly because there are no roads. The Government,
it is said, neither constructs them nor does it assist timber
workers in making them. If rational forestry is ultimately to be
successful the forests must be opened out by means of communi-
cation, and especially by roads, which should be so constructed
that rails can be laid on them later on if required.

The establishment of amenity forests for the benefit of the
people, and especially for the inhabitants of the towns should not
be overlooked. The matter will, no doubt, become increasingly
important as the population increases. It has even been
recommended to plant trees in the broad streets of the big towns,
Sydney, Melbourne, Adelaide and others, so as to afford under
their shade the comfort and enjoyment of outdoor life, which are
obtainable in Southern Europe under a similar climate. With
the object of stimulating this class of operations, it is suggested
that Government nurseries should provide the necessary trees for
distribution at cost price. Arboriculture is a friend of the
people, and in South Africa it has done more than anything else
to assist national forestry.

7. INcoME AND EXPENDITURE.

Although the royalties on timber have been very low, the
revenue derived from the forests has met all expenses connected
with them and yielded a substantial surplus. According to the
returns contained in the Official Year Book for 1918, the average
annual receipts and expenses during the last five years were as
follows :—

Year. Revenue. Expenditure. Surplus.
= = z

1913—1914 . . 2I9 815.2 140 2716 sate
1914—1915 . . 297,254 .. T5Tjo69" 2) “Toutees
1915—1916 . . 253,309 -..) 1lotbat =]. aan
1916—1917 . » "2115950". 2" 168/889". eee
1917—1918 . . '235,582° > 198,125" 22> eee
Average ‘ | 255,578 «2 164,678) be besos

Average of previous
five years . . 252,233 .. 182,149 900) ee

EXPORTS AND IMPORTS OF TIMBER. 227

The receipts, as well as the surplus, were rising up to the year
1914—1915; after that the effects of the war made themselves
felt. The average rate of royalty on timber prevailing throughout
the Commonwealth is about three farthings per cubic foot, as
compared with fourpence in South Africa, and it should be
substantially raised. At any rate, it seems clear that the forests
can provide the funds for an improved system of management,
their gradual amelioration and yield capacity, as well as for the
establishment of a sufficient area of soft woods.

8. Exports AND Imports oF TIMBER.

Before the great war Australia used to export hardwoods and
import soft woods; there was generally an excess in the value
of the imports over that of the exports. During the war the
data have been so much shifted that they have, for the moment,
become useless. Under careful management the exports of the
excellent Eucalypt timbers should be capable of considerable
extension, so that they should exceed the imports.

As far as can be ascertained from the official returns, the
imports and exports in 1913 were as follows :—

Cubic Feet. Mraaroee
Imports of Timber . 46,000,000 .. 2,926,000
Export of Timber . . 14,000,000 c, LORE COO
Excess of Imports. . 32,000,000 .. 1,915,000
Value in £

Tanning Bark. Cwt. Sterling.
Exports : { ; 144,000 be 66,400
Imports ; 77,700 eh 28,000
Excess of Exports. 66,300 2 38,400

In the following pages detailed information is given for the
several States. The data are based on those given in the Reports
presented to the Imperial Forest Conference in July, 1920. It
will be useful to begin with Queensland, that is to say, at the
northern point of the Dividing sail No report was received
from Tasmania.

Q 2

228 FORESTRY IN QUEENSLAND.

SECTION II._FORESTRY IN THE AUSTRALIAN STATES.

I, QUEENSLAND.
[Latitude 11th—29th degrees. |

1. GENERAL NOTES.

Approximately one-half of the area of the State is situated on
each side of the Dividing Range. The eastern part consists
chiefly of stratified rocks of different ages from oldest palzozoic
to recent origin; granites are found over large areas. The
western interior consists almost entirely of lower cretaceous rocks
overlaid in places by desert sandstone of upper cretaceous age.

Soils—Red soils, derived from basalt and allied rocks, are
found on the high plateaus in the coastal belts. Black soils
occupy areas subject to flooding, and sandy soils prevail in the
south-eastern part of the State. The interior country has mostly
sedimentary soils over sandstone, red and grey on the higher
part and black where subject to periodic flooding.

Rainfall—tThirty to 145 inches in the coast belt, 5 to 30 in the
western half; generally heavier in the north than in the south
part of the State. The mean temperature on the coast ranges
from 52 to 78 in winter and from 73 to 86 in summer.

2. Main Types or Forest GROWTH.

Queensland has more or less open hardwoods and the most
important softwoods of the Commonwealth.

The Araucaria Type is abundant in the south-west part of the
State. Principal species are “ Hoop” pine (A. Cunningham)
and “‘ Bunya” pine (A. Bidwilli). The natural stand is 10 to 20
trees per acre in mixture with other species. Mature trees give
up to 500 cubic feet of sawn lumber. These pines are the chief
building timber of the State, and are also used for butter boxes,
plywood, &c. Associated with the pines are three species of
Flindersia, all valuable hardwoods, also White beech (Gmelina
Leichardtii) a fine soft wood for carving, Bally gum (Litsea
reticulata), and pink poplar (Huroschinus falcata).

The Jungle Type.—Where the contents of moisture increase,
the Araucarias are displaced by more robust moisture-loving
species especially of Meliacee and Laurinee, which grow into trees
of large dimensions. In the south-west corner this type con-
sists of southern maple (Cryptocarya glaucescens), silky oak

MAIN TYPES OF FOREST GROWTH. 229

(Grevillea robusta), sassafras (Doryphora sassafras), rose mahogany
(Synoum glandulosum), white wood (Schizomerva ovata) and others,
In North Queensland, under a heavy rainfall and on volcanic
soil, a similar profusion of soft woods occurs, of which the chief
species was the red cedar, now almost cut out, its successor
in public favour being maple (Flindersia Chatawaiana), a fine
well-grown tree. Other species are silkwood (Fl. Mazlin),
kauri (Agathis Palmerston), satinwood (Dysoxylon Pettigrewia-
num), black walnut (Cryptocarya Palmerstoni), pencil cedar
(Lucuma galactoxylon), and others.

The Hardwood Forests consist preponderatingly of Eucalypts.
On the moist sands of Fraser Island and the alluvial bottoms of the
south-east are found Luc. microcorys, pilularis, saligna and tereti-
cornis. These are all useful building woods, 50 to 60 lbs. in weight
per cubic foot. On the drier ridges of the coast and in the near
west are found ironbark (Luc. paniculata, crebra, siderophloia) and
maculata, all valuable, very heavy woods, weighing 60 to 80 lbs.
per cubic foot. Other associates are #. punctata, propinqua and
corymbosa. In the drier west, Acacias replace the Eucalypts.

The Cypress Pine Forests.—The cypress pine (Callitris glauca)
furnishes the domestic timber of Western Queensland and New
South Wales. It occurs either pure or under open ironbark, chiefly
in the sandy belts with 20 to 30 inches of rainfall. Drought and
fires have thinned them, and prickly pear has appeared in them.
The timber is a coniferous hardwood, aromatic, but somewhat
knotty and brittle. Itis one of the few species which can be grown
under drought conditions, and therefore of special value to
foresters.

3, AREA AND OWNERSHIP OF FORESTS.

The following data have been given by the local authorities :—

Per cent. of
Square Miles. Total Area.
State Forests :
For timber production ; 6,000 s 10
Other forests . ; . 45,000 ua (43)
Total mh MORNE See, 47 OM Mg
Corporation and Private Forests . 9,000 ae 15

Grand total ; . 60,000 hie BLOM

230 FORESTRY IN QUEENSLAND.

4, RELATION OF THE STATE TO THE FORESTS.

Legislation.—There are :—

(1) The State Forests and National Parks Act, 1906.

(2) The Land Act, 1910.

(8) Regulations issued under these Acts.

Provision is made under the first of these enactments for the
establishment of State Forests and National Parks, which may
not be interfered with except by the authority of an Act of
Parliament, but under the Land Act special leases and occupation
leases may be granted, nor are the Mining Acts affected by the
Forests and Parks Act. The Regulations provide for the control
of the forests and parks by the Director of Forests, the preparation
of working plans, the methods of disposing of timber and other
forest produce, prevention of illegal acts, the authority of forest
officers, &c. The Land Act of 1910 deals with Crown lands
generally, the removal of timber and certain leases. A further
enactment is contemplated to strengthen the control of the forests
by the forest service, more especially in dealing with forest
fires.

Forest nurseries have been established and experimental
planting undertaken, especially of hoop and bunya pines. Natural
regeneration is also proceeded with experimentally. Good
progress is being made with the construction of forest roads and
other means of transport. Water is being supplied to some of the
drier reserves by artesian bores, tanks, dams, &c.

The Forest Authority—The forest service is a branch of the
Department of Public Lands. The Director of forests is respon-
sible to the Minister for the management of permanent reserva-
tions. The Lands Department controls the leasing of the timber
reserves and the reservation of Crown lands for forests.

The forest personnel consists of the Director of Forests, to whom
the District Foresters are subordinate, who, in their turn, control
the Deputy foresters for silviculture, sales, engineering, also the
rangers and forest guards.

Education.—A. forest school and institute of silvicultural
research are under construction at Imbil, Queensland. A
generous circulation of items of information on forestry matters
has also been adopted. It has lately been decided to establish a

INCREMENT AND UTILIZATION. 21

high-class School of Forestry for the Commonwealth in New South
Wales, to which Queensland will contribute.

Research has hitherto been conducted in the forest office at
Brisbane in wood technology and classification.

The Revenue and Expenditure during the years 1914 to 1918
were, on an average per year, as follows :—

Revenue . : : : 68,521
Expenditure . HL ZORO
Surplus. . £56,451

5. INCREMENT AND UTILIZATION.

The local authority has estimated the annual increment at :—

Cubic Feet.
Gross increment at 5 cubic feet per acre . 35,200,000
Loss by fire, waste, decay, &c. . 5 . 26,400,000
Nett annual Increment ; , . 8,800,000

The annual utilization is given as follows, timber only :—

Cubic Feet. Value, £.

From forests under State control 5,250,000 .. 83,550
From other forests . : . 13,450,000 .. 229,000
Total utilization . . 118,700:000), s2) 3121550

6. Forest INDUSTRIES.
In 1918 the saw milling industry absorbed :—

Number
of Men
Cubic Feet. Value, £. Employed.
Pine timber. 9,000,000... — ded —
Cedar . : a0;000" #o: — a —
Hardwoods . 5,970,000 ... — ~ —
Total. . 16;000,000'T "02 840000. .. . 3,500

Considerable employment is also afforded in log getting, railway,
mining, and pole-timber getting. Probably some 2,000 persons
are engaged in these activities. Fuel and fencing operations

232 FORESTRY IN NEW SOUTH WALES.

provide employment for a large number of persons, while about
100 are engaged in the getting of sandalwood, guano, and man-
grove bark.

7. Exports AND ImpoRTs.

Cubic Feet. Value, £.
Imports. : : CHOOOMT Fe 1,500
Exports. , . 2,000,000" 5001000
Excess Exports . 1,994,000 .. 498,500

8. SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK.

Cubic Feet.

Utilization : i ' ; . 18,700,000
Less Exports . ; ; : . 2,000,000
16,700,000

Add Imports . 6,000
Total Home Consumption . . 16,706,000
Deduct Net Increment : . 8,800,000
Excess Consumption over Increment . 7,906,000

The reasons for the apparent overcutting are the excessive
realisation of timber values by private proprietors and the
enormous loss by waste. These drawbacks must be met by :—

(1) The formation of an area of permanent State forests,

sufficient to meet future requirements.

(2) The building up of an efficient forest staff capable of

managing the State forests systematically for a sustained
yield, and the reduction of the present waste to a
minimum, especially by organising an efficient system
of fire protection.

(3) Placing the Forest Branch under one Minister instead of

under two, and keeping it free from political controversy.

Il. NEW SOUTH WALES.
1. SHort GENERAL DESCRIPTION.

New South Wales is situated between the 28th and 38th degree
of southern latitude and between the 140th and 154th degree of

SHORT GENERAL DESCRIPTION. 233

eastern longitude. The greater part of the area is situated
to the west of the Dividing Range, which attains its greatest
height in the south of the State at Mount Kosciusko with 7,305
feet. The State can be divided into the following three main
sections :—

(1) The Coastal Range has a width of about 60 miles in the
centre, but is much narrower at the north and south ends. It
contains two coal measures, the most important. of which is
situated to the north, west and south of Sydney, occupying an
area of about 25,000 square miles and being one of the most
valuable assets of the State. The coastal region is largely com-
posed of post-tertiary deposits with very rich agricultural areas
and the most important forests of the State.

(2) The Tablelands of the Main Divide—The New England
massif in the north is composed of sediments of carboniferous
age with large masses of granite. The Blue Mountain massif in
the centre presents a monotonous level plain, consisting of great
masses of sandstone with a band of readily weathering shale ;
below the sandstone are soft shales and coal. The Kosciusko
massif in the south consists chiefly of granite. Two important
rivers flow from its western slopes, the Murray and the Mur-
rumbidgee.

(3) The Western Plains extend from the western foothills to the
great tableland ; they consist of granite rocks and sediments of
various ages, and they are covered by post-tertiary deposits,
flood loams, &c. ; but in some cases the older formations still rise
above them.

The Climate ranges from subtropical to temperate in the coastal
zone, from temperate to subalpine in the highland zone, from
temperate to arid in the interior and to extreme aridity in the
west. The rainfall ranges from 80 inches in the subtropical zone
to 9 inches (and even less) in the extreme west.

2. Main Types or Forest GRowTH.

(1) The Hardwood forests may be divided into two sub-types :—

(a) The luxuriant growth in the moist parts of the coastal
zone and in a few favoured places in the highland
zone.

234 FORESTRY IN NEW SOUTH WALES.

(b) The drier forests in the interior zone west of the high-
land zone and on the drier parts of the coastal
zone.

Generally, it may be said that on suitable soil the development
of the hardwoods depends on the quantity of water at their
disposal.

The coastal hardwood forests consist of an over-wood of
numerous species of Kucalypts and an underwood of miscellaneous
shrubs and small trees, of which species of Casuarina and Acacia
are most abundant. The principal species in the coastal zone
are L. pilularis, microcorys, resinifera, paniculata, propinqua,
saligna, tereticornis, corymbosa, Tristania conferta, Syncarpia
laurifolia. On small belts appear pure woods of £. pilularis and
maculata. In the southern half of the coastal zone appear
species which require a more temperate climate, such as EF. longi-
folia, botryoides, siberiana, capitellata, Muelleriana and goniocalyzx.
Formerly the coastal belt of hardwoods was almost continuous,
now it has been much interrupted.

The development of the Eucalypts on the highland and interior
zones is generally inferior, especially in the western half of the
latter zone. In the interior zone the Eucalypts are frequently
interspersed with Callitris, forming forests of great value. Of
special importance is the E. rostrata type on the flats along the
Murray river which are occasionally flooded.

The yield per acre from hardwood forests is generally low, even
in the best localities, owing to the tendency in over mature trees
to faults, to the ravages of fire and white ants, and to the exact-
ing demands of the trade. Itis rare to obtain an average yield of
1,000 cubic feet of marketable timber per acre from virgin forest
of over a 1,000 acres in extent, while 2,000 cubic feet would be
quite an exceptional yield.

(2) The Cypress Forests are composed chiefly of Callitris robusta
and calcarata, the former being by far the more valuable and
abundant. It occupied formerly considerable areas of the plains
in the interior zone, but fire and settlement have reduced it to
isolated patches. It flourishes best in well drained, deep, loamy
sand, and it is found either pure or mixed with Eucalypts where
the rainfall amounts to 15 to 20 inches. It is very sensitive to
fire and does not cover the soil well. Regeneration has been

AREA OF FORESTS. 235

prevented by rabbits and sheep. The present yield is
insignificant.

(3) Lhe Brush Forest is restricted to the warm climate of the
coast, where it finds an abundant rainfall and fertile soil. It
contains a miscellaneous collection of species, of which some are
valuable, such as Cedrela australis, Gmelina Leichardtu, Araucaria
Cunninghami, Flindersia australis and Grevillea robusta. Some
of the existing species are used in the place of imported softwoods.
The brush forest provides a good canopy and enriches the soil
by humus.

3. AREA OF FORESTS.

Only the area of merchantable forests has been estimated ;
neither that of the other forests nor that of the agricultural land
is given. The data are therefore reduced to the following :—

Square Miles. Poy mer
Merchantable forests mie) fal coi ee 5-55
Other land . : D92E268 2 ee 94-45
Total : ; 5. 1309:455ene ant 100-00
4. OWNERSHIP OF FORESTS.
Per cent. of
Total Area
Square Miles. of Forest.
State timber forests , GOB as 45-9
Other State forests : 4,619, ee 26-9
Total State forests . 12,500 .. 72:8
Private forests x 468%, ut. 27-2

Total ! : 2 DETTE Ga, Ae OOO

5. RELATION OF THE STATE TO THE FORESTS.

Legislation.—The Forestry Act, No. 55 of 1916, is the latest
enactment on the subject. It provides for :—
(1) The dedication, reservation, control and use of State
forests, timber reserves, and Crown lands for forestry.
(2) The appointment of a Commission to administer the Act,

236 FORESTRY IN NEW SOUTH WALES.

with power to sell and convert timber and other produce,
and generally manage the forests.
Assessment surveys are now being made, a proper organisation
introduced, the silvicultural treatment determined, roads con-
structed, the water supply attended to, fire protection organised,
&e. Some 60,000 acres of land have been selected for the planting
of conifers (exotics), and the work has been commenced.

The Forest Authority consists of a Commission of 3 members,
constituted under the Forest Act. The country has been divided
into 12 Districts, each with a resident District Forest Officer
assisted by a staff of assistants, foresters and guards. District
Inspectors go round and enquire into the progress of the work.
There are also Forest Surveyors and Assessors, who organise and
prepare working plans, as well as nursery men and planters. The
whole staff comprises 254 members, of whom 32 are at head-
quarters in Sydney and 222 in the field. The powers and duties
of the Commission are defined in the forest law, and they are
divided into three parts: (1) Administration and Finance ;
(2) Forest Management; and (3) Commercial Development.

One half of the gross amount received by the Commission from
royalties, licences and permits, and from the sale of timber
(except that used for the construction of sawmills, &c.) is
carried to a special account and used for afforestation, survey,
improvement of the State forests and timber reserves, means of
transport, &c.

Education.—In the past, forest officers have been chosen from
applicants with due regard to natural fitness. A new forest
school is now located in a State forest near Gosford, and it has
been decided to establish a high-class School of Forestry in New
South Wales for the Commonwealth generally. The Commission
issues bulletins, leaflets, &c., and also publishes a Journal to
educate the people as to the importance of proper forest con-
servancy, especially as regards fire protection.

Research.—Systematic research upon the commercial possibili-
ties of forest produce has been started in respect of pulping,
resin, fibres, properties of timber, essential oil value of foliage,
dry distillation of wood, value of wood ashes and wood tar. In
the forest, investigations are conducted into the rate of growth,
afforestation, methods of thinning, coppicing, &c.

INCOME AND EXPENDITURE. 237

6. INCOME AND EXPENDITURE.
Averages of the years 1917 to 1919 :—

=
Annual Income 84,281
Annual Expenditure 99,425
Average Annual Deficit . £15,144

7. INCREMENT AND UTILIZATION.

There are not sufficient data available by which the annual
increment could be estimated.

The annual utilization, partly based on statistical data and
partly estimated, is as follows :—

Cubic Feet. Value £.
From forests under State control 20,223,920 2,000,000
From other forests . 4,044,780 400,000
Total utilization 24,268,700 .. 2,400,000
8. Exports AND IMPORTS.
Cubic Feet. Value £.
Average annual Imports . 12,241,500 1,046,400
Average annual Exports . 1,633,700 201,100
Excess of Imports . 10,607,800 845,300
9. SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK.
Cubic Feet.
Utilization 24,268,700
Less Exports 1,633,700
22,635,000
Plus Imports 12,241,500
Total Home Consumption 34,876,500

Consumption per head of population, 17-4 cubic feet.

At the present rate of cutting it is considered that the Hoop
pine resources will be exhausted in 12 years; those of Cypress

238 FORESTRY IN VICTORIA.

timber can be maintained for some time by opening out communi-
cations to untouched forests. The past rate of cutting in hard-
woods can be maintained indefinitely under a proper system of
management.

It would appear that forest conservancy in New South Wales
has made a good start on rational lines. Special attention should
be paid to :—

(1) The formation of permanent State forests of sufficient

extent to meet future requirements.

(2) The preparation of working plans based on the principle

of a sustained yield.

(3) Afforestation with conifers to provide softwoods instead

of importing them.

(4) Organisation of efficient fire protection, grazing control and,

if possible, extermination of rabbits.

(5) Economic lumbering.

(6) Opening out of communications by roads and other means

of transport.

(7) The prevention of political interference with the action of

the Forest Commission.

III. VICTORIA.
1. CONFIGURATION AND CLIMATE. »

Victoria is situated between the 35th and 39th degree of
southern latitude and between the 141st and 150th degree of
eastern longitude. Its area is 87,884 square miles and its
population 1,315,551 (in 1911).

The Dividing Range traverses the State from east to west,
generally at a distance of 60 to 80 miles from the coast. It rises
to various heights, ranging between 1,500 and 4,000 feet, but to
6,000 feet in the north-eastern part of the State. About one-third
of the country consists of rugged highlands and two-thirds of
plains below 1,000 feet elevation. The highlands consist almost
entirely of carboniferous, Devonian, Silurian and Ordovician
(gold bearing) sedimentary rocks.

The Soils along the river flats have mostly been taken up for
cultivation, the forests being relegated, more and more, to the
poorer areas. The major portion of the State consists of sandy,
clayey, or gravelly loams.

TYPES OF FOREST GROWTH. 239

Climate ——The climate of Victoria is well suited for Europeans.
The maximum temperature experienced at Melbourne during
63 years is 111 degrees, the minimum 27, and the average annual
temperature 57 degrees. The rainfall is not heavy, the average
being given as 24 inches. It varies, however, considerably, the
heaviest fall occurring on the south side of the Dividing Range,
while the driest parts are situated to the north of it. The
following data give the areas subject to different degrees of
rainfall :—

Rainfall. Squaie Mites
Under 15 inches. : - 19,912
1520". : 12-626
20—30 ,, . : . SE ZST
30—40 ,, . ; , 14,029
A050" ; ; 7,055
50—60 ,, . : : 3,348
Over 60 ,, . = : 1,597

2. Types or Forest GROWTH.

There are four main types :—

(1) The Coastal Region, extending some 50 miles northward,
has forest consisting of E. capitellata, eugenioides, Muelleriana,
and 9bliqua. Near the shore they are interspersed with Casuarina,
Banksia and Myopsorum. Further northward, where elevation
increases, at about 100 miles from the coast, the river red gum
(E. rostrata) is found in quantity on the sandy clays along streams.
Where elevation rises to about 2,000 feet the following species
appear: 2H. Globulus, regnans, goniocalyz and obliqua, with
valuable underwoods, such as blackwood, beech and satin-box.
Various other Eucalypts are found in this region, in some parts
E. Sieberiana occupying as much as 50 to 75 per cent. of the
forest growth.

(2) In the Mountain Region are found EF. capitellata, obliqua,
viminalis, Globulus, macrorrhyncha and meliodora. In the east
on higher levels are found #. delegetensis with regnans, obliqua,
and amygdalina with Globulus at intervals towards the source of
the Murray River. ‘The mountain forests, excepting strips
damaged by fire, are densely stocked, and, if opened by roads

240 FORESTRY IN VICTORIA.

or tramways, would give heavy yields per acre of excellent
hardwood. From 4,500 feet upwards to 6,000 stunted Eucalypts
grow.

(3) The Foothills, stretching from the Dividing Range north-
ward, and gradually falling to the plains, bear three valuable
species, H. sideroxylon, leucoxylon and hemifloia, which furnish
the best and most durable timber for engineering works; they
obtain their best growth on shales and slates in narrow valleys
lying between hill ranges of ironstone, sandstone and quartzite
in the auriferous belt of country.

(4) The River Basins of the Murray and other streams flowing
through the northern plain, bear broad belts of river red gum
(E. rostrata) which is perhaps the most useful hardwood in the
State. It grows best on land which is subject to annual inunda-
tion. The total area of forest of this class is estimated at 625
square miles.

3. AREA OF FoRESTS AND OTHER LANDS.

Per cent. of
Square Miles. * ‘Total Area.
Agricultural Land ; 45, 1001 o¥a. 49-9
Forest, Merchantable . » 41661, ain LONE
Forest, Unprofitable . ; teks Oues .. 88
Forest, total. : ; [T2000 .4rr 14-1
Other land ; : 3Li6et ae 36-0
Total Area ; ‘ 87,884) 4. lee
4. OWNERSHIP OF THE ForESTSs.
e q Per cent. of
Square Miles. Total Forest Area.
The State timber forests . ; G,5O0O ts oe 52
Other State forests . : . 1. OORT. ane 44
Total" ; ; LODO es 96
Corporation forests . iso 1-5
Private Proprietors’ forests SLA hore 2:5

otal... } “12 BOD are. 100-0

IMPORTANT FOREST PRODUCE. 241

5. Important Forest PRopuce.

Victoria has practically no coniferous forests, but is rich in
hardwoods. Amongst the latter the Eucalypts take first place.
There are about 20 important species, which have been mentioned
above. There are also fine grained woods amongst which may be
mentioned Acacia Melanoxylon and Fagus Cunninghamia.

Eucalyptus oil is produced in considerable quantities. The
species principally used for the purpose are EF. polybractea,
sideroxylon, leucoxylon, Globulus, and amygdalina. The output
from the State forests exceeded 360 tons in 1918—1919.

Tanning bark is obtained from 5 species of Acacia (Wattles).
There was a considerable export of the bark, but it has fallen off
considerably of late, owing to damage by fire, dear labour, and
large imports from Natal.

6. RELATIONSHIP OF THE STATE TO THE FORESTS.

Legislation.—A. Forest Act was passed in 1907 and amended in
1915. It provided a separate department under a Minister and
a Conservator of Forests. The latter had, however, little power.
It also provided for the permanent and temporary dedication of
reserves. In 1918 a new Act was passed which provided for :—

(1) The removal of forests from political control.

(2) The creation of a Commission of Management consisting of
3 members with wide powers as regards the fixing of rates
for forest produce, the acquisition of land by purchase or
exchange, the conduct of forest industries, and the
management of the forests generally.

(3) The preparation and control of working plans for the
proper regulation of the yield.

(4) The appointment and discharge of members of the forest
staff.

(5) An annual appropriation equal to one-half of the annual
forest revenue with a minimum of £40,000.

(6) The examination and survey of undemarcated mountain
forests, and recommendation of their permanent reserva-
tion to the Governor-in-Council.

Methods of Forest Development.—(a) About 800 square miles of

forests have been brought under efficient fire protection.

VOL. I. R

242 FORESTRY IN VICTORIA.

(b) Areas near gold fields have been planted, 5 square miles
with hardwoods and 11 square miles with softwoods. The hard-
woods are Kucalypts, and the softwoods are Montery pine
(P. insignis), Corsican and Pinaster pines, Douglas fir, western
yellow pine, Canary pine and Japanese red pine (P. densiflora).

(c) Regeneration of Natural Forests. The Victorian Eucalypts
produce large quantities of seed, which, it is stated, may remain
dormant for 6 to 10 years before germination is induced by the
removal of the forest cover in timber cutting operations, or by
the action of light fire passing over the area. As the Euca-
lypts are light-demanding, they regenerate freely where the
merchantable timber has been cut, provided fire is kept out
after regeneration and damage by rabbits prevented.

(dq) From 3 to 4 million young plants, chiefly conifers, are
raised annually ; some of these go to the State plantations, while -
others are given free of charge, or at a low rate, to settlers,
together with the necessary advice.

The Forest Authority—The three Forest Commissioners are
appointed for 5 years. There are at present 5 Chief Foresters,
21 Foresters and 14 Assistant Foresters, with a staff of foremen,
labourers, &c. There is also a Chief Superintendent of planta-
tions and nurseries. The Commission has control of all State
forests and of forest produce on other Crown lands. Their duty
is to carry out the provisions of the Forest Acts as indicated above.

Education, Research and Experimental Work.—A forest school
was established in 1910 at Creswick, on the Dividing Range.
Pupils enter at the age of 14 to 17 years and go through a 3 years’
course of instruction. There are classes in the morning and
practical work in the afternoon in the adjoining nurseries and
plantations ; there are also 14,000 acres of State forests close by.
Victoria is taking part in the movement for establishing a
high-class School of Forestry for the use of the Commonwealth
generally.

No research or experimental work has, so far, been carried on
beyond investigations on various timbers and the planting of
exotic trees.

7. INCREMENT AND UTILIZATION.

The increment differs very much, and data for an accurate
estimate are not available. It is stated that approximately the

INCREMENT

AND UTILIZATION.

243

average annual increment of the State forests may be placed at
30 cubic feet and the loss by fire, waste, &c. at 7 cubic feet, giving

a net increment of 23 cubic feet per acre and year.

On that

assumption the following figures are given :—

Area of forests less mallee
scrub

Total Increment

Loss

Net Increment

9,375 square miles.
180,000,000 cubic feet.
30,600,000 _,,

149,400,000 a

The annual utilization is given as follows :—

Timber,

Cubic Feet.

Under State control . 7,500,000
Under other control. 833,300
Total 8,333,300

Also :—

Tons.

Wattle bark, the State 500
Tanning bark, others. 4,000
Charcoal, the State . 230
Eucalyptus oil, State. 360

Total value

Grand total of all produce

Fuel

Cubic Feet. Value £.
20,140,000 775,700
20,000,000 275,000
40,140,000 .. 1,050,700

Value £.
3,500
24,000
11,625 (2)
53,700
92,825 92,825
1,143,525

8. Forest INDUSTRIES.

The use of indigenous timbers has steadily increased of late.
The following data show the extent of forest industries :—

Produce consumed .
Value of produce

Number of persons employed

51,950,000 cubic feet.
£1,869,485
5,126.

9. Exports AND Imports OF TIMBER.

Annual average of the years 1913 to 1918 :-—

Imports.
Exports.

Excess of Imports over Exports

10,365,770 cubic feet.
74,900 i

10,290,870 *
R 2

244 FORESTRY IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA.

The exports consist chiefly of manufactured hardwoods to neigh-
bouring States. The imports consist of softwoods from the
Baltic, United States, Canada and New Zealand.

10. SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK.

Timber and Firewood :

Cubic Feet.

Utilization . : : . 43,473,300
Less Exports : ; 74,900

48,398,400
Plus Imports ; ! : f . |) 10;365,770
Total Consumption I : . . 68,764,170
Net Increment. : : ; . 149,400,000
Excess of Increment over Consumption . 90,635,830

The consumption per head of population amounts to 41 cubic
feet. The supply of forest produce is not likely to fall short of
the demand, even if the population should increase as it is expected
to do, provided systematic forestry is steadily adhered to in the
future. The main points to be attended to in the immediate
future are :—

(1) The speedy establishment of permanent State forests of

sufficient area to meet future requirements.

(2) Efficient protection and management of the permanent
State forests, including the drawing up and carrying out
of working plans based on the principle of a sustained
yield.

(3) The planting of an appropriate area with softwoods
(Conifers).

(4) The development of the export of hardwoods, so as to pay
for the establishment of the softwood plantations.

IV. SOUTH AUSTRALIA.
1. GENERAL NOTES.

South Australia has no high mountains, an uncertain and
deficient rainfall, and a high temperature during summer ; hence,
it has very little forest. There is the Mount Lofty Range near

TYPES OF FOREST. 245

the gulf of St. Vincent, 1,000 to 2,000 feet in elevation, with a
rainfall of 20 to 35 inches and some fine merchantable timber,
but the bulk of the land has passed into private hands ; principal
species are H. obliqua, rostrata, leucoxylon and fasciculosa. The
soil is mainly light, overlying clay.

Another area of fair forest country is found in the Flinders
Range situated to the east of the Gulf of Spencer with a rainfall
of 21 to 30 inches. The soil here is sandy, or a good clay-loam
at an elevation of 1,000 to 3,000 feet. The chief species are
E. hemiphloia, leucoxylon, rostrata and corynocalyx. There are
some other ranges here and there rising to 500 and perhaps
1,000 feet, which generally produce Casuarina quadrivalvis,
E. odorata and leucorylon. Between these ranges wide plains
occur frequently overlying limestone, with an uncertain rainfall of
perhaps 12 inches, and with a growth of dwarf Eucalypts or
“mallee ” attaining a height of 10 to 20 feet.

In the south-east of the State appear wide stretches of sandy
country overlying dolomite limestone at a slight elevation, on
which £. capitellata is found, and in damper parts, #. rostrata.

2. Types oF ForRESsT.

The dominating type of forest growth in South Australia is that
of the Eucalyptus genus, the principal species of which have been
indicated above. They appear only as real timber trees where the
rainfall is ample for timber production. Where the rainfall is
small and the climate fairly arid, the extent of such country being
very great, only “ mallee” scrub is found, consisting of dwarf
Kucalypts.

Casuarina quadrivalvis, Lehmannu, lepidophloia and glauca
usually appear as an under-forest amongst the larger timbers, as
well as in pure masses in the more arid parts of the State. Various
wattles, such as Acacia pycnantha, decurrens, retinodes and
Melanoxylon usually grow under the bigger forest trees, but some
species, as the “‘ Mulga ” (A. aneura), A. sentis and cambager, form
pure stretches in the dry interior.

Callitris robusta and propinqua are sometimes found mixed
with larger trees as underwood, but also in pure patches in the
drier parts of the State.

246 FORESTRY IN SOUTH AUSTRALIA.

3. AREA OF FORESTS.

The area of the natural forests amounts to 225 square miles,
of which 77 are fairly timbered, the rest being more or less
scrub. Owing to the small area, the State has planted, with
great success, 25 square miles with conifers, making up to
date the total forest area 250 square miles, all belonging to the
State.

4, RELATIONSHIP OF THE STATE TO THE FORESTS.

Legislation.—The Forest Act of 1882 provides that the control
of the forests shall vest in the Commissioner of Forests with ample
powers to deal with all circumstances which may arise.

Administrative Methods of the Department of Forestry—An
efficient system of fire protection has been in progress for many
years. The planting of waste and poorly-timbered areas was
commenced over 40 years ago and 25 square miles have been
successfully stocked, partly with hardwoods and partly with
pines. Some of the latter, 37 years old, have lately been cut and
yielded an average annual increment of 222 cubic feet per acre,
including all material down to 3 inches.

Assistance given to Forestry—The Department has given during
38 years 10,140,000 plants to private applicants and corporations,
as well as expert advice when asked.

The Forest Authority—The Forest Department is administered
by the Conservator of Forests, subject to the control of the
Commissioner of Forests, who is a member of the Government ;
the former is assisted by a forest inspector and foresters and
assistant foresters, foremen and nurserymen.

Education, Research and Experimental Work.—The subordinate
staff obtain their training in the forests. The higher officers are
now trained at a forestry course established at Adelaide Uni-
versity, but the State is taking part in the project of establishing
a high-class School of Forestry in New South Wales.

The Lecturer in Forestry has carried out some useful work of an
experimental character on the artificial seasoning of timber.

No data are available from which the Increment, Utilization,
Forest Industries, Exports and Imports, or a summary could be
given. Itcanbe stated only that the consumption far exceeds the

FORESTRY IN WESTERN AUSTRALIA. 247

production, that hardwoods are imported from the adjoining
States, but that the coniferous plantations already established,
and to be established, will ultimately overtake the demand for
softwoods. e

V. WESTERN AUSTRALIA.
1. CONFIGURATION AND CLIMATE.

The area of Western Australia amounts to 973,920 square miles.
Of this large area only the south-western corner is of real import-
ance from a forest point of view. All the rest of the area consists
apparently of savannah, mallee, and mulga tracts.

The true forest range is about 200 miles long from the south-
western corner northward, and it lies at an elevation of about
800 feet above the sea. It is separated from the sea on the west
by a low-lying plain of sand and coastal limestone hills. On the
east the country rises to the central plateau. The forest belt is
well watered.

The prime forest region consists largely of granite and gneiss ;
in the jarrah region the granite is capped with laterite. In the
savannah forest all geological formations occur, and it is a question
of rainfall whether the ground is stocked with savannah, mallee
or mulga jungle. In the karri region the soil is of better quality,
especially where karri and marri (Z. calophylla) grow together.
In the savannah forest the soil is generally of an excellent, heavy
description and it is fast being occupied by the farmer as far
inland as the rainfall is sufficient for the growth of wheat.

Climate.—It is maintained by some people that the true forest
area of Western Australia is the most healthy part of Australia.
The following data were recorded in 1918 :—

Mean. ae are et ee ae a :
Perth . LG. he Mania or ee OOF flat, 40)
BIGDeLOMM oo O00. AOL aT Oe 88
Busselton . J e0e pew so a ke CaO
Karridale OL. Nay. Sorrel! ioe 2. 49
Albany . as or ee Ue aol, coos. « 1a

In this region the rain falls during winter, April to September.
The summers, October to March, are hot and dry. On going
east or north the rainfall rapidly diminishes and the extremes of

248 FORESTRY IN WESTERN AUSTRALIA.

heat and cold increase. In the tropical north the seasons are
reversed ; rain falls during October to April, between 20 to
29 inches; the mean temperature ranges between 75 and 85
degrees. Between the tropical north and the south lies a belt of
country where very little rain falls.

2. Main Types oF Forest GRowTH.
These are :-—

(1) The Jarrah Forests (EZ. marginata).

(2) The Karri Forests (EZ. diversicolor).

(3) The Wandoo Forests (#. redunca var. elata).
(4) The Tuart Forests (2. gomphocephala).

The Jarrah Forest extends over an area of some 12,600 square
miles and reaches its best development on the laterite-capped
Darling Range, where it reaches a height of 100 feet, and fre-
quently forms 95 per cent. of the growing stock. Its principal
associates are L. calophylla, patens, and megacarpa. It is only
on secondary laterite and alluvial soil that the associates become
predominant. The prime jarrah forests contain an undergrowth
of smaller trees, of which Casuarina Fraseriana is the tallest (up
to 45 feet). A still lower story is formed by a wealth of shrubs,
but no grass. The crowns of jarrah do not interlock ; hence, they
give a very light cover. There is almost a complete absence of
humus, due to periodic fires which not only seriously interfere
with the natural regeneration, but also do damage to poles and
even full grown trees. The results are defects in the timber, such
as rotten hearts, hollow logs, gum pockets, double crowns and
twisted grain.

The growing stock varies very much, but no data are available
to estimate the rate of growth or the growing stock per acre. In
1918—1919 the output of jarrah amounted to 128,747 loads.
The selection of the trees to be cut is left to the saw-miller,
provided that no trees under 90 inches girth are cut. At present
the utilization is many times the increment, and the cut-over
areas are left in a deplorable condition. Besides saw-millers,
there were 157 hewers at work in 1918—1919, who prepared
railway sleepers.

Karri is restricted to the wettest part of the State, that is to

MAIN TYPES OF FOREST GROWTH. 249

say, localities with a minimum rainfall of 35 inches, situated in the
south. The tree reaches a height of 200 feet (one 278 feet high
having been measured). The karri forests are not pure; they
are intersected by belts of jarrah and by belts of mixed karri and
marri (E. calophylla), pure marri, or marri and blackbutt (£.
patens). The soil in the karri localities is deeper and richer than
that in the jarrah forests ; in consequence it is being occupied
for agriculture. As a lower story, Casuarina decussita and
Banksia grandis are found here and there. Karri gives a denser
cover than jarrah ; there is a dense undergrowth of small trees,
chiefly Leguminose, and a good layer of humus. Fires occur, but
not quite as frequently as in jarrah forests. Still, they do a great
deal of damage. No supervision is exercised over the cutting of
karri, except that no trees under 108 inches girth are allowed to
be cut. The state of the forest, after the saw-miller has done
with it, is, if possible, almost worse than in the case of the jarrah
forests.

Wandoo Forest is confined to a very small area on the north-
eastern end of the prime jarrah belt, but larger areas of it are
found in the savannah forest. They can do with a few inches
less rain than the jarrah forests. The soil of the tract is laterite,
but there is also some clay soil. Wandoo forests afford little
cover.

Tuart Forest is found on the limestone fringe near the coast.
The soil consists of sand over limestone. The tree reaches a
height of 120 feet, and it forms pure stands with an under story
of peppermint (Agonis flexuosa) and Banksia grandis. The
cuttings have been very wasteful, and owing to grazing and fires
there has been no regeneration during the last 50 years.

In addition to the trees mentioned above, a great many others
appear. There are numerous other species of Hucalypts, a
sandalwood (Santalum cygnorum), a pear (Xylomelum occidentale),
acacias and others. Large quantities of firewood are consumed,
especially in the goldfields, also pit-props and other mining
timber.

3. AREA OF THE FORESTS.

The following data show the distribution of the area of the
State :—

250 FORESTRY IN WESTERN AUSTRALIA.

Square Miles. i Total,
Agricultural Land . ; 92,826 .. 9-50
Forests, Merchantable :
Jarrah .. : . 4,200
Karri: tyes ; : 400
Wandoo . : ; 160
Tadrt .t. : ; 8
4,768 as 0:48
Forests, Unprofitable, &c.: ~~
Jarrah . : . 8,400
Karri 3).. , : 400
Wandoo . : . 12,000
AEE Hens : ' 200
21,000 ag: 2°12
Total Forests : : : 20, (66, ee 2-60
Other Lands . : : .. G07,326 2a. ieee
Grand Total ; > 975;92001 4100-08

The 21,000 square miles of unprofitable forests are included in
the Surveyor-General’s estimate of land reserved for agriculture,
and mixed karri and marri lands may also be made available for
the same purpose.

4. OWNERSHIP OF THE ForEsTS.

Except in the earlier time of settlement, the right to the soil
has been reserved in issuing timber-cutting licences. Forest
land has, however, been alienated to settlers. The jarrah area
was saved, owing to the inferior quality of the soil. In the karri
country the alienation for farming has been more serious. At the
present time the State and private proprietors own the following

areas in the prime timber area, in square miles :—
Private

The State. Proprietors. ; Total.

Jarrah. » 4200. 0 TOF” ae eee
Karri ‘ ; ; 400 -o? — a 400
Wandoo . : — ..) OUUes 160
Tuart . . aa eRe Oar 8
Total ; . 4,605: wads S18 Reew eee

Percentage of total . 93°6' 5 64... 100

RELATIONSHIP OF THE STATE TO THE FORESTS. 251

The total is 150 square miles more than the area given above ;
there is no explanation for it available.

5. RELATIONSHIP OF THE STATE TO THE FORESTS.

Legislation.—In 1918 an Act to provide for the better manage-
ment and protection of forests was passed. Its main provisions
are as follows :—

(1) The control and management of all matters of forest policy
are vested in the Department of Forestry, the permanent
head of which is the Conservator of Forests, appointed for
7 years and responsible to the Minister of Forests.

(2) Candidates for appointment to the professional division of
the Department must possess a degree or diploma of a
recognised School of Forestry.

(3) State forests shall be dedicated by the Governor-in-Council ;
areas once dedicated can be revoked only by both Houses
of Parliament.

(4) Timber reserves may be established by the Governor-in-
Council; they can be revoked, and are then dealt with
under the Lands Act.

(5) Working Plans shall be prepared by the Conservator of
Forests and approved by Government; they cannot be
altered except on the recommendation of the Conservator.

(6) The Conservator grants permits and licences to obtain
forest produce.

(7) Leases of forests may not be granted for more than 20 years.

(8) The Act prescribes penalties for forest offences.

(9) The Act authorises the issue of Regulations for the proper
protection of the forests generally and especially for
efficient fire protection.

(10) Three-fifths of the net revenue of the Department shall be
paid into a special fund to be used solely for forest work.

(11) Private plantations of 10 acres and over shall be exempt
from local Government rates and taxes.

Admimstrative Measures have been taken since the passing of
the Act. The preparation of working plans was commenced in
1919 in the jarrah and tuart forests. Road construction was
commenced. Plantations of softwoods (Pinus insignis) had been
commenced some 20 years ago, but the results were not satisfac-

252 FORESTRY IN WESTERN AUSTRALIA.

tory. A new start has now been made with Cluster pine (Pinus
maritima). It is stated that direct sowing has been practised
and that it answers well. An area of 25,000 acres has been taken
up, 19 miles from Perth, which it is proposed to plant at the rate
of a square mile a year. A State nursery has been in existence
for 19 years, from which about 100,000 plants were distributed
annually until 1917 free of charge to settlers and public bodies.
Now cost price is charged for the plants. The advice of forest
officers is always at the disposal of planters. Seeds of wattles have
also been distributed.

Education.—Western Australia is taking part in the establish-
ment of the Commonwealth School of Forestry in New South
Wales, where the superior officers will be trained in future. The
subordinate staff has so far been trained on the apprentice system
under the control of the superior staff.

Research.—A beginning has been made in investigating the pulp-
ing qualities of karri and jarrah timber, also as regards essential
oils, the kiln drying of timber, and some botanical matters.

Revenue and Expenditure—The average annual receipts and
expenditure during the years 1909—1914, amounted to :—

£
Annual Revenue . : : 42,973
Annual Expenses. ; . 10,284
Annual Surplus . £32,689

The corresponding figures for the year 1918—1919 were practically
the same.

6. INCREMENT AND UTILIZATION.

There are no data from which anything like an approximate
estimate of the increment could be made. In a rough way it has
been placed at 13,315,000 cubic feet in the round.

The utilization of merchantable timber is given as follows :—

Cubic Feet. Value £.
Jarrah . . 12,567,650 ee 2
Karri : : 714,050 a ?
DUAL « was : 40,950 sos @
Wandoo . : 39,650 e 2
Others. ! 77,050 a 2

Total . 13,439,350 .. 930,884

FOREST INDUSTRIES. 253

The above data represent squared and sawn timber, and the
quantity is equivalent to 40,318,050 cubic feet in the round. In
addition ‘about 39,100,000 cubic feet of firewood and mining
timber were used, making a grand total of about 80,000,000 cubic
feet. It would thus appear that utilization considerably exceeds
the increment.

7. Forest INDUSTRIES.

It is estimated that 8,027 people are occupied in forest work,
but that number does not include persons working in minor
industries which employ less than 4 persons each.

8. Exports AND Imports.

The following data represent the average of the 11 years 1909
to, 1919) :—

Cubic Feet. Value £.
Exports . . 9,066,450 Lie 689,104
Imports . : 911,050 97,803
Excess of
Exports . 8,155,400 eh 591,301

9. SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK.
Timber only :

Cubic Feet.
Utilization ; : ; ~ 13,439,350
Less Exports. . 9,066,450
4,372,900
Plus Imports”. 911,050
Total Home Consumption . 5,283,950

These data represent the timber in a worked-up condition, that
is to say, sawn, or at any rate, squared. According to the state-
ment of the local authorities the home consumption must be
multiplied by three to represent it as timber in the round, making
it 15,851,850 cubic feet. It follows that the home consumption
exceeds the annual increment as estimated by the local authorities
by about 2,536,850, quite apart from the excess of exports over
imports.

There seems to be no doubt that, with the present ~:ethod of

254 FORESTRY IN WESTERN AUSTRALIA.

cutting, the stock of jarrah timber, at any rate, is rapidly being
diminished. The local authorities believe that the big saw mills
can be supplied for not more than 15 years; that after that
smaller mills will go round and pick up the trees which the big
mills did not consider sufficiently remunerative to handle, and
thus provide the necessary material for a further limited period.
On the whole, then, the prime timber forests of Western Australia
have been recklessly overcut in a manner involving a terrible
loss of material. The necessity of a radical change has, however,
been recognised, steps are now being taken to introduce a rational
treatment of these once magnificent forests, and above all, to
organise an efficient system of fire protection.

It has not been overlooked that, outside the prime timber
forests, there are other areas which can be brought under contri-
bution by the opening out of means of transport, and thus give
more time for the re-establishment of the prime forests. Investi-
gations have been started to ascertain the amount of the
merchantable material available from these sources.

The energies of the Department should in the immediate future
be devoted to the following matters :—

(1) The establishment (dedication) of Permanent State Forests
of sufficient area to assure a supply of timber and other
forest produce in the future, taking into consideration the
probable increase of the population.

(2) The preparation of working plans for the State forests
arranged on the basis of working for a permanently
sustained yield.

(3) Efficient protection of the State forests, more particularly
as regards protection against fire.

(4) More economic working of the forests.

(5) Development of research on questions of importance in
respect of systematic forestry.

(6) Instruction of the public as regards the importance of
efficient forest conservancy.

(7) Above all, the building up of an efficient staff of forest
officers to carry out the programme.

There are not sufficiently accurate data available to give a
detailed account of Forest operations in Tasmania.

FORESTRY IN NEW ZEALAND. 255

H. FORESTRY IN THE DOMINION OF NEW
ZEALAND.
SECTION I—SHORT ACCOUNT OF NEW ZEALAND.

New Zealand was established a British Colony in 1840, and it
became a self-governing Dominion in 1907. It consists of the
three islands, forming New Zealand proper, and a series of groups
of islands in the Pacific Ocean. On the present occasion, only the
former will be dealt with. They are :—

North Island, with an area of . 44,130 square miles.
South Island, with an area of . 58,120 Be
Stewart Island, with an area of . 662 _

Total : ; S) LOZ9Re |

They are situated between the parallels of 34 and 48 South,
and the meridians of 166 and 179 East. The land stretches
mainly from north-east to south-west, with a north-westerly bend
in the north of North Island.

1. TOPOGRAPHY.

Configuration —The surface of New Zealand is greatly diversi-
fied. High mountain ranges stretch from East Cape in the
north-east to West Cape in the south-west. In the North Island,
the elevation of these mountains seldom rises above 6,000 feet,
but there are volcanic peaks situated outside the mountain
chains, which reach up to 9,000 feet and have their upper slopes
covered with eternal snow. The highest parts of the ranges are
in South Island, and the central part, called the Southern Alps,
reaches up to 12,349 feet.

The mountains are surrounded, in varying breadth, by Downs.
The latter are described as an elevated sea floor, which, owing to
erosion, has acquired a hilly surface. The downs seldom rise
above 2,000 feet ; they have generally a good fertile soil. Where
level enough, they are admirably suited for agriculture ; where
more hilly, they form excellent pastoral ground. The lower beds
are associated with coal, and they are sandy, or consist of gravels,
giving a poor soil. In the north, clay lands, called gum lands, are
also poor; here large quantities of kauri gum have been dug up
from the soil, showing that extensive forests of the kauri pine
must have existed on these areas,

256 FORESTRY IN NEW ZEALAND.

The area of plain surface in New Zealand is not large, but the
plains are agriculturally the most important districts of the
country, the largest being Canterbury plains, on the eastern side
of South Island. The plains consist of material brought down
from the mountains by the rivers.

The coasts provide comparatively few harbours, and little
shelter to shipping. They are generally not steep, and fringed
throughout great distances by sand or gravel beaches.

The rivers of New Zealand are not large, owing to the limited
size of the islands, especially in breadth. In South Island, the
main watershed is comparatively close to the west coast, so that
the rivers flowing to the east have much longer courses than those
running to the west, the latter being generally mountain torrents.
In North Island, owing to the lesser height of the mountains, the
rivers have generally more gentle grades.

There are three classes of lakes, those of the glaciated district,
the volcanic country, and lagoons near the sea coast.

Great differences seem to exist as regards the stratigraphical
geology of New Zealand. Schists, sandstone and shales are the
principal mountain rocks of the country. The oldest rocks are
found in the south-west of South Island and in Stewart Island ;

they are gneisses.

2. CLIMATE.

The main features of the New Zealand climate are the equable
temperature due to insular position, the uniform rainfall at nearly
all seasons of the year, and the large amount of sunshine. At the
same time, there are considerable differences in the several parts
of the Dominion, due to latitude, elevation above the sea, the
local configuration of the country, the prevailing winds, &c. The
mean annual temperature of Auckland is given as 59 degrees, and
that of Dunedin, which is 13 degrees further south, as 50, a
difference of 9 degrees, due to the difference in latitude. The
temperature at Wellington, situated about half way between the
other two stations, is given as 55. The difference between the
east and west coasts is small, and those between the mean maxima
and minima are much smaller than those prevailing in England.

The rainfall seems to be much affected by a succession of
cyclones travelling from west to east. Nearly all parts of the

CLIMATE. 257

country receive a supply of rain sufficient for agricultural purposes.
Droughts of any severity are unknown. Only in parts of Canter-

Fia. 12.

170 172
C. Maria v. Diemen*

Mean Annual Rainfall, in inches.

bury plain and in central Otago is the rainfall occasionally insuffi-
cient to ensure a good yield from the crops. The actual amount
of rainfall differs considerably. It is heaviest on the west coast
+ VOL. I. Ss

258 FORESTRY IN NEW ZEALAND.

of South Island, where it rises in some of the mountain valleys,
to 200 inches and more. After the crest of the range has been
passed, the rainfall rapidly diminishes to less than 30 inches near
the east coast. In central Otago, a certain area receives only 15
to 20 inches. In North Island the rainfall is more equally distri-
buted, the greater portion having a fall of between 50 and 70
inches. Near the great volcanoes it is much heavier. On the
whole, there can be no doubt that the climate of New Zealand is
of a decidedly favourable character.

3. VEGETATION.

The general character of the indigenous vegetation is distinctly
semi-tropical, and the forest in particular is almost impenetrable
in its native state, owing to the large number of lianes, which
interlace and form an almost continuous mass of vegetation.
Three-quarters of the indigenous plants are absolutely confined
to New Zealand, and the difference between the plants of New
Zealand and those of Australia is specially striking, considering
the proximity of the two countries. There are over 100 species
of timber trees, amongst which conifers are prominent. Only
about a dozen species of trees are at present of real economic
importance. Most of these are believed to be of very slow growth,
an assertion which is rather surprising, considermg the very
thriving character of the climate. As a consequence, numerous
exotic trees have been introduced.

4. POPULATION.

The Maoris are the native race, which the first European
explorers found in occupation of the islands. Asa race, they take
a high place among the coloured people of the world. The present
Maori population, inclusive of half-castes living as Maoris, is under
50,000, the greater part of them being found in North Island,
especially in the centre and northern part of it. Since British
sovereignty was proclaimed, in 1840, many immigrants have come
from Britain and some from the continent of Europe. Apart
from the Maoris, the population, according to the census of 1911,
amounted to 1,008,468, or about 10 to the square mile. It had
increased during the previous 10 years by 31 per cent., and it
seemed probable that, but for the war, the population would

THE GOVERNMENT. 259

have been doubled in about 35 years, a circumstance which
must be considered in estimating future requirements.

5. THe GOVERNMENT.

The Governor is appointed by the Sovereign. The General
Assembly, being the collective name for the Legislature, consists
of the Governor, the Legislative Council, and the House of
Representatives. The Statutes of New Zealand are enacted by
the General Assembly. The members of the Legislative Council
are appointed by the Governor, on the recommendation of the
Ministers. The House of Representatives consists of 80 members,
of whom 76 are elected by constituencies termed Huropean
electorates, and four are elected by Maori electorates. All male
and female adults are entitled to registration on the electoral roll
of their district. Any male person on a roll of any electorate is
eligible to be elected a member of the House. Since the institution
of the National Government the Executive consists of thirteen
Ministers. The mode of Government is representative; the
Governor acts only on the advice of his Ministers. Local Govern-
ment extends throughout the Dominion. The number of local
Government institutions is large.

6. Economic CONDITIONS.

New Zealand has passed through many industrial phases.
About 100 years ago, it was the centre of the Southern Pacific
whaling and sealing industry. It was also noted then for its
gigantic kauri pine trees and the timber which they yielded.
When the Australian gold digging industry was at its height,
New Zealand supplied the diggers with agricultural produce.
Pastoral pursuits began in the forties of last century. From 1861
to 1867 the gold industry flourished. After that had begun to
languish the production of wool and tallow were developed.
About the year 1870 the growing of wheat commenced. In 1882
the export of frozen sheep and cattle began, and with it com-
menced New Zealand’s prosperity. Now the exports of frozen
meat represent an annual value of some 6 million pounds sterling.
To this is added the production of butter and cheese, and through
it the development of small holdings. Of late years, attention

has been given to fruit culture.
82

260 FORESTRY IN NEW ZEALAND.

A considerable development of industries has taken place ; they
are classified under 26 heads. Of these the forester is specially
interested in the establishment of timber and paper mills, and the
kauri gum industry, the produce of former extensive forests of
kauri, Agathis (Dammara) australis ; the gum is dug out of the
ground, and its annual value is about half a million pounds
sterling. On the whole, however, pastoral and agricultural
pursuits overshadow all other industries, the number of sheep
alone being about 24 millions. There are considerable mineral
deposits, but, with the exception of gold during a short period,
the cost of labour is against the development of the mining
industry. Coal is found throughout New Zealand, and also oil in
some quantity.

The available water power is unrivalled, and will, no doubt, be
developed as time goes on. Of railways, 2,800 miles exist at
present, and new lines are under consideration. Roads have been
greatly developed all over the islands, as well as telegraphs and
telephones.

SECTION II—THE FORESTS OF NEW ZEALAND.
1. AREA AND OWNERSHIP OF THE FORESTS.

In the early days of the Colony, the greater part of North
Island was covered with dense forest, and also the western part
of South Island, while the greater part of the latter was open
country. Stewart Island is practically all forest, even now.
Fires and extensive saw milling have much reduced the area under
forest. In 1886 it was 33,120 square miles; in 1909 it was
26,678, a reduction of 23 per cent. in 23 years! The allotment
of areas is as follows :—

Per cent. of

Square Miles. Total Area,
Land under Cultivation . 275521 0 27
State Forests 3 U5 -G55 - 15
_ Private Forests. ow L023 us ll
Total Forests 26,678 26
Other Land 48,713 47

Grand Total .

102,912

TYPES OF FOREST GROWTH. 261

Of the State forests, 3,298 square miles are National Parks and
Permanent Reserves.

2. Types or Forest GROWTH.

There are about 100 species of forest trees, amongst which
conifers are well represented. Some of the species appear in
pure woods, but, as a rule, the forests are of a mixed character,
and the stocking is very uneven. As yet only a limited number
of species are marketable, of which the following are important :—

(1) Kauri, Agathis (Dammara) australis, now found only in
small quantities in the Auckland district of North Island. It is
the finest tree of New Zealand, and it yields one of the most
valuable coniferous timbers of the world. It is to be regretted
that this splendid tree was not regenerated instead of being almost
exterminated.

(2) Totara, Podocarpus Totara, has, owing to the quality of its
timber, been much reduced in quantity by milling ; what remains
now is chiefly found in the Auckland and Wellington districts.
It is to be hoped that it will not share the fate of the kauri. There
seems yet to be time to regenerate it systematically.

(3) Mata, Podocarpus spicata, is found in most localities ; it
yields a valuable timber.

(4) Rimu, Dacrydium cupressinum, red pine, found universally
in New Zealand, is consumed in greater quantity than any other
timber, though not as durable as the above-mentioned species.

(5) Kahikatea, Podocarpus dacrydioides, white pine, found all
over the islands ; it is particularly valued for butter boxes and
packing boxes generally.

(6) Puriri, Vitex lucens (littoralis), is the strongest and most
durable of the broad-leaved trees of New Zealand; it is much
used for railway sleepers.

(7), (8), and (9) Three species of Beech, commonly called
birches in New Zealand, namely : Red beech, Nothofagus fusca ;
black beech, N. Solandri ; silver beech, N. Menziesii. They are
chiefly found in the upper parts of the forest area, and they are
gradually coming into use, especially N. fusca, principally for
fencing and mining.

Various other species are used in small quantities for milling,
and more extensively for farming purposes and as firewood.

262 FORESTRY IN NEW ZEALAND.

Of other forest products “ Kauri gum,” which is dug out of the
ground, where formerly extensive kauri forests existed, is of
importance.

3. RELATIONSHIP OF THE STATE TO THE FORESTS.

Legislation —A State Forest Act was passed in 1908. As it
proved inefficient in some respects, the shortcomings were made
good by section 34 of the War Legislation and Statute Law
Amendment Act, 1918. The account given in the New Zealand
Statement is not very clear, but the present position seems to be
somewhat as follows. The Forest Act of 1908 provided, amongst
others, powers for :—

(1) The appointment of one of the responsible Ministers to be
“Commissioner of State Forests.”

Conservators of Forests, the general system of manage-
ment, protection against fire, waste and other damage,
the construction and maintenance of roads and other
means of transport, &c., and generally to carry out the
provisions of the Act.

(7) The establishment of schools of forestry and agriculture.

(8) The exclusion of open lands from State forests, provided

Parliament does not object.

It appears that additional power has now been given to declare
any Crown lands “ Provisional State Forests,” and to permit the
Government to take back such areas for settlement purposes ;
in other words, to substitute the Government in power at the time
for Parliament.

Adnuinistratwe Methods —It has been stated above that
3,298 square miles of State forests have been declared National
Parks and Permanent Reserves. These consist of climatic and
scenic reserves. They may yield a small amount of timber, but
that is not taken into account when dealing with the supply of
timber generally. The latter is expected to come from the
unreserved 12,357 square miles of State forests, private forests,

RELATIONSHIP OF THE STATE TO THE FORESTS. 263

plantations and imports, at any rate for some time to come.
The main classes of timber required at present and in the
immediate future are :—

(a) Coniferous timbers for building and general purposes.

(b) Hardwoods (Eucalypts) for all purposes where stronger and

more durable timber is required.

(c) Timber for the carriage of agricultural and other produce

(butter boxes, &c.), for wood pulp, &c.

For the supply of such material the unreserved indigenous
forests are arranged in classes according to the degree of their
fitness for immediate or future milling. What is not obtained in
this way is imported, conifers from America and the Baltic, and
Eucalypts from Australia. As to the questions of replacing what
has been cut, and making the country independent of outside
supplies, the opinion is held in New Zealand that the indigenous
species are too slow-growing to invest any money on their repro-
duction. Instead of that, the planting of exotic species was
started some 25 yearsago. It has been estimated that, to provide
for future requirements, it will be necessary to plant an area of
700,000 acres. Of that, about 35,444 acres had been planted by
1919 by the State. In addition, a considerable area has been
planted by private proprietors. Since some 50 years ago the
Government has encouraged private planting, but already, in
1896, it became evident that State planting must be started if the
programme was to be carried out. It is evident that State action
must be considerably speeded up if 700,000 acres of plantations
are to be established within a reasonable number of years.
Before the war the cost of planting, including nursery work, came
to about £8 per acre, but it is now very considerably higher.

The Forest Authority—The Ministerial head of the Department
is the Commissioner of State Forests, under whom the Superin-
tendents of Nurseries and Plantations worked since the commence-
ment of the operations in 1896. Owing to the rapidly dwindling
forest resources, a separate Department of Forestry was at last
established in 1919, and placed under a Director of Forestry, who
will have the assistance of Research officers, Inspectors and other
staff, the whole being under the Commissioner of State Forests
as before.

Education and Research—Nothing seems to have been done so

264 FORESTRY IN NEW ZEALAND.

far for education. As regards research it should be stated that
the structure and qualities of the principal timbers have been
investigated at the Imperial College of Science and Technology,
South Kensington. During the last year or two considerable
controversy as to the rate of growth of indigenous trees, as com-
pared with that of exotic trees, has taken place, but the informa-
tion so far available does not permit any definite conclusions
being drawn. It is, however, a subject which should receive
early attention by the new Department of Forestry.

State Assistance gwen to Forestry—This consists chiefly in
providing plants to private proprietors at a low rate, and, in some
cases, free of charge, especially to discharged soldiers. About
half a million plants were thus provided in 1919.

No information has been supplied in the official Statement, as
regards increment, utilization, consumption, export, import, &ce.

SECTION III—SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK,

From what has been stated it is evident that no summary
based on official communications can be given, but some remarks
on the general policy seem justified.

What strikes the reader at once is the fact that the indigenous
forests have practically been thrown overboard, and that future
supplies are to be provided from plantations consisting of exotic
trees. This is certainly a very bold measure, which the New
Zealand authorities seem to have adopted, because they believe
that the growth of the indigenous species is too slow in com-
parison with that of certain exotic species. The questions here
involved are :—

(1) Whether the growth of the indigenous species of New

Zealand is really as slow as is believed ?

(2) Whether the selected exotic species yield timber of sufficient
quality to replace the indigenous species and yet grow
much faster ?

(3) Whether it is safe to introduce exotic species on this large
scale without risking the development of disease which
may lead, in the end, to disastrous results ?

These are questions which require the immediate attention of

the newly established Department of Forestry, and more parti-
cularly the third question. Indeed, investigations made during

SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK. 265

the last 2 years seem to show, for instance, that the growth of
kauri is much more rapid than has been supposed. That species
yields one of the best coniferous timbers on the earth, and its
re-establishment in New Zealand on a considerable scale seems
highly desirable. The nature of the New Zealand flora is so
distinctly special that the introduction of exotic species is rather
risky. No doubt, Oregon Douglas grows very rapidly during
youth, but it is also known that its rate of growth falls off consi-
derably with advancing age. Nor does it seem to have been
realised in New Zealand that the Oregon Douglas timber imported
into New Zealand is taken from trees which were at least 150 years
old, and that the Douglas timber produced in New Zealand is not
likely to show the same quality unless the trees are allowed to
reach a similar age.

On the whole, it appears, as far as can be judged from a distance,
that the best indigenous forests should, with due consideration
of the requirements of land for the extension of agricultural
pursuits, be selected and converted into permanent State forests,
properly organised and managed for the sustained supply of
indigenous timber. As a consequence, the enormous outlay on
plantations can be correspondingly reduced.

Since the above was written a report, by the new Director
of Forestry, has come to hand showing that, after many years
of a vacillating policy, a new era has commenced which is
likely to see the institution of systematic forest management
resting on a scientific basis. Above all, it has at last been
recognised that the preservation and systematic management of
the indigenous forests on the principle of a sustained yield is the
first and foremost duty of the re-organised Forestry Department.
Full details cannot yet be given, but the general lines of the future
forest policy may here be put down. They are :—

(1) Permanent dedication to forest management of all Crown
lands chiefly valuable for forestry and timber production —
with the deletion of all lands chiefly valuable for
agricultural purposes.

(2) Scientific forest management of all State forests on the
principle of a sustained yield for the benefit of future
generations, as well as the present.

266 FORESTRY IN THE CROWN COLONIES.

(3) Establishment of protection forests at the headwaters of
streams, in water-supply basins, &c.

(4) Efficient protection of the State forests.

(5) Establishment of an efficient staff for the Forest Service.

(6) Establishment of a School of Forestry and promotion of
Research.

(7) Extension of State planting on suitable lands for local
wants.

(8) Decentralisation of the staff and a sound produce-sale
policy.

This policy has been well received by producers, consumers, and

the general public.

THE CROWN COLONIES AND PROTECTORATES.
I’ CYPRUS:
1. Notes on TorpoGRAPHY AND CLIMATE.

The Island of Cyprus is situated between the 34th and 36th
degrees north latitude, and between the 32nd and 36th degree
east longitude. It has an area of 3,584 square miles, and a
population of about 274,000, or 77 to the square mile.

Topography.—The main feature is a central plain running due
east and west from one end to the other, which is bound on the
north and south by mountain ridges. The central plain,
Messaoria, is alluvial. The northern mountain system, called
the Kyrenia Range, is nearly all a limestone formation. The
southern, or Troodos System, is generally of igneous composition.

The Climate varies considerably. At Nikosia in the central
plain, the temperature varies between 31 and 104 degrees; on
Troodos, at 6,406 feet elevation between 46 and 86 degrees during
the summer months, while during winter the more elevated parts
of the system are snow-clad. The rainfall at Nikosia and in the
central plain generally is 14 inches, and somewhat more at the
higher elevations. The greater part of the rain falls during the
months of November to April ; the summer rainfall is insignificant.

2. Main Types oF Forest GROWTH.

In the northern range the forest in the upper parts consists of
Pinus halepensis (Aleppo pine) mixed with Cupressus sempervirens

CYPRUS. 267

and with shrubs, the most marked of which are Pistachia tere-
binthus and lentiscus, and Arbutus andrachni. The lower slopes
are mostly covered with Juniperus phenicia. Aleppo pine grows
slowly and does not attain any great height. The cypress grows
quicker and its timber is good.

The forests on the southern range are, up to 3,000 feet, almost
pure Aleppo pine of good growth, yielding timber of good quality.
The Troodos forest above 3,000 feet is nearly pure Pinus nigra var.
Laricio, except on the upper slopes where there is a quantity of
Juniperus fotidissima with some specimens of J. oxicedrus and
Quercus alnifolia.

In the centre of the Paphos forest is about a square mile of
good specimens of Cedrus libani var. brevifolia, of slow growth.
Quercus alnifolia is distributed over considerable areas. In moist
ravines Platanus orientalis and Alnus orientalis are found. Fine
specimens of Quercus infectoria, Pfeffingert and inermis are also
found, which are jealously guarded for the acorn crop.

The important timbers are obtained from the species mentioned
above. In addition may be mentioned Laurus nobilis, Styrax
officinalis and Juglans requa.

3. AREA AND OWNERSHIP OF THE FORESTS.

Per cent. of
Square Miles. Total Area.
State Forests :

For timber production . 651 te 93
Other forests . ' a 49 ds 6
Total State forests . 700 fs 99
Corporation forests : 4 es 1
Private forests ; ; 1 ie —
Total forest area eka Pm 100

4. RELATIONSHIP OF THE STATE TO THE FORESTS.

Legislation.—Under special forest legislation, and under the
general law, the State has complete control over the forests.
The cutting of timber and grazing are said to be regulated. As
regards fire protection, 485 miles of paths have been cut, so as to
enable labourers to get to the fires in case any should start.

268 FORESTRY IN THE CROWN COLONIES.

Some planting was commenced in 1889, and again in 1904, on
drift sand and dry rocky waste ; the areas are now for the second
time being cut over for fuel. In 1918—1919 about 8 square miles
were sown and partly planted, but it is not stated with what
species.

The natural regeneration of the existing forests is poor, owing
to the unfavourable climate. Seeds germinate freely, but it is
said the drought of summer kills the seedlings off again. Possibly
the large herds of goats, which graze in the forests, do more
damage than the summer drought.

Seedlings of various forest trees are distributed to villagers who
desire to plant, and advice is given to private persons. The
Forest Authority consists of a Principal Forest Officer and an
Assistant, with a staff of Cypriot officials of various grades. The
Forest Department is allowed independent action subject to a
general responsibility to the Government. The recruitment is
entirely local; no educational work is undertaken by the
Department.

5. INCREMENT AND UTILIZATION.

No estimate of the annual increment of the forests has been
attempted. The utilization in 1918—1919 is given as follows :—

Cubic feet. Valued at, £.
tumiber —. ; 123,388 ae 6,170
Firewood . ~ 24510050 - 24,510
Total . 2,574,438 A 30,680

6. Forest INDUSTRIES.

Forest industries are at present confined to lumbering and fuel
preparation. It is stated that various other industries are capable
of development, such as wood distillation, essential oils, sumach
(Rhus cotinus), schinia (Pistachia Lentiscus), ladanum gum
(Cytisua Creticus), dyes, bay rum from the fruit of Lawrus nobilis,
&e.

7. Exports AND Imports.

There is, apparently, no export of timber, but an import valued
at £21,665; also of a small amount of firewood, charcoal, pitch
and rosin.

CEYLON. 269

8. SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK.

The available data are not sufficient to prepare a general
summary of home consumption, but it is stated that the mature
timber in the forests is roughly estimated at 14,000,000 cubic feet,
the present consumption about 190,000 cubic feet, and that the
available stock will suffice for the next 73 years. The local
authorities are also of opinion that the annual growth exceeds
the annual consumption. At the same time it is said that to
protect and develop the forest resources the following measures
are essential :—

(1) The abolition of goats and prohibition of all grazing.

(2) Systematic and efficient fire protection.

(3) Artificial re-afforestation, not only of the areas cut over or
burnt, but also of waste areas, of which there are about
300 square miles fit to produce Aleppo pine.
As a fourth measure may be mentioned the opening to traffic of
many forests which appear to be at present inaccessible.

J. CEYLON.
1. Notes oN ToPpoGRAPHY AND CLIMATE.

Ceylon is situated between the 6th and 10th degree of northern
latitude and the 79th and 82nd degree of eastern longitude. It
has an area of 25,500 square miles and a population of 4,100,000
people, giving 161 to the square mile.

Topography.—Ceylon has the shape of a pear, the northern
point of which almost touches the southernmost point of India.
There is a high tableland in the south-eastern part of the island
rising abruptly to 4,000 feet elevation ; it is divided by a higher
ridge running south to north, the highest peak of which rises to
8,000 feet above sea level. From the high plateau spurs run in
several directions, which only exceptionally attain a height of
3,000 feet. Apart from these spurs, the country to the south and
west of the plateau presents a series of low rocky ridges separated
by wide valleys, and gradually levelling down to the sea. To the
north and east of the tableland, comprising about three-fourths
of the island, the country consists of an undulating jungle-clad
plain, out of which rocky gneiss peaks rise abruptly. |

270 FORESTRY IN THE CROWN COLONIES.

The prevailing rock is gneiss, which on decay gives a clay soil
of considerable depth. In the gneiss, bands of hard crystalline
magnesian limestone are common. Alluvium is found in all the
larger valleys. In the north, the Jaffna Peninsula is post-tertiary,
consisting of marine limestone. Graphite is mined in the south-
west, also gem stones. There is no coal.

Soils are mostly gravelly and shallow, but in the wet zone,
and especially in valleys, they are often rich and deep. They
have been much impoverished by long continued shifting culti-
vation. Rich soil eminently suited for agriculture is still found
in Jafina.

The Climate is greatly influenced by meteorological phenomena
in South India. There is no definite summer and winter, any
differences being due to the monsoons. During May to September
south-west winds prevail, and from October to April north-east
winds, rain coming from both directions. During the south-west
monsoon the mountain zone and the south-west of the island get
most of the rain, while the plain to the north and east is dry
and hot; during the north-east monsoon the eastern lowlands
are watered and also the mountains. The rainfall varies between
20 and 200 inches ; the driest parts are situated in the north-west
and south-east.

2. Main Tyres or Forest GRowTH.

Ceylon foresters distinguish three main zones :—

(1) The Mountain Zone above 4,000 feet, comprising some
4,000 square miles, with a rainfall between 75 and 200 inches.
Above 5,000 feet, all forests are reserved, and no alienation of land
will be permitted in future, but in the past most of the area has
been devastated by tea, coffee and shifting cultivation. During
recent years about 130 square miles of forest have been re-estab-
lished. The zone is divided into two sub-zones :—

(a) The Mountain Sub-zone proper.—The trees in this zone have
short, crooked and gnarled stems, owing to continued
exposure to wind and rain. The prominent species are
Rhododendron arboreum, Calophyllum trapezifolium and
Walkeri, Michelia nilagirica, Eurya japonica, Gordonia
zeylanica and speciosa, Eleocarpus zeylanicus and other
species. Eugenia revoluta, assimilis, and others ; Sym-

CEYLON. yale

plocos spicata and small bamboos. Conifers, Eucalypts
and Australian wattles have been introduced into this
zone. The most successful of these exotics are Cupressus.
macrocarpa and others. Pinus insignis and longifolia,
Eucalyptus robusta, Globulus, pilularis, siderophloia and
diversicolor ; Acacia Melanoxylon, decurrens and dealbata,
and Cedrela serrata.

(b) The Patana Sub-zone consists of grassland with here and
there stunted trees; it was formerly forest, but it has
been destroyed by shifting cultivation, grazing and fires.

(2) The Wet Zone comprises the south-west part of the island
and the foothills up to 4,000 feet. It is divided into two parts :—

(a) The Endemic Sub-zone with a rainfall of 100 to 200 inches.
The forests in this sub-zone are the finest in Ceylon.
Their distinguishing features are the plentiful represen-
tation of species of Dipterocarpus, Shorea Doona, Hopea,
Balanocarpus, Vatica and Vaterva. There are a great
variety of other trees belonging to the Diulleniacee,
Guttifere, Celastracee, Sapindacee, Anacardiacee, Legu-
minose, Myrtacew, Rubiacee, and others, palms, tree
ferns, bamboos, &c. Great inroads have been made
into these forests for the purpose of planting rubber,
tea, cinnamon and coconuts. They used to contain
Coromandel wood (Diospyrus quesita) which is now
almost extinct, while other excellent furniture woods
are rapidly disappearing.

It may seem at first sight that to replace the natural forest
by products of a greater commercial value is reasonable, but
these operations in Ceylon have resulted in great damage, inas-
much as they have been followed by erosion on an immense scale
and the silting up and periodic flooding of the low country,
together with the destruction of arable lands and other property.
Moreover, the planting operations have not always been success-
ful, and from large tracts of abandoned lands the soil has been
utterly washed out. These areas are now covered with bamboos,
useless shrubs and rank grasses. Similar destruction has been
brought about by shifting cultivation.

(b) The Intermediate Sub-zone is a narrow strip of country more

or less surrounding the endemic sub-zone. Rainfall,

272 FORESTRY IN THE CROWN COLONIES.

75 to 100 inches. It contains species from both the wet
and dry zones.

(3) The Dry Zone comprises two-thirds of the island with about
three-fourths of its forests. It has been divided into the following
sub-zones :—

(a) The Arid Sub-zone consists of two strips, one in the south-

east and the other in the north-west. Rainfall, 20 to
50 inches. Forest growth patchy and stunted, repre-
senting scrub and low jungle. The only species which
reach tree size are Elawodendron glaucum, Mimusops
hexandra and Henucyclia separia.

(b) The Dry Sub-zone proper is the largest in the island. Rain-
fall 50 to 80 inches. The forest varies very much from
scrub to inferior low forest and to high forest. The two
former forms occupy the greater part of the area. The
high forest contains most of the valuable species. The
scrub and inferior parts are the result of long continued
shifting cultivation (chena). The forest growth is
generally evergreen; it is dense, but the trees seldom
exceed 40 feet in height. The percentage of valuable
species is low. The most noteworthy species are Chloro-
aylon Swietenia, Diospyros Ebenum, Pleurostylia Wighti,
Mimusops hexandra and Elengi, Berrya ammonilla, Vitex
altissima and several additional species of Diospyros.
The Dipterocarps have practically disappeared, but
Leguminose are well represented by Cassia marginata,
Dalbergia lanceolaria, Bauhinia tomentosa and racemosa,
and several Acacias. Palms are represented by the
palmyra palm and Phenix zeylanica.

(c) The Park Sub-zone represents a savannah forest containing
trees like Terminatia Chebula and belerica, Anogeissus
latifolia, Carya arborea, Butea frondosa and rank grass.
This class of forest is confined to the eastern province and
Uva.

Littoral forests are found in the mangrove swamps with the
usual genera, Rhizophora, Bruguiera and Ceriops, valueless as
timber, but the Rhizophora bark is used for tanning. There are
also the screw pine (Pandanus) and Heritiera littoralis. Near the
coastal villages the coconut and palmyra palms are cultivated.

CEYLON. 2i1o

3. AREA OF THE FORESTS.
The following division of the land of the island is given :—

Per cent. of

Square Miles. Total Area.
Agricultural Land. Ae 0) 0)5 hae cet i)
Forest, Merchantable . 4,816 * 19
Forest, Unprofitable . 15,545 x» 61
Forest total : : _ QOS6I ser 80
Other Land . : aN a | ee if
Grand Total ; Mito: oi ab nieae 0)

The more accessible areas of the merchantable forests have been
considerably over-exploited in the past. Taking this fact into
consideration, their area would represent not more than about
12 per cent. instead of 19 per cent.

4, OWNERSHIP OF THE FORESTS.

Per cent. of

Square Miles. Total Area,
State Forests for Timber Production. ARING 2 LA aMiD
Other State Forests ‘ ; PEL ZOOS HDS
Total State Forests ai! 15.2955) 5 nee weed
Corporation Forests MAGOS20298. 23
Private Forests. : é ; LGA ee iL
Total Forest Area . ; se OOO ie LOU

The Corporation forests belong to Buddhist Temples and to the
municipalities of Colombo, Kandi, Galle, Nuwara, Eliya and
Ratnapura; the private forests belong to Native Chiefs and
Planters.

The area of State Timber forests includes 8 square miles of
plantations, planted chiefly with teak in the low country, and
with EKucalypts, Acacia Melanoxylon and a few conifers in the
mountains.

5. Important Forest PRODUCE.

There are about 60 important species of timber trees, most

of which have been mentioned above. In addition, a number of
VOL, I. 7

274 FORESTRY IN THE CROWN COLONIES.

exotic species have been planted, of which the following may be
mentioned :—
(1) Teak (Tectona grandis) grows well and rapidly.
(2) Swietenia macrophylla and Mahogani, of which the former
does well and the latter fairly well.
(3) Cedrela serrata (Cedar wood, or Toon) grows rapidly, but
suffers from insect attacks.
(4) Eucalyptus rostrata, Globulus, siderophloia and maculata do
well at 4,000 feet above sea-level.
(5) Acacia Melanoxylon, decurrens and dealbata grow well.
(6) Myroxylon Pereire, the balsam of Peru, grows well.
(7) Of Conifers, Cupressus macrocarpa is doing very well ; it is
now largely planted, yielding a useful soft white wood.
Pines are generally unsatisfactory.
The items of other forest products have not yet been sufficiently
investigated, but the following may be mentioned :—
(a) The fruit of Terminalia Chebula and belerica, used for
tanning and dyeing.
(6) The bark of Cassia auriculata and of Rhizophora for tanning.
(c) The bark of Cinnamomum zeylanica.
(d) The seeds of Azadirachta indica, for their oil.
(e) Strychnos nuxz-vomica and numerous other medicinal plants.

6. RELATIONSHIP OF THE STATE TO THE FOREST.

Legislation Probably in no part of the British Empire have so
many attempts been made to do justice to the forests as in Ceylon,
but, until quite recently at any rate, there have been no results.
It would lead too far to explain here the causes of these failures.

The Ordinance No. 16 of 1907 provides for :—

(1) A Re-declaration of State ownership of all forests, waste,
chena, uncultivated or unoccupied lands.

(2) The issue of rules for the protection of all Government
lands, for the declaration of Reserves, village forests, the
control of timber in transit, the checking of forest
offences and the punishment of offenders.

(3) The management of the reserves by the Forest Department.

(4) Rules drawn up to control shifting cultivation (chena),
which, however, have not been properly enforced up to
date.

CEYLON. 275

Development of Forest Management.—No efficient plan of forest
conservancy has yet been drawn up, but a conference is about to
be held for the purpose of attending to the matter. In the
meantime some improvement has taken place during the last few
years, more particularly in the way of bringing chena cultivation
under control, in introducing a more efficient system of fire
protection, in assisting natural regeneration to some extent by
artificial sowing and planting.

The Forest Authority—tThe chief forest authority is the Con-
servator of Forests, who is assisted by 14 Deputy and Assistant
Conservators and 3 Extra Assistant Conservators; there is a
subordinate staff of 230 Foresters, Guards, &c. The island is
divided into 11 forest Divisions which coincide with the Revenue
Administrative Divisions, each in charge of a superior forest
officer.

Education and Research—There is no forest school in Ceylon.
The members of the superior staff are expected to hold the
Oxford University Degree or Diploma in Forestry. Candidates
for rangerships must have a fair education; they are taken on
probation for séme time, and, if satisfactory, sent to the Forest
School of Coimbatore in Madras, for technical instruction. Extra
Assistant Conservators are usually deserving men from the
subordinate staff.

So far no encouragement has been given to research, but it has
been recognised that a research institute is urgently required for
botanical, zoological and economic investigations.

Income and Expenditure—The averages for the 5 years 1914—

1919 were :—
£
Revenue . . : : 91,737
Expenditure . . 935,286
Surplus. : . £56,451

7. Forest Activity OF CORPORATIONS AND PRIVATE OWNERS.

There is practically none. The Temple forests are under chena
cultivation, and the municipal forests are held as catchment areas
for the water supply.

Tr 2

276 FORESTRY IN THE CROWN COLONIES.

8. INCREMENT AND UTILIZATION.

Of the increment only an estimate can be given, based on the
measurement of some sample areas ; it is as follows :—

J Cubic Feet.

Increment on 5,000 square miles of State
forests, Timber . : ; . 8,239,000
Loss by fire, decay, waste, re : ; . 7,626,890
Net Increment . ; : 4 612,110

Very large quantities of fuel are produced, the figure for which
cannot be given.

The Annual Utilization is stated to be as follows :—
Timber from State Forests :

Quantity,

Type of Timber. cubic feet. Value, £.

Ebony : : 3,030)" Se 1,387
Satin wood . : ; 4,860 .. 3,822
Other timbers : ‘ o22,870 .!. 656368
Total Timber . 831,067 .., ~Olaie

Fuel estimated at ; . 14,799,000 .. 32,867
Minor Produce . : ) — 18,806
Total Value of Produce . _- 113,250

The minor produce consists of numerous articles, such as tanning
bark, gallnuts, mirobolans, the fruit of Strychnos nux-vomica,
honey, &c. Figures for oils, gums, fibres, dye-woods, &c., are not
available.

9. Forest INDUSTRIES.

The largest industry is the manufacture of tea and rubber
chests, in which about 300,000 cubic feet of timber are used
annually. The work is done chiefly by village carpenters; as
they are time workers it is difficult to reduce them to full-time
workers. Basket making and cane weaving employ a large
number of people, and so do furniture making, coopering, boat
building. The collection of minor produce employs about
1,000 people.

CEYLON. 277

10. Exports AND IMPORTS.

The following data represent the average of the last 10 years :—

ied. Value, £.

Exports. : : : . 436,880 .. 25,413
Imports. ‘ : : so) DEL DEQny aa T9407
Surplus, Imports over Exports 104,382 .. 53,994

The exports comprise small quantities of ebony and satin wood,
while the imported timber is chiefly teak.

11. SumMAaRY AND OUTLOOK.

Cubic feet.
Utilization : i . 831,067
Less Exports . : . 436,880
394,187
Add Imports . . 541,262
Home Consumption . . 935,449

The utilization exceeds the increment by 218,957 cubic feet, while
the home consumption exceeds it by 323,339 cubic feet. This
represents a very unhealthy condition. There is not one year’s
supply of conifers in the country ; even the supply of hardwoods
is running short.

The Government of Ceylon has repeatedly expressed the desire
to take up real forest conservancy, but the results have been very
poor. The bulk of the forests have been destroyed chiefly by
shifting cultivation, fires and improvident exploitation. A
definite forest policy should be laid down without delay and
carried out. In doing this, the following points should receive
special attention :—

(1) The establishment of an area of permanent State forests

sufficient to meet future requirements.

(2) Management of these State forests according to working

plans drawn up on the basis of a sustained annual yield.

(3) Development of the natural regeneration of the natural

forests where this is still possible, supplemented by
sowing and planting wherever necessary.

278 FORESTRY IN THE CROWN COLONIES.

(4) The establishment of at least 20,000 acres of soft woods
stocked with suitable conifers, Melia dubia or other
suitable species.

(5) Thorough protection of the permanent State forests at any
rate, against chena cultivation, fire, &c.

(6) Development of the system of roads and other means of
transport.

(7) The setting up of a staff capable of dealing with the efficient
carrying out of the scheme, and research in important
questions.

K. THE MALAY PENINSULA.

1. GENERAL NOTES ON THE COUNTRY.

The Malay Peninsula is situated between the Ist and 7th degree
northern latitude and the 100th and 105th eastern longitude. It
is divided into the following three parts :—

rea, Density, per

Square Miles. Population. Square Mile.

(a) The Straits Settlements «ple GhOwes 700,000 .. 423
(b) Federated Malay States . 27,500 .. 1,000;0007 223336
(c) Unfederated Malay States . 24,800 .. 800,000 .. 32
Total . : ; . 53,960 .. 2,500,000 .. 46

The Settlements are: Singapore, Malacca, Dindings, Penang
and Wellesley. The Federated States comprise : Sembilan, Negri,
Selangor, Pahang and Perak. The Unfederated States are :
Johore, Trengganu, Kelantan, Kedah and Perlis.

Topography.—The peninsula is generally undulating or hilly,
and the central mountain mass rises to over 7,000 feet above
sea level. The slopes of the hills are usually steep. There are no
elevated plateaux of any importance, but considerable areas of
alluvial plains in Kedah and within some miles from the sea. The
rivers are, as a rule, shallow and suited only to traffic by small
native craft and steam launches. There are no lakes of
importance.

Geology and Soil.—The rocks are mainly granite, quartzite with
imbedded shale, and crystalline limestone; the latter form
isolated hills with precipitous sides. The intensity of the tropical
weathering produces sufficient soil over the rocks to support a

THE MALAY PENINSULA. 279

luxuriant flora. In the granite areas weathering goes down deep,
and in consequence on steep slopes serious landslips easily occur,
especially after heavy rain.

Olimate.—The temperature is equable ; at sea level it ranges
between 70 and 90 degrees, with an average of 80. The rainfall
averages about 100 inches, but it varies much, being heavier in
the hills than on low ground. There is not much seasonal
difference in this respect. Snow and frost are unknown.

Communications —The settlements and the Federated States
have a good system of roads, except Penang. There are 3,000
miles of metalled roads and 949 miles of railways.

2. Types oF FORESTS.

With the exception of a few areas in Kedah, the forests are
evergreen. A distinction is made between littoral and inland
forests.

Iattoral Forests—Mangrove swamps cover over 300 square
miles, chiefly on the west coast; they consist of species of
Rhyzophora, Bruguera, Ceriops, Avicenia, Heritiera, Afzelia and
also Nipa fruticans.

Casuarina equisetifolia is found in belts on sand near the coast ;
it reproduces itself naturally and grows very rapidly, reaching a
height of 120 feet and a girth of 4} feet. Other coast forests
contain Hibiscus tiliaceus, Pongamia glabra, Calophyllum wo-
phyllum, Terminalia Catappa and occasionally Podocarpus
polystachyus.

(1) Inland Forests—Fresh Water Swamps contain species oi
Shorea, with Screw pine (Pandanus sp.) in the underwood.

(2) Dry Forests.

(a) The Lowland forests frequently contain more than 50 per
cent. of Dipterocarps. There are over 100 species of this family
in Malaya ; the best known genera are Hopea, Shorea, Vatica and
Petacme. The most important trees are Shorea materialis, collina
and glauca. Hopea Lowii, Borneo camphor (Dryobalanops aroma-
tica). Other species of importance are Payena utilis, Hugenia
spp., several Lauracee, Afzelia spp., Mesua ferrea, Gutta-percha
(Palaquium oblongifolium), &c. The Dipterocarp forest is most
imposing ; the top story averages 100 feet high with single trees
up to 200 feet, and a thick undergrowth.

280 FORESTRY IN THE CROWN COLONIES.

(6) The High Hill Forests are at present of little importance.
They are of much smaller height; their object is to prevent
erosion and to regulate the flow of water. Dipterocarps do not
appear in them, but there are some conifers, Agathis alba and
flavescens, Dacrydium spp., and Podocarpus latifolia, nerufolia
and Wallichianus.

3. AREA OF FORESTS.

A moderate time ago probably the whole of the peninsula was
covered with forest. The present disposition of the land is as
follows :—

Per cent. of

Square Miles. Total Area.
Agricultural Land . : 8,200": . a5 ale
Forests Merchantable . © 21,166 4, TS
Forests, Unmerchantable . 14,100 . eee
Total ; 35,266._5 si nee
Other Land . ‘ : 10,494 —.\e.i ts TS
Grand Total . 53,960. 23 2G

Owing to an extensive alienation of land for the cultivation of
rubber and for other purposes, the forests situated in the parts of
the country with the best means of communication are badly
distributed, and difficulties have already been experienced in
parts of Perak and Selangor in supplying the demand for fuel for
railways, mines and rubber factories.

4. OWNERSHIP OF THE FORESTS.
The following data show the ownership :—

Per cent. of
Square Miles. Total Area.
State Forests :

Straits Settlements. ; 266 ise ces 0-75
Federated States ;. 21,000). «270 sapiae
Unfederated States . . 10,500. .« . 255%
Total State forests . OL 760 > 2.) oe
Corporation Forests . AOU) came 7-09
Private Forests J) O00 s sas 2°84

Total forest area . . 85,2660" Joe 10008

THE MALAY PENINSULA. 281

5. Important Forest PRODUCE.

More than one-half of the commercial timber of the country is
produced by the Dipterocarps. Other woods of special value are
species of Calophyllum, Eugenia, Artocarpus, Afzelia, Mesua ferrea
and various others. For firewood the most highly prized woods
are the Mangroves.

The principal items of minor produce are Canes, Gutta-percha
and Dammar. The most important commercial canes are
Calamus cesius, the Rotan sega, and the Malacca cane (Calamus
Scipionum). In 1919 the revenue on canes was about 20,000
dollars, while the value of the canes was at least 10 times that
amount. Canes to the value of 24 million dollars were imported
into Malaya in 1918, cleaned and otherwise prepared in Singapore,
and re-exported.

Of Gutta-percha large quantities were formerly produced in
the country, but the destruction of the trees has been so great
that the present annual output is probably less than 20 tons.
Plantations are being formed, and it is hoped that the former
supply will gradually be re-established.

Dammar is obtained from the Dipterocarps, especially from
Balanocarpus spp. About 250 tons were collected in 1919.

6. RELATIONSHIP OF THE STATE TO THE FORESTS.

Straits Settlements —An Ordinance, No. 22, was passed in 1908,
drawn up on the lines of the Burma Forest Act. It deals with :—

(1) The appointment and powers of forest officers.

(2) The constitution and protection of Reserved Forests.

(3) The levy of royalties on forest produce and its protection in

transit.

(4) The procedure in dealing with forest offences.

Under the Ordinance, rules were passed for the administration of
the forests.

The Federated States.—Until 1914 each State had its own forest
enactment. In that year the enactments of the four States were
combined into a federal enactment, and in 1918 a revised enact-
ment (No. 349 of 1918), which is still in force, was passed by the
Rulers of the Federated States in Council. It follows the Burma
Act even more closely than the Settlements Ordinance ; under it
Rules were made.

282 FORESTRY IN THE CROWN COLONIES.

The Unfederated States—In Kedah a forest enactment (No. 6)
was passed in 1918, which is a shortened form of the Federated
States enactment and rules.

In Johore the Land Enactment of 1910 and rules made under it
provide for the reservation of land for forest purposes and for
the extraction and levy of royalties on forest produce.

In Kelantan the Timber and Jungle Produce Rules, 1914,
provide for the extraction of forest produce and the levy of
royalties on it.

In Trengganu the export of Chengal (Balanocarpus spp.) is
prohibited. With this exception there are no forest rules in this
State.

Administrative Methods.—As rain falls every month, the protec-
tion of the forests against fire is unnecessary. The planting of
waste lands on an experimental scale has been attempted, but so
far without success. On the other hand, a considerable amount
of planting has been done in blanks in felling areas in the mangrove
swamps, and attempts have been made, with varying success, to
introduce species of Balanocarpus, Afzelia palembanica and gutta-
percha into forests not containing them. At present the efforts
of the Department are chiefly directed to improvement fellings, to
assist the saplings and poles and to encourage the natural regenera-
tion of the more valuable species. Special success has been
achieved in this way with camphor (Dryobalanops aromatica),
gutta-percha and certain Shoreas ; some 40,000 acres have been
treated in this way.

The Forest Authority.—Passing over the earlier attempts at
conservancy, a real start was made in 1900, when Mr. H. C. Hill,
late Inspector-General of Forests in India, reported on the
forest administration in the peninsula. On his suggestion the
post of Chief Forest Officer, now called Conservator, was created
and filled by a trained and experienced Indian officer, who
organized the department. The present staff consists of 1 Con-
servator, 1 Research Officer, 14 Deputy and Assistant and
6 Extra Assistant Conservators, and a subordinate staff of
Rangers, Foresters, Guards, &c., numbering 500 members. An
enlarged scale is under consideration.

The Conservator is the administrative head of the Department
and the technical adviser to Government in forest matters ; he is

; THE MALAY PENINSULA. 283

also consulted by the Federated States either directly or through
his subordinates ; he has at present no jurisdiction in the Un-
federated States. Each State is in charge of a Deputy Conserva-
tor, who is responsible to the Conservator in technical matters ;
otherwise he is subordinate to the Resident of the State.

Recruitment and Training —The superior staff has, in the past,
been recruited in a variety of ways, but chiefly from Coopers Hill
and Oxford. In future it is proposed to appoint as Assistant
‘Conservators only men who have received a thorough training in
Europe; Extra Assistants will be recruited from Dehra Dun, or
given a localtraining. The subordinate staff is recruited locally.

Research.—A considerable amount of systematic botanical work
has been done ; also measurements for statistical work have been
‘commenced. A herbarium has been started. In 1918 a qualified
Research Officer was appointed, and since then the study of
commercial timbers has made good progress.

Income and Expenditure—The following figures represent the
-averages of the years 1915 to 1919 in pounds sterling :—

Revenue, £. Expenditure, £. Surplus, £.
Straits Settlements. 3,927 .. 3,814 .. ial:
Federated States . 110,754 .. 68,251 .. 42,503
Total . . LI4681: .5 12,065 7. 42,616

‘The forests of the Straits Settlements are not likely to prove
remunerative for some time to come. Little is at present known
-as to the potentialities of the forests of the Unfederated States.

7. PRIVATE ACTIVITY.

There are about 2,000,000 acres of privately planted and owned
plantations of Para rubber, and the planting of gutta-percha has
also commenced. The difficulty of obtaining fuel for the mines
-and rubber factories is causing some concern, but no effort has yet
been made to meet the situation by the raising of firewood crops.

8. INCREMENT AND UTILIZATION.

It is impossible to give any reliable estimate of the increment.
‘The mangrove swamps may produce about 75 cubic feet per acre
-and year. The inland forests might perhaps produce 25 cubic
feet per acre and year of serviceable material. It is estimated

284 FORESTRY IN THE CROWN COLONIES.

that the waste is almost equal to the annual consumption. During
the last 20 years it has certainly been much greater, as at least.
50,000,000 tons of timber have been burnt by the rubber planters.
On the above lines the following estimate has been prepared :—-

Area of merchantable forests

under State control . 24,166 square miles.
Increment in cubic feet . . 394,000,000 cubic feet.
Waste . : : , . 206,000,000 i

Net annual Increment ; 188,000,000

The annual Utilization is estimated at :—
Straits Settlements : . 75,000,000 cubic feet.
Federated States . . 150,000,000 bi
Unfederated States . 50,000,000 bs
Total utilization . . 275,000,000 is

Of this quantity, 25,000,000 cubic feet are timber and the rest is.
firewood.

9. Forest INDUSTRIES.

The only forest industry of any importance is lumbering and
firewood cutting, whereby some 30,000 people are employed for -
part of the year. A match factory is under erection at Selangor ;
wood distillation is under consideration. Other industries are all
onasmall scale, such as the collection of dammar and gutta-percha
tapping. Canes are extracted under licence. The leaves of Nipa
fruticans are used for thatching. Other small branches of
industry are cart and boat building, charcoal burning, the weaving -
of mats from species of Pandanus, the tapping of wood-oil trees, &c.

10. Exports AND IMPORTS.

The following data represent the annual averages of the years .
1913 to 1918 :—

Imports, £. Exports, £. Excess of Imports.
Timber .. 4239; 226e0 7. « 19,292 .. +119,934
Planks. >. ‘4D/083. ro, 16 1014s —135,065
Firewood . 69,467 ” 200 .. + 69,267

Charcoal . 29,181 .. 2,792 .. -—-+ 26,389

Totals. 282,957 .. 202,482 .. -+ 80,525

THE MALAY PENINSULA. 285

‘The quantities are not available. Most of the imports of timber
consist of teak from Siam. Mangrove firewood, charcoal and
Dipterocarp and Sapotaceous timber come from the Dutch East
Indies. Exports are mainly re-exports of rough-hewn timber
brought into the country for conversion at the Singapore saw-
mills. Generally, the imports are increasing and the exports
decreasing, pointing to increasing consumption in the peninsula.

The trade in other forest produce is confined to canes, gutta-
percha, dammar and mangrove bark, the bulk of which is imported
from overseas and re-exported.

11. SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK.

As the quantities of imports and exports cannot be given, the
summary is reduced to the following :—

Cubic feet.
The Utilization is equal to. . 275,000,000
The Net Increment is estimated at . . 188,000,000
The annual Deficit is equal to . . 87,000,000

In this statement the increment refers only to the merchantable
forests of the present time; the total increment of all forests is
considerably greater. The local authorities consider, however,
that, owing to the continual increase in consumption, the total
requirements will soon overtake the total increment, unless the
systematic management of the forests is considerably improved.

The matters which require more immediate attention are :—

(1) The declaration of a sufficient area as permanent State
forests.

(2) Restriction in alienating forest lands for other purposes.
(Fortunately the limit has already been reached as far as
rubber planting is concerned, an industry which has been
overdone.)

(3) Steps should be taken to prevent the terrible destruction of
timber and firewood practised by planters.

(4) Development of means of communication outside the limits
of the present merchantable forests, so as to increase the
area of merchantable forests.

(5) Introduction into the market of a larger number of species
than has been the case in the past.

286 FORESTRY IN THE CROWN COLONIES.

[. KENYA COLONY.
(See Sketch Map on p. 203.)

Kenya Colony is situated between latitude 4 south and 4 north.
It comprises an area of 245,000 square miles and has an estimated
population of 2,652,000 people, giving an average density of
11 per square mile.

1. GENERAL NOTES ON THE CouUNTRY.

Topography.—Along the coast on the east a fertile belt 10 to
20 miles wide is found, which comes under the influence of the
moisture-laden sea winds. This is followed, on going west, by
a belt with an elevation between 600 and 1,500 feet ; then comes
a good extent of country between 1,500 and 3,000 feet, and the
rest of the country is situated at an elevation over the latter
height, running up to about 6,000 feet in the north-western part,
and a maximum height of 12,880 feet in the south-west. It then
drops down steeply into the Rift valley to 6,000 feet and rises
again sharply to the Mau mountain on the west and an elevation
of 10,000 feet ; after that the country drops gradually to 3,300
feet at Lake Victoria.

There are two isolated mountain masses, Mount Kenya,
17,040 feet, on the east of the Rift, and Mount Elgon, 14,140 feet,
to the west, only one-half of the latter being within the Colony.
To the north, the country falls away towards Abyssinia, being
very sparsely watered and assuming the character of a desert.

The slopes of Mounts Kenya and Elgon and of the mountains
on either side of the Rift valley are covered with forest which are
the most important in the country.

There are no large navigable rivers. Tana and Juba, the two
most important, are navigable for shallow draft boats for a few
months in the year. The fertile part of the country is watered
by numerous small streams which have their sources in the
mountain forests or above them.

Climate.—The climate is essentially tropical, there being no
marked seasons of summer and winter ; the growth of vegetation
is limited only by dry weather conditions, and nearly all the trees
are evergreen. Apart from elevation, the temperature is equal,
and there are no extremes of heat or cold. The mean annual

KENYA COLONY. 287

temperature ranges between 59 degrees at 7,000 feet and 79 degrees
at Mombasa on the east coast. Frost is practically unknown
below 9,000 feet.

The rainfall is greatest on the west, and gradually diminishes
towards the east. The records are not sufficient to give a detailed
account of it; at an altitude of 6,600 on the western slope of the
Mau mountain the average fall is 76 inches, while it is 43 inches
between Nairobi and Kussumu. There are two seasons of rain,
from March to May and November to October ; to the west of the
Rift valley the former extends into August, while the rainfall
during the latter is less plentiful.

The mountain forests, situated in the heaviest rainfall areas,
play a most important part in the economy of the country ; they
protect the hill sides against erosion, and they conserve and
maintain the flow of water in the streams on which the prosperity
of agriculture depends, besides providing fuel, coal and oil not
having been found in the country.

2. Matin Types oF Forest GROWTH.

These are as follows :—

(a) Mangrove Swamps on creeks and inlets of the coast, the
principal species being Brugwera gymnorliza, Rhizophora mucro-
nata, Ceriops Candolliana, Sonneratia caseolaria, Avicennia
officinalis, Lumnitzera racemosa and Heritiera littoralis.

(6) Coast Forest, situated in the coast belt under the influence
of moist sea winds, formerly covered large areas, but only isolated
groups remain now, owing to shifting cultivation. The chief species
are Afzelia cuanzencis, Trachylobium Hornemannianum (Gum
Copal), Combretum Schumanni, Tamarindus indicus, Berlinia
spp., Brachystegia sp., Erythrophloewm guineense, Mimusops sp.

(c) Nyika Forest covers vast areas of waterless arid country
between the coast and the highlands ; it consists of impenetrable
thorn bush, but near the coast the trees are larger and form real
forests of Acacia spp., Brachylana sp., Afzelia, Dalbergia
Melanoxylon (Ebony), Cynometra sp., and numerous other species
not yet identified.

(d) Plains Forest on small detached areas below the main
mountain forest at an elevation between 5,000 and 6,500 feet only
on laterite soil, the more important species being Brachylena

288 FORESTRY IN THE CROWN COLONIES.

Hutchinsu, Croton Elliottanus, Toddalia sp., Rawsonia usam-
barensis, Markhamia Hildebrandtu, Drypetes sp., Warburgia
ugandensis, Strynos spp., and others.

(e) Mountain Forests, situated on Mount Kenya, Mount Elgon,
the slopes of the Aberdare mountains, the Mau-Elgeyo mountains
and elsewhere. They exceed in area the rest of the forests, and
they are divided into two main classes, the Muzaiti and the Cedar
forests. They spread from the plains forest up to the bamboo
forest above.

Muzati Forests occupy a moderate area, but contain a
large number of species, many of which attain large dimen-
sions. The most important species are Muzaite (Ocotea
usambarensis), Podocarpus milanjanus, Pygeum africa-
num, Allophyllus abysinnicus, Warburgia ugandensis, Cornus
Volkensui, Olea Hochstettert and others.

Cedar Forests are, from a commercial point of view, the
most important forests in the Colony; they clothe the
hillsides of most of the mountains, and contain a large
percentage of the conifers of the country, Cedar and Podo.
The chief species are : Juniperus procera (Cedar), Podocarpus
milanjianus (Podo), P. gracilior, Olea Hochstetterr. These 4
species represent nearly 70 per cent. of the trees in the forest ;
the remaining trees belong to a variety of genera, such as
Olea, Warburgia, Rapanea, Celtis, Toddalia and Dombeya.

(f) Bamboo Forest (Arundinaria alpina), is found between
7.500 and 10,000 feet ; then they are succeeded by open moorland,
characterised by giant heaths (Erica arborea), Hypericum laneo-
latum and H. Schimpert. 'The bamboo forest is almost pure, with
a few Podocarpus milanjianus in it.

3. AREA OF THE FORESTS.

The exact areas are not known and only rough estimates are

given ae Per cent. of
Class of Land. Square Miles. Total Area,
Agricultural Land 47,170 .... 1Oae
Forests, Merchantable . 3,600
Forests, Unprofitable . 1,500 5,100 .. 2-08
Other Lands. f : 192.790 .. 78°68

Total . ; 245,060 .. 100-00

KENYA COLONY. 289

Bamboo forests, estimated at 1,300 square miles, are included
under Merchantable Forests.
4. OWNERSHIP OF THE FORESTS.

The State has retained the ownership of nearly all the forests.
The classification is given as follows :—

Square Miles. Fat eee.
State Forests for Timber production 2,200 .. 43-14
Other State forests ; ; 22,800... 22%), 24:90
Total 5 ; . 291000) ) sete 98-04
Private forests ‘ ‘ : ; LOO ty ee 1:96
Grand total : , 4 5,100 -. 100-00

An area of 300 square miles is subject to a forest concession, which
will expire in 1957. Much of the forest has been cleared for
shifting cultivation, and in other parts all good timber has been
cut out.

5. Forest PRrRopucts.

Timber.—The more important timber trees have been given
above. Of these Cedar and Podo are the most important, and
next Muzaiti. Cedar has a wide distribution, reaches a height
of 90 to 100 feet, a diameter of 36 to 48 inches, and the timber
weighs 38 to 42 pounds per cubic foot, is durable and resists
termites, but it is hable to attacks by Fomes juniperinus. Podo,
a medium-sized tree, has a wide distribution; it is said to be
identical with the Yellow Wood of South Africa. Muzaiti
reaches a height of 120 feet and a diameter of 6 to 8 feet; its
timber weighs 34 to 36 pounds, is durable and resists termites.

Other Produce——(1) Fuel woods are important as there are,
apparently, no coal or oil in the Colony ; the demand is large for
power and domestic fires.

(2) Poles from mangrove forests, in large demand for export.

(3) Mangrove bark, but the supply is at present small.

(4) Bamboos and soft woods for paper pulp.

6. RELATIONSHIP OF THE STATE TO THE FORESTS.

A Forest Ordinance was passed in 1911, which contains provi-
sions for the better protection of the forests and gives powers,

amongst others, for the following purposes :—
VOL. I. U

290 FORESTRY IN THE CROWN COLONIES.

(a) To proclaim any area a “ forest area’’ and to make rules
for the protection of trees and other forest produce in
such area.

(6) Provision for proclaiming “ demarcated forests’’ and the
constitution of a board of 5 Forest Commissioners ; no
land within such areas to be alienated or rights granted
except with the approval of the Governor-in-Council and
the approval of not less than 2 Forest Commissioners.

(c) Provision of penalties for the breach of any rules published
under the Ordinance.

Amendments of the Ordinance were made in 1915—1916 for
special matters. General ‘‘ Rules made under the Ordinance ”
were published in 1912.

Administration —The forests are under the control of a Con-
servator of Forests who is assisted by 9 Assistant Conservators,
1 Forest Surveyor, 16 Foresters, 7 Assistant Foresters and 130
Forest Guards. The superior staff is recruited through the
Colonial Office, and the subordinate staff (Asiatics and Africans)
is locally instructed in its duties.

The objects chiefly aimed at by the Department are :—

(a) The conservation of the natural forests.

(6) Their protection against fire and against man.

(c) The exploitation of timber, firewood and other produce.

(dq) The regeneration of the forests and the introduction of
valuable exotic species.

The Cedar forests are very liable to damage by fire and their
protection is very difficult ; fire traces are cleared and the areas
are patrolled during seasons of drought, especially along railway
lines.

Some plantations have been established along the railways for
the supply of fuel. Planting has also been done in connection
with shifting cultivation. In forests worked for timber under
the selection system, the planting of groups has been introduced ;
efforts at natural regeneration have so far been very disappointing,
though cedar is said to regenerate readily if the mineral soil is
exposed.

Large nurseries of fast growing exotics have been established,
and the plants are sold by Government at cost price to settlers
and planters. Advice is also given by Government Officers.

KENYA COLONY. 291

7. REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.

The following table shows the average annual revenue and
expenditure during the years 1914—1919 :—

Revenue : = Expenditure : x
Timber . ; ne eae Kstablishments = 6,560
Firewood. : . 1,982 Travelling ; . 2 174
Nursery trees . ' 721 Labour . : . 1,663

Stores. ‘ ; 478
Total . . 9,943 Total 4 = 10:8io

The figures show a small deficit of £932.

8. INCREMENT, UTILIZATION AND INDUSTRIES.

No data are available to gauge the increment, and the estimates
which have been made are so vague that they had better not be
put on record. The same holds good as regards loss by fire, waste
and decay.

The output from the Government forests, 6 years’ average, is
given as 3,388,080 cubic feet of timber and firewood, valued at
£10,000.

Industries are at present restricted to the exploitation of timber
and firewood, but it is expected that the manufacture of paper
pulp from bamboos will be undertaken in the near future.

9. Exports AND IMPORTS.

The following data represent the averages for the 6 years ending
March 31st, 1919 :—

Quantity,

cubic feet. Value, £.
Exports, Timber : : é Oaiseek, ee ete
Imports, Timber . ; ; 1596427" 6. 725
Excess of Exports over Imports. -++ 167,779 .. — 4,852

The greater part of the exports consists of Mangrove poles for the
Persian Gulf and South Arabian ports. The export of other
timber, valued at £1240, is of little importance, the cost of putting

it on the market being as yet very high.
v2

292 FORESTRY IN THE CROWN COLONIES.

The imports have steadily decreased since 1914, but the value
per cubic foot has greatly increased. Prior to the war, the
imports consisted chiefly of conifers from Scandinavia and teak
from Burma.

10. SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK.

The question of increased export depends on the quality of
the indigenous timbers and the cost of getting them to the sea.
On the first point much further enquiry is necessary, while, at
present, a railway haulage of 400 miles is necessary to get the
timber to a port. Rapid progress in communications is said to
be taking place, so that all the forests will soon be accessible for
exploitation.

The object of the management of the State forest is, according
to the local forest authorities, to maintain and increase the yield
of timber. At the same time it is stated that the present rate of
cutting is in excess of the rate of growth, owing to the failure
to obtain natural regeneration. As a result there will be a
shortage of timber for a period in the districts near the line of the
Uganda railway as these forests have been drawn upon for the
supply of wood fuel for the railway.

It appears to the author that the first endeavour of the Forest
Department should be to obtain a more accurate knowledge of
the area, composition and yield capacity of the forests. Until
this has been obtained it is impossible to formulate a definite
forest policy for the future. Next, a rational estimate of the
requirements of the country, allowing for an expected increase,
should be made, and an area sufficient to yield that quantity
permanently should be converted into reserved State forests
and taken under efficient protection and management. More
particularly, shifting cultivation should be so regulated that
damage in the permanent State forests is avoided; the latter
should also be efficiently protected against fire. The opening out
of the country by the construction of appropriate means of
transport should receive adequate attention.

Professor Troup, of Oxford, has just inspected these forests
on behalf of the Secretary of State for the Colonies, and his report
will, no doubt, supply full information on the subject, though not
in time to be utilized on the present occasion.

UGANDA PROTECTORATE. 293

M. UGANDA PROTECTORATE.
(‘See sketch map on page 203.)

1. GENERAL NOTEs.

The Uganda Protectorate is situated between the Ist degree
south and the 5th degree north latitude, and the 30th and 36th
degree eastern longitude. Its area is given as 109,119 square
miles, of which 16,377 are water; its population as 3,361,117,
giving an average of 31 people to the square mile.

Topography.—The dominant features of the country are the
mountain ranges on the west, north and east. In the west the
Rewenzori rises to a height of 16,794 feet. The range in the
north reaches its greatest height in Mount Agora, with 9,400 feet.
On the east, Mount Elgon rises to 14,140 feet. A series of ridges
and foothills project for many miles into the lower levels, the
country being generally undulating, broken up by hills, rivers and
swamps. There are several large lakes in the country, most of
which are navigable.

The soil of the country is generally fertile, much of it consisting
of a deep ferruginous loam and black cotton soil.

Climate—The climate is, on the whole, very pleasant, though
not exactly a “‘ white man’s country.” The Nile valley is hot,
but the temperature on the mountain ranges is cool and even
cold, and varies little throughout the year. For most districts
the average temperature seems to move between 60 and 80 degrees.
The average rainfall of 43 stations is 53 inches, but it varies
generally between 25 and 70 inches. Entebbe has a fall of
57 inches with a mean temperature of 70 degrees.

2. Main Types oF ForEstTs.

The forests are said to be fairly well distributed over the country
but the information regarding them is very meagre. No attempt
has been made to arrange them into specific types. Certain
forests and various species are mentioned, the more important of
which seem to be : —

Minzero Forest, about 50 square miles, near Lake Victoria ;
species: Podocarpus gracilior, Baikee eminu, Xyloha emini,
Mimusops cuneifolia, Masopsis berchemoides, Alstonva congensis
and Parinarium excelsum.

294 FORESTRY IN THE CROWN COLONIES.

Mabira Forest, one of the best forests and very accessible,
140 square miles, close to Jinje Port on Lake Victoria, containing
much valuable timber and Funtumia elastica. Chief timbers :
Khaya anthotheca, Entandrophragma sp., Pygium africana,
Chlorophora excelsa, Dolichendrone platycalix, Cynometra Alexandra
Albizia coriarva, Maba sp.

Budongo and Bugoma Forests, near Lake Albert, about 320
square miles. Many fine trees, bamboos and rattan canes.
Species : Cynometra Alexandra (an iron wood, forms over 40 per
cent. of the stocking), Alstonia congensis, Khaya anthotheca,
Erythrophlaum quineense, Chrysophyllum spp., Warburgia ugan-
densis, Balanides Wilsonii, Cassia sieberiana and others.

Kabali Forest, in the western province, 230 square miles, at
present inaccessible. It contains many of the species already
mentioned, and, in addition, Dactylopetalum wugandensis,
Mimusops toroensis, Carapa sp., &c.

Malibigambo Forest, in western Ankoli, and about 40 miles
from Mbarara; it contains about the same species as Kabali
forest.

There are large unexamined forests on the slopes of Rewenzori
and Mount Elgon, which contain Podocarpus spp., Faurea
saligna, Erica arborea, Juniperus procera and bamboos.

In the Savannah forests occur the Shea Butter Tree (Butryos-
permum Parki), which covers large areas in the northern province,
and Chlorophora excelsa throughout the eastern province.

3. AREA AND OWNERSHIP OF FORESTS.

The Area of existing forests is estimated at not less than 1,200
to 1,400 square miles.

The Ownership of the forests belongs to the State, with the
exception of certain areas in the Budanda Kingdom.

4, RELATIONSHIP OF THE STATE TO THE FORESTS.

Legislation.—The Forest Ordinances and Rules provide for the
control of the State forests.

The forests being chiefly evergreen, special fire protection has
not been considered necessary in the past, but it is now being

UGANDA PROTECTORATE. 295

instituted in the eastern province, where Chlorophora excelsa,
growing on open grass land, has suffered considerably from fires.

The natural regeneration of the more valuable species in the
natural forests is not good. A considerable area of open land
has lately been reserved for planting, and about 450 acres have
been stocked, but no details as to species, &c., are available.

Comparatively little is done to assist private individuals, as
such assistance is seldom asked for.

The Forest Authority—The Chief Forest Officer has almost
complete control over the Government forests. He is assisted
by two Assistant Forest Officers, a Manager of the Government
Timber Supply, and a Native staff of foresters, guards and clerks.
The essential duties of the staff are the exploitation, survey and
demarcation of forest areas, the conservation and development
of their resources, the issue of permits, the collection of forest
revenue, &c. The superior staff is recruited through the Colonial
Office. The native staff is given some training at centres where
work is proceeding.

Details of revenue and expenses are not available. There is
nothing to record as regards forest activity of municipalities, or
private persons, societies and research. No data are available
from which the Increment, Utilization, Lnports or Exports could
be ascertained.

5. SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK.

It is believed by the local authorities that the annual cut is
much less than the increment of all the forests, but the increment
of the species at present exploited may be less than their utiliza-
tion, owing to their being mostly mature trees with little regenera-
tion. The object of the Department is, therefore, to bring, by
proper silvicultural methods, the forests into a more normal
condition, so as to provide a sustained and increasing yield.

The most urgent measure is the systematic exploration of the
forests, to locate them and to estimate their areas, map them,
estimate their contents and yield capacity. The latter should
then be compared with future requirements and a scheme of
management determined accordingly.

Professor Troup’s forthcoming report is likely to replace this
meagre account.

296 FORESTRY IN THE CROWN COLONIES.

N. NYASALAND.
(See sketch map on page 203.)
1. GENERAL NOTES.

The Nyasaland Protectorate is a strip of country about 520
miles long and from 50 to 100 miles broad, lying approximately
between the 10th and 17th degrees south latitude and 33rd and
36th degrees east longitude. It has an area of about 43,608 square
miles and a population of 1,158,000 people, giving 26 to the square
mile.

Topography.—A large proportion of the Protectorate is moun-
tainous and hilly country, which rises rapidly from 160 feet at the
southern end to a general altitude varying from 2,000 to 4,000 feet.
There are several mountain ranges which reach a maximum
height of 9,843 feet. Lake Nyasa runs along the eastern boundary
of the Protectorate. From it issues the River Shire and runs in
a southerly direction.

Nyasaland is composed chiefly of metamorphic gneisses and
schists. Graphite is of fairly frequent occurrence. Iron ores
also occur. Crystalline limestone is found in a few places. There
are also mica and tale schists. Through the gneisses and schists
igneous rocks have intruded. Small outcrops of coal have been
found.

Climate-—Nyasaland has two well defined seasons, the rainy
season from November to April, and the dry season from
May to October. The mean annual rainfall differs from 30
to 107 inches. In the mountainous country bordering Lake
Nyasa the rainfall varies from 65 to 95 inches, but throughout
the greater part of the country, especially that which lies
between 2,000 and 4,000 feet, the rainfall varies between 30 and
50 inches.

The temperature in the Shire valley and on the southern shore
of Lake Nyasa frequently rises to between 100 and 115 degrees
in the shade during October and the early part of November,
though the mean maximum for these tracts is about 88 degrees
and the mean minimum 62. Throughout the highlands and
elevated plains generally, the temperature during the hottest
part of the year rarely exceeds 95 degrees.

NYASALAND. 297

2. Main Types or Forest GRrowTH.

The local authorities divide the forest vegetation according to
elevation into three main groups :—

On the black cotton soil flats at elevations under 2,000 feet,
Acacias are found in abundance, namely, A. nigrescens, pennata,
Kirku, arabica, albida, lasiopetala and suma. In the Shire
valley fairly large stretches of almost pure Copazfera mopana
forests are met with on sandy soils; also Borassus palm and
Hyphene crinata on the sandy flats at the south end of Lake
Nyasa. Other conspicuous trees of the hot dry country are
Adansonia digitata, Cordyla africana, Prosopis Kirkw, Dalbergia
Melanoxylon, Odina Wodver, Kirkia acuminata, Tamarindus
indica, and several species of Sterculia.

At all elevations between 1,000 and 4,000 feet, chiefly in the
vicinity of streams, the more important timber trees are Khaya
senegalensis, Adina microcephala, Piptadenia Buchanania and
Erythrophlaum guineense. In the woods away from the banks of
streams, the trees are mostly small, the most abundant kinds
being Uapaca Kirkiana and several species of Brachystegia. Other
trees appearing in this section are Pterocarpus angolensis, Albizia
spp., Terminalia sericia and others. There are also thickets of
useful bamboos.

Between 4,000 and 7,000 feet elevation on the Mlanje mountain,
patches of cypress (Widdringtonia Whyter) are the only bits of
really heavy timber forest, scattered through which Podocarpus
milanjiana, a small tree, is found. The more open patches
between those of cypress are usually covered with a thick growth
of tall shrubs.

The most important timbers are the Cypress, African Mahogany
(Khaya senegalensis), Adina merocephala, Piptadenia Buchanania
and Pterocarpus angolensis. Rubber-yielding plants are repre-
sented by species of Landolphia.

3. THe AREA AND OWNERSHIP OF THE FORESTS.

This is not known; that of the cypress patches amounts to
about 4 square miles.

Ownership of Forests.—The area of the land privately owned by
Europeans is roughly 5,900 square miles ; all the rest is Crown

298 FORESTRY IN THE CROWN COLONIES.

land ; much of it is occupied by natives, inside and outside the
forests.

4. RELATIONSHIP OF THE STATE TO THE FORESTS.

Legislation—A Forest Ordinance of 1911, a Crown Lands
Ordinance of 1912, and subsequent further Regulations deal,
apparently, chiefly with regulating and controlling the cutting
of trees on leased lands, especially as regards the Khaya sene-
galensis, the payment of royalties, &c. It is also laid down
that, in the cases of leases of land, during the first 4 years an area
equal to 10 per cent. of the total cultivated area shall be planted
with approved species of forest trees and cultivated to the satis-
faction of the Chief Forest Officer, that area to be subsequently
raised to 20 per cent. of the cultivated area.

Administrative Methods.—The cypress woods are the only areas
of natural forests at present protected against fire. The natural
regeneration of these woods is somewhat poor, owing to a dense
undergrowth. During the last 15 years a beginning has been
made with plantations, and the following areas have, up to date,
been stocked : With Cypress, 440 acres; Eucalypts, 380 acres ;
other species, 25 acres; total, 845 acres. The Cypress planta-
tions are making satisfactory progress, and the EKucalypts are
making remarkable growth on good deep soil. Nursery plants
have been supplied to natives free of charge.

The Forest Authority is a division of the Department of Agricul-
ture, its staff in October, 1918, consisting of 1 European Forest
officer and a number of native overseers and guards. A second
Officer has now been added.

For the 5 years, 1915—1919, the average annual receipts
amounted to £1,127, and the expenses to £975. The expenditure
does not include the cost of labour employed in cutting timber for
the Public Works Department. On the other hand, timber
and firewood are given free of royalties to all Government
Departments.

Private Actiwity—European tobacco growers have planted
about 2,500 acres chiefly with Kucalypts for the production of
poles and firewood, owing to the growing scarcity of such
material in some of the more densely populated localities.

Experimental Work.—A forest arboretum, extending over

SWAZILAND. 299

35 acres, has been established, in which a variety of trees have
been planted. Of these, Cedrela Toona is making rapid and
vigorous growth, and it should be extensively planted. Many
Eucalypts have done well, especially E. salygna, rostrata, and
others. In deep, alluvial soil, Tectona grandis has made quite
good growth but not in the ordinary red, clayey soils. Other trees
which have done well are species of Callitris, Araucaria, Cupressus
and Artocarpus fraxinifolius.

5. INCREMENT AND UTILIZATION.

No data are available. No timber is exported from Nyasaland,
and the imports are very small.

6. SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK.

The normal annual consumption of sawn cypress timber by
Government Departments is given as about 13,000 cubic feet.
There should be no difficulty in supplying that quantity from the
2,200 acres of natural forests, of which about 1,500 are at present
accessible. It is stated that, apart from the cypress forests, there
is a lack of big timber, and that there is a growing scarcity of pole
and firewood throughout the inhabited portions of the country.
Under these circumstances, it is urgently necessary to ascertain
as rapidly as possible the actual supplies as yet available and the
demands likely to arise in the future. On the basis of the data
thus obtained, a scheme of future forest policy should be drawn
up. Above all, an increased and competent staff should be
secured to carry out that programme, and more particularly to
select and organise the area of permanent State forests necessary
to secure future requirements of forest produce. This, it appears,
would involve the establishment of a considerable area of
plantations.

O. SWAZILAND.

Swaziland is situated on the eastern boundary of the Transvaal
between the 253 and 273 degrees of southern latitude. It has an
area of 6,500 square miles and a population of about 100,00, or
about 15 to the square mile.

For the purpose of Forestry the country may be divided into
two parts, the higher and the lower veld. The higher veld

300 FORESTRY IN THE CROWN COLONIES.

comprises all the hilly part of the country at an elevation of
2,400 feet and over, amounting to about two-thirds of the country.
There is not much commercial timber in this part; it consists
chiefly of grasslands, but the banks of streams are fringed with
trees. These fringes have been deprived of any useful timber
wherever they were accessible.

In the lower veld the country is generally of a park-like
character. The timber is rarely of large size, and of doubtful
commercial value. There is a variety of species but none of
outstanding merit. They are approximately the same as those
which are found in Natal and Zululand.

Experimental plantations extending over about 150 acres have
been made with exotic trees, which show that the following
species thrive well in the higher veld: All kinds of Kucalypts,
many pines and cypresses, the Australian wattles, and oaks.

P. SOUTHERN RHODESIA.
(See sketch map on p. 203.)

1. GENERAL NOTES.

Southern Rhodesia is situated between the 15} and 224 degrees
south latitude and 25th and 33rd degrees east longitude. It has
an area of about 152,500 square miles, and a population of
838,284, of which 38,284 are Europeans; density about 5 to the
square mile.

Topography.—The territory is divided into 2 parts by a water-
shed which runs, approximately, from south-west to north-east
from Tegwan to Bulawayo, Gwelo, Charter and Marandellas,
where it joins the mountain range on the eastern frontier with
heights between 7,000 and 8,000 feet. The Rhodesian watershed
keeps within a height of 4,500 and 5,000 feet. The area to the
north-west of the divide is greater than that to the south-east.
The slopes on both sides of the divide are relatively gentle, and
in consequence, there is not much difference between them from
a forest point of view, except that the south-eastern slopes are
slightly cooler and somewhat moister, than those on the north-
west.

Greology.—There are two great geological divisions :—

(1) The ancient metamorphic rocks which have been invaded

SOUTHERN RHODESIA. 301

by granite and other intrusive rocks and contain all the
gold reefs of the territory. The rocks of this division are
the foundations of the country. They form all the high-
lands and much of the lower lying districts.

(2) Later sediments and lavas, including the coal measures and
the basalts of the Victoria Falls. The larger and better
known portion belongs to the Karroo system, having at
its base the coal beds.

The gneissic granite usually forms a rolling bush-covered
country of low relief, while the massive granite builds “ castle ”
and “ball” kopjes, which form such a characteristic feature of
the scenery.

Soils.—Owing to the configuration of the surface and the nature
of the rainfall, the extent of alluvial soil is very limited. The
soils which cover the widest area are the following :—

(1) The Red Clay Soil, occurs from end to end of Southern
Rhodesia and is derived from the greenstone schists of
the metamorphic group of rocks. These red clay soils
are poor in lime.

(2) The Granite Soil, including the Gneiss soils, are generally
gritty clay of a mixed grain.

(3) The Sandstone Soils are found over wide areas in the
northern part of the country. Wind and water have
played their parts in the formation.

(4) The Black Soil is well known for its fertility. It is not
confined to depressions (vleis), but is also found on the flat
tops of tabular hills lying there upon the level basalt
lavas.

Climate.—There are two seasons, the rainy season from October
to March, and the dry season, comprising the other six months.
The rains are evidently due to the moisture-laden winds from the
Indian Ocean; they diminish in intensity on going westward
from the ridge of high altitude running parallel with the east
coast, from about 40 to about 20 inches.

The dry season has very little rain, and an absolute absence of
rain during 4 consecutive months has been fairly frequent. On
the Rhodesian plateau between Bulawayo and Salisbury the
temperature varies between 72 in January and 56 in July. On
the low-lying lands towards the Limpopo or the Zambesi and in

302 FORESTRY IN THE CROWN COLONIES.

the Sabi valley the heat is more intense and temperatures between
100 and 110 are not rare. Frosts at night occur every year.
Droughts occur occasionally and are responsible for considerable
mortality amongst indigenous and exotic trees.

2. Main Types oF Forest GRowTHs.

Southern Rhodesia is well wooded, being covered more or less
with trees and shrubs over about 60 per cent. of the entire area.
The forest growth can conveniently be divided into two main
types :—

(1) High or Close-Type Forest.

(a) Evergreen forest consisting of tall trees up to 200 feet in
height with Ahaya nyasica dominant.

(6) Evergreen forest of the upper mountain slopes with trees
up to 80 feet in height, with Cussonia umbellifera and
Eugenia spp. dominant.

(2) Savannah Forest.

(a) Deciduous forest confined to the Kalahari sand belts in the
north-west portions of the territory, with Baikiwa
pluryuga dominant.

(b) Deciduous forest confined usually to lower slopes and
valley bottoms in the hotter parts, irrespective of the
geological formation, with Coparfera mopant dominant.

(c) Deciduous forest spread over the greater part of the
plateau and hills, irrespective of the geological forma-
tion, with Brachystegia spp. dominant.

The number of species in the several types is considerable, and
certain species are found scattered in most of them, notably
Diospyrus mespiliformis. There is also a stream-bank flora,
which has characteristics of its own, and in different parts of the
country has different constituent members.

With the exception of a small area on the mountain ranges,
which has high or close-type forests in specially favoured spots,
the forests are of savannah type with a park-like appearance.
The trees, as a rule, are small with large spreading branches.
The recurring veld fires do a considerable amount of damage, so
that trees of large dimensions are mostly faulty and of little
economic value, except for fuel.

SOUTHERN RHODESIA. 303

3. AREA AND OWNERSHIP OF THE FORESTS.

Square Miles. Tosties,

Agricultural Land . : 2200 ae wo

Forests, Merchantable . 18,300 sete 0)

Forests, Unmerchantable . 73,200 .. 48:0

Total Forests : 91,500 .. 60-0

Other Land. . : 5S. (9 sa ero

Grand Total. : 152,500 .. 100:0

The different types of forest participate in the area as follows :—

Square Miles.
Type la. Khaya forests : : 2
Type lb. Cussonia and Eugenia. 20
Type 2a. Baikea ; : : . Oiat
Type 2b. Copaifera . : . 18,285
Type 2c. Brachystegia. . 64,048
Forest of exotic Trees. ; 4
Total : : ; ; SP 9dg500

The division of the area according to proprietorship, is as
follows :—

State Forests : Square Miles. Tae
For Timber production ; — —
Other Forests. . icy <SGLGOOR ALE 40

Total State Forests 2 750,000) ee 40
Corporation Forests. > ES; OOUN ere. 20
Forests of Private Individuals . 36,600 .. 40

Potal::.: : ; ‘tI 50O nm at 400

4. ImporRTANT TIMBERS AND OTHER PRODUCE.

The most important timbers are :—

Lovoa Swynnertoni, called “ brown mahogany,” a huge tree
attaining up to 160 feet in height with a straight bole up to
90 feet long and a diameter up to 6 feet. Heartwood very durable.

Khaya nyasica, red mahogany, a huge tree of the same class
timber with handsome grain and durable.

304 FORESTRY IN THE CROWN COLONIES.

Trichelia chirindensis and emetica, the former a large, and the
latter a smaller tree. The timber of both is valuable.

Schefflerodendron gazense, large tree, timber hard and heavy.

Pygeum africanum, large tree, one of the best South African
timbers.

Callitris Whytes, a medium sized tree, the best local timber.

The above are all trees of the Close-type forests. The following
trees belong to the Savannah forests :—

Baikiea pluryuga, Rhodesian teak or Red wood, timber hard,
heavy and durable. Boles short, up to 20 feet long.

Copaifera colesperma, a mahogany, fairly large tree, otherwise
like the former tree.

Pierocarpus erinaceous, called ‘‘ bloodwood,”’ widely distributed,
the heartwood excellent for cabinet work.

Afzelia cuanzensis, pod mahogany, a handsome tree with
valuable timber, useful for furniture, waggons, &c.

Diospyrus mespiliformis, widely distributed over South
Rhodesia, timber excellent for waggon building, mining work and
carpentry.

There are many other kinds of useful timbers, but the kinds
which could replace the softwoods are extremely limited. Hence,
it would be desirable to plant suitable softwoods (conifers) with
a view to replacing the imports later on.

5. RELATIONSHIP OF THE STATE AND THE FORESTS.

Legislation.—The laws in force dealing with aspects of forestry
are the “Forest and Herbage Act, 1859,” of Cape Colony,
Ordinances of the Rhodesian Legislative Council and Regulations
framed thereunder. The right to cut wood for legitimate mining
purposes was secured to the mining industry under the “ Mines
and Minerals Ordinance, 1903,” and an Amendment Ordinance,
1908. Under these Regulations 60 per cent. of the mines obtain
their wood supplies free of royalty, but, owing to scarcity in
certain localities, 40 per cent. of the mines have to pay full market
price for the necessary wood. Certain restrictions are imposed,
such as the prohibition of cutting trees under 3 inches diameter,
or of cutting within 50 feet on either side of the banks of all
public streams. In 1913 an Ordinance was issued to prevent the

SOUTHERN RHODESIA. 305

destruction of herbage, trees, and shrubs by fire. Certain species
of trees are specially protected in various districts.

The recent appointment of a trained forest officer is likely to
lead to further legislation, more particularly as regards fire
protection, the planting of light woods and natural regeneration.

Assistance given to Forestry—Nursery stock has been given
at lowrates ; the number of trees amounted in 1919 to 109,000.

The Forest Authority consists at present of 1 trained Forest
Officer who is subordinate to the Director of Agriculture. He was
appointed in January, 1920.

Education, Research and Experimental Work.—Certain data
bearing on various aspects of forestry have in the past been
published in the Journal of Agriculture. A limited amount of
research work has been undertaken on the properties and uses of
timbers and other forest produce. Experiments with indigenous
and exotic species have been made in the Salisbury nursery. No
other facilities for instruction in forestry exist as yet, but
considerable interest in the growing of timber is now taken, and
there is a reasonable prospect that in time the country’s wants
will be supplied from home-grown timber.

6. INCREMENT AND UTILIZATION.

The data available at the present time are not sufficient for
even an approximately correct account of either the increment
or utilization ; only rough estimates can be given. The following
information has been given by the local Forest Officer. The
growing stock in the 91,500 square miles of indigenous forest is
estimated at 11,771,187,200 cubic feet, which gives an average of
201 cubic feet per acre.

The increment on the 73,200 square miles of at present inacces-
sible forests is estimated as equal to the annual waste by fire and
natural decay. The net increment on the 18,300 square miles
of merchantable forest is estimated at 42,681,472 cubic feet, or
about 4 cubic feet per acre and year.

The annual utilization has been estimated at :—

Cubic feet. Value, £.

Sawn timber, mine props, poles, &c. . 4,801,553 .. 92,714
Fuel for Europeans, Natives and Mines 56,656,800 .. 71,427
Total Timber and Fuel . py G)) 458,353 Inas f 164,141

VOL. I. x

306 FORESTRY IN THE CROWN COLONIES.

7. Exports AND Imports OF TIMBER.

The data supplied by the local authorities are not quite clear ;
they are believed to be :—

Cubic feet. Value, £.
Exports . ; : . 934,121 aig 10,490
Imports. : ; . 258,122 oy 42,536
Excess of Imports . 224,001 a 32,046

8. SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK.

Cubic feet.

Utilization. } : : ; .’ "61458)39e
Less Exports . : : ‘ : . 34,121
61,424,232
Plus Imports . ‘ ; : : ‘ 258,122
Total Home Consumption ; F . 61,682,354
Annual Increment . : : : . 42,681,472

Excess of Consumption over Increment 19,000,882

This deficiency is likely to increase considerably, as the popula-
tion is sure to increase, causing not only a larger consumption but
also deforestation of wooded areas. On the other hand, additional
areas can be made accessible to traffic, and the forest authority
should take immediate steps to reduce waste and to improve the
annual increment by a more careful management of the forests.
In addition to these measures, early steps should be taken to
establish permanent State forests on unalienated land, sufficient
to secure a permanent supply of timber and other forest produce ;
to take these areas under systematic management, and to induce
private proprietors of forests, as far as possible, to husband the
existing stocks. It is also desirable to establish a considerable

area of soft woods by planting fast-growing species, especially
conifers.

Q. NIGERIA.
See sketch map on page 203.
I pag

Nigeria is situated between 4th and 14th degrees north latitude
and 3rd and 14th degrees east longitude. It has an area of

NIGERIA. 307

335,700 square miles, and a population of 17,250,000 people, or
51 to the square mile.

1. SHort DESCRIPTION OF THE TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE.

The country may be divided into 4 main zones differing in their
characteristics, namely :—

(a) A belt of swamp and mangrove forest which follows the
coastline and varies from 10 to 60 miles in width, including
the delta of the Niger, and intersected by numerous rivers
and creeks.

(6) A belt of dense tropical forest from 50 to 100 miles broad,
intersected by rivers and streams, and very rich in oil
palm trees, which constitute at present the chief wealth
of Nigeria. The ground is undulating with a few scattered
hills, but there is no open ground except around villages
and for farms. This belt changes gradually into (c).

(c) A belt of more open country which gradually becomes
clearer and parklike, being followed by open expanses
covered with high grass. This zone is hilly. It is
followed to the north by (d).

(d) A vast undulating plateau at about 2,000 feet elevation
with occasional hills of granite and sandstone rising to
over 6,000 feet. The southern part of the plateau is
covered with thin forest, but the country becomes more
open towards the north, until at last the sandy tracts are
reached which border on the Sahara.

The main river of the country is, of course, the Niger. It rises
to the north-east of Sierra Leone, and after flowing for hundreds
of miles through French territory, enters Nigeria from the west,
runs in a south-easterly direction, takes in the Benue, its principal
tributary, at Lokoja, about 250 miles from the sea ; it then flows
to the south until it reaches about 5} latitude, when it divides
into numerous interlacing channels, which empty their waters
into the Gulf of Guinea. Two other important tributaries, the
Sokoto and Kaduna, join the Niger within Nigerian territory.
The only other river of importance is the Cross, which enters the
sea close to the eastern boundary.

The Climate of Nigeria is not good, except perhaps on the

northern plateau; hence, Huropeans require a periodical return
x 2

308 FORESTRY IN THE CROWN COLONIES.

to a more temperate climate. The seasons are well defined. The
dry season lasts in the south from November to March, and the
rainy season occupies the other 7 months ; in the north the latter
is reduced to about 5 months. During the dry season the
“ Harmattan ” blows, a north-easterly wind which brings with
it from the Sahara a thick haze composed of minute particles of
dust. During the harmattan the nights and early mornings are
cold, but the days are very hot.

The Temperature varies, according to situation and elevation,
as follows :—

Minimum from 45 to 70 degrees.
Maximum from 93 to 117 degrees.
Mean annual from 72 to 84 degrees.

Rainfall—The approach of the monsoon or “ rainy season ” is
inaugurated by numerous tornadoes. In the south the wind then
blows from the south-west bringing a heavy rainfall to the country
near the coast, which gradually decreases on proceeding inland.
In the Niger delta the fall varies between 100 and 150 inches.
Then comes a belt with a fall between 75 and 100 inches, which,
near the northern edge of Lower Nigeria is reduced to below
75 inches. The rainfall of Northern Nigeria does not exceed
about 56 inches, and on the northern edge as little as 16 inches
have been recorded.

2. Main Types or Forest GROWTH.

The character of the different types of Nigerian forest is, apart
from elevation, mainly determined by the amount of water at the
disposal of the plants. They are :—

(a) The Mangrove Swamp Forest is confined to the tidal areas
of the rivers and lagoons, between high and low water
mark. The forest practically consists of Rhizophora
racemosa, Rh. mangle and Avicennia africana.

(6) The Freshwater Swamp Forests occur chiefly in the vicinity
of the larger rivers, and they are often due to their
overflow ; they occur also in the deeper valleys of the
hills. Important species are Lophira procera (the Red
Iron Wood), Mitragyne macrophylla, also Raphia vinifera
(the Bamboo Palm), and Calamus Bartert. The red iron
wood is considered the most durable timber on the West

NIGERIA. 309

coast ; the fruit of the tree is rich in oil. The valuable
““piassava fibre”? is prepared from the leaves of the
bamboo palm.

{c) The Moist Evergreen Forest contains trees of very lofty
growth scattered amongst those of more moderate
height. Amongst the largest are: The Khayas spp.
(Mahoganies), Entandrophragmas (Scented Mahoganies),
Chlorophora excelsa (West African Teak), species of
Triplochiton, Terminalia, Eriodendron, Bombax, Mimu-
sops and others. Other components are species of
Gaurea, Lovoa, Parkia, Alstonia, Funtumia, Pterocarpus,
Canarium, Elacis quineensis (the Oil Palm), and many
others. This type of forest is the most valuable in the
country ; it forms a belt lying 50 to 100 miles from the
coast and is confined to the zone of heavy rainfall ; much
of it has been destroyed by the natives for agricultural
purposes. Many of the trees are also found over extensive
tracts which have a smaller rainfall. This type of forest
is found in the vicinity of the larger rivers and other
collections of water and is then called “ Fringing
Forest.”

(d) Mixed Deciduous Forest, with a well-marked dry season, is
rich in plants of economic value. It contains a number
of evergreen species from the moist evergreen forest,
which are generally found in the moist parts near streams
or on northern aspects, while the deciduous species occur
mainly on the drier soil and on southern and western
aspects. The number of species is large, such as Sterculia
spp., Zanthoxylon senegalensis, Afzelia africana, Albizzia
fastigata, Afrormosia laxiflora, Mimusops sp., Ficus,
Diospyrus, Terminalia, Funtumia, &c.

(e) Savannah Forest is a parklike formation, rich in herbs and
grasses. The number of trees varies with the nature of
the soil. On stiff laterite the trees are widely scattered
and dwarfed, while alluvial hollows and narrow valleys
are well stocked, though not to the same extent as the
mixed deciduous forest. Fires occur early in the dry
season and do great damage. The average height of the
trees is less than in the moist evergreen and deciduous

310 FORESTRY IN THE CROWN COLONIES.

forest, but occasionally gigantic specimens of Chlorophora
excelsa, Eriodendron anfractuosum and Adansonia digitata
(baobab) are met with. Other trees are: Khaya sene-
galensis, Pseudicedrella Kotschyi, Tamarindus indica,
Parkia, Afzelia, Acacia, Anogeissus, Terminalia, Vitex,
Lophira alata, Borassus Aithiopica (the Fan Palm), and
Phenix reclinata (the wild Date Palm).

(f) Thorn Forest exists in the dry northern part of the country,
consisting largely of Acacias, of which the gum-yielding
species are A. verek, seyal, arabica and Steberiana. These
gum forests gradually give way to low, open, thorny
scrub in the vicinity of the desert.

3. AREA AND OWNERSHIP OF THE FORESTS.

The available information is as yet very deficient, and the
following data are mere estimates in square miles :—

Per cent. of

Total Area.
Agricultural Land : 100,800 “nee 30
Forest, Merchantable . 50,400 <r eo
Forest, Unprofitable . 168,000 hens 5 ¥DU
Total Forest ‘ 218,400 ~~... he
Other Land . : E 16500" == 5
Grand Total : 335,700) 23-2800

The areas are continually undergoing reduction owing to the
shifting cultivation practised by the natives. Roughly speaking,
at the present time the forest area is divided as follows :—

Per Cent.
Mangrove jungle . : : . 2
Tropical rain forest : ; tu
Mixed deciduous forest . ; : 8
Savannah and Bush : : fen: ie
Desert, scrub and water. ; : 5
Cultivated and fallow land. CA |

Total : : : oH HO0

NIGERIA. ol

The greater part of the forests has been entered as at present
“unprofitable,” and even of the merchantable forests only a
small part has so far been exploited, owing to the primitive
methods of extraction, the radius of exploitation being limited
to 3 miles from the main waterways.

4. OWNERSHIP OF THE FORESTS.

Practically all the forests belong to the native tribes and
communities of Nigeria ; there is no individual ownership. Some
forests have been given to Government, others have been con-
stituted reserves by agreement with the Emirs or paramount
chiefs. All forest reserves are under State control and
management.

Square Miles. Tota asee:
Areas belonging to the State . ; 3,144 .. 1:48
Areas belonging to Corporate Bodies 215,256 .. 98-57
Total 3 ; ; . 218,400 .. 100°00

5. ImporTANT PRODUCE.
Timbers.

The so-called “ Protected Trees” are entered in a schedule
issued under the Forestry Ordinance, arranged into a number of
classes. Those of the first and second class are the following :—

Class I—Khaya spp. (Mahoganies), found in the tropical
evergreen and mixed deciduous forests. No tree under 11 feet
girth is allowed to be cut.

Entandrophragma spp. (Scented Mahoganies) grow to a larger
size than the Khayas found in the same localities. Minimum
girth for cutting, 11 feet.

Chlorophora excelsa (known as Iroko or African Teak) is one of
the best Nigerian timbers. Weight about 49 lbs. per cubic foot.

Gaurea Thompsonii and other species (Cedars) are found in the
moist evergreen forest producing good timber, of which small
quantities are exported.

Lovoa Kleineana (sold as Walnut), a tree of the moist evergreen
forest, a good timber, obtainable in large sizes.

Sarcocephalus esculentus, a large tree, used for canoes; a
valuable timber, durable.

312 FORESTRY IN THE CROWN COLONIES.

Class II.—Mimusops @jave, a gigantic tree, good timber, found
in moist evergreen forest, not very plentiful.

Canarvum Schweinfurthii, found in moist evergreen forest, good
timber.

Detarium guineensis, in the mixed deciduous forest, great size,
good timber ; this and D. senegalensis are found in the Savannah
forest.

Afzelia africana, a large tree of the mixed deciduous forest, a
valuable timber.

Lophira procera, a large tree of the swamp and evergreen forest,
a hard timber; the most durable timber known in Nigeria ;
weight 72 lbs. per cubic foot.

Other Forest Produce.

The most valuable forest produce is the palm oil, obtained from
Eleis guineensis. The tree yields both the palm oil and palm
kernels of commerce ; it also provides the natives with palm wine.

Raphia vinifera produces “ piassava”’ fibre and also a palm
wine.

Borassus ethiopica stems, when split up, make very good
rafters, much used for native houses.

Rubber from Funtumia elastica, Landolphia sp. and Clitandra
sp. is a rapidly decreasing product.

The Public Works Department uses chiefly the following
timbers: Chlorophora excelsa, Sarcocephalus esculentus, Mutra-
gyne macrophylla, Terminalia superba, Lophira procera, Erythro-
phleum guineense and EF. micranthum. The most frequently
exported timbers are: the Mahoganies (Khaya spp.), the so-called
Cedars (Entandrophragma spp.) and the Walnuts (Lovoa and
Gaurea spp.).

6. RELATIONSHIP OF THE STATE TO THE FORESTS.

Legislation—Under the Forestry Ordinance of 1916 the
Governor may :—
(a) Appoint Forest Officers.
(b) Constitute certain lands as Forest Reserves.
(c) Acquire from any native or native community by agreement
any lands producing or suitable for producing forest
produce, or the right to take forest produce.

NIGERIA. 313

(d) Prohibit certain acts in a Forest Reserve.

(e) Make regulations to protect and regulate the taking of
forest produce both in reserved and unreserved forests,
and to provide for the collection, payment and the
disposal of fees and royalties on forest produce.

The Regulations constitute certain timbers “ protected timber,”
and this may not be taken for sale or export until the prescribed
fees and royalties have been paid.

The protected trees are arranged into 8 classes according to
value. The fees range from 92 shillings for mahogany to 3 pence
per tree for mangrove poles, and the royalties from 20 shillings for
mahogany trees to 6 pence. A minimum girth limit is also fixed
for all trees, ranging from 11 feet for mahogany to 3 feet.

Certain articles of minor produce such as rubber, bamboos,
fibres and grass are also protected, and fees and royalties fixed for
them.

Timber licences are granted by owners of protected trees on
native and communal lands, with the consent of the Governor,
for areas not exceeding 100 square miles, for a period of 5 years,
with the right of renewal with the approval of the Director of
Forestry. Detailed conditions are appended to the licence, one
of which provides for the planting of 24 seedlings for every big
tree cut. Similar permits are given for the removal of minor
produce.

It will be seen that the State has authority to protect and
control the management of the forests, but the Forest Authority
is not supreme, as forest reserves cannot be constituted without
the consent of the native owners of the land. Such consent,
though frequently obtained by the exercise of political and
administrative influence, is not always given, in which case the
State is powerless to act. -

It is an offence under the Forestry Ordinance to set fire to any
grass in a forest reserve without taking due precaution to prevent
its spreading.

With a view to the regeneration of the natural forests, some
planting has been done on cut-over and old farmed land, and such
plantations are extended yearly.

Most of the forestry in Nigeria is carried on by the Government.
Some Native Administrations have their own forest staff, but in

314 FORESTRY IN THE CROWN COLONIES.

nearly all cases the work is carried out under the advice of a
Government forest officer.

The Forest Authority —The present staff is as follows : Director
of Forests, 1; Conservators of Forests, 11; Assistant Conser-
vators, 12; European Foresters, 13; Native Staff Rangers,
Foresters and Forest Guards, 250.

Conservators hold charge of Circles, and Assistant Conservators
of Divisions. European Foresters are in charge of plantations
and departmental timber exploitations under a Conservator.
Practically all charges correspond with the political divisions of
the country.

The functions of the Department are at present confined to
administering the provisions of the Forest Ordinance as regards.
protected trees and protected minor produce, the constitution of
forest reserves and to experimental planting. When the staff
has been increased it will be possible to undertake a more detailed
inventory of the forests and the preparation of Working Plans.

The cost of the Department is as follows :-—

£
Cost of staff . ‘ ‘ 17,305
Other charges . : LOMO
Total cost . ‘ 27,410
Receipts . : : . w20 37180
Deficit . , ; £6,630

The Forest Department exploits all the timber (about 500,000
cubic feet) required by the Public Works Department.

Several companies and private individuals exploit mahogany
and also so-called African walnut and teak. They hold licences
giving them the exclusive right to extract these timbers from
definite areas. One company exploits mangroves only.

Education, Research and Experimental Work.—The recruitment.
of the European staff is generally done by the Secretary of State
for the Colonies. A school for the training of the native staff was
started, but it had to be closed down again owing to the shortness
of the European staff.

No attempt at special research has as yet been made. Experi-
mental planting with indigenous and exotic species has been done

NIGERIA. 315

with a view to investigating silvicultural questions. The total
area of plantation is 950 acres.

7. INCREMENT AND UTILIZATION.

There appear to be no data available by means of which the
increment of the forests could be determined. As regards
destructive influences, the most fatal is the shifting cultivation
carried on by the natives. Next to that comes damage by
fire, especially in the savannah forests.

Nor can a satisfactory estimate of the Utilization be made, as
the home consumption of the natives is only partially known.
All that can be given is the number of trees felled under State
control in the southern forests ; they were as follows :—

Annual average during the years 1917—1919 :—

Type of Produce. Number of Trees. Value, £.
Trees for Export . gO U SISTA
Trees for Government Use. 18 “Hees. ». ~ 9153
Trees for Local Use . . 15,502 Royalties . 3,087

Mangrove Trees ; « | 12,008

Total . ; . 24,955 22,540

The cubic contents of the trees is not known except of those used
for Government purposes. The latter contained 301,798 cubic
feet, which gives 95 cubic feet per tree on an average.

8. Exports AND IMPORTS.

According to the data given by the Customs Authorities, the
average annual exports and imports during the years 1912—1913,
the last two years before the war, were as follows :—

Cubic feet. Value, £.

Exports . : , Ly PR Soe. 1000 JS MOR aD
Imports. : ; LT T85;800' °° 32° 64,251
Excess of Exports : 202,900 .. 28,088

9. SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK.

As the total increment is unknown, no comparison between
increment and utilization can be made. If the shifting cultivation
could be stopped, or at any rate regulated, the local authorities

316 FORESTRY IN THE CROWN COLONIES.

think that supplies would probably be sufficient at the past rate
of cutting for an indefinite period, but the probability is that the
demand will increase, resulting in a reduction of the supplies of
the more valuable species.

The following steps should be taken :—

(a) The reservation of much larger areas for timber production.

(b) The prohibition of shifting cultivation in the reserved areas,
or, if that is not practicable, an efficient regulation of it,
so as to reduce the damage to a minimum.

(c) An efficient examination of the more important forests at
any rate, so as to obtain a proper knowledge of their
contents and yield capacity. On the basis of that
knowledge the maximum yield which the forests can
stand should be determined, until more accurate working
plans can be drawn up.

(d) A gradual improvement and extension of the road system
and other means of transport.

(e) The introduction to the market of a larger number of
indigenous timbers.

(f) A staff sufficient to carry out such a programme.

When sufficient progress has been made in these directions,
research and other matters can be taken up.

Rk. THE GOLD COAST COLONY.
(See sketch map on page 203.)
1. GENERAL NOTES.

The general conditions are approximately the same as in
Nigeria; hence, the following short notes will suffice for the
present purpose :—

The Colony is situated between the 5th and 11th degree north
latitude and the 1st and 3rd degree west longitude. The area,
including Ashanti and the Northern Territory, amounts to about
80,000 square miles, with a population of 1,400,000, averaging
17 per square mile.

Topography.—Along the sea shore the ground is undulating ;
in the eastern half of it is an extensive plain with dry savannah
forest ; in the western half low hills come down close to the sea
The interior is very hilly up to the central plateau of Northern

THE GOLD COAST. ole

Ashanti, which is well wooded and rich in perennial streams.
Beyond that plateau the dense forest gives way to open savannah
with a poor water supply during the dry season ; the country is.
comparatively flat with isolated hills. The geological formation
is very diversified.

Climate —The average rainfall is said to vary between 21 and
78 inches, and the average temperature between 91 and 58 degrees,
the relative humidity between 70 and 86 per cent. There are two
periods of rainfall, from mid-May to the end of July, and from
the beginning of September to mid-October.

2. Main Types oF Forest GROWTH.

These are practically the same as those of Nigeria.

3. AREA AND OWNERSHIP OF FORESTS.

The area is estimated as follows :—

Per cent. of
Square Miles. Total Area.
Agricultural Land . : 11,000 ee 14
Forest, Merchantable . 14,000 ee 7)
Forest, Unmerchantable . 24,000 73 oO
Total Forest ; 38,000 ae 47
Other Land . ; 3 31,000 /S 39
Grand Total : 80,000 or 100

There are no State forests. All the land belongs to Commu-
nities, and individual ownership is also recognised. The native
authorities have alienated some 25,000 square miles, chiefly for
mining purposes, for periods extending to 99 years. Ofthat area
only 1,084 square miles were actually validated by the Courts.

4. RELATIONSHIP OF THE STATE TO THE FORESTS.

Ordinance No. 20 of 1907 deals with the Forests. Under it
Rules were issued regulating the export of timber. It is hoped
that the Chiefs will proclaim suitable areas as Reserves. The
Government encourages the Native Authorities to co-operate with
the work of the State Forest Department by passing bye-laws for
the protection of the forests. Forest offences are dealt with by
Native Tribunals.

318 FORESTRY IN THE CROWN COLONIES.

The Forest Staff—Until lately the staff consisted of a Conser-
vator and 4 Assistants, but 1 Deputy and 7 Assistant Conservators
have now been added.

Financial Position.—The expenditure of the Department in
1920 amounted to £8,394, and the income was nil. It is expected
to realise in future a sum of £8,000 annually by the levy of an
export duty.

The Recruitment of the superior staff is effected by the Secretary
of State for the Colonies, and that of the subordinate by the
Governor and the Conservator of Forests from Natives of the
Colony.

5. INCREMENT AND UTILIZATION.

The Increment is estimated at . 448,000,000 cubic feet.
The annual loss by fire, waste,
etc., at , f . . 22,400,000 Le
Leaving a net Increment of . 425,600,000 93

This estimate is based upon the assumption that over an area
of 14,000 square miles an average annual increment of 50 cubic
feet may be expected, provided that shifting cultivation is
kept out of it. The estimate of waste seems very low, and it
seems risky to place the net increment at the high figure given
above.

For Utilization the following data are given :—

Cubic feet.
Timber :
Export, chiefly Mahogany , . 1,383,500
Mines. P t : ; : 315,000
Public Works and Private Firms E 200,000
Total Timber . P : . 1,898,500
Fuel:
Mining operations, : , . 8,275,000
Railway fuel 725,000
Total Utilization : : . 10,898,500

The consumption by the Native population is not known.

THE GOLD COAST, GAMBIA AND SIERRA LEONE. 319

6. Exports AND ImpoRTs.

Average for 10 years :—
Cubic feet. Value, £.

Exports . ; , iy ,883;5005) cis ba OL
Imports . : F : 346,194 — os 44,953

Excess of Exports . 1,037,306 .. 114,748

The average annual exports of other forest produce were
Rubber, 1,000 tons ; palm kernels, 9,000 tons ; palm oil, 1,000,000
gallons ; kopra, 650 tons ; and kola, 35,000 tons.

7. SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK.

; Cubic feet.

Timber :

Utilization E : : . 1,898,500

Less Export : . i 3 . 1,383,500

515,000

Add Imports. : : : . 846,194

Total Consumption. é . 861,194

Fuel: excluding Native Consumption . 9,000,000

Total Consumption. : . 9,861,194

A comparison with the net increment is not possible, as the Native
consumption is not known.
The important steps to be taken in the immediate future are :—
(1) To establish a sufficient area of Reserves, to place them
under efficient treatment and protection, especially
against shifting cultivation and fire.
(2) To open a regular propaganda with the view of convincing
the Native proprietors that the preservation of the forests
is essential for their own benefit, and for the country as a
whole.

No reports were received by the Imperial Forestry Conference
on Forestry in the Gambia and Sierra Leone Colonies ; hence,
only the following few notes, chiefly taken from Unwin’s ‘‘ West
African Forests,” can be recorded here.

Gambia has an area of 4,000 square miles and a population of

320 FORESTRY IN THE CROWN COLONIES.

146,000 inhabitants, or 38 to the square mile. Forests in the
ordinary sense do not seem to exist now, but a certain amount
of timber is obtained from the drier part of the Colony. Early
in the nineteenth century a considerable amount of mahogany
was exported, but the quantity is now very small. The oil palm
exists and the average annual exports of kernels during the years
1910 to 1914 amounted to 479 tons valued at £6,571. The
average annual exports of ground nuts during the same period
amounted to 61,000 tons, valued at £530,000. The export of
natural rubber has practically died out.

Sierra Leone has an area of 34,000 square miles, and a population
of 1,100,000, or 32 to the square mile. Formerly, the whole area
was probably covered with forests, varying from open savannah
and deciduous to dense evergreen rain forest, similar to those of
the Gold Coast and Nigeria. Now, scarcely 1 per cent. of the
area remains under forest. The most important tract is the
“Sierra Leone or Peninsula Mountain Forest” situated east of
Freetown. Its area is given as 48 square miles, which is eventually
to be extended to 75 square miles ; it has been declared a Reserved
Forest. There are other forests in several parts of the Colony.

The Peninsula Mountain Forest extends gradually from the
water's edge to an elevation of 2,000 feet, with a rainfall of 100
inches. The growth is very luxuriant and the giant trees stand close
together, consisting of a large number of species, hard woods, as
well as soft woods. The most prominent species are given as :—

Lophira procera, red ironwood, very common. A species of

)

“A

Mimusops known as pearwood. Afzelia africana, the Rhodesian “4

mahogany. Oldfieldia africana, known as African oak. Pseudo-
cedrela, or cedar mahogany, which reaches a very large size.
Copaifera Salikounda, the true gum copal. Chlorophora excelsa,
known as rock elm. Lovoa Klaineana, African walnut. Alstonia
congensis, a soft whitewood. Eriodendron anfractuosum, the
cotton tree. Several species of Albizzia and numerous others.
Eleis guieensis, the oil palm, is scattered over the forest, but is
found in larger numbers in abandoned farms.

The average annual exports of timber during the period of
1910 to 1915 amounted to 173,000 cubic feet, valued at £19,129.
Other exports are palm oil and kernels, coffee, gum copal and
rubber.

TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO. oak

A forest department was formed in 1911, and a Forestry
Ordinance was passed in 1912. Since then several forests have
been declared reserved forests and taken under systematic
management. It is hoped to make up to some extent for the
great destruction practised in the past.

S. TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO.

Of the two islands which constitute this Colony, Trinidad is
situated between the 10th and 11th degree north latitude and
the 60th and 62nd degree west longitude. Tobago lies about
30 miles north-east of Trinidad. The area of Trinidad is 1,86]
square miles, that of Tobago 131, making a total of 1,992 square
miles. The Colony had a population of 330,000 people in 1911,
giving an average population of 161 to the square mile.

1. TopoGRAPHY, GEOLOGY AND CLIMATE.

Trinidad.—The island may be divided into three belts. The
northern belt consists of a range of mountains rising in two places
to 3,000 feet. The second belt consists of an alluvial plain from
10 to 20 miles broad, lying to the south of the mountain range ;
it is drained by two rivers, of which one runs westward into the
Gulf of Paria and the other eastward to the Atlantic Ocean. The
third belt lies to the south of the plain and consists of undulating
ground rising to a maximum elevation of 1,100 feet.

The northern range consists of metamorphic schists, sandstones
and limestones with a small area of intrusive igneous rock. The
central plain is alluvial and contains sandy soils, loams and clays
in the west and some gravelly soils in the east. The undulating
ground on the southern half of the island consists of tertiary
formations with a few outliers of older rock. In these tertiary
rocks petroleum has been found in considerable quantities. The
output of oil during 1919 was 1,500,000 barrels.

The climate is tropical with a fairly heavy rainfall. The
temperature at sea level ranges from a mean minimum of 67 in
December to March, to 71 in May to October; the mean
maximum varies from 87 to 88 in November, December and
January to 91 to 92 in April, May, August and September. The
mean annual temperature is about 78 degrees. The dry season

VOL. I. a6

322 FORESTRY IN THE CROWN COLONIES.

lasts from February to May, and the wet season from June to
September ; showery weather is the rule during the remainder
of the year.

Tobago.—The island may be divided into two parts. The
south-western part is of low elevation, and the north-eastern part
consists of a range of hills which attain 1,800 feet in elevation.
Coral rocks overlay the igneous rocks of the south-western part
of the island; the remaining mountainous part consists of
igneous rock, often weathering to a considerable depth, and
forming a rich soil. The climate is much the same as in Trinidad,
but the maxima and minima are slightly lower.

2. Main Types oF Forest GRowTHs.

There are two types: (1) the tidal forests, and (2) the mixed
evergreen forests. The tidal forests cover an area of about
40 square miles and consist chiefly of mangrove (Rhizophora).
They are worked for fuel and to some extent for tan bark. The
mixed evergreen forests contain a few deciduous species, without,
however, interfering with their general evergreen character.
Above 1,500 feet elevation their character changes somewhat, but
not sufficiently to divide the type into two. They are, as a rule,
“high forest’ with trees over 100 feet high. The principal
species in this class of forest are :—

(1) Cedrela odorata, the Indian Cedar, a tree up to 120 feet high,
yielding a wood which is reddish brown, scented, soft and
easily worked; used for building, cabinet work and
extensively for cigar boxes.

(2) Mimusops globosa, the Balata, 90 to 120 feet high, giving
a hard, heavy wood, durable; used for bridge work,
sleepers ; yields balata.

(3) Tecoma serratifolia, giving a greenish, hard and heavy wood.

(4) Carapa guianensis, a kind of mahogany.

(5) Vitex capitata, called Black Fiddlewood.

(6) Dimorphandra mora, Red Mora, about the only species
which appears gregariously, wood very hard, heavy,
strong and durable, excellent shipbuilding wood.

(7) Hymenea courbaril, the Locust, 70 to 90 feet high.

A considerable number of other species ; also 2 species of bamboos

and palms.

TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO. 320

3. AREA AND OWNERSHIP OF THE FORESTS.

Per cent. of
Square Miles. Total Area.
Areas.
Agricultural Land . : : 0 OOP pyc vue
Forest, Merchantable : . 800 AA ee:
Forest, Unmerchantable . ietade 18
Forest total . 4 : : Rees Be 7h). ee
Other Land . ‘ : : : 60 3
Total Area ; , , ~ 1992. =. £00
Square Miles. Per cent.
Ownership.
State Forests, for Timber production. 331 .. 28
State Forests, others : : dt NGM aa 1)
State Forests, total . : 5 ATE uss. cows
Private Forests if : . : DON Mate 2
Total Forests . : : tee ae ete KOO)

The whole area of the private forests is likely to be cleared
for cultivation.

4, RELATIONSHIP OF THE STATE TO THE FORESTS.

Legislation —Under the Land Regulations the Governor may
set aside land for the establishment of Forest Reserves, and he
may also release such land from reservation. The local Legisla-
ture may by law prescribe the penalties for certain acts committed
on Crown lands without sufficient licence. The Forest Ordinance,
No. 42 of 1915, prescribes these penalties. They are higher in
the case of illegal acts committed in reserved forests than on other
Government lands.

Administrative Methods —On the advice of Mr. F. A. Lodge, of
the Indian Forest Service, given in the year 1900, over 300 square
miles were selected and demarcated as Reserves, principally
designed for the conservation of the water supply, and for protec-
tion against wind for the benefit of agriculture. The greater part
of these reserves is available for the production of timber, but

some areas are inaccessible, while others have poor soil. The fire
x 2

324 FORESTRY IN THE CROWN COLONIES.

question is said to be not serious because the climate is damp and
the dry season short. The last occasion when fire burnt a
considerable area of forest reserves was in 1911—1912, which
was followed by an increase in the natural regeneration of
cedar (Cedrela odorata), the most important timber tree of the
Colony. Outside the reserves, the fire seems to have done a con-
siderable amount of damage to the second growth in overworked
forests.

Plantations were commenced in 1908, and by the end of 1919,
about 825 acres had been stocked with important indigenous
trees as well as sample plots of teak, camphor and mahogany.
The growth of trees is very rapid.

Natural regeneration in the indigenous forests is assisted by
improvement fellings, 3,700 acres having been so treated by 1919.
It is proposed to treat 1,200 acres annually in this way. Owing
to the inadequacy of trained staff, working plans have not yet
been drawn up for the reserves.

The Forest Authority consists of a Conservator, a Deputy
Conservator and | European temporary Assistant ; there is also
a subordinate staff of 17 non-Huropean Rangers. The Conser-
vator works under the direct control of the Governor. The
Rangers are placed under the orders of the District Administrative
Officers, through whom the Conservator issues his orders. The
Conservator issues licences within the reserves and also special
concessions outside the reserves with the previous approval of the
Governor. Ordinary licences for produce outside reserves are
issued by the District Administrative Officers.

Assistance given to Forestry consists of advice given when asked
for, the sale at cost price of approved seeds, also the sale of plants
at reasonable rates.

Income and Expenditure—During the years 1911—1914, the
average annual receipts amounted to £5,952, and the expenses to
£3,166, leaving a surplus of £2,786.

Recruitment and Training.—The superior staff has been
recruited from the Provincial Forest Service of India; the
subordinate staff is locally instructed in the practical aspects of
management by the superior staff. Research has, up to date,
been restricted to observations regarding the life history of the
indigenous trees.

TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO. 325

5. INCREMENT AND UTILIZATION.

No data are available to prepare anything lke an accurate
estimate of the annual increment. A rough estimate puts the
average increment per acre at 30 cubic feet, leading to an incre-
ment of 20,000,000 cubic feet for the forests under State control.
No information is available as regards other forests. The
Utilization has been estimated for the forests under State control
as :—

Cubic feet. Value, £.

Timber. , 540,000 sa 58,000
Firewood . . 1,900,000 ae 15,000
Total . 2,440,000 ome 73,000

Under “ Forest Industries’ are mentioned the preparation of
railway sleepers, saw mills, match factories and petroleum
mining, but the number of people employed is not given.

6. Imports AND EXPORTS.

Cubic feet. Value, £.

Imports, Conifers ; . 882,734 a3 64,658
Imports, Hardwoods . : 6,800 es 620
Total Imports. . 889,534 ee 65,278
Exports, Hardwoods . 152,000 Ae 17,840
Excess of Imports Weiss. ant 47,438

These data represent the average of the last 11 years. About
three-quarters of the imported conifers came from the United
States and the rest from British North America. The hardwoods
came chiefly from British Guiana. The exports consisted almost
entirely of Cedar (Cedrela odorata). They went principally to
Holland, Germany and Austria before the war; since then they
have gone to Holland, the United States and the United Kingdom.

7. SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK.

Utilization . , ; : . 2,440,000
Less Exports ; ; ; . 152,000

2,288,000
Plus Imports : 4 , . 889,534

Total Home Consumption 3,177,534

326 FORESTRY IN THE CROWN COLONIES.

It appears that the home consumption is considerably below the
home production. The consumption per head of population is
about 10 cubic feet annually.

The Colony can, under a systematic management of its forests,
doubtlessly grow all the hardwood which is likely to be required,
and there seems to be no reason why it should not produce, in
course of time, the required coniferous woods. It might even be
possible to imcrease the export of Cedrela odorata, unless the
population should very rapidly increase.

The measures to be taken in the immediate future seem to be :-—

(1) To give to the Reserves a more permanent character and to

see that no fresh settlements are effected in them.

(2) To institute a regular system of fire protection.

(3) To develop the system of regeneration of the Reserves at any

rate, by natural means assisted by planting and sowing.
(4) To plant suitable areas with conifers, so as to make the
Colony by degrees independent of imports.

(5) To prepare at an early date working plans, to provide for
the systematic execution of these, and to secure a
sufficiently educated staff for the purpose.

T. THE BAHAMAS.

1. GenERAL NOTES ON THE COLONY.

The Colony of The Bahamas consists of 18 principal islands,
or groups of islands ; the whole number, large and small, amount-
ing to several thousands. They are situated between the 21st and
27th degree north latitude and the 72nd and 79th degree west longi-
tude. The total area is estimated at 4,400 square miles, with a
population of 55,944 in 1911, making about 12 to the square mile.

The islands are all of the same formation, namely coral rock.
In most parts the land is flat and little elevated above the sea,
the maximum being 100 feet. On some of the islands are exten-
sive tracts of swamps and marl below the level of high tides.

The soil is scanty but of a productive nature, so that vegetables,
pineapples, bananas, citrus fruits, coconuts and fibrous plants
are cultivated. On four of the islands extensive pine forests
grow on so-called “ pine barrens.”’

The climate is pleasant and salubrious. The mean temperature

THE RAHAMAS. 397.

in 1918 varied from 61 to 85 degrees. The total rainfall for the
same year was 49 inches, the greater part of which fell in the
months of June to September. The winter months are usually
dry.

2. Types oF Forest GROWTH.

The most important tree is the Yellow Pine (Pinus bahamensis).
It appears on 4 islands, Abaco, Andros, Grand Bahama and New
Providence, over considerable areas of pine barrens. The tree
does not reach very large dimensions, but the timber is fairly
good, lasting when used for inside work, but not in exposed
positions. The right to cut trees, manufacture lumber or obtain
turpentine on the islands of Abaco, Andros and Grand Bahama
has been granted by licence to a company. Other woods are
found but not in abundance, such as Logwood (Hematoxylon sp.),
Lignum vite (Quaiacum sanctum), Madeira (Swietenia), Cedar
(Juniperus bahamensis), Cascarilla bark (Croton eleuteria), &c.

3. AREA AND OWNERSHIP OF FORESTS.

Much of the virgin forest has been cleared for cultivation, and
in many parts scrub or low coppice has come up again. In the
case of the pine forests, little land has been cleared owing to the
inferior quality of the soil for agricultural purposes. The follow-
ing is a rough statement of the existing areas of the Yellow Pine
forests :—

Total Area Area of

of Island, Pine Woods, Per cent.

Square Miles. Square Miles. of Forests.
Island of Abaco . mar UL ae ee LOO aay Eu
Island of Andros . See ot ee tao) 8
Island of Grand Bahama 430 .. ULOMe AWD
Island of New Providence ie ae 7 ae i
Total. . , . 2,864 eee ey »y 15

The other species appear in single trees and small groups, so that
no areas can be given.

The pine barrens, on which the pine forests stand, belong to
the State, but, as mentioned above, the right to cut pine trees on
Abaco, Andros and Grand Bahama has been let by licence to a
private company. ‘The pine woods on New Providence belong
to the State.

328 FORESTRY IN THE CROWN COLONIES.

4. RELATIONSHIP OF THE STATE TO THE FORESTS.

There is no special forest legislation, but by various Acts
trespass on Crown lands is prohibited, whether for the purpose of
cultivation or wood-cutting; also the wilful starting of forest
fires. The latter do occur, but are regarded more from the point
of view of danger to adjoining cultivation than damage done to
the forests.

No assistance whatever is given to the regeneration of the
forests, there being no forestry staff.

The Forest Authority is represented by the Surveyor-General
under the orders of the Governor. ‘There are no public or private
bodies interested in forestry, and no educational or experimental
work is carried out.

Forest Industries are said to occupy from 150 to 300 people.

5. Exports AND Imports.

Cubic feet. Value, £.

Exports, Yellow Pine » 293.189 ees
Exports, Hardwoods <The 300 fare 685
Total Exports . . 815089. G2) esse
Imports, Conifers. Soap Uae 5,186
Excess of Exports . PRU AP len 6,747

The above data represent the average of the years 1907 to 1913.
The greater part of the hardwoods consists of Lignum-vite.

6. SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK.

The local authorities consider that there is no indication of the
forests becoming exhausted for many years to come at the present
rate of cutting. The information is too incomplete to suggest any
line of action in the immediate future.

U. BRITISH HONDURAS.

1. GENERAL NOTES.

The colony of British Honduras is situated on the mainland of
Central America between the 15th and 19th degree north latitude
and the 87th and 89th west longitude. Its area is given as
8,598 square miles with a population in 1911, of 40,458, or about
5 to the square mile.

BRITISH HONDURAS. 329

The front lands, along the so-called “‘ Mosquito Coast,” are
low and swampy, and the country rises gradually until the high
land at the back of the colony is reached. The northern part
of the colony forms a plain of about 1,000 square miles. In the
south are several ranges of hills rising up to 3,700 feet.

The prevailing type of formation is tertiary with underlying
strata of granite, quartzite and carbonaceous shales, sandstones
and limestones cropping up in detached ranges. The river
valleys contain rich alluvial soil known as the Cohune ridges.
They are the home of mahogany, cedar and logwood, and they
also contain the chief agricultural areas. Between these valleys
are large stretches of country covered with dry gravelly or sandy
soil supporting scattered patches of pine trees and low palms.
Further inland are elevated savannahs and open grassy country.

Numerous rivers descend from the interior mountains to the
sea, and the bulk of the transport is done by water; the rivers
are, however, navigable only for some distance. There are said
to be no roads, and some 60 per cent. of the country is pronounced
inaccessible, so that the timber supplies must remain so until
the colony has been opened out by adequate means of transport.

Considering its position the colony has a moderate climate.
The temperature at Belize ranges between 62 and 90 degrees.
Sea breezes prevail during the greater part of the year. The
average rainfall at Belize is about 81 inches. The dry season runs
from the middle of February to the middle of May. There is rain
during every month of the rest of the year. The heaviest falls
occur during September, October and November.

2. Types oF Forest GROWTH.

Unfortunately not much accurate information is available as
regards the forests of British Honduras. This is all the more to
be regretted as the colony is the chief source within the Empire of
the true mahogany, and also because Honduras, with British
Guiana, may one day become an important factor in the supply
ot hardwoods generally in the Empire. Many of the trees in the
colony are as yet known only by their local names. The following
notes on the forest vegetation are, therefore, very restricted.

Mahogany (Swietenia Mahogani) is said to produce the best

330 FORESTRY IN THE CROWN COLONIES.

quality in the low lands not far from the sea, where it takes a
dark colour. A somewhat similar colouring is produced in the
lower parts of the valleys. A lighter coloured variety is produced
on the slopes of the valleys. The next important species is Cedar
(Cedrela odorata) which grows to a large size and yields a valuable
timber, especially for cigar boxes and construction. Logwood
(Hematoxylon Campeachianum), a valuable dye wood, grows in
swampy parts along the sea and near rivers. A prominent feature
is the presence of a Pine (Pinus cubensis ?) on the pine ridge,
where it and the Pimento Palm are the dominating trees, though
the former is said to give way in some parts to an oak (Quercus
virens ?). There is a variety of other hardwoods, but the infor-
mation regarding them is so uncertain that it is not worth
recording it here.

3. RELATIONSHIP OF THE STATE TO THE FORESTS.

There is no Forest Department in the colony, and the Governor
has supplied the following information :—

Somewhat more than one-half of the area of the colony belongs
to the State, so that nearly one-half seems to have been alienated,
but it is not stated who the private proprietors are. The pine
ridge area is given as 2,660 square miles, the cohune ridge, or the
mahogany, cedar and forest area generally, is stated to comprise
3,300 square miles, the land under agriculture and pasturage as
40 square miles, and the rest as swamp, lagoons and waste land.
It is not stated what proportion of the forest land is State property.
It is, however, understood that large areas of forest have passed
into the hands of companies ; one of these has quite lately engaged
a scientifically trained and experienced Forest Officer.

4. Exports AND IMPORTS.

Cubie feet.

Exports, Mahogany : . 735,333
Exports, Cedar ‘ ‘ ; 5L Bia
Total Exports . . 786,705
(Imports, Lumber. : . 120,584

Excess of Exports. . 666,121

BRITISH GUIANA. 331

Of the mahogany, 213,285 cubic feet went to the United Kingdom,
517,406 to the United States, and 4,642 cubic feet to Spain. Of
the cedar 14,926 went to the United Kingdom and 36,446 cubic
feet to the United States. Of both mahogany and cedar consi-
derable quantities were imported and forwarded to the United
States. The imported lumber came from the United States.
No information has been supplied as regards Increment or Home
Consumption.

5. SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK.

The most urgent requirement is the establishment of a Forest
Department, placed under an efficient Forest Officer. Mahogany
has been exported for something like 200 years, and if the supply
is to be continued, the following measures seem to be urgently
required :—

(1) A botanical and forestal examination of the forests, so as to
ascertain the character and distribution of the important
species of timber trees.

(2) To save as much as possible of the unalienated forests,
especially those containmg mahogany and cedar.

(3) To pass a Forest Ordinance providing for the proper
protection and management of the forests still belonging
to the State, and the reservation of the important
mahogany and cedar forests.

V. BRITISH GUIANA.
1. GENERAL NOTES.

British Guiana is situated between the Ist and 8th degree north
latitude and the 56th and 62nd degree west longitude. It has an
area of 89,480 square miles and a population of about 311,000
people, making between 3 and 4 to the square mile.

Topography.—The colony may be divided into three belts :
(1) The alluvium belt, 5 to 35 miles broad. In the north it is a
low-lying, flat and swampy strip of marine alluvium. It rises
gradually from below the level of high tide to 12 feet above high-
water level, and is interrupted in a few places by low hills of
decomposed rock or by sand dunes rising to 30 or 40 feet in
height.

(2) Sand and clay belts succeed the coastal region, forming a

332 FORESTRY IN THE CROWN COLONIES.

broader and slightly elevated tract composed of sand and clayey
soils. This belt is undulating and rising from 50 to 80 feet above
sea level.

(3) The mountainous region follows the former on going west
and south. It contains four principal mountain ranges, of various
elevations, generally between 600 and 4,000 feet. The culminat-
ing point is reached in the flat-topped mountains Roraima and
Kukenaam, which rises 5,000 feet above the surrounding country
and 8,600 feet above sea level. The country is traversed by
several large rivers which, with their feeders, form a vast network
of waterways. All the large rivers are impeded above the tideway
by rapids, cataracts and falls. The easily accessible portions of
the Colony extend from the sea coast to these rapids, varying in
breadth from 35 to 110 miles, and embracing about 18,500 square
miles.

Geology—The alluvial deposits are of considerable depth,
ranging from 330 to 1,500 feet. They consist of marine muds and
sands. Residuary deposits may be seen along the courses of
the larger rivers, consisting mainly of arenaceous, argillaceous
and laterite earths arismg mostly from the decomposition of
granite and gneiss. The residuary deposits are not infrequently
traversed by long ranges of sand dunes rising to 100 and even
200 feet in height. The rock in the rapids is gneiss, in places
intersected by granite.

In the mountain region very large areas are occupied by a thick
formation of sandstones and conglomerates. Considerable areas
are occupied by schists, while gneissose rocks are found over a
large proportion of the country.

Climate —The temperature in the coastal region ranges between
70 and 90 degrees, the mean minimum being 74 and the mean
maximum 87 degrees. The temperatures in the forest regions are
only slightly different from those in the coastal region. In the
savannah tracts the range of temperature is greater than in either
the coast or forest region, the mean maximum being 92 and the
mean minimum 72 degrees.

In the coastal region there are two wet and two dry seasons ;
the long wet season extends from the middle of April to August,
followed by a dry season which lasts to the middle of November ;
then comes the short wet season lasting to the end of January,

BRITISH GUIANA. 330

followed by a second dry season to the middle of April. The
rainfall in the coastal region ranges between 91 and 101 inches,
the lowest being experienced on the coast itself. In the forest
regions the contrast between the wet and dry seasons is less
marked, but the rainfall varies between 84 and 159 inches,
according to locality. In the savannah region the rainfall is
smaller than in the other regions, being on an average about
50 inches.

2. Types or ForEstT.

A considerable amount of information has been supplied by the
local authorities, but it is not easy to give a clear account of the
several types, as a large number of species are given by their
local names only, anda very detailed classification of the types has
been attempted.

On the whole, the forests are “‘ mixed forests,” in which,
however, one or a few species are in the majority ; many forests
are known by the name of such prevailing trees. The height-
growth of the different types of forest varies very much. On the
low coast lands and along the lower tidal reaches of rivers, the
height would be from 60 to 70 feet ; further inland they reach
100 feet; on the higher lands the height rises up to 200 feet.
Balata (Mimusops globosa) producing commercial balata, and
black balata (7. Elata) reach a height of over 150 feet and a girth
of 12 to 18 feet.

The forests of the easily accessible areas may be divided into
two great divisions :—

(1) Forests covering the wide alluvium, mostly of a swampy

nature.

(2) Forests of the slightly elevated country, plains, ridges, or

higher hills.

Division (1) comprises the littoral woodlands, almost entirely
composed of Avicennia nitida, Rhizophora Mangle and other
species ; in the river estuaries mangrove belts are found. Where
the water ceases to be salt Carapa guianensis, Crabwood or British
Guiana Mahogany, Wallaba (Hperua sp.), Hieronyma laxiflora,
and several species of Nectandra appear. On flat lands slightly
raised above tidal level appear forests, the chief constituent of
which is Mora (Dimorphandra Mora), accompanied by Carapa

334 FORESTRY IN THE CROWN COLONIES.

guianensis, Wallaba varieties, Corkwood (Pterocarpus draco), and
others.

Division (2) comprises the most extensive forests of the easily
accessible area; it is the most important commercially, as it
contains most of the timbers of value which have been exported
for nearly a century. Various kinds of Kakeralli (Lecythis sp.)
are generally the dominant trees. In the forests bordering on
Division (1), Enocarpus baccata, Mauritia flecuosa and Maximi-
liana regia are plentiful. Greenheart (Nectandra Rodier), which is
of slow growth, is partly gregarious and also scattered in mixed
forest ; it is found in the lower parts of this division up to about
300 feet elevation. This timber has been exported for over
100 years and the most accessible areas have been denuded of it
toa considerable extent. Wallaba (Hperua falcata and Jenmant)
grow more or less abundantly throughout the greater part of the
forests.

Balata (Mimusops globosa or elata) grows in most parts of the
Colony, in the forests on the swamp lands and on elevated and
hilly country. It has been estimated that in swampy lands the
number of balata trees is less than 1 per acre, and on elevated and
hilly ground 2 to 3 per acre.

3. ImporTANT Forest PRODUCE.

The forests of Guiana contain a very large number of species
of trees ; some 300 have been enumerated, but there are probably
a great many more. Only a few of these have, up to date, been
marketed. Of many species the local names only are as yet
available. Mechanical tests have been made on 15 kinds. The
majority of the woods are hard and very hard. Of other forest
produce, Balata is the chief item; it has formed an important
article of export since the year 1863. Locust gum, the produce
of Hymenea Courbaril, is exported in comparatively small
quantities. Other gums are obtained from Protiwm heptaphyllum
and a species of the Sapotacee order. Rubber is obtained from
Sapium Jenmani and some forest vines and lianes, but the industry
is not of much importance. Tanning bark can be obtained from
many trees. Crab oil obtained from Carapa guianensis, is used
medicinally. Edible oils are obtained from Maaximiliana regia
and also from other palms.

BRITISH GUIANA. 300

4. AREA AND OWNERSHIP OF FORESTS.

Per cent. of

Square Miles. Total Area.

Agricultural Land . 900 #. 1
Forest, Merchantable ; 113,000 dal 3:
Forest, Unmerchantable . 64,780 1G,

Forest, Total . : 77,780 28 87

Other Lands . : ‘ 10,800 pe 12

Grand Total. : 89,480 aye 100

The area under temporary cultivation is given at about 150 square
miles; it is not included under forest. On the other hand,
Indian reservations, amounting to 1,360 square miles, form part
of the forest area, while scrub and inferior savannah are shown as
other land.

Of the total forest area, 900 square miles have been alienated
to private persons ; the remaining 76,880 square miles belong to
the State. Licences, renewable annually and a few issued for
2 or 5 years, are granted by the Crown for wood cutting . 402 of
these, aggregating 575 square miles, are in existence.

5. RELATIONSHIP OF THE STATE TO THE FORESTS.

Legislation —The Crown Lands Ordinance, No. 32 of 1903,
provides that the Local Government, on behalf of His Majesty,
may give absolute or provisional grants, leases, licences to occupy,
or take specified substances including timber. Power is given to
the Governor to revoke grants, licences, &c., for non-compliance
with the terms or of the Regulations made under the Ordinance.
The latter provides penalties for trespassers on Crown lands,
appropriation of produce, wilful obstruction of navigable streams,
&e.

The Commissioner of Lands and Mines, with the approval of
the Governor, grants leases, licences, &c. Leases for tracts
exceeding 5,000 acres require the special approval of the Governor.
It is laid down that no tree shall be cut that will square less than
10 inches, except Wallaba or other hardwood trees of the like
nature. Trees producing rubber or balata may be cut only on a
written permission. Royalties have to be paid on the produce.

336 FORESTRY IN THE CROWN COLONIES.

The Governor has power to resume any land included in a lease
or licence, which may be required for a public purpose.

Licences to collect balata, gums, &c., are subject to special
regulations. No balata tree may be tapped which is under
36 inches girth at 4} feet from the ground.

Administrative Methods.—No legislation exists in regard to fire
protection or the regulation of shifting cultivation, and no attempts
have been made to control or check the forest fires which occur
during long periods of drought; nor has any planting been
attempted. Natural regeneration is said to re-afforest, in the
course of time, areas which have been cut.

Assistance given to Forestry—A few experiments have been
made in growing forest trees from seed. Expert advice has been
obtained in botanical identifications from the Government
Herbarium and from Kew Gardens. The Imperial Institute has
published reports on timbers, palm oil and mangrove bark for
tanning.

The Forest Authority—A branch of the Department of Lands
and Mines has been placed under a Forest Officer since 1910. His
powers are limited ; his reports are sent to the Commissioner of
Lands and Mines, who would take any necessary action. Up to
date a superficial preliminary examination has been made extend-
ing over about one-fourth of the existing forest area, consisting
chiefly of the easily accessible parts. There are some 7 Forest
Rangers, all being Natives, with assistants who patrol the
principal rivers and the adjoining lands.

Receipts and Expenses.—The averages of the last 4 years were :
Income = £14,062; Expenditure = £2,083, giving a surplus of
£11,979. The expenditure does not, however, cover a certain
amount of office work done in the office of the Commissioner of
Lands and Mines.

6. INCREMENT AND UTILIZATION.

No data are as yet available by means of which even a rough
estimate of the increment could be made, or of the annual losses
through fire, waste or decay.

As regards utilization the sub-joined data indicate only the
quantities removed from the forests under State control :—

BRITISH GUIANA, 337

Cubic feet. Value, £.

Timber, under State control « 026,219) 4 65,222
Other produce, including poles, &c. 2 .. 180,482
Total F : 4 . 726,219 .. 245,704

The number of persons employed in forest industries is given as
follows, average of 5 years :—

On timber works, fuel cutting and charcoal

burning . : . : : . 2,977 men.
On the collection of Balata : 4S. DOL"
Total ‘ : : : OSONL. tes

These numbers evidently do not include men employed in a
variety of minor industries.

7. Exports AND Imports, ANNUAL AVERAGE OF THE YEARS

1909—1914.
Cubic feet. Value, £,
Exports, Logs and Scantlings. 310,451 .. 24,544
Imports, Coniferous Lumber . 308,766 .. 24,959
Excess of Exports . . +1,685 .. — 415

By far the greater part of the exports consists of Greenheart.
The imports are called “ pine lumber.” Exports and Imports
practically balance each other. Since 1914 the exports have
considerably fallen off, while the imports have somewhat increased.
The greater part of the exports has gone to the United Kingdom,
and the rest to the United States, Canada, the West Indies, and
Holland. The imports have practically all come from the United
States and Canada.

The above data refer to timber only. Other forest products
exported are, in value, largely in excess of timber. The following
data have been supplied :—

£ £
Period: 1909-14. 1915-19,
Average annual Exports. o lotro «. 199906
Average annual Imports. eee ae oe Oe

Excess of Exports over Imports 119,141 .. 158,734

This is a valuable and, apparently, increasing asset of much
VOL. I. Z

338 FORESTRY IN THE CROWN COLONIES.

greater financial value than that derived from the export of
timber. By far the most important item of export is balata,
while the imports consist of shooks and staves.

8. SUMMARY AND OUTLOOK.

Cubic feet.

Utilization . : : : . 126,219
Less Exports 3 : : . 910,451
415,768

Plus Imports : : ; . 808,766
Total Home Consumption . 724,534

The home consumption is probably much higher than the official
data indicate.

The local authorities state that the duration of supplies is
“unknown.” It seems, however, that an early effort should be
made to acquire some knowledge on that subject, especially as the
Guiana forests are evidently of greater value than the local
authorities appear to realize. Although there are as yet great
stores of hardwoods in the British Empire, destruction, waste and
injudicious management are still rampant in many parts, and the
forest wealth of Guiana may be called upon at an earlier date than
may appear. Under these circumstances prompt steps should
be taken in the following direction :—

(1) An efficient protection of existing stocks and especially

against fire and other waste.

(2) The prohibition of settlement in selected areas situated
within the accessible part of the country, with the view of
converting them into permanent State forests for future
supplies of forest produce.

(3) An adequate exploration of the at present inaccessible
forests, the identification of the several species, and the
quality of their timber, the opening out by means of trans-
port to render the several parts of the forests accessible.

(4) The establishment of coniferous plantations on suitable
areas in the accessible parts of the country, so as to avoid,
or at any rate reduce, the import of such timber.

(5) The organisation of an efficient staff to do justice to these
and other tasks.

JAMAICA. 339

W. OTHER BRITISH POSSESSIONS.

The information received from several other British Colonies
and Protectorates is so meagre that no general description of the
state of their forestry can be prepared ; hence, only the following
short notes are given.

Jamaica has no Department of Forestry, and particulars
regarding the growing timber are said not to be available. The
Island was, at the time of its discovery, a well-wooded country
with an abundance of fine timber, but it has not escaped the con-
sequences of “the mark of civilization” (as the local authorities
are pleased to call it); what now remains of forest is mostly
inaccessible. All building materials are imported from the
United States of America, at the cost of about £260,000 a year.
Since the war, some attention has begun to be given to the native
lumber supply question. Here the information given by the
local authorities ends.

The Island of Jamaica lies between the 17th and 19th degrees
of northern latitude, and it has an area of 4,207 square miles.
Of that area, some 30 per cent. is still forest, or rather jungle.
For a long time past shifting cultivation has been carried on over
some 30,000 acres annually for the production of yams, ginger,
and other vegetables ; the land is cleared, cultivated for a year
or two, and abandoned. ‘The result is almost complete denuda-
tion of the slopes of the Blue Mountains between 2,000 and 4,000
feet elevation. In the forests which now remain the most
important trees are (or were) Cedar (Cedrela odorata), Mahogany
(Swietenna Mahogany), Logwood (Hamatoxylon Campeachianum)
and Fustic (Maciura tinctoria). Of these a considerable export
trade existed formerly, but it has now shrunk to very small
dimensions, except in the shape of transhipments.

Although the authorities of Jamaica may be of opinion that
forest conservancy is not necessary, as timber can be imported at
cheap rates, the facts remain that deforestation is interfering with
the water supply of several districts, and that forests also prevent,
or at any rate reduce, a torrential flow of water in the rivers,
thus protecting the low lands. Under these circumstances
Jamaica will be wise in protecting, at any rate, the upper parts
and slopes of the Blue Mountains and elsewhere.

340 FORESTRY IN OTHER BRITISH POSSESSIONS.

The Bermuda Islands are well covered with woodlands. The
dominant tree is the Bermuda Cedar (Juniperus bermudiana),
which yields a durable timber, easily worked, and used for house
and boat building, furniture and various other purposes.

No forest laws are now in force, but owners of property do not
permit tenants to cut cedar without previous sanction. Measures
of re-afforestation are not considered necessary. The average
annual imports are given as 36,000 cubic feet of lumber valued
at £5,500, and other timber valued at £19,000.

The Windward Islands, St. Lucia, have a fair amount of valuable
woods, containing Cedrela odorata, Ormosia dasycarpa, Hymenea
Courbaril, Calophyllum Calaba, Mimusops globosa, Chlorophora
tinetoria, Phoebe elongata, Vitex dinaricata, Balata and others.
The average annual exports during the last 5 years were valued
at £3,700, consisting of logwood, railway sleepers and other
kinds of timber. The forests are included in the Crown lands and
controlled by the Colonial Engineer, who employs a small native
staff.

The Leeward Islands—Only Dominica contains any forests,
the utilization of which would, in the opinion of the local authori-
ties, be hindered by the natural difficulties of the country. It
is considered that the denudation of the forests would react
prejudicially on the agricultural interests.

The Seychelles, in the Indian Ocean, have no forests, properly
speaking, in the Colony, beyond a few clumps of primary jungle
on inaccessible summits. Low secondary growth contains
Calophyllum inophyllum, Terminalia catappa, Abzelia bijuga,
Heritiera littoralis, &c. There is no forest service in the Colony.

Hong Kong has a scanty supply of the native pine (Pinus
Massoniana), and a large quantity of China fir (Cunninghamia
sinensis) is brought into the Colony, of which no account is kept.
The following quantities of other timber were imported in 1919 :—

Cubic feet. Value, £.
Teak ; : ; 400,130 .. 109,485
Other Hardwoods . 1,148,385 .. 202,252
Pine, &c. . : ; 746,996 .. 88,323
Total Imports . 2,295,511 .. 400,060

A forest service is maintained in the Botanical and Forestry

THE SUDAN. 341

Department, consisting of two European Officers and a staff of
Chinese foresters. There is also a temporary staff engaged during
the planting season.

Pine plantations are being established for :—

(1) The conservation of the water supply.

(2) For the sake of revenue.

(3) For beautifying the country and preventing erosion of the

hills.

A limited amount of Research is carried on by the European
Officers in connection with plant diseases and local economic
products.

Wethaiwei has not a separate forest service, but it is proposed
to appoint an expert with the view of establishing a scheme of
afforestation, as at present all timber has to be imported.

No statements have been received from North Borneo, Sarawak,
Tasmania, the Sudan and Mauritius.

The Sudan.—The author regrets that he cannot give a com-
plete account of the progress of forest conservancy in the Sudan.
In the third edition of this volume it was stated that Mr. C. E.
‘Muriel examined the country and reported on its forest resources
in 1901. It appears from his report that the Sudan has a greater
variety of trees than might be expected. Of these, the Acacias
are the most important, some of which give a strong and durable
but hard timber. Cordia abyssinica gives a durable timber which
will float when dry. It also appears that in Bahr-el-Ghazal and in
Kagalu forests exist, which contain fine mahogany trees ; some
timber of these has lately been brought to Khartoum. The
obstacle to extensive exploitation seems to be the difficulty of
transport. It is understood that the Government has now taken
steps with a view to improving communications.

The difficulty of securing an adequate supply of firewood seems
to be great, as the available wood fuel areas have been severely
drained. Further cuttings had to be restricted and coal and oil
used in spite of high costs. It is stated in the annual report for
1920 that steps are being taken to ensure natural regeneration in
the overcut areas on the Blue Nile, as well as direct afforestation.
On the White Nile the fuel supply areas in the vicinity of Khar-
toum have been severely cut. A scheme for the afforestation of

VOL, I. AA

342 FORESTRY IN OTHER BRITISH POSSESSIONS.

selected areas on the mud flats of that river is being studied,
and is possibly now under execution. The Sudan authorities had
good advice given to them in the past, and it is much to be
regretted that they have lost so much time by indecision. It is
stated that, to provide the necessary fuel in the future, an area of
100 square miles of fuel reserves is wanted.

Of other forest produce, Gum is the most important. It is
obtained from Acacias, of which “ hashab ” (A. verek) is the most
important; next to that comes “talha” (A. seyal). Small
quantities are also obtained from “sant” (A. arabica). The
gum comes chiefly from Kordofan, but also from Kassala. It is
estimated that the Acacias are spread over an area of some
5,000 square miles, giving a handsome return.

The Sudan is rich in good fibres, of which that of “ marak ”
(Leptadenia spartium) is the best. Tans are derived from the
fruit pods of Acacia arabica and from the bark of A. seyal.
Resin is obtained from Balsamodendron pedunculatum.

To sum up, there is no doubt that the Sudan is quite a promising
field for real forest conservancy, and it is to be hoped that the
question will soon be seriously taken up.

END OF VOLUME I.

BRADBURY, AGNEW, & co. LD., PRINTERS, WHITEFRIARS.

Li t) “bp iY
FACULTY OF FORESTRY
UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO

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SD Schlich, (Sir) William
31x A manual of forestry

sD
SCHLICH, W.
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AUTHOR 0
Manual of forestry. —____1906—

TITLE J
| cop.

DATE ISSUED TO

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