SCHLTCH'S
MANUAL OF FORESTRY

FOREST PEOTECTION.

DR. SCHLICH'S

MANUAL OF FORESTRY,

VOLUME IV.

FOREST PEOTECTION,

BY

W. R. FISHER, M.A. CANTAB. ET OXON,

PAST PRESIDENT, ROYAL ENGLISH ARBORICULTURAL SOCIETY J FORMERLY CONSERVATOR OF FORESTS
TO THE GOVERNMENT OF INDIA.

WITH 300 ILLUSTRATIONS

BEING
AN ENGLISH ADAPTATION OF

"DEE FORSTSCHUTZ," BY DR. RICHARD HESS,

PROFESSOR OF FORESTRY AT THE UNIVERSITY OF GIESSEN.

SECOND EDITION.

LIBRARY

FACULTY OF FORESTRY
UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO

' LONDON :

BKADBUEY, AGNEW, & CO. LD., 10, BOUVEEIE STKEET.

1907.

BRADBURY, AGNEW, & CO. LD., PRINTERS,
LONDON AND TONBRIDGE.

60
3TI

PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.

THE first edition of my translation of Dr. Hess' FORST-
SCHUTZ, published in 1895, is now exhausted. I have there-
fore revised it and have increased the number of pages from
593 to 712, and the number of plates from 259 to 300. I
have also added a portrait and short biography of Dr. Hess,
both of which are taken from a biographical sketch written
by Forstmeister F. Kraetzl, and published in 1902, in the
53rd annual volume of " Verhandlungen der Forstwirte von
Ma'hren und Sehlesien." I have also added an index, although
the table of contents appeared to me, when publishing the
first edition, as a sufficient substitute.

The French have never produced an independent work on
forest protection, but have included the subject in works
on silviculture, entomology, mycology, &c. ; the rapid sale,
however, of my first edition has shown that English-speaking
foresters require a separate treatise, while such a treatise is
part of the scheme of Schlich's MANUAL OF FORESTRY, of
which this book forms Volume IV. I have been asked why
I do not write an original book on the subject. It would
have been impossible to do so without borrowing largely
from German authors, and it therefore appears preferable
to continue my former plan of translating the best German
work on the subject.

Most of the additional matter contained in the present
volume, as compared with the former edition, is due to
additions made by Dr. Hess, in the fourth edition of his
FORSTSCHUTZ, published in 1900. He has also revised the
scientific nomenclature of insects and fungi, and has corrected

VI PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.

his earlier editions wherever the advance of knowledge rendered
such correction necessary. The present volume is not, how-
ever, merely a translation of Hess' book ; I have added matter
that I considered important for British and Indian foresters,
and have omitted other matter as being only of local interest.
Several of the new plates are not in Hess' book, but have
been inserted as illustrations of the subject-matter, and also
to fill otherwise unsightly gaps at the ends of the chapters.

This second edition of FOREST PROTECTION is uniform with
the third edition of Volumes I., II. and III. of the MANUAL OF
FORESTRY, which are written by Dr. Schlich. It will very
shortly be necessary for me to publish a second edition of
Volume V., FOREST UTILIZATION, as that book is also nearly
out of print.

W. K. FISHEK.

6, LINTON KOAD, OXFORD,
January 1st, 1907.

PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION.

DR. W. SCHLICH, C.I.E., has allowed the present book to form
Volume IV. of his MANUAL OF FORESTRY. For this favour I have
therefore to thank him, as well as for the kind advice and
assistance he has always readily afforded me during the progress
of the work. This treatise on FOREST PROTECTION, the full scope
of which is explained in the Introduction, is an adaptation for
English readers of the well-known German FORSTSCHUTZ, by
Dr. Eichard Hess, Professor of Forestry at the University of
Giessen, in Hesse Darmstadt, to whom I am most grateful for
permission to utilize his book and its illustrative plates. I
have found it at times necessary to deviate from the original,
especially in the chapters on Forest Offences and Eights and
Forest Insects, so as to render them more serviceable for
English readers. I have also, wherever practicable, exemplified
the subject-matter from Britain and India, so that the book
might be specially useful to British and Indian foresters.

Mr. B. H. Baden Powell, C.I.E., Instructor in Forest Law at
the Eoyal Indian Engineering College, and late Judge of the
Chief Court of the Punjab, has very kindly revised Chapters III.
and IV. of Part I., which deal with Forest Offences and Eights,
and has rewritten the pages on forest property and the general
account of forests rights, so as to make them concordant with
English law. My own knowledge of insects is too inadequate to
enable me to deal properly with Part II., Chapters IV. to VIII.,
which treat of Forest Insects ; I have therefore submitted my
translation of this portion of the FORSTSCHUTZ to Mr. W. F. H.
Blandford, F.Z.S., lecturer on Entomology at the Eoyal Indian
Engineering College, and I here express my great obligation to

viii PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION.

him for revising these chapters and rewriting many pages of
them, so as to make them more distinctly applicable to British
insects. While those portions of the work of Dr. Hess which
deal with insects unknown in the British Isles have been
largely abridged or entirely omitted, it has not been found
possible or advisable to remodel the chapters on insects from
an entirely British point of view. The scientific names of the
insects referred to have been altered, wherever this was
required, so as to conform with the nomenclature adopted in
the best modern systematic works on British entomology.

Dr. H. Marshall Ward, F.E.S., has very kindly looked over
Part III., which deals with forest weeds and fungi, in which he
has made some corrections. The scientific names of the forest
weeds follow Hooker's and Bentham's British Flora, 1892,
and those of the fungi, E. Hartig's LEHBBUCH DER BAUM-
KRANKHEITEN, being nearly all the same as those adopted by
Dr. Hess.

My colleague Dr. F. E. Matthews, F.I.C., has very kindly
assisted me wherever any special knowledge of chemistry was
required, as in the last chapter dealing with the effects of acid
fumes on trees, and also in correcting proofs of the whole
book. I have to thank Mr. J. W. Sowerby, of the Botanic
Gardens, Regent's Park, for information supplied regarding
the effects of London smoke on the growth of trees.

Due reference will be found in the footnotes to the authors
whose works I have consulted.

W. E. FISHEE.

COOPERS HILL COLLEGE.
May 1st, 1895.

SHOET BIOGBAPHICAL NOTICE OF
DE. EICHAED HESS.

EICHARD ALEXANDER HESS was born on the 23rd of June,
1835, in Gotha. His father, Karl August Hess, was Privy
Councillor and Member of the Board of Eevenue at Coburg,
where Hess passed his early youth. In 1849, his father
became President of the Board of Eevenue at Gotha, and
Hess continued his studies there. After leaving school, he
was at first inclined to a military career, but in 1854 decided
to become a forester and studied practical forestry and at the
same time entomology and botany in the Georgental Eevier,
under Oberforster, afterwards Forstrat, Kellner, and Forst-
meister Schrodter, both distinguished men. In 1855 — 56,
he attended the Bavarian forest school at Aschaffenburg out of
which he passed first among thirty-four candidates. From
1856 till 1858, he attended classes in Law, Finance, and
Natural Science at Gottingen.

He entered the State forest service of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha in
1858, and was appointed, in 1859, to the charge of the forest
range Gehlberg, in the Thiiringer Wald. The reigning Duke
was extremely fond of the chase, so that forestry was then
subordinate to game-preserving in the State forests. This
^ subordination of forestry to game induced Hess to write on
the subject to the Forst-imd-Jagdzeitung, of which Dr. Gustav
•^H-ess, Professor of Forestry at Giessen, was then editor.
This paper was not published, but it led to his visiting
Heyer at Giessen, and he thus formed a friendship with one
of the most distinguished of German foresters.

Heyer made him French correspondent to the Forst-und
Jagdzeitung, and he, translated a number of French forest

X SHORT BIOGRAPHICAL NOTICE OF DR. HESS.

pamphlets (" Annales forestieres," " Eevue des eaux et forets,"
&c.), and reviewed several important French works on forestry.
In 1868, Heyer was appointed Director of the newly-established
forest school at Miinden, and Hess succeeded him as Director
of the Giessen forest school and Professor of Forestry there.
This post he has held ever since, although he was nominated
Professor of Forestry at Vienna in 1877, and to a similar post
at Munich in 1884, but he preferred to remain at Giessen.

Hess was made a Privy Councillor in Hesse Darmstadt in
1890, and in the same year, his portrait and a sketch of his career
appeared in the Golden Book of the German people among
the eleven most distinguished German foresters. He has
published several works, which give a true picture of his mind,
intelligent, clear and true. The best-known among these
are : " Forstschutz," the 4th edition of which was published in
1900, of which the present book is chiefly a translation;
" Eigenschaften und forstiches Verhalten der wigtigeren in
Deutschland einheimischen und eingefuhrten Holzarten " ;
" Encyclopiidie und Methodologie der Forstwissenschaft " ; a
revision of the 4th edition of Heyer 's " Waldban " ; and " Die
Forstbenutzung," a second edition of which was published in
1901.

Hess has travelled all over Germany in order to observe the
various aspects of local forestry, also in Austria, Bosnia and
Herzegovina. He is one of the most popular and widest
known of German foresters, and English-speaking people
are greatly indebted to him for the permission he has so
generously accorded for a translation into English of the
results of his long experience and studies.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

PAGE

PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION v

PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION vii

SHORT BIOGRAPHICAL NOTICE OF DR. HESS . . . . ix

INTRODUCTION 1

PART I.

PEOTECTION OP POEESTS AGAINST MAN.

CHAPTER I.
FOREST BOUNDARIES.

1. The various kinds 10

2. Settlement 1]

3. Demarcation . . .12

4. Survey 19

5. Description 19

6. Legalisation . . . 20

7. Upkeep 20

8. Cost 21

9. Improvement 21

CHAPTER II.

PROTECTION OF FORESTS AGAINST IRREGULARITIES IN
UTILIZING FOREST PRODUCE.

SECTION I.— PRINCIPAL PRODUCE.

1. General account 23

2. Overfelling 23

3. Bad felling 24

4. Careless conversion . . . . . . . . . .-25

5. Bad stacking 26

6. Careless transport 26

Xli TABLE OF CONTENTS.

PAGE

SECTION II.— MINOR PRODUCE.

1. General account 27

2. Bark 27

3. Turpentine, resin, and gums . 28

4. Leaves and branches of forest trees 29

5. Fruits of forest trees (collection) 30

„ ,, (pannage) 3 1

6. Grass and herbage (grass-cutting) 33

., „ (pasture) . . . . . . . .35

7. Forest litter 49

8. Dead branch-wood . 51

9. Stones, gravel, sand, .See. 52

10. Other produce . 53

1 1 . Game and fisheries 53

CHAPTER III.

PROTECTION OF THE FOREST AGAINST OFFENCES.

1. General account . 55

2. Definition of a forest offence 55

3. Classification of forest offences 5<>

4. Protective rules 59

CHAPTER IV.
PROTECTION AGAINST FOREST RIGHTS.

SECTION I.— GENERAL VIEW OF FORESTS AS "ESTATES" OR PIECES

OF PROPERTY. . 64

„ II. — GENERAL ACCOUNT OF FOREST RIGHTS . . . . <>7

„ III. — SPECIAL ACCOUNT OF FOREST RIGHTS .... 78

TABLE OF CONTENTS. Xlll

PAET II.
PEOTECTION OF THE FOEEST AGAINST ANIMALS.

PAGE

Introductory remarks . . . . 95

CHAPTER I.

PROTECTION AGAINST DEER AND WILD PIGS.

SECTION I. — GENERAL ACCOUNT 97

„ II.— RED-DEER 99

., III. — FALLOW-DEER 109

„ IV.— ROE-DEER .110

„ V.— WILD PIGS Ill

CHAPTER II.

PROTECTION AGAINST RODENTS.

SECTION I. — GENERAL ACCOUNT . 114

„ II.— HARES . .115

III.— RABBITS . .116

,, IV. — SQUIRRELS . . 118

„ V.— DORMICE 122

VI.— MICE 123

„ VII.— VOLES 121

„ VIIL— BEAVERS AND PORCUPINES .135

CHAPTER III.

PROTECTION AGAINST BIRDS.

SECTION I.— GENERAL ACCOUNT 136

„ II. — CAPERCAILZIE AND GROUSE 138

„ III. — PIGEONS AND DOVES 139

., IV.— JAYS AND NUTCRACKERS . .139

,. V.— FINCHES AND OTHER SMALL BIRDS 140

„ VI.— WOODPECKERS 142

xiv TABLE OF CONTENTS.

CHAPTER IV.
FOREST INSECTS (GENERAL ACCOUNT).

PAGE

SECTION I.— CLASSIFICATION . . . 149

„ II.— DISTRIBUTION . <. 153

„ III.— LIFE-HISTORY . . .155

„ IV.— NUMBER . . , . \ 159

„ V.— USEFUL FOREST INSECTS 160

„ VI.— INJURIOUS FOREST INSECTS 161

1. Damage done ...... .... 161

2. Preventive rules (Protection of insectivorous birds, &c.) . . . 164

3. Remedial measures 1 73

4. Treatment of injured woods 178

CHAPTER V.
INSECTS USEFUL TO FORESTS (SPECIAL ACCOUNT).

OUDER I. — COLEOPTERA 180

., II.— HYMENOPTERA 184

„ III.— DIPTERA 194

„ IV.— NEUROPTERA 195

,. V. — ORTHOPTERA (PSEUDONEUROPTERA) 197

,. VI.— HEMIPTERA . . * • ..- 197

CHAPTER VI.

INJURIOUS -FOREST INSECTS (SPECIAL ACCOUNT OF

COLEOP1ERA).
FAMILY I.— SCARABAEIDAE.

1. Melolontlia vulgarix (Common cockchafer) 199

2. 3f. hippocartani 209

3. Rhizotrogus *ol*titialis (June chafer) 210

FAMILY II.— BUPRESTIDAE.

1. Agrilug vlrldis . .211

2. Other species .213

FAMILY III.— ELATERIDAE (Click-beetles) 214

M IV.— LYMEXYLONIDAE.

Lymerylon narale .215

TABLE OF CONTENTS. XV

PAGE

FAMILY V.— ANOBIIDAE.

Xestobium testselatum . . . • • • . . ..217

FAMILY VI. — CURCULIONIDAE (Weevils).

1. Apoderus coryli . . 218

2. Rhynchltes letulae ... 219

3. Stropkosomus coryli . • . . . . * . . • . . 220

4. Balaninus nucum (Nut-weevil) 221

5. Orchestes fagi 221

6. 0. quercus r ; . . 223

7. Oi'yptorrhyncJius lapathi 223

8. HyloUus abietis (Pine-weevil) 225

9. Pissodes notatus 233

10. Other species . . 235

FAMILY VII.— SCOLYTIDAE (Bark-beetles).
(a) Subfamily Tomicini.

1. Tomicus typographic* . 238

2. T. Amitinus 246

3. T. chalcographus 248

4. T. stenographs 250

5. T. lands 251

6. T. lidentatus 253

7. T. acuminatus 255

8. T. lineatus . . . 255

9. T. domesticus 258

10. T. dispar 259

(Z») Subfamily Hylesinini.

1. Hylastes palUatus .......... 262

2. H. ater 263

3. MyelopMlus piniperda (Pine-beetle) ...... 265

4. M. minor ............ 271

5. Hylesinus fraxini (Ash -bark beetle) 273

6. H. vittatus 275

7. H. crenatus .... - 275

(c) Subfamily Scolytini.

1. Scolytus Geoffrogi (Elm-bark beetle) . 277

2. S. intricatus 278

FAMILY VIII.— CEEAMBYCIDAE (Longicorns).

1. Saperda careharias (Large poplar longicorn) 280

2. 8. populnea (Small poplar longicorn) 282

FAMILY IX.— CHRYSOMELIDAE (Leaf -beetles).

1. Chryxomela populi (Red poplar-leaf beetle) 284

2. C. vulgatlsidma (Willow-beetle) ...,,.. 285

XVI TABLE OF CONTENTS.

CHAPTER VII.

LEPIDOPTERA (Heterocera., Moths).

FAMILY I.— SESIIDAE. PAGE

1. Sexta apiformis (Hornet clearwing-moth) 289

FAMILY II.— COSSIDAE.

1. Co**u* lignijterda (Goat-moth) . 291

2. C. aetculi (Wood leopard-moth) . . ' . . . . . 293

FAMILY III.— BOMBYCIDAE.

1. Gaxtropaclia pint (Pine-moth) 294

2. Jiomlyas neuxtria (Lackey-moth) 302

3. B, pudibunda (Pale tussock moth) .. 304

4. B. chrysorrhoea (Brown-tail moth) 308

5. Liparis monacha (Black-arches or Nun moth) .... 310

FAMILY IV.— NOCTUIDAE (Night-moths).

1. NoctiM pini-perda (Pine noctua) 320

2. JV. rentigiali* 322

3. Ar. tegetwm, (Turnip dart-moth) 325

FAMILY V. — GEOMETRIDAE (Loopers).

1. Geometra piniaria (Pine looper-moth) 326

2. G. brumata (Winter-moth) 329

FAMILY VI.— TOBTBICIDAB (Leaf -roller moths).

1. Halias chlorana (Green willow leaf -roller) 332

2. Tortrix viridana (Oak-leaf roller) 333

3. T. biwliana (Pine-shoot tortrix) 335

4. T. turionana 338

5. T. resinella 339

6. T. rvfimitrana 340

7. T. pinlcolana 341

FAMILY VII.— TINEIDAE.

1. Tinea varidbllis ........... 343

2. T. curtisella (Ash-twig moths) 344

3. Gdeophora larlcella (Larch-miner moth) 346

CHAPTER VIII.

OTHER OEDERS OF DESTRUCTIVE INSECTS.
(4) Hymenoptera.

FAMILY I.— TENTHREDINIDAE (Sawflies).

1. Lvj/hyrus jrini (Pine sawfly) 350

TABLE OF CONTENTS. XVU

PAGE

FAMILY II.— UROCERIDAE (Wood-wasps).

1. Sireae juvencus (Steel-blue wood- wasp) . . . 355

2. S. gigas (Yellow wood-wasp) . . . 357

FAMILY III. — CYNIPIDAE (Gall- wasps) ... ... 358

(#.) Diptera.
FAMILY L— CECIDOMYIIDAE (Gall-gnats).

1. Cecidomyia saliclperda (Willow gall-gnat) 360

(<7.) Hemiptera.
FAMILY I. — APHIDIDAE (Plant-lice).

1 . Cliernies abietis (Spruce-gall Aphis) 361

2. C. coccineus 364

3. C. stroVdoUus (Larch Aphis) . ~ .364

4. C. sibiricus 365

FAMILY II. — COCCIDAE (Scale-insects).

1. Coccus fagi 366

1. Lecanium hemlcryphum ......... 367

Orthoptera.
FAMILY I.— GRYLLIDAE (Crickets).

1. Gryllotalpa vulgar is (Mole-cricket) . 368

FAMILY II.— ACRIDIIDAE (Locusts).

1. Pachytylus migratorius (Migratory locust) 372

List of Trees with the Insects which attack them . . 373

PAET III.
PEOTECTION AGAINST PLANTS.

CHAPTER I.
PROTECTION AGAINST FOREST WEEDS.

SECTION I.— GENERAL ACCOUNT.

1. Definition ............ 386

2. Classification 386

3. Utility of certain weeds 390

4. Damage done by forest weeds .... . 390

5. Preventive measures .......... 395

6. Remedial measures ......... 397

F.P. />

XV111 TABLE OF CONTENTS.

SECTION II.— SPECIAL ACCOUNT. I-A,; i:

1. Lightdemanding weeds 399

2. Half-shadebearers *403

3. Shadebearing weeds 408

4. Weeds of wet peaty soil 409

5. Lianes 410

6. Parasitic phanerogams 412

7. Weeds acting as hosts to injurious fungi 418

8. Classification of weeds in order of injuriousness . ... 420

CHAPTER II.
PROTECTION AGAINST FUNGI.

SECTION I.— GENERAL ACCOUNT.

1. Position of fungi in vegetable kingdom 421

2. Classification and importance 422

3. Mode of life 423

4. Distribution 427

SECTION II. — FUNGI ATTACKING CONIFERS.

1. Armillarea mellea (Honey fungus) 429

2. Fames annosus 435

3. Rhizina inflata . . 437

4. Trametes Pini 438

5. Peridermium Pini (corticola) (Pine-blister) 441

6. P. Sfrobi 443

7. Nelampsora Pinitorqua (Pine branch-twist) .... 444

8. Melanq^orclla Caryophyllacearum (Silver-fir canker) . . . 448

9. Nectrla Cucurbitula 452

10. Dasyscypha calyclna (Larch-blister) 454

11. Cenaiigium Abictis (Pine-shoot fungus) 459

12. Pestalozzla Hartlgii . . . . 460

13. Sector la jtarasitica ... 460

14. JBotrit'w Dtmglanli . . . 461

15. Penderm'mm Pini (acicola) 461

16. Aecidiuiit abietinuin .......... 462

17. A. coliimnare • 462

18. C'hrtfwmyara AMetu . . 463

19. LojthodenniuHi Pinastri (Pine needle-cast) 465

20. L. macroftporiuni . . . . . . . . 407

21. L. nerclsequiuni 468

22. Sjthaerella laricina . . • 469

23. Tricho*j)haeria parasitica 470

24. Jlcrjwtrichia nigra . 472

25. Aecidium strolilinum , 472

TABLE OF CONTENTS. XIX

SECTION III. — FUNGI ATTACKING BROAD-LEAVED TREES.

1 . Rosellinia quercina, .......... 473

2. Polyporus sulphurews ' . . 475

3. Xecttia ditissima (Beech-canker) . ... . . . 477

4. JV. clnnabarina (Coral-spot disease) . ' . . . . . 479

5. Aglaospora taleola . . . . . . « . . 481

6. Phytophthora Fag I (Beach seedling mildew) . t . . 482

7. Rhytisina acerinum . . . . . . . . . . 483

8. Melamjjsora Hartlgii . . . . . • . . . 485

PART IV.
PROTECTION AGAINST ATMOSPHERIC INFLUENCES.

CHAPTER I.

PROTECTION AGAINST FROST.
SECTION I.— FROZEN PLANT-ORGANS.

1. External appearance 492

2. Explanation of the action of frost on plants 492

3. Damage done 494

4. Register of severe frosts 502

5. Protective measures . 502

SECTION II.— FROSTCRACK . . 505

„ III.— FROST-CANKER '. . .510

„ IV.— UPROOTING OF SEEDLINGS BY FROST 510

CHAPTER II.

PROTECTION AGAINST INSOLATION.
SECTION I.— DROUGHT.

1. Appearance and cause of injury 514

2. Damage done 514

3. Register of dry years . . .518

4. Protective rules . . 519

SECTION II.— BARK-SCORCHING 522

„ III.— HEAT-CRACK . . 526

XX TABLE OF CONTENTS.

CHAPTER III.
PROTECTION AGAINST WIND.

PAGE

SECTION I.— PREVALENT WINDS. .

1. Damage done . . . , . . . . . . 527

2. Protective rules . . 529

SECTION II. — STORMS.

1. Origin .... 531

2. Damage done 533

3. Register of storms 540

4. Protective rules . . . -">I2

5. Treatment of windfalls 550

6. Treatment of injured woods 551

CHAPTER IV.
PROTECTION AGAINST VIOLENT RAIN.

1 . Damage done . 554

2. Protective rules 555

CHAPTER V.

PROTECTION AGAINST HAIL.

1. Damage done . . . . . 557

2. Prevalence of hail-storms 558

3. Protective measures 560

CHAPTER VI.
PROTECTION AGAINST SNOW.

1. Damage done 561

2. Record of bad years . 569

3. Protective rules 570

4. Treatment of injured woods 572

CHAPTER VII.

PROTECTION AGAINST RIME.

1. Damage done 574

2. Record of bad years 576

3. Protective rules 578

4. Treatment of injured woods - 578

TABLE OF CONTENTS. XXI

PART V.

PKOTECTION AGAINST NON-ATMOSPHERIC NATUEAL
PHENOMENA.

CHAPTER I.

PKOTECTION AGAINST DAMAGE BY WATEK.

PAGE

SECTION I. — SOIL-DENUDATION 582

„ II.— INUNDATIONS

„ III.— SWAMPS.
1 Formation .........

. 586
. 596

2. Damage done
3. Protective rules .

. 597
. 601

SECTION IV.— DBAINAGE.

1. Vertical drainage 604

2. Surface drainage 604

3. Covered drains . 612

CHAPTER IT.
PROTECTION AGAINST AVALANCHES . . . .616

CHAPTER III.

PROTECTION AGAINST SHIFTING SAND.

SECTION I. — SAND DUNES.

1. Description 621

2. Construction of littoral dune 623

3. Material for fixing the sand '. . 624

4. Maintenance of the littoral dune . . . . .* . . 625

5. Protective coast forest zone 626

SECTION II.— INLAND SAND.

1. Description 630

2. Protective rules 630

3. Fixation of the sand . . . 631

4. Stocking the area 634

XXI I TABLE OF CONTENTS.

CHAPTER IV.
PROTECTION AGAINST FOREST FIRES.

SECTION I.— FOREST FIRES CAUSED BY HUMAN AGENCY. PAGE

1. Causes 638

2. Kinds of forest fires <i3!>

3. Damage done 640

4. Register of tires . . . 645

5. Protective measures (547

6. Rules for extinguishing forest fires i;:>l

7. Watching site of fire . . . . . ' 656

8. Treatment of injured woods . ... . . . . . 657

9. Insurance against forest fires 657

SECTION II. — EFFECTS OF LIGHTNING ON TREES . 658

PAKT VI.
PEOTECTION AGAINST CEETAIN DISEASES.

CHAPTER I.
GENERAL ACCOUNT . . ' • . .671

CHAPTER II.

RED ROT.

1. Description % 673

2. Modifying factors . . . . 674

3. Causes 675

4. Damage done . . « 677

5. Treatment 077

CHAPTER III.
WHITE ROT 679

CHAPTER IV.

STAG-HEADEDNESS.

1. Description and causes 680

2. Treatment . . 683

TABLE OF CONTENTS. XX111

CHAPTER V.

ABNORMAL NEEDLE-CAST.

PAGE

1. Description -. . , . 685

2. Modifying factors 686

3. Geographical range . . 687

4. Causes f . 688

5. Damage done . . . . . . . ..... 690

6. Treatment . 690

CHAPTER VI.
DAMAGE BY ACID FUMES FROM FURNACES, &c.

1. Description of injury . . . . ' . . . . 695

2. Injurious components of smoke 696

3. Damage done 699

4. Methods of recognizing damage 705

5. Protective measures . 707

6. Estimation of damage ......... 707

FOKEST PEOTECTION.

INTKODUCTION.

1. DEFINITION OF THE TERM FOREST PROTECTION.

FORESTS may be protected by two agencies : —

By the State, through laws and regulations made for the
general welfare of the country and forming the subject of
Forest Law.

By the Owner of the forest, in his private capacity ; only
this part of the subject comes under the term Forest Protection,
which may therefore be defined as follows : —

Forest Protection lias for its object, the security of forests,
as far as lies within the power of their owners, against unfavour-
able external influences.

The measures to be taken in order to protect a forest
may be : —

Preventive or remedial, according as their object is to ward
off certain dangers, or to remedy evils which the forest has
already incurred.

The essential conditions of successful Forest Protection
are : —

Knowledge of the phenomena and causes of all damage
which may threaten forests.

Knowledge of the available preventive and remedial
measures.

A proper application of the above knowledge to any special
case of damage which may arise.

2. POSITION OF FOREST PROTECTION IN FORESTRY.

The position of Forest Protection in the science of forestry
will be seen from the following considerations : —

Sylviculture teaches us how to form, tend, and regenerate

F.P. B

2 INTRODUCTION.

forests; Forest Protection, how to guard them against injurious
external influences, and is followed by Forest Utilisation, which
shows how to utilise a forest in the most suitable manner.
These three branches of Forestry are also included in the
term Forest Production, while the remaining branches are
comprised under Forest Management, which includes Mensura-
tion and Valuation of Forests, Working -Plans, and Political
Economy applied to forests, which may be termed Forest
Policy.

3. HISTORICAL NOTICE.

The first trace in history of forest protection consists in that
afforded to sacred groves and trees. We read of such groves
in the Bible and in Tacitus, and they still exist in India,
especially in the hill-tracts south of Assam. In Europe, the
oak and lime appear to have been the trees looked upon as
most sacred, and in the Himalayas, the deodar (God's tree).

The Ban forests of the middle ages, established by the
Emperors of Germany and other royal or noble personages
who wished to secure sufficient tracts of forest for the pre-
servation of deer and other game, formed the next stage.
The Windsor, Epping, and Dean forests, the New Forest, and
some other smaller forest areas are the relics of former
extensive tracts reserved as hunting-grounds by the Norman
kings of England.

The forest laws of the middle ages, besides being chiefly
concerned in the preservation of game, contain many provisions
regarding boundaries, forest fires, mast, forest pasture, damage
to trees, etc. In the Salzburg Forest Ordinance* of 1524, for
instance, directions are given regarding boundary marks. In
a Bavarian forest ordinance of 1568, the influence of the west
wind on the natural regeneration of forests is referred to, and
directions are given to leave a protective belt of trees to the
west of a felling-area.

In 1665, the famous Ordonnance des fore.ts proposed by
Colbert was sanctioned by Louis XIV, and, amongst other
improvements, put an end to the grazing of sheep and goats
in the French Crown forests.

• H. Eding, "jDie Rechtsverhaltnisse des Waldcs." Berlin, 1874, p. 3fi.

INTRODUCTION. 8

Hans von Carlowitz in 1713, in his classical work Sylvicultures

(Economica, which is chiefly devoted to sylviculture, describes
several measures of forest protection, including a regulation
made in 1680 against caterpillars.

As regards damage by game, Burgsdorf wrote in 1796 con-
cerning the peeling of bark by deer. At the commencement
of the nineteenth century, the damage done to forests by game
was very considerable ; in a battue held by King Frederick
of Wiirtemberg in 1812 in the beech forests near Tubingen,
823 deer and wild pigs were killed in two hours. Only
since the eventful year 1848 has damage by game to forests in
Germany considerably diminished, and become more localised
by the constitution of special parks for game. Such was the
forest of Compiegne under Napoleon III., where all the forest
revenues were absorbed by the cost of fencing and planting the
young woods, and where, in 1870, several hundred red-deer
and thousands of roes, besides much smaller game, were killed.

In England, James the First was the first monarch who
considered forest trees of more importance than game ; he
obtained much unpopularity by enclosing part of Windsor
Forest, and put an end to the pollarding of maiden oak-trees,
which were lopped in winter to enable the deer to browse off
the bark of the lopped branches. None but pollard oak have
been lopped in this way since 1608, and the hollow old oak
pollards now in the Windsor Forest were in existence before
that date. That king's fondness* for knocking rabbits on
the head with a stick would, however, be amply satisfied
were he now at Windsor, as rabbits have increased in the
most alarming manner during the last 20 years, and have
destroyed the valuable undergrowth over large areas of the
forest. They render the reproduction of the trees exceedingly
difficult and expensive, and altogether nullify the proper
management of the large area of oak forest planted for the
nation in 1816-25. Such wholesale destruction of valuable
woods by rabbits would not be allowed in any other European
Crown forest.

Forest grazing was regulated in 1585 by the ordinance of
Mansfeld, which prescribed a 5 -years close season for all

* Hepworth Dixon, " Royal Windsor."

4 INTRODUCTION.

coppice woods with 12-years rotation. Forest pasture, and
pannage, or the eating of mast by pigs, have greatly fallen
off in importance of late years, but in earlier times these
forest usages vied in importance with that of hunting.

The great damage done to forests by insects was first noted
in Germany in 1780, and between that date and 1830 several
works on Forest Entomology appeared. That by Katzeburg
was published in 1837, and another by Altum in 1872.
Ratzeburg's book was revised and enlarged by Judeich and
Nitche in 1885 and in 1895.

The engineer Bre"montier undertook the fixing of the shifting
sands on the west coast of France in 1800, on lines already
proposed by Baron de Charlevoix Villers in 1786. A French
law on that subject was passed in 1810. Oberforster von Kropf
did a similar service for Germany at about the same time.

The great damage done in 1856, by floods in the Rhone
Valley, induced the French to pass in 1860 a law for
" reboisement des montagnes."

Forest fires were formerly of frequent occurrence in France
and Germany, but are now7 regarded as national calamities,
and rarely allowed to extend over considerable areas. A special
law against forest fires in Dauphiny was passed in 1872, and
revised in 1893. They are still prevalent on a large scale in
Russia and Greece, and in North America. In British India,
for the last 30 years, a steadily increasing success has been
attained by the Government in its efforts to reduce the area
of State forests burned annually, and measures for protecting
36,651 square miles of State forest from fire were taken in 1903.

The preservation of birds useful in forestry and agriculture
has been furthered by the naturalists of different European
countries and by the enactment of special laws. At the same
time, the British gamekeeper by indiscriminately destroying
bird s-of -prey and the smaller carnivora, has allowed rabbits
and wood-pigeons to increase so enormously, as to become a
veritable scourge to forestry and agriculture, to say nothing of
even greater danger from mice and voles.

Lastly, the researches of Willkomin in 1866, and of Robert
Hartig in 1874, have brought to light the causes of many
diseases of forest trees which are due to fungi.

INTRODUCTION. 5

4. ARRANGEMENT OF MATERIAL.

The measures to be taken by the owner for the protection
of his forests may be arranged under the following heads : —

Protection of forests against man, animals, plants, atmo-
spheric influences (frost, heat, wind, rain, hail, snow and
rime) ; against extraordinary natural phenomena (inundations,
avalanches, shifting sand and forest fires) ; and against certain
diseases the causes of which are doubtful, stagheadedness, and
factory fumes.

A detailed list of the headings are given at the commence-
ment of this book.

It will be noticed that some of the protective measures sug-
gested in certain cases are conflicting ; thus woods should be
cut from west to east, in order to protect them against cutting
east winds, but from east to west, when liable to be thrown
by strong westerly gales. Stumps must be extracted to pre-
vent the breeding of certain insects, but should be left on
hill-sides, when there is danger of erosion. The forester will,
however, have little difficulty in deciding, for any case, which
is the greater danger, and will bear that chiefly in mind in
protecting his woods.

5. LIST OF SCIENCES ON WHICH FOREST PROTECTION is BASED.

Jurisprudence, chiefly as regards landed property and
servitudes.

Zoology, chiefly of game and forest insects.

Botany and Mycology.

Physiography and Meteorology.

Other branches of Forestry (Sylviculture, Forest Utilisation,
and Forest Policy).

A knowledge of forest legislation and of game laws is also
useful.

PART I.

PROTECTION OF FORESTS AGAINST MAN.

PKOTECTION OF FOEESTS AGAINST MAN.

THE damage which may be caused to forests by our fellow-
creatures may be classified as follows : —

Injuries to forest boundaries.

Irregularities in utilising forest produce.

Theft of forest produce and damage to forests, or forest
offences.

Excesses by holders of forest servitudes.

It is the duty of the forester to maintain the boundaries of
the forest entrusted to his care, to counteract irregularities in
utilising it, to prevent theft of forest produce and damage
to the forest, and also excesses in the exercise of forest
servitudes.

10

CHAPTER I.

PROTECTION OP FOREST BOUNDARIES.*

A CLEARLY defined and permanent demarcation of a forest
stands in the first rank of the protective measures for forest
property. It protects the forest against fraud and damage,
and affords security for all the details of forest management.

The different points which require consideration under this
heading are : —

The various kinds of forest boundaries.

Settlement of do.

Demarcation of do.

Survey of do.

Description of do.

Legalisation of do.

Upkeep of do.

Cost of do.

Improvement of do.

1. The Various Kinds of Forest Boundaries.

Boundaries are of two principal kinds, property and ad-
ministrative boundaries.

By the term property boundaries is meant those that separate
estates, or portions of the same estate subject to servitudes.

Property boundaries may be either external or internal
surrounding enclosures. Boundaries of servitudes separate
those parts of an estate that are affected by rights of third
parties from those which are not so affected. Parts of a forest
may be leased for sporting or other purposes, and their
boundaries must be clearly defined.

Administrative boundaries may indicate : —

Administrative units, such as beats, ranges, divisions, etc., or,

Working units, as compartments, periodic blocks, working-
sections, working-circles, etc.

* Eding, H., "Die Rechtsvcrhiiltnissc d.-s Wfclda." I'.urlin, 1874. Ks.lk, It.,
" Die Sicherung der Forstgrenzen." Eberswalde, 1871).

FOREST BOUNDARIES. 11

2. Settlement of Boundaries.

All forests must be properly demarcated by boundaries.

The procedure for settling boundaries differs according as
they are property or administrative boundaries. Administra-
tive boundaries depend merely on the will and pleasure^ of the
owner of the estate, and the details regarding them are dealt
with under Working -Plans.

Property boundaries must be accurately denned. This is
of the greatest importance to the owner and also to the public,
so as to prevent uncertainty and unnecessary work for the
executive and legal machinery of the State. Hence in all

civilised countries the procedure for settling property bound-
aries is laid down by law. Evidence as to the correct
boundary consists in existing boundary pillars or traces qf
where they have been, statements of old people who know the
boundaries, and boundary maps. The settlement is best done
by a public surveyor, who may be either chosen by the parties
concerned, the adjacent owners, or by the executive State or
local authority.

During the boundary settlement the adjacent proprietors
should be present personally, or by their legally appointed
agents, and boundaries which may be regulated in their
absence after a formal summons to be present will be held to
have been duly accepted by them. The surveyor should
endeavour to lay down the boundary on the ground by friendly
agreement between the parties ; if he should not succeed, the
competent law-courts or officials must decide disputed points.

The surveyor should fix the boundary lines as long and

12 PROTECTION AGAINST MAN.

straight as possible, in order to render the estates more
valuable, and to keep down the cost of demarcating and
maintaining the boundary. This maxim should not, however,
be carried too far, when by so doing, boundary points would
be situated in impassable places, such as swamps, etc.

All boundary points which have been finally settled should
at once be marked by durable posts, and by digging narrow
trenches in the direction of the boundary lines (Fig. 1), or in
a circle round each post (Fig. 2). During the progress of the
boundary settlement, the surveyor should make a rough plan
of the boundary line, and keep notes of the evidence brought
before him.

Fig. 3.— Partition of an island by the line M M, mid-stream, between two adjacent
owners, A. and B., into two parts At St.

Fig. 4. — Partition of a river-side accretion C, by the line a b e.

3. Demarcation of Boundaries.

The demarcation of boundaries is effected by natural, arti-
ficial, or mixed boundaries.

Property boundaries require to be more permanently marked
than administrative boundaries.

FOREST BOUNDARIES. 13

a. Natural Boundaries.

Natural boundaries are : —

Water-partings,

Water-courses,

Marked trees, etc.

With the exception of water-partings no natural boundaries
are very permanent. Streamer frequently alter their course,
and trees are liable to die or be blown over or cut down.* At
the same time, wherever the course of a stream is fairly well
fixed, as in a deep valley, such a natural feature forms a good
and economical boundary between two properties. In the
case of water-courses, mid-stream is generally considered the
boundary as in Fig. 5. Where deposits of new land occur,
they belong as a rule to the proprietor who owns the shore
along which they occur. If several owners participate in the

Fig. 5. — "Water-course with boundary marks.

shore, the new boundaries are indicated by producing the
original boundary line through the new accretion to the water-
side as shown in Fig. 4. In the case of erosion and re-deposit,
laws differ ; in some cases, the owners can claim the area thus
lost and re-deposited. In other cases, as in certain parts of
British India, new islands formed in the middle of a river
belong to the State. Owners are allowed to prevent erosion
by artificial works, fixing the banks, etc. It is not, however,
permissible to induce deposits by artificial means.

For greater security natural boundary lines may be marked
by numbered marks similar to those described below for arti-
ficial boundaries. If the centre of a stream is the boundary,

* Pollarded trees often serve as boundary itiarks in private forests near the
river Rhine. They are thus easily distinguished from the other trees, that are
not pollarded. Slips of poplars or willows may be planted on favourable soil to
serve as boundary marks. These may be subsequently pollarded. In India,
species of Ficus may be used.

14

PROTECTION AGAINST MAN.

the boundary marks are placed alternately on either side of
it, as in Fig. 5, but only on one side of it if the bank be the
boundary. ,

ft. Artificial Boundaries.

Artificial boundary lines consist of :—
Roads, or lines of boundary marks.

The line of a road may have to be changed, especially at
certain points to reduce too steep a gradient, and this may be
an objection in some cases to a road as a permanent boundary,
but a well aligned road forms an excellent and economical
forest boundary, and facilitates the export of produce from
the forests on either side of it.

Lines of boundary marks may be demarcated by mounds of
earth or stones ; by wooden or iron posts, masonry pillars, or

cut stone blocks. All boundary
marks should be numbered con-
secutively, and the numbers on
them painted black or white accord-
ing to the colour of the marks.
The marks for each separate forest
property are usually numbered from
north to west and by south to east,
and on property boundary marks
the initial letter of the owner's
name may be added. Every enclo-
sure in a forest belonging to another
owner than that of the forest should
be surrounded by similarly num-
bered boundary marks.

In case of any addition to a
forest involving fresh boundary

marks being interposed between two formerly existing marks,
letters A, B, etc., may be added to the earlier number to denote
their position.

Fig. 6 shows the usual mode of representing a line of
boundary marks, on a map.

The nature of the boundary will differ according as the ad-
joining estate is woodland, or cleared for agriculture. In the

Fig. 6. — Artificial boundary line.

FOREST BOUNDARIES.

15

.v.R.v.P.
.''•- No. 4

former case, a strip of a certain breadth inside the boundary
may have to be kept clear of forest growth. The choice of
the kind of boundary mark depends on circumstances, but
stone or masonry pillars are generally to be preferred. In
cases where a rapid demarcation is necessary, and cut stones
or even bricks are not easily procurable, as in certain districts
in India, conical mounds of earth or of stones, with posts

in the centre, are sometimes used, at any

rate until more permanent marks can be

supplied.

In constructing such mounds, the post, made

of heartwood only and of the most durable

timber available, is first planted in the soil,

the portion in the ground having been charred,

or the whole post creosoted or tarred so as to

ensure greater durability. Bound the post

two circles are then traced in the ground, and

earth to be

heaped up must

be dug from

beyond the outer

circle and placed

within the inner

one. Otherwise

the heap would

soon settle down

into the trench.

The mounds may

be made of stones
if available. The slope of the mounds will correspond with
the natural angle of repose for the class of material employed,
and their height should be about four feet. Earthen mounds
should be carefully protected by placing sods on their surface.
Wooden posts without mounds may also be used as boundary
marks, but they are then more liable to be thrown down by
cattle, or wild animals, or to be removed. In either case
the posts should bear current numbers, a very durable form
being a cast-iron plate, in which the number is embossed
or the numbers may be painted on the posts.

Fig. 7.

Fig". 8. — Boundary stone.

16 PROTECTION AGAINST MAN.

Hess gives a useful kind of iron boundary mark as shown
in Fig. 7. The lower and upper plates can be removed to
facilitate transport. Stones are heaped on the lower plate
after it has been put into the ground to the required
depth.

The best of nil boundary marks are generally hewn stones
(Fig. 8), or masonry pillars. The former may be prismatic,
triangular, or rectangular in section, with a rounded top on
which lines are cut showing the directions of the two adjacent
pillars. Serial numbers should be cut on one of the faces of
pillar. The lower portion to be placed in the ground should
be left rough and be of larger bulk than the cut portion, so as
to ensure stability.

Care should be taken to select durable material such as
granite, basalt or quartzite for these stones.

Where hewn stones are not available, pillars of brick and
mortar or rubble masonry may be erected, a sufficient founda-
tion being of course provided. The current number is carved
on a small flat piece of stone or slate inserted in the sloping
top of the pillar. This is greatly preferable to inserting the
number on a prismatic piece of stone let into the apex of the
pillar, as is sometimes done. Such pieces are easily loosened
by boys engaged in tending cattle or sheep near the forest
boundary. These pillars should be formed of cubes with
a side of 2J to 3 feet, surmounted by a pyramid 6 to 9 inches
high.

It is customary in India to bury a quantity of charcoal under
boundary pillars, so as to assist detection of any fraudulent
change in their position.

In all lines of boundary marks, one mark should be placed at
each angle, and whenever two angular points of the boundary
are too distant to be seen from one another, a sufficient number
of intermediate pillars should be erected. The intermediate
pillars need not be so substantial as the corner pillars.

If the boundary is merely a line, the pillars are placed along
its centre, but if pillars are placed along a road, the middle of
which forms the boundary, they should be alternately on either
side of it.

After boundary lines have been laid out, their exact position

FOREST BOUNDARIES. if

may be more clearly defined by rows of trees, hedges, fences,
walls, forest rides, or ditches.

Roivs of trees are injurious to neighbouring fields by their
shade and the spread of their roots. Hedges are difficult to
keep in order, and rarely answer their purpose in keeping out
cattle along a lengthy forest boundary. Fences are expensive,
but their use is sometimes unavoidable where browsing by
game or grazing is to be feared. Details regarding fences are
given in Schlich's Sylviculture, Vol. II., 3rd edition, page 122.

Walls may be erected when stones can be collected on the
spot, or where, on account of the sloping nature of the ground,

II

1., I

• I |

i i

Fis. 9.

Fig. 10. — Boundary -ditches.

Fig. 11. Fig. 12.

ditches are not practicable. Such walls should be 1 yard broad
at the base and from a height of 18 inches should gradually
taper off to the top. The stones should be placed with the
thick end outside.

Forest boundary rides as well as boundary marks are neces-
sary where two forests adjoin. Unless the ride is also to be
used as a road, a breadth of 4 to 8 feet will suffice, 16 feet being
the least admissible breadth for a road, so that two carts may
pass one another. Along boundary rides it may be advisable to
dig out all stumps in order to prevent the growth of coppice-
shoots, and the ground may be roughly levelled and drained,
and even narrow bridges erected, so as to convert the ride into
a bridle-path to facilitate inspection.

Boundary ditches (Figs. 9 to 12) give a clearly cut line and
prevent encroachment by ploughing or grazing when the forest

F.P. c

18

PROTECTION AGAINST MAN.

boundary runs along a field or meadow. Such ditches can
usually be dug except on very stony or steep ground ; they run
either along the entire boundary line from point to point, or

Fig. 14. — Template or mould-frame
for ditch.

Fig. 13.— Ditching-
spades.

are intermittent. In either case they should stop a few feet
from the boundary marks.

The earth dug out of the ditches should be placed on the
forest side of the ditch and a few feet from it (Fig. 9), or in

Figs. 15 and 16.— Boundary-ditch serving as a drain.

the case of intermittent ditches it may be placed between them
as shown in Fig. 12.

Intermittent ditches (Figs. 11 and 12) are usual on sloping
ground to prevent the formation of ravines.

The section of the ditches depends on the nature of the soil,
but is generally 2 — 2J feet wide at the top and 8 — 10 inches

FOREST BOUNDARIES. 19

at the bottom and the same depth. The boundary line may
be the centre of the ditch, or one of its sides ; in the latter
case the ditch belongs to the proprietor on whose land the
earth from it is thrown, which is generally towards the forest.
Special kinds of spades are used for ditching, as shown in
Pig. 13.

A wooden model of the ditch-profile is also useful (Fig. 14),
and is termed template or mould-frame.

In case the ditches are also used as drains, care must be
taken not to allow the boundary marks to be undermined.
Thus the arrangement shown in Fig. 15 should be followed to
protect the boundary marks from erosion, and not that shown
in Fig. 16.

4. Survey of Boundaries.

The best survey is that carried out by the theodolite and a
chain, or measuring staff, but for preliminary work a less
accurate instrument, such as the plane-table or prismatic
compass, will suffice. From the survey a boundary map
should be drawn up, the usual scale of such maps being 40
or 50 inches to the mile in Germany. No larger scale than
25 inches to the mile is usual for British woodlands.
These maps should show : —

All boundary marks with their numbers.
The course of the boundary lines. v
The names of adjoining properties, and the nature of
their cultivation, or otherwise.

5. Description oj Boundaries.

This should be prepared in a tabular form, and should show :
Name of forest and of proprietor.
Names of adjoining estates and of their proprietors.
Current number and nature of boundary marks.
Angle at each corner in degrees, minutes and seconds.
Distance from one mark to the next, both horizontally and

along the surface of the ground.
Direction of boundary line from mark to mark, with

reference either to that of the magnetic needle or true

north.

c 2

20 PROTECTION AGAINST MAN.

Other remarks worth recording should be added, such as
crossing-points of streams, roads and rights-of-way, or
reference to any permanent objects near the line, such
as trigonometrical pillars, etc.

6. Legalisation of Boundaries.

It is desirable to cause the boundary map and description
to be recognised by the proper State authority, according to
the law in force. The original documents should be deposited
in the State Registry Office and certificated copies given to the
owners of the two adjoining estates.

7. Upkeep of Boundaries.

Forest boundary lines and marks are liable to various injuries
by men and animals, and by the weather. When once laid
down they must be maintained in good order ; the following
measures being specially necessary :—

(a) Periodic clearing of the boundary line, so that one mark
may be visible from the next. In case the boundary line be a
road, bridle-path or ditch, repairs to these become necessary
from time to time. Any vegetation that is removed should be
shared between the adjacent owners.

(b) Periodic inspection of the lines by the forest officials,
to whose charge definite lengths of boundary should be allotted,
according to their rank, and each official should from time to
time submit reports to his superiors on the condition of the
boundaries.

(c) "Wherever woodlands border on agricultural land, the
trees must not overshade the latter with their foliage, nor
their roots grow into the fields. Drip from the branches
should not go beyond the actual boundary line, and a space
should be kept free from woody growth, the actual breadth of
which varies according to local law. As a rule, the neighbour
can lop an overhanging tree only if the owner of the woodland
has neglected to do so ; the loppings belong to the latter.
Intrusive roots may usually be cut by the neighbour. Law-
books should be consulted on this question.

FOREST BOUNDARIES. 21

(d) Immediate repair of all defects in the marks, repainting
fading numbers, etc., before any point becomes doubtful.
Marks which may have been removed can be replaced only
with the consent of both owners or by order of a Court of Law.
Any uncertainty about the position of forest boundary marks,
that are also boundary marks of adjoining States, gives rise to
much difficulty.

(e) Immediate report of all tampering with established
boundaries and prosecution of the offenders.

8. Cost.

The cost of erecting and maintaining forest boundaries
should be divided between the adjacent owners, unless there is
any legal provision to the contrary.

These costs vary so much according to circumstances, that
it is difficult to lay down any general estimates ; the following
figures may be considered approximate. One man can erect
in one day an earth boundary mound 4 to 5 feet in diameter
and 3 to 4 feet high, and can sod about 3 to 6 such mounds,
and repair from 6 to 9 of them.

Hewn limestone boundary stones cost 2 to 3 shillings
each, and 20 such stones can be carted by two horses. Iron
boundary posts cost from Is. 6d. to 2s. 6d. each.

In loam, a man can dig in one day 30 to 40 yards of boundary
trench, 10 inches wide at the base, and of the same depth. In
light soils, the labour is from 10 to 15 per cent, heavier.

Boundary works are generally done by contract, and on the
continent of Europe repairs to forest ditches are frequently
executed by petty offenders in lieu of fines'.

9. Improvement of Boundaries.

Advantage should be taken of every opportunity to consoli-
date forest property and thereby to improve its boundaries.
This can be done by purchase, disposal or exchange of land,
so as to cut off inconvenient corners or narrow strips, to alienate
detached pieces, or to acquire enclosures belonging to other
proprietors.

22

PROTECTION AGAINST MAN.

Some of the advantages of consolidation are :—

(a) Greater facility for keeping the boundary line in order,
and at a reduced cost.

(b) Saving in protection expenses, in work of staff, and less
liability to cases of misappropriation and damage by outsiders,
especially in the case of danger from tire.

(c) Increase in the productiveness of the forest. Fewer
roads are required ; damage is reduced, whether it is caused
to the forest by frost, storms, etc., or to adjoining farm-land,
by overhanging trees or by game sheltering in the forest.
Small private estates enclosed in a forest frequently encourage
poaching, or unfair destruction of game.

Fig. 17.— Head of Stoke Park Red Deer from Mr. Rowland Ward's
. Big Game."

Records of

CHAPTEK II.

PROTECTION OP THE FOREST AGAINST IRREGU-
LARITIES IN THE UTILISATION OF FOREST
PRODUCE.

SECTION I. — PRINCIPAL PRODUCE.
1. General Account of Damage done.

THE standing-crop or soil of a forest may be endangered
during fellings and in the conversion and transport of timber
in the following ways : — By overfelling, bad felling, careless
conversion or bad stacking of timber and firewood, and
careless transport.

The methods for fixing the annual yield of a forest are
explained under Forest Management, and how timber should
be felled and converted, under Forest Utilisation ; here, only
the preventive measures necessary to obviate irregularities
will be considered.

Irregularities of wood-cutters, cartmen, etc., may be dealt
with, either by regulations made by the forest owner, or by
the forest laws of the country.

In a general way, it should be noted that some damage
must be done during fellings, conversion and transport, and it
is only by experience that a forester learns how much damage
is unavoidable. Too stringent conditions should not be
enforced on woodcutters or timber purchasers.

2. Overfelling.

All forest operations must be carefully watched, and their
results recorded, so that only the fixed yield prescribed by the
working-plan is cut annually. At the same time, at least in
private forests, it may be advisable to cut more than the fixed
yield in seasons when the price of timber is exceptionally high,
and reduce the fellings when it is low.

24 PROTECTION AGAINST MAN.

In order to keep within the limits of the fixed annual yield,
trees to be felled should be properly marked in accordance
with administrative rules, and after the fellings, the stumps of
felled trees should be examined and counted in order to detect
possible irregularities. In some cases, as in Coppice-with-
Standards, the trees to be reserved are marked instead of
those to be felled. The practice in France of marking such
trees by cutting off a portion of the bark and stamping on
them with a steel hammer may give rise to attacks of fungi
and defects in the wood at the base of the tree.

In the case of large felling-areas, it may be necessary to
employ an extra forest guard, in addition to the guard of the
beat, to supervise the woodmen, and when trees are sold
standing, the purchaser may be allowed to appoint a special
guard with temporary police powers and a badge of office.
This necessity for special supervision applies to all the suc-
ceeding sections, referring both to the removal of principal
and minor produce.

3. Bad Felling.

Measures for the prevention of mischief are : —
(a) Employment of competent and trustworthy woodcutters,
and careful instruction in, and supervision of, their work. It
is generally advisable to employ the same men year after year,
and withdraw from the gang all those who fell badly, also to
encourage the best men by instruction and higher wages.
The best available implements should be used.

(6) Only such trees should be felled, as are so designated
by the manager of the forest. Should any other tree be
accidentally thrown, owing to a falling tree coming against it,
a neighbouring tree of similar dimensions and species should
be left to replace it.

(c) Trees should be uprooted, whenever this is possible,
and felling so conducted as to facilitate the transport of the
timber.

(d) Cessation of the work during unfavourable seasons or
weather ; for instance, when the trees are in sap, except where
bark is being harvested ; during absence of snow on the ground
to break the fall of the trees and spare natural regeneration ;

IRREGULARITIES IN UTILISATION. 25

during seasons of hard frost, when the stems may be broken,
or during strong winds, when the direction of the fall of the
trees is uncertain. In northern India, fellings are frequently
stopped during the hot dry months of May and June, from
fear of forest fires which may be caused by the workmen.

(e) Avoidance of damage to seedbearing trees in regenera-
tion fellings, and to standards.

(/) Throwing trees on to bare spots and not amongst young
growth.

(<?) Kemoval of branches and crowns of trees before felling,
to prevent the trees from crushing valuable undergrowth.

(li) Preservation of young growth during the . removal of
stumps, and putting earth into holes thus caused to prevent
their being filled with water.

(i) Careful felling of coppice with sharp instruments and
with a clean and sloping cut.

(;') Leaving stools on steep slopes where erosion is to be
feared, and also on shifting sands.

(k) Avoidance of throwing felled trees on to rocks, stones or
other stems ; felling uphill or sideways so that there may be
a minimum of breakage.

(/) Tropical woody climbers should be cut two years before
a felling is to take place, as otherwise they bind trees
together, and the fall of any tree may involve that of a group
of surrounding ones. The softwooded climbers rot in about
two years' time.

(m) Trees are sometimes, as in the case of teak in Burma,
girdled two or three years before being felled, so that the wood
may dry and lose weight, and become floatable. Care must
be taken that this is not done to trees liable after girdling to
be bored by insects.

4. Careless Conversion.

Here may be mentioned : —

(a) Quick conversion and removal of felled trees, especially
in the case of natural regeneration and of coppice ; protection
of young growth in both cases.

(I) Use of the saw instead of the axe in order to prevent waste.

(c) Quick removal of bark to prevent insect-attacks.

26 PROTECTION AGAINST MAN.

(d) Eepairs of any damage done to young plants, which, if
of broadleaved species, may, when injured, he cut back close
to the ground so as to get a strong regrowth. Otherwise,
replanting must be effected with strong transplants after the
felling-area has been cleared.

5. Bad Stacking of Timber and Firewood.

Employ specially trained men for stacking firewood, as
ordinary woodcutters generally stack loosely.

Stacking should be done on blanks, or along the edges of
felling-areas, on roadsides, etc. The stacks should not lean
against trees.

Withes for binding faggots should be cut from suppressed
stems, or taken from cleanings or special plantations.

6. Careless Transport of Timber and Firewood.

Attend to the timely construction and repairs of the neces-
sary roads, slides, etc., which should be ready when the
fellings commence. This is specially requisite in mountain
forests.

Eemove material from the felling-area at favourable seasons,
when snow is on the ground ; not in hard frosts, nor when the
trees are in sap and the bark of standing trees is easily abraded
by the wheels of the carts, etc.

Avoid damaging methods, such as rolling, etc., among young
growth. Use the best methods of transport : slides, tramways,
etc. Make good roads.

Fix a period during which the material must be removed,
say from November of one year to the end of winter in the
next, so that the ground may be cleared in time for the spring-
growth of the second year. At the end of this period, all
injured broadleaved plants should be cut back, blanks planted
up, and all ruts on temporary cart-tracks filled in.

Certain rules should be made for the protection of roads and
other means of transport. . For instance, new roads should
not be used until the earth has settled, and they have, if f
possible, been macadamised. Notices closing roads under
construction or repair should be posted up, and bars put

IRREGULARITIES IN UTILISATION. 27

across such roads. Dragging along ordinary roads should be
disallowed.

All transport should be carefully supervised, if necessary, by
extra forest guards.

SECTION II. — IRREGULARITIES IN UTILISING MINOR FOREST
PRODUCE.

1. General Account of Damage done.

Whenever the minor produce is less important than the
principal produce of a forest, it should be harvested in such a
way as not to endanger or diminish the supply of the latter.
The following are the chief items of minor forest produce : —
Bark, turpentine, resin and gums, leaves, fruits of forest trees,
dead branch-wood, grass and herbage, litter, stones, gravel, sand
and earth, peat, forest cultivation of cereals, berries, edible fungi,
game, fish, wild honey and ivax, etc., etc.

2. Bark.

Bark is chiefly used for tanning, or for dyes, but the bark
of certain species, such as the paper-mulberry (Broussonetia
papyrifera), may be made into paper-pulp, or, as in the case
of Betula BJiojpatra in India, into hats and umbrellas. The
inner bark of the lime and of many tropical trees is used for
rope-making or mats.

In the case of oak-bark used for tanning, the following rules
should be observed : —

(a) Secure a clean and slanting cut of the stems in order to
protect the stools against moisture, and produce good coppice
shoots.

(b) Prevent any tearing of bark from the stool, by making a
clean cut round the shoot near the ground before the bark is
peeled from standing poles.

(c) Avoid beating the bark in peeling, as this causes loss of
tannin.

(d) Eemove peeled stems expeditiously, so that the new
shoots may harden before early frosts occur.

(e) Carefully stack and quickly dry the bark, so as to avoid

28 PROTECTION AGAINST MAN.

loss of tannin by rain, and ensure rapid clearance of the
felling-area.

Wherever bark is used for any of the other purposes above
referred to, similar rules, modified for the species in question,
should be observed.

8. Turpentine, Resin and Gums.

The present chief sources of the supply of turpentine and
resin are the pitch pine (P.palustris, Mill.) and other pine-trees
in the Southern States of North America, and the cluster pine
(Finns Pinaster, Aitm.) forests in the west of France. Tappings
for turpentine and resin on a moderate scale have, however, been
started in the forests of the long-needled pine of the Himalayas
(P. longifolia, Roxb.). Some turpentine is still obtained from
the spruce in Germany and the north of Europe, but as this tree
only yields it in small quantities and the process of tapping it
is extremely injurious to spruce timber, its tapping should be
absolutely prohibited.

The following remarks, therefore, apply only to species of
pine which yield turpentine abundantly, and to the extraction
of gums and caoutchouc from several species of trees in hot
countries.

(a) Lessees of turpentine or gum should be held pecuniarily
responsible for all damage done in forests by their workmen.

(6) Tapping should generally be confined either to trees
like theFicus elastica, Blume.,that are hardly of any value except
for the gum they yield, or to trees too remote from means
of transport for their timber to be of any marketable value
as compared with the value of the turpentine or gum which
may be extracted from them. In other cases, it should be
confined to trees which will be felled for timber within a
period of from ten to twenty years, as when young trees are
tapped no considerable increment of growth may be expected.
For the same reason the best shaped and most promising trees
should not be tapped.

In seeding-fellings, a certain number of the seed-bearers
should remain untapped, as tapping is prejudicial to both the
quantity and quality of the seed. In the cluster pine forests
of the Landes, in France, regeneration is effected by seed

IRREGULARITIES IN UTILISATION. 29

from untapped woods adjoining the felling-area on which all
trees are tapped.

(c) Rules regarding the size and number of cuts and the
depth of cut to be made in each tree will vary with the species,
and are given in detail in Vol. V. on Forest Utilisation. In
tapping pines for resin, there should not be more than two
points of attack, unless it is intended to kill the tree, when
as many as six may be opened. There should be from 8 to 12
inches between each cut, and the cuts should not be more than
2 inches broad and in one year only about 3 feet long.

(</) Tapping must be intermittent, so as to allow recovery
of the trees before a fresh tapping is allowed, unless it is
intended to tap the tree to death before felling it. The
interval between successive tappings will of course vary with
the species in question. In Europe, all tapping should cease
with the first early frost in August or September, and not be
resumed till the spring.

(e) Tapping should rarely be attempted on poor soils.

4. Leaves and Branches of Forest Trees.

Leaves of forest trees are used tor fodder, manure, thatching,
tanning, dyes, etc. Leaf-fodder is extensively used for cattle
in countries where sufficient grass is not available, as in the
centre and south of France, where hedge-row oaks are
annually pollarded for this purpose. A similar practice pre-
vails in the Himalayan districts of India during winter,
evergreen oaks, elms and species of Celt is, Primus, etc., being
thus utilised. During the season of rest, leaves of evergreen
trees are rich in reserve nutrient material, and afford valuable
fodder. In seasons of drought in Central and Western
Europe, as in 1893, leaf-fodder from hornbeam and other
deciduous trees is also extensively used instead of grass.

In the north of India, camels, buffaloes and elephants are
chiefly fed on branches and leaves of trees during the cold
and dry seasons. Oaks and other forest trees were formerly
extensively pollarded in European deer-forests to afford fodder
for the deer, which ate the bark of these branches when the
ground was covered with snow.

30 PROTECTION AGAINST MAN.

Wherever the use of leaf-fodder prevails, the important points
are : to allow trees to be lopped only after the principal
growth of the year is over ; to restrict lopping, as much as
possible, to inferior species of little or no value as timber
trees, and to prevent the lopping of trees until they have
attained a certain size. Wherever the restriction is practi-
cable, only side-shoots should be lopped and the leaders
spared, and the trees lopped only every third year. In
timber forests, lopping should, if possible, be restricted to
compartments which will shortly be cut over.

Where the demands for leaf-fodder are large and cannot
otherwise be met, a regular system of pollarding should be
introduced, with a fixed rotation, the length of which will be
decided by local experience.

In India and other hot countries, the foliage of woody
climbers may be used for leaf-fodder to the actual benefit
of the forests. In certain parts of India, green branches and
leaves of trees are used to manure the rice-fields, under the
term of rob ; this subject will be referred to again under the
heading Forest Servitudes. In hot countries, leaves of various
forest species are used for tanning, dyes, drugs, hat- and
umbrella-making, plates, and for feeding silkworms. The
last is a very important and valuable industry, and the trees
utilised are generally of much less value for timber than for
their leaves, and therefore rules should be made which will
afford the greatest possible quantity of leaves at the time
required, and in a way most easily accessible to the silk
producers. Thus pure coppice is adopted with very short
rotations, even of one year in the case of the mulberry in
Bengal. As regards the other demands for leaves, forest
officers would do well not to be pedantic in stopping industries
dependent on their forests which can be supplied without
serious injury to the trees by the exercise of a little ingenuity
and suitable control.

5. Fruits of Forest Trees.

Fruits of forest trees are collected for sowing ; for the food
of men or animals ; for extracting oil, dyes, tannin, etc. : or

PANNAGE. 31

they may be eaten on the ground in the forest by swine
(pannage), or by deer. The rules for the protection of the
forest are as follows : —

A. Collection by Hand.

Where regeneration by seed is expected, or where swine or
deer are to be fed in a forest, fruits should not be collected
for other purposes. Acorns when eaten in large quantities
are poisonous to young cattle. Beasts over three years old are
seldom thus affected. Hence, the collection of acorns in
forests open to pasture is most beneficial, and they may be
used advantageously for feeding domestic pigs.

Forest guards must watch most assiduously during the
fruit-collecting season.

All injuries to the trees during the collection of the seed
must be strictly forbidden. These are : beating trees with
axes ; dragging down fruit-laden branches ; use of climbing-
irons, etc. The bad effects of the latter on the quality of the
wood may be seen from Fig. 18, each wound made by the iron
introducing decay into the timber. Smooth-barked species
such as beech and Weymouth pine suffer most in this way ;
so does the sweet chestnut.

The work must be stopped during frost, when the branches
are easily broken.

B. Pannage.

Pannage, or the feeding of swine on the mast of a forest,
consisting of fallen acorns, beech-nuts, chestnuts, etc., was
formerly a very important industry, but is now becoming less
frequent in the forests of Europe. It still prevails in the New
Forest, where about 5,000 pigs are turned into the woods in
good mast-years, from the 14th Sept. to the 8th Nov.

Swine damage forests in the following ways : —

(a) Eating-up mast in seeding-fellings.

(b) Uprooting young plants, breaking off weak stems,
abrading the bark off poles, and exposing and gnawing roots
of valuable forest species. All these injuries are chiefly felt
in natural regeneration-fellings, and in thinnings in young
woods, on loose sandy or shallow soils, on steep slopes, etc.

32 PROTECTION AGAINST MAN.

Swine are useful to forests in the preparation of the soil
for seed, by removing the covering of dead leaves and ex-
posing the mineral soil, and by burying acorns and other
fruits ; also by trampling dead leaves into the soil, which is
of importance in places exposed to winds, and by destroying
mice and certain insects hibernating or moving in the
soil-covering.

Fig. 18. — Section of a Scots pine injured by climbing-irons.

(a) Points of injury.

(6) Concave annual rings of wood occluding wounds.

(c) Brown-coloured wood below the wounds, showing consequent decay.

The protective rules for pannage are : —

(a) Exclusion from the following places: Seeding-fellings,
except when seed is very abundant; dry loose soils in the
case of swine driven in to feed exclusively on fungi, worms,
insects, etc. ; places where the mast is reserved for deer or
wild pigs.

(b) Compartments opened for pannage should as nearly as
possible adjoin one another, so that the swine may not
wander uselessly through the forest. They should not be
allowed to remain long in compartments without mast, as
they then proceed to bark the trees.

GRASS-CUTTING. 83

(c) The place where the swine pass the night should be
carefully selected. In such places scarcely a root escapes
injury.

(d) The number of swine to be allowed in a forest must
depend on the quantity of mast available. Each full-grown
animal requires from two-and-a-half to seven- and-a-half
acres of forest.

(e) Limitation of pannage to the period of the year from
the middle of October till the end of January. It should not
commence till sufficient mast has fallen, as otherwise the
swine become thin from much wandering about, are not
easily kept together, and do much mischief. On the other
hand, it must cease when the mast is no longer sufficiently
plentiful, and it is in the spring that the greatest damage is
done by peeling the bark and roots. During the aftermost,
after Christmas, the acorns become more digestible, and are
specially suitable for breeding- animals.

(/) The admission of swine into a forest should be granted
only on condition that they are perfectly healthy, and guarded
by trustworthy swineherds ; two hundred swine for each man,
and an assistant for every hundred additional swine.

(g) The owners of the swine should be made collectively
responsible for all damage which may be done to the forest.
In Epping Forest all swine admitted to pannage are ringed.

6. Grass and Herbage.

Grass and herbage, dry ferns, heather, etc., may either be
cut and removed from the forest and used for fodder or litter
for cattle, or, with the exception of the ferns, may be utilised
on the spot as pasture by grazing animals.

A. Grass-cutting.

Grass and herbage may be cut for fodder, or to form
thatching material, paper-pulp, etc. Dead ferns, especially
bracken, are largely used for litter, and heather for litter or
thatching,

F.P. D

34 PROTECTION AGAINST MAN.

The protective rules are :•—

(1) Limitation to persons who have obtained a formal
permit from the forest manager, and, as a general rule, on
certain fixed days, when the forest guards can supervise the
cutting. .

When a number of people are together cutting herbage in
the forest, they should be held collectively responsible for any
damage which may be done.

(2) Eestriction of cutting to places with a moist fertile soil,
which can bear the removal of the mineral constituents of
the grass, etc. In such places, planting in lines between
which grass can easily be cut is more suitable than natural
regeneration. In some cases, heather and broom protect
young plants from frost and insolation and should be left
intact. High grass, on the contrary, as will be seen further
on, greatly increases radiation, the intensity of frost and the
drying-up of the soil by the sun, so that it is frequently more
advantageous to have it removed. Its removal also furnishes
additional security against forest fires.

(8) The use of scythes should not be permitted amongst
young growth, where grass should be cut with sickles or
pulled up by hand. In India, a flat cutting-instrument called
a khurpa is frequently used by grass-cutters to scrape out the
rhizomes of the grass, which are highly nutritious ; this
practice should not be allowed in forests. Scythes may be
used in older plantations, but on the condition of leaving a
narrow zone of grass round each plant. On rides, extensive
blanks, road-sides, etc., there need be no restriction as regards
the instruments used for grass-cutting.

(4) In hot countries, grass which springs up after forests
have been burned furnishes better thatch or paper-material
than when cut from unburned forest containing much dead
and decayed grass, dead leaves, etc. Hence, in forests under
fire protection, grass can be used with advantage only
from off roads, fire-traces or blanks which are cut every
year.

(5) Grass-cutting must be carefully supervised by forest-
guards, and offenders against the rules reported and
punished.

FOREST PASTURE. 85

B. Forest Pasture.*

(1) General Account.

Forest pasture, except in mountainous districts, where the
area of cultivable land is very limited, is no longer so impor-
tant as was formerly the case ; cultivators object to their cattle
becoming thin and wiry in roaming about the forests, to their
cows yielding less milk than when kept at home, to the loss of
valuable manure, and to the increased danger from disease.

In backward countries, however, forest pasture is still pre-
valent, and it is therefore necessary to draw up rules for its
exercise with the least possible amount of injury to forests,
as, when unrestricted, it is incompatible with the existence of
forests. To a certain extent, however, some good may be
done to forests by cattle, by keeping down a rank growth of
grass and herbage, which interferes with reproduction, and
by breaking through and scattering the dense layer of needles
in coniferous forests, and thus exposing the mineral soil for the
rooting of seedlings. Browsing on advance-growth of subsidiary
species or softwoods, which it is desirable to keep in check in
favour of more valuable species, may also be sometimes
useful.!

The damage done to forests by the grazing and browsing of
domestic animals extends to the soil, especially on slopes, and
standing-crop ; to the roads and other means of communication,
and the boundaries, ditches, fences, etc.

The soil of a forest suffers chemically, becoming impoverished
in potash, phosphorus, and nitrogen by the removal of the
grass ; and physically, becoming hardened owing to the
tread of the grazing animals, and the consequent insufficient
aeration of the humus in process of formation. The dung
left by the animals on the ground is a quite inadequate com-
pensation for the reduction in fertility of the soil consequent
on their admission to the forest. The woods are injured in

* Hundeshagen, J. C., " Die Waldweide u. Waldstreu." Tubingen, 1830.

t In "Forest Utilisation," p. 137, Fernandez states that goats are useful to
regeneration in mature Acacia, arabica (babul) forests. When the pods are
falling, the seeds swallowed by the goats and excreted germinate without delay,
whilst other seeds require at least a whole year to sprout, during which they are
exposed to destruction, chiefly by insects.

P 2

86 PROTECTION AGAINST MAN.

the following ways : by the animals browsing on young plants ;
biting-off buds, leaves, and shoots ; brealdng-off coppice-shoots
and gnawing the bark of trees ; trampling on, bending down
and breaking young growth ; exposing and destroying roots,
etc. The damage done by biting the plants is twofold ; they
lose organs that are necessary for their nourishment, while the
normal development of their stems and branches is prevented.
Both forms of injury occur chiefly in their youth, until
their leading shoots have grown beyond the reach of the
animals.

Eoads, ditches, slopes, hedges, and fences, are especially
liable to injury by grazing animals.

The extent of the damage done by grazing depends on a
number of factors. Among the chief of these are : — Species
of tree, age of tree ; system of management, nature of locality,
density of crop, species of grazing animal, number of animals,
season of the year, state of the weather. The amount of
damage varies greatly according to circumstances. Hundes-
hagen* estimates the ordinary loss of increment due to cattle-
grazing at one-tenth. In Carinthia it has been observed that
goats in 16- to 35-years-old spruce, Scotch pines and hornbeams
prevent almost any growth from taking place.

(2) According to Species of Tree.

Broadleaved species are more exposed than conifers, but
recover more readily from browsing than the latter. Most
exposed to damage are : ash, maples, hornbeam, beech. Next
to them : lime, sallow, and poplars. Less still : oaks, elms,
Pyrus sp. Least of all : birch, alder, horse-chestnut and
robmia.

Of conifers, the silver-fir suffers most, then larch, the
different species of pine and the spruce. If the spruce
appears to suffer more than pines, this is due to its abundance
in mountain regions, where there is most forest pasture.

The above scale is drawn up chiefly as regards horned
cattle, but if we consider the preferences shown by other

* " Encyclopadie der Forstwissenschaft." I. Forstliche Productionslehre, 3
Aufl. Tubingen, 1835, p. 512.

FOREST PASTURE. 87

grazing animals, it should be noted, that: — horses prefer oak-
foliage and avoid that of the lime ; sheep appear to prefer
light-demanding species, even the birch and Scots pine;
young lambs, the leaves of robinia ; goats are not particular,
and even browse on the poisonous yew without injury, in
India, however, they succumb to the foliage of Rhododendron
campanulatum.

Another peculiarity of horned cattle is to prefer plants intro-
duced into pure woods, such as ash or hornbeam in beech
forests, or exotics planted among native woods.

The vegetable monstrosities resulting from browsing are
very striking to the eye ; rounded bushes, which sometimes
broaden out till some leading shoots in their centre escape and
grow into trees, are frequent eyesores wherever forest pasture
is practised.

Shallow-rooted plants such as the spruce, in spring, suffer
most from the tread of the animals.

(3) Age of Trees.

Young plants suffer most. In older woods, without under-
growth, the chief injury is done by the hardening of the soil
owing to the tread of the animals. The trees suffer from
browsing until the foliage is beyond the reach of the animals,
and the age at which this happens depends on the rate of
growth, the conditions of the locality and the kind of animal.

(4) System of Management.

In the case of the Selection system, grazing is most dangerous ;
then come in descending order of danger : Group system,
Coppice-ivith- Standards, Coppice, Shelter-wood Compartment
and Clear-cutting systems. Pollarding is the most favourable
system to adopt on land open to grazing, as young pollard-
shoots are out of the reach of the cattle; pollards are
regenerated by planting taller transplants, or cuttings, than
in other systems, and the plants should at first be securely
fenced against cattle, which might injure them by rubbing
against them, or gnawing their bark. The uneven-aged
systems of High Forest, such as the Selection and Group

•38 PROTECTION AGAINST MAN.

systems, suffer most of all, as in the former, young growth is
scattered all over the forest, and in the latter, it is scattered
in patches over very large areas. If grazing be allowed under
the Selection system, regeneration can usually be effected only
by fencing-in patches of ground where large trees have been
felled, and planting them with strong transplants, which will be
out of the reach of the cattle by the time the fences are no
longer effectual.

Coppice-with-standards suffers more than pure coppice, on
account of the necessity for preserving numerous seedling
plants, both natural and transplanted, to replace the standards
as they are felled. Coppice suffers more than even-aged High
Forest, because stool-shoots branch out lower, and are less
firmly rooted than High Forest poles ; in the even-aged
systems of High Forest all pole- woods can be opened to
cattle without much danger. • In regular plantations, damage
done by grazing is less than in irregular artificial, or natural
reproduction, and planting in lines somewhat far apart in one
direction is most favourable, as the cattle can readily graze
between the rows. It has also been observed in grazed forests
in hill-tracts, that mound-planting gives better results than
pit-planting.

Gayer holds an opinion differing from that of Hess regarding
the comparative immunity of Selection Forest and even-aged
High Forest from grazing. He maintains, that even-aged
densely stocked woods are destitute of herbage, which is found
only on the reproduction areas closed against cattle. It is a
matter of everyday experience that no amount of care in
fencing will always protect such areas. In a Selection Forest,
not only is far more fodder produced, but damage by cattle is
less concentrated than in even-aged woods.*

(5) Locality.

On moist and. fertile soil, the damage done by grazing is
minimised, because a strong growth of herbage generally
springs up on such localities, and the cattle have less inclina-
tion to attack woody growth ; moreover the trees grow faster,

* Vide p. 527, Vol. V. of this manual.

FOREST PASTURE. 39

and are sooner out of their reach. Binding or heavy soil
becomes all the more compact by the tread of the animals,
and less susceptible to the entrance of air and water, and the
roots lying immediately below the soil-covering are exposed
to damage. Very loose soil becomes still looser from the
tread of cattle, as they destroy the herbage which binds the
soil together. The greatest damage by grazing animals is on
shifting sands.

On level ground, damage is less than among hills, where it
is increased if the soil be loose, or the slopes steep ; very wet
slopes are also endangered by the sliding of the feet of the
cattle. The steeper a slope, up to a certain point, the more
erosion is caused ; larger plants are also reached by cattle
from above, on slopes, than on level ground, and the damage
by browsing, bending and breaking is greater.

Scantily wooded, dry, hot aspects are obviously unsuited for
grazing.

(6) Density of Foreign Growth.

In dense woods, little or no grass is to be found, so that
more damage is done to woody growth than in more open
forests, where herbage grows under the trees.

(7) Species of Grazing Animal.

Among European animals, goats show the greatest prefer-
ence for woody plants, and their mode of feeding is most
injurious. They even devour woody plants when there is
plenty of herbage available, and beat down saplings with their
forelegs till they can reach the leading shoots, on which they
browse ; they can thus reach plants 12 feet in height. They
also peel the bark from stems in spring. Their constant
movement on the steepest slopes is another great source of
damage. To take some of many instances of the destruction
of forests by goats : — In the Tyrol and Southern Switzerland,
and in the Himalayas, fine forests have been completely
destroyed by them, and in Ajmere and Merwara, whole hill-
sides where vegetation once flourished have been laid almost
bare, with nothing left but deformed, thorny shrubs. In

40 PROTECTION AGAINST MAN.

France, since 1665, goats have been excluded from all forests
managed by the State Forest Department, and no legal right
can be enforced to graze goats in private forests, as the
grazing of these animals is considered incompatible with the
maintenance of underwood.

The sheep is less, injurious than the goat, holding its head
low, and preferring grass, but sheep browse freely on woody
plants, and injure forest soil and the roots of shallow-rooted
species by their short tread and sharp feet.

Horned cattle generally confine themselves to grass and
herbage, and attack woody plants only in the absence or
scarcity of the former. The buffalo in India is frequently fed
during the cold season on loppings of evergreen or winter-
green trees. Cattle do much injury to forest soil, slopes, roads,
and ditches owing to their weight and size, and also break
down seedlings and saplings ; these injuries are aggravated in
the case of the buffalo, which is a heavier animal than common
cattle. Oxen are more destructive than cows, and young beasts
are worse than older ones, as they gnaw woody growth, partly
out of pure mischief and partly to develop the formation of
their teeth, and are much more active.

Horses can reach higher, and are fonder of leaf-fodder than
cattle, and do much damage to. roots by their tread. Foals
occasionally peel the bark from trees. I have seen a clump
of old beech trees in Cambridgeshire killed by the trampling
of horses, which sheltered there in the heat of the day. The
trees had originally been fenced, but when the fence had been
broken the trees were soon killed.

Camels eat almost everything that grows within their reach,
to a considerable height, and can feed readily on thorny species
owing to their hard mouths. Much damage has been done to
forest growth by camels in Northern and Central India and
in Central Asia.

Elephants are fed chiefly by loppings from species of Ficus
and other trees, as well as on grass and herbage, but the
number of tame elephants admitted to a forest is limited, and
their browsing can be easily controlled. Wild elephants are
very destructive in bamboo forests, and also bark trees with
their tusks.

FOREST PASTURE. 41

The relative damage done to forests by European grazing
animals has been estimated as follows by Hundeshagen : —
Horse's foal . . . 150
Horse . , . .- . 100

Young cattle v * . 75
Old cattle . -. ; ' . • 50
Goat . ' . . . • . 257
Sheep '^' i *• 15

This list is drawn up on the understanding that the animals
are freely grazing in forests where the crowns of the trees
have grown beyond their reach. The fact that the goat is
only estimated to do a quarter the damage of the horse does
not controvert the former statement of its being relatively to
its size the most harmful beast, for its weight is only about
l-14th of that of the horse.

(8) Number of Cattle admitted to the Forest.

The number of cattle admitted to graze in a forest must be
regulated by the species and amount of herbage available ; it
should be so fixed that the latter is sufficient to nourish the
cattle, or else they are certain to attack the trees.

Hundeshagen has calculated for the complete nourishment
of large milch cattle for the whole summer, night and day,
that 10 to 12J acres of good pasture is required ; for merely
grazing by day, 2J — 5 acres, and he reckons 2 to 8 young
cattle or 10 sheep as equivalent to one head of full-grown
cattle. He estimates for their daily requirements, 18 — 20 Ibs.
of hay for a cow weighing four hundredweight, 10 to 12J Ibs.
per head of young cattle, and Ij — 2 Ibs. for a sheep. In
Switzerland, one cow is usually reckoned to eat as much as
seven sheep.

(9) Season of the Year.

In Europe the greatest amount of damage is done to forests
by grazing in the spring, when the young leaves and shoots
are most tempting and the herbage scanty. The strong
appetite and restlessness of the beasts after the long winter
stalling has also to be considered. The least damage is done

42 PROTECTION AGAINST MAN.

in the autumn, but as the grass at that season is hard and
unnutritious, forest-pasture is chiefly used when the herbage
is best and most plentiful, from the end of May till the middle
of July.

In the plains and lower hills of extra-tropical India, forest
grazing is chiefly confined to the cold and dry seasons, but
varies with localities.

In the Himalayas, grazing is carried on in the upper forests
from 8,000 to 10,000 feet above sea-level, between May and
September, the animals coming down in the cold season below
the snow-level.

(10) State of the Weather.

During very dry or very wet weather, or in the morning,
while heavy dew is on the ground, cattle prefer the leaves of
trees to herbage. The damage done to the roots of trees by
the tread of cattle is also greatest in wet weather.

(11) Other Considerations.

Milch cattle require the best grazing grounds, and those
nearest to the villages ; then come young cattle. Beasts of
draught can go further and put up with inferior pasture.
Sheep can be pastured in places that are more remote from
the farmsteads than those used for cattle pasture.

Horned cattle and especially buffaloes like moist pastures,
and the latter will eat very coarse herbage. Horses prefer
short grass on old roads to that grown on loose forest soil.
Sheep prefer even drier herbage, in elevated lands exposed to
full light, such as heather-land, and are very liable to disease
if fed on moister lands.

Horned cattle will not graze readily after sheep, and attack
woody growth in preference to grass where sheep have been
grazing.

Cattle accustomed from their youth to forest grazing do*
more damage than others which seldom come into the forest.
Less damage is done when the herds are kept well together,
and this is most difficult to secure in the case of goats and
easiest with sheep.

When one considers all the various circumstances which

FOREST PASTURE. 43

affect the damage done by grazing, it is not surprising that
practical foresters should differ greatly in their estimates of
its amount in different cases. Whilst a forester having cop-
pice-with-standards to deal with may consider the amount of
damage done as very considerable, another in charge of spruce
forest under the clear-cutting system may look upon it as
quite trifling.

It is, however, clear from the experience of grazing in
so many mountain forests in the Harz, Black Forest, etc.,
where thousands of head of cattle have grazed for centuries,
and the forests are still flourishing, that well-regulated forest
grazing may be admitted wherever its necessity for the welfare
of the people is very pressing ; a great resource in times of
drought may also be secured to the people by opening portions
of State and other forests for pasture at such seasons.

Under certain circumstances, where the ground under a
seeding-felling is covered with tall herbage, or a dense mass
of dead leaves and moss, temporary driving-in of cattle may
prove useful, and also in the case of a plague of mice, or of
insects, when their larvae or pupae are on the ground.

(12) Protective Measures.

The regulation of forest pasture may be considered under
the headings : — close-time, arrangement of grazing areas, season
for grazing, species of animal, number of animals, control and
protective staff.

a. Close-time.

Close-time is the period during which a wood should not be
opened to grazing. It commences with the regeneration of
the wood, and terminates when the young trees can no longer
be reached by the animals, in the pole stage. The length of
the close-time depends on the species of tree, the system of
management, the circumstances of the locality, and the kind
of grazing animal.

Broadleaved species, especially slow-growing ones, require
a longer close- time than conifers ; high forests, a longer close-
time than coppice. In the case of mixed woods, the length
of the close-time will depend on the most endangered species.

44

PROTECTION AGAINST MAN.

On poor soil, in exposed places, longer close-periods are
required than for good soils, sheltered positions, and mild
climates, since trees then grow faster. Sheep can be driven
earlier than cattle or horses into a forest.

The calculation of the open area in a forest is given in the
following formula : —

Let F = area of forest,
f = closed area,
/i = F — / = open area,
s = close- time,
r = rotation of forest.

Then,/=F*

. I.

For example, a forest of 1,000 acres area, with a rotation
of 100 years, and a close-time of 25 years :

f)K

The closed area = 1,000 -=f- = 250 acres.

100

The open area = 1,000 ~ = 750 acres.

LOO

Speaking generally, according to G. L. Hartig, the following
areas should be closed : —

Broadleaved forest . . . J to J of the whole area.
Coniferous do. . . . J to J ,,

Coppice do. . . | to f

According to Hundeshagen, the close-time should be as

follows : —

SYSTEM OF MANAGEMENT.

Species
of
Cattle.

Broadleaved
High Forest.

Coniferous
Forest.

Coppice
with
Standards.

Coppice.

Horses and
horned cattle

Years.

• 18—24

Years.

12—20

Years.

14—18

Years.

6—14

Sheep .

14—18

9—16

10—12

4—10

FOREST PASTURE. 45

In this table the minima are for good localities, and for
species not much endangered by grazing, and the maxima for
inferior localities, and for species preferred by the animals.

When the animals are simply driven through a forest,
much younger woods can be opened, but in such cases the
gradient of the slopes and the consistency of the soil should
be considered. Thus, in the Harz, 3-to-5-years-old plantations
of spruce with appetising grass are opened to cattle and
suffer less than older woods, where the grass is hard and
unnutritious.

b. Location of Grazing Areas.

Every year a new tabular form showing the areas opened
to grazing should be drawn up and publicly advertised amongst
the grazing villages that use the forest. In preparing such a
form, the open compartments should be arranged so as to
make it possible for the animals to pass through old woods
from one grazing ground to the next, or drift-roads should be
laid-out between them wherever young woods intervene, and
sufficient time allowed for the grass to grow in a grazed area
before its turn for opening recurs. Marshy places, loose soil
and steep slopes are to be excluded. Localities with under-
growth that is valued for regeneration must not be opened to
sheep. Where trampling is to be dreaded, horned cattle must
also be excluded. Attention to the requirements of the animals
when drawing up the plan of grazing will also tend to restrict
damage.

The closed areas must be marked on the ground with notice
boards, or protected with fences or ditches, the latter to be
3 feet wide and 1J feet deep, with the earth thrown up on the
side of the closed area.

If drift-roads are required from one part of the forest to
another, they should be from 15 to 24 feet wide, according to
the number and species of grazing animals. Wherever these
roads pass through very young growth, ditches, earth or stone
walls, or dry thorn hedges, should be placed on either side.
The earth from the ditches should be thrown up towards the
closed area to assist in keeping out the cattle.

Wherever such protective works are not made along a drift

46

PROTECTION AGAINST MAN.

Fig. 19. — Protection for young
plants.

road, the nearest rows of young plants should 1m protected, as
in Fig. 20, each with three rough stakes with the jagged sides
pointing outwards. When for the removal of a strong growth

of herbage, or other reason H,
pasture in young growth is con-
sidered advisable, this should bo
allowed only from the 1st of July
after the year's shoots have com
menced hardening, and in dry
weather. By multiple-planting
at nar.h spot, in threes or more,
there is more chance of success
in grazed forests, than when
single plants are used. In grazed selection forests, the only
certain system of reproduction is to plant in groups where,
old trees have been removed, and fence, -in each group until
the plants require no further protection.

c. Duration of /V/*///yr.

The usual duration of pasture in Europe is from May till
September. The period for grazing varies in different coun-
tries, being, however, much the same in the mountainous
parts of Northern India as in Europe. In hot countries
great danger arises from the custom of firing the dry grass
in forests for spring-grazing, in order to ;^t fresh youn^ shoots
from the rhizomes of the grass, as the dead cold-weather grass
is unnutritious. In certain forosts, howover, some of the
grasses remain green, long after the grass outside the forests
has dried up, especially when the forests are at a <•< -i-lain
altitude and on northern aspects.

Owing to unsuitability of the imburned ^rass for pasture,
certain inferior areas of forest and blanks may have In he

given Up a8 p,i.i/m« ".rounds. :ind hlirnrd ,'l II II !IM 1 1 V for this
purpose. It is found by experience, Unit, owing to coiisl.ini
grazing, coarse grasses gradually disappear from these e
so that eventually they nocd not he hurned, the non inllinn-
mability of the finer grasses thru assists in llu- prolection of
the valuable parts of tho forost from lire. It is. however.
always preferable to try nnd induce I he people to cut and

FOREST PASTURE. 47

remove the grass before it has become dried-up, and preserve
it as hay or ensilage for use during the dry season. This
plan has had great success in Ajmir, in India.

In the Alps, forest pasture lasts only for ten or twelve weeks,
and sheep-grazing on the high forest pastures of the Himalayas
is of a similar nature, these pastures not being burned. The
winter pastures in the N.-W. Himalayas, in forests of Pinus
.longifolia, Roxb., are generally burned, both in order to destroy
the dead needles, and to produce a fresh crop of grass. Forests
so treated must eventually disappear, but the magnificent re-
production of Pinus excelsa, Wall., in the middle altitudes of the
Himalayas between 6,000 and 8,000 feet, since fire protection
has been introduced into the forests, is most remarkable.

In wet weather, forest grazing must be stopped, or carried
on in old woods only. The usual daily grazing should com-
mence only after the sun has dried the dew, and night-grazing
is not generally allowable. If cattle are to be driven through
young growth, this should be in the afternoon, after they have
already had a good meal.

d. Species of Grazing Animals.

Goats, horses, and camels must not be allowed to browse in
valuable forests ; their fodder should be cut and brought
to them. The French laws exclude sheep as well as goats
from all forests managed by the State Forest Department,
but sheep may be admitted to graze in forests in certain
localities under special sanction. Elephants may be admitted
into forests with their keeper, and their fodder cut and brought
in by them. A list of climbers and inferior forest trees and
shrubs suitable for the fodder of goats, camels, elephants and
buffaloes should be drawn up and circulated amongst all
keepers of these animals who obtain fodder from a forest,
and the fodder, as far as it consists of woody plants, should
be restricted to these species.

As regards other grazing animals, the number to be admitted
into forests must be carefully controlled. This number will
be determined by considering the amount of their require-
ments and the available quantity and quality of the herbage

48 PROTECTION AGAINST MAN.

in the forest. Wherever tender grasses are available, these
are exclusively grazed on.

No diseased or sick cattle should be admitted, and from one-
tenth to one-fifteenth of the animals should be provided with
bells, those inclined to wander from the herd being chosen.

The animals should be driven into the forest "only in flocks
or herds under the care of trustworthy herdsmen, who must
see that they do not crowd together, nor stray too far apart..
A few horses may be attached to a herd of cattle, but cattle
and sheep should never be kept together to graze. The
herds must not be too great, not above 100 to 150 head. All
crowding and fast driving, and especially driving cattle with
dogs through young growth, must be forbidden.

On slopes grazing animals are driven straight up from
below, and very slowly, in order, as much as possible, to avoid
damage by their tread.

Shady places in old woods without undergrowth should be
selected for rest in the middle of the day, and must be near
water for the animals to drink.

e. Herdsmen.

Well-reputed, trustworthy people must be selected as herds-
men, and the owners of the cattle held responsible for damage
or breach of regulations, any failing in this respect being at
once reported and seriously dealt with.

The forest manager should secure for himself a certain
influence in the appointment of the herdsmen, and endeavour
to get them to take interest in the welfare of the forest, by
rewards for good behaviour, and discouragement if they are
careless. If the herdsman chooses the proper moment, when
the beasts show an inclination to attack woody plants, to drive
them on to another pasture, and when to graze in young
woods, and selects old woods in wet weather — in fact, if he has
the necessary power of observation and will use it for the
benefit of the forest, the damage done by grazing may become
quite inconsiderable.

(13) Geese, etc.

As regards domestic birds ; geese, fowls and pigeons may
damage a forest, the former spoiling the pasturage, and the

FOREST LITTER. 49

latter devouring forest seeds; but certain blanks may be
found suitable for geese, and the damage done by fowls and
pigeons is inconsiderable.

7. Forest Litter*

As the removal of litter consisting either of the soil-covering
of dead leaves, needles, humus, moss, etc., or of branches of
forest trees in full foliage, is the most hurtful form of utilisa-
tion of minor forest produce, its permission must be looked
upon as altogether exceptional, and only to be granted under
most pressing necessity (scarcity of straw, etc.).

The then requisite protective measures are : —

Limitation of the quantity of litter to be removed to what
is absolutely required by local farmers and peasants. Not a
word should be heard in favour of selling the litter to others.

If the rides, roads, ditches, places from which the wind would
inevitably blow away the litter, and hollow places where it
becomes heaped-up unnecessarily deep do not suffice for the
requisite supply of litter, then felling-areas with high herbage
should be opened, but growing woods only as a last resort.

Only places with fertile, deep and fresh soil can bear a limited
deprivation of litter. On poor, shallow, easily dried, hot soils
and on sunny aspects, the collection of litter must be uncon-
ditionally refused. So also in woods that are insufficiently
stocked, or in badly growing woods, of quality under 0'7.

Woods which have not yet attained their maximum height-
growth must be closed against the removal of litter. The
necessary close-time depends on the species, the locality, and
the length of rotation (r) ; it should be at least ^ r for High
Forest and Coppice- with- Standards, j r for Coppice, but for
exacting species, such as the beech, we must wait up to J r
even in high forest.

The repetition of the utilisation of litter is allowable only
after a certain close-time, which varies from 5 to 10 years
according to species of wood, quality of locality, rate of
growth, etc.

* For an account of the value of humus in the soil of a forest, see Vol. II.,
3rd edition, p. 41, et seq., and Vol. V., part II., chap. VII.

F.P. B

50 PROTECTION AGAINST MAN.

Removal of leaves should not be permitted two years before
or after a thinning, and in the case of natural regeneration
there must be a^close-time for litter 4 — 8 years before and
after a seeding-felling. This, however, implies such a state of
decomposition of the soil-covering, that seedlings can strike
their tap-roots into the mineral soil. Wherever deep layers
of undecomposed humus prevent this, they must be removed
so as to expose the mineral soil.

The most suitable time in Europe for removing litter is
on sunny dry days in September and October, shortly before
the fall of the leaf. This rule will require modifying where,
as in hot countries, some of the trees lose their leaves in
the spring.

Iron rakes must not be used for collecting litter, as they go
in too deep and may injure the roots of the trees ; brooms also
remove too much litter. Only the uppermost undecomposed
layer of litter should be removed. Cutting and removal of
sods of grass with the roots must be forbidden.

As regards moss, species otHypnum should be removed only
in strips during the spring, so that the regeneration of the
moss on the bare places may be facilitated from the strips left
untouched ; this happens, when the soil is fertile and moist,
in about six years. Then the old strips of moss may be
removed, and another six years left for the bare places to
recover, and so on. Species of Polytrichum and Sphagnum,
which generally grow in patches on wet soil, cause swamps
and are hurtful rather than useful, and can therefore always
be removed.

Branch loppings for litter, best from silver-fir, should be
conceded only from felled trees or from those just about to be
felled. Sometimes it may be useful to allow grass, heather,
broom, bracken, etc., to be cut in young plantations, for use
as litter. The kind of implement to be used will depend on
circumstances.

During removal of the litter, the forest must be carefully
watched, and wherever annual permission for litter is given,
a scheme should be drawn up, allotting the open areas for
successive years.

By careful economy in the preservation and use of all

DEAD BRANCH- WOOD. 51

manures, and by the use of straw and provision of fodder-
crops for stock, the demand for forest litter may be reduced ;
it is the duty of the State to impart public instruction in this
respect, and as to the extreme impoverishment of forest soil by
the constant removal of litter. The worst possible instances
of damage to the soil by the removal of litter are exhibited by
the State forests near Nuremberg in Bavaria, where even
Scots pine, in some parts of the forest, can now grow only
as a dwarfed scrubby tree almost useless except for fuel.
Litter from coppice-with-standards in Kent, Sussex and
Hampshire is regularly used for manuring hop-fields, to the
impoverishment of the soil of those woodlands.

8. Dead Branch-wood.

Wherever the removal of dead branch-wood is not a right
of usage, but is permitted under certain conditions by the
forest manager, the following rules apply : —

Written or printed permits for the removal of the dead wood
must be held by each person so engaged in order to prevent
the concession from becoming a right, and generally, people
too poor to purchase fuel should be favoured in this respect,
but they should not be allowed to sell the wood.

Very poor or exposed localities in the forest should be
excluded from the use of this concession, as the dead branches
increase the humus of the soil.

As a rule, no tools should be used, but where removal of
dead branches from standing trees is allowed, they should be
sawn off close to the stem.

In order to facilitate control, the removal of dead wood
should be allowed only on certain days, and not between
sunset and sunrise, and the forest carefully watched on those
days.

Wherever game is of importance, the privilege must be
suspended during the breeding season.

It may be necessary to prescribe the removal by certain
roads in order to facilitate control.

The removal of fallen dead wood is not so harmless as many
people think, as a considerable amount of humus is formed

E 2

52 PROTECTION AGAINST MAN.

from it. Thus sapwood, of which young branches are chiefly
composed, contains far more potash than heartwood.

In the Crown forests of Hesse the privilege of collecting
dead wood gratis is subject to the following rules : —

All dry fallen wood, which in the opinion of the forest
manager is unsuitable for sale, may be taken. Also dead
branches, which can be broken off by hand by one person
without climbing the trees, provided 'it be not over 6 cm.
(2J inches) in diameter. Only poor people provided with
formal permits are admitted between sunrise and sunset to
this privilege. All tools are excluded, and JIG sale of the wood
allowed. Transport is by head-loads, or in hand-sledges.
The privilege is stopped during May and June.

In North-West Indian State-forests, the privilege of
removal of dead fuel is frequently leased annually ; it is also
granted free to villages paying grazing dues, and to travellers
on high roads passing through the forests.

9. Removal of Stones, Gravel, Sand, etc.

The following rules should be enforced :—

All quarries, sand, clay and gravel pits must be properly
demarcated, and the boundaries strongly walled or fenced to
prevent accidents. Proper precautions must be taken that
neither roads, nor streams, nor the forest outside the quarry
are imperilled by quarrying.

In agreements made with lessees of stone-quarries, etc., they
may have to pay for repairs to forest roads leading from the
quarry ; they should also be held responsible for any damage
done by their employees. In French State-forests, where
coal-mines are worked below the forests and subsidences
occur, the coal companies have either to restore the ground
to its original level and replant it, or to dig out fish- tanks,
which are valuable in France.

Stones lying about on the ground should be collected only
where their removal is not prejudicial to the forest, and when
removed, the ground where they were lying should be levelled.
Removal of loose stones should not generally be allowed on
the sites of fellings, especially on loose sandy or calcareous soils

^V.r.4- /1«T

GAME AND FISHERIES. 53

that dry up easily ; stones retain moisture in the soil. Places
must be assigned where the stones may be stored and roads
designated for their removal.

Pits of sand, clay and gravel, that have been abandoned,
should be levelled or sloped-off to prevent accidents, and
if possible planted. This rule is specially applicable to
experimental pits abandoned as not sufficiently profitable.

10. Collection of other Items of Minor Produce.

Collecting berries, such as bilberries, wild strawberries,
raspberries, etc. ; edible fungi ; empty cones lying on the
ground; grass-seeds; medicinal herbs or fruits, and other
such produce, the collection of which is not worth the trouble
of the forest owner, must be so regulated that only persons
provided with formally written or printed permits should be
admitted, and the period of collection fixed. In hot countries,
some of those products attain a much greater importance than
in temperate regions, and certain special rules may be neces-
sary, as in the collection of wild honey and wax in India, where
care must be taken to prevent the collectors from firing the
forest, so that it may be necessary to prohibit the collection
altogether except during seasons when the grass or other soil-
covering in the forest will not burn.

11. Game and Fisheries.

Leases in forests of the right to hunt or shoot game, and of
fisheries, frequently produce considerable annual revenues, but
whilst little or no damage is done by pheasants and other
birds, deer and ground-game (hares and rabbits) may do a
great amount of harm to a forest. The measures to protect
forests against these animals will be given further on.

The protection of game and fisheries is dealt with in special
treatises, and would take up too much space in the present
book. In most civilised countries there are special laws
relating to game, and these should be so framed as not
only to prevent wholesale destruction of useful wild animals,
especially during their breeding season, but also to afford

54 PROTECTION AGAINST MAN.

compensation to owners or tenants of land bordering on a
forest, for damage done to their crops by any excessive head of
game which may be preserved in the forest. They should also
fix a minimum limit to the area on which a man may claim the
exclusive right of shooting on his own land ; this is especially
required in countries where landed property is much subdivided.
Such a limit is 25 hectares (62 \ acres) in Germany, but owners
of such small areas may combine with others to form shooting
syndicates. In French State-forests, sporting leases generally
run for nine years, the lessee having to pay for any wire-fences
that may be required to protect the young growth.

Fisheries are also regulated by laws. In France, since 1897,
the preservation and control of fisheries in all State non-tidal
waters, have been placed under the State Forest Department,
which is styled "Administration des Eaux et Forets."

Their plan of operations over 342 miles of canals and
canalised rivers, and 210 miles of other rivers that belong to
the State, is :—

1. To form reserved waters where fish can freely propa-
gate. On other streams, private fishing rights prevent State
interference.

2. Rewards are offered to fishery guards and to forest
guards for protecting natural breeding-places of fish and for
establishing new ones, for killing otters and other fish-enemies,
for protecting streams against netting by driving stakes into
river-beds.

3. Fish-ladders are erected.

4. Live fish are bred in special piscicultural establishments
and are placed in State streams, lakes, and grounds. They
are also distributed to private fishery owners.

5. Crayfish have died out to a large extent in France from
disease, and fresh crayfish are imported and placed in the
rivers.

6. Pisciculture is taught at the National Forest School, at
Nancy, where a special piscicultural laboratory and breeding
establishment is maintained, the latter in the adjoining forest
of Haye.

55

CHAPTEB III.

PROTECTION OF THE FOREST AGAINST OFFENCES.

1. General Account of the Subject.

THE theory of forest legislation and the law of forest police
is dealt with under Forest Law.*

There are, of course, a number of acts in a forest con-
stituting an infringement of the rights of the owner, which may
be remediable only by a civil court : — either by a suit for an
injunction to the offender not to repeat his act, or for damages.
Of such cases it is not necessary to speak in detail ; but a
word may be said about " trespass." Ordinarily an entry on
a man's property which is not lawfully warrantable gives rise
to an action for damages ; but under the English law (and so
in India) trespass cannot be prosecuted criminally, unless there
is proof that the entry was with intention to do "mischief"
or commit a legal offence of some kind. When, therefore, in
forests, it is desirable (owing to the special circumstances) to
make penal the mere act of climbing a fence and aimlessly
wandering (off regular paths) in a compartment, or a young
plantation, it can be done only by an express enactment of a
suitable prohibition and (light) penalty.

2. Definition oj a Forest Offence.

Under the term "forest offence" is here included any act
done in a forest which is punishable under an existing forest or
other law. Offences which affect or threaten forests (or the
produce of them when converted and stored, or in transit) or
which interfere with control, are naturally sometimes of a

* Reference may be made to " Forest Law," by B. H. Baden-Powell, C.I.E.,
London (Bradbury, Agnew, & Co, Ld.), 1893, which also refers to the principal
works on the subject.

56 PROTECTION AGAINST MAN.

kind which might occur in respect of any property, and
sometimes of a special character : i.e. they happen only
in forests and are not attempted elsewhere; or else are
exceptionally dangerous or injurious when done in a forest
(or with regard to forest property generally). Hence in
most systems of law, "offences" are partly punishable under
the provisions of a forest law, and partly under the ordinary
"Penal Code" or the statute and common law of the
country.

In INDIA, for example, such offences will sometimes come
under the Forest Acts ; sometimes under the Penal Code ;
sometimes under either. And it is a matter for the law
manuals to tell us when one law or the other should be had
recourse to. In the BRITISH ISLES there is no special forest
law; accordingly all "offences" that are punishable (as
distinguished from acts which give rise to a claim for damages)
are so under the ordinary (Criminal) Common and Statute
Law.

3. Classification of Forest Offences.

Forest offences may, therefore, be classified as follows : —

(a) Damage :

Unintentional.
Wilful.

(b) Misappropriation :

Simple.

Accompanied by damage.

(c) Contraventions of forest police.

The subjects of forest offences are sometimes the forest soil,
or its covering ; the stock of wood or minor produce, whether
standing or converted ; houses, roads and other works and
appliances used in forest business.

a. Damage.

Unintentional damage occurs in a variety of ways, as for
instance : — damage to standing trees through clumsy felling
of other trees, to young growth during fellings or removal of
material ; cutting up valuable timber into firewood in ignor-
ance of its value ; cutting seedlings during grass-cutting ;

FOREST OFFENCES. 57

driving carts over boundary marks, through ditches, down
embankments, etc. The number of cases which may occur is
so great, that to draw up a complete list here is impossible.
In many cases no legal offence is committed which is punish-
able criminally ; but the doer of the damage is liable to make
reparation.

In the case of wilful damage, the motives may be wantonness,
revenge, selfishness, even superstition.*

Damage of this kind includes : — peeling the bark from
standing trees, girdling, cutting-off leading shoots, lopping
branches or exposed roots ; lopping branches from trees yielding
mast, or from cone-bearing trees in order to facilitate the
removal of their fruit ; wilful damage to boundary marks,
fences, forest nurseries, or other forest appurtenances.

7;. Misappropriation.

Under this heading is understood illegal appropriation of
forest property still belonging to the forest owner.

In most systems of law "theft" and " larceny " refer to
"personal" or " moveable " property: such as a watch, fire-
wood in a stack, a log, or a beam ; and there is (or may be) a
difficulty about prosecuting cases of lopping, or the offence of
cutting a standing or .growing tree, bush, or sapling ; gener-
ally, therefore, the forest law (if there is one) will specially
provide for these cases, and will leave " theft " of forest pro-
duce (stored), cut timber, etc., to the ordinary law.t Where
there is no special forest law, the cutting of standing trees
would at any rate constitute " wilful damage " or "mischief."

Simple misappropriation (in the general sense of the term)
is unaccompanied by any damage to the forest, so that no loss
of increment, no impoverishment of the soil, results from the
offence, but merely the loss of the property illegally taken

* About thirty year's ago a deodar forest in Jaunsar, in the N.-W. Himalayas,
was deliberately burned to propitiate the goddess of small-pox.

f In India, a technical distinction is drawn between " theft " and misappro-
priation," for which see " Forest Law " (pp. 118, 426). It is provided, however,
in the Indian law, that though " theft " can only be of " moveable " property, —
and a standing tree is not such, — still the act of cutting and severing the tree
from the soil may make the object moveable and also effect the moving with
dishonest intention that is necessary to constitute " theft."

58 PROTECTION AGAINST MAN.

away. In this is included the illegal removal of dead standing
trees (provided no damage is thus done to living trees) ; of
dead branches or windfalls ; of fruits not required for natural
reproduction ; of grass from rides, or roads ; of stones lying
on the ground, berries, edible fungi, etc.

Misappropriation accompanied by damage is committed when
the forest owner, in addition to the loss of the articles
abstracted, suffers physical damage to his property, which
may differ greatly in degree according to circumstances
(species, age of wood, system of management, density of
growth, locality, etc.).

To offences of this class belong, as regards principal pro-
duce : — cutting and removal of standing timber, or parts of
standing trees, involving loss of increment and irregularity of
management, or introducing decay into the wood ; removal of
mother-trees in regeneration-fellings, or of standards in stored
coppice, resulting in delay in the reproduction of the wood,
deprivation of shelter against atmospheric influences for the
young growth, exposure of the soil, etc. Some of the most
harmful of these offences are digging up green stools from
coppice, and removal of young plants from plantations, as
thus the care taken to restock a wood is frustrated. Another
very harmful offence in Germany is the breaking off of the
leaders and side-shoots of young pines by children for sale to
apothecaries, who grind them up and export them, chiefly to
America, as medicine, under the name Turiones pini.

As regards minor produce : — peeling bark, tapping for tur-
pentine or gum, lopping branches for fodder, grazing, raking-
up litter, cutting sods, and appropriation of the resulting
produce, are common offences. When tall herbage is pulled
up round seedling plants, or excessive layers of humus are
removed from felling areas, the owner of the forest may
actually profit by the offence. Such nominal offences may
be prevented by permits to remove noxious material.

In many of these cases, as for instance in the removal of
litter, the damage done to the forest far exceeds the value of
the material abstracted.

FOREST OFFENCES. 59

c. Contravention of Forest Police Regulations.

The offences comprised under the above heading are infrac-
tions of police regulations made for the public welfare, or in
the interests of forest conservancy. No damage need result
from such offences, as for instance from kindling a fire in a
forest which may become extinguished without causing a
forest fire, although there is an imminent probability that
such a calamity will happen, and this probability necessitates
the stringent prohibition of such an act. Offences of this
nature may be placed in the following groups : —

(i) Offences against forest control — Examples : removal of
wood without permission, at a forbidden time, or by a closed
road ; collection of dead fallen wood without a permit, on
forbidden days, or with prohibited tools, etc.

(ii) Offences endangering the forest. — Examples : lighting a
fire ; leaving unexfcinguished a fire lighted with permission of
the forest manager ; carelessness in burning charcoal or lime ;
smoking pipes without covers ; going into a forest with
torches, etc.

(iii) Acts preparatory to a forest offence, which are conse-
quently prohibited : — Examples : trespass by climbing over
fences, carrying axes or saws in a forest without permission,
injury to notices, etc. Forest trespass (in closed places, off
regular paths, etc.) where this is made penal by law.

Many forest offences comprise damage or misappropriation,
as well as contravention of regulations; as for instance injury
to growing trees by transport on a prohibited road, kindling a
fire in a forest with misappropriated wood, etc.

Such complications may involve several heads of charge in
the prosecution case, or call for severer punishment than
offences of a simpler nature.

4. Protective Measures.

Protective measures against forest offences may be either
direct or indirect. The latter chiefly involve removal of the
cause of offences, and the former are directed against the
offence itself ; it is, however, difficult to draw the line between
them.

60 PROTECTION AGAINST MAN.

Unfortunately, forest offences are always considered by
country people less culpable than those against the penal code,
as many German proverbs show. This results from the former
communal possession of many forests, and the small value of
forest produce in earlier times. Even now, the appropriation
of Christmas trees, birches for Whitsuntide and sallow branches
in bloom for Palm Sunday, are frequently considered justifi-
able. The forester should not be too exacting regarding certain
innocent practices ingrained in the popular mind, and he
should endeavour to become acquainted with all local customs
which prevail near his forests.

The following are the protective measures against forest
offences : —

a. Removal of Causes of Offence.

Want of occupation and consequent poverty often leads to
an increase of forest offences. As a population increases,
without more opportunities for employment arising, and as
the clearance of communal and private forests causes a rise
in the price of forest produce, the temptation to commit
offences is increased. They are also more frequent near
populous towns than elsewhere, as the trade in stolen forest
produce is thus facilitated. At Hard war in N.-W. India, in
1882, unmarked forest produce brought into the town was
regularly priced lower than properly certificated produce, as
the former was suspected of having been misappropriated and
might get the purchaser into trouble. Insufficient education,
careless watching of a forest, bad forest legislation, and a
feeble execution of justice on the part of magistrates, may all
combine to increase forest offences.

The subject of Forest Policy comprises a study of the above
factors, and only the energetic action of the State can ensure
thorough protection to forests against forest offences. Under
Forest Protection, we can rely only on means within the power
of the private forest owner, which are as follows : —

(i) Careful utilisation of all forest products, so that all local
wants may as far as possible be supplied. Frequent sales of
produce, and in small lots, and credit given for a certain part

FOREST OFFENCES. 61

of the purchase-money until the purchaser can begin to realise
the value of his purchase, are useful measures.

(ii) Provision should also be made for the sale, by printed
or written permit, of kinds of principal forest produce which
frequently form the object of misappropriation, such as hop-
poles, props for fruit-trees, cart-axles, wood for ploughs, pea-
sticks, thorny bushes or stakes for fences, bast for rope-
making, Christmas trees, faggots, stumps and roots of felled
trees, etc.*

(iii) Permits, if necessary without payment, to remove
certain minor forest produce as far as is consistent with the
safety of the forest, should also be obtainable throughout the
year. For instance, to cut grass ; for dead fallen fuel ; to
collect berries, edible fungi, cones ; to utilise some kinds
of litter the removal of which is not harmful; in certain
cases for the temporary cultivation of crops. Tall coarse
grasses may frequently be removed to the advantage of a
forest, and thus may be secured less danger from frost and
fire, more heat and moisture in the soil, and loosening of the
surface, all of which are important for plantations. In the
case of temporary cultivation, potatoes are to be preferred to
cereal crops, as they impoverish the soil less.

(iv) Supplying work in the forest during winter or at
other seasons when employment is scarce. When a village
near a State forest has been burned, building and thatching
material may be supplied free, or, at a low price, in order to
prevent dealers in such material from charging excessive
prices to the distressed villagers. Koads, drainage, ditch-
ing and removal of stumps, will furnish employment, in
addition to the ordinary felling and planting work in a forest.

(v) In the case of communal forests we have moreover to
secure economy in the use of firewood by introducing the use of
improved stoves, ovens, etc. The firewood store-depots should
be centrally situated, so as to facilitate removal of the material
by the householders. The wood should be delivered dry and
in the smallest quantities in demand.

* In " Rev. des E. et F.," 1905, p. 688, it is stated that sales of small felling
areas of coppice in Algeria have resulted in a considerable reduction of offences.
The people living near the forests formerly gained their livelihood partly by
illicit fellings or thefts of forest produce.

62 PROTECTION AGAINST MAN.

(vi) Improvement of agricultural methods, so that agriculture
may depend as little as possible on the forest. Common-land
should be used to the best advantage; technical instruction
in agriculture should be afforded, etc.

(vii) Much may be done by the exercise of tact and kind-
ness in the administration of a forest, to prevent the ignorant
peasantry from feeling the forest to be a hostile institution in
their neighbourhood. This need not impair the effectiveness
with which important rules are enforced and the safety of
the forest ensured. It is possible so to act as to make the
people not dislike the control, by using discretion in enforcing
particular prohibitions. Ignorant peasantry will always dis-
like forest conservancy ; but they need not feel it a grievance :
there is an irritating kind of exactness which tends to pro-
voke a spirit of malice and a desire to injure the forest;
whereas, a judicious management will in time disseminate the
idea that the forest is after all a benefit, and that the forester
is not the enemy of the people.*

I). Direct Dealing with Forest Offences.

(i) The forest should be subdivided into beats of suitable size
and shape for patrolling &ud keeping watch against trespassers,
or against the causes or origin of fire ; in Germany, the area of
a beat ranges between 500 and 1,800 acres, the latter in Wiir-
temberg, the mean area being 1,150 acres. Trustworthy forest
guards should be appointed, who should be allowed sufficient
pay and houses well situated as regards their beat, also allot-
ments for a garden and potato-field, and pasture for one or two
cows on forest rides and blanks. Proper control of the guards,
and promotion and reward of good men must be seen to by the
forest managers. Friendly-societies of the guards should be
encouraged.

(ii) Wood-cutters and contractors employed on work should
be induced to participate in the protection of the forest.

The forest should be constantly inspected, and all workmen

* In the Jaunsar district in India, the WHJICS p.-t id :i initially by the Forest
Department were in 1888 sufficient to cover the rent paid to Government by
the peasants.

FOREST OFFENCES.

63

employed in it supervised. Proper rales regarding forest fires
must be duly made known and strictly enforced.

(iii) All forest offences must be promptly reported, and the
offenders prosecuted. There are some particular offences
against which special remedies may be adopted. Where
tappings for turpentine have been illegally effected, they may
be smeared with lime-water, which stops the flow of turpen-
tine. Where removal of litter is to be feared, stumps may be
left somewhat high at the thinnings, or stakes driven into the
ground to impede progress. All stumps of stolen trees should,
on discovery, be marked with a special hammer to facilitate
control.

(iv) Wherever it is possible to free forests from rights-of-
common, this should be done, as abuses almost always
accompany them. A comparison between open and closed
forest is shown in Fig. 20.

Fig. 20. — New Forest, 1900. Comparison between closed and open forest.
Kindly supplied by Commissioners of "Woods and Forests.

64

CHAPTEK IV.

PROTECTION AGAINST DANGER PROM FOREST
RIGHTS.

SECTION I. — GENERAL VIEW OF FORESTS AS "ESTATES" OR
PIECES OF PROPERTY.

1. What is Property ?

A DISCUSSION cannot here be attempted of the legal defini-
tions of property, or the questions involved in legal possession,
and so forth, with which the whole subject is bound up. We
commence with the practical consideration, that in modern times
most things that are available for use have, or are presumed
to have, an owner. In particular all land (in countries where
there is a civilised government) has come to be recognised as
the "property " of someone : even an open moor or waste is
owned by someone. This ownership implies the following
elements : —

(a) That within certain limits or boundaries,

(b) the " owner" has certain positive rights: which other
people have not.

(c) He has also the negative right, that other persons are
bound not to interfere with his rights.

In either case there is a legal remedy, which the owner can
invoke in the case of an infringement of his right.

(d) It is possible that some other persons (without actually
infringing the owner's right) may have certain rights of their
own which limit the enjoyment of the owner; if so, these
rights must be known and certain.

Where these conditions are not yet legally existing there
cannot be, for any practical purposes of management or
control, an estate or property.

Where the owner's right (a and b above) is not limited by
the existence of other rights under (d), the lawyers shortly

FOREST RIGHTS. $5

express the sum of his rights as owner, by saying that he
has the use (every possible advantage from the estate) ; the
abuse (the right to destroy and make it a waste, unless some
express law prevents him) ; the fruits, i.e. all produce and
accessories ; and lastly, the right to let, hire, alienate, and
maintain any kind of legal action necessary to defend his
property.

2. Of the Persons who are Owners.

Forest property may belong to an individual owner, or to a
partnership or body of co-owners, or to the State ; or to what
is called an artificial or legal person, namely, some body of
men, or individual holding a peculiar position, or even an
official trust, or some institution, which the law regards as
if it were one single person, taking (as regards the property
owned) no thought of the individual member or members
composing it.

The corporation, as a legal person is called, is exemplified
by the " Crown," the " rector of a parish," a town corpora-
tion, a college, charitable or other body, which is by law, or
by a Koyal Charter declared to be corporate. In such cases
the law or charter specifies the officer (chairman, secretary,
etc.) who is to represent the corporation : the act of the whole
body is signified by a common seal.* The individual members
of a corporation have no interest in or liability for the
property whatever, nor can they take any action regarding
it. Thus corporate property differs from property where
the owner is a company (not being a corporation), or a
partnership, or a set of two or more joint owners : for all
these have separate rights and individual interest, although
until partition, no one of them alone can deal with any
portion of the estate.

3. Limitation of Owner's Eight.

In the short enumeration of the characteristics of property
it was noted that sometimes, though there was an owner to

* This has nothing to do with the departmental official seal used by a forest
department or government secretariat, etc. The " State" or "the government"
as owner of forests and so forth, is not exactly a corporation — but it is analogous.
State property is always provided to be managed and held by someone — e.g. the
Secretary of State for India in Council, in the case of public property in India.

P.P. F

ti& PROTECTION AGAINST MAN.

the estate, whose right extended over the whole, within its
proper boundaries, there might be third persons, having
rights within the boundaries also. When this is the case
it is often popularly (but inaccurately) said that the owner-
ship is limited. Ownership in itself is an ultimate and
indivisible right ; if a person is owner at all, he is simply
owner, he cannot be something more or less, so long as he
retains the legal title at all. But around the right of owner-
ship cluster also a number of subsidiary rights and enjoyments,
some of which can be broken off, so to speak, and come into
the hands of other persons. Hence, though the ownership
remains, the enjoyment of it may be either absolute and
unfettered or may be limited. One obvious way in which
such limitation arises, is by some contract — such as a lease,
pledge, or mortgage, or loan of the estate ; with that kind,
however, the present work is not concerned. There is another
class of rights of third parties which do not arise out of any
lease or temporary contract, and their existence often causes a
very considerable limitation of a forest owner's enjoyment and
control of his property.

4. Rules of Protecting Forest Property.

Before discussing the nature of these rights, some brief
rules may be given, which apply to the protection of the
forest property or estate as such ; to secure the area, general
title, and legal position of the property.

(a) See that the forest is regularly and permanently
demarcated, both as to its general outer boundaries and as
to all inner boundaries — which mark the limits to which
certain rights extend, or in which there are no rights other
than the owner's.

(b) Provide convenient means of entrance to and exit from
the forest and its various compartments.

(c) Exercise the rights of ownership in the forest, especially
near its outer boundaries; let no one have an excuse for
saying it could not be known that any one was in possession,
or was owner of the place. The mere fact of possession
renders the assertion of ownership much stronger before the
courts of law, in cases of disputed ownership.

FOREST RIGHTS. 67

(d) Carefully prevent damage to the estate, its roads,
fences, works, etc., especially if caused by the removal of
forest produce.

(e) Carefully watch against encroachments, and all kinds
of forest offences, injury to boundary pillars and other marks.

(/) When any licences or concessions are allowed, see that
this is always done by written or printed permission so worded
as to make it clear that no right of a prescriptive character
can arise.

(#) Exercise any rights the forest estate may possess over
other estates, and all claims to labour, or payments, all rights
of receiving help in case of forest fire or other calamity, or
receiving information (which may be imposed by the forest or
other law).

SECTION II. — GENERAL ACCOUNT OF FOREST EIGHTS OR
SERVITUDES.

1. Nature and Origin of Forest Rights.

As already stated, it frequently happens that persons
(sometimes individuals, sometimes legal persons or corpora-
tions) possess rights over a forest (or other) property which
belongs to someone else. These are permanent rights, which
have nothing to do with a contract, or temporary lease, mort-
gage, etc. In that case the forest or other estate over which the
limited right exists is called the servient estate — it is burdened
with the right. These rights are called by various names.
The Koman lawyers called them servitudes (because the
burdened property was made to serve the purpose of the
holder of the right). In English some were called easements
(i.e. one kind of them were so, of which presently), others
rights-of- common. In India, the Legislature (abandoning this
distinction) has called them all " easements."* Such rights
depend partly on grants, or some form of written title,

* Origin of forest rights. — In Germany these rights often arose out of the old
agricultural communities whose territory or Mark had a portion or borderland of
waste and forest which (in some sense, at any rate) belonged to the inhabitants.
From the time of Charlemagne these border-forests were appropriated by the
empire or by powerful landowners and town corporations, and the original owners
became mere right- holders. Waste lands attached to villages in India have also

F 2

6S PROTECTION AGAINST MAN.

perhaps a judgment of some Court, and partly on what is
called prescription. By this latter term we mean, that
though the exact origin is not known, yet as a matter of
fact the right has been exercised for a long time — the term
of years (usually 20 or 30) is fixed by the law of each country
— and also has been exercised openly (not by fraud and
unknown to the owner), peaceably (not by violence), and as of
right (not by mere leave or sufferance, acknowledging that
the owner could put a stop to the practice). When these
conditions concur, there is a full legal right by prescription.
It is also possible the rights may be regarded as (in a way)
prescriptive, by reason of their being admittedly matters of
ancient local custom or on other equitable grounds, even when
the precise terms of a legal prescription, as above stated, are
not established.

2. Rights or Servitudes classified into Kinds.

The lawyers in various countries have classified these rights
in different ways in consequence of particular legal distinc-
tions. For example, such rights are said to be negative
when the estate which bears the right is merely under
the continuous obligation not to do something — i.e. not to dig
a hole so as to endanger the right-holder's foundations, not to
stop the flow of water, etc. ; and positive, when it is obliged
to allow the right-holder to do or take something, as to drive his
cattle across a field, take wood, or drive-in pigs to feed on
acorns, etc. Eights are also said to be continuous or dis-
continuous (intermittent) ; the former in their nature are
continually in operation at every moment (as a right to light
and air by ancient windows*) ; the latter are used from time

had something of the same history ; but under the effects of the land settlements
such areas have mostly been freely given over to the villages. In the Garo Hills
(Assam), where tribal settlements in the ancient model still can be observed, it
is only within the last 40 years that fighting has ceased when one village group
tried to encroach on the border-forest of the next. Forest rights also arose by
grant of the baron or lord : and still more grow up by local custom, and long user
of the neighbours, partly because the modes of agriculture then known suggested
forest grazing, pannage, etc., as the most desirable, and wood fuel was required
before coal was obtainable. In those times, too, forests were abundant in com-
parison with the number of the population : and no one cared to interfere with
people habitually taking what was so abundant and had so little value.
* And in general all neyutice servitudes are necessarily continuous.

FOREST RIGHTS. 69

to time, either at fixed intervals (e.g. a right to have 10 beams
for repairs once every 5 years), or on occasion (as to cut
brushwood for fuel when wanted). This latter feature (dis-
continuity) may give rise to a further question, which will be
noticed presently.

On the subject of classification of rights of user, only two
points have a practical bearing on protection. One concerns
the nature of the right, the other concerns the nature of the
right-holder.

As regards the nature of the right, there is an obvious
distinction between rights which (whether negative or
positive) imply only some use of the servient estate (as
walking over it, letting water flow across it, having the
support of soil for foundations, having a beam resting on a
(servient) neighbouring wall, etc., — in all which cases nothing
is taken out of or from the servient estate ; and those rights
which do take something ; e.g. rights of pasture, wood rights,
rights to dig sand, litter, etc.). [It is the former only that the
English lawyers call easements ; the latter are rights-of -common,
or profits a prendre in older books.] And then as to the
holder of the right : this may be a person A. B. and his heirs ;
it is always understood that the person cannot alienate the
right or servitude. Such rights are said to- be personal rights.
or as English lawyers say, rights in gross. But very often the
right is held not by a person (natural or artificial) as such, but
by a certain house, farm, or other building or estate ; so that
the right is exercised by the person who happens to be the
holder of the estate or farm, etc., for the time being. Should
the present holder go away and sell the farm, etc., he would
cease to have any right ; but the right must pass with the
farm by sale. Eights of this kind are called real rights (real
in a technical sense), and the estate, house, farm, etc., to
which they are attached is called the dominant estate, just as
the estate which bears the right is called the servient estate.

Different systems of law have different ideas regarding
these rights. For instance, in France and Germany forest
rights (to pasture, wood, etc.) are always real rights — they are
always attached to some farm, building, etc., for the benefit
of which the right exists. But this is not always the case in

70 PROTECTION AGAINST MAN.

Britain or in India (except in some few cases which in their
nature imply some (dominant) house or building or land to
which the right is attached) ; it is quite possible for an
individual to have a prescriptive right as such individual.*
It is not necessary then to pursue this classification further,
except to be sure that when a right is so attached, the record
of it makes it quite clear exactly where, what and of what
extent, is the house, farm, or estate, which is the dominant or
right-holding property.

It need only be mentioned that personal rights may be
granted or become prescriptive to a person and his heirs for
ever, or may be (granted) for life or lives only.

8. Forest Rights which are Undefined.

Eeturning for. one moment to the prescriptive origin of
rights, one very important matter has to be noticed. Such
rights are nearly always undefined or indefinite — indeed, it
is possible that some rights by the terms of a grant are also
left undefined ; but most commonly it is prescriptive rights
that are so.

The custom is that the right-holder may graze " his cattle "
in forest A. (how many and of what kind, and at what season
is not stated) ; or that he may have power to build and repair
" his house " ; or he has " common of estovers " — a right to
fuel — but of what kind (brushwood or billets) and for what
purposes, does not expressly appear.

In all systems of law there are rules for determining how
such undefined rights can either be brought formally to record
in a definite shape (e.g. the Indian Forest Act),t or at least

* A brief note may be useful as to village rit/hfx in India : it cannot be said,
or can only be true in particular cases, that a village is in any sense a corpora-
tion, or that it, regarded as a single (artificial) person, can hold rights of
user or common ; nor can it in general be regarded as a single dominant estate
possessing rights. If (though not warranted by the Indian forest law) a right is
set down rn a public record as existing in favour of "village C." — this merely
means that all inhabitants (or perhaps only all landholders) of village C., for the
time being, can exercise the right in question.

f In all fully-constituted State forests in India, the law requires every right
claimed to be brought before a public officer appointed for that purpose and not
only recorded, but made as definite in number, extent, kind, etc., as circumstances
allow.

FOREST RIGHTS. 71

there are provisions for fixing the number of cattle, quantity
of timber or firewood, etc., to be claimed under the right.
These principles are detailed in law manuals.* No system of
law allows such a thing as an unlimited right — for that might
swallow up the entire ownership — a thing contrary to the
very nature of a right of this kind which, it should be always
remembered, is a permanent right (not arising out of
contract) of one person or estate, which exists over the
property of another person, to have some use, or take some
part of the produce of the other property.

It is true that sometimes a number of separate rights may
exist, the aggregate demands of which form a serious burden
on the forest property ; but there is no infringement of the
principle. It is also to be mentioned in passing, that
sometimes there is a kind of right over property of a
special nature, called the usufruct, which implies that the
whole of the normal produce and the general enjoyment of
the property passes for life to the usufructuary; but even
then, the holder of such a right is not owner, nor can he do
anything that alters or injures the property in its substance,
or affects the ownership right! — a fortiori, therefore, a mere
holder of a right-of-common is bound to respect the estate
on which his right subsists, and treat it civiliter et modeste
according to Eornan Law, or en bon pere de famille, in
French Law, and cannot demand an unlimited, or abusive
enjoyment of it.

4. How Forest Rights may Terminate.

As we have considered how such rights may grow up, so a
few words will be appropriate as to how they came to an end.

* For instance, in Danckelmann's " Ablbsung und Regelung," 3 vols., Berlin,
1880. Baden-Powell, "Forest Law," p. 318, ft.

f The usufruct is always for life (see Broillard, " Le Traitement des Bois en
France." Paris : Berger, Levrault et Cie.— i.e. 1894. pp. 627—654). If there is a
prescribed working -plan the usufructuary must carry it out and only take such
produce as comes within its directions, and he must carry out all works, such as
new planting, sowing, keeping forest works and roads in order. Such a usufruct
arises in the case of entailed forests, or those comprised in a family settlement ;
also it may be that part of the glebe lands in a rectory in which th« parson has
a life-interest, is stocked with trees, and may come under this head. By English
law, a rector may cut underwood on his glebe land in accordance with the usual
rotation, but may fe.ll timber trees only when they are mature.

72 PROTECTION AGAINST MAN.

(a) It may be naturally : as where the dominant estate dis-
appears (e.g. river diluvion), or where the personal right-holder
dies without heirs.

(b) It may be that the forest is unable to satisfy the require-
ments of the right ; here the right must remain in abeyance,
till the forest has recovered from the calamity which caused
the inability. Where the rights are permanently in excess of
the yield-power of a normal forest, then the law usually provides
express terms for dealing with the difficulty.*

(c) When the right-holder becomes (by will, purchase, etc.)
owner of the servient estate, or where the dominant estate
is acquired by the servient estate, the lesser right merges into
the greater.

(d) Where the right-holder submits to an interruption, or
acquiesces in an act on the part of the servient owner who pre-
vents the exercise (of course having notice of the interruption),
the right will be lost if no action is taken for one year.\ It
may be that the right-holder himself discontinues or intermits
the exercise of his right. In England, it is a question of fact
for the jury, whether the discontinuance was long enough or
under such circumstances, as to give rise to a conclusion that
the right was abandoned. In India, the matter has been settled
by legislation (Act XV. of 1877, sect. 26 Exp.). Two years'
intermission (under the conditions stated in the Act) will cause
the right to terminate.

Of course in all cases, as a right can be gained by prescription
so it can be lost by complete non-user for the whole legal period
of prescription.

(e) Lastly, the right may terminate when, either by friendly
agreement, or (if the law prescribes) by compulsory process,
the right is commuted or bought-out on paying compensation.!

* See Baden-Powell, " Forest Law," pp. 293, 369, 378.

f For England, see 2 & 3 Will. 4, c. 71. The Indian law is similar: see
sect. 26, Act XV. of 1877.

J Explained in Danckelmann's " Die Ablb'sung und Regelung der Waldgrund-
gerechtigkeiten." Cooke's " VVingrove on Enclosures," 1864 (referring to the
multitudinous and complicated Enclosure Acts). Baden-Powell, " Forest Law,"
pp. 367—393 (where an abstract of the German law is given). Meaume, "Usage
Forestier " (reprinted from the " Repertoire de Legislation," Nancy, 1861).

FOREST RIGHTS. 73

5. Practical Principles of Law regarding Forest Rights.

The following short statement of legal principles, all of
which are based on broad rules recognised in all systems of
civilised law, will be found useful : —

(a) There can be no such thing as a right to destroy the
estate or do wanton mischief (e.g. burn a forest).

(b) The right-holder is in no sense a part-owner of the
forest. When a part of the forest is separated and given over
to him, such a proceeding is at the option of the owner, — as a
means of compensating for and getting rid of the right.

(c) The right is always a limited one ; it can be exercised so
only if while fully and fairly enjoyed it does not attack the
substance of the forest : it can never exceed the normal regular
yield of the forest nor its capacity to bear the right without
deterioration in the case of grazing, soil-litter, etc. etc.

(d) When a right is undefined in its character, and has not
been reduced to definite terms, it is always understood to be
limited to the actual needs of the person, or the dominant estate
(as the case may be), in his or its normal condition as it was
when the right originated. If a peasant has a right to wood
for "building his house," it means such a house as is
usual in the locality, not a large villa or whole range of farm-
buildings.*

(e) The right must be exercised so as to interfere as little as
possible with the regular management proper to forests of the
normally existing class or kind ; it cannot prevent the restora-
tion of an ill-used forest, or the proper planting operations and
production of young growth.

(/) On the other hand, the forest owner cannot claim to
alter the character of the forest, or its general destination
so as to affect rights ; and where one mode of proper work-
ing would provide for the rights while another would not,
the owner must make his working-plan so as to provide for
the rights.!

* See Baden-Powell, " Forest Law," p. 290.#", 328.

t See " Forest Law," p. 294 ./. In England we have a recent example which
illustrates the rule that a forest owner cannot alter the entire destination and
character of his estate to the prejudice of right-holders ; and at the same time is
a rare instance of forest rights being beneficial (from a forest point of view). In
the case of Epping Forest, the right possessed by the commoners to lop the trees

74 PROTECTION AGAINST MAN.

6. The Disadvantages Arising from Forest Servitudes.

The chief disadvantages to forests, from the existence of
rights-of -common are : —

(«) Limitation of the owner's power of managing the forest
in the best possible manner, or of converting it, and so forth.
An insuperable obstacle to systematic management in English
woodlands subject to rights-of-common, is, that they cannot
be enclosed, or fenced. Such woodlands pay no rates, and
thus, the general public has to pay for the privileges of the
right-holders, often a few neighbouring land-owners, who
obtain a higher rental, than they would otherwise, from
the farmers, or cottagers, who exercise the rights.

Some servitudes affect the control more than others, and it
is noteworthy, that it is generally not any one right that is
objectionable ; the difficulty arises from the aggregate demand
for a number of right-holders, both as to the quantity of pro-
duce, area of grazing, etc., which they require, and also
the number of persons introduced, to graze flocks, gather
wood, etc.

(b) Even rights-of-way and other rights which take nothing
from the forest, give occasion to accidental trespass, to forest
fires, and perhaps to wilful offences.

(c) The forest owner is tempted to be less careful of
his forest, and is deterred from expending capital on its
improvement.

(d) Both the labour and cost of protection are considerably
increased when forest rights are numerous.

was enforced when the lords of the manors wished to enclose the forest areas,
included in their manors, and had oven proceeded so far as to clear a thousand
acres of forest and subdivide it into building allotments. They claimed the
power to purchase the right of lopping from the right-holders within their own
manors. The right-holders, on the other hand, claimed that their right extended
over the whole forest, and not over any pnrticular manor, and this view of the
matter was eventually accepted by the High Court of Justice after a protracted
judicial inquiry. Thus it was decided that the lords of the manors could not
free their respective manors from the rights without satisfying all the right-
holders, in whatever manor they might reside. This decision saved Epping
Forest from being converted into building-sites, and the City of London even-
tually purchased all the manorial and lopping rights in the forest, the latter for
£7,000, and now only rights of pasture and pannage are exercised by the.
commoners.

FOREST RIGHTS. 75

(e) And so are the risks of offences, and forest fires.

(/) Control of the right-holders involves much otherwise
unnecessary work both in the office and forest.

(g) The revenue from a forest is reduced, not only by loss
of produce, but also by degradation of the soil owing to
pasture or removal of litter.

(h) Disputes arise, and risk of litigation, and of ill-feeling
culminating in revengeful attempts to burn or otherwise
injure the forest. Forest right-holders are also tempted to
presume on their position and encroach on the rights of
the owners.*

Looking at the question from the broad point of view of
political economy, forest servitudes encourage extravagance in
the use of wood, and establish a backward style of agriculture,
as regards the use of litter for manure, loppings for fodder,
and forest grazing, which may in the end overtax the forest
and result in serious forest destruction and consequent
injuries to the country, from floods, landslips and other
physical evils against which forests are a natural and often
effective protection.

The degree of danger incurred, irrespectively of the character
of the servitude, depends on the conditions of the locality and
the density of the standing crop. A completely stocked wood,
on favourable site (as regards slope, exposure, etc.), and
with a mild climate, suffers (proportionately) least of all.

7. Equitable Principles in Dealing with Rights.

Where forest laws exist, there is usually provision for the
record of all forest rights, and for the definition of those which

* In the New Forest, the present tendency is for commoners to exaggerate their
rights at the expense of those of the Crown ; and in 1 894 they attempted to prevent
the Crown from erecting a saw-mill and exercising other rights of ownership in
the forest. In the Forest of Dean, since 1857, grazingby sheep is largely practised ;
and it remains to be seen whether the Commissioners of Woods and Forests will
be able to stop this practice, which is fast ruining the Forest of Dean, for
centuries the most productive oak forest in Britain. Sheep are not beasts-of-
common by English law (see " Williams on Rights of Common," 1880, p. 232),
and no prescriptive right to sheep-grazing can arise in England ; the question is
whether local feeling in favour of the commoners will be allowed to override
the national interest in this matter.

76 PROTECTION AGAINST MAN.

are claimed in indefinite terms. It is hardly necessary to
remark, that every claim must be proved : the natural pre-
sumption is that the owner's enjoyment is not limited — it is
for the person who asserts a right to any use or produce
limiting the enjoyment, to prove it.

The forest estate should always possess the means of
referring to documents conferring rights, and if there is a
serious doubt about terms, the sooner a judicial decision is
obtained the better. Nothing is gained by "letting sleep-
ing dogs lie" — for in this case uncertain rights are not
" sleeping " ; they always tend to grow more difficult to
settle, and are ultimately fixed in a form that perhaps was
never contemplated.

It may be confidently stated that where indefinite rights
exist all rational management is impossible until they are
properly defined.

The forest 'owner has, in general, a right to share in the
produce of the forest, along with the right-holders.*

Attention should be paid (p. 64) to the legal principles
stated, especially as regards the limitation of undefined rights
to the actual needs of the person or dominant estate, and to
there being no right (in general) to a surplus which may be
sold or turned to an extra profit. Also to the limit that cannot
be exceeded, when the yield-power (possibilite) of the forest is
in question.

On the other hand it must be borne in mind that while the
forest right-holder has his obligations and must submit to
those reasonable restrictions which are necessitated by proper
conservative management, the forest owner has a duty on his
side. He cannot adopt special methods of management (how-
ever desirable in themselves) that would destroy the rights ;
and the working-plans should be prepared with the express
object of providing for such rights as exist, and which
(especially in certain localities) are almost indispensable to the
welfare of the present population.!

New rights ought never to be allowed (by neglect, etc.) to

* See Baden-Powell, "Forest Law," p. :W7.

f See " Forest Law," p. 294 ff, where the correlative right and duties of the
right-holder and forest-holder are discussed.

FOREST RIGHTS. 77

grow up in forests even when there is no forest law which
expressly forbids such growths. Nor can the State or other
owner grant new forest rights to the prejudice of old and
existing ones.

8. Protective Measures.

From the point of view of the forest owner, the following
measures are desirable : —

(a) Clear demarcation of the portions of the forest burdened
with rights, and those free from them or closed against
them ; and maintenance of distinct boundary lines ; also
indication by ditches or sign-posts, etc., of lines of right-of-
way for cattle, etc.

(b) Careful record of rights-of-way, etc., use of water, .as
well as those to produce. Where there is a forest law, it is
probably provided how this is to be done. Besides which all
working-plans of the forest must contain a schedule of the
rights showing : —

(i) Title-deed, or other origin of the right.

(ii) Exact description of personal holder or dominant estate ;
and the exact name, etc., of the servient estate or part of it
affected.

(iii) The extent of the right, kind, number, quantity, quality,
season of exercise, etc., etc.

(iv) The mode and conditions of exercise, and whether any
particular duty is laid on either side (e.g. providing a compe-
tent herdsman for the cattle, providing cattle-bells, or the
forest-owner maintaining culverts, etc., for a roadway).

(v) Any payments, or returns in labour, due to the forest-
owner for the exercise of the right.

(vi) A notice of any obscure or disputed points.

(c) Careful watching of the exercise of forest rights by the
forest guards and inspecting officers. But the caution already
given about irritating and vexatious interference should be
borne in mind.

It is only necessary to add that where the rights are such
that the forest is seriously threatened, then efforts must be
made to get rid of them by commutation or cantonment. The
rights should either be purchased from the right-holders

78 PROTECTION AGAINST MAN.

(commutation), or a portion of the forest set apart in perpetuity
as a common for their exercise and handed over as property to
the body of right-holders (cantonment), and the remainder of
the forest declared free of all rights. Such commutation, or
cantonment of rights in a State-forest require the sanction of
an Act of the Legislature.

SECTION III. — SPECIAL ACCOUNT OF THE SEVERAL FOREST
EIGHTS.

This section is concerned with some rules applicable to each
particular kind of right, for which purpose the following list
of " forest-rights " is given : —

1. Wood-Rights.

(a.) Building-timber.

(b.) Wood for industrial purposes and agricultural implements.

(c.) Firewood.

(d.) Softwoods.

(e.) Dead, or fallen wood.

(/.) Lop and top.

(g.) Stumps and roots.

(/i.) Windfalls and broken trees.

(i.) Dead standing trees.

2. Eights to Minor Produce,
(a.) Bark.

(b.) Turpentine and tar.
(c.) Leaf-fodder.

• (d.) Grass (cutting or gathering).
(e.) Pasture.

(/.) Collecting acorns and beech-mast.
(g.} Pannage.
(h.) Litter.

(i.) Quarrying or digging pits for sand, gravel, turf, etc.
(j.) Gathering berries, wild fruit, hazel-nuts, fungi, etc.
(k.) Shooting and fishing.

FOREST RIGHTS. 79

3. Sundry Rights (Easements).

(a.) Rights-of-way.

(b.) Rights to water, water-channels, use of springs or wells,

to water cattle at streams, etc.
(c.) Rights to float timber.
(d.) Right to burn charcoal, to stack wood, etc.

1. Wood-Rights.

Under the above term is understood either a right to claim
from a forest a certain fixed quantity of wood, or as much as
may be necessary for certain purposes. Such rights may, or
may not, be subject to certain payments to the owner of the
forest. It is generally stated what kind of wood is the subject
of the right, thus, it may be building-timber, timber for
implements, or firewood. Sometimes the title-deed merely
mentions " necessary wood," under which term firewood is
generally understood. The forest manager has the right of
delivering the wood, and certain days may be fixed for its
removal.

A defined right to wood is fixed as regards quantity and
form, and sometimes as regards species.

When the species is not mentioned, the right-holder must
be satisfied with wood of the prevailing species, provided it is
suitable for the purpose required.

An undefined right to wood is limited to the requirements of
the right-holder or the dominant estate; for instance, the actual
house of the right-holder, not his sheds and farm-buildings
(unless those are equitably included).

The owner of the burdened forest must manage it so that
the wood which is the subject of the right may continue to be
produced. For instance, where there is a right to building-
timber, the forest cannot be converted to coppice.

The right-holder may not sell his wood, but must use it for
the purpose for which it has been granted to him.

a. Building- Timber.

The supply of building timber to right-holders should be
fairly proportional to the number and size of the buildings

80 PROTECTION AGAINST MAN.

which existed at the time of the acquisition of the right. Often
the right applies only to wood for the exterior of the house,
but may include wood for wainscots, windows and doors.

When repairs to a building become necessary, a regular
estimate of the requisite amount of timber should be drawn
up ; and the wood must be used within a fixed period. When
a new house is being built, all still serviceable wood from the
old house must be deducted from the estimate. It is usual
for the right-holder to pay the cost of extraction of the wood,
even though he pays nothing for the wood itself. In the
Himalayan forests, right-holders usually fell the trees and
convert the timber for themselves ; in some cases the right-
holder is allotted annually a certain number of trees for house-
repairs or building ; in other cases the right-holder is put down
as being entitled to what is needed on application, for the par-
ticular work. Account has here to be taken of the ignorance
of the people, and their ancient but wasteful habit of preparing
beams with the axe or adze — chipping away a whole stem for
one beam. By loan of saws, and by issuing suitable beams
ready prepared, it may be possible to overcome this defect,
which leads of course to much waste of material.

The work of the forest staff is considerably burdened by
rights to building-timber, as the correctness of the estimates
has to be tested, and the amount of wood granted to be entered
on special registers. It is clearly the duty of forest officers
who manage large areas of State or municipal forests subject
to rights for building-timber, to know thoroughly the customary
forms of building of the locality and the proper dimensions of
beams and other timbers used in the construction of houses,
or they may be called upon to grant much larger quantities of
timber than is necessary in particular cases.

b. Wood for Industrial Purposes.

This right (as claimed) may be defined, or not, in its nature
and extent. In general, it comprises timber required for
ordinary agricultural and domestic objects, such as wood for
carts, ploughs, hop-poles, vine-props, etc. Wherever the right
is undefined, the quantity should be fixed, so as to correspond
to the amount required at the time of acquisition of the right,

FOREST RIGHTS. 81

extent of hop-garden, vineyard, etc. This right, if indefinite,
interferes greatly with the development of the revenue of a
forest.

c. Firewood.

Eights to firewood (as claimed) may be either defined or
indefinite, and in the latter case the amount granted would be
only what is required for the household of the right-holder,
including such ordinary household requirements as heating,
cooking, washing, baking, drying fruit, etc. Eequirement for
industrial purposes such as distilling, etc., is not included.
As a rule, the wood is prepared by order of the owner of the
forest, and must be taken from all classes of firewood in due
proportion, split and round wood, dead wood, stump-wood
and faggots. Occasionally the right-holder is permitted to
cut and remove the wood, especially where it is brushwood or
small coppice stuff.

In case a forest burdened with this right should be damaged
by some calamity (storm, insects, etc.), which causes an
excessive yield in any particular year, then several years' supply
of firewood may be granted to the right-holder, in advance,
but the latter cannot claim this as a right.

d. Softwoods.

Where the right is to " softwoods," termed in France bois
blancs, in Germany, Weichholz, the question is to decide on
the meaning of the term. It may be interpreted as including
inferior softwood species which are not the object of the
management of the forest, and therefore only appear in trifling
quantity, and can never get the upper hand under a proper
treatment. The following species are generally included under
this head : — Aspen and other poplars, the sallow and other
willows, limes, hazel, thorns and other shrubs, sometimes
also alder and birch, even Scots pine : mostly trees which
spring up amongst young growth, and are removed in the
cleanings.

e. Fallen Dead Wood.

All dead branches and twigs lying on the ground, and
refuse from fellings which the owner does not require, are
F.P. 0

82 PROTECTION AGAINST MAN.

generally included under this heading. In some cases also
are included dead branches, which can be broken off by hand
from standing trees. In many forests, dead standing stems
up to a certain girth are also included, and stump-wood as
well. The meaning of the term fallen dead wood must there-
fore be decided locally, but it is rarely taken to include saleable
fallen timber. This distinction is thoroughly recognised in
North-Western India. Cutting tools must generally be pro-
hibited, but a wooden rake may be allowed for collecting the
fallen dead wood on the ground. If there is only a small
quantity of dead wood available in a forest, the right-holder
cannot claim other wood to make up a full supply. The sale
of such wood is not usually permissible, as the servitude is
for household requirements.

Within properly regulated limits this usage is only slightly
hurtful to a forest, though all dead wood eventually becomes
humus.

/. Lop and Top.

This right is generally to the crown of a felled tree from the
place where the stem is cut off by the woodman, at a certain
fixed girth, and to the lower branches lopped off the stem.
The right-holder cannot take possession of the wood until
the stem has been severed from the crown. The only serious
disadvantage caused by this right to the owner is that he
cannot well manage his forest as Coppice, or Coppice-with-
Standards, as the greater part of his produce would then go
to the right-holder.

If, however, the right-holder has the right of lopping the
crown from standing trees, great injury will accrue to the
forest. In such a case the right must not be exercised during
the growing season, and only in compartments where the trees
are ripe for the axe, and at a certain height from the ground.
A particular form of this servitude is the right existing in
certain forests to lop birch-trees for brooms.

g. Stumps and Roots.

This right is admissible only in High Forest, and the owner
cannot then convert his forest into Coppice, or Coppice-with-
Standards.

FOREST RIGHTS. 83

Unless it is distinctly laid down to the contrary, the owner
can fell his trees as low as he likes. The right must be
suspended wherever its exercise would damage the forest, as
for instance in regeneration-fellings well stocked with young
seedlings, on steep slopes where landslips or erosion are to be
feared, or on shifting sands. Sometimes the right-holder is
under the obligation to fill up the holes made in extracting
the stumps, and to sow or plant-up the ground. The right
may also be limited to certain months, days, or hours.

h. Windfalls and Broken Trees.

The right may be to all or merely to certain categories
of this material, wood broken by wind, by snow, or rime.
Trees which are bent down, but may recover themselves,
are not included, nor are portions of trees still rooted
in the ground. The right can extend only to single trees
broken here and there, not to whole woods broken down and
uprooted, as occasionally happens by an exceptional storm or
calamity which is not in the contemplation (naturally) either
of custom or a grant. The right-holders may use implements
to convert the timber. This servitude is not of sylvicultural
importance.

i. Dead Standing Trees.

Poles and trees which have died naturally are included in
this class, and care must be taken to exclude all those which
may have been killed intentionally by damage, girdling, etc.
This usage gives rise to trouble between the right-holder and
the owner, as the latter will endeavour to remove dying trees
before they are actually dead, and the former to claim trees
not yet quite dead. To prevent such contentions it is better
to fix definitely the period at which thinnings of dead wood
can be commenced.

As in the former case, when a large extent of wood is killed
by injuries from storms, etc., the produce is not the property
of the right-holder.

G 2.

84 PROTECTION AGAINST MAN.

2. Eights to Minor Produce,
a. Bark.

In Europe this right is generally restricted to the bark of
trees yielding tannin, such as oak, spruce, larch and birch.

The bark can be claimed by the right-holders only from
felled trees in regular fellings. The right may be either by
quantity or by number of trees, or commensurate with the
requirements of the right-holder. The owner must fell during
the growing season when the bark can be easily removed.

Lime-bark, or bast, for cordage and matting is sometimes the
subject of a right, and then similar rules must be followed.
In India, bark of Betula Bhojpatra is used for making
umbrellas and paper, and the bark of many species of trees
for ropes and cords ; all these may be subject to rights.

b. Turpentine.

Eights to tap the spruce or the Austrian pine for turpentine
frequently exist. The number and size of the trees to be
tapped, as well as of the cuts to be made in each, may be
denned, or not. In any case the usage must be restricted to
nearly mature woods, and there should be a close-time between
successive tappings of the same tree, the season during which
the usage is permissible must also be fixed. As turpentine is
usually an article of commerce, it may be in the nature of the
right that there is no restriction to household requirements,
nor as to the sale of the produce.

This is a most hurtful servitude, as tapping for turpentine,
especially in the case of the spruce, results in a loss of incre-
ment, and lessens the quantity of timber in the base of the
tree, and also introduces spores of fungi and insects into the
wood, causing disease.

c. Leaves for Fodder, etc.

This is the right to pluck leaves from trees, especially for
feeding cattle in stored and simple coppice. Implements
may not be used, nor can twigs be broken off. If the demand
for leaves cannot be supplied from the regular fellings, then

FOREST RIGHTS. 85

certain compartments may be opened for plucking leaves as
far from the ground as the hands can reach, but only after
late summer.

In various parts of India leaves of forest species are used
for cattle-fodder, for thatching, for wrapping up goods at a
market, as plates, for making umbrellas, cigarettes, etc., or
for manure, and sometimes these customs may have become
prescriptive rights. In such cases protective rules similar to
the above should be enforced.

Where foliage and branches are lopped for litter or fodder,
as in the Himalayas and in other parts of India, where, owing
to the absence during winter of fodder - crops or natural
herbage, leaf-fodder is wanted, and a prescriptive right has
been acquired, it is by custom limited to certain species, and
certain protective measures can be adopted. These are :—

(i) No lopping to take place till after the principal growth
of the year is over.

(ii) To restrict the usage, as much as possible, to woody
climbers and species of little value as timber-trees.

(iii) To forbid the lopping of the leading shoots of the
trees, and to restrict the lopping of side-shoots till they have
attained certain dimensions and only to a certain height up
to the stem.

(iv) To give the trees a rest so that the same tree is not
lopped in two consecutive years.

(v) Should the right apply to more valuable timber trees it
should be restricted to compartments which will shortly be cut
over. The use of leafy twigs and branches of trees felled in
the ordinary course cannot harm the forest.

(vi) Where the demands for this kind of fodder or cattle-
litter are large, and cannot otherwise be met, a regular system
of pollarding should be introduced, with a fixed rotation giving
the trees time to recover between successive cuttings. Such
a system prevailed in Epping Forest prior to 1878, when the
right was commuted. The loppings of hornbeam-pollards,
of which this forest is chiefly composed, were not, however,
used for litter only, but also for making fences, hurdles, etc.,
and then a rotation of ten years was fixed ; in the former case,
the trees were lopped annually.

86 PROTECTION AGAINST MAN.

Another case in Western India is the use of green branches,
termed rab, as manure in rice -fields. Here similar rules
should be adopted as long as this practice is allowed.

(vii) In every case where leaf-fodder is used by right-
holders, the people should be induced, as far as possible, to
cut and preserve hay or ensilage, or to grow root-crops for the
winter-fodder of their animals. Leaf-fodder from forests will
always prove a valuable resource when other fodder fails,
as was the case in France and Germany during the drought
of 1893.

d. Grass for Fodder, Thatch, etc.

Rights of cutting grass are also of very common occurrence
under the coppice systems, and they should be limited according
to locality, time, and mode of exercise, the limitations which
prevail varying according to local law or custom. They can
commence only at a certain age of the wood, and the close-
time must be regulated according to species, and to specified
days, when the forest guard can supervise the grass-cutting.
Sometimes the grass must be plucked by hand, or sickles or
scythes may be used ; the latter instrument is evidently not
admissible amongst young plants. If properly regulated and
supervised, this usage does little or no harm on moist fertile
soil, and may even assist in fire-conservancy by removing a
great source of danger, and also prove useful during the
reproduction of the forest. It is also often usefully allowed
as a compromise for grazing when that cannot be allowed,
and yet the stoppage is a hardship.

e. Forest Pasture.

This right allows the holder to graze his own cattle on the
grasses and other herbage springing up in a forest belong-
ing to some other person. The right to cut grass is not
included. The forest owner has the power of closing certain
areas in his forest, but cannot introduce changes of the system
of management which will prejudice the right.

The species and number of grazing beasts may be defined,
or not. If the species is not mentioned, animals such as the

FOREST RIGHTS. 87

goat* and sheep, which are highly detrimental to forest
growth, must be excluded, as in France they are by law, in
spite of any right to the contrary. If the number of beasts is
limited, sucklings are not counted in the total number admitted
to graze. Should the number be undefined, as is generally the
case, only so many head should be admitted into the forest as
can be provided for without serious injury to the forest. t
Unless specially stated, cattle intended for trade cannot share
in this right. The right-holder must engage a herdsman to
look after his cattle and is responsible for his conduct. The
beasts can enter and leave the forest by authorised paths only.
The fencing of closed areas is not obligatory on the forest
owner, although fences prevent much contention and further
his interests. The right of grazing his own cattle in his forest
appertains, in every case, to the forest owner, unless the con-
trary is specially laid down ; but he cannot graze them in
portions of the forest that are closed to the right-holders'
cattle.

/. Acorns, Beech- Mast, and Fruits generally.

The kinds of fruits to be collected will ordinarily be specified
in the deeds regarding the right. The fallen fruit can be
picked up only in compartments opened to the right, and on
fixed days ; the right-holder is held responsible for all damage
done to the standing-crop. Plucking the fruits, and the use
of iron rakes to collect it, are forbidden, and the usage must be
limited to household requirements. Compartments, the fruit
of which is required for natural regeneration, can be closed
against this right, which does not include the right of pannage.

These rights do little or no damage to the forest.

g. Pannage.

This is the right to drive pigs into another person's forest
to feed off the acorns and beechnuts, etc., lying on the ground,
but the right of collecting the fruit by hand is not included.

An estimate of the quantity of mast in any year on which

* The possibility of prohibiting goats in India is discussed in " Forest Law,"
p.349./.

f See p. 332 " Forest Law " as to the rules for fixing the number.

88 PROTECTION AGAINST MAN.

the number of pigs to be admitted into a forest should be based
must be prepared by an expert. The right-holder can only
drive his own pigs into the forest, and the forest owner has an
equal right. The pigs should be withdrawn when most of the
acorns are eaten, or they will damage the forest. This servi-
tude does little harm, but is becoming rare in Europe, as stall-
feeding of pigs is more profitable. Pannage is still practised
in the New Forest (vide p. 31).

h. Litter.

Litter to which right-holders are entitled may be denned or
indefinite in amount, and may also be of special kinds ; dead
leaves and moss, weeds, etc. — in short, the right to strip the
surface of its covering down to the soil may be implied.

An undefined right to litter means the right to take what is
sufficient for the requirements of the right-holder, and in this
amount, straw from his own lands must be reckoned. Owing
to the prejudicial nature of this right on the fertility of the
forest, it must never be stretched so far as to include the
whole of the litter a forest may contain.

The necessary limitations as regards locality, time and
manner of exercise of the right have been already given.*
Sod-cutting should never be allowed, except from blanks, as
where trees are standing, the roots would be exposed by this
practice. The exceptional hurtfulness of this right to the pro-
ductiveness of a forest, and the possibility that it may lead to
its complete ruin, render it most essential that the forest
should be freed from it by purchase or otherwise.

7. Quarrying or Digging Pits for Sand, Gravel, Turf, etc.

Eights to stones, gravel, sand, turf, etc., in another's forest,
can extend only to places where the standing-crop and roads
are in no danger from the right. Places for reception of refuse
from the works, and export-roads must be designated.

These rights, if properly regulated, can do no injury worth
mentioning, to the forest.

* Page 49.

FOREST RIGHTS. 89

/. Collecting Berries, etc.

The right is always unlimited in amount, and cannot be
limited, as the produce is generally collected for sale. Except
in the case of digging up truffles it is quite harmless to the
forest, and need not be interfered with beyond fixing dates for
its commencement and termination in any year.

Truffle-hunting, which is carried on with the help of a
special breed of dogs resembling poodles, must be prohibited
on the site of fellings, or amongst young growth.

k. Shooting and Fishing.

The right to kill game on another's property has been
abolished by law in Germany. There, this right is not bound
up with the ownership of the land, but is permitted only to an
owner when his estate exceeds a certain area. It frequently
happens, therefore, that the right of shooting on a number of
small estates is leased in one lot, and the proceeds divided by
the owners. In England, the Crown possessed rights to the
game in certain manors, after it had parted with the other
manorial rights, or actual property of the land, but these
rights have now been surrendered, as in the Epping Forest.
Baden Powell* states that in India no prescriptive rights to
hunt in the State forests have ever been admitted ; though
people have always killed game in the forests, no right can have
ordinarily become customary, for it is not necessary to the
existence of agricultural villages, or communities, as is the
case with grazing or wood rights. The question of hunting,
with rules for the protection of game during the breeding
season and when immature, is dealt with in different countries
under special laws.

Fishing rights t in forest streams may exist, and are dealt
with by special laws regarding fisheries. These have chiefly
reference to close-times during the breeding season ;. and to
protecting immature fish by fixing a minimum-sized mesh
where nets are allowed ; also to prohibiting the poisoning of
streams, and other unsportsmanlike ways of catching fish.

* " Forest Law," pp. 338, 364.

f Regulations for the protection of game and fish in the State forests of India
have been framed by the Local Governments of the different Provinces.

90 PROTECTION AGAINST MAN.

3. Sundry Eights (Easements),
a. Rights-of-Way.

Eights-of-way if too numerous in a forest may tend to
hamper the management, especially by causing danger from
fire, and increasing the cost of fire-protection. It is therefore
important to prevent new rights-of-way from arising by pre-
scription, and where the law permits, to close altogether roads
or paths which may have gone out of use, or others for which
a more convenient substitute may be found. These rights
may be subdivided into rights to footpaths, cart-roads (the right
of removing timber over the land of a third party), or drift-roads
(for the passage of cattle),* the second category sometimes
including the third.

In all these cases the question arises as to the legal breadth
of the way, and whenever this is uncertain, it should be deter-
mined with reference to the breadth of the way required by
the circumstances of the case, and according to local custom.
The right of removing timber over another's land can be
exercised only when the crops on that land would not be
prejudiced by so doing, i.e. when the land is fallow, or when
frozen, during winter. The right-holder whose cattle pass
along a road to pasture, is responsible for any damage done
to the forest growth beyond the limits of the road ; and the
owner of the forest, according to circumstances, may or may
not be compelled to protect his forest by ditches, fences, or
hedges.

b. Rights to Water.

Eights to water generally refer to the servient estate
receiving the drainage water for a dominant estate, or allowing
(not obstructing) the flow of (useful) water from the servient to
the dominant. Sometimes it includes allowing a canal-cut, or
irrigation channel being taken across the servient estate, in
which case the maintenance of the water-channel is the
business of the right-holder. Eights to use springs or wells
in another person's forest, or to water cattle at them, all of
which involve righfes-of-way through the forest to the source
of the water, are also included.

* See " Forest Law," p. 315 ff.

FOREST RIGHTS.
c. Right to float Timber.

91

The kinds of timber to be floated should be specified and
the owner of the stream has the same rights as the right-
holders. The right of footpath along the bank of the stream
may be also combined with this right, the breadth of the path
being determined by custom. In India, this right is always
exerciseable under the control of the State only.

d. Rights of burning Charcoal, stacking Wood, etc..

The sites where the charcoal is to be burned or the wood
stacked, must be pointed out to the right-holder, and also the
roads to be used for export, which should be as convenient as
circumstances will allow. Wherever charcoal is burned, special
precautions must be taken against danger to the forest from
fire.

Fig. 21.—" Charcoal kiln in Black Forest.'' Photo by E. S. Carr.

PAKT II.

PROTECTION AGAINST ANIMALS.

95

PKOTECTION AGAINST ANIMALS.

INTRODUCTORY EEMAEKS.

THE question of the usefulness or hurtfulness of wild animals
indigenous in Europe may be considered from a forest, sporting,
or agricultural point of view. Under Forest Protection only
the forest point of view will be considered, but even under this
heading some difficulty will be experienced, for the following
reasons* :—

1. A number of animals are at the same time both useful
and injurious to forests.

2. The degree of utility or harm done by one and the same
animal differs according to its age, to local circumstances
(season of the year, condition of the woods, etc.), so that it
is hardly possible to lay down definitely that certain animals
are absolutely injurious, or useful. Thus, the fox, though a
great enemy to barn-door fowls and game, may be very useful,
especially in a broadleaved forest, which suffers more than
coniferous woods from rodents. Thrushes and blackbirds in
spring and summer feed mainly on worms and insects, but in
autumn chiefly on berries. The cuckoo and bats are always
useful, while bark-beetles, the Nun-moth and other insects are
absolutely injurious to forests.

3. The utility of certain animals to forests may be direct,
or indirect. Thus the jay may be directly useful by carrying

* Intentional introduction of exotic animals to combat insect pests have not
always proved advantageous. Thus, European sparrows were introduced into
the N.-E. States of America in 1850 and 1867 to destroy canker-worms. The
sparrows are now an unmitigated pest throughout N. America, while the canker
worm has been replaced by a worse insect, which the sparrows never touch.
Similarly the mongoose was introduced into Jamaica in 1872 to destroy the cane-
piece rat. This it did in ten years, but since then it has proved most destructive
to ground-nesting birds, to insectivorous reptiles and batrachia, as well as to fruits
and vegetables, so that the mongoose does much more damage than the rat. On
the other hand the Australian ladybird (Vedalia cardinalls) introduced into
California in 1889, has saved the citrus-growing industry from the cottony
cushion scale, Icarya purchasi.

96 PROTECTION AGAINST ANIMALS.

about acorns, and dropping them in the forest, while certain
mammals and many birds and insects are indirectly useful
by destroying injurious mice or insects.

4. The injury done may also be direct or indirect; the
former consisting in damage or destruction to forest produce,
the latter in killing useful species. Most destructive kinds
of animals are either mammals or insects, while birds are
generally useful.

5. The amount of damage done to the forest depends on
the species causing it, the local conditions, the season, etc.
It is generally in inverse proportion to the size of the animal;
the little bark-beetle, on account of its rapid increase and
steady working, doing more damage to a forest than the large
red-deer. The woodpecker is a good instance of the difficulties
of deciding as to the amount of harm or good done to a forest
by a particular species. This bird is useful in destroying
numerous insects living in wood, but it sometimes damages
healthy trees by boring holes into them, while these holes
may be useful if subsequently occupied by bats or starlings,
but injurious if occupied by stock-doves.

Protective measures in the case of animals may be either
preventive or remedial, and will be dealt with under the following
heads : —

Mammals (Deer and wild pigs.

I Rodents.
Birds.
Insects.

As already stated, the present work can deal in detail only
with European animals, but it may be mentioned, that in
India, the Nilgai (Portax pictus) and the common antelope
(Antilope bezoartica) do much damage in coppices and plan-
tations adjoining agricultural land ; whilst among birds, the
pheasants and jungle-fowls do similar damage to that by grouse
in Europe. For a fuller account and especially of Indian forest
insects the reader is referred to "Indian Forest Zoology,"*
by E. C. Cotes, also " Injurious Insects in Indian Forests,"*
and other works by E. P. Stebbing.

* Published by the Superintendent of Government Printing, Calcutta, 1893.

97

CHAPTEK I.

PROTECTION AGAINST DEER AND WILD PIGS.

SECTION L — GENEKAL ACCOUNT.
1. List of Injurious Species.

Red-deer (Cervus claphus, L.).
Fallow-deer (Damns vulgaris, Brook).
Roe-deer (Cervus capreolus, L.).
Wild pig (Sus scrofa, L.).

2. Damage Done.

The above-named animals injure the forest by eating the
fruit of trees, biting-off buds and young shoots, trampling-
down seedings, breaking-off leaders, bending-down stems,
barking poles, exposing and gnawing roots. Further details
regarding the damage will be given under the headings of
each species.

The consequences of the damage done consist in loss of
increment, stunted growth, diminution of timber as compared
with firewood, increased danger from insects, fungi, storms,
snow, etc. Hess considers it advisable to keep down the
beasts by the efforts of the Forest Staff, and not to lease the
shooting in forests, as this usually leads to inordinate
numbers of deer, etc., and to great injury of the growing
woods.

3. Preventive Measures.

The chief preventive measures are : —

(a) Formation in High Forest of large, connected regenera-
tion-areas ; small clearings in which game has not sufficient
room, and strip-fellings near thickets or poles where the game
habitually remains, suffer most of all. For sylvicultural reasons,
however, very large felling-areas are not permissible. Periods

F.P, H

98 PROTECTION AGAINST ANIMALS.

of regeneration must be long and cleanings of inferior species
delayed, until the shelter they afford to the better kinds of
plants is no longer required.

(b) Covering endangered fruits, acorns, etc., in seeding-
fellings.

(c) Avoidance when possible of autumn-sowings, and pre-
ference of planting to sowing, the former with large and
strong transplants. More plants per acre must be planted
than where damage is not feared.

(d) Avoidance of the introduction of species specially liked
by the game.

(e) Careful choice of system and great care in the manage-
ment of forests containing game.

(/) Care for the nourishment of the game by : —

Introduction of mast-producing species, oaks, chestnuts, etc.,
wherever the locality is suitable for them.

Protection of softwoods (aspen, willows, etc.) in cuttings
frequented by game, and introduction of these if necessary.

Cultivation of fodder-crops for the game. Oats, buckwheat,
turnips, potatoes, Jerusalem artichokes, clover, etc., according
to the species of game which is prevalent.

Encouragement of a growth of grass in the forest ; stopping
grass-cutting and pasture.

Feeding the game in the depth of winter, and when there is
much snow on the ground. Loppings of aspen, willows, limes,
or other softwoods, form suitable food in winter. The animals
peel the bark from these loppings, and eat the buds and young
shoots. Hay, unthrashed oat-straw, oats, maize, potatoes, etc.,
may be given and basic slag added to improve the horns of
the stags. About one-thirtieth by weight of basic slag may
be added to the fodder. The fodder should be placed in
the older woods near water, and well distributed, so that several
beasts can feed at once. In mountain forests, places sheltered
from the wind and southerly aspects should be selected as
feeding-places, as deer assemble in such places during winter.

4. Remedial Measures.

(a) Substantial fencing of forest nurseries and cultivations,
or of the game-preserve. The kind and height of the fence

RED-DEER. 99

to be used depends on the mode of life and size of the game.
The fences must always be kept in good order. Digging a
ditch outside the fence will afford additional security.

(b) Specially valuable trees should be separately fenced-in,
or protected by rough stakes with the jagged ends of branches
outside. Thorns, bad-smelling substances, or wire-netting
may also be used.

(c) Scarecrows may be set-up in endangered localities, or
dogs brought-in, blank-cartridges fired, etc. The scarecrows
must be altered from time to time, as the animals get
accustomed to them.

(d) Shooting-down the game to a restricted number which
the forest can bear. Game need not be exterminated, and the
chief difference between modern and old times consists in the
fact that formerly the forest was managed for the game, but
now it is recognised that the admissible quantity of game
must be proportioned to the interests of the forest.

SECTION II. — KED-DEER.
1. Damage Done.

The damage done by red-deer consists in eating fruits,
browsing, peeling, rubbing, trampling, etc.

a. Eating Forest Fruits.

The red-deer eats all kinds of fruits, but especially acorns,
beech-nuts, chestnuts, mountain-ash berries, etc. Acorns are
often beaten-out by the deer with their fore-feet and eaten,
and sowings may be thus completely ruined.

&. Browsing.

The deer bite-off buds and young shoots, chiefly from late
autumn till spring, and occasionally devour foliage in the
summer.

The following species are preferred by red-deer : aspen,
sallow, ash, oak, hornbeam, beech,* maple, hazel, and
amongst conifers the silver-fir and larch; the birch, alder,

* In the Ardennes, red-deer apparently leave beech alone.

H 2

100 PROTECTION AGAINST ANIMALS.

Scots pine, and spruce are least liked, but different circum-
stances, such as a mixture of species, system of management,
growth of grass or supply of fodder, greatly influence the
degree of damage done in any particular case. Deer and
cattle are fond of tasting new and foreign species introduced
into a wood.

In times of scarcity of fodder, young plants protruding
through the snow may be completely browsed-down ; in
mound-planting this is especially noticeable.

Overshadowed plants are less freely browsed when compared
with those growing in the open. Old stags and hinds do more
damage than fawns, as they can reach higher. Southern and
western aspects suffer more than northern and eastern ones,
as the deer frequent the former in the winter. The lower
parts of the warm aspects bordering on fields suffer most, as
during winter the deer crowd together into such places. Here
may be found those rounded, bush like plants due to the
annual formation of numerous side-shoots, exposed every
year to the bite of the deer. The young plants also suffer
much in frost localities, on account of their slow growth. Of
great influence on the amount of damage done are the degrees
of recovery shown by certain species, due to power of repro-
duction, rapid growth, and also to local circumstances. Beech
and hornbeam recover well from browsing, although the former
does not reproduce well from the stool. Oak when bitten also
shows great power of recovery, the ash and maples less, also
conifers, among which the silver-fir has the best power of
recovery. The bite is, however, never clean, the deer having
no lower incisors, so that recovery is difficult. Obviously,
quick-growing trees on a rich soil, make the best recovery.

c. Peeling Bark.

A bad kind of damage done by red-deer consists in peeling
the bark of trees, which is generally, but not always, eaten.
Peeling is commoner in woodlands with a large stock of deer,
that are fenced-in from the adjoining fields. The whole herd
is probably taught to peel by one or two stags or old hinds.
In open forests peeling is rarely practised.

RED-DEER.

101

The following species are thus attacked : — '
Chiefly spruce and oak.

Less, the ash, silver-fir, beech, hornbeam, maple, hazel.
Least of all, Scots and black pines, larch, alder, and birch.

(Reduced.}

Fig. 22. — Oak sapling1,
18—20 years old, peeled
by red-deer.

(Reduced.}
Fig. 23.— Summer-
peeling.

Fig. 24. — Winter-peeling
on 40 — 50-year-old
spruce.

Spruce, from 20 to 40 years old, and 15 to 20-year-old oak
coppice-shoots are preferred, but spruce up to 60 years old are
also attacked. In the case of Scots pine, after 20 years the
bark becomes too thick to be injured. Well-thinned compart-
ments are preferred, as the deer can get about better in them,

102 PROTECTION AGAINST ANIMALS.

and prefer a sappy bark developed in the light. The stag
does the most damage in this way. The bark may be removed
from all round the stem, or in strips. The former is much
more hurtful, but is rare. Strip-peeling may be done on both
sides of stems, but usually in spruce only on one side, the
west and east sides being preferred. In the case of the oak
and beech, the bark is often stripped-off in patches one above
the other, as shown in Fig. 22.

The bark may be peeled in winter or summer, in the former
case from absolute hunger. In the latter case, the deer bite

Fig. 25. — Transverse section of a spruce-stem peeled in summer (reduced).

through the strip of bark from below, hold it with their teeth,
and then, walking backwards, and raising the head, strip it off
in long pieces, which cause serious wounds in the tree. Their
length may be 6 feet, and breadth from 2 to 6 inches, and
they may reach down to the roots, but generally stop at about
2 feet above them.

Winter-peeling is generally less serious, the deer gnawing
off and eating pieces of the outer bark, leaving the bast and
part of the bark between the bared strips. When deep snow
is on the ground these wounds may be pretty high up the
stem.

Peeling is generally done in the morning after the deer have
eaten a meal, and after rain, which softens the bark.

RED-DEER,

103

The disastrous consequences of peeling consist in loss of
increment and the formation of badly-shaped boles by the

Fig. 26. — Longitudinal section of an oak-stem peeled from a to b, and occluded.
(Nat. size.)

Fig. 27. — Transverse section of same oak. c. Injured spot.

bulging-out of the annual rings of wood, which may render
the trees lop-sided, as shown in Fig. 25.

104

PROTECTION AGAINST ANIMALS.

Occasionally peeling gives rise to the formation of ad-
ventitious buds from below the wound, and frequently to
decay, such as red-rot in spruce, or Peziza Willkommii in larch.
The stems which have been attacked become unserviceable
except for fuel, and the tree often gets broken by wind or snow
at or just above its injured portion. Insects, such as bark-
beetles and wood-wasps, frequently attack the tree, which will
die if completely girdled.

Such injuries to broadleaved species are soonest healed in
the case of the oak. In favourable cases only little damage may
be done, leaving small local traces of decay (Figs. 26 and 27).

The newly-formed rings of wood, however, never completely
repair the damage when the sapwood has been exposed,

Fig, 28. — Transverse section of a 60 — 80-year-old spruce, which has been
occluded after being peeled by red-deer.

though they may occlude it. Wounds of the ash also recover
rapidly, although the wood of this species is easily injured.
Beech and hornbeam recover with greater difficulty, and the
maple more slowly still.

Amongst conifers the following scale is in descending order
of power of recovery : —

Silver-fir, larch, Weymouth and Scots pines, spruce. Such
a thorough recovery as is shown in Fig. 28 is very rare.

RED-DEER.

105

The gravity of the
damage done depends, in
other respects, on the size
of the wounds, the season,
repetition of the injury to
the same tree, age of the
wood, and nature of
locality. Summer -peeling
is more injurious than
winter-peeling, although in
the former case the. anti-
septic nature of the outflow
of turpentine is to some
extent a compensation.

At the commencement of
spring most damage is done
in this way. The younger
the wood, the more fertile
and moister the soil, the
quicker the damage is
repaired.

Bark-peeling by red-deer
is a new habit ; as long as
mixed woods under the
Selection system and cop-
pice-with- standards offered
plenty of nourishment, the
deer left the bark alone,
but the present density of
growth, which excludes
grass, and the substitution
of conifers for broadleaved
species, have rendered
fodder scarce in the forests,
and it is possible that the
deer eat the bark medicin-
ally, as well as from
hunger, and also partly
from sportiveness.

Fig. 29. — Spruce sapliugs rubbed
by red-deer.

106 PROTECTION AGAINST ANIMALS.

d. Rubbing and Striking.

The stags rub their antlers against trees to remove the
velvet at the end of July and August, generally by night, artd
they select for the purpose slender smooth poles of lime,
aspen, sallow, larch, Weymouth-pine, silver-fir, maple, etc.,
especially when these species are scattered among other forest
growth. Scots pine poles are also injured in this way by
deer in the Ardennes.

Stags also strike their antlers against trees at rutting-time
in September and October, and before they lose them in
March and April. The damage done in this way is less than
by peeling, as the same trees serve over and over again for
the purpose. It can readily be distinguished from peeling by
the filaments of bark which occur on the wound, and by the
hairs of the deer adhering to it, from the deer's habit of
rubbing its neck on the peeled stem.

e. Trampling.

Damage done by trampling is confined to young growth and
sowings of conifers ; 1- and 2-year-old 'plants on steep slopes
with loose soil suffer most of all, being frequently uprooted.

/. Total Amount of Damage.

More experience is" required regarding the total amount of
damage done to forests by red-deer. A forester who is at the
same time a sportsman, should endeavour to ascertain clearly
the amount of sacrifice of income his sport involves, so that
he may be able to keep the number of deer within proper
limits. Until the damage done under certain circumstances
has been properly observed, sympathy with sport, or antipathy
to it, give the question a wide range. It may not be possible
to estimate the proportional amount of damage done respec-
tively by browsing, peeling, trampling, etc., but in a forest
frequented by deer, certain compartments might be fenced and
others left open, and comparative yield-figures ascertained,
from which the extent of the damage done, in the latter case,
may be deduced.

As regards the damage to meadows adjoining forests that

RED-DEER. 107

contain red-deer, Ihrig states -that in the Odenwald, at
Eulbach, 31 per cent, of the normal yield of hay is lost
annually by the grazing of red-deer, the loss being estimated
at 6 cwt. per acre, or 3J cwt. per head of deer, worth 24s.
(F. u. J. Zeitung, 1890, p. 451). The Exmoor deer feed
chiefly on the adjoining farm-crops, the damage they do being
very considerable.

2. Protective Measures.

Besides the general rules given above (p. 84), the following
special rules relate to red-deer :—

a. Maintenance of a Moderate Number of Deer.

A sufficient number of deer must be killed annually so that
the stock in a forest is not incompatible with economic
forestry.

As the term moderate varies with the species of tree grown,
the system of management, locality, nature of boundaries and
grass-production, it is impossible to give good average figures.

According to G. L. Hartig, on 2,500 acres of forest the
stock of deer in the spring, before the young are born (May to
June) may be as follows : —

Uroadleaved Forest. Coniferous Forest.

Red-deer. Roes. Wild Red-deer. Roes. Wild
Forests bordering on other Pig ft. Pigs.

forests . . . . 8 ... 8 ... 4 12 ... 16 ... 4

Forests bordering on fields . 4 ... 8 ... — 4 ... 16 ... —

Forests surrounded by fields . 2 ... 8 ...— 2 ... 12 ... —

Katzeburg considers 16 red-deer per 2,500 acres the proper
number. In Compie'gne forest, 20 deer for 2,500 acres are
allowed.

Prince Charles of Schwartzenburg states that in Bohemia
15 to 35 head of red-deer are admissible, and places one red-
deer as equal to two fallow-deer or four roe-deer. Von
Dombrowski allows 40 head. These figures approach those
for a forest overstocked with deer. Unfortunately as many as
one head per 25 to 40 acres of woodland occur in many forests
in Thuringia, the Harz and Taunus, so that economic forestry
becomes impossible.

108 PROTECTION AGAINST ANIMALS.

b. Sufficient Fodder must le Supplied to the Deer in Winter.

Oats, turnips, acorns and chestnuts are best. Basic slag
should be mixed with the food, as already stated (page 98).
Feeding only with hay or leaf-fodder causes the deer to fall-off
in health, and prevents the formation of good antlers, whilst
acorns are best for the latter. The fodder should not be given
on felling-areas, nor near recent thinnings, as the deer loiter
about near the feeding-places and cause damage. Owing to
the scarcity of food, antlers in the Highlands of Scotland are
very poor when compared with Continental antlers, or those
from English parks, or from Exmoor.

c. Fences against Red-Deer.

These should not be less than 7 feet in height, and on slopes
another foot may be added to prevent the deer from leaping
the fences.

d. To Prevent Browsing.

Young forest growth may be sprinkled with blood and cow-
dung, or open jars full of blood buried in the ground. Coal-
tar may be lightly painted on strong young conifers, excepting
the buds. It is best done by passing the shoots lightly
through the hand covered by a tarred glove. This should be
done from September till November, and repeated when
necessary. The spruce stands this treatment less well than
the Scots pine, and broadleaved species suffer from the
practice. The cost is not high, about 2s. 6d. an acre, including
the purchase of 6 Ibs. of tar. A woman can tar 300 plants in
an hour.

Broadleaved species may be daubed with the following
mixture : —

Carriage grease . . .5 Ibs.

Petroleum . . . . 2J quarts.

Alum . . . .fib.

Tallow . . - . .Jib.

This gives enough for 600 plants. Plants may also be limed,
the terminal buds being smeared with a brush dipped in
whitewash. This costs tor silver-fir Is. tid. per 1,000 plants,

FALLOW-DEER. 109

or 2s. 4rf. an acre; 10 Ibs. of lime are required for 1,000
plants. A woman can lime about 500 plants in a day on a
slope, and 3,000 plants on level ground. This gives better
results than tarring the plants, and the lime apparently does
them no injury. Kefuse hemp may also be lightly placed
over plants, as it clogs the teeth of the deer and has proved
efficacious.

e. Measures to Prevent Peeling.

Delay thinnings, so that deer cannot penetrate amongst
saplings.

Pieces of rock-salt should be scattered about for the stags to
lick, or the following composition : —

Oak-galls . . . . 1 Ib.
Salt ... .lib.
Clay . . . . .8 Ibs.
Anise A little.

The galls should be Istrian, which cost 50s. a cwt. Each
piece suffices for 100 acres of forest.

Beasts detected peeling bark should be shot, as young deer
soon follow their example.

/. Measures to Prevent Rubbing, etc.

Valuable exotics, etc., can be protected against rubbing by
smearing them with certain compositions up to 5 feet in
height.

Such a composition is a mixture of lime, blood and sulphur.

SECTION III. — FALLOW-DEEK.

The damage done by the fallow-deer is "of a similar nature to
that by the red-deer ; the former perhaps does more harm by
bruising and trampling, as it is very restless, and particular
about its food. However, it never peels in a wild state, only
sometimes in fenced parks. The fallow-deer rubs its antlers
at the end of August and in September, and strikes the same
species as the red-deer. The protective rules are the same,
except that precautions against peeling are unnecessary.

110 PROTECTION AGAINST ANIMALS.

SECTION IV. — KOE-DEER.
1. Damage Done.

Besides herbage, the roe eats beech-mast, acorns, wild fruit,
and the cotyledons of beech and oak seedlings, and in winter
browses on the buds and shoots of nearly every species of
tree, especially young plants, and in summer on fresh young
shoots and tender foliage.

The following species are preferred : — Oak, beech, maple,
ash, elm, hornbeam, aspen, sallow and silver-fir ; less — Scots
and Weymouth pines and spruce ; least of all — birch and
alder. Young plants one or two years old may be entirely
devoured. Exotic species and those occurring rarely in a
wood are preferred.

Sunny aspects where the roe stays in winter suffer most,
especially on poor soils. The roe rubs its horns in March and
April on smooth-barked saplings about a finger's thickness,
and strikes its horns on poles in rutting-time at the end of
July and August, and before losing them in November. Larch,
Weymouth-pine, Douglas-fir, aspen, lime, and mountain-ash
are most exposed to these injuries.

In places where roe-deer crowd together, they trample-down
many seedlings. The roe is relatively worse as a forest
browser than the red-deer, as it is very dainty and tears the
shoots like a goat ; but on account of its small size, and as it
abstains from peeling trees, it does a less absolute amount of
damage.

2. Protective Rules.

Irrespective of the general rules given, the following hold
good for roe-deer.

Suitable fodder are oats, acorns and foliage ; they eat hay
only as a last resource, when it is given quite dry and hung
up in little bundles under the shelter of trees or thatched
coverings and not strewn on the ground. Lopping branches
of silver-fir, aspen, sallow, etc., in winter is very useful.

Fences against roe-deer need only be 5 to 6 feet high.

Scarecrows are of little good, as the roes soon become
accustomed to them.

WILD PIGS. Ill

Smearing dung, petroleum, or asafoetida on cultivations is
useful.

Young coniferous cultivations may be tarred, as for red-deer,
but with deep snow it is better to lime them. The cost of
tarring is 5d. to 8Jrf. per 1,000 plants, at a daily wage of Id.
to 9d., and tar at Is. 9d. per cwt.

To protect exotics (Douglas-fir, etc.), saplings may be
encircled at about 1 J feet from the ground with a piece of
paper as broad as the hand, fastened with string, or they may
be surrounded with thorns, or by three jagged stakes.

SECTION V. — WILD PIGS.
1. Damage Done.

The wild pig does damage similar to that done by the tame
pig, which has been already described, besides pulling-up
fresh transplants, and destroying mound-planting, and birds'-
nests. As regards sport, it does much harm by killing fawns,
leverets, etc.

Of late, in the Lower Ehine districts and also in the Ardennes,
pigs have so largely increased in the forests, and do so much
damage to the agricultural crops, that it has become neces-
sary to hold battues, and fix a price for their destruction.
From a forest point of view, however, wild pigs do much less
damage than other game.

They may, however, do a considerable amount -of good by
breaking-up the soil, burying fruits and seeds and by the
destruction of mice and hurtful insects.

2. Protective Rules.

Feeding with turnips, potatoes, oats, peas, acorns, wild
fruit, etc., so as to keep the pigs from injuring forest plants.

Fences against pigs should be about 6 feet high and strongly
built. Wild pigs travel considerable distances by night, and
in France have been found to abandon forests where there is
much wire-netting.

112

PROTECTION AGAINST ANIMALS.

Traps can be used to catch pigs. A pit about 6 feet deep
and broad is dug, with walls vertical or even sloping inwards.
A light covering of poles, brushwood and moss is covered with
soil, dead leaves, etc., resembling the litter on the ground.
Such traps should be made near wallowing-places in the

Fig. 30. — Robinia gnawed by hare
(nat. size).

Fig. 31. — Beech gnawed by. hare
(nat. size).

breeding season (November to January). In making these
traps the greatest care must be taken, the workmen must not
smoke nor eat their food near the trap, and the earth dug out
must be removed to some distance. Another excellent method
for catching wild pigs is described in the " Indian Forester,"
vol. xi., p. 530.

WILD PIGS.

Pigs, when numerous in woods bordering on fields, must be
kept down by battue-shooting. This is much more efficacious
than trapping, which has almost been abandoned since 1878
in the Treves district. Thus, in the districts of Treves and
Coblenz (1872-75), 658 and 257 pigs were shot, or respectively
nine times and three times as many as those trapped.

The last wild pig was killed in England about 1593, in
Chartley Forest, Staffordshire (J. E. Harting), but they prob-
ably lingered on to a later date in Scotland and Ireland. The
Indian wild pig (S. cristatus) differs very slightly from S. scrofa.
A large Indian boar may weigh over 300 Ibs. and may stand
up to 42J inches at the shoulder. Pig-sticking with the lance
on horseback is a favourite pastime in India. Wild pigs are
numerous in Indian forests, where, however, they do little
damage, though very destructive to agricultural crops.

Fig. 3lA. — Windbreak after damage by deer.

F.P.

114

CHAPTER II.

PROTECTION AGAINST RODENTS.

SECTION I. — GENERAL ACCOUNT.
1. List of Injurious Species.
Hares and Rabbits (Leporidae).

The common hare (Lepus curopaus, L.).
The mountain hare (L. timidus, L.).
The rabbit (L. cuniculus, L.).

Squirrels (Sciuridae).
The common squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris, L.).

Dormice (Myoxidae).

The loir (Myoxus glis, Schreb.).

The common dormouse (M. avellanarius, L.).

The garden dormouse (M. nitela, Wagn.).

Mice (Muridae).

The common wood-mouse (Mus silraticus, L.).
The long-tailed field mouse (M. agrarius, Pall.).

Voles (Arvicolidae).

The water-rat (Arvicola amphibius, Desm.).

The field vole, or short-tailed field mouse (A. agrestis, Bias.).

The southern field vole (A. arvalis, Selys.).

The bank vole (Hypudaus (A.) glareolus, Wagn.).

2. Damage Done.

The above-mentioned animals damage the forest by eating
fruits and seeds, and gnawing young growth, breaking-off
young shoots, eating buds, peeling bark, and burrowing in the
ground. Rabbits, mice and voles do most harm, on account
of their destructive voracity and their enormous powers of

HARES. 115

breeding. Young growth, sowings and plantations are often
completely destroyed by them.

The damage done by hares, squirrels and dormice is not
so great, being confined to individual plants, and these animals
do not become so numerous as rabbits, mice and voles.

3. Protective Rules.

Proper precautions must be taken in the reproduction,
tending and utilisation of woods. Enemies of these animals
must be spared. Shooting, trapping, poisoning may be
employed. More detail is given separately for each kind.

SECTION II. — HARES.
1. Damage Done.

The common hare is found throughout Europe, except in
mountains and the extreme north. In Scotland it occurs
only in the lowlands and in valleys. In the British Isles the
mountain hare is met with only in Scotland, and in Ireland,
where it is known as the blue hare. At lower latitudes it
turns white during winter, but remains white throughout the
year in the extreme north.

The hare injures woody plants in winter by biting and
gnawing their bark. Buds and young shoots of beech, horn-
beam, elm, ash, maple and aspen are chiefly bitten, the
conifers less, and spruce and Scots pine least of all.

As the hare affects certain localities, the damage is restricted
in area, but very extensive where it prevails ; so that a single
hungry hare may cause considerable damage in young growth
of beech on sunny situations, which it frequents in winter.
The sharp teeth, cutting in pairs, give very distinct markings
on plants attacked by hares.

As regards peeling, in snowy winters the one-year-old shoots
of the robinia and other Leguminosae, including broom, are
frequently stripped of bark, and the wood gnawed as shown in
Fig. 30. Among ordinary forest plants, young beech and
sycamore suffer most from peeling ; older trees with rough bark
escape. The hare frequently damages fruit-trees in orchards,
chiefly the apple, next the cherry, least of all, the pear.

i 2

116 PROTECTION AGAINST ANIMALS.

2. Protective Rules.

(a) Fence nurseries, especially those of fruit-trees, with
hedges or dead thorns, or with wire-netting 4 feet high.

(b) Bind fruit-trees from November till April with thorns
branches of conifers or wheat straw.

(c) Fruit-trees may be smeared with stinking substances.
A mixture of 10 quarts of bullock's blood, £ Ib. of asafoetida
dissolved in warm water, and some lime and cow-dung may
be used.

(d) Shoot hares, especially in broadleaved woods.

SECTION III. — BABBITS.

A pair of rabbits during spring and summer may produce
about 5 — 8 young ones every 4 — 5 weeks. Young rabbits
begin to breed when six weeks old, so that in New South
Wales, under favourable circumstances, it has been found
that a pair of rabbits may produce 13,718,000 in three years.
Rabbits cannot withstand the great winter-cold of the higher
Ardennes, between 1,200 — 2,000 feet, but in milder situations
throughout Britain and the North of France they are the
most destructive enemies of broadleaved woods.

1. Damage Done.

Rabbits, which are chiefly found on hilly and sandy ground,
do the same kind of damage to young growth as hares, besides
injuring the roots of plants by burrowing. They are not nearly
so destructive in biting off young shoots as by gnawing at the
bark of plants. The seedlings of the Scots pine, the chief
species on sandy soils, suffer most of all from biting, and next
to this black pine and larch, also oak and ash.

As regards gnawing, nearly all species suffer, chiefly horn-
beam, ash, robinia, aspen, sallow, hazel and fruit trees. This
form of damage is most considerable in snowy winters, 1894-5,
for instance. Fig. 32 shows the teeth-marks of rabbits very
clearly. Not only is young growth attacked, but where rabbits
are numerous, and when the ground is frozen or covered with
snow, the base of large beech and other trees is barked, and
the trees may be completely girdled. From experience in
Windsor Forest, which is overrun with these pests, so that

RABBITS.

117

the underwood, so valuable in oak forests, which was plentiful
twenty-five years ago, has now disappeared over large areas,
the sycamore appears to suffer less than other species, and
rabbits will not touch Rhododendron ponticum, which some-
times forms a dense underwood in
parts of the forest infested by them.
Hedges of whitethorn are often com-
pletely destroyed by the peeling of
rabbits.

By burrowing, rabbits do much
harm to cultivations and young
seedlings. Hare's avoid places
frequented by rabbits/

2. Protective Measures.

(a) Protection of foxes, pole-cats,
martens, stoats and weasels, which
are the natural enemies of rabbits.
A family of stoats may kill fifty
rabbits in a week.

(b) Careful fencing 4 feet high,
and use of wire-netting buried partly
in the ground and sloping outside
the area to be protected.

(c) Valuable trees may be bound
round with thorns or wire-netting, or
their bases smeared with coal tar.

(d) Use of traps or poisons,
or smoking-out the burrows with
sulphur. In Australia, poisoned
grain is buried in shallow trenches
to kill rabbits. Sheep are not thus
endangered. Between April and

October, 1890, in a forest near Kiistrin, 2,339 rabbits were
trapped, .in traps supplied by Grell, of Haynau, Silesia,
costing 2s. each. A farmer in South Devon informed me
that stoats, being very reckless, are readily caught in traps
set for rabbits, and that since rabbits have been trapped

Fig. 32.— Willow gnawed by
rabbits (nat. size).

118 PROTECTION AGAINST ANIMALS.

in his neighbourhood, the stoats, which are their greatest
enemies, have disappeared.

(e) Ferreting, the ferret being merely a domesticated variety
of pole-cat. This is usually followed from October till the end
of February, when rabbits do not generally have young. The
ferret is sent into the burrow, and a net placed at its opening
into which the rabbits run, or they may be shot when driven
by the ferret out of their burrows.

(/) Shooting. This is very useful, if carried on in summer
when the rabbits are breeding and does are easily shot,
especially in young plantations.

Every Enclosure Act allowing planting in Crown forests
states, that no rabbits should be kept, on any pretence
whatever.

SECTION IV. — THE SQUIRREL.
1. Damage Done.

The damage done by squirrels is greater than is generally
imagined. They eat fruits and seeds, cotyledons and buds,
and bite off young shoots, remove bark, and destroy eggs and
young birds. Their utility in destroying beetles, larvae of saw-
flies and other insects, does not compensate for the harm they do.

In 1901, ^'80 was spent in the Countess of Seafield's estate
at Granttown in rewards for killing squirrels at 2|d. per head.
They had done much damage by girdling larch and Scots pine.

a. Destruction of Fruits and Seedlings.

Beech-nuts, acorns, hazel-nuts and seeds of spruce and Scots
pine constitute the chief food of the squirrel. Besides these,
it eats seeds of other conifers, fruits of horn-
beam and maple and of mountain-ash, and
walnuts, apples and other garden fruits. A
large proportion of the annual supply of
fruit may thus be lost, and in coniferous
woods, natural reproduction may be greatly
Fig. 33.— Hazel-nut reduced. Beech-nuts are often eaten in their
opened by squirrel. involucres by squirrels from September.

Fig. 33 shows how the hazel-nut is
attacked by this little animal, and Figs. 34 and 35 how the
scales are stripped from the spruce-cones so that it can get

SQUIRRELS.

119

at the seeds. Heaps of broken scales from cones lying under
the trees show how busy the squirrel has been.

More harm again is done by the squirrel digging-out seeds
and cotyledons from the ground, and biting-off cotyledons of
the beech in seed-beds and reproduction-areas. It also

Fig. 34. — Spruce-cone stripped of
scales by squirrel.

Fig. 35. — Portion of spruce-cone attacked
by squirrel.

uproots young oak-plants to get at the remains of the acorns.
Indian squirrels have similar proclivities to the above-men-
tioned species and sometimes completely strip trees of their
fruit, besides being very destructive to peas, etc., in vegetable-
gardens.

b. Eating Buds and Biting off Twigs.

As regards buds, the squirrel prefers those of the inflo-
rescence, which are richer in nitrogenous substances and more

120

PROTECTION AGAINST ANIMALS.

nourishing than the foliage-buds. Spruce and Scots pine
are preferred, but silver-fir is also attacked in this way. The
destruction of these buds, in snowy winters, may entirely
prevent seed from being produced. The methods pursued by
the squirrel in eating the buds differ according to the age,
height, and strength of the plants attacked. In plantations
and thickets, from 1 to 6 feet high, which are not yet provided

Figs. 36 and 37.— Twigs bitten off by squirrel (nat. size).
a. Points where twigs are bitten off. b. Bases of bitten-off buds.

with flowering-buds, the squirrels bite-off the top of the
previous year's shoot, and the side-shoots of the last verticil,
the buds of which are also eaten. Scots pines injured in this
way, develop new leaders from buds just below the point of
attack, whilst in the case of spruce, an uninjured side-shoot
from the last verticil becomes a leader. In the case of poles
and trees of these species, the squirrel bites-off the most
external little shoots on which are the male inflorescence-
buds, and then, holding the twig with its fore feet, goes back
to the branch to eat the buds. Jt tjhen Jets the twig fall to

SQUIRRELS.

121

to the ground, Probably the female inflorescence-buds are
eaten as well, and very few cones are formed on trees
where squirrels have lived during the winter. Silver-fir is
also similarly attacked.

In the summer also, shoots of various
lengths up to 8 inches are bitten off spruce
trees by the squirrel and gnawed, as at this
time there are no seeds or buds to eat.

c. Peeling and Girdling.

The peeling and girdling of young plants
of larch, Scots pine and silver-fir, also of
beech, hornbeam, aspen, willows and oak
have been noticed, and are becoming serious
in Britain. Plants fifteen to thirty years

Figs. 38 and 39.— Spiral girdlings of Scots
pine by squirrel.

Fig. 40.— Girdling of
Scots pine by squir-
rel (J.

122

PROTECTION AGAINST ANIMALS.

old suffer most, but also sixty-years-old woods. This is done
from May to July chiefly in dry years. The damage is done
to the stem in the crown where the squirrel sits, and is
sometimes in rings or spirals, at other times quite irregular ;
as it goes down to the sapwood, the injured stems may die
above the peeled place, as they sometimes do by hundreds.

d. Destruction of Young Birds.

During the breeding season of birds, the squirrel frequently
attacks their young, killing them and eating their heads.

2. Protective Rules.

Protection of the pine-marten (Mustela martes), a great
enemy of the squirrel.

Shooting, with the help of dogs, in spruce seed-years, and
near nurseries.

SECTION V. — DORMICE.
1. Damage Done.

Dormice are squirrel-like animals, with bushy tails, and as

they move about at night,
chiefly in broadleaved forest,
it is difficult to state precisely
the amount of damage they do.
The loir (Myoxns glis, in
German, Siebenschliifer) , the
largest European species of
dormouse, is found in southern
Europe, but not in the British
Isles. It feeds on mast of all
kinds and also on spruce and
other seeds, and orchard-fruit,
bites-off the leading shoots of
beech and silver-fir, and in
spring, barks young stems, and
robs birds' nests, doing injury
of a similar nature to that done by squirrels.

It collects a provision for the winter in holes, but passes

Fig. 41.— Girdling
of alder by dor-
mice.

Fig. 42.— Gird-
ling of birch by
dormice.

DORMICE AND MICE.

123

most of this season asleep. Barking is done in strips, or
rings, on ten- to twentyfive-years-old trees of birch, hornbeam,
hazel, etc., also of larch and silver-fir.

The loir also bites-off spruce-shoots in order to strip them
of their needles and chew them, spitting out
the debris.

The garden-dormouse (M. qnercinus, L.)
is rarer than the former, but has a similar
habitat, going, however, further north ; it is
fond of orchard-fruit, and also attacks forest
fruits like the loir.

The common dormouse (M. avellanarius,
L.), chiefly inhabits coppice, especially
hazel-coppice, and is found all over Europe,
from Sweden to Northern Turkey, but is
less common in the south than the other
two species. It does similar damage to them,
but on a smaller scale, and owing to its fond-
ness for hazel-nuts, is termed Hazelmaus in
Germany.

2. Protective Rules,

Dormice may be caught like rats in iron
traps baited with bacon, or for the last
species, in wire-traps with almonds as a bait.

In the extensive beech forests of Carinthia,
the capture of the loir is actively pursued,
its flesh, which becomes very fat in autumn,
being eaten, while the skins are exported,
as many as 800,000 being captured in good
years of beech-mast.

Fig. 43. — Girdling
of beech by dor-
mice.

SECTION VI. — MICE.
1. Daw age Done.

Forest mice, especially the long-tailed field-mouse (Mus
silvaticus, L.), and to a less degree Mus agrarius, Pall., are
very destructive by eating forest fruits and seeds, biting and
gnawing, burrowing in the ground and killing small birds.

124 PROTECTION AGAINST ANIMALS.

Chiefly beech and oak-mast and hazel-nuts are eaten, and
autumn-sowings suffer more than those made in the spring.

In winter, and when the snow is on the ground, they gnaw
buds, tender shoots, bark and sapwood of young forest plants,
from 2 to 15 years old. Broadleaved species chiefly suffer,
such as hornbeam, beech, ash, maple, hazel, sallow, and also
oak, elm, aspen, etc. Handsome thorn-trees are often girdled
by them. They gnaw the bark of plants up to 3 feet and
higher from the ground, somewhat higher than voles, from
which they can be distinguished in this way. Young stems
up to 2 inches in diameter at the base are often gnawed
through, and promising cultivations are thus ruined.

By their burrowing, many plants are uprooted and die,
but this kind of damage is done on a much greater scale by
voles.

Mice are chiefly destructive on sunny aspects in young woods
full of grass undergrowth. Their powers of reproduction in
dry summers are quite extraordinary.

Kats are frequently destructive to forests in India. There
was a plague of rats in Berar, in 190'2, described by E. E.
Fernandez (Indian Forester, April). They destroyed cotton
goods and grain and gnawed the bark of teak, up to 3 feet
in girth, also of Butea frondosa, the lac tree, and other
species.

2. Protective Rules.

These are about the same as against voles, and will
therefore be given in full further on, but as the long-tailed
field-mouse lives in forests throughout the year, it is more
difficult to ward against its attacks than against those of voles,
which come from the fields into the forest during winter. The
chief remedy is to protect its enemies, the stoat, weasel, fox,
owls, etc.

SECTION VII. — VOLES.

Voles are distinguished from mice by their thicker, shorter
head, by having ears buried in their fur, short legs and tail ;
true mice having a pointed head, large ears and a long tail.

MICE AND VOLES. 125

1. Damage Done.

Voles in daytime live chiefly in the soil, into which they
burrow in all directions. Their burrows are just below the
surface of the ground, and by burrowing in forest nurseries,
plantations and natural regeneration-areas, they uproot thou-
sands of plants and injure drains and ditches. They are
chiefly vegetable-eaters, devouring fruits and seeds, cutting
through the roots of young plants in the ground, gnawing
their shoots, but they also attack young birds.

During winter they gnaw the bark of plants chiefly of broad-
leaved species from the collum up to ten inches, or as far as
the grass reaches, in strips or rings.

Voles breed much more rapidly than mice, the southern field-
.vole (Arvicola arvalis, Selys.)* being especially reproductive.

The water-vole (A. amphibius, Desm.), and the common
field-vole (A. agrestis, Bias.), do the most damage. The water-
vole lives not only near water, but also in the forest, and does
much damage by burrowing, and by cutting-off the tap-root
of stems up to the thickness of a man's arm, that naturally
kills them. Oak and ash suffer most in this way, also poplars,
willows, apple-trees, etc. ; less : beech and conifers. The water-
vole also frequently injures banks and dams ; it has done
much damage in the forests occasionally inundated by the
Danube, but is fortunately never very numerous.

The bank-vole (Hypudceus glareolus, Wagn.) is extremely
active, and inhabits chiefly the borders of forests, bushy
land amongst fields, and forest-glades with advance-growth,
rather than dense forest. It gnaws larches, black pines,
aspen, and other trees and shrubs, and eats and carries off
the pine-buds.

The common field-vole (Arvicola agrestis, Bias.) is the
greatest scourge of the agriculturist, and comes from the
fields into light forests, where it does enormous damage. In
the winters of 1822-23, 1830-31, 1840-41, 1856-57, 1861-62,
1863-64, 1870-71, 1871-72, 1872-73, 1878-79, 1889-90,
1892-93, this species was chief among the swarms of mice

* About 75 per cent, of them are 0, and a mother vole has eight to
ten young every six to eight weeks, from March till late in autumn. A o begins
breeding when eight weeks old, and may have 10,000 descendants in a year.

126

PROTECTION AGAINST ANIMALS.

which destroyed the
young plantations on
thousands of acres in
Germany. The destruc-
tion is greatest when it
collects in swarms and
wanders from place to
place. Voles and mice
are specially destructive
in forest nurseries.
A description of the

Fig. 46.— Apple-tree gnawed by hares (a i), Fig. 44.— Beech Fig. 45.— Alder

and by mice (b c) (nat. size). gnawed by gnawed by

mice (nat. mice (nat.

size). size).

damage done in 1814 by this species and the long-tailed field-
mouse is given in Nicholls' * account of the Forest of Dean.

* Published by John Murray, Albemarle Street, London, 1858.

MICE AND VOLES. 127

They destroyed all the young oak-saplings in the forest
except four or five per acre, eating through the roots just
below the surface of the ground. The long-tailed species
was found chiefly on wet ground, and the vole everywhere.
To exterminate these pests, trenches 2 feet deep were dug
20 yards apart, and 100,000 tails were brought in for reward.
Polecats, hawks, kites and owls increased enormously, and
the mice ate one another in the trenches. Much damage
was also done by field-voles in the Lowlands of Scotland in
1891-92. This species prefers hornbeam, beech, ash, hazel
and sallow, but it also attacks all broadleaved species as
well as pines and larch. It is specially fond of white-
thorn. Young plants two to five years old are gnawed
through at the surface of the soil, or peeled of bark, or bitten
through above ground, or stripped of their side- shoots.
Older plants and even poles up to 10 inches in girth are
stripped of their bark up to a foot from the ground and
killed. Voles strip the scales from the fir-cones and eat the
seeds, they also eat grass with its rhizomes, thus destroying
extensive pastures.

The southern field-vole living on the confines of forests in
well-watered situations gnaws the roots and bark of beech and
other trees in hard winters.

The only use of voles is that they eat larvae, snails and
slugs.

2. Protective Rules.

(a) Woodlands bordering on fields should be separated from
them by ditches. Further reference will be made to this.

(b) Forest nurseries should not usually be made near
fields. Wherever this cannot be avoided, rule (a) should be
followed.

(c) In years when mice are abundant, autumn- so wings,
especially of acorns and beech-mast, should be abandoned ; in
any case, plenty of seed must be sown, and covered deeper
than usual, but it is better to sow late in the spring, or to use
transplants.

(d) In forest nurseries broadcast-sowing in seed-beds is
preferable to sowing in drills. Small pieces of furze may

128 PROTECTION AGAINST ANIMALS.

be placed between acorns or other seeds in the nursery-beds.
The seed should be covered with red lead by slightly wetting it
and rubbing the red lead on to the seeds.

(e) For sowings in the forest, the following precautions are
recommended : — Soaking the seeds for half an hour in a 2 per
cent, solution of carbolic acid in water ; 10 per cent, of the
acid will kill the seeds. Acorns may also be soaked in a
decoction of quassia. The seed-beds may be covered with a
layer, 2 inches thick, of old tan or spruce branches, or strewn
witli calcium chloride, which is also a protection against
certain insects. Seeds may be covered with red lead.

(/) Endangered saplings in nurseries may be wrapped
round spirally with 4-8 inches wide strips of asphalt paper
and their barks surrounded with asphalt tar. The scent of
this keeps off the mice. Hesse considers coal-tar as hurtful
to plants. Various advertised preparations may be smeared
over the plants, such as a mixture of cart-grease, petrol, alum
and tallow.

(g) Felling-areas with grass-undergrowth should be pastured
down in summer and autumn by cattle or sheep. The grass
protects the mice from observation, and renders the bark of
plants in it soft and fresh, which the mice like. The cattle
disturb and trample down many mice.

(h) Beech seeding-fellings should be dark in order to keep
down the grass.

(i) Pigs may be admitted into the forest as long as the soil
is loose, especially near nurseries. They root-up the ground,
disturb the mice, destroy their young, fill up their burrows,
and also trample-down and eat many mice.

(j) liemoval of low undergrowth, which shelters the mice.

(fr) Branches of softwoods or hornbeam may be spread
about in young beech-woods, to attract the mice from the
beech. They must however be frequently replaced, as dry
branches are no longer gnawed, and then the remedy does
more harm than good, the branches having attracted mice
into the wood. This is a good precaution against the southern
field-vole.

(1) Protection of Enemies. — Here we must restrict ourselves
to the protection of mice-destroyers which may not do so

MICE AND VOLES.

129

much injury in another direction as to outweigh their use-
fulness in killing mice and voles. The following animals are
useful in this way : —

Mammals.

The pole-cat (Putoriiis foetidus, Gray), the stoat (P. ermineug,
Ow.), the weasel (P. vulgaris, Kich.), the badger (Meles taxiis,
Pall.), the mole (Talpa europaea, L.), and the hedgehog
(Erinaceus europaeus, L.), also the shrews, especially Sorex
vulgaris, L. The mole does not inhabit Ireland.

The first three beasts also plunder nests and eat eggs, young
birds and leverets. The badger eats fruits, mast and pheasants'

Fig. 47. — Diagram of mole-heap.

(E) Surface of groimd. (e) Central chamber.

(«) Upper gallery. (/) Passage to chamber.

(b) Descending passages. (g] Moles' run.

(c) Lower gallery. (h] Diverging runs from lower gallery.

(d) Ascending passages.

eggs. The mole is hurtful to forest nurseries from its habit of
burrowing and throwing-up small heaps of soil. The hedge-
hog attacks nests. All these animals, however, are much
more useful than hurtful. The well-known and much abused
mole hunts for mice, crickets, snails, slugs and grubs, and is
always at hand where these creatures abound, and extremely
useful in destroying them. It increases rapidly, has 3 — 5
young at a birth, and two broods in the year, in May and
August, and is very voracious. Its ingenious nest (Fig. 47)
F.P. K

180 PROTECTION AGAINST ANIMALS.

affords means of escape when pursued by a rat, or other
enemy.

A limited protection may also be afforded when mice are
swarming, to the fox (Canis vulpes, L.), the pine-marten
(Mustelamartcs, L.), the beech -marten (Mustela foina, Briss.)
and the wild cat (Felis cattis, L.), in spite of the damage they
may do to game. A full-grown fox will eat two or three
dozen mice daily, and in S. Sweden, where foxes are numerous,
there are no plagues of mice.

Birds*

The following birds are extremely useful in destroying
mice : — The kestrel (Falco tinnunculus, L.) ; the buzzards,
especially the common buzzard (Buteo vidgaris, Leach) ;
owls, especially the long-eared and short-eared owls (Otm
vulgaris, Flemm., and 0. brachyotus, Cuv.) ; also, the tawny
owl (Syrnium Aluco, Boie), the little owl (Carine noctua,
Scopoli), and the barn-owl (Strix flammea, L.). To these
may be adde'd the hen-harrier and the marsh-harrier (Circuit
cyaneus and C. aeruginosus) . Mr. Tegetmeier states that a
pair of barn-owls brought food to their nest 5 times in three
hours. This probably meant 150 mice in 4J hours. The
short-eared owl hunts mice in day-time and appeared in
Scotland in large numbers during the plague of mice.

The rook (Corvus frugilegus, L.) kills mice, especially in
the autumn, so do the black crow (C. corone, Lam.) and the
hooded crow (C. comix, L.), which are sometimes said to be
varieties of the same species and to interbreed freely. The
above three species of Corvus occasionally attack acorn-sow-
ings, and break off the leading shoots of conifers, and the
crow does much damage by eating the eggs of partridges and
other birds, but on the whole their utility is greater than
their destructiveness.

Herons (Ardea cinerea) and storks (Ciconia alba, L.) occa-
sionally feed on mice, and so does the black-headed gull
(Larus ridibundus, L.).

* The scientific names for birds follow Yarrcll, " British Birds," 4th edition.
Kevised by A. Newton, F.K.S., and H. Saunders, 1874—85.

MICE AND VOLES. 131

Most of the other flesh-eating birds do too much damage to
useful birds to deserve protection.

3. Eemedial Measures.

Eemedial measures against mice may be with or without
poison. The chief rule is to adopt measures every year which
suit the locality, so as to prevent as far as possible any extra-
ordinary increase in the number of mice and voles. According
to trustworthy observation, there are far more females than
males in the spring, and mice should therefore be destroyed
as much as possible in February and March. Private enter-
prise, especially in forests where it is difficult to get at the
mice, is not sufficient for this purpose, but the State must
direct matters and induce private persons to assist in the
energetic destruction of mice both in fields and in forest, which
will be to the public advantage.

a. Pitfalls.

Trenches must be dug in the ground, and visited daily to
keep them clear from leaves, etc., and to remove and kill the
captives. They should be 8 — 10 inches wide, and 12 — 16
inches deep, with vertical smooth walls. The base of the
pitfall must be beaten hard, and glazed earthenware vessels,
or drain-pipes, one every 3 or 4 yards, buried level with the
bottom of the pitfall. A few grains of wheat act as lures for
the mice, and those which are found in the pitfall are killed
with a pointed piece of coarse iron wire ; they will die other-
wise of starvation. Such trenches are to be recommended
against field-mice along the borders of fields and forests, and
around forest nurseries and seed-granaries. In Mecklenburg,
10,800 mice were thus destroyed in autumn, 1872, between a
clover field and a sown plantation.

b. Traps.

Traps are useful, especially against water-rats and bank-
voles, and various kinds of devices may be used to trap mice
according to species and local circumstances.

K 2

132

PROTECTION AGAINST ANIMALS.

Traps resembling sugar-tongs are advocated by E. Heyer
against the water-rat, as shown in the Figs. 50 and 51. They
must be so placed that the rat, in running into its hole

Figs. 48 and 49. — Tube-traps from Ilohenbeim (£ nat. size).

strikes the plate (a) with its head, and is then caught round
the body by the pincers (b). It is better to place two such
traps back to back in a hole. For the smaller species the

Fig. 50.

Fig. 51.

tube-traps from Hohenheirn are very effective, Figs. 48
and 49.

Ordinary spring-traps (Figs. 52 and 53) are more useful in

Fig. 52.— Q nat. size).

closed rooms, such as seed-stores, but when concealed by
foliage, etc., they may also be used in forest nurseries, carrots
or beetroot forming a good bait.

•RW

MICE AND VOLES. 133

For seed-stores, a good trap for mice may be formed by a
vessel full of water, over the edge of which a piece of wrood or
platform on which the bait is fastened is balanced. The mice

Fig. 53.— Q nat. size}.

climb up a slanting piece of wood on to this platform, and
going to the end of it to get at the bait, upset the balance of
the platform and fall into the water.

c. Smolcing-out.

Smoking-out mice is not possible in forests, owing to the
nature of their holes amongst grass and dead leaves, and also
on account of the danger of firing the forest.

(L Poisoning.

Poisoning is the most effectual method of destroying mice.

In poisoning mice in forests there is, however, great danger
of killing useful animals, such as weasels, foxes or owls.
Such a method can therefore be employed only after every
precaution has been taken against danger to useful animals,
and in cases where the mice have increased enormously in
numbers.

Poisoning may be done by means of phosphorus, arsenic,
strychnine, corrosive sublimate, or carbonate of baryta. Of
these, strychnine is the most effective. Wheat, oats or barley
grains, celery or radishes may be used with the poison, the
grains being first steeped in water, and then placed in the

134 PROTECTION AGAINST ANIMALS.

poisonous solution ; or a meal prepared and the poison mixed
up with it. It is then strewn about in pieces as big as a pea.

In order as far as possible to prevent the poisoning of
useful animals, the poisoned baits mast not be placed on the
bare ground, but in little cylinders of wood or of grass sods,
or in glazed vessels or drain-pipes about 1J inches in
diameter, sufficient to allow passage to a mouse. The cylin-
ders may be placed on the ground or in the mouse-holes, and
must be inspected regularly in order to observe their effects.
Glazed vessels are better than drain-pipes, as the latter let in
moisture.

Phosphorus, owing to oxidation, soon becomes ineffectual in
damp or rainy weather. Arsenic is more effective, but less
rapid in its action. If either of theso poisons is used, the
dead mice are generally found lying on the surface of the
ground, as they run in search of air and water when feeling
the pains of the poisoning. Strychnine and carbonate of baryta
kill the mice in their holes after severe convulsions ; it is
better to change the bait and the poison from time to time.

A pest of mice rarely lasts more than 2 or 3 years, as heavy
rain, frosts, inundations and disease soon kill them by thou-
sands. It would not however be right to wait patiently for
such an event to occur, for by timely energetic action the
damage may be greatly reduced.

Attempts were made (as proposed by Loeffler) in 1890, to
destroy the mice which were infesting the fields in Thessaly,
by subjecting them to a parasitic fungoid disease termed
mouse-typhus ; this was communicated to the mice by pieces
of bread which had previously been soaked in water con-
taining spores of the fungus. The results in this case were
excellent, and it has since been adopted on agricultural lands
with success both in France and Germany. It was also
successful in a German forest in 1892-3, on 15 acres, at a
cost of 5s. Gd. per acre.

4. Treatment of Injured Plant*.

Broad-leaved poles and saplings which have been badly
gnawed by mice should be cut-back in the spring close to the

BEAVERS AND PORCUPINES, 135

ground, below the injured place, sharp instruments being
used for the purpose, so that they may send up new shoots,
If the plants have been girdled too deeply towards the roots,
such procedure would not save them, but of course the dead
poles should be removed. The workmen should work in lines
so as not to leave out any injured plants, and should be
properly supervised. If the cutting is done too late in the
spring, the new shoots will be very weak, as much reserve
material then passes into the injured stems, and is conse-
quently wasted when the stems are cut down.

Where conifers have been injured, new plants must be
substituted for those killed by mice.

Beech plants that have been gnawed by mice, if under a
foot in height, may be saved by heaping up earth above the
wounded part of the plants. The latter then send out fibrous
roots that grow down into the soil through the mounds. This
costs about Id. per 100 plants.

SECTION VIII. — BEAVERS AND PORCUPINES.

The beaver is an animal now almost extinct in Central
Europe, but which formerly did much damage to forest trees.*
Beavers (Castor fiber, L.) are still pretty numerous in Eussia
and Scandinavia, in North America, and a few still exist in
France in the Ehone Valley. They fell and bark many species
of trees up to 9 inches in diameter, chiefly willows and poplars,
but also ash, oak, and elm growing near streams. The trees
felled are used by them in constructing darns to protect their
dwellings, and they also eat the bark.

The porcupine (Hystrix leucura) is very common in Indian
forests, and girdles saplings and poles of various species,
especially of Leguminosae ; it does much damage in forest
nurseries by burrowing, and by devouring seedlings and
vegetables. It should be excluded by strong wire-netting,
partly buried at the foot of a fence, as in the case of rabbits.
There are also two other species of Hystrix in India.

* In the Himalayas, the black bear (Ursus tibetanvd) peels the bark from
pines during the winter.

136

CHAPTER III.

PROTECTION AGAINST BIRDS.*

SECTION I. — GENERAL ACCOUNT.

THE birds directly hurtful to forests belong to the orders
Gallinae or game-birds, Columlidae or pigeons, and Passeri-
formae or perching birds.

1. List of Hurtful Birds.
Grouse (Tetraonidae).

Capercailzie (Tetrao urogallus, L.).
Black game (Tetrao tetrix, L.).
Hazel-grouse (Bonasia silvcstris, Brehrn.).

Pigeons (Columlidae).

Bing-dove or Wood Pigeon (Columba palumbus, L.).
Stock-dove (C. oenas, L.).
Turtle-dove (Turtur communis, L.).

(Corvidac).

Jay (Garrulus glandarius, Vieill.).
Nutcracker (Nucifraga caryocatactcs, Briss.).

Fimhes (Fringillidae).

Hawfinch (Coccothraustes vulgaris, Briss.).

Greenfinch (C. chloi'is, Briss.).

Chaffinch (Fringilla coclebs, L.).

Brambling (F. montifringilla, L.).

Siskin (F. Spinus, L.).

Crossbill (Loxia curvirostra, Gm.).

Parrot Crossbill (L. pityopsittacns, Bchst.).

* The scientific names are from Yarrell's " Britisli JJirds," 4th cd., 1882.

GAME BIRDS. 137

A few other species of small singing birds are hurtful by
eating seeds and biting-off buds, such as :—

Bullfinch (Pyrrhula europaea, Vieill.).
Mealy Keel-poll (Linota linaria, L.).
Ked-breast (Erythacus rubeciila, L.).

Even titmice (Paridae) do some harm, and woodpeckers
(Pici) make holes in trees ; these families, however, do more
good than harm. Birds which do indirect injury by killing
other useful birds will be described further on under the
heading Insects.

2. Damage Done.

Destructive species of birds eat-up seeds and fruits, bite-off
buds, young shoots, and tender seedlings, but are generally
useful by destroying insects, and the damage done by birds in
forests is in general much less than that by the rodents and
deer already referred to.

3. Protective Rules.

Delay sowing until the birds have paired, and cover the
seeds well. The birds, after pairing, no longer fly about in
large numbers, and they kill more insects than before
pairing, both for themselves and for their young.

The seeds may be steeped in red-lead mixed with water, or
in distilled water, lime-water, or very dilute* acids, so as to
hasten the germination, and the period of danger from
seed-eating birds may thus be reduced to as short a space as
possible.

Sowings may be covered with moss, or branches ; in
nurseries, with wire-netting over hoops of hazel, willow, etc.

Scarecrows may be used, or paper feathers on string, or
stuffed birds of prey.

Watch the sowings till the young plants are large enough
to be out of danger.

Fire off blank cartridges, or shoot the birds.

138 PROTECTION AGAINST BIRDS.

SECTION II. — THE CAPERCAILZIE AND OTHER GROUSE.
1. Damage Done.

The capercailzie, which frequents extensive tracts of moun-
tain forests, injures nurseries and cultivations of conifers in
winter and spring by biting-off buds and young shoots ; in
nurseries, when the buds of the plants just appear above the
snow, they are frequently cut-off in great numbers by these
birds, the cock being more injurious than the hen. Birch-
buds and small green pine-cones are also eaten. The caper-
cailzie in winter frequents old woods with advance-growth, and
feeds chiefly on the needles and buds of old spruce trees, but
is very fond of the buds of neighbouring young spruce. In
Scotland it prefers Scots pine. In the spring it scratches
the soil in search of insects and worms.

The black-grouse lives in mossy heather-land, and does
much less harm to forests than the capercailzie. It eats the
buds and inflorescence of birch and other broad-leaved species,
and attacks buds of conifers and young needles of the larch,
but chiefly nourishes itself with berries and small shrubs
(bilberry, heather, etc.), and keeps itself alive in winter by
eating needles of old spruce trees. It goes higher in the
mountains than the capercailzie.

The hazel-grouse is chiefly found in broad-leaved woods, in
the Austrian Alps and the Eussian Baltic Provinces ; it feeds
during winter on birch and alder buds and hazel-catkins. In
summer it chiefly eats berries, but does less harm than black
game.

Pheasants scratch-up sowings in the forest, and nursery
seed-beds.

2. Protective Rules.

Fence-in nurseries with tall thorny bushes, as the
capercailzie is very shy, and avoids places so protected.

Branches of spruce, etc., may be laid over sowings to
impede the movements of the birds, and nursery seed-beds
may be protected with wire-netting. Buy transplants.

PIGEONS, JAYS AND NUTCRACKERS. 139

SECTION III. — PIGEONS AND DOVES.
1. Damage Done.

Wood-pigeons and doves eat up forest seeds, especially of
spruce and Scots pine, also buds, catkins, etc. The wood-
pigeon and the stock-dove in autumn also eat acorns, beech-
mast and beech cotyledons. Turtle-doves eat-up seedlings,
doing most damage in March, and from April to October,
when they often alight in flocks on sowings.

The wood-pigeon, the largest kind, prefers coniferous forest
(spruce) ; the stock-dove, beech and mixed forest of broad-
leaved and coniferous species; the turtle-dove, the smallest
kind, lives near water in small woods among fields and
meadows. The wood-pigeon is one of the worst enemies to
agriculture.

2. Protective Rules.

Those already given under the general heading apply here.
Scarecrows are only useful at first, as the birds soon get used
to them. Strewing seed-beds with spruce-needles instead of
moss protects against turtle-doves. Shooting is best done at
the breeding season with decoys, or over salt. Small vessels
containing salted clay, anise, hempseed or wheat are placed
here and there over the endangered sowings, and the pigeons
flying down to them are shot.

SECTION IV. — JAYS AND NUTCRACKERS.
1. Damage Done.

The jay is extremely destructive, eating acorns, beech-nuts,
walnuts, hazel-nuts, cherries and other fruit, digging-up ger-
minating beech-nuts and young oaks to eat their cotyledons.
It also destroys the young and eggs of other birds, and even
attacks new-born hares. Once it has discovered a sowing of
acorns, it will completely strip the bed. In acorn sowings in
the Forest of Dean in 1899, it was found that, when the turf
was broken up over the lines of sowings, the birds picked up
most of the acorns. When the turf was taken up and

140 PROTECTION AGAINST BIRDS.

replaced over the acorns, the birds did not recognise the place
and left the acorns alone.

At the same time, by placing acorns and beech-nuts singly
in holes in the ground, which it afterwards forgets, it assists
in the spread of the oak and beech. Of more value is its
power of attacking mice and insects, but the good done is less
than the harm effected in other ways.

The nutcracker, though not uncommon in the spruce
forests of the Schwarzwald, the Bavarian Alps, the Tyrol and
Switzerland, is rare in Central and North Germany, and in
the British Isles. Its food consists of hazel-nuts, acorns, and
beech-mast, and especially the seeds of the Cembran pine, of
which it is so fond as to pick them out of sowings and seed-
beds in the very presence of the workmen who are sowing the
seed. It also destroys the eggs and young of useful birds.
This extremely restless bird also sows seeds, and in this
respect is more useful than the jay, as the localities it prefers
in the high mountain regions are those where planting is
extremely costly, and any assistance to man's action in
reboisement is of great value.

2. Protective Rules.

Cover up endangered sowings with branches of thorn-bushes,
immediately after sowing.

Shoot in autumn, when jays keep flying from one oak to
another. Several hundred jays are thus shot every year in
Epping Forest.

SECTION V. — FINCHES AND OTHER SMALL BIRDS.

1. Damage Done.

The hawfinch, rare in the British Isles, is very fond of
fruits and seeds, especially those of the hornbeam, cherry,
maples, oaks, beech, alder, elm and conifers. The traces of
its activity are seen in the remains of the fruit lying under
the trees. It also bites-off buds. In general, however, the
damage done by this bird is greater in gardens and orchards
than in forests.

FINCHES AND OTHER SMALL BIRDS.

141

The greenfinch feeds its young on soft seeds, and by thus
destroying countless weeds it is of great service to the
gardener and agriculturist. Later on in the year, however,
it unites in large flocks with the chaffinch and other finches
and small birds, and they may do
much damage to sowings in the
forest.

The chaffinch is extremely fond
of coniferous seeds, those of the
pine, spruce, and larch, and bites
off young cotyledons of conifers as
long as they are covered by the
testa. It also eats beech-nuts,
and the cotyledons of beech-
seedlings.

The brambling appears in the
late autumn and winter in large
flights -like clouds, and attacks
beech-nuts and coniferous seeds.
De Montbeliard states that in
1765, after a good beech-mast
year, for several nights 600 dozens
were killed near the Rhine, and
de la Fontaine computes a flight
of bramblings in Luxemburg in
February, 1865, at 60 millions.
Stevenson in March, 1865, saw a
flock of bramblings near Slough
which passed him without inter-
mission for 35 minutes. Both
this species and the chaffinch are
extremely destructive to coniferous
and beech sowings, and to natural

reproduction of beech, which it is extremely difficult to guard
against them.

The siskin also appears in great numbers, and prefers the
seeds of the alder, but also attacks sowings of birch, spruce,
silver-fir, larch, and other conifers. Something may be said
in favour of the finches on account of their destruction of

Fig. 54. — Spruce-cone attacked by
crossbill.

142 PROTECTION AGAINST BIRDS.

insects ; the hawfinch frequently catches cockchafers even
when they are on the wing, and then, perching on a twig,
picks them to pieces, letting the hard elytra and legs fall to
the ground.

Crossbills are extremely ravenous, and appear in swarms
when there are good seed-years of spruce and Scots pine.
They live on the seeds and berries of trees of several species.
They bite off cones by the base, and open out their scales
with their beaks and pull out the seeds. The common cross-
bill can only open spruce-cones, but the parrot crossbill also
attacks pine-cones. They eat mountain-ash berries when
cones are scarce, and even thistle- and dock-seed, and have
been seen to eat beech-cotyledons. They do some compensa-
tion by eating plant-lice.

2. Protective Rides.

Blue strings may be placed crosswise over sowings. .

Bed-lead can be applied to the seeds in the following manner :
In a wide vessel, water and 1 Ib. of red-lead are stirred to-
gether, and 7 to 8 Ibs. of spruce-seeds mixed up with it, about
1 Ib. at a time, the water in the vessel being constantly stirred
until the seeds will take up no more of the lead. The seeds
can be sown at once without drying. This costs 5d. per Ib.
of seeds for labour and material. Dilute carbolic acid may
also be applied to seeds, as already mentioned. Scarecrows
are of very little use against finches.

The seed-beds may be watched during the dangerous time,
and blank cartridges fired.

A good plan is to shoot some of the birds, and hang the
bodies to stakes near the seed-bed.

Cones bitten off and dropped by crossbills may be utilised
to secure the seeds remaining in them.

SECTION VI. — WOODPECKERS. .

The question whether woodpeckers are useful or hurtful to
forests has been a subject of dispute, and will be here
discussed.

WOODPECKERS. H3

1. List of Woodpeckers.

In Central Europe the following species of woodpeckers are
found : —

Black woodpecker (Picus martius, L.).
Greater spotted woodpecker (Dendrocopus major, Koch).
Intermediate spotted woodpecker (D. medius, Koch).
Lesser spotted woodpecker (D. minor, Koch).
White-backed woodpecker (D. leuconatus, Bchst.).
Three-toed woodpecker (Apternus tridactylus, Gould).
Grey woodpecker (Picus canus, Gmel.).
Green woodpecker (Picus viridis, L.).

The two last species are termed ground-woodpeckers. Of
these the green woodpecker is the commonest in Britain, and
D. major and minor also occur. Nos. 2, 3, and 7 are said to
be commonest near Giessen, where Hess resides.

2. Opinions of various Authors.

Opinions regarding the utility or otherwise of woodpeckers
from a forestry point of view have varied from time to
time. Towards the end of the eighteenth century they were
considered hurtful by pecking holes into trees which were
sometimes sound ones.

In Beckmann's"Handbuch der Jagdwissenschaft," published
at Nuremberg in 1802, this opinion was adopted, and in conse-
quence a reward of 2d. per head was offered in Germany for
their destruction. Bechstein was the first, in 1802, to consider
them useful, and Walther in 1803 ; also Gloger about 1860.
Foresters then went to the other extreme, considering wood-
peckers as extremely active in destroying insects, and ignoring
their propensity for making holes in trees. Altum in his " Forst-
zoologie" reverted to the former opinion, stating that wood-
peckers were practically useless against dangerous bark-beetles,
but attacked the larger and less important longicorn-beetles,
and that they themselves did considerable damage to trees.

Altum wished, however, to protect woodpeckers on aesthetic
grounds, because they enliven the forest and please the eye.
Judeich follows Altum's views to a certain extent. Konig,

144

PROTECTION AGAINST BIRDS.

Dobner, Vogt, the brothers Miiller, Taschenberg, Borggreve,
Nordlinger and others consider that the utility of woodpeckers
outweighs the harm they may do, and Hess expresses himself

Fig. 55 — Scots pine cones fixed Fig. 56.— Spruce cone attacked by

into a tree by woodpecker woodpecker.

(^ nat. size}.

as of the same opinion, from the most recent observations on
the subject.

3. Damage done by Woodpeckers.

Woodpeckers eat forest-seeds, peck wounds in saplings, and
holes in sound poles and trees ; they girdle sound trees and
destroy telegraph-poles and wooden roof-shingles.

WOODPECKERS.

145

a. Destruction of Seeds.

Dendrocopus major alone of the woodpeckers eats large
quantities of coniferous seeds. It
wedges the cones, which it has
plucked from trees, in a cleft in the
bark, or in an angle between a stem
and a branch, and opens them out
and removes the seeds with its bill.
We can distinguish between the
action of the woodpecker and cross-
bill in this respect. Frequently the
ground under a tree is covered with
opened-out cones. Also walnuts,
hazel-nuts, acorns, and other fruits
are eaten by the great woodpecker.
The damage done is not, however,
very serious, as woodpeckers are solitary birds.

Fig. 57. — Cone of Scots pine
attacked by woodpecker,

b. Peeking Holes in sound Trees,

The black and the great woodpecker do most of this damage,
and attack isolated trees and saplings. The woodpecker also
attacks freshly planted saplings of oak, beech, acacia, exotics,
etc., and the reason for its doing so is not very clear ; in
coniferous woods it may thus free the beak from resin derived
from the cones it has been attacking.

Older trees are also attacked, such as avenue-trees (poplars,
limes), oaks occurring in coniferous forests, boundary trees, etc.
Most of this damage is done during spring and early summer
but it is too rare to be of any practical importance.

c. Girdling Trees.

The same two woodpeckers, while hanging to the trunk by
their feet with the support of their tail feathers, encircle trees
with rings of holes arranged horizontally. A callus forms at
each hole, but is pecked at again and again until quite a ledge
has been made round the tree. Trees may sometimes be seen
with several such ledges, one above the other, resembling the
rings on bamboos. The reason for these attacks on sound
trees has not yet been discovered (Fig. 58).

F.P. L

146

PROTECTION AGAINST BIRDS.

<1. Destruction of Telegraph-Posts.
The great woodpecker as well as the
black and green woodpeckers share
in this damage. Attacks have been
observed both on coniferous or oaken
posts, whether kyanised, or not, and
generally commence at an old screw-
hole. In 1881, the Director of Post-
Offices for the German Empire issued
a circular order that all holes in
telegraph-posts should be filled with
wooden plugs, and that holes freshly
made by woodpeckers should be at once
smeared with tar. Injuries done by
woodpeckers to the wooden shingle
roofs of forest lodges and other solitary
houses have been noticed, but are rare
and unimportant.

4. Utility of Woodpeckers,
a. Destruction of Insects.

The injurious insects, which wood-
peckers devour, live either in or on the
surface of the soil, or in the wood or
bark of trees, and the latter kinds are
preferred.

Woodpeckers chiefly seek animal food
from April till late summer. They
capture cockchafers, pick grubs from
fruit, and eat the pupse of moths and
sawflies; they dig into ant-hills, con-
suming numbers of ants, which are
said by Yarrell to be the chief summer
food of the green woodpecker, and they
peck holes into the ground in search of
cockchafer grubs, wire-worms, etc. For
c Ditto, bark entirely re- the most part, however, they hunt on

moved.

trees for weevils, bark-beetles, longicorn-
beetles and their grubs, sawfly larvae, gall-insects, spiders, etc.

Fig. 58.— Scots pine girdled
by woodpecker.

rt Ring, with bark still

remaining.
b Ditto, bark half removed.

WOODPECKERS.

147

Fig. 59 shows a Scots pine stump attacked by woodpeckers
in search of insects.

The tongue of woodpeckers, owing to its construction, is ex-
tremely useful in the search for insects ; it is very long and thin,
and is furnished near the tip with a few stiff barbs pointing back-

Fig. 59. — Scots pine stump visited by woodpeckers.
(After Altum.)

wards. The cornua of the hyoid bones, which support it, curve
round the back of the head to its upper surface, terminating in
a cavity in the bones of the beak, and their mobility and great
length allow the tongue to be freely extended. The woodpecker

a Head of woodpecker (Picus canus, Gmel). b Tip of tongue with barbed hairs.
h Cornua of the hyoid bone. x Opening in the maxilla for
n Nostril. the cornua.

o Ear. 2 Tongue.

s Salivary gland.

darts its tongue into cracks in the bark, using the barbs for
detaching the insects, which are captured by adhesion to the
slimy surface. The spotted and ground woodpeckers hunt in

L 2

148 PROTECTION AGAINST BIRDS.

this manner more or less throughout the year, the former
chiefly on trees, and the latter more on the surface of the
ground.

Woodpeckers detect insects by the senses of sight, smell and
sound; it is not yet decided which of these is predominant. It
cannot be denied that they prefer the large but less harmful
larvae of Ceranibycidae, Cossus and Sirex, to the minute larvae
of weevils and bark-beetles, but repeated observation shows
that they are also keen hunters of the latter. Amongst the
most hurtful species which they destroy may be mentioned
Pissodes pini, L., P. notatus, Fabr., Myelopliilns piniperda, L.,
and Hylastes palliatus, Gyll. The damage done by the black
and ground woodpeckers to ant-hills may indeed be classed as
injury to the forests, to which ants are useful, but living larvae
of parasitic beetles are, when present, often preferred to ants
by the woodpeckers.

1. Nidification in Trees.

Woodpeckers cannot make nest-holes in trees without
injuring them, but this is done chiefly in the case of soft-
wooded species, the aspen, lime, etc., or in rotten old hard-
woods. The damage done is not great, and the holes are
subsequently used for breeding by several useful birds,
starlings, titmice, and flycatchers, the former frequently
driving the woodpeckers from a new hole they have just made,
in order to build their own nest there.

5. Summary.

The result of investigations into the utility of woodpeckers
tends to show that these birds by their activity in the destruc-
tion of insects play a most useful part in Nature, and should
therefore be protected by foresters. Hess holds the same
views as Borggreve, that all useful birds tend to prevent an
undue preponderance of insects, keeping their numbers more
or less normal in ordinary years. In case of a great insect
calamity, however, the action of birds is inadequate to protect
the forests ; ichneumon-flies and fungoid diseases eventually
put a stop to the plague.

149

CHAPTER IV.

FOREST INSECTS. GENERAL ACCOUNT.

SECTION I. — CLASSIFICATION.

ENTOMOLOGY is the science dealing with insects, which belong
to the division of the animal kingdom termed Arthropoda,
including all animals the bodies of which are bilaterally sym-
metrical and composed of segments, that is, of successive
transverse divisions which present a more or less complete
recurrence of structural features, and which have articulated
appendages. The body and its appendages possess a hardened
exterior, formed of a substance termed chitin, similar in
character to, but not identical with, horn, and the muscles
are internal, and attached to the external skeleton. The sym-
metry of the successive segments is not complete from end to
end of the body, and is more evident in the body-walls and
their appendages, than in the viscera. The segments are
aggregated into definite groups, the components of which are
more nearly related to each other, particularly in the structure
of their appendages than to the segments of the other groups.
This form of segmentation is termed heteronomous. The
nervous system consists of a double chain of ganglia placed
along the ventral surface of the body, connected with each
other longitudinally and transversely by nerve-commissures,
and traversed anteriorly by the digestive system ; the vascular
system is dorsal. Respiration is effected in various ways.

The four great Classes of Arthropoda are : —

1. Crustacea: respiring by branchiae or gills, or by the
general surface of the body ; with two pairs of antennae and
more than eight locomotive appendages, the latter forked or
biramous. Crabs, lobsters, shrimps, woodlice, etc.

2. Arachnida: respiring in various ways, usually air-
breathing ; head and thorax united ; with two pairs of jaws

150 PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

and four pairs of legs; abdomen destitute of limbs; no
antennae. Scorpions, spiders, and mites.

3. Myriapoda : respiring by tracheae, or involutions of the
integument ; head distinct, remainder of the body formed of
nearly similar segments ; one pair of antennae ; three pairs of
jaws and numerous legs. Centipedes, millepedes.

4. Insecta : respiring by tracheae ; head, thorax, and
abdomen .distinct, one pair of antennae ; three pairs of legs
on the thorax ; abdomen without well-developed limbs ;
generally with two pairs of wings on the thorax. Insects.

A knowledge of the general anatomy of insects, and of the
terms used in the present book in describing the different
species, is presupposed.

Insects as a general rule before attaining maturity pass
through a series of changes termed metamorphoses.

The different stages of their life consist of the egg, larva,
pupa, and imago or perfect insect. Some insects, such as
parasitic lice, do not appear to undergo any metamorphosis,
the young on hatching-out resembling their parents in all
respects except in size, although they may moult, or shed their
skins frequently ; they are known as ametabolic insects.

The larval stage is essentially the stage of growth and of
active feeding. The larva undergoes several moults or ccdyscs,
never possesses wings and is incapable of reproduction.

The larvae of insects may be destitute of legs, as in the case
of fly maggots, or they may have three pairs of true legs, on
the first three segments after the head, as in the cockchafer
grub, or in addition to these, two, five, six, or seven pairs of
clasping feet, or prolegs attached to the abdominal segments,
of which the pair on the last segment are known as the anal
prolegs or claspers. The larvae of 'Lepidoptera are termed
caterpillars.

The pupa of insects is usually inactive, and is protected by
its dried and hardened skin ; frequently, as in spinning
Lepidoptera, it is surrounded by a protective case termed a
cocoon, and constructed by the larva.

In the case of certain insects, as grasshoppers, the pupa
differs from the larva only in having rudiments of wings ; it
is still active and feeds, and is termed a nymph. Such a pupa

CLASSIFICATION. 151

is converted into the imago by the liberation of its wings at
the last moult.

The insects which undergo metamorphosis are consequently
divided into metabolic insects, or insects with complete meta-
morphosis, in which the pupa is quiescent and does not feed,
and in which the greatest weight and bulk is attained at the
end of the larval stage; and into hemi-metabolic insects, in
which there is an active nymph and the imago is the bulkiest
and heaviest form. Metabolic insects form 95 per cent, of the
whole class.

Insects may be grouped either according to the structure of
their bodies, or their mode of life, and Entomology uses the
former of these characters in their classification, but in Forest
Protection it is of greater convenience to study the latter.

Much difference of opinion has existed regarding the classifi-
cation of insects. The simplest method, based on the systems
of Linnaeus and Fabricius recognises seven Orders. The
former naturalist relied principally on the structure of wings
in distinguishing the different orders of insects, and the latter
on the parts forming the insect's mouth. The Orders may
also be arranged, according to the degree of completeness of
their metamorphoses, in two groups containing the metabolic
and ametabolic insects respectively. Though the degree of
metamorphosis is of the first importance as a guide to the
systematic position of an insect, it is not, when taken alone,
of the highest value in classification, as it cannot be decided
by mere observation of any particular insect, without study of
its life-history.

Certain writers who have attached great weight to structural
differences, particularly of the wings, have increased the
number of Orders to thirteen (Westwood) or sixteen (Packard) .
The groups which have been raised to the rank of additional
Orders are of minor importance, and contain as a rule a small
number of aberrant forms. In the present work, the broadest
and most generally-received classification will be followed, in
which the Insects are divided into seven Orders, characterised
as follows : —

1. Orthoptera .- with biting mouth-parts, a free prothorax,
and incomplete metamorphosis. Cockroaches, crickets, locusts,

152 PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

termites or white ants, and dragon-flies, are examples of this
order, the two latter belonging to a sub-order termed Orthoptera
pseudo-neuroptera. In this sub-order the head is horizontal
and the wings membranous in texture ; in the true Orthoptera
(0. gcnuina) the head is vertical and the wings are stronger
and of a more leathery consistency.

2. Neitroptera : with biting mouth-parts, a free prothorax,
two pairs of membranous richly-veined wings, and complete
metamorphosis. Lace-winged flies (Chrysopa and Heme robins)
are examples.

3. Coleoptera : with biting mouth-parts, free and strongly-
developed prothorax ; two pairs of wings, of which the upper
are horny, protective and not used for flight, being known as
wing-cases or elytra, and the lower membranous ; complete
metamorphosis. It includes all beetles, of which the common
cockchafer may be taken as a type.

4. Hymenoptera : with biting, or biting and partly suctorial
mouth-parts ; the prothorax fused at least dorsally with the
mesothorax ; two pairs of membranous wings with com-
paratively few veins, sometimes apterous ; with complete
metamorphosis. Examples: bees, wasps, .ants, and sawflies.

5. Lepidoptera : with suctorial mouth-parts, the prothorax
annular and fused with the mesothorax, two pairs of mem-
branous wings covered completely or partially with scales;
complete metamorphosis. The butterflies and moths belong
to this order.

6. Diptera : with sucking mouth-parts, an annular prothorax
fused with the mesothorax, one pair of well-developed mem-
branous fore-wings, the hind-wings rudimentary and reduced
to small stalked knobs, forming the so-called poiscrs. Com-
plete metamorphosis. This order includes all flies.

7. Hemiptera : with sucking mouth-parts, a free prothorax,
and incomplete metamorphosis. Bugs, aphides, and scale
insects belong to this order.

Forest Protection deals with forest insects only, namely,
those insects that affect forest plants either prejudicially, or
beneficially, and this either directly, or indirectly. Injurious
insects have a direct influence on forest plants by biting,
sucking, or killing them. Both injurious or useful insects

* -f

DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS. 153

may be killed by other insects, which are thus indirectly useful
or injurious.

The vast importance to foresters of forest insects, the
enormous amount of damage which these small but mighty
members of Nature's household can effect, combined with the
fact that, owing to their small size and obscure mode of life,
they escape observation much more readily than injurious
vertebrates, render it necessary to spend more time on their
study.

A full account of the anatomy of insects will not be attempted
here, and the works of Altum, Katzeburg, etc., may be referred
to, the most comprehensive work on forest insects being the
revision of the 8th edition of Katzeburg's book by Judeich
and Nitsche.*

The following works also merit attention : 5th Report of the
United States Entomological Commission, "Forest Insects,"
by Dr. A. S. Packard, Washington, 1890; " Manual of Injurious
Insects," by Miss Ormerod, London, Messrs. Simpkin, Marshall
& Co., 1890; "Indian Forest Zoology," by E. C. Cotes,
Calcutta, 1893; and "Injurious Insects in Indian Forests,"
by E. P. Stebbing, now being published in parts. " Leitfaden
der Forstinsectenkunde," by Dr. Nusslin (Paul Parey, Berlin),
an excellent work for students. 1905. Mr. A. T. Gillanders
is now bringing out a comprehensive . work on Forest
Entomology.

SECTION II. — DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS.

The geographical distribution of insects may be considered
both horizontally and vertically.

As regards the horizontal distribution of insects, the local
mobility or the wandering nature of many species precludes
the possibility of denning zones similar to those laid down for
plants. It may be stated roughly that there are, in Central
Europe,' fewer species in the north and east than in the south
and west. Beetles, however, form an exception to this rule,
being more abundant in the north and east. As instances of
special areas for certain insects may be quoted : The ash-cicada,

* " Lehrbuch der Mitteleuropaischen Forstinsektenkunde " (alsachte Auflage
\on Ratzeburg's Die Waldverderber und ihre Feinde) herausgegeben von
Dr. J. F. Judeich u. Dr. H. Nitsche. Vienna : Eduard Holzel. 1889—95.

154 PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

which does not occur north of the river Main ; the oak proces-
sion moth is commonest in north and east Germany. The
character of the insect fauna is, however, generally similar
over the whole of the Palaearctic region, which includes
Europe, the northern coasts of Africa, and Asia north of the
great mountain chains that cross it from east to west. The
number of species extending over the whole of this region is
comparatively small, and there are no zones in it in which
the character of the insect inhabitants is abruptly changed.
As compared with continental regions under similar climatic
conditions, the insect fauna of the British Isles is poor.

As regards altitude, the distribution of insects depends on
that of the trees and shrubs on which they feed, and also on
locality and climate. Most insects prefer the warmer plains
and hilly districts, especially with a sandy soil, where beetles
thrive. Soils naturally poor and those impoverished by
removal of litter, sunny aspects, frost-hollows, and stunted
vegetation are natural breeding-grounds for insects, and
require the most careful supervision on the part of the
forester. The number of species and of individuals alike
diminishes with increasing altitude ; this is especially the case
with Lepidoptera, which are most dependent on climatic con-
ditions, but beetles are found at a considerable elevation in
mountains. Certain species of weevils and bark-beetles may
be considered as mountain insects, such as Otiorrhynchm
niger, Fabr., Tomicus cemlrae, Heer, Hylastes glabratus, Zett.
Even species of Chermes are found at elevations of between
3,000 and 3,600 feet.

Insects, especially beetles, can support severe winters.
This was proved in 1870-1, 1879-80, the summers that
succeeded these hard winters being rich in insects. Their
horny elytra or wing-coverings protect them, and instinct
impels them to creep under roots and into cracks in the bark
of trees, or under moss or dead leaves for protection against
the weather, or to burrow underground. Moreover, as their
enemies, moles and insectivorous birds, cannot touch them
when snow or frost covers the ground, and are themselves killed
in very severe winters, such weather is really favourable to
insect life. A warm winter, which is usually accompanied with

LIFE -HISTORY. 155

much moisture, is very destructive to hibernating insects,
especially hairy larvae, which suffer from fungoid diseases.

Insects' eggs and pupae are almost insensible to cold.
Hairless larvae are most sensitive, especially at moulting
periods. Cold damp weather and cutting winds will then kill
them off in myriads. Storms blow larvae by thousands from
the crowns of trees. Uniformly warm years without heavy
rains therefore tend to produce great swarms of insects. Very
dry summers greatly reduce the food of some insects and
consequently their numbers.

SECTION III. — LIFE-HISTORY.
1. Generative Periods.

Insects are distinguished from more highly organised crea-
tures by having generally a definite limitation to their duration
of life. The time which elapses between the egg and the
fresh production of eggs is termed a generation. These
may be single or annual, multiple, biennial or plurennial.

A single generation occurs when an insect goes through all
its stages within twelve months (not, however, within a single
calendar year), and is by far the commonest. Thus, nearly all
Ijepidoptera have one generation in the year. A few Lepidop-
tera have more than one brood in the year, and, still more
rarely, the life of an individual species may extend through two
years, as Tortrix resinella, L., or even longer.

In the case of a multiple generation, several broods are pro-
duced during twelve months, so that the respective stages,
eggs or larvae, of the same species may be found in different
months. A double generation is here commonest, as, for
instance, in the case of many bark-beetles and sawflies.
Many plant-lice produce five or more generations in,a single
summer, and the Bengal multivoltine silkworm completes a
generation every month, except during the period from
November to February. Three broods are sometimes pro-
duced within two years, for instance, by. Tomicus bidentatus,
Hbst., but such cases are rare. A plurennial generation
denotes that the insect takes more than one year for its full

156 PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

development, for example, two years in the case of longicorn
beetles and Sirex, and three or four years for the cockchafer.

Of the several stages of the insect, that in which it hiber-
nates lasts the longest, and is generally the larval stage. The
egg and pupal stages usually last for about two to four weeks
unless they happen to be the hibernating stage, and eggs laid
after Midsummer do not generally hatch out till the succeeding
year. As a rule, the imago stage is the least long-lived ; but
with beetles this is not the case, as the images very frequently
hibernate. Many Ilymenoptera are long-lived insects ; bees,
for example, live four or five years.

F. Eiihl, of Zurich,* has observed the life-period of a
few beetles in their various stages : eggs, 5-44 days ; larvae,
47-1640 days (many longicorn larvae live longer) ; pupae, 8-39
days ; beetles, 3-60 days. As a rule, insects with fully
developed sexual organs live for a short time only, while
unsexual insects live longer.

Many families of insects, for instance, bark-beetles, have
irregular broods ; the state of the weather, and the quantity and
quality of their food may cause the development of one, two,
or even three broods in a year. On the other hand, certain
circumstances, such as unfavourable weather, want of oppor-
tunity for pairing or for laying eggs, may not unfrequently
cause delay in a brood. Thus, for instance, a brood of the
pine sawfly (Lophyrus pini, L.) has been known to extend
over 1J to 2 years, instead of there being one or two broods in
the same year.

2. Habitat.

The habitat of insects varies according to their state of
development and the season of the year. They are sometimes
found on or under the surface of the ground, or on woody or
herbaceous plants. They generally hibernate under the soil-
covering^ or inside the bark of trees. As a rule, all insects
live near the material on which they feed, but many wander
far, sometimes against their will, as when they are blown into
the sea by storms of wind. They generally endeavour to return
to their former abode, as in the case of bees and ants.

Examples of insects that have been imported to Europe

* " Centralblatt fur das Ges. Forstwesen," 1888, p. 156.

LIFE-HISTORY. 157

are : The longicorn beetle, Gracilia pygmaea, Fabr., which came
to Germany in the hoops of casks made of willows or oak.
Species of Lyctus were imported in Australian wood. The
destructive Colorado beetle (Doryphora decemlineata) came
from America with a cargo of potatoes. The phylloxera
(P. vastatrix, Planch) on American vines.

3. Mobility.

The mode and degree of rapidity with which insects move
may be usually inferred from the structure of their organs of
locomotion.' Some insects have legs for running, as ground-
beetles; for jumping, as fleas; for digging, as crickets; for
swimming, as water-beetles.

The images run or fly ; their course being rapid (Carabus),
or slow (Cerambyx) ; their flight is either fast (Bouibus), slow
(Melolontha), irresolute (Papilio), or hovering (Syrphus) ; ex-
tended (Sphynx pinastri, L.), or short (Gryllus). The flight
of the ? * is heavier than that of the $ , especially when she
is laden with eggs.

The mobility of the larvae depends largely on the number of
their legs (6, 8, 10, 16, 18, 22), all but six of which are soft
and fleshy prolegs. Many lepidopterous caterpillars assist
their movements by spinning threads, such as those of many
Bombyces, Geometers and Tortrices (e.g. Tortrix viridana, L.)

4. Food.

Metabolic insects feed only as larvae and images, and chiefly
in the former state. Thus, the food of butterflies and moths
is limited to the nectar of flowers. Some beetles, however,
are destructive as imagos only (Hylobins abietis, L., etc.).
Ametabolic insects also feed in the pupal stage. The appetite
of larvae in both groups is enormous, and there are larvae
which eat daily more than their own weight of food.

Insects may be termed carnivorous or phytophagous, according
as their diet is animal or vegetable. Most insects useful to
the forester belong to the former category, whilst plant-feeders
are all more or less injurious.

* The symbol ? denotes the female, s the male, and ^ the worker, or
imperfect female.

158 PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

In accordance with their choice of nutriment, insects may
be classed as mono-, poly- or pantophagous. Monophagous
insects only attack certain plants or at most a group of plants,
such as broadleaved, or coniferous trees. Polyphagous insects
attack trees of both kinds, whilst pantophagous attack herbage
as well, and are least numerous of all.*

Observations are not yet complete regarding the monophagy,
or polyphagy of certain insects. The hitherto accepted
monophagy of some insects has often been upset. Tom i en ft
typographic, L., and T. amitinus, Eichh., formerly considered
exclusive to spruce, have also been found on Scots pine and
larch. Myelophilus piniperda, L., has been found on spruce,
as well as on Scots pine. In this respect, the observation of
beetles is more difficult than of Lepidoptera, that live in the
open.

Even amongst carnivorous insects, monophagous and poly-
phagous species are to be found. Many parasitic insects, for
instance, attack only a single species of moth, and in one stage
only of its growth, in the egg, larval, or pupal state.

Conifers suffer much more than broadleaved species from
insect-attacks. They afford nourishment to a greater number
of injurious kinds, and do not recover from damage so readily,
as they cannot replace injured members so easily as broad-
leaved trees. The Scots pine and the spruce are attacked by
the greatest number of species of insects, and pure woods of
these trees suffer most severely. Amongst broadleaved trees,
oak, beech, poplars and willows suffer most, the birch and
alder less, and less still hornbeam, maple, ash. Least of all
robinia, mulberry, walnut, plane, sweet- and horse-chestnut.

Suppressed, weakly, and injured or diseased trees generally
suffer more from insects than healthy trees ; at any rate this
holds good for mature trees with thick bark. Hence injurious
insects increase and become more dangerous when trees have
suffered from various climatic or physiological injuries, or
those caused by abrasions, bad pruning, etc.

Species of insects which live on dying, dead or rotten wood

* This definition is that of Hess. As a rule, entomologists would hardly
call a species that feeds indifferently on Picea, /'/////*. and Larix monophagous,
but would reserve the term for those insects whose diet is limited to a single
species or genus.

NUMBER. 159

are of no importance to the forester ; such are the stag-beetle
(Lucanus cervus, L.), and many species of Anobiidae and
Cerambycidae.

Many insects confine their attacks to fully-grown or old
trees ; others attack only young plants (Plylobius abietis, L.) ;
others attack trees of all ages (Myelophilus piniperda, L.).

The attack may be on the roots (Gryllotalpa vulgaris,.~L.,
Melolontha vulgaris, Fabr., in the larval state) ; on the bark
(most species of Tomicus and Hylesinus) ; on the wood
itself (Trypodendron lineatum, Gyll., species of Sir ex and
Cerambyx) ; on the leaves or needles (Clirysomela and
most lepidopterous larvae) ; on buds (Curculionidae, Tortrix
buoliana, Schiff.) ; on the blossom (Anthonomuspomorum^.} ; on
fruits (Balaninus mtcttw, L., Carpocapsa pomonella, L., Tortrix
strobillcla, L.) ; on the pith (Myelophilus piniperda, L.).

Many insects by biting and sucking produce malformations
termed galls on leaves, shoots, fruits, etc. (Cynips, Aphis,
Cecidomyia, Chermes and Coccidae, etc.) ; such damage is easily
discernible, but is of subordinate importance.

Damage by insects reduces the production of good seed by
the trees attacked. Dr. A. Hosaeus investigated the seed of
Scots pine from trees attacked by and free from leaf-larvae,
obtaining 1 and 45 per cent, of good seed respectively.

SECTION IV. — NUMBER.

The number of individuals of a particular insect that may
coexist is in many species limited, but in others may attain
vast proportions, especially under favourable circumstances.
Thus in 1884,* 200 square miles of sal forest (Slwrea robusta)
in Assam, north of the Bramaputra river, were ravaged by
the caterpillars of Dasychira Thwaitesi, the trees exhibiting
complete or partial defoliation. The appearance of certain
insects shows a periodicity, corresponding to the eleven years'
weather periods.

Fortunately, the most prolific of insects, plant-lice, are not
the most destructive to forests ; these creatures, according to
Reaumur, may produce 5,000 millions from one female in the

* " Indian Forester," vol. xx., p. 256.

160 PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS

course of five generations, and in one summer ten such
generations may occur. The average number of eggs of the
commoner injurious insects varies between 100 and 200
(Katzeburg). Warm, dry weather and plenty of food, and
breeding-places, such as diseased wood, or branches broken
by snow, are very favourable to prolific multiplication. Under
such circumstances, insects that are generally of limited
numbers may appear locally in destructive swarms. Besides
the case of bark-beetles, such an abnormal increase is frequently
met with in the case of the grey-tussock moth (Dasycliira
pudilmnda, L.), allied to that species which ravages the Indian
sal forests.

One favourable season is not usually sufficient to produce
an insect-calamity, but two or more successive favourable
springs and summers.

Most insects are solitary, but many, such as bees, ants,
certain kinds of wasps, and termites, are social and have a
wonderful organisation, framed on the principle of subdivision
of labour. The larvae of some moths are also gregarious.

SECTION V. — USEFUL FOREST INSECTS.

Carnivorous insects attack other species in various ways, and
have been subdivided by Eatzeburg as follows : —

Predatory insects follow and kill other insects in every stage.
Ground- and tiger-beetles belong to this group.

Predaceous parasitic insects, like the former class, seize other
insects, but carry them to their nests, where their own larvae
feed on them. Such are the fossorial wasps (Sphegidae or
Crabronidae) ; they first stin^ their prey, but without killing
them, and thus render them inert.

Finally, parasitic insects wound the larvae, pupae, or even the
eggs of other insects with their fine ovipositors to lay eggs in
them. The larvae hatching from these eggs feed on the juices
of their hosts. Ichneumon-wasps and some flies (Tachinae)
are examples of this group.

A classification of these insects according to their utility is
scarcely possible ; of predatory insects, the largest are generally
the most useful, especially species of Carabus and Calosoma.

DAMAGE DONE BY INSECTS. 161

Ichneumon-wasps and parasitic flies increase in numbers in
proportion to the abundance of their hosts, which bring about
an insect-calamity ; they thus assist in suppressing it, whilst
other animals, incapable of rapid multiplication, can only keep
down the numbers of injurious insects in ordinary times.

SECTION VI. — INJURIOUS FOREST INSECTS.
1. Damage done.

The grouping of insects that are injurious to forests may
follow either the degree of damage done, or the kind of damage,
or nature of the attack.

a. Degree of Damage.

In accordance with the amount of damage they do, we may
distinguish forest insects as highly injurious, decidedly, or
slightly injurious. The degree of resistance of the species of
tree, the part of the tree attacked, and the severity of the
attack, as well as the abundance and voracity of the insect in
question, decide the degree of injuriousness for any case. It
is, however, impossible to assign any strict limits to the several
groups.

An insect is considered highly injurious when by the nature
and duration of its attacks, masses of plants or whole woods,
otherwise healthy, may be killed over more or less extensive
areas.

To this category belong, e.g., Melolontha vulgaris, Fabr.,
Hylobim abietis, Fabr., Tomicus typographic, L., Gasteropacha
pini, L. The two former insects frequently destroy extensive
areas of young plants, and the two latter large areas of forest
trees.

Decidedly injurious insects destroy certain organs only of trees,
such as the leaves, inflorescence or fruits, shoots, or stems, or
they weaken and eventually kill plants here and there in the
woods. Most injurious insects belong to this group.

Slightly injurious insects hardly deserve notice from a forest
point of view, as they only cause trifling damage ; they either
attack dead stems or tree-parts without impairing their com-
mercial value, or the damage done by them to leaves, shoots,

F.P. M

162 PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

etc., has no subsequent fatal effect on the plants. Such are
tortrices and leaf-miners, and many gall-insects.

In a time of exceptional multiplication, a slightly injurious
insect may become decidedly injurious, or a decidedly injurious
insect, highly injurious. A single species of insect may also
be injurious in a different degree to different species of trees :
it may prefer one to another, or one tree may recover more
easily than another from its attacks. Liparis monacha, L., <'.//.,
is far more injurious to conifers than to broadleaved trees,
and to the spruce than to the Scots pine.

b. Kind of Damage.

Insects may be classed according to the kind of damage they
do, as commercially or physiologically injurious. The former
class renders useless, or greatly reduces the commercial value of
the part of the tree they attack, as when wood has been bored
by Sirex, Cerambyx, Anobium, or Lyctus.

Physiological injury on the contrary is that which interferes
with the vitality of plants, checking the growth, or even killing
them outright, as when the cambium of a tree is eaten by
Tomicus typograpJius, L., or the needles by Gasteropacha pini,
L., or by Liparis monacha, L.

Insects coming under the second category are therefore more
hurtful than those which merely destroy wood, although the
burrows of the latter are sufficiently conspicuous. Moreover,
most wood-borers live in dead wood. It is, however, possible
to pay too little attention to commercially injurious insects.

The degree of physiological injury depends on the species
of insect, its mode of attack, numbers, and also on the species,
degree of healthiness and age of the tree, the season of attack,
and on other local circumstances. Mention has been already
made of the greater susceptibility of conifers ; the spruce
suffering most of all, then the Scots pine, silver-fir and larch,
the latter bridging the way towards broadleaved trees. Young
trees, especially one to three years old plants, suffer more than
old ones; and injury in the spring is more harmful than that
done in summer or autumn. Cambium eaters do more damage
than wood-eaters; leaf-eaters more than flower or fruit-eaters.

The healthier and stronger the attacked plant, the better it

DAMAGE DONE BY INSECTS.

163

resists insects. On poor sandy soil, and in unfavourable
situations, frost-holes, etc., the damage done is greater than
to plants in good localities, as the repairing force of Nature is
then greatest.

c. Character of the Attack.

The attack may be either primary or secondary in character.
In the former case,
healthy trees are
injured by insects
attacking the leaves,
buds, or seeds ; by
many shoot-borers,
root-gnawers, and
insects which attack
young plants or sap-
lings. The attack
of other insects is
only secondary, that
is, it is made ex-
clusively, or by pre-
ference, on plants
already weakened by
other causes (wild
animals, fungi,
drought, frost, etc.).
This is specially
true of bark and
wood insects, which
abound in old coni-
ferous trees. The
rich flow of tur-
pentine from sound
trees would kill the
young larvae. Cer-
tain species, such as

the bark-beetles of broadleaved trees, according to circum-
stances, may make at one time primary and at another
secondary attacks.

This distinction is of practical importance, as nothing can

1/1

Fig. 61. — Galleries made by Tenthredo cingulata, Fabr.
a Common bore-hole. b Larval passages.

164- PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

be done in cases of primary attack except to remove the parts
of the trees which have already been attacked, together with
the insects concerned ; species which make secondary attacks
can alone be caught by tree-traps.

Species of insects which occur in forests, but confine their
ravages to grasses and herbage, are of no economic importance,
unless these products are of exceptional value.

Finally species in themselves harmless, but which may be
mistaken for highly injurious insects, are termed by Eatzeburg
deceptive insects, e.g., Lithosia quadra, L., the larvae of which
appear on all conifers, as well as on oak, beech, etc., in con-
siderable numbers. It is quite harmless, feeding only on
lichens. It greatly resembles Liparis monacha, L., for which
it is often mistaken. Tenthredo cingulata, Fabr. ; the larvae
feeding on bracken, which they often completely devour,
occupy galleries of bark-beetles under the bark of pines and
make galleries of their own in pine bark, without injuring the
trees in any way (Fig. 61). The forester must -therefore
learn to distinguish harmless species from other injurious
kinds which they may resemble.

2. Preventive Rules,
a. Sylvmdtural.

Since the majority of injurious foreign insects, especially
bark-beetles, prefer to attack sickly, stunted or weakly forest-
plants, and may spread from these to their healthy neighbours,
the safest method for preventing insect attacks is to follow the
rules which experience has laid down in sylviculture and forest
utilisation for the formation, tending and harvesting of woods.
In general, the following rules should be observed : —

(i) Choices of suitable species of trees and proper systems of
regeneration. The species must be appropriate to the locality,
and the system must correspond to the nature of the species
grown. It is specially important to select strong healthy
plants for plantations, and to plant most carefully.

(ii) Avoidance of extensive pure woods, especially in
coniferous forest. It is better to grow mixed woods, and to
mix broad leaved species with conifers.

PREVENTIVE RULES. 165

Even on sandy soils, where Scots pine naturally thrives,
a mixture of Weymouth pine should be introduced, and a
few birch, aspen and robinia. If the pines should be killed
outright by insects, the wood will not become absolutely
bare.

(iii) Careful and frequent examination of the woods for
injurious insects. This precaution is most important in coni-
ferous woods on poor, dry soil, in warm localities and
especially during the spring.

It is most important to keep a careful watch round places
where swarms of insects exist, and from which damage gene-
rally extends in all directions. The subordinate Forest Staff
must be instructed to recognise and attend to the signs of an
impending attack of this kind. Such signs are: unusual num-
bers of woodpeckers or cuckoos in a compartment; bitten-off
leaves or needles lying on the ground ; spun threads hanging
from the twigs ; withering of foliage : excrement, or boring
refuse, or bore-holes in the stems ; exudation of resin ; dis-
coloration or peeling off of bark ; and appearance of numbers
of ichneumon-wasps or flies, etc.

(iv) Early and frequent thinnings, without interruption of
the leaf canopy, are desirable. Such thinnings should remove
all forest growth in a suppressed, sickly, or even suspicious
condition. A forester who merely removes dead wood does
nothing to prevent insect attacks, for in it only unimportant
species breed. Dying stems are the favourite resort of
bark-beetles.

(v) Every attention should be paid to the rules for main-
taining and improving the quality of the soil. This is best
accomplished by careful preservation of the soil-covering, by
draining away any superfluity of moisture, and by timely
under-planting woods of light-demanding trees, such as
oak, larch or Scots pine, with shadebearing ones, beech,
silver-fir, etc.

(vi) Suitable preventive measures must be taken against
damage by wind, frost, snow, ice, fire or insects. Broken wood
must be worked up and removed from the forest as soon as
possible, or at least barked.

(vii) In the clear-cutting system, avoid large felling areas, so

166 PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

that there may not be extensive tracts of even-aged woods.
Several cutting-series should be established, by the use of
severance fellings, if necessary. This gives a choice of the felling-
area for any particular year, and contiguous compartments
are not cut in successive years. Fellings should be arranged
against the prevailing winds, in order to avoid extensive
windfalls and the consequent danger from bark-beetles.

(viii) Stools of felled trees should be extracted or carefully
earthed over, especially in coniferous forests, as many highly
injurious species of insects (IlyloUus alietis, and several
species of Hylastcs) lay their eggs in stumps and roots.

(ix) Summer-felling in coniferous forests, together with
careful removal of the bark. Wherever winter-felling is advis-
able for other reasons, some of the stems should be left lying
as traps and barked in May, after the bark-beetles have laid
their eggs in them. Wood felled during winter is now usually
partially barked in strips, if it cannot be removed before the
breeding season of the bark-beetles. If, however, these beetles
do not find wood with the bark on lying in the forest they will
lay their eggs in the bark of standing trees, while the cost of
partial barking is considerable, and it is easier to destroy the
larvae in fallen timber than in standing trees.

(x) The forests must be kept clean, the fellings rapidly and
thoroughly cleared, and material from thinnings carted away
without unnecessary delay.

Further preventive measures against many species of insects
are : turning-in swine for " pannage," the employment of
caterpillar-trenches, wood-traps, grease rings, etc. As, how-
ever, these measures are remedial, as well as preventive, they
will be discussed further on.

(xi) Ke wards should be offered to the Protective Staff for
discovering injurious insects and for special zeal shown in
carrying out the rules for destroying them.

1). Protection of Insectivorous Animals.

Only those animals should be protected which do more
good by the destruction of insects than harm in other
ways.

INSECT-EATING BIRDS. 167

The following are the principal insectivorous vertebrates : —

Mammals.

All bats,* especially Vesperugo noctula, Shreb., F. discolor,
Natt., F. pipistrdlus, Schreb. The mole, shrews, especially
Sorex vulgaris, L., the hedgehog, pole-cat, stoat, weasel and
badger. These beasts, some of which have been already
referred to as mice-destroyers, should be unconditionally
protected.

The fox also devours numerous insects, particularly large
beetles, and the wild pig is very useful in the case of insect-
attacks.

Birds.

The following birds deserve unconditional protection : —
The common cuckoo (Cuculm canorus, L.) ; woodpeckers,
the wryneck (Jynx torquilla, L.) ; the night-jar (Caprimulgus
curopacus, L.) ; the swift (Cypselus apus, L.) ; the tree-creeper
(Certhia familiaris, L.) ; the nut-hatch (Sitta caesia, Wolf) ;
all swallows (Hirundo, L.) ; wagtails (Motacilla, L.) ; pipits
(Anthits, Bechst.) ; hedge-sparrow (Accentor, Bechst.) ; gold-
crest (Ecgulus cristatus, Koch) : wren (Troglodytes parculus,
Koch) ; redstart (R. phoenicurus, L.) ; stonechat (Saxicola
ruUcola, L.) ; wheatear (S. oenanthe, L.) ; flycatcher (Muscicapa,
L.) ; titmice (Parus, L.) ; starling (Sturnus vulgaris, L.).

The various species of wagtail eat insects and also small
snails, Limnaea sp., which are the hosts of the liver-fluke (Distoma
hepaticnm} that is so destructive to sheep. The goldcrest hunts
throughout the year for the eggs, larvae and pupae of insects
and for scale-insects on coniferous trees. So do titmice, espe-
cially the coal-tit (Parus major, L.), P. atcr, L., P. caerulius, L.,
P. caudatus, L., and P. cristatus, L. The starling is especially
useful in clearing off cockchafer grubs from meadows. They
have been seen, at Coopers Hill, to pick them out of the
nursery, from the side of Scots pine plants which showed no
signs of attack. The bird walks along the line and hears the
larvae working below. It also destroys wire- worms and surface
caterpillars.

* Except the fruit-bats, called in India ftying-foxes.

168 PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

Among Raptores, all owls except the eagle-owl (Bubo ignavus,
Foster). Gulls; the black-headed gull (Larus ribibundus, L.).
This latter frequently follows the plough, and destroys cock-
chafer grubs and wire-worms. The cuckoo is exceptional
among the above birds for its power of eating hairy caterpillars,
which other birds reject. Altum found the remains of 97 young
Cnetlwcampa larvae inside a cuckoo.

Of owls, the long-eared owl (Asia otus, L.) and the tawny
owl (Syrnium aluco, Boie) are the most useful against insects.

The following birds merit conditional protection : —

Passeres : finches (Fringillidae) ; larks (Alaudidae) ; thrushes
(Turdidae) ; the jackdaw (Conns monedida, L.) ; the common
and hooded crows (C. corone, Lath., and C. comix, L.) ; the
rook (C.frugilegus, L.).

The above-mentioned passerine birds do damage in various
ways, chiefly as grain-eaters, but are also useful in destroying
insects. Where the damage predominates, "they must be kept
down. Thrushes and blackbirds hunt in the forest for insect
larvae and pupae, and distribute the seeds of useful shrubs and
trees.

Raptores : the honey-buzzard (Pernis apivorus, Gray) ;
common buzzard (Buteo vulgaris, Leach) ; the kestrel (Falco
tinnunculus, L.) hunts crickets and cockchafers, it does no
harm to game.

Limicolae ; woodcock (Scolopax rnsticola, L.) ; snipe (Gal-
linago) ; golden plover (Charadrius pluvialis, L.) ; lapwing
(Vanellus vulgaris, Bechst,).

The lapwing destroys large numbers of wire-worms and
beetles, aphidae, and the larvae of numerous insects feeding on
crops. Unfortunately the search for their eggs is very
persistent.

The following birds do indirect damage, by killing useful
birds or eating their eggs :—

Passeres : shrikes (Lanius, L.) ; jay (Garrulus glandarius,
L.) ; magpie ( Pica rustica, Scop.) ; raven (Con-its corax, L.).

liaptores : All species except those already mentioned.

It should be noted that shrikes kill mice and insects as well
as small birds.

The mere protection of birds useful to forests is not sufficient ;

INSECT-EATING BIRDS.

169

means for promoting their multiplication should also be under-
taken. The following points should be attended to : —

(i) Preservation of a few hollow trees in forests, as such trees
harbour useful birds and bats.

(ii) The provision of boxes or vessels for nest-building on
trees. These may be made of earthenware, of wood, of plaited
straw, or tarred basket-work. Even dried hollow bottle-gourds
may be used for titmice. The earthenware vessels should be
of the shape given in the figure, and have a wooden base, and
before hanging up should be tarred and covered with moss.

Figs. 62 and 63. — Earthenware nesting-pots.

a. Nail-hole for attachment to the tree, b, Hole for insertion of a wooden peg
to assist the bird in entering, c, Flight-hole, d, Holes for the passage of a wire,
to attach the bottom of the pot to a piece of wood.

The wooden nesting-boxes invented by Gloger * in 1853 are
made out of half-inch boards, and tarred. There are- six
kinds, including those shown in the figures, and suitable for
starlings, flycatchers, and titmice. Some are used for the birds
to sleep in as well as for nests. The horizontal partition
shown in the figures excludes cats, pole-cats, and other enemies,
and also keeps the nest warm. It is essential to keep to the
dimensions indicated by the reduced figures, or the nesting-box
will be used by other species, for which it was not intended.

* "Nist-und Schlafkasteii fur Vogel." Allg. Font u. Jagd. Zeitung, 1864,
p. 120. Prices are there given for the nesting-boxes.

170

PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

Outside. Inside.

Figs. 64 and 6,>. — Nesting-box for Starlings, Wagtails. Wrynecks.

Fig. 66. — Nesting-box for the Flycatcher.

Fig. 67. — Inner view of a box with
several compartments for a number
of Titmice or similar birds.

\ I:VITM;-|!OXI s or WOOD.
Thejiyurcis reduced to ^ of the natural size.

INSECT-EATING BIRDS.

171

The following rules apply to the manner of hanging-up the
nest-boxes : —

The boxes should be hung facing towards the east or south
only : never towards the west.

As starlings are sociable birds, several boxes for them
may be hung at a height of 20 to 25 feet on the same
tree, but for other species only one box should be hung on
a tree.

Boxes for titmice should be hung 10 to 16 feet high in a
dark place, best of all in coniferous
forest, on silver-fir or spruce trees.

Boxes for redstarts and flycatchers,
on the contrary, should be hung 10
to 16 feet high under light groups of
trees, and on the borders of thin
places and clearings.

(iii) Shrubs should be planted in
sheltered places, along a brook, or
by a spring, as water is a necessity
for birds, also on rocks, steep places,
etc. Suitable bushes are privet,
honeysuckle, viburnum, elder, white
thorn and wild roses ; as an over-
growth," pollard- willows and moun-
tain-ash. Undergrowth should also

be carefully preserved in high forest, unless it must be cut
for sylvicultural reasons.

(iv) The birds should be fed when deep snow is on the
ground. Bread or boiled pulse should not be given, as these
substances become acid and unwholesome after wetting. For
insectivorous birds pieces of suet or chopped meat are suitable.
Thorns should be placed over the food, so that crows, doves,
and sparrow-hawks may be kept off. The following places are
most suitable as feeding grounds : — high ground for titmice,
tree-creepers, woodpeckers and finches ; roads for yellow-
ammers and hedge and tree-sparrows ; fields and gardens for
robins, linnets, finches, and migratory birds from the north ;
for fieldfares, thrushes and blackbirds, the food should be
placed under a shady conifer at the edge of the forest ; the places

Fig. 68. — Nesting-box for the
Starling, of tarred straw.

172 PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

which goldcrests and wrens frequent should be ascertained, and
the birds fed there.

(v) Forest-litter should not be removed from March till
July, as many useful birds nidify on the ground, or close to
it, and would be disturbed.

(vi) Birdsnesting and the trapping or killing of useful birds
should not be allowed.

In continental forests, enormous numbers of thrushes, field-
fares and similar birds are caught every year in the autumn
and winter by means of horse-hair nooses attached to the
trees. Wherever such bird-catching is allowed, the open
season should be limited to the period between the 1st of
October and the 1st of February.

Legal enactments to protect useful birds are necessarily
made by the State, and should be properly enforced.

A convention, dated 19th March, 1902, has been made for
the protection of useful birds between all the principal
countries in Europe, except the United Kingdom, Holland,
Belgium, Bussia, and Norway. The Wild Birds Protection
Act became law for the United Kingdom in 1880. It has
since been slightly amended in 1881, 1894, 1896, and in 1902.
As the destruction of vermin in country districts, the curtail-
ment of the area of cultivation, and the protection afforded by
the Act to wild birds have upset the balance of Nature — bull-
finches, starlings, blackbirds, thrushes, and sparrows do much
harm, especially in orchards. Except, however, for a scheduled
list of rare birds, that no one may kill during a close time,
owners and occupiers of land and persons authorised by them
may kill other birds during the close time.

Reptiles and Amphibia.

Toads, frogs, and lizards are very useful as insect and slug
destroyers, especially in gardens and forest nurseries, but
they are not nearly so numerous as useful birds and mammals.
Snakes and slow-worms are also useful, but the poisonous
adder (Pclias berus, L.) will naturally not be protected.
Adders are found all over Europe, in brushwood and on
sunny slopes among stones. They feed chiefly on mice
and moles.

SPIDERS. 173

Insects.

A detailed account of the chief useful insects follows in
Chapter V. Their number, especially that of ground-beetles,
ichneumon-wasps and Tachinae, increases steadily with that
of the destructive insects ; this fact is all the more important
as the activity of mammals and birds altogether fails to
combat such calamities successfully.

Spiders.

Spiders (Arachnoidea) include two distinct families of insect-
destroyers, Araneinae and Phalangiinae, both of which are
great destroyers of insects. The common garden-spider
(Epeira diadema, Cl.) and Steatoda sisypliia, Cl., may be taken
as examples of the former class, and the common harvest-man
(Plialangiwn parietinum, de Geer) of the other. The first
catches many small beetles and other insects in its large
vertical nets expanded in the underwood of forests, the second
species destroys large numbers of "Lopliyrus pini, L., as well
as other insects. The harvest-men become very active in the
evening, moving about rapidly with their long stilt-like legs,
and preying on small insects, plant-lice, etc.

The web-making spiders may do some slight injury to
plants by their webs, which interfere with the full development
of blossoms and foliage.

Myriapoda.

Centipedes, of which Lithobiusforjicatus, L., is an example,
and millipedes, for instance, lulus terrestris, L., live under
bark, stones, and moss, and kill numbers of insects, also slugs
and snails. Species of lulus also attack fleshy roots in gardens
and fields, as well as wheat, and fruit such as strawberries ;
they also appear to cut off seedlings at the collar in a manner
similar to wireworms.

3. Remedial Measures.

In considering the measures to be taken in attacking insects,
we must select the proper season, and adopt means which do

174

PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

not entail a greater expenditure of time, trouble, and money
than the results will justify.

In general, the following rules may be adopted :—
(a) Collection and destruction oj eggs, larvae, pupae or perfect
insects. This is unfortunately impracticable for most injurious
species, or is too protracted a method, except in the case of
perfect insects. A knowledge of the life-history of any
particular insect will inform the forester of the stage in which
it is best attacked, but for practical reasons a season should

Figs. 69 and 70.— -Caterpillar shears (reduced}.

Front. Back.

a. Cord. I. Spring, c. Moveable blade.

be chosen for their destruction, when the requisite labour-
force is available.

Collections of insect-eggs can be made only when they are
laid in clusters, as those of mole-crickets, the lackey-moth,
and the black-arches moth. The simplest method of destroying
the latter is to crush them on the tree.

The larvae of Lepidoptera and sawflies may be collected by
shaking the attacked poles or saplings, or by beating with
a mallet or the butt- end of an axe at the base of the branches
of trees, so that the larvae fall on to a cloth spread on the
ground. Care must be taken to protect the hands of collectors
by gloves against hairy caterpillars, which, when handled,
cause inflammation. When in groups on the trees, larvae

REMEDIAL MEASURES. 175

may be crushed, and branches bearing the spun web-like
nests of certain gregarious kinds may be cut-off with pruning-
shears (Figs. 69, 70), or they may be burned on the trees by
holding torches under them. Larvae fall most readily from
trees in the early morning and evening or during moist, cool
weather. The larvae of but a few species of beetles can
be profitably collected, for instance, cockchafer grubs. In
Massachusetts, during the great plague of the gypsey moth,
1897, Liparis dispar, L., matting, termed burlap -bands, was
put round the trees and the larvae pupate under these, or
rest under them in the day-time and may thus be destroyed.

The collection of pupae is best effected when they lie in
clusters in the moss and dead leaves of the soil-covering, such
as the pupae of Noctua piniperda, Panz., or hang low down the
stems in bark cracks, or on undergrowth.

Perfect insects may be collected by simply picking them by
hand from the ground, by shaking them, like larvae, from the
plants on which they settle, or by means of traps made of
strips of bark, laid on the ground flat or rolled-up, into which
the insects crawl ; this is a common method of catching great
numbers of the pine-weevil (Hylobius abietis, Fabr.). The
bark should be fresh and laid with the underside downwards.
Other materials used as traps are faggots, logs, and brush-
wood. Cockchafers and pine- weevils are the injurious insects
chiefly captured in this stage.

In collecting the images of insects, it is necessary to capture
the female alone, and that before she has laid her eggs. This
can only be done practically in the case of those Lepidoptera,
in which the 2 can be readily distinguished by her size and
by the nature of her antennae from the <? .

Larvae, pupae, and imagos may be killed by pounding them
in trenches, or by pouring boiling water over them, or by
quicklime, etc.

(b) Preparation oj Insect Trenches. These are useful on
any but very sandy soil against larvae which wander on the
ground, e.g., those of the pine-moth, also against certain
beetles, for instance, the pine-weevil, Hylobius abietis, L.
They should be made 10 inches broad, and 12 to 14 inches
deep, with vertical walls, and with holes 8 to 10 inches deep

176 PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

every 10 yards along their floor. They cost IJd. to 2d. a
meter, or about 12s. per acre enclosed. The trenches must be
inspected every morning, and the insects which have been
caught should be killed.

(c) Greased barriers. A line of barked poles, covered with
grease, is made, so as to exclude affected woods from sur-
'rounding hitherto immune woodlands,- or to enclose small
areas of unaffected woods. This method is applicable only
for larvae that come down to the ground.

(d) Swine may be driven into woods which are attacked, and
they kill numbers of larvae and pupae which are in the soil-
covering. The swine must be given other food and driven
daily to water. As a rule, they eat only hairless larvae (Noctua
piniperda, Panz., Geomctra p iniaria, L.).

(e) Pulling-up plants and burning shoots which have been
attacked ; or buds attacked may be pruned off. Infested
branches should be cut off.

Stems full of insects, or their eggs, etc., may be cut down
and barked, and the bark burned or exposed to the sun. This
should be done before the perfect insects emerge, usually in
May and June. Great care must be taken as to the proper
season for barking such trees, which form so many tree traps.
If it be done too soon, before the bark-beetles have finished
breeding, there is danger of other standing trees being attacked,
and if it be done too late, after the perfect insects have forced
their way out and flown away, then the very institution of
tree-traps will have multiplied instead of diminishing the
numbers of the insects. It is therefore better to bark the
traps before the larvae have pupated, and to be informed when
this happens, infected trees should be observed, about every
14 days, in order that the development of the larvae may be
known and the right moment chosen for destroying them.

(f) Preparation of tree-traps. Trees may be specially girdled
to serve as traps before the eggs are laid. For such purposes
stunted or sickly trees should be selected as for thinning
purposes. After the insects have visited them they should be
treated like trees attacked in the natural course.

(g) Grease bands made of various substances such as tar,
glue, and grease, may be painted on trees, about chest high,

REMEDIAL MEASURES. 177

in order to stop larvae on their way to the crowns of the trees,
and starve them to death. They are .used chiefly against the
larvae of the pine-moth. High bands, 6 — 8 metres high, are
also made against young larvae that have just hatched out of
the nun-moth.

(h) Clearance of infested areas. The whole wood may be
cleared and the soil thoroughly cultivated after burning all the
branches, etc., which are infested with larvae. This, of course,
is a last resort. The thorough cultivation of the soil is
necessary only when it is full of hibernating larvae or pupae,
Lophyrus rufus, Ratz., etc.

(i) Spraying. Trees and plants in orchards or in forest
nurseries may be sprayed with certain substances to keep off
insects, such as lime-water, whitewash, potassium sulphide-
solution, decoction of tobacco, etc. A good recipe appears
to be 1 Ib. of pure unslaken lime, mixed with about 70 gallons
of water. The lime is slaked and then mixed with the
water and stirred up to form a milky fluid, which is allowed
to stand till the lime is deposited ; the water is then used on
the trees. The lime can be used again for five or six times
the quantity of water. The application is useful as long as the
insects are still in the larval or pupal stage.

The sulphur solution is made by dissolving one part of
potassium sulphide in 500 parts of water, and the foliage is
sprayed with this solution. This drives all the caterpillars at
once from the tree, and sprinkled leaves escape further
damage ; five men in two days, with 38 Ibs. of potassium sulphide,
and the necessary water, can sprinkle 250 trees, at a total cost
of 50 shillings, or five trees for 1 shilling.

The most valuable mixtures for tree-spraying are arsenical
washes or kerosene-emulsion. The former are made by stir-
ring about 1 Ib. of Paris-green or London-purple into 200
gallons of water, with the addition of a little flour or dextrin,
and keeping it constantly stirred during the operation of
spraying. As this mixture is poisonous, it cannot be used
where there is risk of injury to game. If it scorches the
foliage it must be further diluted.

Kerosene-emulsion is made by emulsifying 1 gallon of
kerosene oil with half a gallon of boiling water in which a

F.P. N

178 PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

pound of soft soap has been dissolved. It should be con-
stantly churned, for ten or more minutes, and is diluted for
use by gradually stirring in 11 or more gallons of water. It
is especially suitable for suctorial insects, whereas arsenical
preparations chiefly serve for biting insects.

(k) Concluding Remarks. — A fuller account of all these
methods will be given further on, under the heading of each
species. Nature itself can relieve the forest best from insect
attacks, for ichneumon-wasps, fungoid diseases, and damp,
cold weather kill off myriads of insects and eventually put an
end to any abnormal swarms of a destructive species which
may occur.

As a rule, such a swarm lasts three years, but there may be
a partial swarm one year before and after this period.

In Prussia and Saxony, very large sums of money have been
spent on the destruction of forest insects ; in Prussia according
to the following table : —

1870-73 . ... . . £41,740

1876-80 .... £98,738

1884-87 . . . . £28,200

This shows a large diminution since 1880, from which it
may be inferred that insects are diminishing in the Prussian
forests.

In Saxony during the years 1876-77, £55,852 were spent in
the destruction of pine-weevils and bark-beetles.

4. Treatment of Injured Woods.

Woods injured by insects should be felled only when there
are signs that they have been fatally injured. Such signs are :
drying-up or wilting of buds, shoots or twigs over the greater
part of the crowns of the trees ; development of small leaves
or needles, the latter frequently in rosettes; exudation of
watery turpentine from the bark ; loosening and subsequent
separation of the bark ; appearance of brown or bluish spots
on the bast or sapwood ; abundance of insects such as species
of Cerambyx, Sir ex, and AnoUum, which live only on dead or
dying wood. In deciding on the importance of such signs, we
must consider the special circumstances of each case, the

REMEDIAL MEASURES. 179

insect, the species of tree attacked, its age, the locality, etc.
Beetles kill trees sooner than caterpillars. Coniferous wood
is more easily killed than broad-leaved trees, and whole
spruce and pine woods are readily destroyed when badly
attacked ; silver-fir and larch make a better resistance. Broad-
leaved trees are not killed if every leaf on them is eaten, pro-
vided the buds are uninjured. Birch, elm, and ash die more
readily than oak and beech. Young trees succumb more
quickly to beetle attacks than older trees. On a good soil a
recovery is more hopeful than on a poor one ; clearance of the
wood should be less readily undertaken in the former case.
The best time for clearing is in the winter after the attack.
The large trees should first be felled, barked, and removed
as soon as possible from the forest. Fire-wood billets should
be got ready as soon as possible, and at least the larger pieces
barked.

Before stacking, the split wood must be thoroughly dried,
the stacks must be raised from the ground on transverse
pieces, and placed apart in well-ventilated places. The
removal of all split wood must be expedited.

Young plantations which have been attacked and killed must
be replanted. Injured poles require the greatest care ; if they
are so young that transplants can be brought in, this should
be done, if necessary, after widening the blanks. Shade-
bearers, such as the beech, hornbeam, silver-fir, or^spruce, are
very suitable for planting in such cases, or else larch,
sycamore, or Douglas fir, on account of their rapidity of growth.
If, however, the poles are too tall, and still too dense to
be underplanted, either a clearing must be made of the
whole crop, and the area restocked by sowing or planting,
or the wood should be heavily thinned and underplanted
with a shade-bearer.

N 2

180

CHAPTER V.

INSECTS USEFUL TO FOBESTS.

IT is most essential that in combating the attacks of
injurious forest insects the forester should be able to distinguish
insect friends from foes, and unimportant species from
hurtful ones.

The following is therefore a short account of the most
useful families of insects, which are found chiefly in the
orders of Coleoptera and Hymenoptcra.

ORDER I. — COLEOPTERA.

1. Cicindelidae (Tiger Beetles).

Perfect insects of moderate size, slender ; mandibles power-
ful, with three teeth; antennae filiform, with eleven joints.
Legs long and slender, with five tarsal joints. Abdomen
of six segments, the three first fused. Larvae long, some-
what flattened and humped in the middle, with a broad
head and six feet.

The larvae dig vertical holes as thick as a quill in the
sand, and remain at the entrance with projecting head, in
wait for any passing insects or worms, which they seize, and
suck dry. The beetles prefer sandy and sunny localities,
especially white sandy roads, are very active, alternately
running and flying over short distances, and greedily devour
other insects.

One genus, Cicindela, with a few British species ; of these,
C. campestris, L., is the only one with an extended distribution
in suitable woodland localities.

2. Carabidae (Ground-Beetles).

Perfect insects variable in size, but often large ; mandibles
smooth or with only one tooth ; antennae filiform, with
eleven joints.

USEFUL COLEOPTERA. 181

Few of the larger species have functional wings. Legs thin
and long, for running, with five tarsal joints. Abdomen of
six to eight segments, the three first fused.

Larvae long and cylindrical, with six legs.

The beetles live through the winter under moss, stones
and pieces of bark, in old rotting stumps, etc., pair in the
spring, and lay their eggs in the ground. The larvae live
either in or on the ground, and eventually pupate in the soil.

Both the larvae and perfect insects destroy other insects in
all their stages ; the larvae in particular are very voracious,
and mostly prey at night. The family is rich in genera and
species.

The following large species are most useful in forests where
they occur : Carabus catenulatus, Scop., C. granulatus, L.,
C. cancellatus, 111., Calosoma inquisitor, L., etc.

Other species are found on the Continent, such as Procrustes
coriaceus, L., Carabus auratus, L., C. auronitens, Fabr.,
C.sylvestris, Panz., Calosoma sycophanta, L. ; the latter, which
appears in great numbers when there is a plague of insects,
and seeks its prey in the crowns of trees, destroying the larvae
of destructive Lepidoptera, is especially valuable.

Certain species of Harpalus and Pterostichus devour coni-
ferous seeds when covered with moss, and Zabrus gibbus, Fabr.,
is destructive to young wheat.

3. Staphylinidae (Rove Beetles).

Perfect insects usually of small size, long-bodied, and
characterised by very short elytra, which leave the greater
part of the abdomen exposed. Antennae generally threadlike,
with 10 to 11 joints. Tarsi mostly 5-jointed, but occasionally
with three or four joints.

The abdomen, consisting of 6 to 7 free segments, is turned
up at the approach of any possible enemy.

The larvae are long, with six legs. The pupal stage occurs
mostly in autumn, and the beetles live over the winter.

The mode of life of these very active beetles resembles
that of the ground-beetles. Both larvae and imagos of the
larger species feed on other insects, but from a forest point
of view they are of less importance than the ground-beetles.

182 PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

The larvae are found especially under moss, but the beetles*
chiefly in decomposing substances, such as fungi, dead leaves,
dung, carrion, etc. There are nearly 800 British species.
The largest species are: Ocypus olens, Mull, (the "Devil's
coach-horse "), Staphylinus caesareus, Cederh., Crcopldlus
maxillosus, L., etc. Larvae of small species of Stapliylinidae
occupy the galleries of bark beetles, and probably eat their
eggs and larvae.

4. Silphidae.

Beetles flattened oblong or oblong-oval, usually with 11-jointed
clubbed antennae ; thorax with a flattened side-margin ; anterior
coxae conical ; tarsi 5-jointed. Usually dull, black, and often
rugose or ribbed.

Both the larvae, which have 6 legs, and the beetles live in
carrion and decomposing substances. Some genera, such as
Silpha, Fabr., attack insects. Silpha quadripunctata, L., lives
in summer on oak trees, and feeds on caterpillars, etc. It
has the margins of the thorax and' the elytra ochre-yellow,
the latter with two black spots on each.

5. Nitidulidae.

Beetles small, oval or oblong, with straight clubbed,
11-jointed antennae inserted under the frontal margin.
Tarsi short, usually with 5 joints. Abdomen with 5 — 6
segments.

Larvae long, with projecting horny head and 6 legs. The
flattened genera, Rhizophagus, Hbst., and Pityophagus, Shuck.,
which live under the bark of trees of both broad- leaved and
coniferous species, are regarded as enemies to bark-beetles.

6. Colydiidae.

Beetles small, thin, and long, with 8 — 11-jointed clubbed
antennae. Tarsi 4-jointed. Abdomen of 5, rarely of 6, seg-
ments, of which the first three or four are fused. Larvae
long, and sometimes with horny plates below ; 6-legged.

The species of this family live in decaying wood, in fungi,
or under the bark of trees, and are predaceous.

Colydimn elongatum, Fabr., locates itself in old oak trees, and

USEFUL COLEOPTERA. 183

destroys the larvae of bark-beetles, such as Xyleborus dryo-
graphus, Er., etc.

The Colydiidae and the closely-allied Cucujidae, many of
which have similar habits, are as a rule very rare in Great
Britain and therefore of little local economic value.

7. Coccinellidae,

or Ladybirds, are small, smooth, hemispherical beetles, with
red or yellow elytra, spotted with black. Antennae very short,
clubbed, 10 — 11-jointed. Tarsi 3-jointed. Abdomen of five
free segments.

The larvae are long and pointed behind, therefore somewhat
lizard-like in shape ; they possess six legs, and are covered with
warty tubercles, pits, or spines. Those of the commonest species
are slaty-grey, with four or six yellow spots. The beetles fly
in the spring, and lay their yellow eggs in clusters on plants.
The larvae pupate in July and August, hanging from the leaves;
in 14 days the beetles appear, and they pass the winter under
dead leaves, bark, etc. Both in the larval and perfect states,
and especially in the former, they eagerly hunt and kill num-
bers of plant-lice or aphides, and mites, which do much mischief
to fruit and forest trees.

Ladybirds are migratory when abundant, and sometimes
appear in certain localities in enormous numbers. The com-
monest species are : C. septempunctata, L., the 7-spotted lady-
bird, and A. Upunctata, L., the 2-spotted ladybird. Certain
species are found only in forests, as Halyzia ocellata, L., chiefly
on pines, H. octodecimguttata, L., on spruce. Scymnus, Kugel.,
lives chiefly in coniferous woods.

8. Malacodermata.

This group of families is characterised as follows : — Beetles
generally long, with soft flexible elytra. Antennae slender,
10 — 12-jointed. Tarsi 5-jointed. Abdomen of 6 — 7 free seg-
ments. The females sometimes resemble larvae. Larvae long,
flat, and generally hairy, with six legs.

The predaceous families included in this group are: the
Telephoridae, black, brown, or yellowish beetles, about half

184 PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

an inch long, of which Tcleplwrus fnscus is a common
brown species. They usually feed on other insects, but that
species and T. obscurm, L., have been observed sucking 5 — 15-
year-old shoots of oak and Scots pine, which then turn black
and die.

Their larvae are also carnivorous, feeding on earth-worms and
ground insects ; they pass the winter in the earth, or under
stones, and during thaws sometimes come out on the snow.
They pupate in the spring.

The Cleridae are small, cylindrical, hairy beetles, with very
short serrate antennae, somewhat thickened at the ends. Tarsi
with 4 — 5 joints. Abdomen of six segments. Larvae long, and
generally rose-coloured, with horny head, 6-legged. The beetles
pair in the spring, and the eggs are laid in the bark of trees,
under which the larvae live. New beetles appear in the
autumn.

The larvae and beetles hunt the grubs of bark-beetles in their
borings, and also eat dead animal substances.

ClerusformicariuSj'Li., is the best known species, and its larvae
are frequently found in the borings of Myelopldlm piniperda, L.,
and the beetle may be frequently seen in the forest running
about over heap'fe of firewood and felled trunks. It is gaily
coloured, black, with the greater part of the thorax and the
base of the elytra red, the latter also crossed by two white
bands. The species is locally common in conifer-woods in
Great Britain, and is the most important insect-enemy to
Scolytidae we possess.

ORDER II. — HYMENOPTERA.

1. Ichneumonidae.*

Certain allied families, such as the Braconidae, Chalcididae,
and Pterojnalidae, are included in this description. In this
book these insects are termed ichneumon-wasps to avoid con-
fusion with certain parasitic flies (Tachinae) of similar habits
belonging to the order of Diptera.

Imagos of various sizes, long and slender. Head with three
ocelli. Antennae generally slender, rarely clubbed, and with

* For a complete account of German ichneumons, ride Taschenberg (Die,
Hvmenopteren Deutschlands), Leipzig, 1866, %

USEFUL HYMENOPTERA. 185

many joints. The veins of the wings, when a submarginal
vein exists, form distinctly closed cells, but it may be absent
and the system reduced to one or two veins.

Trochanters 2-ringed, tarsi generally 5-jointed.

Abdomen frequently stalked, and in the female provided with
a long ovipositor, formed of a slender borer and two lateral
sheaths.

Larrae soft and tapering at both ends, generally white, and
without hair or legs.

Pupae with the limbs free, soft, and white.

The season for the flight of these extremely useful insects
falls between May and August. The $ lay their eggs either on
or in other insects (Lepidoptera, beetles, and Hymenoptera),
which they pierce with their ovipositors, generally attacking
the larvae, less commonly the pupae, and seldom the perfect
insects. Certain minute species attack the eggs. Only the
larger larvae are attacked as a rule. An ichneumon will rarely
attack an insect which has already been pierced,

The larvae appear soon after the eggs have been laid, and
may pass the winter in the pupae of the host.

They pupate in cocoons, sometimes outside the host, some-
times enclosed in its own pupal skin ; the species of Pteromalus
alone form exceptions to this rule. The ichneumon-wasps cut
out a round piece from the cocoon to emerge, passing the
winter under moss, in stumps, etc.

The whole series of transformations generally requires
8 — 6 weeks, and the generation is usually single, but sometimes
double.

Ichneumon-wasps are shy, and run and fly rapidly ; they do
not, however, go far from their birthplace ; they may appear
in great numbers, and are constantly quivering their wings.

Most of the larvae are parasitic within their hosts, whose
juices they suck, but some remain outside them (many species
of Pteromalidae and Chalcididae). Infested larvae continue
living, and eat ravenously in order to supply their parasitic
guests as well as themselves ; they do not, however, reach
maturity, but die either as larvae or pupae. As a rule,
ichneumon-wasps increase more than proportionally to the
injurious insects, Thus, in the valleys of the Rhine and

186 PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

Main (1888-89) in the great plague of pine-moths, in the first
year, only 8 per cent, of larvae were attacked by ichneumons,
in the second year, 30 per cent.

It was formerly believed that most insects which did not
attain full development were killed by insect- parasites, and
breeding cages covered with coarse network were maintained
in which all larvae infected by ichneumon-wasps or flies were
placed and fed. The network allowed the latter when fully
developed to escape.

These cages,* however, have proved useful only in allowing
the life-history of the parasites to be studied.

It is now well known that insects are destroyed in large
numbers by bacteria and by fungi, the spores of which find
entrance into their bodies either through their skin, or amongst
their food. De Bary says : " If one carefully examines the
dead leaves and moss of the forest soil in wet seasons, it is
astonishing how many fungus-infected insects he will find."
The infected caterpillars may be easily recognised by dis-
coloured spots on their bodies, and by their reduced activity,
and they die when the mycelium of the fungus has spread
inside them. Thus, mmcardine is a well-known disease of the
silkworm, due to Botrytis bassiana, Bals., and this fungus
attacks Noctua piniperda, Panz., Gastropacha pini, L., and other
caterpillars. Wet years, being favourable to the fructifica-
tion of the fungi, cause these diseases to spread amongst
caterpillars.!

The question whether ichneumons or parasitic plants are of
more importance from a forest point of view is still open. It
was believed by Eatzeburg that ichneumons attack only

* In Bengal, where a Tachinid fly attacks silkworms, these are sometimes fed
inside a framework covered with gauze to exclude the flies. The most usual plan,
however, is to rear the Bengal multivoltine silkworm for silk in alternate months
only (it has seven or eight generations in the year) ; during the other months a
limited number of worms are carefully kept under gauze to produce eggs for the next
brood. The flies, which have also a generation every month, not finding sufficient silk-
worms to lay their eggs in, are thus greatly reduced in numbers, whereas, if the silkworms
are bred in the open every month, whole broods would be destroyed by the parasites.

t For an account of fungi attacking insects, ride Cooke's Vegetable Wasps and
Plant Worms, London, 1893, also Judeich and Nitche, Mitteleuropaischen Insecten-
kunde, Vol. I., pp. 164—182 ; De Bary, A., Vergleichende Morphologic und Biologie
der Pilze, Mycetozoen, und Bacterien, Leipzig: W. Engelman, 1884.

USEFUL HYMENOPTERA. 187

insects already diseased owing to infection by parasitic plants
or the weather, and the importance of ichneumons is due in
his opinion not to their secondary activity in attacking insects,
but to the fact that the approaching end of an insect-calamity
may be predicted from the increase in their numbers. He
asserts that when 50 per cent, of the caterpillars are attacked
by ichneumons, it is not worth while spending any more
money on measures for destroying the caterpillars, as the
calamity will then die out speedily.

Taschenberg* and Judeich,t however, contest this opinion,
and consider that perfectly healthy caterpillars are attacked by
ichneumons ; their view is now generally and properly held.
It is impossible to imagine that an ichneumon, such as Pimpla,
which inserts its long ovipositor through the cracks of bark to
reach a concealed larva, can have any accurate perception of
the state of health of its host ; and the experiences of those
who breed larvae in captivity show conclusively that this is a
matter of indifference to the Ichneumonidae.

The families referred to are very rich in species, 5,000,
of which 1,000 are parasitic on destructive forest-insects.
Ichneumon- wasps are either polyphagous or monophagous;
many are monophagous to such a degree that they attack only
a particular species in a certain stage of development, either as
larvae or pupae, etc. The greatest number of species (in all thirty-
nine) attack the pine-moth — Gastropacha pini, L. Many are
found in the black-arches, the pine noctua, the pine sawfly, etc.
On eggs: Teleas laeviusculus, Eatz. (G. pini}, and T. terebrans,

Eatz., are parasitic.
„ larvae : Microgaster globatus, Nees. (G. pini) ; Banchus

compressus, Fabr. (Noctua piniper da, Panz.).
,, pupae : Anomalon xantliopus, Grav. (G. pini); E. lopliy-

rorum, Htz. (Lophyrus pini, L.).
,, larvae and pupae : Anomalon circumflexum, L. (G. pini);

Pimpla instigator, Panz. (Liparis monacha, L. dispar,

Porthesia chrysorrhoea, etc.). I
,, imagos : sp. of Braconidae (Strophosomus conjli, L., etc.).

* Forstwirthschaftliche Insectenkunde, p. 271.

| "SValdverderber, 7th edition, p. 14.

| The names within brackets are those of the hosts in which the parasites live.

188 PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

2. Sphegidae (Fossorial

Imacfos with a large head and three ocelli. Antennae slender
and moderately long. Fore wings flat and without folds, with
1 — 4 cubital cells. Legs with smooth femora and simple
trochanters. Tibiae and tarsi fossorial, and furnished with
strong hairs and spines.

Abdomen stalked, generally with seven free segments, and
always terminating in the ? with a sting.

The larvae and pupae somewhat resemble the perfect insects,
but have no legs.

These insects appear in summer, living in pairs and building
their nests in sandy earth, in rotten wood, cracks in walls,
etc. They attack plant-lice, larvae, beetles, grasshoppers, and
spiders, wound them with their stings, and convey the disabled
insects to their nests in order to lay their eggs on them.
Some species close up the cells in their nests, and the larvae
on emerging from the eggs feed upon the captives. Other
Sphegidae feed their young with fresh material. Whilst these
insects are hunting their prey, they carefully close their nests
with particles of sand or splinters of wood.

The following are common : — Ammophila sabulosa, L., and
Pompilus viaticus, Latr. ; both species live in sunny places in
sandy localities.

3. Vespidae (Wasps).

Imayos moderately slender, almost free from hairs, black or
brown with yellowish zones, with ocelli.

Antennae approximate at the base, elbowed, and with 12 — 13
joints, thickened at the apex.

Fore wings folded longitudinally when at rest, with a radial
cell reaching to the end of the wing, and 2 — 3 cubical cells.

Legs simple, without prominent hairs or spurs.

Abdomen stalked, furnished with a sting in the ? .

The larvae are white or yellowish, with brown heads, soft
and legless.

The species which form this family live either, socially, or
are solitary.

Those which are most useful, from a forest point of view,
are social wasps, consisting of three classes: — $ (drones), ? ,

USEFUL HYMENOPTERA.

189

and T? , workers which are unfertile females. The eggs are
not laid by the female immediately after fertilisation ; she
hibernates and commences the construction of a nest for a
new colony about April. From the spring until late in the
summer she lays her eggs in the regularly hexagonal, pris-
matic, horizontal cells of the nest. She is gradually joined

Fig. 71.— Hornet-injury to ash.
(Natural size.}

ig. 72. — Horuet-iujury to alder.
(Natural size.}

in her labours by her progeny, of which first I? , then ? , and
lastly the stingless $ are produced. The latter die soon after
pairing. If by any accident the mother wasp should die
before any perfect females are produced, the whole colony
would become extinct. The duties of the J? are to continue
building the nest, to feed the helpless larvae, and to defend the
colony against enemies. The nests are covered with a paper-

190 PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

like material, and are constructed on trees, in a hollow trunk
or suspended from a branch, or in buildings or a hole in the
ground. Just before pupating, the larvae spin covers to their
cells. The J? become torpid in the autumn, and their last
office is to massacre the undeveloped brood, which would
otherwise die of hunger, as their food-providers themselves
are speedily killed by the increasing cold. The fertile females
alone leave the nest and survive the winter in a dormant
condition, reviving in the spring to provide fresh broods for
the future.

Wasps seize insects, especially moths and flies, partly for
their own nourishment and partly to use their juices as food
for their offspring, or even to feed them with
the living insects. They do a certain amount
of damage by eating sweet fruits, plums,
grapes, etc., and especially the hornet (Vespa
crabro, L.), by girdling 2 to 4-year-old shoots of
beech, birch, hornbeam, etc., and by barking
ash, white alder, etc. ; they prepare the bark by
chewing and mixing with a sticky secretion, and
7_~~"~ use it for the fabrication of their nests. Bark-
Wasp-bottle. ^ng °f ^rees also causes a flow of sap which serves

as food.

Where much damage is done, hornets' and wasps' nests
may be smoked out, or tar, kerosene, or a solution of cyanide
of potassium poured into the entrance holes. Glasses con-
taining beer, etc., for catching them, as shown in Fig. 72, may
be hung up on fruit trees.

4. Formicidae (Ants}.

Ants also have three classes — males, females, and workers.
The head is triangular and very large in the J? . There are
three ocelh, at least in the $ and ? . The antennae have 10 — 14
joints. The wings are long and with few veins. The
abdomen is stalked and often spherical, with a sting at its
extremity, or a gland which exudes formic acid. The $ are
generally much smaller than the ? ; both these sexes have a
well-developed globular thorax, wider than the head, and a
large abdomen. In the J? the thorax is very narrow, much

USEFUL HYMENOPTERA. 191

narrower than the head, which is nearly as large as the
abdomen ; they are wingless.

The larvae are thickest, somewhat curved, white, and apodal.
ThQ pupae are soft and white, with the limbs separately invested,
usually enveloped in thick white cocoons, when they are known
as ants' eggs.

The ants fly in July and August in still warm weather,
often in cloud-like swarms. The ? , which loses her wings after
pairing, either lays her eggs the following spring in the old
nest, or she forms a new colony in the ground or in a hollow
tree. The larvae live in thousands in the ant-hills, and are
fed and carried about by the numerous T? , of which there may
be 5,000 and more in one ant-heap. In case the ant-hill
should be disturbed, the J? endeavour to carry the pupae to a
place of safety.

The perfect insects come out at the end of May, or the
beginning of June, after the J? have opened the cocoons. First
appear the ? , then the $ , and last the J? . The $ die soon
after copulation ; as the cold increases many of the ? also
die; the t? live over the winter. Ants are endowed with a
remarkable sense of locality; if their nest be injured, they
eject formic acid, which slightly burns the skin.

For a long time past the usefulness of these little animals
has been recognised. They attack and kill numerous insects
and larvae, especially small caterpillars, and clean the forest
of many dead insects. In utilising other insects they show
extraordinary ability for creatures so low in the animal
kingdom. Some ants, living in hollow trees, carry the larvae
of a beetle, Cetonia aurata, L., into their nests, as these larvae
chew up the wood into small pieces for them ; in the same
way Claviger foveolatus, Preyssl., lives in the nests of the
yellow ants.

Plant-lice are also kept in ants' nests, as the ants use
the honey-dew which exudes from them to feed their young,
milking them like cows.

Trees at the foot of which there are ant-heaps remain
uninjured during wide-spread devastation by caterpillars, like
oases in the desert, and the fruit-cultivators in the province
of Mantua place in the spring of every year a colony of ants

192 PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

at the foot of their fruit trees to secure them against insect
attacks.

. It is therefore necessary to protect ants in every possible
way, though unfortunately their increase is greatly prejudiced
by the search for the so-called ants' eggs for the purpose of
feeding young pheasants, etc. This also deprives useful forest
birds of a portion of their nutriment. Henschel* states that
in the Austrian Alps the sale of dried ants' eggs of Formica
rw/<7, L., amounts annually to 50 — 70 hectolitres, which means
from 96 to 134'5 million ants, for 1 hectolitre contains about
1,920,000 pupae.

In Kussia also the business is carried on vigorously, the
right of collecting pupae being leased on certain areas, one
man having collected £18 worth in 1J months.

The damage wJiich ants occasion by constructing their
galleries and nests in sickly trees, or by eating sweet fruits, or
by burrowing into planting-mounds is trifling in comparison to
the good they effect.

As representatives of the family the following may be
mentioned : —

Formica rufa, L., the common wood-ant, makes great
heaps of needles in coniferous forests, chiefly in those of
Scots pine.

Lasius fuliginosus, Latr., in old trees and stumps of oaks,
poplars, willows, etc.

Myrmica r libra, L., very common in forests under stones,
sods, bark, etc.

There are species of ants which by hollowing out nests in
standing trees, or by gnawing plants, or disturbing mound-
planting, are injurious. These are Campanotiis herculaneus,
L. ; C. lignipcrdus, L. Both species hollow out large'stand-
ing and felled stems of conifers, chiefly of spruce and silver-
fir, to a height of 30 feet from the base of the trees, in a
manner that is concentric with the annual rings, so as to
render the timber unserviceable. Woodpeckers frequently
increase the extent of the damage, which has also been
observed on oaks, limes, and robinias. Lasius flavus, Latr.
injures young plantations of spruce, silver-fir, beech, ash,

* Centralbl. iUr das ges. Forstw., 1876, p. 160.

USEFUL HYMENOPl^ERA. 103

larch, and sycamore, by gnawing the plants on or above the
roots, underground. This damage continues from spring to
July. As much as 60 per cent, of plants have been thus
killed, the weakest being selected. The best protective
measure is to use ball-planting, or to sow in autumn, with
as little disturbance of the soil as possible. This damage
was especially marked in Silesia, 3,000 — 4,000 feet above sea-
level, on dry, southern aspects.

5* Apidae (Bees).

The images are thickset and generally hairy, with ocelli,
and with a special suctorial labium. Antennae approximate at
their base, elbowed, the basal portion 2- jointed. Fore- wings
not folded, with one radial and two to three cubital cells.
Legs hairy, the first joint of the hinder tarsi very large,
compressed and forming a triangular or quadrangular plate.

Abdomen stalked, with a poisonous sting in the ? and J? ,
which breaks off after use. The larvae and pupae resemble
those of wasps.

Bees are either solitary, as the mason and carpenter bees,
or are social, as in the case of humble or honey bees. The
former have no T? , which are the most numerous inhabitants
of a hive of honey bees.

Social bees breed underground in mole runs, etc., in
hollow trees, in the pith of sound trees and shrubs, as ash,
walnut, rose and raspberry, or in artificial hives.

The imagos live on honey taken from plants and on pollen,
and effect the fertilisation of many flowers by brushing off the
pollen with their large hind legs, and carrying it to another
flower. This habit is a good example of the direct utility of
insects to plants.

Species. — Carpenter bees (Xylocopa violacea, Fabr.) live in
old dry wood, especially in the case of leguminous trees. This
species is not British, but many others are common in warm
countries, and slightly injurious to timber. They are large
and conspicuous blue-black insects.

The mason bee (Chalicodoma muraria, Fabr.) constructs its
cells of grains of sand on walls, rocks, etc.

F.P. o

194 PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

•

Humble-bees (Bombas terresttis, L.) live in the ground in
societies of fifty to sixty members.

The honey bee (Apis mellifica, L.) is widely spread over the
earth. A hive may contain 1 $ , 600 to 800 <? , and 15,000 to
80,000 J? . The ? (queen) lives for five years, the $ only for
a few weeks, and the J? for about six months.

ORDER III. — DIPTERA.
1. Asilidae.

linagos long and generally slender, the face tufted with hairs.
Eyes very prominent, 3 ocelli, the suctorial organs forming a
pointed piercing tube. Antennae short, 3-jointed, the third
joint elongate, not annulate, terminated by a short bristle.

Wings when at rest lying flat on the body. Legs stout, with
sharp curved claws. Abdomen with 8 segments.

Larvae long and cylindrical, with very clearly marked
segments, white.

The eggs are laid in the ground, by choice in sandy soil. The
generation is annual. The perfect insects are bold marauders,
they attack other insects of all orders and suck their juices.

Species. — Asilus crabroniformis, L., common in Germany
and England.

2. Syrphidae.

tmagos with oval bodies, very large eyes, and 3 ocelli. An-
tennae 3-jointed, the last joint generally flattened, sometimes
Very long, with a bristle-like appendage. Wings much inter-
sected with veins. Abdomen variable in form, with 5 to 6
evident segments.

Larva leech-shaped, of varied colours.

Pupa coarctate, pear-shaped.

They fly in July and August in bright sunshine. Their
flight is of a hovering nature ; they remain poised over a
blossom, darting away when disturbed, and resume their hover-
ing at the end of their course, and they emit a buzzing noise.

The small white oval eggs are laid on leaves and twigs. The
generation is double, or multiple. The larvae, which inhabit
plants, destroy plant-lice by sucking out their juices.

USEFUL DIPTERA. 195

Common species. — Syrplms pirastri, L., frequently found on
fruit trees and on Scots pine. S. lalteatus, De Geer.

3. Muscidae (Flies).

linages generally short and stout. Eyes, as a rule, densely
covered with hairs; ocelli present. Proboscis fleshy. Antennae
short,. 3- join ted, the terminal joint the largest, not ringed, fur-
nished with a bristle on its dorsal surface. Wings of moderate
size, with few longitudinal veins. Legs strong and moderately
long. Abdomens, with 4 — 7 apparent segments, generally
scantily hairy, sometimes with an ovipositor in the ? .

Larva without legs or distinct head, soft, and generally
whitish.
. Pupa coarctate, round or elliptic, brown or blackish.

Flies lay their eggs sometimes in decomposing substances,
sometimes on living animals.

In forest economy, only the parasitic flies are of importance,
of which the chief are the Tachininae.

Many species of these flies are parasitic in or on the larvae
and pupae of other insects, as moths and sawflies. Their im-
portance is somewhat less than that of the ichneumon-wasps,
but they, nevertheless, destroy great numbers of insects. They
pupate generally outside the host, on or under the ground.
The larvae not only suck the juices of their hosts, but, unlike
those of the ichneumon-wasps, devour their viscera.

Species. — Echinomyia fera, L., frequent on larvae of Liparis
monacha and Panolis piniperda.

The sub-family Anthomyinae contains a few species which are
injurious to forest trees, f or example, A nthomyiaruJiceps,Weig.
According to Theodor Hartig the larva of this species which
lives in the ground, especially in burned sods, eats the seeds
and roots of coniferous seedlings.

ORDER IV. — NEUROPTERA.
1. Panorpidae (Scorpion-flies).

Imac/os of moderate size, head prolonged into a beak bearing
the mouth at its extremity. Antennae many-jointed, setiform.
Both pairs of wings of equal size, with few intersecting veins,

196 PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

and only partially covering the abdomen, sometimes imperfectly
developed.

Larva with horny head and 22 legs.

The eggs are laid in moist soil, and the larvae pupate in oval,
hollo wed-out lumps of earth.

The larvae and images devour insects.

The common Panorpa communis, L., flies about around low
bushes and hedge-rows, and destroys the pupae of Liparis
salicis, L., etc.

2. Sialidac.

Imagos of moderate size, with broad head, long neck and
fairly broad abdomen ; with 3 ocelli, sometimes absent.
Mouth-parts free, fully developed. Antennae short, usually
setiform, and many- jointed. Wings many-celled, colourless,
with bristles on the veins, sloping like a roof when at rest.

Larva with 6 short and stout legs. Pupa elongate, with the
limbs free.

Example. — Ehaphidia, L. The perfect insects fly in May
and June, and lay their eggs in or under the bark of Scots
pine or spruce. The snake-like brown larvae live through the
winter, and pupate in the spring, without any cocoon ; about
2 to 8 weeks later the imagos emerge. E. notata, Schum., is
very useful ; its larvae greedily destroy the eggs and larvae of
other insects which they find on and under the bark ; common
in coniferous woods.

3. Hemerobiidae (Lace -winged flies).

Imagos long and delicate. Head small, with large hemi-
spherical eyes ; no ocelli. Mouth-parts free. Antennae long,
setiform, many- jointed.

Wings similar in size, transparent and multicellular, sloping
like a roof when at rest. Legs slender.

Larva elongate, and narrowed towards the ends, with two
slender curved mandibles perforated for sucking, and 6 legs.

The flight-period is in the early summer, and again in
autumn. The stalked white or greenish eggs are laid in
groups on leaves.

USEFUL HEMIPTERA. 197

The larvae feed greedily on plant-lice, which they suck dry ;
they can generally be found wherever the latter are numerous.

They grow rapidly, and pupate in firm, almost spherical
cocoons, suspended by a few threads between leaves, from
which the imagos emerge in 2 to 3 weeks. Generation double.

The commonest species is Chrysopa perla, L.

ORDER V. — ORTHOPTERA (PSEUDONEUROPTERA).
Libclhdidae (Dragon-flies) .

Imagos long, usually very slender and brightly coloured.
Head large, almost entirely covered with the large many-
celled eyes ; 3 ocelli. Mouth-parts strongly developed. An-
tennae short, fine, bristle-like, and generally 7-jointed. Wings
of equal size, many-celled, and membranous. Legs short,
strong; the tarsi 3-jointed. Abdomen formed of 11 segments,
with a short pair of forceps on the last.

The 6-legged larvae, and nymphs are characterised by an
extraordinarily large labium, which can be extended forwards
from beneath the head and serves for seizing prey.

The perfect insects fly in an extremely active manner in June
and July, laying their eggs either on the surface of the water
or on water-plants. The generation is annual, and dragon-
flies appear sometimes in incredible numbers.

The larvae and pupae live in the water, and prefer small,
quiet ponds full of reeds.

In all three stages, especially as imagos, they kill other
insects — even moths.

Species. — Blue and green dragon-fly — Aeschna juncea, L.,
A. grandis, L., common especially in mountainous countries.
Libellula qiiadrimaculata, L., migrates, and therefore appears
sometimes in large swarms.

L. depressa, L., very common.

ORDER VI. — HEMIPTERA.

The tribe Geocores (land-bugs) alone includes insects useful
to the forester, and they may be characterised as follows : —
Head small and flat, generally with 2 ocelli. Antennae large,

19K PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

always longer than the head, 4 to 5-jointed. Body flat. Fore-
wings horny at the base and membranous at the extremities.
All the legs generally similar. Tarsi 2 to 3-jointed. Abdomen
consisting of 7 to 8 segments.

Noticeable for their disagreeable odour.

The species which live in forests are useful by destroying
larvae and plant-lice, but a few species are injurious, sucking
young shoots, or the bast of older trees. The images come
out late in the summer, and pass the winter among dead leaves
or under bark. Pairing takes place in the following spring and
the eggs are laid on leaves, shoots, and in cracks in the bark.

1. Pentatomidae.

Imagos somewhat long, with 2 ocelli. Antennae long, filiform
or club-shaped, and generally 5-jointed. Scutellum large, and
reaching at least to the middle of the abdomen. Tarsi
generally 3-jointed, with two little lappets (pulvilli) between
the claws.

Species — Pentatoma rufipes, L., common in pine-forests.

Pyrrhocoris apterus, L., often collects by hundreds at the
base of large lime and other trees.

2. Reduviidae.

Imacjos large, and longer than those of the preceding family,
with projecting head and long beak. Ocelli generally present.
Antennae long, filiform, thin, 4-jointed. Scutellum small.
Forelegs somewhat thickened, and adapted for seizing prey.
Tarsi short, 3-jointed, pulvilli absent.

All the species are predatory and able to inflict a poisonous
wound with the beak. The most important as regards
forests is : —

Gerris ragalimdus, L., which lives in the leaf-galls, pro-
duced by certain aphides on elms.

199

CHAPTEK YI.

INJURIOUS FOREST INSECTS (SPECIAL ACCOUNT
OF COLEOPTERA).*

THE greatest number and the most harmful species of
injurious forest insects belong to the orders Coleoptera and
Lcpidoptera. Next in importance to these come the members
of the orders Hymenoptera and Orthoptera. The orders Dip-
tera and Hemiptera, except for the few useful families already
mentioned, include only species which are moderately or
slightly injurious, and the Neuroptera in Central Europe
include no injurious species, although in the south of Europe
and in India and other hot countries, the family of Termites,
or white ants, belonging to this order, is probably more
destructive to vegetable substances, though chiefly when these
are no longer living, than any other insect-family.

In the following pages the more destructive families of
insects will be enumerated and described. The life-history
of the most important species, and their relations to forest
trees, and the best known ways of meeting their attacks, will
also be dealt with, but many less important species which
occur in Dr. Hess's book have been omitted. Hess has also
separated the injurious forest insects damaging conifers, from
those which damage broad-leaved trees. Owing to the smaller
number of insects here dealt with, this distinction has been
abandoned.

FAMILY I. — SCARABAEIDAE.
Description of Family.

Imagos generally of considerable size and robust build.
Antennae short, elbowed, 10- or 11-jointed, the first joint
elongate, the last 3 or more joints produced inwards into

* For a complete systematic description of British beetles, vide Fowler, " The
Coleoptera of the British Isles," 5 vols., London, 1886—1891.

200 PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

plate-like lamellae which can be separated like the leaves of a
book.

The forelegs are formed for digging, and the tarsi are
5- jointed.

The abdomen consists of 5 or 6 segments. A generation
lasts for several years in the case of the larger species, but
only one year in the smaller ones.

The larvae are thick, cylindrical grubs, curved ventrally,
with the last abdominal segment large- and baggy ; often
covered thinly with short hairs, which may be bristly on the
dorsal surface ; head well developed, horny, with distinct
antennae ; legs 6, strong. They generally live underground.

Pupae almost hairless, generally with 2 horny processes on
the last abdominal segment.

In the perfect state these insects, some of which are very
destructive, attack the leaves, needles and inflorescence of
forest trees, whilst their larvae eat the roots of young woody
plants. The larvae of other species live in rotten wood, dung,
and in dead bodies.

1. Melolontha vulyaris, Fabr. (Common Cockchafer or
May-bug).

a. Description.

The beetle is 25 to 29 mm. long ; prothorax black, less often
reddish-brown ; elytra and legs red-brown, the former with 5
elevated longitudinal ridges, the depressions between them
covered with fine down. Abdomen black, with 5 white
triangular marks on each side, produced at the apex into an
elongate tapering tail. Antennae 10-jointed ; the club 7-jointed
in the $ , in the ? smaller and only 6- jointed. Tarsal claws
with a broad tooth at the base.

1. Life-history.

The beetles appear at the end of April and in May for about
8 or 4 weeks. About 24 hours after fertilisation, the female
burrows into the ground, selecting a bare spot and, where
possible, a light sandy soil. In it, at a depth of 5 to 10 cm.

COMMON COCKCHAFER.

201

(2 to 4 inches), she lays about 70 dirty white subspherical
eggs in little heaps containing from 12 to 30 each. She then
returns to the surface to die.

The curved larvae appear from 4 to 6 weeks afterwards, in
June or July, feed in the first year on humus in the neighbour-
hood of their birth-place, and eventually disperse in the
second summer in all directions in the ground, in order to
feed on the roots of plants. In the autumn they burrow deeper
into the ground, returning near to the surface in April.

Fig. 74. — Melolonthct, vulgaris, Fabr.

a Imago (<?). b Antenna of male with 7 lamellae, c Antenna of female with
6 lamellae, d Grub, c Pupa (ventral surface).

The larvae also go deeper down when about to pupate ; this
change takes place in July or September of the 4th (rarely the
3rd) year of larval life in an oval hole in the ground, the walls
of which are internally smooth and water-tight. In certain
isolated cases, pupation is deferred until the following spring.

The images generally imerge from the pupa from four to
eight weeks later, but pass the winter in the ground, a few
occasionally appearing on the surface. From the month of
February in the 5th or 4th calendar year, the cockchafers
come up from below and take flight, leaving holes in the
ground as if made by a stick. The favourite flight-time is on

202

PROTP:CTION AC4AINST INSECTS.

a fine evening in May, especially after a shower of warm rain.

In mountainous countries, the cockchafer appears somewhat

later than in the milder plains.

The generation differs in duration according to latitude and

climate, as a rule lasting 4 years in Great Britain and Europe
north of the river Main. This forms an
approximate boundary, south of which
the generation is triennial. In East
Prussia, swarms of cockchafers have
been observed at intervals of 5 years.
It follows therefore that the time of
development of the cockchafer is not the
same everywhere, but depends, within
certain limits, on the latitude and longi-
tude of a place, and on its corresponding
climate. If there is an unusually large
swarm in any given year the same thing
will occur at stated intervals every few
years according to the locality. These
critical years are known as swarm-years;
in the intermediate years at least a few
cockchafers appear, either descended from
stragglers, which have since continued to
produce regular generations, or from
irregular individuals in an existing
generation. In Switzerland, there are
three districts, in each of which there
is a swarm of cockchafers every three
years, but in different years for each
district. They are termed the Bernese,

Fig. 75.— Three-year- old
beech gnawed by chafer-
grubs, with loss of roots.
(Natural size.)

Urne and Basel swarm - years, and
there is every year a swarm-year in one
This fact has been observed for more than

of these districts.
160 years.

In Chorin, it has been observed for 30 years, that when in
one part of the forest there is a swarm-year, there are no
chafers in an adjoining part, and vice versa. This is found to
be due to the fact, that the larvae in a swarm-year eat all the
larvae of the next year in their burrows. The strong larvae

COMMON COCKCHAFER.

203

of a swarm-year also eat all wire-worms and other larvae they
meet with, besides the plants.

These swarm-years have been little noticed in Great Britain
and appear to be less marked than on
the Continent, the number of chafers a i

appearing each year being more uniform.
There was a swarm-year at Egham, in
the Bagshot sand district, in 1898.

The flight of the cockchafer is some-
what heavy, it flaps its wings up and
down many times before ascending from
the ground, in order to drive air into its
trachae. It can endure unfavourable
weather tolerably well, and the larvae can
withstand a month's inundation 3 feet deep.

c. Relations to the Forest.

The cockchafer is injurious, both in the
laval and perfect condition. The attacks
of the larvae are less visible, but are more
harmful, especially in coniferous woods,
as they affect the roots and last for two
or three summers. They are worst in the
two last summers. Scots pine and spruce
up to 10 years old are most endangered,
then the larch, and the silver-fir does not
escape. Broadleaved trees do not suffer
from the larvae quite so much as conifers,
but nearly every species is attacked, those
with tender roots, such as beech and ash,
being preferred to species like the oak,
which speedily develops strong roots. The
bitten surface is rough and fibrous, and not
smooth as when bitten by a pine-weevil,
or gnawed by a mouse, the work of which
latter can be readily distinguished by the characteristic paired
tooth-marks.

The larva is extremely destructive in forest- and orchard-
nurseries and in broadcast sowings ; whole rows of young

Fig. 76. — Scots pine
roots attacked by
chafer grubs.
a Three years old.
b Two years old.

204 PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

seedlings or pricked-out plants may be seen with drooping
and dying heads, and reddish foliage or needles. If they are
pulled up, it will be found that the ends of the roots have been
eaten, and occasionally the larva itself may be found in situ at
the base of the injured root. Figs. 75 and 76 show the roots
of attacked beech and Scots pine seedlings. The larvae are
also extremely destructive to meadows and agricultural crops.

The imago attacks the foliage of broadleaved species from
May till July, probably sparing the robinia and pear only.
The oak is most subject to this attack ; then follow maples,
sweet- and horse-chestnut, poplars, plum and cherry-trees.
The beech, hornbeam, willows, apple, birch, plane-tree, and
many shrubs, etc., are also attacked, the order in which the
different species are selected depending on the degree of
development they have attained when the flight-time takes
place. Conifers are less to their taste than broadleaved
species, but the images in May and June will feed on young
shoots and needles of larch, and the male catkins of Scots
pine and spruce, occasionally on the spring shoots of isolated
silver-firs. Trees standing in the open, and border trees are
preferred, as the flight of the insect to them is less impeded
than it is to trees in the midst of a wood. Lofty trees are also
preferred to low growth. In 1878, in the Austrian coast
districts, Quevcus pubescens suffered greatly, and even the
walnut was attacked, a rare event. The oak trees were
completely stripped of leaves, but became green again by
means of Lammas-shoots.

The larvae prefer sandy soil in sunny places, bare, or with a
scanty covering of grass, and large forest cultivations after
a clear cutting. Extensive cultivations of Scots pine
bordering on agricultural land suffer most of all. Stiff soil
covered with dense herbage, damp depressions and well-trodden
paths are avoided. The pine forests of Brandenburg show
how closely connected swarms of cockchafers are with the
clear-cutting system.

d. Protective Rules.

i. Natural regeneration under a shelter-wood system should
be practised. Supposing that this is impracticable owing to

COMMON COCKCHAFER. 205

local conditions of climate and species of tree, narrow clear-cut
fellings, with reservation of standards, should be made. In
any case, large clear-cut felling-areas should be avoided.
Successive fellings should then be continued only after the
young crop on the last adjacent felling-area has been secured.
In districts where cockchafer damage is frequent, fellings
should be reduced as much as possible the year before and
during a swarm-year. Measures that keep the ground
sheltered, cool and moist, render the soil less suitable for
oviposition and for the larval life.

ii. In case sowing is advisable, broadcast sowing should be
adopted in Scots pine woods, together with autumn sowings
of corn, or of birch seed.

When only partial sowing is carried out, the seedlings come
up closer together than in the case of broadcast sowing, and
there is more danger of the whole crop being destroyed ; the
cockchafers avoid cereal crops and prefer not to lay their eggs
in places covered with growing corn.

iii. Planting, and especially ball-planting with strong plants
is to be preferred to sowing; otherwise, notching with as
little disturbance of the soil as possible.

In the Eberswald, planting in pits the surface of which after
planting is nearly a hand's breadth below the ground-level,
was tried with success ; the larvae which feed very near the
ground-level in summer crawl from the surrounding earth on
to the top of the pits, instead of getting to the roots of the
plants.

iv. Pasturing herds of swine in all forest-glades. In the
swarm-years this should be done in spring ; whilst the larvae
are in the ground, during the whole summer.

v. Protection of all enemies of the cockchafers. The
badger, mole, shrew, hedgehog, rooks and crows, starlings, etc.,
attack the larvae; bats, owls, goatsuckers, shrikes, kestrels,
and harriers destroy the cockchafers.

A starling will often carry off 5 or 6 larvae at once ; these
useful birds eat only the soft abdomens of the chafers. Boxes
for starlings to nest in should be always set up around forest
nurseries.

vi. When laying-out nurseries, the neighbourhood of oak

206 PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

woods should be avoided, and the area should be isolated
by ditches. Beds are sometimes made with walls and bottoms
of stones, and filled in with sifted soil.

vii. Oviposition may be prevented by covering the beds with
dead leaves or twigs, or by sprinkling them with flour of
sulphur.

e. Remedied Measures.

i. The areas to be stocked, in swarm-years, should be
completely broken up with the plough, or trenched with spade
or hoe, in order to destroy the larvae. This can be done only
on fairly level ground. Gas-lime may be ploughed into the
land, which must then lie fallow for six months.

ii. Collection in sacks of the larvae which are turned up in
cultivating the ground, from June throughout the summer.
This is best undertaken before a swarm-year, as the larvae are
then nearest to the surface of the ground. It may be done
both in nurseries and before restocking felled areas.

iii. Collection of the larvae by digging round plants which
are attacked in the cultivations ; this can be done throughout
the summer.

iv. The construction of traps for larvae, as follows : —

a. Sods of grass or heather in square pieces measuring
8 to 10 in. in breadth are placed with the grass downwards
on the cultivations. In the forest of Allstadt, Weimar, in the
autumn of 1870, on 7 J acres of ground covered with grass and
heather, square grass sods 8 to 10 inches broad and 6 to 8
inches thick, were laid on the surface of the ground with the
grass downwards, and from 3 to 11 larvae were found under
each sod in July, 1871. Thus, in a short time, 16,000 larvae
were collected.

b. Kolls of bark filled with loose soil, and placed in
the ground. Successfully done in 150 Prussian ranges in
1883-84.

c. Heaps of turf, weeds, humus, burned sods, and dung.

Such heaps afford looseness, dryness, warmth, and nourish-
ment for the larval development, and Heyer greatly recommends
their use in nurseries. The females also readily lay eggs in

COMMON COCKCHAFER. 207

heaps of dung alternating with layers of earth, and enormous
numbers of larvae may be reared in them and subsequently
destroyed.

d. Traps of sticks or bark. In a swarm-year and the year
after it, at the beginning of the warm weather, fresh pieces of
bark or thin- barked, sappy branches 20 to 40 inches long are
placed horizontally, half covered with soil, in ground infested
with larvae. This may be done between the rows of plants in
nurseries, and aspen, sallow, ash, oak, and coniferous wood
can be used. These traps attract the larvae. This plan was
tried on a large scale in 150 forest ranges in Prussia in 1883
and 1884, but gave only poor results. In all the cases
(a to d), the larvae must from time to time be collected and
destroyed, and the traps occasionally renewed. Oviposition
may be prevented by netting seed-beds, etc., in the spring.

e. Trap-trenches one foot wide and one foot deep are
filled with moss. These are prepared in May and cleared
of larvae once a month up to late autumn, the moss being
replaced.

/. When a bed of seedlings or transplants has been seri-
ously injured, the remaining plants and all weeds should be
removed and fairly deep trenches dug round the bed. The
larvae in the beds will then be starved to death, or come
out into the trenches, when they should be killed. This is
practicable only with larvae not ready for pupation.

v. Collection of the cockchafers in April and May is
probably the best remedial method to be followed.

The chief points to be noted are : — The work should be
commenced early in the season before too many cockchafers
have emerged ; then only is it practicable to catch the ? before
they have laid their eggs. In order to ensure economy,
children and women should be employed, and the collection
made only in the morning or on cool days, when the insects
are sluggish in their movements. The workers are provided
with narrow-necked glazed vessels, or sacks in the opening of
which the broken neck of a beer bottle has been fastened, to
serve as a funnel through which the beetles may be dropped ; the
trees should be shaken over cloths, and payment should be by
quantity. Birch border trees round pine plantations, planted

208 PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

as a protective belt, and border trees generally, should be first
shaken, as the chafers collect there.

The larvae and beetles may be killed by : —

Crushing on hard ground.

Scalding with hot water, which gives rise to an extremely
unpleasant odour.

Immersion in casks containing a mixture of water and
petroleum, or 2 per cent, of naphthalin. Both larvae and
beetles live for some time in water alone.

Burial in layers in a trench with unslaked lime, or powdered
calcium chloride.

Subjecting the insects to fumes of bisulphide of carbon.
This is the best method of destroying them, and was first
discovered by Dr. A. Mayer. When done on a large scale,
a clean empty petroleum cylinder or similar vessel may be
used, in which the carbon bisulphide is poured on the
insects.

In order that the gas may have its full effect, the tin should
be covered with a sack, or woollen cloth, to keep out the air.
Lights and fire must be kept at a distance during the opera-
tion. A bushel of cockchafers may be killed by less than an
ounce of carbon bisulphide, and the insects die in from 5
to 10 minutes.

Where cockchafers are extremely abundant and injurious,
as in Germany and France, the expense of collecting them
is so serious, that it is lightened as much as possible by
the utilisation of the captured beetles.

This is done in three ways : They are used as food for swine,
fowls or geese, being mixed with three or four times their
weight of potatoes or starchy material ; for the extraction of
a coarse oil suitable for cart grease ; or for manure, being
mixed with earth, bone dust, or stable-manure.

Their value as a food-stuff is about Is. per 10 Ibs. ; as a
manure, about 9d. per 10 Ibs.

vi. A plague of cockchafers, like a plague of mice, being
felt by agriculturists and fruit-producers, as well as foresters,
must be met by energetic common action of all municipalities
and village authorities, and in case the interested parties
cannot agree as to any common course of action, the State

MELOLONTHA HIPPOCASTANI. 209

should intervene to compel unanimity. This is done in
France by order of the prefects. The damage done by cock-
chafers to agriculture in France annually, in great swarm-
years, is estimated by Le Moult at ^10,000,000, the number
of larvae per acre being up to 150,000 in bad cases.

vii. Cockchafer larvae, termed vers Uancs, have been dealt
with in France by infecting certain of them with Botrytis
tennella or Isatis densa, and then putting them into the
attacked field. The results were not satisfactory. Another
plan, adopted in 1896, for forest nurseries is to prepare cap-
sules full of bisulphide of carbon. These capsules are dibbled
in, 7 or 8 inches deep, and the gelatine gradually dissolves,
setting free its contents. One 'thousand capsules with 2J
grammes of the bisulphide cost 25s., and about six are required
every square metre.

viii. Nothing can be done to save conifers injured by the
larvae, if, beside the tap-root, all side-roots have been bitten
off. Should, however, some side-roots remain, larch at least
may recover if severely pruned almost to the ground and
earthed-up round the roots. The pruning limits the transpira-
tion, and the earth round the roots prevents the drying-up of
the existing roots and furthers the formation of new ones.
These measures must be undertaken as soon as the injured
plants begin to droop.

2. Melolontha kippocastani, Fabr.

The beetle greatly resembles the common cockchafer, but is
smaller, being only 20 to 25 mm. long. Prothorax generally
red, rarely black. Antennae and legs dark brown or black.
Tail shorter, more abruptly tapering, and somewhat clubbed
at its extremity.

Life-history and economy. — In West and South Germany,
similar to those of the common cockchafer with which it
swarms, but in smaller numbers. In East and West Prussia
in the midst of great Scots pine-woods this species alone
destroys forests, the common cockchafer confining its attacks
to agricultural lands. It does not merely attack the horse-
chestnut as its name implies, but nearly all trees. The
larvae are highly destructive to young Scots pines, 3 to 6 years

F.P. p

210 PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

old, but in their fourth summer they attack the roots of poles
15 to 18 years old, and even those of older trees. Season
for swarming somewhat early (April). The "eggs are laid 8
to 14 days afterwards 10 to 14 inches deep in dry soil, but
in moist soil only 2J to 4 inches deep. The larvae appear in
July, and pupate in August of the fifth year, about 1J feet
deep. The chafers come out in September and October, but
remain underground till the next spring. A more northern
insect than the common cockchafer ; in Great Britain confined
to Scotland and the extreme north of England.

Protective measures. — Same as for the common cockchafer.

Fig. 77. — Melolontha Fig 78, — Rhizotrogus

hippocastani, Fabr. solstitialis, L.

3. Rhizotrogus solstitialis, L. (June chafer).

a. Description.

Beetle 15 to 17 mm. long, similar to the two former, but
with the abdomen not produced into a tail. Brownish-yellow,
with 4 raised carinae on each elytron ; the prothorax, scutellum
and underside covered with long hair. Antennae 9-jointed,
the club 3- jointed. Claws with a small tooth at their base.

b. Life-history, cfr.

Similar to the common cockchafer. Flight-time some-
what later, in June and July. The beetle attacks young
Scots pine shoots, but prefers the beech, hornbeam, poplars,
willows, etc. The larvae devour the roots of small plants
chiefly of grasses and grain crops. The insect is found in
sandy soil, but is less frequent in forests than the two

AGRILUS VIRIDIS. 211

preceding species. It is locally common in many parts of
Great Britain. ,

Protective rules and remedial measures as for the common
cockchafer.

FAMILY II. — BUPRESTIDAE.
Description of Family.

Imagos long and slender, generally with hard elytra which
taper posteriorly, as a rule br.ightly coloured, with a metallic
lustre. Antennae short, generally serrate and 11-jointed.
Posterior angles of the thorax rounded. Front and middle
pairs of coxae globose, the hind pair flattened. Legs short
and weak ; tarsi 5-jointed. Abdomen of
5 segments, of which the two anterior are
fused. The active flight of these insects
generally takes place in June and July in
hot sunshine. A generation usually lasts
two years.

Larvae cylindrical or flat, white, and
without legs ; the first prothoracic segment

. . i mi v AI t, j Fig. W.— Agnhts

is broad. They live partly between the vty«««,L.

bast and sapwood of young trees, partly in
the stumps, or in old decaying trees. They pupate in situ in
a cocoon made of fragments of wood. Flight-holes of the
images transverse oval, nearly half-elliptic.

The most injurious species are found on bipad-leaved trees,
but in Germany a few species attack coniferous woods. In
Great Britain all the species of Buprestidae are scarce, local
and therefore unimportant. The following species, though
very rare in this country, will serve to illustrate their life-
history and economy : —

1. Agrilus viridis, L.

a. Description.

Beetle 6 to 8 mm. long, very variable in colour, being some-
times olive-green, bluish-green, blue, earth-coloured, etc. ;
under surface black. Thorax broader than long ; the last
abdominal segment rounded at the extremity ; apices of the
elytra diverging slightly from one another, and finely dentate.

212

PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

b. Life-history.

Flight in June and July, in brilliant sunshine.
Eggs laid either singly or by twos and threes on the bark
of smooth saplings, especially at the base of stems exposed to
the sun.

The larvae appear in August, and live over two winters before

pupation, which takes place in
April or May of the third summer
in a pupal chamber made in the
sapwood or bast.

The images emerge in June or
July, leaving a hole oval below
and straight above, thus : ~.

Generation lasting two years ;
the insects seldom appear in large
numbers.

c. Relations to the Forest.

The beetle prefers young beech
plants, but also attacks alder,
birch, oak, and aspen, especially
weakly saplings, generally stand-
ing in the open, or along the edge
of the forest. It is, however, only
the larvae which are really de-
structive. They burrow through
the bark down to the sapwood,
and excavate in it a shallow,
well-defined winding passage,
sometimes extending deeper into
the wood ; it increases in breadth

Figs. 80 and 81. — Injury caused to
beech -saplings by A. viridis, L.
(Natural size.)

a Larval gallery, exposed by removal

of the bark.
b Old larval galleries exposed by

rupture of the bark.
c Transverse oval flight-holes of the

imago.

with the age of the larvae.

If the plant be girdled, the upper part of the stem dies, at
least in dry localities. The bark projects somewhat all along
the sides of the passage. In the case of saplings which
recover, the bark splits, owing to the pressure of the callus
forming over the wound.

AGRILUS VIRIDIS.

213

(L Protective Rules.

i. Care in planting out saplings, and choice of strong
healthy plants.

ii. Smearing the saplings with a mixture of 2 parts of clay,
1 of lime, and 1 of cowdung, shortly before the flight of the
beetles.

Fig. 82. — Poplar-wood bored by Agrilus sex-guttatus,
Herbst. (Natural size.}

e. Remedial Measures.

Pulling-up and burning all infected saplings in May and
the beginning of June.

2. Other Species.

Other species of Agrilus, such as A. angustulus, 111., attack
oak, hazel, birch, and other saplings, and should be treated in

214 PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

the same manner as A. viridis. A. sex-ynttatus, Herbst, is
common in France, where it riddles the wood of old poplars.

FAMILY III. — ELATERIDAE (CLICK-BEETLES).
Description of Family.

Imagos long and slender, hard, resembling those of the
former family in general appearance, but usually without
metallic lustre. Antennae filiform, generally serrate or pecti-
nate (<?), 11-jointed. Prothorax broad posteriorly, its hind-
angles produced and acute. Fore and middle coxae spheroidal,
legs short and rather weak, tarsi 5-jointed. Abdomen of 5
segments. When laid on their backs they are able to spring
up in the air with a clicking noise, alighting on their legs.

Generation, 3 — 4 years; length of time in larval stage
probably dependent on supply of food, and lasting only three
years when they are well nourished.

Larvae long and slender brownish-yellow grubs, termed
wire-worms, with horny, flat, dark heads. They are lighter
coloured below, and have 6 legs and a stump-like tubercle
serving as an additional leg on the last segment ; they
generally live underground, or in old rotten stumps. They
are omnivorous, devouring roots, rhizomes, seeds, fungi,
decomposing vegetable and animal matter, and even other
insects. They abound in newly broken-up pasture, or clover
land, and are most destructive to agricultural crops, and in
forestry to sowings in nurseries and in the forest of acorns,
beech-mast, maple or hornbeam, and many coniferous seeds,
and to the roots and bases of the stem of young coniferous
and broadleaved plants.

Pupation underground in July. The beetles emerge a few
weeks later, and may be found on flowers, or under bark or
stones. Wire-worms are the larvae of beetles of the genera
Elater, Athous, Agriotcs, especially A . lineatus, which is the
chief offender, and of other Elateridtf*.

The larvae of Dolopius marginatus, L., gnaw the roots of
young spruce and Scots pine, and thus do much injury in
nurseries and plantations. Agriotes lineatus, L., and A. ob-
scurus, Gyll, devour acorns, and also coniferous seeds; Athous

LYMEXYLONIDAE. 215

haemorrhoidalis, Fabr., beech-mast, acorns, hazel-nuts, and
seeds of hornbeam. Some species also attack the young
shoots of trees, in order to extract the sap. Lacon murinus, L.,
has been known to injure the oak in a 'similar way to Tele-
phorus obscurus, L., and certain species of Corymbites do
similar damage, so that the shoots become black, dry and
break off.

Protective rules. — The conspicuous brown larvae should be
collected and destroyed when nursery-beds are dug up, and
turf in which they are noticed may be burned. It is imprac-
ticable to collect the beetles.* Nursery-land full of wire-
worms may be dressed with gas-lime, which should be well
dug in, and the land left without further cultivation for
6 months. The methods of destroying them are very expen-
sive, requiring 1,000 Ib. of liquid bisulphide of carbon per
acre, or 10 tons of salt. Books, starlings and plovers devour
them greedily.

FAMILY IV. — LYMEXYLONIDAE!.
Description of Family.

Imagos cylindrical, long and slender. Elytra not curved
downwards and slightly gaping at the apex. Antennae thread-
like, somewhat thickened in the middle, or serrate, 11- jointed.
Fore and middle coxae cylindrical or spheroidal. Tarsi 5-
jointed. Abdomen of 5 — 6 segments.

Generation annual.

Larvae long, cylindrical, soft-skinned, white, free from hair,
and 6-legged. They are generally found in logs of timber in
depots and dockyards, or in stems of trees. The beetles fly
round the trees and timber in June and July, and lay their
eggs in cracks in the bark. Chiefly dangerous to broad-
leaved trees.

Lymexylon navale, L.

(a) Description. — $ 8 to 10 mm. long, black; elytra, abdo-
men, and legs yellowish-brown. $ 12 — 15 mm. long,

* For an account of protective treatment against wireworms, vide Miss
Ormerod op. cit., ed. ii., pp. Ill to 118.

216 PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

ochreous. The head, side-margins and apex of the elytra
are blackish ; the latter do not quite cover the abdomen.
Larva white, with a fleshy hump on the last segment.

(b) Lif e -history. —ThQ beetle flies on warm days from the
beginning to the middle of July. The eggs are laid on large
broken tree- stumps, or on large barked oak logs, but never on
sound standing trees. The larvae eat galleries into the wood
of about 1 mm. in diameter and deflected at right angles
every few inches. The vertical burrows are somewhat
crooked, but the horizontal ones are quite straight. This
insect is chiefly injurious in timber depots and dockyards.

In 1746, Linnaeus found the damage done to oak-timber in
the Gothenburg harbour so great that he exclaimed how
wonderful it was that so small a worm could do yearly so
many thousands of dollars' worth of injury. His advice to
the King of Sweden, at whose command he investigated the
injury, was to sink the affected timber under water before the
flight-time of the insects.

Lymexylon is scarce and local in Great Britain, but is liable
to be imported in continental oak-timber.

(c) Protective rules. — Smearing felled timber with tar, when
attacks are feared.

A similar species, Hylecoetus dermestoides, L., lives chiefly
in the stumps of felled trees ; it is locally common in Great
Britain, chiefly in Sherwood Forest, but has never proved so
destructive as Lymexylon to timber of commercial value.

FAMILY V. — ANOBIIDAE.
Description of Family.

Imagos small, cylindrical, similar to bark-beetles, with a
cowled prothorax which conceals the upper part of the head.
Antennae slender, pectinate or clubbed, more rarely serrate,
8 to 11 -jointed, folded under the prothorax when the insect is
at rest. Fore and middle coxae cylindrical or spheroidal;
tarsi mostly 5-jointed, but 4-jointed in the case of many
species. Abdomen with 5 ventral segments. Generation
often lasting several years. The beetles when disturbed lie
motionless as if dead.

WEEVILS. 217

Larvae strongly curved, somewhat square in transverse
section, whitish, hairy and 6-legged. The beetles appear in
the spring or early summer.

The beetles and larvae live chiefly in rotten wood, partly in
standing trees, where they eat out galleries which cross one
another ; also in the pith of young pine-shoots, as for instance,
Ernobius nigrinus, Er. ; in spruce cones, AnoUum aUetis,
Fabr., and others. They also live in fungi, in the woodwork
of houses, and in furniture, for instance, Anobmm pertinax,
L., and A. do;?/esfetw,Fourc., a small brown beetle 2 lines long,
known on account of the ticking noise it makes as the " death-
watch."

Xestobium tesselatum, Fabr.

Imago 5 to 6 mm. long, convex, subcylindrical, dark-brown,
very finely and closely punctured, and dappled with patches
of short greyish-yellow hairs.

The imago and larva bore into and riddle the wood of
old standing trees (oak, beech, sycamore, etc.) and also the
timber-work of churches and old houses. Locally common in
England.

The attack of Anobiidae on trees generally begins at an old
wound, particularly on the stump of a branch.

Treatment — The removal of attacked stems. Careful
and timely dressing of exposed wounds and branch-stumps
with tar.

FAMILY VI. — CURCULIONIDAE (WEEVILS).

Description of Family.

Imagos small or of medium size, with the head produced
into a straight or bent rostrum or snout, at the end of which
are the small mouth-parts. Antennae nearly always elbowed,
8 to 12-jointed, with a club of very variable structure ; their
basal joint is capable of being folded into a groove or scrobe
in the snout. Elytra broader than the thorax. Fore coxae
spheroidal or conical, hinder coxae small and transverse.
Legs stout, the thighs sometimes adapted for leaping. Tarsi
4-jointed, the last joint but one being generally heart-shaped,

218 PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

or bilobed. Abdomen of 5 segments, of which the two first
are generally larger and united. Many species have no wings.
Generation usually annual, but it may last for two years, or
two broods may occur in one year.

Larvae ttfSck-set, cylindrical, curved ventrally, the head
horny, the body soft-skinned, wrinkled and thinly hairy,
whitish and without feet.

Pupae recognisable by the conspicuous snout and antennae,
generally with two posterior pointed processes. The larvae
and beetles eat the roots, bark, bast, wood, leaves, blossoms,
fruits or seeds of forest trees.

There are no galleries made by the parent beetles for ovi-
position, but the eggs are placed in situ by means of the
snout. Some species are very destructive. Most of the
beetles drop to the ground from the plant at the slightest
shaking.

1. Apoderus coryli, Fabr.

a. Description.

The beetle is 6 to 8 mm. long, bright red, with the head,
antennae, a median spot on the prothorax, and the underside
black. The elytra are rather short and much wider than the
narrow prothorax, with rows of strong punctures.

b. Life-history, etc.

The ? in May cuts the leaves of various broadleaved trees
by a transverse incision made towards the
base and reaching the mid-rib. She then
rolls the terminal part into a thick cylin-
drical roll, in which a single yellow egg is
laid. The larva feeds on the interior of the
roll, which subsequently becomes detached,
and when mature it pupates in the ground.
Fig. 83. — Oak-leaf , The beetle is locally common, though
rolled up by A. cur- neyer abunflant chiefly on hazel, also

cuhonoidcs, L. "

(Natural size) on a^er, oak, beech and hornbeam; it

frequents young shrubs and undergrowth,

and in the perfect state feeds by gnawing holes in the leaves.

WEEVILS.

219

When injurious it may be collected by shaking, and the
rolls may be picked off.

Attelabus curculionoides, L., a very similar insect with almost
smooth elytra, is locally common on oak and sweet-chestnut,
chiefly on undergrowth.

2. Rhynchites betulae, L.
a. Description.

This beetle is 4 to 5 mm. long, black and slightly hairy ;
rostrum hardly longer than the head ; elytra
broad with deep coarsely punctured striae;
posterior femora strongly dilated in the $ .

b. Life-history, etc.

The ? in May cuts the leaves of birch
and other trees on both sides down to the
mid-rib in a curved line, beginning near the
base of the leaf ; she lays an egg on the edge
of the leaf in a little pocket made in the leaf
by removal of a bit of its epidermis, and then
rolls up the two sides over one another, so
that the gg lies in the middle of the roll,
which is open at both ends.

The larva feeds on the roll, and in the
autumn falls to the ground with it, and pupates in the soil.

The beetle prefers the birch, on which species thousands of
these rolls may be found ; but it also attacks beech, poplars,
alder, hazel, etc. It is common, and widely distributed in
Britain.

Fig. 84. — Birch-
leaf, rolled up by
R. betulae, L.
(Natural size.)

c. Protective Rules.

The rolls may be collected and destroyed.

E. betuleti is very destructive to vines, and also attacks
many broadleaved trees, as birch and hazel; and R. populi,
L., attacks poplars and aspens. Both are local in Great
Britain.

220 PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

3. Strophosomus coryli, Fabr.
a. Descriptwn.

The beetle is 4 to 6 mm. in length, short and thick, with
the elytra convex and suhspherical ; covered with close-lying
mottled brownish-grey scales, except over the base of the
suture, which is black and bare ; prothorax with a fine median
furrow ; antennae and legs ferruginous.

b. Life-history, etc.

Pairing takes place in June, and oviposition follows on
small roots near the surface of the soil. The larvae lie under
the surface-covering, especially in dry places, pupating in July
and the beginning of August. The perfect insects are dis-
closed in August and September. They are wingless, and
ascend trees by climbing, beginning in early spring to feed on
the needles and bark of young pines and spruce (by preference
about two years old). This insect, which is abundant both
in conifer woods and in those of broadleaved trees, is
occasionally very injurious.

c. Protective Rules.

Thorough grubbing-up of stumps and root-stocks ; employ-
ment in cultivations of well- grown and not too young plants ;
trap-ditches ; the collection of the beetles in August and Sep-
tember under pieces of bark on the ground, which are kept
down with stones and visited daily. Collection of the perfect
insects from the plants by shaking, which should be done in
the spring ; the beetles drop readily.

S. obesus, Marsh., and S. limbatus, Schonh., are allied species
of similar appearance and habits.

Various other species, as Sitones lineatus, L., and the Phyl-
lobii, weevils covered with bright or dull green scales, also eat
buds and shoots, chiefly of broadleaved trees. The usual
treatment is the collection, by shaking, of the insects at the
time of the injury.

WEEVILS.

221

4. Balaninus nucum, L. (Nut-weevil).
a. Description,

Beetle 6 to 8 mm. long, oval; black and covered with
yellowish-grey hairy scales. Eostrum very long, thin and
curved, reddish-brown. Legs dark rust-brown, with greyish-
yellow hairs.

T). Life-history, etc.

The beetle pierces hazel and other nuts with
whilst the shell is still green, from May to
July, making in each nut a single hole as if
pierced by a needle, in which an egg is laid.
The larva (maggot) eats about half the kernel
of the nut, and falling to the ground with
the ripe fruit in autumn, gnaws its way out
of the shell, and pupates in the earth till
next spring. The perfect insect emerges in
the summer. Worm-eaten nuts may be
distinguished by either of the holes in them.

The species is common and may diminish
the seed yield. An allied species, B. glandium,
Marsh., chiefly attacks acorns.

its proboscis,

Fig. 85.— Hazel-
nut, bored by
£. nucum, L.
(Natural size.)

a Hole made by the
parent beetle.

b Exit - hole of
larva.

c. Protective Rules.

Collection and destruction of the nuts which fall earliest
(those infested with larvae). Collection of the beetles by shak-
ing. Titmice attack the green nuts to reach the larvae.

5. Orchestes fagi, Gyll.
a. Description.

he Beech leaf-miner beetle is 2'5 to 3 mm. long ; black,
with fine grey hairs. Elytra with striae of conspicuous, coarse
punctures ; rostrum depressed under the body ; antennae and
legs bright brown. Hind-legs adapted for leaping, their
femora thickened and furnished with a small tooth before the
apex.

222 PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

b. Life-history, etc.

The ? lays her eggs one by one on the under surface of unde-
veloped beech leaves, etc., biting holes for the purpose under
the epidermis, near the mid-rib. The larva hatches in the
month of May and bores in the leaf-parenchyma either
towards the terminal point of the leaf, or sideways, forming a
winding tunnel which continually increases in size till it
becomes a large patch. The parts which have been eaten, at
first whitish, become finally brown. Pupation takes place

Fig. 86.— Beech-leaf attacked by O.fagi, Gyll. (Natural size.}
a Commencement of larval mine by a gallery, which widens at b into an irregular
space, c Pupa in a bladder-like cocoon, d Holes of various sixes gnawed by the
beetles.

near the border of the leaf, between the upper and lower
epidermis of the area which has been eaten by the larva.

In June the beetle emerges, and passes the winter under
the dead leaves on the ground.

When the larvae of this insect are abundant, the foliage of
the beech trees appears reddish-brown, just as if it had been
frozen by a late frost.

The beetle shortly after emergence has been known to feed
on various substances ; for instance, fruit (cherries, raspberries,
gooseberries), cauliflowers; it also pierces the capsules of beech
nuts, causing them to open before the seed is ripe. In the
early summer it riddles the beech leaves with small holes, and
gnaws the female flower-buds.

WEEVILS. 223

The insect attacks woods of all ages, but prefers old to
young growth, and especially trees bordering the wood, or
isolated trees, as shelter trees in a regeneration felling. It
appeared in the Palatinate in 1869 in such numbers that in
many beech woods scarcely a leaf was left uninjured. In the
Spessart, in 1888, the beetle seriously reduced the rich beech-
mast. In 1898, the beech leaf-miner was extremely abundant
in beech woods, all over Germany. It is common in Great
Britain. No protective measures other than the encourage-
ment of insectivorous birds are practicable. The beetle is too
active to be captured in numbers.

6. Orcliestes quercus, L.

Beetle reddish-yellow, covered with grey hair, and with black
eyes and breast, hinder thighs with
serrate teeth. It attacks the oak
just as the preceding beetle attacks
the beech. It is commonest on
suppressed oak undergrowth, under
Scots pines, etc.

7. Cryptorrhynchus lapathi, L.

a. Description.

Beetle 7 to 8 mm. long, and very Fig ^ _Cryptorrhynchm
characteristically coloured ; thorax lapathi, L.

and the basal two-thirds of the

elytra dark brown or black, with patches of erect black scales ;
flanks of the thorax, the anterior part of the under surface,
the apex of the elytra and the femora thickly covered with
white scales. The rostrum can be folded into a furrow under
the thorax.

I. Life-history.

The beetle flies at the end of April and in May. The eggs
are laid in May, in small holes gnawed in the bark of the
stem, or of the branches of alders, etc.

The larvae appear 14 days later, in May or June, and pupate
as a rule in autumn in their galleries. The beetle emerges in

224

PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

autumn, and passes the winter in these galleries or under
moss ; but occasionally its emergence is deferred till the
spring. Generation annual, sometimes lasting 2 years.

c. Relations to the Forest.

The black and white alder are preferred by it, then willows ;
but poplars and birch are also attacked. If attacking alder it

selects young stems (2 to 4
years old), but older trees in
the case of willows. It is
therefore more dangerous to
the alder, and especially the
black alder. Willow-cuttings
are also attacked without
respect to species, and care-
less coppicing giving rise to
gnarled stools increases the
danger of infestation.

The insect is injurious both
as a larva and imago.

The beetle eats the bark
of young annual shoots down
to the sap-wood. The larva
then gnaws under the bark,
and bores obliquely upwards
or downwards into the wood
and often to the pith, thus
ruining the young stems,
which die or break off (Figs.
88 and 89); in the latter
figure the galleries of the
larvae have been exposed.

The attack is indicated by discoloration and swelling- up of
the bark, and later on by its depression over the points of
injury, and by the brown wood-dust which is ejected from the
burrows, or has fallen to the ground.

The beetle attacks and kills isolated stems along the banks
of streams where the localities are not too dry, and since
1830, it has been common near Tharand in Saxony. In

Figs. 88 and 89. — Larval burrows of

C. lapathi, L., in Alder stems.

(Natural size.')

PINE-WEEVIL. 225

Britain it is somewhat local, though not uncommon where
it occurs.

d. Protective Rules.

Infested plants and coppice-shoots should be cut down by
the end of July and burned.

The beetles should be knocked off the trees on to cloths.
This should be done carefully, as the slightest shaking of the
trees induces the beetles to fall and lie as if dead on the
ground, where they may escape observation.

^ Vl

Yi

Fig. QQ.—Hylobii(s abietis, Fabr.
a Imago. b Larva. c Pupa.

8. Hylobius abietis, Fabr. (Pine-iveevil).*
a. Description.

Beetle 8 to 13 mm. long, of strong build, pitchy-brown, with
2 or 3 golden (rarely pale yellow) irregular stripes across the
elytra, and a few spots of the same colour near their apex.
Head with a strong, somewhat curved rostrum, thorax
gradually narrowed from the middle to the apex, with coarse
confluent punctation and a slightly elevated median ridge,
clothed with patches of thick hair ; elytra thrice as broad as
the base of the thorax, and somewhat elevated at the shoulders.
Legs brown, the femora toothed below (by which it may be
distinguished from Pissodes pini, L., which otherwise greatly
resembles it), and generally darker than the tibiae.

* The most valuable account of this very destructive forest insect is by
Oberforster von Oppen, " Untersuchungen iiber die Generationsverhaltnisse des
Hyl. abietis" "Zeitschr. fr. Fret. u. Jgdw." 1885, pp. 81 and 141.

F.P. Q

226

PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

b. Life-history.

The chief swarming period of this beetle, which lives from
1 to 2 years, is in the spring or early
summer (May or June) ; hut pairing
and reproduction go on throughout the
whole of the warmer season up to Sep-
tember, so that no real period for
swarming exists. Copulation generally
takes place on the ground.

The eggs are laid from May to Sep-
tember on stumps and roots of the
Scots pine and spruce, preferably on
ljl/l: those of trees felled about 18 months

: -f 1 before. The under-surface of roots—
and especially of those which project out

I HI \ of the ground — is preferred. Hiber-

nating beetles continue egg-laying in
the spring.

The larvae appear after 2 to 3 weeks,
and up to the middle of October eat gal-
leries sometimes a metre long (Fig. 91)
in the bast and sap wood of the stumps
and roots ; the burrows continually
increase in breadth, and are filled with
wood-dust. The larvae, at least those
which have been hatched in the autumn,
pass the winter at the end of these
galleries. They do no injury of any
economic importance, their sources of
food being confined to valueless wood.

In the following spring, after having been
dormant for about 9 months, the larvae
pupate in the stump or roots, in a cocoon
constructed of wood-fibres and boring-
dust. The pupal state lasts about 2 to 8
weeks. The perfect insects emerge from
May till September of the second year.
The period of disclosure thus extends
over four months, corresponding to the

Fig. 91. — Scots piue root
bored by H. abietis, L.

a Boring free from wood-
dust.

b Boring full of wood-dust.

c Longitudinal section of
pupal chamber.

d Transverse section of
pupal chamber.

e Flight hole.

/ Entrance to pupal cham-
ber closed with bitten
wood.

PINE-WEEVIL. 227

season of pairing. Those beetles which emerge during the
autumn do but little injury, as they do not appear in such
numbers as in the spring ; except for a few belated individuals,
they proceed at once to copulate. Nearly the whole summer
through both larvae and images may be found. The latter
pass the winter under moss, dead leaves, in the ground, in
hollow stumps, under stacks of wood, etc. Von Oppen found
that they prefer to winter in dense thickets of 10- to 15 -year-
old plants rather than in older woods.

The generation lasts generally one year only, but may
extend to 15 months ; only under very favourable climatic
circumstances can it be less than a year.

The beetle frequently appears in extraordinary numbers on
felling-areas, where it is bred, and in plantations which it
destroys. It is very common in most pine woods throughout
Great Britain.

It rarely if ever flies, moves slowly along the ground, and
in times of great heat or cold conceals itself in grass, refuse of
felled trees, earth, etc.

c. Relations to the Forest.

This species is important in the perfect state alone, by the
injuries it inflicts on young coniferous plants ; weakly Scots
pine and spruce of 3 to 6 years old are preferred, but younger
plants, even yearlings, are attacked, and exceptionally other
conifers (black and Weymouth pines, Douglas fir, silver-nr
and larch). Even broadleaved trees are attacked, chiefly
oaks and other species planted in old coniferous woods, or
employed as a shelter-wood for Scots pine. The insect is
therefore clearly polyphagous.

The damage is done from May to September, the bark of
the young plants being gnawed all along the stem, down to
the rootstock. The bast or sapwood is exposed in patches,
which may be as large as a bean, and resin exudes from the
torn walls of the points of attack. More of the outer bark is
always removed than of the bast, so that the injuries appear
as irregular and shelving erosions of the surface.

Frequently in this way the young trees are girdled, and
very small plants are completely peeled, up to their crown.

228

PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

In the case of the Scots pine the attacks of the beetle cause
the development of numerous shoots from dormant buds ; the
spruce is sooner killed than the pine.

On plants over six years old, only those parts from 1 to 5
years old are attacked, as the six-year-old bark is too hard for
the insect.

The damage done is much greater in the spring than late in
the summer or in the autumn.

Figs. 92, 93, and 94. — Youug spruce plants gnawed by //. abictis, Fabr. (Natural
size.} In Fig. 94, a indicates the gnawed parts, b those still covered with bark.

Freshly planted, extensive, sunny clearings near old woods
are preferred by the beetle; especially those in which the
stumps have been left in the ground, or not thoroughly
extracted. The beetle does not appear at altitudes over 3,000
to 8,300 feet.

d. Protective Rules.

The best means of prevention consist in supplying this
destructive insect with as little opportunity as possible for

PINE-WEEVIL.

229

breeding, in order to prevent its swarming in certain localities
in the spring. The following are recommended : —

i. Establishment of small feeding-areas, as if these are
extensive the reproduction of the beetle is greatly facilitated.

• Care must, however, be taken not to go too far in sub-
dividing the felling-areas, as each area is a breeding place for
weevils.

ii. Interruption in the order of successive fellings, so that
when a felling has been made no adjoining area shall be felled
till after the lapse of 3 to 5 years. In this way fresh breeding
material is not afforded close to that of the previous year.

N.

Wind

W

m.

I.

-direction.

-r>~

JO

6

2

9

5

\

12

8

H.
*

\\

n

EL
3

Direction oi

-^—

.
felling.

s.

Fig. 95. — Arrangement of fellings as described in ii.
N. E. S. W. Points of compass.

Fig. 95 shows such a distribution of felling-areas, where
fellings in adjoining areas come every three years.

iii. Timely and complete extraction of stumps and roots
from felling-areas in coniferous forests, in order to reduce as
much as possible the number of breeding places for the ? .
This is the most effective measure of all. The extraction of
the stumps must begin with the felling and be finished by the
commencement of the next winter. It is better to grub up
the trees with the roots attached than to fell the trees first and
then extract the stumps and roots, and the former method has
been followed for many years in Hesse and Nassau with very
good results as regards the diminution of the numbers of
weevils.

230 PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

iv. The felling-areas should be rapidly cleared of all refuse,
and all sickly and dominated undergrowth should be removed
before the area is planted up, as such growth affords very
favourable shelter for the weevils.

v. It has been proposed by Heyer and other authorities
that planting should not be attempted until one or two years
after the felling. By this time it is hoped the remains of the
roots will have dried up and become unsuitable for breeding
places. Dr. Hess considers that this involves too great a
sacrifice of time and interest on capital, even if it avoids the
necessity for replacing 50 per cent, of the plants, and also
that the consequent deterioration of the soil entails more
expense than the cost of replanting the failures. He estimates
that an interval of at least 3 years, instead of 1 or 2 years,
is requisite to cause the roots to dry up and become incapable
of serving any longer as breeding places.

vi. Strong transplants should be used, together with 1 to 2
years' temporary field crops. Ball and mound planting are
recommended, and Nordlinger prefers autumn planting, as the
plants are less liable than those put in in the spring to attacks
by the weevils. Temporary field-crops involve a thorough
working of the soil, and this requires complete eradication of
the roots of the former crop of trees.

In Saxony, wherever there is danger of an attack of weevils,
sowing in patches is preferred to planting.

vii. The plants may be dipped in a mixture of chalk and
water, up to half their length, before being planted. This,
near Coblentz, cost Is. Qd. per 1,000 plants and proved
successful. Plants in situ may also be dressed with cater-
pillar grease at the rate of 500 plants per day's work of ten
hours. The operator makes with his finger a small trench
round each plant, greases the stem and top of root, and then
heaps the earth again around the plant.

viii. Broadleaved trees may be mixed with the conifers.

ix. Sheep may be fed over the felling-area, as their
droppings are obnoxious to the beetles.

x. Protection of insect-enemies : the fox, rook, crow, jay,
starling, etc. The Nematoid worm, Allantonema miralrile,
is parasitic on this weevil. It lives in the abdomen of

PINE-WEEVIL. 231

the beetle and produces living young. They come out
and grow in the ground into a form of Rhabditis that
lays eggs. The worms from these eggs eventually enter the
Hylobius.

e. Remedial Measures.

i. Trenches to trap the beetle should be dug. These may
be utilised either for isolating the plantations, or merely for
catching the beetles. The isolating trenches are dug round
the felling-areas early in spring in order to separate them
from neighbouring cultivations, and to collect, the beetles
which may appear within their radius. The other class of
trenches for trapping the insects is dug within the felling-
areas. If this plan is followed, all cultivations are isolated.
The trenches must be kept in order, and repaired after rainy
weather ; all beetles which are found in them should be
collected daily and crushed. As many as 1,200 beetles have
been found in one of the holes made ten metres apart in such
trenches.

Unfortunately these very effective measures are not always
possible, for instance in stony or very loose ground, or on
steep slopes. The dimensions for the trenches are given on
p. 175.

ii. Artificial breeding-material may be supplied in June, in
the form of smooth-barked pine or spruce poles 3 to 5 feet
long and 2 to 4 inches thick, cut when in full sap and buried
in the ground at intervals of 30 paces apart, obliquely, so that
one end is 10 in. deep in the ground, and the other about 1
or 2 in. above the surface. In order that the bark may be
preserved intact, the holes must be dug beforehand and the
pieces of wood placed in them and covered with earth and
sods, which should be slightly trodden down.

These traps should be placed both the years before and after
a felling in the felling-areas, but are useless in cultivations ;
they should be carefully pulled out in September and October
and burned, so as to destroy the larvae they contain, and in
order that none of them may be overlooked, they should be
placed regularly, or a small stick should be stuck in the ground
by each of them.

282 PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

The principle involved is to provide artificial breeding-places
on areas where by careful contraction of stumps natural
breeding-places are about. The larvae are thus fixed in definite
localities, where they can easily be destroyed. Van Oppen in 6
years (1886 — 1891) protected 268 acres of felling-area in this
way, and on 1,373 poles found 91,400 larvae, the cost being Id.
per acre, or l$d. per pole.

iii. Traps made of pieces of bark lying on pieces of cloth
may be distributed about the felling-areas and cultivations
between the months of April and September, and must be
renewed two or three times during this period as they become
dry and cease to attract.

The best size is from 12 to 16 in. long X 6 to 8 in. wide.
They are placed with the bast downwards and sometimes
several one over the other, and pressed down with clods or
stones to keep them moist. They must be searched daily for
the beetles. From 25 to 50 are required per acre, according
to the abundance of the insects. Coniferous bark, and, by
preference, that of the Scots pine, should be used.

Children collect the beetles better and at a cheaper rate than
adults. It is a good thing to place fresh pine twigs from the
youngest shoots under the bark to attract the beetles, which
will be found eating these twigs when the bark is lifted up.

Wide flattish bottles containing a mixture of acetic acid,
wood-tar and turpentine may be placed in the ground, the
tops level with the surface and covered by a piece of bark.
The beetles are attracted by the smell, creep under the bark,
and fall into the bottles.

iv. Cultivations may be searched over for beetles by
children or labourers engaged in plantation work just before
the midday or evening rest, with good results, and at a very
slight expense.

The above remedial measures, if steadily pursued, will render
the attacks of these insects of no importance. The beetles
should be killed by crushing on a hard surface or by scalding.

In Germany, Hylobius pinastri, Gyll, a smaller species of
weevil, does similar damage to that caused by //. abietis, and
should be dealt with in the same manner. II. pineti, Fabr.,
attacks young larch in like manner. Neither is British.

P1SSODES NOTATUS. 233

9. Pissodes notatus, Fabr.
a. Description.

Beetle 7 to 8 mm. long, of a reddish-brown colour, and
irregularly sprinkled with bright- coloured squamous hairs ;
prothorax with about 8 yellowish-white spots, its hind-angles
acute ; elytra with impressed lines of punctures and two broad
ferruginous or whitish bands, the anterior one interrupted at
the suture.

1). Life-history.

Period of flight : April, May and June. The eggs are laid
in the two latter months, generally on the stems of young

Fig. 96. — Pissodes notatus, Fabr.
a and b Imago. c Larva. d Pupa.

coniferous plants and preferably on the lowest internodes, but
also on the trunk or roots of older plants, on felled trees and
stacks of firewood, and on cones.

The larvae appear 3 or 4 weeks afterwards, in June and July,
and live between the bark and wood, pupating in their burrows
at the beginning of August.

The beetles emerge from the middle of August to the end of
September, and hibernate at the roots, between cracks in the
bark, under moss, litter, or in the ground.

Larvae and pupae of this insect may also be met with during
the winter, and the beetles from these appear in the spring.
Generation single. The insect is widely spread, but less com-
mon than Hylobius. This is decidedly the case in Britain,

234

PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

Fig. 97. — Cocoons
of P. notatus,
Fabr., on the
stem of a young
pine. In the
portion covered
with bark a
square aperture
has been cut,
under which is
a flight-hole.
(Natural size.)

Fig. 98. — Pine-
cone from which
P.notattiSj'Fabr.,
has been bred.
(Natural size.)

where P. notatns is almost confined to the
conifer woods of Scotland.

c. Relations to the Forest.

The beetle in May or June pierces the
bark of Scots and black pines, more rarely
that of the Weymouth pine, spruce or larch,
near the rootstock down to the bark and sap-
wood, partly to feed on the sap, and partly to
lay its eggs there. It prefers 4- to 8-year-old
plants, but also attacks poles up to 30 years
of age. The perforations resemble fine needle
holes, and are very numerous.

The larvae eat their way between the wood
and bark in descending, slightly winding, and
constantly broadening passages, which become
filled with wood-dust ; at the extremity of the
burrows they construct oval cocoons made of
wood-fibres, out of which the beetle bores its
way.

The insect is more destructive in the larval
stage. Plants which are attacked may be
recognised in July by small drops of turpen-
tine on the bark, and by the reddening and
eventual death of the needles. If it has not
been girdled, a few green twigs may still be
noticed on the wilting plant.

The larvae also live in the younger cones,
often two or three together. Later on these
cones become yellowish-grey, and may be
recognised by the circular exit hole of the
beetle, which is about the size of No. 6 or
No. 7 shot.

d. Protective Rules.

i. All sickly plants and dominated stems
should be removed.

ii. All rootstocks should be ' grubbed up,
and all felling areas rapidly cleared.

iii. Woodpeckers should be preserved.

BARK-BEETLES. 235

e. Remedial Measures.

i. Young plants containing larvae should be pulled up and
burned in June and July.

ii. All poles which have been attacked should be felled and
barked.

iii. Billets of unbarked fir-wood should be laid about, as for
H. abietis, in order to attract the beetles for egg-laying. They
should be removed from the middle of June to the middle of
July and burned.

iv. Cones attacked by the insects, and recognisable by the
exuding turpentine, should be collected and burned.

10. Other Species of Pissodes.

Another species, Pissodes pini, L., attacks almost every
species of pine and also young spruce in a similar manner to
P. notatus. In Great Britain it is confined to Scotland, where
it is locally common. It is a rather larger insect, with the
anterior fascia on the elytra reduced to a few pale spots and
the posterior fascia much narrower. Other species of Pissodes
destructive to conifers in Germany are P. piniphilus, Hbst.,
on Scots pine; P. liercyniae, Hbst., on spruce, which has
been very destructive in the Harz and other forest districts in
Germany ; and P. piceae, 111., on the silver-fir.

FAMILY VII. — SCOLYTIDAE (BARK-BEETLES).*
Description of Family.

Beetles small and cylindrical, resembling the Anobiidae in
their general form. Head globose, rarely produced into a
short muzzle, and inserted deeply into the convex thorax;
antennae short, more or less elbowed, and terminated by a large
club, their funiculus composed of 2 to 7 joints. Legs short,
the tibiae spined or toothed on their outer border, the tarsi
with four evident joints, the third sometimes bilobed. Abdomen
of 5 segments, the two first of which are generally fused.

* Eichhoff, W., "Die Europaischen Borkenkafer." Berlin, 1881. The best
monograph on the Bark-beetles.

236 PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

Generation : usually annual, sometimes biennial, or extend-
ing over a year and a half. Larvae cylindrical, curved, with
tubercles bearing strong hairs, apodal, and. closely resembling
the larvae of weevils.

Pupae short and thick, with a few spines and hairs.

The larvae and beetles live almost exclusively in the bark,
bast or wood, more rarely in the pith, of our forest trees. They
attack roots, stems, branches, twigs and young shoots, and
young or old wood, preferring the latter. The kind of tree
which they attack, and the arrangement of their borings, is
usually characteristic of each species. The beetles penetrate
into the trees by boring a small entrance-hole, like a shot-
wound, through the bark. This is usually accomplished by
the ? , but in some polygamous species the $ enters the tree
and excavates in the bark a small pairing-chamber. From
this chamber, or from the entrance-hole, proceeds the gallery,
which is made by the £ , and in the outer surface of which a
few air-holes may be perforated. The galleries may be divided
into those constructed in the bark or alburnum, parallel to the
exterior surface of the tree, and those which run more or less
vertically into the wood ; the former may be subdivided into
longitudinal or transverse simple galleries, forked galleries, or
stellate galleries, the latter being formed by several ? boring
radially outwards from the circumference of a pairing-chamber.
The form of the gallery is in the main constant for each
species, but may be modified by the size of the stem which is
attacked, by the absence of knots, etc., or by the over-
abundance of insects boring in the same trunk. The ? lays
her eggs as a rule in small hollows bitten out alternately on
each side of the gallery she is gradually excavating, packing
them in with wood-dust. The larvae, after hatching- out, eat
galleries which radiate from the breeding gallery, becoming
gradually wider with the growth of the larvae, and filled with
wood-powder ; they pupate in a chamber formed at the end of
the gallery either in the bark, bast or sapwood. Finally the
beetles eat their way out through round holes — -flight-hole* —
of the diameter of their own bodies.

This is the general mode of life of the bark-beetles. The
larvae of those few species of Scolytidae which eat wood do not

BARK-BEETLES. 287

make regular galleries, but merely enlarge the egg chambers in
the wood of the tree, and the mature insects escape through
the bark by the original boring made by the mother.

Bark-beetles are specially addicted to conifers, and most of
these species are monophagous. An occasional departure
which they may make from this rule is to be looked upon as
an exception due to local circumstances. There are also
numerous species of these insects which feed solely on coni-
ferous trees or on broadleaved trees, but without attaching
themselves exclusively to a particular kind of tree. Even the
few polyphagous species show an individual preference for
either coniferous or broadleaved trees. There are no panto-
phagons bark-beetles, which eat herbaceous as well as woody
plants, whilst those which only attack herbaceous plants are
very few in number and without interest to the forester.

Bark-beetles prefer freshly felled stems, but also attack
standing trees; they then commence their attacks on sickly or
injured stems. A certain degree of warmth is necessary for
them, and the flight of, e.g., Tomicus typograpkut, L., begins
only when the air temperature is 68° F. Even the hardy
B. chcdgographus, L., requires a temperature of 61° F.

This family of the Coleoptera is generally regarded as the
most important which the forester has to guard against, owing
to the large number of very injurious species which it con-
tains. Fortunately, many of these are unknown in Britain,
or are so rare as never to have been classed among our
destructive insects.

Judeich and Nitsche distinguish the subfamilies of injurious
bark-beetles as follows : —

Tomicini. True bark-beetles: Head hidden beneath the
prothorax. Antennal funiculus 2 — 5-jointed. Tarsal joints
simple. Apical declivity prominent and generally toothed.

Hylesini. Bast-beetles : Head prominent, not concealed
beneath the prothorax. Antennal funiculus 5 — 7-jointed.
Third tarsal joint usually bilobed. Apical declivity without
teeth.

Scolyt'mi. Sapwood-beetles : Head prominent. Antennal
funiculus 7-jointed. Third tarsal joint bilobed. Scarcely any
apparent apical declivity.

238 PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

A. SUBFAMILY TOMICINI.
Description of Subfamily.

Head generally round, hidden beneath the thorax, and
scarcely visible from above. Antennal funiculus 2 to 5-jointed.
Thorax not contracted in front, convex or subspherical, its
surface covered in front with small asperate or tubercular
projections, behind usually punctate or smooth. Tarsal joints
simple, never bilobed, the first much shorter than the other
three together. Elytra sloping downwards at the apex, the

Fig. 99. -Tomicus typographies, L.
a Imago, b Larva, c Pupa.

sloping portion, termed the apical declivity, sometimes im-
pressed or excavate and often toothed. Under-surface of the
abdomen flat. There are 11 genera and 29 species recorded
from Britain.

They generally live between the bast and sapwood, some
entirely in the wood, and a few in the outer bark, and are very
common in coniferous forests.

1. Tomicus typographus, L.

a. Description.

Beetle 4*5 to 5'5 mm. long, stoutly built, dark brown or
blackish, shining, hairy, with testaceous antennae and legs.
Head with a small tubercle immediately over the mandibles.
Thorax as broad as long, its dorsal surface with rather fine
sparse punctation over the posterior half. Elytra with deeply

TOMICUS TYPOGRAPHIC.

239

impressed striae, somewhat finer posteriorly, the intervals flat,
not punctured except at the sides and apex ; apical excavation
dull and irregularly punctate, with four teeth on either side, of
which the third is the largest.

1}. Life-history.

Flight-time at the end .of April or in May, at higher altitudes
at the beginning of June. Under favourable circumstances a
second brood may appear in July or August. The beetles are
found in pairs boring into the trunks of large spruce trees
under the crown, especially on
the sunny side ; when they
reach the bast, they prepare a
breeding chamber ; after pairing
the ? excavates one or more
galleries running in the long
axis of the trunk, which besides
the original bore-hole, may con-
tain 2 to 5 air-holes. On the
right and left of the mother-
gallery she bites out little re-
cesses of the size of a poppy-seed,
and lays in each an egg, generally
to the number of 30 to 50, but
sometimes as many as 120,
which she covers with fine
wood-dust.

After 14 days the first larvae
appear in May and June, before the egg-laying is quite
completed, and eat out slightly winding galleries in the bast,
somewhat at right angles to the direction of the mother
gallery, pupating at their ends in a chamber in the bast.

The newly disclosed beetles leave the trees through round
holes in the bark in July or the beginning of August, and
hibernate in stumps, cracks in bark, under bark, and more
rarely in moss. When they come out early, before the end of
June and under other favourable circumstances, they at once
commence to lay eggs for a new brood, from which beetles
may appear during September at the latest.

Fig. 100.— Burrows of T. typographies,
L., in spruce-bark. (Natural size.)

Commencement of mother-galleries
with pairing-chamber (a) and egg-
(b).

240

PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

The entire development lasts on an average for 10 weeks,
which is thus distributed over the various stages : egg, 1J to
2 weeks ; larva, 2 weeks ; pupa, 3 weeks ; and imago, 3J to 4
weeks. When circumstances are very favourable they can

reach maturity in 6 or
8 weeks, but in very
unfavourable circum-
stances, damp cold
weather, or in shady
places, 12 to 13 weeks
are required.

The generation is
therefore either single
or double, but in moun-
tainous regions, such as
the Thuringian forest
and the Erzgebirge,
a double generation is
much rarer than in the
plains.

In rare cases where
there is abundance of
food and a very large*
swarm of beetles a
three-fold generation
has been observed.

This dangerous pest
has fortunately been
very rarely observed in
Britain, and has never
yet been recorded as a
destructive insect. Ob-
servations on the dura-
tion of its generation in

climate are therefore wanting, but it is probably an annual
As other insects, such as Xyleborus dispar, Hellw., which

Fig.

101. — Burrows of T. typographies, L., in

spruce-bark. (Natural size.)
Pairing-chamber (with entrance-hole).
Mother-galleries (vertical and forked).
Larval-galleries (widening outwards).

this
one.

* Von Kujawa often found in pieces of bark 10 cm. long and broad, as many
as 40 to 50 beetles, and 1,000 pairs of beetles attacking one tree in the spring
are capable of producing as many as 800,000 by the autumn.

TOMICUS TYPOGRAPHIC.

241

are normally rare in Britain, may occur unexpectedly in some
numbers and prove destructive, it is desirable that the forester

Fig. 102. — Burrows of T. typographies, L., in spruce-bark. (Natural size.)

a Pairing-chamber. c Air-hole. e Flight-hole.
b Mother-gallery. d Larval -galleries.

should be acquainted with the economy of such species as
the present, so as to be prepared to meet a contingent out-
break, which is by no means impossible. T. typographies, L.,
F.P. R

242 PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

may be imported from time to time in the bark of unseasoned
spruce-timber.

Bark-beetles are generally slow and lazy insects, which only
in very warm weather will fly to the top of trees. A flight of
them to remote places is therefore a rare occurrence, due to
over rapid multiplication and want of food.

c. Relations to the Forest.

The beetle, both as a larva and as a perfect insect, does
physiological damage to conifers.

It chiefly attacks old spruce trees, generally those between
80 to 100 years old, and very seldom when under 50 years.
It is said to have been found quite exceptionally on larch and
Scots pine and on the Cembran pine. Even if, in these
cases, it has not been confused with the extremely similar
species T. amitimts, Eichh., on the larch, and T. ceuibrae,
Heer, it must be admitted that T. typographies only appears in
swarms in spruce woods, and only attacks trees with thick bark.

The injuries are confined to the bast-layer, and are fatal to
the trees which are attacked.

The resulting disease is called spruce-canker. Symptoms
of the attack are — yellow or red discoloration of the needles,
greyness, loosening or falling off of the bark, numerous bore-
holes through its substance, and the presence on the trunk of
boring-powder ejected from the burrows.

Trees infested in the spring appear differently affected to
those injured in the summer. The needles change colour
rapidly in the former case ; in the latter the needles remain
green, even whilst the bark has alr.eady partially fallen
off. This depends on the difference in the movement and
composition of the sap at the different seasons of the year.
In the spring, the ascent of water from the ground is cut off
from the crowns of the trees by the destruction of the bast,
and the foliage at once begins to change colour. In the
summer, the descent of the supply of nutritive material
prepared by the leaves is cut off, while the crowns still get
the nutriment, hence the needles remain green while the
bast is killed. Nevertheless trees attacked in summer
eventually die.

TOMICUS TYPOGRAPHIC. 24-3

This species of Tomicus is therefore extraordinarily destructive
to spruce forests, and may be considered the most destruc-
tive of all European forest insects. The beetle prefers trees
freshly felled during the season of growth and also sickly
standing trees, but when it appears in large numbers, even
perfectly sound trees are attacked. It avoids barked logs, and
rarely attacks stools ; it utilises only the upper layers of fire-
wood-stacks for oviposition. Its favourite resorts are thinly
stocked woods, and the borders of felling-areas, generally in
sheltered, dry warm places with a southerly aspect. Its dis-
tribution extends far north and high on the mountains, which
it prefers to the plains ; it is hardy and but little affected by
unfavourable weather.

•
d. Protective Rules.

i. Spruce-trees should be grown only in suitable localities.
They should be mixed with silver-fir, and there should be early
and frequent thinnings.

ii. The woods should be inspected every May, and all sickly
trees should be removed.

iii. All rules applicable to the locality for protection against
windfall, snowbreak, etc., should be observed, as all broken
wood affords good breeding material for bark beetles.

iv. All broken wood should be speedily barked and worked
up, including semi-erect trees the roots of which have been
loosened by the wind. In this operation standing trees should
be injured as little as possible.

v. Damage by game, especially peeling, should be guarded
against.

vi. Extensive clear-cutting areas should be avoided, and the
felling areas should be cleared as soonlis possible. Above all,
the woods should be kept clean.

Small felling-areas as are usual in the Thuringian forests
should be adopted, in contra-distinction to the large felling-
areas in the Harz, where the insect has been notoriously
injurious.

vii. All logs intended to remain for any prolonged time in
the forest should be barked.

It is imperative that this should be done to all larger logs,

244 PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

but this work need not be carried out till May, in order that
the larvae, which may have developed in the logs may be
destroyed. Barking in May is also cheaper than in winter,
as the work is easier and the days longer. All large fuel logs
should be split so that their bark may be limited to narrow
strips. They should be stacked with the bark downwards.
Stools remaining in the ground should also be barked.

viii. Trap-trees should be prepared for felling (see e, i.).

ix. All enemies of bark-beetles should be preserved. Tom-
tits, golden-crested wrens and woodpeckers are most important
in this respect. When a swarm of bark-beetles is approaching
extinction, ichneumon-wasps appear in great numbers.

e. Remedial Measures.

i. Trap-trees should be felled from March till September,
and should be barked and the bark burned as soon as the
larvae are full-grown. Old or somewhat dominated spruce-
trees with small crowns should be chosen, especially when the
root-stock has been somewhat loosened from the soil by the
wind, as such trees are more readily attacked by the beetles.
In the spring, whilst the weather is still damp, it is sufficient
to fell new trap-trees at intervals of from 5 to 6 weeks, but in
summer this should be done at least once a month. The local
flight-periods should be followed in this respect, and from 8 to
14 days before trap-trees are barked fresh ones should be felled.

In order to facilitate control the trap-trees should be
numbered, and a register kept up to record the development of
the beetles. Cogho reckons 5 trap- trees for 100 paces along
the boundaries of the felling areas.

Eatzeburg recommends that the trap-trees should not be
deprived of their branches, and that they should be placed on
stumps or stones, so that the beetles may bore in from below
as well as from above. Most authors agree with this advice,
but Fischbach recommends the lopping off of the branches, as
then the trees dry up the sooner, and he also maintains that
the bark-beetles only attack lopped trees, which is contrary to
experience. Hess recommends that the branches be left, both
on account of the cost of lopping, and because numbers of
bark-beetles of other species are attracted to them. The

TOMICUS TYPOGRAPHIC. 245

trap trees should be barked at latest as soon as pupation of the
larvae has occurred, and all the bark must be burned.

If the barking be longer deferred, some of the beetles will
escape, and if it be done too early too many trap- trees will be
required, or the beetles will oviposit in standing trees.

The bark must be carefully removed over cloths, and this
should be done on cool moist mornings, as the beetles are
then most inert.

It is not sufficient to expose the bark to the effects of the
sun ; this may kill larvae which are really exposed, but in the
case of thick bark many would escape, and pupae from which
beetles are just ready to emerge would not be killed,

It is best to burn the bark during cool weather in natural
hollows, or in trenches, and to surround them with a wall of
glowing embers, so as to kill any beetles which might happen
to creep out. The smaller branches and twigs should also
be burned, as they generally contain many other smaller
but dangerous bark-beetles, such as T. clialcographus, L.
T. typography*, L., may also swarm in the branches.

It is no use burying the bark at a less depth than 16 to
18 in., as the beetles can find their way out from shallower pits.

ii. All standing spruce which shows signs of having been
attacked should be felled and barked in June, and the bark
burned.

iii. In the case of a large swarm of these beetles, all trees
attacked must be felled, the larger logs barked and the
remainder made into firewood or charcoal. All recently
attacked trees should be felled first, as the beetles have
probably left the trees which have been long attacked.

Some details may be given of the latest plagues of bark-beetles
in the Bavarian and Bohemian forest (1872-76).* In the
former about 24,500,000 c. feet of wood was killed in six
forest-ranges. The beetles were occasionally so numerous as to
obscure the sun. Accompanying T. typographic, L., were
T. chalcograplim, L., T. pityographus, Etzb., T. autograplms,
Fab., Hyl. palliatus, Gyll, etc. In the Finsterau range 1,000
woodmen were engaged to fell and bark the trees, and, as local
labour was insufficient, Bohemians and Italians were recruited
for the work.

246 PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

In the Bohemian forest, the damage done was even on a
larger scale : between 1872 and 1874, on 9,012 hectares (22,530
acres), 3,632,050 cm. (127,964,000 c. feet) of wood, or about
450 c. feet per acre, were felled. Thus altogether in Bohemia
and Bavaria 152,500,00 c. feet of wood was killed by these
insects. The calamity attained its maximum in 1874 and
ended in 1876.

After a severe windfall in the Vosges Mountains, in February,
1903, T. typoyraphus, L., attacked the spruce woods, especially
in the Communal forest of Gerardmer, where, on 250 acres,
6,216 spruce trees were killed in 1904, and were immediately
felled, and the bark with the larvae burned. In 1905, about
half that number of trees were attacked, and also felled by
State agency, as well as all weakly trees on the threatened
area. These latter and all windfalls were left lying as tree-
traps, and were eventually infested with larvae. They 'svere
carefully watched, and when full of larvae were barked and
the bark exposed to the sun. At the same time, larvae of
Staphylinidae (Homalium pusillum, Grv.), carnivorous beetles,
were found in the galleries of the bark beetles (De Gail).

2. Tomicus amitinus, Eichh.

a. Description.

Imayo 4 to 4' 5 mm. long. It greatly resembles the foregoing
species, from which it can be distinguished as follows : — Head
without frontal tubercle; interstices be-
tween the elytral striae punctured through-
out ; apical excavation with a silky lustre,
with regular rows of punctures.

b. Lift-history, etc.

Similar to the foregoing species, but
besides spruce the beetle attacks Scots
pine and larch more frequently than
T. typographus, L. Its mother-galleries
are bifurcating and frequently stellate ;
. the larval galleries start at an oblique
angle to the former, and run in a zigzag direction, and

* " Der Borkenkaferfrass im Bbhmerwaldc." Allg. Frst. u. Jgdzstg., 1874, p. 349.

248

PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

both galleries are more in the sapwood, whilst those of T.
typographies, L., are confined to the bast. The insect, which
is more active than T. typographic, L., is often commoner
on the Continent. It is at present unknown in Britain, but
is, perhaps, as likely to occur in injurious numbers as its
congener, and is certainly a worse enemy to the Scots pine.

c. Protective Rules.

As in the former case, but in mixed coniferous forests,
besides spruce, Scots pine and larch trap-trees should be
felled.

c? ' . ?

15/1 15/1

Figs. 105 aud 106. — Tomicns chalcographus, L.

3. Tomicus (Pityogencs) chalcographus, L. (Small 6-toothed

Spruce Bark-beetle).

a. Description.

Beetle 2 mm. long. Very shining, almost glabrous, either
entirely bright reddish brown, or with the thorax and the base
of the elylra dark brown. Prothorax contracted towards the
apex, its posterior half scantily punctured, with a smooth
median line. Elytra with fine punctured striae, their inters-
tices mostly smooth and impunctate, apical excavation narrow
and deeply impressed, its elevated sides armed with 3 teeth
on each elytron, which are larger in the $ than in the ? .

I. Life-history.

Season of flight: April and May. The eggs are laid in
spruce-bark. The larvae appear in May and June ; pupation
follows in June and July, and the newly-hatched beetles bore

TOMICUS CHALCOGRAPHUS.

249

their way out generally in July. The insect may hibernate
in the larval, pupal or imago stage ; the generation is usually
annual, sometimes twice in the year.

T. chalcographus is much less rare in Great Britain than
T. typographic. It is, however, local and not usually common,
resembling in this respect many other insects that feed on the
spruce, which is not an indigenous tree. On the Continent it
generally accompanies the two preceding species.

c. Relatwns to the Forest.

This bark-beetle ordinarily attacks only the spruce. It has,
however, occasionally been found in silver-fir, larch and Scots
pine, and also on Weymouth, Cembran and mountain pines.

Fig. 107.— Stellate galleries of
T. chalcographus, L., with
egg-recesses, in spruce-bark.
(Natural size.}

Fig. 108.— Stellate galleries of T. chalcoyraphus, L.,
on spruce sapwood, radiating from the pairing-
chambers^), b Knots.
(Natural size. ~)

It is very fond of interrupted pole-woods about 40 years old ;
in the case of old trees it attacks only the branches and crown,
leaving the destruction of the bast of the stem to the larger
species. Exceptionally it may be found in 8 to 12-year-old
spruce thickets which have been attacked by fungi (Aecidium
abietinum, Alb. et Schw.).

The breeding-galleries are of characteristic stellate form,
consisting of 4 to 7 slightly curved arms, which run trans-
versely rather than longitudinally, groove the sapwood and
spring from a pairing-chamber excavated in the outer part of

250 PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

the bark. From each side of these extend the larval galleries
which run principally in the bast, marking the sapwood less
deeply.

The protective rules are the same as for T. typography*, L.

4. Tomicus stenoyraphus, Duft.

a. Description.

Beetle 6 to 8 mm. long. The largest species of Tomicus.
Elongate, cylindrical, shining, with long pubescence, brown,
with yellowish-brown antennae and legs. Prothorax longer
than broad, sparsely and moderately deeply punctured behind
the middle, with a wide, smooth median line. Elytra with
strong punctured striae, apical excavation deep, its elevated
margins furnished with 6 teeth on each elytron, of which the
3 upper ones Eire small, and the 4th is the largest.

b. Life-history.

Season of flight : usually somewhat later than for T. typo-
yraplim. It is found in May and again in August and
September.

It selects for oviposition large Scots pines with thick bark,
and generally fallen or freshly-felled trees, windfalls and stacks
of firewood ; rarely standing trees. The development resembles
that of T. typographic.

The larvae are found in June and July ; the pupae in July
and August ; the newly emerged beetles in August ancl Sep-
tember. The latter forthwith pair, and a new brood com-
mences. The insect hibernates under bark as an imago of
the first or second brood.

Generation either annual or twice in the year.

c. Relations to the Forest.

The beetle attacks the Scots pine, and prefers old trees
with thick bark. It has also been observed on black and
cluster pines, and very rarely on spruce. In the absence of
old woods it has here and there attacked poles 20 to 30 years
old. The attack is on the bast, and resembles that of T. typo-
yraplnis, but is less regular, and the breeding galleries are long

TOMICUS LARICIS. 251

and wide. Sometimes the numerous larval galleries coalesce,
in which case the brood live together and completely under-
mine the bark. This beetle is more frequent in the plains
than in the mountains, and may be considered rare. In
Britain it has been found about as often as T. typographies, L.
The protective measures are the same as for that insect.

Fig. 109.— T. stenographic, Duft. Fig. 110.— T. Uriels, Fabr.

5. Tomicus laricis, Fabr,
a. Description.

Beetle 3'5 to 4 mm. long, of cylindrical shape, dark brown,
shining, thinly haired, with antennae and legs ferruginous.
Thorax scarcely longer than broad, its posterior half sparsely
punctured, with a less distinct median impunctate line. Elytra
with regular punctured striae, the interstices with single rows
of fine points, apical excavation almost circular, deep, its
elevated margin with from 3 to 6 short blunt teeth, and an
accessory tooth on the inner side of the 2nd and 3rd teeth.

Z>. Life-history.

Season for flight : April and May ; a second brood appears
in July and August.

The eggs are laid in the bark of various conifers. Stems
injured by a forest fire, or felled trees, are selected in preference
for egg-laying.

Larvae appear in June, and those of the second brood in
August or September. Pupation takes place in the bast in
June, July, and again in September and October.

252

PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

The first brood reaches maturity in July, and the second
brood in October. The beetles hibernate under the bark.

The generation is therefore double, and may be threefold in
.Southern France. The beetle is found almost throughout
Europe, and is common in most places. In Britain it is,

perhaps, the least rare species
of the genus, if Tomicus biden-
tatus, Hbst., be excepted.

c. Relations to the Forest.

The beetle does not by pre-
ference attack the larch, but
is found on all conifers, par-
ticularly on the Scots pine,
and then on the spruce, rarely
on larch or silver-fir. It attacks
poles and mature trees, and
exceptionally young growth.

The mother - galleries and
larval chambers are in the bast.
The former are generally ver-
tical, slightly curved or bent at
an angle at either end, with
2 to 4 air-holes (Fig. 105) ; the
larvae eat together in regular
family chambers, so that special
larval - galleries do not exist
(Fig. 105, a).

The beetle is said to gnaw young plants (Scots pine), near
the collum, but this statement requires confirmation.

Fig. 111.— Burrows of T. lands,
Fabr., in Scots pine bark. (Natural
size.)

a Mother gallery with eggs (e).
b Larvae feeding in family chamber.

d. Protective Rules.

(a) Prevention.

Keeping the forest clean, and rapid clearing of felling-areas.

(b) Remedial Measures.

i. Trap-trees as for T. typography*, L.

ii. Poles or logs used for traps stuck and placed into the

TOMICUS BIDENTATUS.

258

ground in March. These should be examined in June, and
those containing larvae should be burned.

iii. All young plants which may be attacked and which may
be recognised by the reddening of the needles, should be pulled
up in June and burned.

6. Tomicus (Pityogenes) bidentatus, Herbst.

a. Description.

Beetle 2 to 3 mm. long ; pitchy-black, somewhat shining,
with fine hairs ; antennae and legs ferruginous. Thorax con-

•Tomicus bidentatus, Hbst.

stricted in front, and rather deeply punctate behind, with a
smooth median elevated line. Elytra with rows of punctures,
impressed towards the sides only, apical excavation somewhat
deep in the $ , with a single strong hooked tooth on each
side ; in the ? the declivity is impressed on either side of the
suture, and the teeth are reduced to inconspicuous tubercles.

I. Life-history.

The ? lays her eggs in May and June in Scots pine woods,
on young plants, poles, branches, and on refuse on felling
areas. The pairing chamber is often furnished with short
prolongations which are breeding galleries commenced but
abandoned, and penetrates deeply into the sapwood. Portions
of the stems covered by thick bark are avoided.

254

PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

The larvae appear in June and July ; the second brood in
August and September.

Pupation : in July and August, in the bast or sap wood ; the
second brood, which hibernate as larvae,
pupate in the following May.

Flight-period : in August. The second
brood is mature by June of the following
year, and is followed by a third brood in
the autumn which winter in the beetle
stage.

The generation thus extends over
1J years. The beetle frequently appears
in company with T. lands, Fabr., and
is widely distributed. It is common in
conifer forests in Britain.

c. Relations to the Forest.
The common Scots pine is the chief
tree attacked by this bark-beetle. It
has, however, been also found in the
Weymouth, cluster and mountain pines,
and E. Hartig has noticed it on the
spruce. It prefers the plants of 6 to
12 -year -old cultivations, and only
attacks the branches and twigs of older
trees, where the bark is thin. As, how-
ever, it attacks branches which are
thoroughly sound, the crowns of trees
are considerably thinned out by this
beetle, especially when other bark-
beetles and longicorn beetles join in
the attack.

The bast and sapwood are both
attacked. The irregularly stellate
mother - galleries are generally 4 to
7-armed, rarely 3-armed. The branches of these galleries
run longitudinally rather than horizontally, and' have a
knotted appearance, as the egg chambers are large and
comparatively far apart. The larval galleries are somewhat

Fig. 114.— Burrows of T.
bidcntatus, Ilbst., on
pine sapwood. (Natural
size.)
a Pairing-chambers.

TOMICUS LINEATUS. 255

winding and sparsely distributed; both kinds of galleries may
be clearly seen on the sapwood, though those made by the
larvae are more marked in the bast.

This beetle readily attacks woods which have suffered
from fire. Trees which have been severely attacked may be
recognised by the yellowish colour of their crowns.

d. Protective Rules.

As for T. laricis, L. ; but trap-trees are useless. Instead
of these, branches may be used as traps, which should be
burned as soon as they are stocked with larvae, and replaced
by fresh ones every 4 to 5 weeks until the autumn. Poles
seen to be attacked by larvae should be immediately felled and
barked, and the bark burned.

7. Tomicus acuminatus, Gyll.

Beetle 3 to 4 mm. long ; brown, with yellow-grey pubescence.
Elytra regularly punctate-striate, the excavation circular,
acuminate at the apex of the suture, its elevated margin with
3 teeth on either side, the first a small tubercle, the last the
largest, and situate about the middle of the margin.

Life-history, etc.

This species chiefly infests the crown of full-grown or old
Scots pines. The mother-galleries consist of 3 to 5 branches,
radiating from a spacious pairing-chamber and grooving the
sapwood rather deeply when excavated in thin bark. The
larval galleries are twisted, frequently coming into contact or
even crossing, but as a rule scarcely marking the sapwood.

The species, though not very common in Europe, is not
rare in Scotland and the north of England, and must be con-
sidered as one of our injurious species. Its attacks must be
treated on the same lines as those of other species of Tomicus.

8. Tomicus lineatus, Oliv.

a. Description.

Beetle 3 to 4 mm. long, short and cylindrical, black, the
hinder part of the thorax and the elytra yellowish brown.

256 PROTECTION AGAINST INS ROTS.

The latter with three black hands each, along the suture, in
the middle and along the outer margin, of which the middle
hand is not always complete ; they are marked with rows of
large punctures ; apical declivity not impressed nor toothed.
Antennal club flattened oval, blunt at apex, without trace of
sutures.

b. Life -history.

The season for flight is in March and April, and again in
June and July.

The ? prefers felled trees, provided they are still sufficiently
moist, also windfalls, and sometimes stems still in the ground,
high stumps or broken trunks. A good
deal of care is shown in the selection of
breeding places, and the material must
be neither too fresh nor too dry. The
beetle rarely bores into cleanly barked
stems, and is only rarely found in stand-
ing healthy trees. The ? bores verti-
cally into the tree for an inch or more,
constructing one or more brood galleries
at the end of her tunnel, usually at
right-angles to the entrance burrow,
and alwavs transversely to the long axis ;
in the floor and roof of these galleries
she gnaws small cylindrical holes vertically into the wood for
the reception of the eggs, and after oviposition, she blocks
these holes with wood-dust, forming partitions between the
secondary and primary galleries. There are generally from
30 to 50 eggs/

The larvae appear in May, and those of the second brood in
July and August. They pupate in a cocoon of particles of
wood in July, and again in August and September.

The imagos appear about the middle of July, and leave
their birthplace through the old mother-gallery, after break-
ing through the partition, which remains intact up to that
time. They at once set to work to produce a fresh brood.
The species is widely distributed throughout Europe, but is
confined in Great Britain to a few localities in the Tay and

TOMICUS LINEATUS.

257

Dee districts of Scotland, where it has not as yet proved
injurious.

c. Relations to the Forest.

The beetle attacks all conifers, but chiefly the silver-fir and
spruce, and only large trees. The round-bored gallery pene-
trates at right angles to the axis of the tree. It consists of

Fig. 116.— Transverse sec-
tion of a spruce-stem (re-
duced) with burrows of
T. lineatus, Oliv. (Natural
size.)

a Entrance-galleries.

b Breeding-galleries.

Fig. 117.— Radial burrows of
T. lineatus, Oliv., in spruce-
wood. (Natural size.}

a Mother galleries.

b Larval galleries and pupal
chambers.

an entrance passage and breeding-gallery. The latter is either
merely a prolongation of the former, or is usually composed
of two branches, which generally follow the annual zone of
the wood in the same plane. It is rare that several annual
zones are traversed by it. The entrance gallery is generally
confined to the sap wood. The larvae on emergence feed on
the sap of the wood, and by gnawing extend their egg
chambers to short cylindrical tunnels in which they pupate.

F.P.

258 PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

In the secondary galleries, and on the partitions, white fungous
mycelia (Monilia Candida) appear, which are also devoured,
not, as was formerly supposed, because they are the chief food
of the larvae, but to clear the way for the larvae.

Later on, the walls of the galleries and the adjoining wood
become black owing to fungoid growth.

The beetles damage the commercial value of the wood, the
finest stems being frequently bored like a sieve, and rendered
useless for most purposes. The insect is most frequently
found in forests where much wood is broken by wind or snow,
and where there are winter-fellings.

d. Protective Rules.

i. Immediate removal of all sickly coniferous trees and
of broken wood and stumps from the forest. The latter
should at least be barked, if their timely removal is not
advisable.

ii. Felling in the growing season, and immediate removal
of the bark.

It may happen, when the beetle is in great numbers, that
barked trees may be attacked. If winter-felling cannot be
avoided, and barking is impossible, the wood should be
removed before March.

e. Remedial Measures.

i. Tree- traps may be felled in July and August to attract
the beetles about to lay. These trees must be barked and split
open to destroy the larvae, and fresh tree-traps provided
continually till October.

ii. Firewood may be used as traps, but must be removed
from the forest before the beetles come out.

9. Tomicus domcsticus, L.

a. Description.

Beetle 3 to 4 mm. long. Similar to the preceding species
but more elongate, with the prothorax entirely black ; the
elytra livid yellow, regularly punctate-striate, and impressed

TOMICIJS DISPAR.

259

at the apex on either side of the suture. Antennal club as in
the preceding species, but produced into a blunt angle on the
inner side of the apex.

b. Life-history, etc.

Similar to that of T. lineatus ; but less important on account
of its breeding chiefly in stumps and windfalls. It attacks not
conifers but broadleaved trees,
chiefly beech, oak and birch,
also lime.

The mother-galleries do not
branch as a rule, but run verti-
cally into the wood for two or
more inches. This insect is
not uncommon in large wood-
lands in Britain. If it injures
commercially valuable timber,
the forest should be cleared
of material containing the
insects ; spring felling is
desirable.

T. quercus, Eichh., is still

more like T. lineatus, Oliv., in appearance, but is distinguished
by having the antennal club angulate at the apex, as in
T. domesticus. In habits it resembles the latter species, but
is much less common in Britain, being almost entirely confined
to the neighbourhood of Sherwood Forest.

118.— Radial galleries of T.
ticus, L., in beech-wood.
(Natural size.)

10. Tomicus dispar, Fabr.
a. Descriptwn.

Beetle $ 2 mm. — $ 3 mm. long. Pitch-black, the antennae
and legs testaceous-red. $ short, convex, ovoid and very
hairy, with the thorax granular in front, punctured towards
the base, with a smooth median line. The ? cylindrical, its
thorax in front strongly asperate. Elytra strongly arched at
the declivity, with rows of deep punctures, and raised
tuberculate interstices between them.

s2

260

PROTECTION ACJAT-NST INSECTS.

I). Life-history.

The season for flight is in May. The ? bores into several
kinds of broadleaved trees to lay her eggs, in preference
below a branch, but never near the ground, attacking felled
wood and young standing trees.

The larvae appear in June, pupate in July in the secondary
galleries, and the beetles emerge in August. They hibernate
in the galleries, and there is only one generation. This beetle
not everywhere common on the Continent, and till recently was
regarded as one of the rarest British" insects. But since 1891
it has been destructive in certain Gloucestershire fruit-orchards.

9

12/i 'A

Figs. 119 and 120.— T. dispar, Fabr.

c. Relations , to the Forest.

Oak and fruit-trees, especially apple and pear, are chiefly
attacked ; also beech, hornbeam, birch, maple, ash, alder,
horse chestnut and plane.

The ? bores a vertical entrance-gallery into the tree, like
other species which enter the wood deeply, from which she
excavates one or more transverse secondary galleries along the
line of one of the annual rings ; from these again are con-
structed tertiary brood-galleries which run longitudinally
upwards or downwards. In the brood-galleries the eggs are
laid in clumps ; the larvae live in them, and do not bore but
feed on the exudations of sap and on the fungi which overgrow
the burrows. The galleries are bored at the height of the
growing season in the outer zones of the wood of perfectly

TOMICUS BISPAR.

261

healthy saplings, which become diseased and die. The
presence of the beetles may be detected by
the borings, and the whitish bore-dust heaped
up at the foot of the plant.

The beetle is very destructive in orchards,
and sometimes to young oak- saplings.

d. Protective Rules.

Unbarked orchard-props should not be
used, as it frequently happens that the
beetle finds its way from such props into
the fruit-trees.

e. Remedial Measures.

i. The entrance-holes to the burrows
should be smeared with tar.

ii. All plants which have been attacked
should be removed and burned.

iii. The beetles may be killed inside the
galleries with wire, and the bores blocked up
by wooden pegs. This method of treatment
is generally impracticable, but has been
adopted with success in orchards.

B. SUBFAMILY HYLESININI.
Description of Subfamily.

Head prominent and not concealed by the
prothorax, with a short and broad rostrum ;
antennae with a funiculus of 5 to 7 joints ;
thorax narrowed in front, uniformly punc-
tate on the back; first tarsal joint much
shorter than the other three together, the
third bilobed or heart-shaped (except in the
case of Potygraphu* pubescens, Er.) ; apical
declivity convex and without teeth ; under-
surface of the abdomen not abruptly flexed upwards.

Most species breed in the bast and especially frequent
conifers ; a few make pupal chambers in the sap-wood.

Fig. 121.— Bui-rows

of T. dispar, Fabr.,

in an oak-sapling.

(Natural size.)
a Entrance - hole,

usually under a

twig.

b Mother-galleries.
c Commencement of

lateral galleries.
d Completed lateral

galleries in which

the larvae lie.

262 PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

1. Hylastcs palliatus, Gyll.

a. Description.

Beetle 3 to 4 mm. long, of stout build ; thorax and elytra
reddish-brown and covered with fine grey hairs ; the former
broader than long, strongly constricted in front, densely and
coarsely punctured with a narrow median ridge. Elytra with
rather fine punctured striae, the interstices rugose, tuberculate,
and with a series of short hairs.

I). Life-history.

The flight-season is at the end of March and April.
Coniferous wood in logs, or stacks of fuel, chiefly when
damp and lying in shady places, are
selected to receive the eggs.

The newly disclosed beetles appear
from April or May until July ; they at
once pair and produce a new brood, and
in July new breeding galleries are found
amongst the larvae and pupae of the
old brood.

The second brood of beetles appears
from the beginning of October, and
Fig. i22.-ityto.fc. hibernates in cracks of the bark,
paUiatia, Gyll. moss, etc. There are two generations,

and the species is common and widely
distributed both in Britain and on the Continent.

c. Relations to tJie Forest^ etc.

The beetle attacks all conifers, but chiefly spruce, and
secondly Scots pine, silver-fir and larch exceptionally; only
middle-aged and old wood ; they also, both as larvae and beetles,
damage the bark and bast.

The primary galleries are short and hooked, like intestines.
They are sometimes forked. The secondary galleries are
conspicuously long and irregular, often crossing one another
and extending down to the sap-wood.

Authorities differ as to the destructiveness of this beetle —
liatzeburg, Konig and Kellner consider it very destructive ;

HYLASTES ATER.

263

Stein thinks its destructiveness over-rated, and Eichhoff that
it only does secondary damage.

More information as to its habits is therefore called for.
The economic treatment of this species is the same as that of
T. typography*, L.

Figs. 123 and 124. — Burrows of If. pallialus, Gyll., in spruce bark.

(Natural size.}

a, j8 Characteristic mother- galleries. 7 Larval galleries.

8 Mother-galleries where no larvae have been produced.

2. Hylastes ater, Payk.

a. Description.

Beetle 4 to 5 mm. long, of slender build ; deep black, with
brownish -red antennae and tarsi. Thorax much longer than

264- PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

broad, parallel-sided, closely and deeply punctured, with a
smooth median ridge. Elytra deeply punctate-striate, with
wrinkled and somewhat tuberculate interstices.

b. Life-history.

This species and H. opacus, Er., have a similar biological
history, which is as follows : — They fly in March, April and
May. Eggs are laid in stumps and roots of the Scots pine,
in preference in those of trees felled in the previous year ; but
in the case of H. ater, eggs are sometimes laid in young pine
transplants.

The larvae appear in April, and the mother and larval
galleries then form a confused pattern.

The newly hatched beetles may first be seen in June, and
according to Eichhoff they may produce a fresh brood, which
comes out in October or November. The irnagos hibernate in
stumps or in plants which they have injured.

The generation is annual or double, or it may be biennial
according to various observers ; it requires further elucidation.

c. Relations to the Forest.

This beetle is only hurtful in the imago stage ; before the
middle of June they begin to wander from their breeding
places to the neighbouring plantations and eat the bark of
2- to 6-year-old Scots and Austrian pine, and of other species
of pine, especially at the collum and on the roots. The
needles of the plants which have been attacked turn yellow
and fall off ; the plants die, or become so loose in the soil that
they can be easily pulled up. H. ater is common in Britain,
and its ally //. opacus, Er., is nearly as frequent. The latter
species is also recorded from elm and ash.

d. Protective Rules.

i. Timely and thorough removal of stumps and roots,
burning of the bark, or thickly smearing all exposed wood
with tar.

ii. Thorough cleaning of the felling area.

iii. Careful planting, and avoidance of all deep planting.

PINE-BEETLE. 265

e. Remedial Measures.

i. Burying trap-logs, or laying out bark-traps as against
Hylobius abietis, Fabr., page 225.

ii. Digging up all attacked plants with a spade, and burning
them in kilns with the roots inwards.

3. Mydopldlus piniperda, L. (Pine-beetle).

a. Description.

Beetle 4 to 5 mm. long; head and thorax black, elytra
blackish or dark brown ; antennae and tarsi rusty red. Thorax

Fig. 125. — Mye lophilus piniperda, L.
a Imago, b Larva, c Pupa.

not longer than its width at the base and tapering in front,
shining, with scattered deep punctures, obsolete towards the
middle. Elytra with fine punctured striae ; the interstices
somewhat granulate, each with a row of bristle-bearing
tubercles, absent on the apical portion of the second interstice
(counting from the suture), which is slightly impressed.

b. Life-history.

The flight is at the end of March, April, and also in May ;
under favourable circumstances, again in June and July. The
eggs, to the number of 100 and over, are laid similarly to
those of T. typography*, L., on large Scots pines, etc., and in
preference on the south-west side of the trees. There is,

266 PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

however, no breeding chamber, as copulation takes place out-
side on the trees. The ? prefers dying or felled timber with
rough bark, windfalls, stumps and broken trees. On standing
trees the lower coarse-barked portion of the stem is selected,
as the brood-galleries are entirely limited to the bark. If no
old wood is to be found, the beetle attacks young poles.

The larvae hatch in April or May, in about 12 to 20 days
after the eggs have been laid ; they pupate in June or the
beginning of July.

The beetles appear at the end of June and in July. Some
later ones may emerge in August. The beetles which develop
early, in June in mild localities, produce a second brood, which
is ready by the end of August, and attacks the terminal shoots
of the tree and branches ; those which come out later do not
pair but at once commence their destructive work in the
crowns of the trees. Thus the whole development of the
beetle may last from 60 days under very favourable circum-
stances, to 80 days. In order to hibernate, the beetle bores
into the rootstock or roots of standing trees, sometimes into
stumps, often into the thick bark at the lower part of the
trunk.

The generation is either single or double. The insect is very
numerous, and widely distributed ; it is common in almost
every pinewood throughout Britain.

c. Relations to the Forest.

The beetle generally attacks the Scots pine, but also the
Weymouth and cluster pines and other species of pines. It
has also been frequently observed on the spruce; rarely on
larch.

It attacks old and young trees, but prefers the former, and
is very rarely found in woods less than ten years old. Woods
between thirty-five and forty years old are chiefly attacked.
The insect does three kinds of damage.

First of all the beetles and larvae attack the bark and bast.
The beetle makes longitudinal galleries, with one to three air-
holes, which may be straight, but generally commence with a
characteristic hook-like bend. The entrance-hole is usually

PINE-BEETLE.

267

under a bark-
scale, and may
be marked by
ejected wood -
powder or by a
drop of tur-
pentine. The
larvae eat out
secondary gal-
leries in the
bast, which
branch out at
right angles to
the primary gal-
lery, soon be-
coming wide,
irregular and
confluent. They
only graze the
sapwood. The
pupae and im-
mature beetles
are embedded in
the bark, near
its outer surface.
The second
and most serious
form of damage
is done to the
young shoots.
The newly-dis-
closed beetles
of the first or
second broods,
in August and
September, bore
into the pith of
young pine -
shoots at a

Fig. 126.— Burrows of M.piniperda, L., in pine-bark.

(Natural size.)

a Characteristic angle near the beginning of the mother-
gallery.

b Larval gallery free of wood-dust.
c Larval gallery full of wood-dust.
d Air-passages.

268

PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

Fig. 127. —Pine-bark with cham-
bers («), pupae (b) and images (c)
M. piniperda, L.
(Natural size.)

distance of 1 to 3 in. from their extremities, choosing

especially those of sickly or old
trees, in preference on sunny
borders of woods ; they eat out
a burrow about an inch long,
working upwards to the buds.
The entrance - holes into these
shoots are surrounded by a
whitish ring of resin. The beetle
leaves the hollowed - out shoot
either by the original bore-hole
or by a fresh hole made at the
end of the burrow, and recom-
mences his destructive work in
another shoot. In these galleries
excrement is never found, and
thus the action of M.piniperda,Ii.t
may be distinguished from that
of Tortrix biioliaua, Schiff., the
caterpillar of which also bores out
Scots pine shoots, but always
leaves excrement in the borings.
Weak side-shoots which have been
bored break off generally at the
bore-hole, and fall to the ground.
Stronger shoots from the crown
develop the suppressed buds be-
tween the pairs of needles, which
with favourable spring - weather
grow into short needles, and give
the shoots a bushy appearance.
The height, growth and develop-
ment of the crown are thus
seriously affected ; and the pro-

Fig. 128.— Pine-shoot, hollowed , ,. , . . n

out by M. pimped, L., with ductlon of cones being materially
two beetle-holes. reduced greatly impairs the success

of natural regeneration of Scots

pine forests. Fig. 128 shows a hollowed-out twig bearing
a cone. Such twigs may be found lying on the ground

PINE-BEETLE.

269

in thousands after an autumnal storm. Sometimes two
beetles are found in the same twig, and some beetles hiber-
nate in them, but this is probably a rare occurrence. Owing
to the loss of these bored twigs, the crowns of trees, if
repeatedly attacked by the pine-beetle, acquire a characteristic
appearance which may be recognised from a distance. They

Fig. 129. — Weymouth pines injured by the Pine-beetle in the
cemetery at Wieseck (near Giessen).

acquire the form of the cypress instead of possessing the
usual dome-like shape, and here and there a few side-branches
which have been spared may project outwards from the
tree (Fig. 129). This curious aspect of the trees has
given to the insect the appellation of Hortulanus naturae
(^Waldgiirtner " or Primer).

Besides the direct damage (loss of increment, diminution of
the seed-harvest) inflicted on attacked trees by the reduction

270 PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

of their assimilating organs, indirect damage is also done by
reduction of the cover, and consequent exposure of the soil.
As the cover of Scots pine woods is apt to open out even
under favourable conditions, this form of injury is very serious.

Exceptionally, the beetles in summer eat out irregular
longitudinal galleries in the first 5 to 6 years' growth of shoots
on vigorous 12- to 15-year-old Scots pines, but without laying
any eggs. Altum* states that these galleries, which run partly
in the bast, partly in the sapwood, are only used to harbour
the beetles.

Lastly the beetle does damage by boring down for 2 or more
inches to the sapwood of the rootstock of sound standing trees
in order to hibernate. If this should happen on a large scale,
the trees might die, or at any rate would become sickly and
attract more beetles in the ensuing spring.

The pine-beetle prefers forests in flat or undulating country,
isolated trees, trees along the borders of woods, and those
which have suffered from fire; it is also common near timber-
depots. Like all bark-beetles, it prefers windfalls or trees
partly uprooted by the wind, and sickly trees, but does not
exclusively attack such trees.

In a pine forest on the peninsula of Darss on the Pomeranian
coast, which had been flooded with salt water on the 12th and
13th November, 1872, and the trees thus rendered sickly, the
beetle appeared in such enormous numbers as to completely
destroy 2,500 acres of the forest.

In the spring of 1892, about 100 acres of pine wood was
burned near Caesar's Camp, in Windsor Forest. The next year
there was a serious attack of pine-beetles, the trees that had
been singed by the fire having multitudes of larvae between
their bark and wood. These trees had all to be felled, while
the surrounding forest trees were pruned in the most
unsightly manner by the beetles.

d. Protective Rule*.

i. Timely and frequent thinnings of pine woods, and quick
removal of all sickly trees.

* " Ein neuer Sommeraufenthalt von M. jrittiperda" Zfiltsi-1tr.fr. /•'/•*/. n.
1879, page 264.

MYELOPHILUS MINOR. 271

ii. Clearance of the felling-areas, at the latest by the middle
of April ; removal from the wood of all valuable timber with
thick bark before the beetles emerge-.

iii. Uprooting of stumps and broken trees. If for any reason
this is not practicable, they must at any rate be barked.

iv. Pine woods injured by fire must be felled.

v. All insect-eating mammals and birds must be protected,
especially those referred to under T. typographic, L. (page 244).

e. Remedial Measures.

i. Trap-trees should be felled from February till September
so as to keep up a supply of trees which are not too dry for the
beetles to breed in. Thick-barked trees injured by storm,
snow, caterpillars or fire should be selected ; some of them
should be barked in the middle of May and others at intervals
of 4 to 6 weeks, and the bark burned in pits.

ii. All standing trees containing larvae or pupae should be
felled and barked and the bark burned.

4. Myelophilus minor, Hart.
a. Description.

Beetle 3*8 to 4 mm. long ; closely resembling the preceding
species in appearance, but with the bristle-
bearing tubercles continued on the second
interstice of the elytra up to its apex,
as on the other interstices.

I). Life-history.

Season for flight. April and May, about
8 to 10 days later than the preceding
species.

Standing Scots pines are selected for
breeding, but as a rule the thickly barked
lower part of the stems is avoided, and the
upper portion where the bark is thinner
is chosen. The young brood requires for its development
somewhat fresher material than in the case of M. piniperda.

272 PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

The larvae hatch in June, and pupate in July in a chamber
made in the sapwood.

The beetles emerge in July and August, and generally pair
in the following year. Those, however, which appear early,
usually produce another brood within the year, as in the case
of the preceding species.

Generation single or double. The beetle is found in com-
pany with the former species, but is rarer, or at any rate more

Fig. 131. — Burrows of M. minor, Hart., on pine sapwood. (Natural size.}

localised. In the British Isles it has only been found, and
that very rarely, in the Dee district of Scotland, but it is so
like the much commoner M. piniperda, L., that it is probably
overlooked.

c. Relations to Ihe Forest.

M. minor, Hart., chiefly attacks the Scots pine, but has
also been found on the spruce. It prefers poles, but may
attack 50- to 70-year-old trees. The mother-galleries are
large, regular, double-armed, and horizontal, with a rather
long entrance-burrow, and groove the sapwood deeply (Fig. 131).

ASH BARK-BEETLE. 273

The injury which its breeding causes is greater than that of
H. piniperda, as the circulation of the sap is more endangered
by these horizontal galleries. It is not therefore surprising
that quite sound trees are killed by it, or at any rate become
stag-headed.

The larval galleries are short, not very numerous, and
terminate in a deeply-cut pupal chamber. This beetle, unlike
the preceding species, is said not to confine itself to the borders
of a pine-wood, but to be found deeper in its interior.

M. minor also bores into the pith of young pine shoots in
the same way as M. piniperda.

d. Protective Rides.

As for M. piniperda, but the trap-trees must have thin,
smooth bark.

5. Hylesinus fraxini, Fabr. (Ash Bark-beetle),
a. Description.

Beetle 2 to 3 mm. long, short and thickset ; pitchy-brown
or reddish, variegated with short, close-
lying, ashy and fuscous scales, forming a
series of irregular transverse bands on
the elytra. Prothorax transverse, finely
granulate ; elytra with fine but distinct r

punctured striae ; legs piceous with the
tarsi reddish, antennae ferruginous.

b. Life-history.

Flight period at the end of April and
beginning of May. Fig> 132i_!

The eggs are laid on the branches and fraxini, Fabr.

stems of healthy ash trees, as well as on
dead and felled trees. The larvae hatch in May, and develop
in July to the perfect insects, which pass the winter in irregular
borings in the bark.

Generation usually single, but has been observed double in
Elsass, the second flight from end of August. Common and
generally distributed throughout the British Isles.

F.P. T

274

PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

c. Relations to the Forest.

The beetle bores into the bast of ash-poles and trees,
constructing extremely regular, double-armed, horizontal
galleries, with a short entrance-burrow (Fig. 133, a). The
larval galleries are short but close together, cutting deeply
into the wood, and are always very regular (Fig. 133, b). The
pupal chambers are in the wood (Fig. 133, c). The beetles eat
their way out in August, making numerous perforations, so
that the bark is riddled, as if by shot. Once a tree has been

Fig. 133.— Burrows of H.fraxini, Fabr., on ash sapwood. (Natural size.)
a Mother-galleries, b Larval galleries, c Pupal chambers.

attacked, numerous galleries are excavated in it one over
the other.

The beetle prefers quite sound trees, according to Hess, and
kills them, but Miss Ormerod says that the damage is chiefly
done to decayed or sickly trees. This insect also attacks large
ash-trees standing in the open, boring down to the bast in order
to hibernate there, and such winter-quarters are generally
occupied again in the succeeding autumn by more numerous
beetles, so that rough, scabrous, rosette-like prominences are
eventually formed on the bark. It has occasionally been
observed to attack the robinia and apple-trees, but its galleries
are then vertical rather than horizontal. It may be laid down
as a general rule that the smaller the branches which are

HYLESINUS CRENATUS. 275

attacked, the more do galleries which are normally horizontal
tend to become vertical.

In the ecclesiastical forests of Temeser Banat, in Hungary,
the ash woods have since 1888 been seriously attacked by
this beetle. By the summer of 1890, 17 per cent, of the trees
of a total standing crop of 2,570,000 cubic feet were killed.

d. Economic Rules.

i. Selection of suitable localities for planting ash-trees, and
attention to such rules of management as will keep the trees
healthy.

ii. All infested trees should be barked in June and July, and
their bark and branches burned.

iii. Trees attacked may be tarred.

6. Hylesinus vittatus, Fabr.

Beetle similar to H. fraxini, Fabr., but only 1J to 2 mm.
long ; with a white stripe on each elytron extending from the
shoulder to the middle of the suture and enclosing a common
oval dark patch ; it makes double-armed horizontal galleries
in the elm.

7. Hylesinus crenatus, Fabr.

a. Description.

Beetle 5 to 6 mm. long; ovate,
blackish - brown or black, its under
surface hairy.

Thorax tapering in front, distinctly
broader than long, thickly and coarsely
punctured ; elytra broadest at the
middle, obliquely and not strongly
declivous behind, with coarse punc-
tured striae, the interstices granulate
and furnished with short black hairs ;
abdomen curved upwards towards the

apex. Fig. 134.— Hylesinus

I. Life-history. crenatus, Fabr.

Similar to that of H. fraxini ; but
the generation is said to be double. The flight-period is at

T2

276

PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

the beginning of April, and again in October. When pairing
takes place late in the spring (May and June) the generation
is only single.

c. Relations to the Forest.

This beetle attacks the ash almost exclusively, and prefers
large trees with fissured bark. The female makes short,

slightly bent, generally two-armed
galleries. The two arms are gene-
rally of unequal length and inclined
at an acute angle ; sometimes only
one is present. The larval burrows
run at first upwards or downwards,
that is, at right angles to the
mother-galleries, gradually curving
and becoming horizontal ; they are
of great length, and are often
abruptly bent on themselves once or
twice in their course. Fig. 135
shows the appearance of a gallery,
in which boring beetles as well as
larvae may be distinguished ; the
latter so closely packed that their
galleries have coalesced. It is,
however, hardly typical of the
species. If the ? do not lay, they
bore simple tunnels, frequently just
under the outermost bark, which
then generally splits and flakes off
over the point of attack. Excep-
tionally the beetle has been found
in the Russian Chersonese ; the

Fig. 135. — Burrows of H. crena-

tus, in ash bark.
a Entrance-hole.
I Mother-galleries.
c Beetles excavating galleries.
d Boring larvae.

attacking old oak-trees

galleries in this case may be three-armed.

The attacks of this insect may be treated as for H.fraxini.

C SUBFAMILY SCOLYTINI.
Description of Subfamily.

This sub-family contains a single genus, ticolytiw, the
species of which possess a projecting head with a short, broad

ELM BARK-BEETLE. 277

rostrum. Antennal funiculus 7-jointed. First tarsal joint
much shorter than the succeeding joints together, the third
bilohed. Elytra scarcely declivous behind. Under surface
of abdomen flexed upwards from the base of the second
segment.

They breed exclusively between the wood and bark of broad-
leaved trees, and sometimes make very regular galleries, which
generally cut deeply into the sapwood. Pupal chambers in
the outer layers of the sapwood.

1. Scolytus Geoffroyi, Goeze (Elm Bark-beetle}.

a. Description.

This beetle is 4 to 5 mm. long, black, with the elytra brown ;
antennae and legs reddish brown. Front of head and rostrum
without any carina. Thorax broader than long, punctured,
the punctures becoming weaker towards the middle of its
upper surface. Suture of the elytra depressed from the base
to its middle ; their interstices broad, with two or three rows
of punctures. Third and fourth abdominal segments in both
sexes with a small tubercle.

b. Life-Jmtory.

Flight at the end of May and June, and sometimes again in
August.

The eggs are laid in the bark of elms,
by preference in sickly trees.

The larvae appear in July and the
beetles fly in August, and at once pro-
ceed to pair. The larvae of the second
brood hibernate in their borings, and
pupate in the following spring, gene-
rally in the bark or less frequently in
the sapwood.

The beetles of this brood come out

Fig. 136. — Scolytus

at the end of May. The holes of exit Geoffroyi, Goeze.

are about the size of No. 5 shot.

The generation is usually double on the Continent, and
apparently so in England in warm seasons. But in Britain,

278 PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

where the insect is common south of Scotland, a single
generation is more usual, the larvae which hatch in May or
June becoming full-fed at the end of July and remaining in
the tree throughout the winter.

c. Relations fo tlie Forest.

The beetle attacks old and young elm-trees, and sometimes
also the ash.

The mother-gallery is broad, short, ascending and vertical,
about 2*5 mm. broad, and with 1 to 2 air holes. The second-
ary galleries ramify from it at right angles in a fairly regular
manner, lie close together, are long, sometimes extending for
more than 4 in., gracefully curved, and somewhat broader at
their ends than the primary gallery. The pupal chambers
when the bark is thin are excavated partly in the sapwood.

This beetle especially attacks elms in the neighbourhood of
large towns ; thus in 1842, elms in Eegent's Park were infested,
and in 1870, many elm-trees that had been weakened by a
raising of the ground water level were killed in Berlin.

d. Protective Rides.

As a preventive measure, elms in avenues, parks, etc., may
be smeared with Leinweber's* composition.

All stems attacked by the beetle should be felled, beginning
in July, and the bark burned. Trees that have been felled
may be used as traps, and treated accordingly.

2. Scoli/tus intricatus, Ratz.

a. Description.

Beetle, 3 — 4 mm. long; black, with the elytra, antennae and
legs, pitchy-red, or brown ; the former with close rows of
punctures, the interstices 'narrow, closely wrinkled, the suture
depressed round the scutellurn ; abdomen unarmed.

* 5 Ibs. tobacco, mixed with £ pailful of hot water, are kept hot for 24 hours ;
the water is then squeezed out of the tobacco and mixed with \ pailful of
bullock's blood, 1 part of slaked lime and 16 parts of cow-dung. This is kept
in an open tub and stirred once a day, and used after fermentation has set in.
The rough bark, moss, etc., is trimmed off the tree, and the latter painted with
the mixture for three successive days, until a crust is formed which the rain
will not wash off.

LONGICORN BEETLES. 279

#. Life-history, etc.

It lays its eggs on oaks, but otherwise resembles the elm
beetle in its mode of life. It has, however, only one generation
in the year.

It attacks several species of oak and more rarely the beech,
and it prefers young stems and branches
to older parts of trees.

The beetle bores a simple gallery ; the
larval galleries, 30 to 40, run partly up-
wards and partly downwards, and are long
and narrow. The pupal chambers groove
the sapwood superficially. The beetles
attack perfectly healthy oak saplings and
kill them.

In the Bois de Vincennes, several years
ago, about 50,000 30-year-old oaks were
killed by this beetle, which breeds freely FiS- 137-
in oak-posts which have not been barked, tus' Ratz*

and are used for fences.

Care in the management of plantations of saplings, and
avoidance of unbarked wood in palings, are the chief protective
measures available.

Two other species of Scolytus, S. pruni, Eatz., and 8. rugu-
losus, Eatz., the latter a very small species, are especially
attached to fruit-trees, plum and apple. Both are locally
common in England, and sometimes injurious, but they are
not important to the forester.

FAMILY VIII. — CEBAMBYCIDJB (LONGICOBN BEETLES).
Description of Family.

Longicorn beetles are elongate, and generally of large or
moderate size, with a cylindrical thorax, often spined at the
sides ; elytra somewhat depressed, wider at the shoulders than
the thorax, and tapering behind.

Antennae filiform or setaceous, rarely serrate, and always
becoming thinner at the ends, usually very long, with 11 or
more joints, the second joint always the shortest.

Legs slender and long. Tarsi four- jointed, the three basal
joints flattened and spongy beneath, the third bilobed.

280 PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

Abdomen with 5 segments. Generation usually biennial.

Larvae soft, white or yellow, usually cylindrical, rarely some-
what flattened, with projecting broad thoracic segments, of
which the first at least is furnished above with a horny plate.
Their feet consist of six minute tubercles, or are entirely
absent.

Pupae fusiform, and recognisable by the long horns bent
down in a curve from the head.

Flight-holes transversely oval.

The larvae generally live under bark and in wood, but
usually only in broken trees or in stumps ; a few species are
found in beams of houses. Their attack is of a secondary
nature, as they bore into trees killed by bark-beetles and other
insects, but on account of the large size of their galleries, and
the quantity of boring dust which exudes, it easily attracts
attention.

On sunny days the beetles may be found on flowers, shrubs,
and felled trees ; the females do not make mother-galleries.

Longicorn beetles are rare as a rule in the British Isles, and
most of the species found are small and of little or no economic
importance. In tropical countries they play an important part
in the destruction of fallen and decaying timber.

1. Saperda carcharias, L. (The Large Poplar Longicorn.)

a. Description.

a b

Beetle 23 to 30 mm.
long, grey or brownish
yellow, dotted with
many shining black
points. Thorax short
and cylindrical. Elytra
with the shoulders
prominent, narrowed
posteriorly and bluntly
spined at the apex.
Fig. ns.-Saperda carcharias, L. Larva extending up to

a Imago. i> Larva. 36 mm. in length, with-

out legs, cylindrical,
yellowish white, with the mandibles and segmental shields

THE LARGE POPLAR LONGICORN.

281

brown, the latter on the dorsal surface of segments 3 — 10,
and the ventral surface of segments 2 — 10.

b. Life-history.

Season for flight : June and July.

The eggs are laid in June in crevices in the bark of poplars,
especially near the ground.

The larvae emerge in July and
August, and live and hibernate in the
wood, pupating in May of the 3rd year.

The pupae lie head downwards in
a chamber blocked with a plug of
wood-dust.

The images emerge in June of the
third year.

Generation biennial. The insect is
rather common in a few parts of
Great Britain, chiefly in the Eastern
Counties.

c. Relations to the Forest.

The larvae bore into young, healthy
poplars, and also into willows ; aspen
and black poplar up to 20 years old
are specially attacked. Seedling-trees
are liable as a rule to be attacked
from their 5th year, and suckers from
the 3rd year.

The larvae make vertical galleries,

which reach the centre of the tree : these become gradually
filled with wood-dust, which is forced out of the tree by the
grubs, through a bore-hole, and becomes heaped up at the
base of the plants. The stem is attacked near the ground
and reacts by developing a large irregular swelling, the bark
of which is fissured. Such perforated saplings are easily
broken by the wind. This insect is chiefly of importance
where poplars are grown on a large scale, as in France.

Fig. 139.— Larval burrows
of S. carcharias, L., in
the stem of a young poplar.

(Natural size.}
a Plug of boring dust.

282 PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

It is sometimes associated with Scsia apiformis, Fabr., and
Cossus liyniperda, Fabr.

The beetles in June and July eat roundish holes in poplar
leaves, but this injury is unimportant.

d. Protective Rides.

i. Poplar-nurseries should not be established near older
poplars.

ii. Poplar-saplings liable to attack may be smeared in June
up to 5 feet in height from the ground, with a mixture of clay
and cow-dung, or Leinweber's composition (page 278). This
treatment is to be recommended for nurseries.

e. Remedial Measures.

i. Collection of the beetles by shaking the saplings in June
and July.

ii. Felling and removal of all attacked saplings before the
beetles emerge.

2. Saperda populnea, L. (Small Poplar Longicom).

a. Description*

Beetle 8 — 13 mm. long, greenish-grey to dark brown,
covered with yellow-grey pubescence ; thorax with 3 lines of
pubescence ; elytra with the median line, and a broad lateral
stripe, and three or four spots on each side pubescent.
Antennae blackish, and each segment up to two-thirds of
the length of the antennae with grey pubescence. Larva
13 — 15 mm. long, yellowish and resembling that of the
preceding species.

b. Life-history.

The female deposits her eggs in May and June in cracks on
the bark of young aspens, less commonly on other species of
poplar, sometimes on willows. Seedlings of 2 to 6 years old
and suckers are preferred.

Generation biennial. The larva hatches in July, bores
through the bark and eats a circular gallery round the
sapwood. The stem, usually one of the smaller branches,

SAPERDA POPULNEA.

reacts by forming a gall-like swelling, which however
found on willows.

In the second summer the larva changes its course,
upwards along the middle of the stem
for about an inch. The flight-hole is
circular and situated on the swollen
portion. Pupation in April of the
third year.

This insect is usually found in open
sunny places, and is not uncommon
in the Midlands and south of England.
It seldom kills the trees, but cripples
the branches and prevents growth.
Where it is abundant, hardly a branch
can be found free from its galls.

283
is not
boring

c . Remedial Measures.
Collection of the beetles in June by

Figs. 140 and 141.— Burrows
of S. populnca, L., in an
aspen twig.

External view with two flight
holes. View of interior
with the larval hurrows
exposed.

shaking ; cutting and burning the
attacked branches during the winter.
The Musk-beetle, Cerambyx mos-
chatus, L., is a handsome dark or
bluish-green longicorn with bright

metallic lustre, it exhales a strong odour of musk. Its larvae
live in rotting willow-stems, and also in old osier stools, where
it may do some damage.

FAMILY IX. — CHBYSOMELID^ (LEAF-BEETLES).
Deselection of Family.

Leaf-beetles are small or of moderate size, convex and short,
of an oval or hemispherical shape.

Antennae filiform, bead-like, or slightly thickened at the
ends, 11-jointed. Legs usually short, strong, sometimes
framed for jumping; tarsi 4- jointed, spongy below, the 3rd
joint bilobed. Abdomen with 5 segments. Generation simple.

The larvae are short, flattened, usually either parti-coloured
or black, with 6 legs, the last segment usually with a retractile
process. Pupae thickset, sometimes hanging upside down from

284 PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

leaves. Some species are very injurious, both the imago and
larva eating the leaves of broadleaved trees.

1. Chrysomela populi, L. (Red Poplar-leaf Beetle).

a. Description.

Beetle 10 to 12 mm. long, of an obovate shape, blackish-blue,
the elytra brick-red, their extreme tip black ; thorax narrower
than the elytra, its sides rounded, broadly raised and coarsely
punctured; antennae short, compressed, thickened towards
the ends.

Fig. 142. — C/tri/.iomeZa populi, L.
a Beetle. I Larva, c Pupa.

Larva 6-legged, of a dirty white colour, with many black
spots, and two white lateral projections on the 2nd and 3rd
segments.

Pujja sharply narrowed towards the posterior extremity,
brownish yellow, with regularly distributed black spots and
stripes.

I). Life-history.

The season for flight is in May and June.

The ? lays her yellowish-white eggs in clusters of 10 to 12, in
all 100 to 150, on the under-side of the leaves of young poplars.

The larvae emerge in June or July, feed openly on the leaves,
and if disturbed exude a milky-white fluid, with an odour of
bitter almonds.

Pupation takes place in July and August ; the pupae hang
reversed from the leaves by their pointed end.

The beetles emerge by the end of August, and after October
hibernate under leaves or moss, reappearing in the open in
April.

Generation annual, but frequently double, when the beetles
hibernate ; larvae appear in May and June ; pupae 3 — 4 weeks

CHRYSOMELA POPULI.

285

later, new jbeetles 10 days later. Fresh larvae in August, the
second generation closing in the middle of September. Locally
common in many parts of the British Isles, chiefly in South
England.

c. Relations to the Forest.

The insect, both in the larval and beetle stages, attacks
young poplars and sometimes aspen shoots. Occasionally
they are found in osier-beds, especially on Salix pur-
pur ea, L., and S. pen-
tandra, L., and to a
less extent on S. rubra,
L., etc. The larvae
attack the leaves, which
are completely skele-
tonised, the parenchyma
being eaten and the
veins left intact. The
imago eats holes out of
the leaves.

The attacks last from
June to August.

Fig. 143. — C. populi, L.
a Leaf bitten by beetle, b Leaf bitten by larvae.

d. Protective Rules.

Collection of the
beetles on to cloths by

beating the trees in May and June, and again in August to
September.

C. tremulae, Fabr., is somewhat smaller than, and greatly
resembles the above species, but has no black tips to its elytra.
It is the more destructive of the two, sometimes completely
destroying the foliage and shoots of young aspen. It also
attacks osier- willows, especially Salix purpurea.

2. Chrysomela vidgatissima, L. (Willow Beetle).*
a. Description.

Beetle 4 to 5 mm. long, oblong-oval, of a bronze or green
.tint, sometimes coppery or indigo-coloured, violet or black.

* Vide Miss Ormerod, op. cit., pages 270 to 276.

286 PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

Elytra regularly punctate- striate. Larvae vary in colour,
often nearly black above, with an olive-green middle line,

yellowish below.

b. Life-history, etc.

The beetles come out in the spring from their sheltering
places, and lay their eggs on the under-surface of leaves of
willows — Salix viminalis, L., S. purpurea, rubra, etc., and also
on poplars. The images and larvae attack the young shoots
and leaves, commencing with the under-surface, and eating
their way through the leaf, or up to its epidermis.

Pupation takes place in the soil. The beetle lives through
the winter, hibernating in various localities ; it is found some-
times high up on willows in sheltered places, under the rough
bark of old pollards, in hollow stems of herbaceous plants,
among the terminal shoots of neighbouring young pine trees,
or on the soil amongst fallen leaves and old stumps of osiers.
They will also hibernate in the heaped-up peel of osiers,
which should not, therefore, be left lying about.

Generation generally single, rarely double. This beetle is
extremely common and decidedly inj urious. In 1884, according
to Miss Ormerod, in osier beds in the Lymm district, near the
borders of Lancashire and Cheshire, it was estimated that
the whole crop of osiers on 50 atsres would have been destroyed
if protective measures had not been taken.

c» Protective Rules.

i. Dragging across the osier-beds a rope weighted in the
middle. This operation, which should be repeated several
times, knocks off the beetles, which will lay their eggs on the
ground, where they die.

ii. Sprinkling the osier-shoots with a strong solution of
wood ashes, or with Paris green (arsenite of copper, see
page 177).

iii. Knocking the beetles off the osiers into square tin vessels
containing ashes, but this procedure must be done repeatedly.

iv. Collection of the beetles in their winter quarters.

Traps of birch-bark, planks, etc., may be put above the
flood-level ; under these the beetles collect in myriads for
shelter, and may then be destroyed.

WILLOW BEETLE.

287

Fig. 144.— £. vulgatissima, L.

Willow twig with eggs («), larvae (&), and beetles (c) 1/1.
right, beetle enlarged. From Eckstein.

To the

288

CHAPTER VII.

LEPIDOPTEBA— BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS.*

THIS order is subdivided into Rhopalocera or butterflies, and
Heterocera, or moths. The former are distinguished from the
latter by the possession of somewhat rigid slender antennae,
which are clubbed or knobbed at the tip ; and by the absence
of a frenulum or bristle attached to the base of the hind-wings
and passing through a loop or retinaculum at the base of the
fore-wings. In the moths the antennae are usually flexible,
seldom rigid, and are at most thickened towards the apex with
no well-defined club; they usually possess & frenulum.

Butterflies are of slender build, they fly by day and are often
gaily coloured.

They are of no importance in Europe from a forest point of
view, although the larva of Pieris crataegi, L., does much
damage on the Continent to the foliage and inflorescence-buds
of orchard trees, as well as species of Sorbus and Crataeyus.

Heterocera. Moths.

FAMILY I. — SESIIDAE.

Description of Family.

Diurnal moths which fly rapidly in hot sunshine. Antennae
fusiform ; 2 ocelli. Proboscis sometimes rudimentary. Wings
narrow, more or less hyaline, and resembling those of Hymeno-
ptera ; frenulum present. Body stout.

Generation, 1 to 2 years.

Caterpillars cylindrical, yellowish white, with fine scattered
hairs ; 5 pairs of prolegs ; head and prothoracic shield horny,
and usually dark coloured.

* The most comprehensive work on the British species of Lepidoptera is "The
Lepidoptera of the British Isles," by C. G. Barrett, London, 1892.

SES1IDAE.

289

Pupae slender, armed with circles of spines on the abdominal
segments, in a cocoon spun out of chips of wood.

The larvae live in wood, chiefly of broadleaved trees, and
bore galleries in the stems, twigs or roots.

1. Sesia apiformis, Fabr. (Hornet Clear wing Moth),
a. Description.

Moth with a spread of wing of 35 to 45 mm. ; body dark
brown, with 3 pairs of bright yellow spots, behind the eyes,
on the front and on the hinder part of the thorax ; and with

Fig. 145. — Sesia apiformis, Fabr.
a Imago, b Caterpillar. c Pupa.

the last 3 segments, and the 5th segment of the abdomen,
counting from the tail, bright yellow. Wings transparent,
with rust-red borders and veins. Caterpillar with 16 legs, of
a dirty white colour, with a reddish brown head and a dark
line along the back. Pupa brown, with spines on the back of
the segments and apex of the abdomen.

I. Life-history.

The moth flies in June and July.

The brown eggs are laid in July in cracks in the bark of
poplars towards the lower part of the stem. The caterpillars
F.P. u

290 PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

appear in July and August, pass two winters in their galleries,
and pupate in May of the third year, in a cocoon of wood-dust
constructed inside their borings, near to the ground ; excep-
tionally in the ground when the larva has bored low down
towards the roots of the plant.

The images emerge in June, when the empty pupa cases
may be seen projecting from the stems.

The generation lasts two years. The moth is widely distri-
buted and often common among poplars ; the injury caused
by the caterpillars often accompanies that of Saperda car-
charias, L. (page 280).

c. Relations to the Forest.

The larva bores cylindrical galleries in the wood of poplars,
especially of the black poplar and aspen. As a rule it prefers
trees less than 20 years old, but is sometimes found in older
trees. It generally bores low down in the tree, and its attack
can be recognised by the wood-dust which collects on the
ground or blocks up the holes by which the moth will emerge,
and through which the pupa can push itself by means of its
spines. The injured saplings are frequently broken by the
wind. The caterpillar is chiefly injurious in nurseries and
avenues.

d. Protective Rules.

Saplings may be smeared as for protection against the poplar
longicorn. The moths should be caught on the tree-trunks
and destroyed at the end of June. Saplings infested with
larvae should be cut down.

FAMILY II. — COSSIDAE.
Description of Family.

Imagos of this family of wood-borers with setaceous or
bipectinate antennae; without ocelli; the mouth-parts rudi-
mentary. Body stout, and covered with close short hairs.
Flight nocturnal, the wings strong, and roof-shaped when at
rest. Generation extending over 2 or more years. Caterpillars
smooth or cylindrical, and with a few scattered hairs. Pupae

GOAT MOTH. 291

long, with rings of spines on the abdomen, in a cocoon spun
up of chips of wood.

The caterpillars live in the wood of broadleaved trees.

1. Cossus ligniperda, Fabr. (Goat Moth).
a. Description.

Moth with a spread of wing of 65 to 70 mm. ( $• ) — 80 to
85 mm. ( ? ). Body stout; head and neck covered with yel-
lowish-grey hair ; fore-wings marbled with greyish-brown and
light grey, with numerous dark brown transverse lines ; hind-
wings ashy grey, or greyish-brown. Abdomen long and thick,
of the same colour as the wings, with whitish marginal rings
to the segments.

Caterpillar 90 to 95 mm. long, with 16 legs, at first reddish-
yellow, and later cherry-red, darker above, with a brown head,
and brown shield on the prothoracic segment ; it possesses a
very offensive smell. Pupa stout, reddish-brown, with rings
of sharp spines on the abdominal segments.

I). Life -history .

The moth emerges in June and July.

The ? lays her eggs, up to 25 in number, in a cluster deep
in cracks in the bark of willows and other broadleaved trees.

The caterpillar hatches in July, and bores into the wood, in
which, or sometimes in the ground, it pupates in May of the
third or fourth year in a large stiff cocoon with a smooth
interior made of particles of wood roughly spun together.
The moth appears 3 to 4 weeks later.

Generation, 2 or 3 years. Found throughout Great Britain
and generally common, at least in the south.

c. Relations to the Forest.

The caterpillars live chiefly in the wood of willows, but also
of poplars, alder, elm, oak, birch, lime, fruit-trees, even the
walnut, and occasionally in Scots pine. They prefer the
lower part of the trunk. The mode of attack resembles that
of Sesia, but many caterpillars may always be found in the

u2

292

PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

Fig. 146. — Ootnu li</)/i/>t >•{/«, Fabr.

a Imago (?). I Caterpillar, not fully grown. c Pupa. d Cocoon and
pupal exuviae (after emergence of the moth).

same stem, sometimes 200 or more ; they attack not only
sickly trees, but thoroughly sound wood, and prefer solitary
trees in hedgerows, along forest borders, etc. They are very
voracious, and the wood which has been attacked is useless as

GOAT MOTH. 293

timber. Infested trees may be easily recognised by the bad
odour due to the caterpillars, and by the wood-chips thrown
out from their borings, which are of various sizes up to the
thickness of a man's finger.

d. Protective Rules.

As for Sesia. Bats, owls, and goat-suckers attack the moths.
Saplings which have been attacked should be felled, split,
and burned with the caterpillars they contain.

2. Cossus aescidi, L. (Wood-leopard Moth).

a. Description.

Moth with a spread of wings of 45 — 50 mm. (<?), 55 — 65
mm. ( ? ) ; white with numerous round steel-blue spots on the
wings and six on the thorax ; abdomen long, deep blue with
white rings. Larva naked, yellow with black warts and dorsal
shield, 16-legged. Pupa with rings of spines.

l>. Life-history, etc.

The eggs are laid singly on saplings or branches of broad-
leaved trees. The larva emerges in August, bores into the
sap wood in the first year, passes the winter in the stem, and
in the second summer excavates a gallery running upwards
along the middle of the wood. In this it passes the second
winter, eventually pupating under the bark. Generation bien-
nial. It attacks many species of trees, maple, ash, lime,
apple, birch, beech, oak, horse-chestnut, elm, poplars and
willows, and has even been found in mistletoe.

It is widely distributed, though rarely very abundant;
sometimes it is rather common and injurious in the neigh-
bourhood of large towns such as London.

Treatment consists in the cutting and burning of the infested
stems and branches.

FAMILY III. — BOMBYCIDAE.

Description of Family.

Antennae short, pectinate in both sexes (simply pectinate
in ? , doubly in $ ) ; ocelli usually absent. Proboscis small

294 PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

and usually functionless. Wings ample, sometimes small in
proportion to the size of the hody, roof-shaped at rest. Body
stout and long, generally densely hairy, usually larger in the
$ . Flight as a rule nocturnal. Eggs frequently laid in
clusters, and covered with hairs from the tail of the ? . Cater-
pillars usually hairy, seldom naked, with 16 legs. Pupae stout
and short, in a cocoon spun out of silk, often with the larval
hairs interwoven.

The caterpillars feed on needles, leaves, etc., and are usually
very voracious. Some of the most destructive species of insects
in European coniferous forests belong to this family.

1. Gastropacha pini, Ochsh. (Pine Moth).*
a. Description.

Moth with a spread of wings of 60 mm. ( $ ) to 80 mm. ( ? ).
Body thick and stout ; fore-wings whitish or brownish grey,
in the $ with dark reddish-brown transverse bands, and with
a long unicolorous patch, in which is a white lunate spot ; in
the ? the bands and patch are reddish brown ; the hind-
wings in both sexes are rusty brown. The colouring and
markings of the wings vary much in individual examples.

The caterpillar attains a length of 80 mm., has 16 legs,
and varies in colour from ash-grey to reddish brown, or dark
brown ; there is a dark dorsal stripe, and sometimes a series
of lateral white patches. It is hairy with clusters of greyish
bristles, and possesses on the 2nd and 3rd segments from the
head two steel-blue bare stripes, which become apparent at
the second moulting, and are very characteristic.

Pupa somewhat cylindrical, dark brown, enclosed in an
elliptic, whitish grey cocoon, which is pointed at both ends,
and of looser texture near the head of the pupa to facilitate
the exit of the moth.

* This destructive pest is fortunately not a native of Great Britain. It plays,
however, so important a part in the literature of European forestry, and has
often proved so seriously destructive, that it has been thought desirable not to
exclude it entirely from the present translation, but to present an abridgment
of Hess's account.

PINE MOTH.

295

1}. Life-history.

The moth emerges from the cocoon from July till the end
of August. It lays in the second half of July about 100 to
200 bluish-grey eggs, as large as hernpseed, in clusters of

Fig. 147. — Gastropac-ha pini, Oehsh
a Male. b Female.

about 25 to 50 in number, in the bark-crevices of standing
Scots pines, usually at about the height of a man, or on the
needles and shoots of young pines.

The caterpillars hatch after 20 to 25 days, about the middle
of August. They at once devour their egg-shells, and then

293

PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

scatter themselves among the twigs, where they begin to feed.
When about half grown, they descend the trees (in October

Fig. 148. — Gastropacha pint, Ochsh.

c Eggs on pine-bark, d Mature caterpillar, feeding on the needles of a pine-shoot.
e Pupa. / Cocoon.

and November) to hibernate in moss, dead leaves, etc., at the
foot of the trunks, and remain there till the next spring
(March or April), when they climb again up the trees.

PINE MOTH. 297

Exceptionally they may hibernate in the bark-crevices. The
time of reascension depends on the degree of warmth of the
season and on the quarter from which the wind is blowing.

Pupation takes place at the end of June or beginning of
July, either on the needles and twigs of the crown of the tree,
or in the larger bark crevices.

The moth emerges in July, about 20 days after pupation.

Generation annual ; but sometimes irregular when the insect
occurs in great numbers. Very common in Germany.

c. Relations to the Forest.

This is the most destructive of all insects to Scots pine
forests in Central Europe, as it may appear in large swarms
throughout the summer for several consecutive years, and is
enormously voracious. The caterpillar also attacks the
Austrian and mountain pines, and in case of scarcity of food,
both the spruce and larch. It prefers 60- to 80-year-old
trees, but when abundant it will attack younger trees, and
thickets of young growth and plantations.

The attack is on the needles. When the caterpillars are
very young they gnaw the sides only of the needles, but fully-
grown caterpillars eat them down to the sheath, usually
leaving the latter, and in this manner completely strip the
twigs.

Even the terminal buds may be eaten. The older cater-
pillars prefer needles of the previous year. A single caterpillar
will eat a needle in 5 minutes, and may destroy in all 1000
needles. After complete destruction of the needles and buds
the tree must perish, and as a premonitor of death a few
clusters of stunted needles, termed rosettes by Ratzeburg, may
appear.

The trees may recover, if for a pole 200 needles, and for an
old tree 400 needles, still remain green. An attack com-
mencing in April and lasting till June is the worst, as this
affects the formation of wood. An attack generally lasts
for 3, occasionally for 4 years, and is at its maximum during
the 3rd year. Irregularity in the development of the insects,
and degeneration of the caterpillars, which are largest in the

298

PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

first year and become successively smaller and weaker, rapidly
ensue. At the same time, insect-parasites and bacterial

diseases become
more and more
active, until the
caterpillars die
from these causes
in immense num-
bers.

This pest is most
dangerous in pure
Scots pine forests,
on sandy soils, in
dry districts, and
in the plains and
hills of North and
North-eastern Ger-
many, less so in
the south and west;
it is rare in moun-
tainous districts.

A succession of
warm summers
favours its multi-
plication to an ex-
traordinary degree.
In the ten years,
1863—72, in the
forests from West
Prussia to Saxony,
442,500 acres of
Scots pine forests
were attacked, and
70,000,000 cubic
feet of timber
killed. In 1888-9,

the valleys of the Rhine and Maine, in Hesse, were ravaged,
and the caterpillars devoured the needles even of 10-year-old
pines.

Fig. 149. — Rosette-needles (#) on Scots pine, following
defoliation by G. pini, Ochsh. (Natural size.)

PINE MOTH. 299

d. Protective Rules.

1. Avoidance, as much as possible, of pure Scots pine
forests in localities exposed to the attacks of this insect.

2. Careful search for caterpillars, chiefly in November,
when they are hibernating. The soil-covering round large
trees is raked up and searched, and if 6 to 8 caterpillars
are found around a tree, measures should be taken at once to
destroy the caterpillars.

3. Careful management of thinnings. This removes sickly
trees, admits the wind, which the moths dislike, and facilitates
collection of the caterpillars.

Vi

Fig. 150. — Caterpillar of the Pine Moth covered with Microgaster cocoons.

4. Protection of enemies : bats, badgers, cuckoos, owls,
goat-suckers, etc. Titmice, golden-crested wrens, and tree-
creepers destroy the moths' eggs. A number of ichneumon-
wasps and parasitic diptera attack the larvae. Fig. 150 shows
a caterpillar covered by the pupae of Microgaster ylobatus, L.

e. Remedial Measures.

These are, briefly : The excavation of trenches in the ground
to catch the caterpillars. Trenches are made for the purpose
of either isolating attacked areas, or to catch caterpillars
within the infested wood.

Collection of eggs, by scraping them from the trees ; but
this method also destroys many ichneumons.

800 PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

Collection of caterpillars. — This is undertaken either after
November, or by shaking the trees in August.

This method is less efficacious than smearing girdles of tar
on the trees, as at least half the caterpillars escape.

Collection of pupae. — In June and July.

Collection of the ? moths. — This is carried out in July in the
morning and on cold wet days before the eggs are laid.

By this means ichneumons are not destroyed.

Girdling the trees with grease-bands. — This is the best and
safest method to adopt when the insects have appeared in
large numbers. It was first employed in Silesia in 1829
against L. monacha, L., and first in 1866-7 at Gliicksburg,
against the present insect.

The details necessary to ensure success by this measure are
carried out as follows :—

The woods which have been attacked are thinned, in order
that tar may not be wasted on suppressed stems ; all under-
growth which might serve as bridges for the caterpillars is
cleared away.

The coarse bark is removed from the pines in rings 10 to
15 cm. broad, in order to present a smooth surface for the
tar. Care is taken not to injure the bast.

The smooth places are covered with a horizontal band of
tar or grease 6 to 8 cm. broad in February or the beginning
of March, and this operation is repeated at intervals of 6 to
8 days, or again in April, when the former application has
become too dry to catch the insects.

Ratzeburg has distinguished experimental tarring from
general tarring. The former is used on lines of trees here
and there throughout a wood, where a severe attack is feared,
and if 5 or 6 caterpillars are caught on each tarred tree,
then a general tarring of all the trees is undertaken. There
is, however, a danger that the general tarring may come too
late, and it is recommended to try the experimental tarring
in the autumn, and if a general tarring is shown to be
necessary, to take all preliminary measures for it during
the winter. The best tar is made from pine roots and
stumps ; it should be of a cherry-brown colour and possess
a proper consistency, be neither too thick nor too thin, and

PINE MOTH.

301

must be put on cold. Coal-tar must not be used for this
purpose.

Certain compositions are also used which are superior to
tar, such as tar mixed with 9 to 15 per cent, of resin, or
9 to 11 per cent, of acetic acid. For similar purposes in
England, grease-bands are made of " cart-grease " or mix-
tures of Stockholm tar, unboiled linseed-oil, etc., etc.

In order that a composition may be really useful for this
purpose, it must combine cheapness with prolonged stickiness.
A thick coating should always be used, or else the substance
is absorbed by the bark.

In order to spread the tar
a paint-brush was originally
used, but Boden and Kielmann,
two German forstmeisters, con-
structed, in 1881, two wooden
spatulas, which Fig. 151 repre-
sents. The broad and grooved
spatula is about 36 cm. long and
5J cm. broad at the top, where
it is grooved on one side, but
smooth on the other. The
grooving gradually slopes from
the handle to the extremity of
the spatula, where it is 5 mm.
deep. The tar is taken from
the barrel on the flat side of the

broad spatula, and spread on the tree with the narrow spatula.
The broad spatula is then turned round, and the groove
pressed round over the tar. This makes a smooth ring 5 cm.
broad and 5 mm. thick.

The quantity of tar used and the cost of painting the rings
varies with the age of the woods, and in Prussia averages 40
to 50 Ibs. per acre for old wood, and 50 to 60 Ibs. per acre for
young wood, the average cost in either case being 6s. and
9s. Qd. per acre for tar.

In 1878 in Plietnitz in West Prussia, 45 millions of cater
pillars were destroyed by means of tar rings, at a cost of 7s.
per 10,000 caterpillars. In woods under 60 years old the

Front
View.

Side
View.

Fig. 151.— Bodeu's Spatula.

302 PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

hibernating caterpillars were collected at a cost of 20s. per
10,000. The value of the annual increment of wood saved
was 8s. per acre, as against 7s., the cost of the tar rings.

The efficacy of the tar ring is less interfered with by frost
than by great heat, as the latter easily melts it and causes it
to run down the tree. Most of the caterpillars which attempt
to cross the rings adhere to the lower part of them ; but about
3 per cent, of them, chiefly the larger ones, manage to cross
the rings, although of these about 59 per cent, soon die from
the effects of the tar, so that only 1/2 per cent, of the whole
number really survive and pass the rings.

The caterpillars whose way to the tree-crowns is thus cut
off, return to the ground and try to find their way to other
trees ; they are therefore prevented from so doing, by isolating,
by means of trenches, the wood containing the tarred trees
from other woods*which have not been so protected.

Caterpillars infested by ichneumons, or fungoid diseases,
may be introduced amongst those which are healthy.

In cases where the attack is very bad, but localised over
a small wood only, the soil-covering is burned whilst the
caterpillars are hibernating, or even the whole wood is burned,
measures being taken in both cases to protect the adjoining
woods from the spread of the fire.

Eobert Hartig, in 1871, experimented near Eberswald on
the effects of the different methods of protecting the Scots
pine from these caterpillars, with the following results : —

The collection of hibernating caterpillars, as long as the
moss and dead-leaf covering is replaced in position, has no
bad influence on the growth of the tree.

The jarring of young trees in order to knock off the cater-
pillars involves local decay in the bast, and consequent
reduction of increment.

Tarring does not hurt the trees in the slightest degree..

2. Bombyx neustria, L. (Lackey -Moth).

a. Description.

Moth with spread of wings of 80 to 40 mm. Body and fore-
wings ochreous-yellow or red-brown, the latter traversed across

LACKEY-MOTH.

303

their middle by a darker band which is bordered by pale
stripes; hind-wings somewhat lighter, crossed by a vague
darker stripe.

Caterpillar extending to 45 mm. in length, with 16 legs,
marked with alternate stripes of blue, reddish-brown and

cf

Fig. 152. — Bombyx neustria, L.
a Imago ( $ ). b Egg-riiig on a twig, c Larva, d Pupa.

white, thinly covered with long hairs, head blue with two
black spots.

Pupa bluish-black, covered with short hairs, in a yellowish-
white thick cocoon.

#. Life-history.

The moth appears in July and August, flying in the evening
and resting during the day in sheltered places.

The ? , about 8 days after pairing, lays from 300 to 400
brownish-grey eggs in a close spiral, forming a cylinder round
a young shoot.

304 PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

The caterpillars hatch in April or the beginning of May,
and live socially in companies of 50 to 100, until they are full
grown, in web-nests spun by their joint labours, and increas-
ing in size as they grow up. They leave these nests to feed
on leaves, returning to them in wet weather or by night. In
fine weather they are fond of sunning themselves. When
disturbed, they let themselves down to the ground by threads,
or after hanging some time in the air, draw themselves up
again.

When full grown, in June, they disperse, and spin cocoons
among the leaves, or in bark-cracks.

Generation annual; the insect is very common over the
greater part of Europe and in England.

c. Relations to the Forest.

The caterpillar is found on many trees, especially on apple
and other orchard trees, and on oak, hornbeam, and poplars ;
also on elms, birch, maples, willows, thorns, briars, etc.
Only ash and lime appear to be spared. Its attack com-
mences on the blossom and leaf-buds, then extending to the
foliage, and lasts from the end of April till the beginning
of June. It is chiefly important in orchards, to which it does
immense damage.

d. Protective Rules, etc.

i. Protection of enemies, notably titmice, the golden-crested
wren, the cuckoo, finches, etc.

ii. Pruning and burning twigs bearing the egg-rings during
the winter.

iii. Destruction of the young caterpillars in their webs by
crushing with gloves, or short brooms, or by cutting off the
webs and letting them drop into a pail containing paraffin.
These remedies can be economically applied in orchards and
tree nurseries only.

3. Bombyx pudibunda, L. (Pale Tussock Moth),
a. Description.

Moth with a spread of wings of 45 mm. (3 ), 50 to 60 mm.
(?). Fore- wings whitish-grey, sprinkled with darker spots

BOMBYX PUDIBUNDA.

305

and with 2 to 3 narrow grey-brown transverse waved lines;
abdomen and hind-wings somewhat lighter, the latter with a
faint greyish band ; $ darker and more spotted than the ? .
Caterpillar, when mature, about 40 mm. long, with 16 legs,
at first greenish yellow, later becoming reddish or brownish,
hairy, with four truncated tufts of yellow or brownish-grey
bristles on the 4th to the 7th segments, separated by black

a Male.

Fig. 153. — Bambyx pudibunda, L.
Female. c Caterpillar. d Pupa (dorsal surface).

velvety bands, and with a rose-red pencil of hair on the last
segment.

Pupa thick-set, dark brown, covered with short grey hair,
in a yellowish-grey cocoon spun up with the larval hairs.

b. Life-history.

The moth appears at the end of May or beginning of June.
In June the female lays about 100 to 150 bluish-grey eggs in
a cluster on the bark, generally low down, at about 1 yard
from the ground, but often a few yards up, sometimes on
twigs or dead wood on the ground, or even on grass or
herbage.

F.P. x

306

PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

The caterpillars hatch after 3 weeks, in June or July, make
their first meal off their egg-shells, and remain a short time
in clusters, with their heads usually turned inwards; about
the middle of July they separate and wander towards the
crowns of the trees, coming down to pupate in September.

Pupation occurs at the end of September, or in October,
usually under dead leaves, dead fallen wood, etc., on the
ground, in the bark-cracks of oaks, Scots pines, etc., or
among herbage on the ground.

Fig. 154. — Beech-leaf, eaten by the larva
of B. pudibunda, L. (Natural size.)

Fig. 155.— Oak -leaf,
stripped hy the larva
of £. pudibunda, L.
(Natural size.)

The generation is annual.

The caterpillar is very hardy, and withstands snow and
cold well.

c. Relations to the Forest.

The caterpillar lives singly on almost all forest trees, even
conifers, but has only been observed in abundance on the
beech, and occasionally on the hornbeam, oak or alder. It

BOMBYX PUDIBUNDA. 307

prefers dry, sunny, elevated places, and avoids valleys. It has
often been noticed that an attack commences simultaneously
at several points of high elevation, from which it spreads in
all directions.

It prefers 40- to 80-year-old woods. The foliage is at first
only skeletonised, but after August the leaves are almost
entirely eaten and fall to the ground in thousands after the
caterpillars have bitten through the petioles.

In the case of the oak, the petioles and mid-ribs remain.

The damage done consists in loss of increment, and reduc-
tion in the production of seed, as fewer flower-buds are
developed ; the quantity of beech-mast is much diminished,
and the nuts are often empty.

This is highly prejudicial to beech forests under natural
reproduction.

The insect prefers southerly or south-westerly aspects ; it is
very common in North Germany, France and Belgium
(Ardennes.), being found at altitudes up to 1,300 feet above
sea-level. It is tolerably common in Great Britain, but is
seldom destructive, except in hop-gardens.

In 1892, the larvae of the pale tussock moth appeared on
about 2J acres of forest in the Grand Duchy of Luxem-
bourg, and by October 82 acres were leafless. By the end
of 1893, 5,000 acres of beech - wood were devastated,
and the caterpillars were so numerous as to impede
locomotives on the narrow-gauge railway. Owing to the
increase of parasites and diseases, the epidemic stopped in
June, 1894.

d. Protective Rules.

i. Ash, sycamore and conifers should be grown in beech-
"woods.

ii. Protection of enemies — crows, jackdaws, cuckoos,
thrushes, finches, titmice, etc. Ground-beetles and ichneu-
mon-wasps are very efficacious, and a spider (Epeira, sp.) has
been observed to be extremely destructive to the insect. A
fungoid disease due to Isaria farinosa, Fries, with its higher
form, Cordiceps inilitaris, Link, is also common.

x2

308 PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

e. Remedial Measures.

i. Collection or destruction of caterpillars (end of September
— beginning of October), as they come down the trees to
pupate.

ii. Collection of pupae in the winter.

iii. Girdling the trees with grease-bands at a height of 1 to
3 yards. This method has given fairly good results in the
Eberswald. On 3 acres about 500 caterpillars per tree were
caught at an expense of 11s. per acre. Unfortunately most
of the eggs had been laid above the bands, and the eventful
destruction of all the foliage of the trees was only delayed.*
The Germans do not now spend money on destroying this
insect, as complete defoliation lasts only one year and the
attacked trees do not die.

4. Bombyx chrysorrhoea, L. (Brown-tail Moth).

a. Description.

Moth with a spread of wing of 30 to 40 mm. White ; the
inner margins of the wings fringed with long hairs; fore-
wings in the $ usually marked with small black spots about
the middle and towards the anal angle. Abdomen brown
towards the tip, which is furnished in the $ with a tuft of
dark-brown down, thicker and red-brown in the ? .

Caterpillar 35 mm. long, 16-legged, with radiating tufts of
long yellowish-brown hairs, brownish-grey above, with 2 red,
slightly zigzag lines along the back from the 6th segment
towards the tail, and 2 vermilion warts on the 9th and 10th
segments, grey beneath, with yellow spots and streaks.

Pupa dark brown, hairy, with pointed tail, in a brownish-
grey cocoon.

b. Life-history.

The moth appears at the end of June and in July.

The 5 lays 200 to 300 brownish-yellow eggs on the lower
surface of leaves of many broadleaved trees, and covers them
with the dense fluff from her tail.

* Bombyx thwaitesi, Moore, is very destructive to foliage of the sal
rolusta) in Assam, and sometimes : occurs in enormous numbers over very ex-
tensive areas. It also attacks the leaves of tea bushes. Indian Museum Xotesf
Vol. I., page 29.

BOMBYX CHRYSORRHOEA.

309

The caterpillars appear 2 to 3 weeks later, usually in August,
and at once spin web-nests among the neighbouring leaves.
In the autumn they spin large caterpillar-nests, as big as the
fist, in which they hibernate, binding together many leaves
with their threads, and thus forming chambers which they line
with silk and fasten firmly to the twigs.

Pupation takes place in June in a thin greyish-brown cocoon
between leaves.

Fig. 156. — Bomlyx chrysorrhoea, L.
a Male, b Female, c Caterpillar, d Pupa.

Generation annual. This insect is common, but rarely
appears in great numbers. In the Berlin Zoological Garden
they destroy the foliage almost every year. It is less common
in Britain than the closely allied B. similis, Fuss, (auriflua,
Fabr.) ; an insect of similar appearance, but with the abdo-
minal tuft of down golden-yellow. It resembles B. chry-
sorrhoea in habits, and especially attacks hedgerows and
orchard trees.

c. Relations to the Forest.

The insect is polyphagous ; the caterpillars are found on
pear and plum trees, on oak, white-thorn, and also on beech,
elm, maple, hornbeam, willows, poplars, roses ; even on robinia
when nothing else offers.

310 PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

The caterpillars, enclosed in their common web-nest, first
gnaw the upper side of the leaves. Next spring, after
renewing their nests, they feed on the buds and young leaves,
and later, on the blossoms and fully developed leaves, except
the petiole. In this way, the fruit is considerably reduced in
quantity, if not entirely destroyed. Up to the middle of May,
in bad weather and also during the night, they retire to their
nests. After the third moulting, at the middle or end of May,
they abandon their nests, and wander among the trees to
feed.

The crowns of the trees which are attacked begin about the
end of August to look as if they had been singed by fire ;
later, the woods become more or less completely defoliated.
If defoliation takes place before Midsummer a second foliage
may appear.

d. Protective Rules.-

Protection of enemies. Titmice and the cuckoo are very
useful.

Cutting off the caterpillar nests with shears, and burning
them.

Collecting and killing the caterpillars in May, and the pupae
in June. Care must be taken to protect the hands against the
hairs, which cause inflammation. The above measures should
be adopted for orchard and avenue trees.

5. Liparis monacha, L. (Black Arches, or Nun Moth),
a. Description.

The moth has a spread of wings of 40 mm. ( $ ), up to 50 mm.
(?). Fore-wings white, with many black zigzag transverse
lines and patches, hind-wings light grey ; abdomen with broad,
rose-red bands, separated by black bands, which are very well
marked in the $ .

The caterpillar is 40 to 50 mm. long, with 16 legs, hairy,
tapering slightly towards the tail, reddish-grey above and
greenish-grey below ; with 6 bluish warts bearing tufts of long
hairs on each segment, and on the 6th a velvety-black heart-
shaped spot.

LIPARIS MONACHA.

311

The pupa is at first greenish, later dark brown, with a bronze
lustre, and covered with shaggy hairs.

b. Life-history.

The moth appears in July and at the beginning of August,
and may exceptionally be found till the end of September.

Fig. 157. — Liparis monacha, L.
a Imago ( ? ). b Eggs (enlarged), c Caterpillar, d Pupa.

Both sexes usually sit at daytime on the stems at a moderate
height from the ground.

In the month of August the ? lays about 150 eggs of a
reddish-bronze colour in groups of from 5 to 50 in bark-cracks,
or among the moss and lichen of large poles and tree stems,
of Scots pine or spruce, usually at 10 feet from the ground.
When the insect swarms, spruce boles are covered with eggs

312 PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

up to the top, but in Scots pine, only as far as the rough bark
extends. Later the eggs become of a pearly grey colour, and
hibernate without any protective covering.

The caterpillars hatch at the end of April, or the beginning
of May. They remain for a few days (2 to 6) in small groups
near their hatching place, and then ascend to the crowns of
the trees. Until they are half -grown, they are able to let
themselves up and down by threads should they be disturbed.
They become full grown by the end of June, or the beginning
of July. When young, they are rather sensitive to changes of
weather, and are easily blown down by the wind, and may then
fall on to young forest growth.

Pupation takes place at the end of June or the beginning of
July, and the pupae may be found fixed by a few threads in
bark-cracks low down on the stems, also on needles of low
branches, and even on undergrowth.

The moth emerges in 15 to 20 days after pupation, the active
c? appearing a few days before the ? .

Generation annual. The insect appears sometimes in truly
formidable numbers. The moths, especially the $ , are very
active, and may fly for long distances in swarms, but usually
remain localised.

L. monacha is tolerably common in many localities in
Britain, chiefly in the south of England, but is not generally
regarded as an abundant insect. It is rare in conifer woods
and, consequently, seldom if ever destructive ; its usual food-
plant appears to be the oak. Indeed most British lepidopterists
seem to be unaware that it is a conifer feeder.

c. Relations to the Forest.

This species attacks all conifers, but prefers the Scots pine
and spruce, and tall poles and old trees of these species to
younger ones ; it also, however, attacks young growth and also
broadleaved trees, such as beech, hornbeam, birch, oak, orchard
trees, least of all the ash and alder. In cases of scarcity of
other food, it will not disdain low shrubs.

The caterpillars devour the needles and buds. When young
they bore into the tender shoots, causing them to wilt ; the

LIPARIS MONACHA.

313

older larvae attack the fully formed needles, and in the case of
spruce, eat them from the apex downwards. They feed on
Scots pine in a most wasteful manner, biting off the tops of
the needles and letting them fall to the ground, and only
eating their lower portions. The quantities of half-eaten

I860

2862

Fig. 158.— Shoot with a lateral branch— Fig. 159.— Leading shoot (lopped)—
of a spruce fir which had heen stripped hy Liparis monacha, L.

Date of injury, 1856 ; production of short growth, 1857 ; of bristle-needles, 1858 ;
of short growth, 1859 ; of nearly normal growth, 1860 ; of normal growth with
lateral dormant buds, 1861.

needles lying on the ground then betray the presence of
the enemy.

In high coniferous wood the older needles are preferred to
the younger, and the attack spreads downwards and outwards
from the summits of the trees. Among young growth, on the
contrary, the young shoots are eaten first. If the attack is

314

PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

extensive, and towards its end, the caterpillars return in swarms
to the summit of the trees and eat off all the younger shoots.
Repeated observation has proved that these caterpillars are all
sickly and eventually, die, and inside them a great variety of
parasites is found.

The attack lasts from May till July, and is repeated for about
3 years. In the 2nd or 3rd year it culminates, and complete
defoliation may kill the whole wood. The spruce is more sensi-
tive to the attack than the
Scots pine. The latter
may recover the loss of half
its foliage.

The process of recovery
in the spruce is shown in
Figs. 158, 159, which
represent portions of trees
attacked in Silesia during
1855 and 1856. The length
of the internodes was least
in 1858, the normal growth
not being resumed till
1861, and a characteristic
growth of stunted " bristle-
needles" appeared, a fea-
ture which not unf requently

Fig. 160.-Beech leaf" eaten by a caterpillar °?CU1<S in the Case °f Scots
of Z. monacha, L. pine.

The insect is found both

in the plains and in hilly country. The most severe attack
by the " Nun " during the present century was during
1853-1858 in East Prussia, Lithuania, and Poland ; in
1858 a bark-beetle attack followed, and the calamity only
stopped in 1860. From the 29th July, 1853, to the
27th June, 1855, in the Rothebude Forest, where the
attack commenced, 6,375 acres of forest were completely
stripped of needles, and about half as much more nearly
stripped. The larval droppings covered the ground to a depth
of 5 to 8 cm., in many places to 15 cm., and kept falling to
the ground with a sound like heavy rain. Up to the 1st

LIPARIS MONACHA. 315

October, 1862, 31,360,000 cub. feet of wood were killed,
30,823,000 cub. feet by the Nun, and 437,000 cub. feet
by bark-beetles. The ravaged area exceeded 21,000 acres, and
in East Prussia, between 1853 and 1863, over 467,000,000 cub.
feet of wood had to be felled, while 267,000 acres were
devastated.

The damage done in the neighbouring Russian province was
still greater, and it has been computed that by the Nun and
bark-beetles 6,400 geographical sq. miles of forest in Russia,
and in Prussia 600 sq. miles, altogether 7,000 sq. miles of
forest, were destroyed, and at least 6,427,500,000 cub. feet of
timber killed. It was noted as a curiosity that the manuring
of the forest soil by. the dung of the caterpillars, and the
opening-out of the woods, produced such
a heavy growth of grass that the stags,
owing to the greater abundance of
provender, bore antlers of unusual size.

In 1889 and 1890 this insect proved ^ ]
very destructive in Bavaria, south of l|||
the Danube, the expenses of the cam- !f|
paign against it amounting to as much
as £100,000. K* 16i" - Birfch

eaten by the caterpillar

In attacking broadleaved trees, the Of L. momeha, L.
caterpillars frequently eat the base of
the leaves, letting the remaining portion fall to the ground :
this is the case with birch and aspen, whilst with beech and
oak only a portion of the leaf is eaten, the leaf -stalk being
usually untouched (Fig. 160).

The attack is never fatal to broadleaved trees.

d. Protective Rules.

i. Avoidance of pure spruce or Scots pine woods and introduc-
tion of suitable species, especially beech, in intermixture with
such woods.

ii. Thinning. — By careful thinning future remedial measures
are facilitated, and a better control over the collectors of eggs,
larvae or pupae is maintained.

iii. Protection of enemies : bats, cuckoos, woodpeckers, crows,
starlings, titmice, golden-crested wren, etc. The two latter

316

PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

are extremely useful in destroying the eggs throughout the
winter. The ground-beetles, Caralus glabratus, L., and Calo-
soma sycophanta, L., are also very useful on the Continent, the
larvae of the latter attacking the moths' eggs, and the beetles

Fig. 162. — Spruce leader, with infected (sleepy) larvae of the Nun moth.

the caterpillars. Many ichneumon-wasps and Tachinae attack
the caterpillars, for instance, Tacldna monachae, Ratz., T.
2>halaenarum, L., etc.

In 1892 J. Gold found that in N. E. Bohemia 59 per cent, of
the caterpillars were attacked by Tachinae and 11 per cent, by

LIPARIS MONACHA. 317

ichneumon wasps. Finally, towards the end of the last
great swarm of the Nun moth in Bavaria, 1890, fungi,
especially bacteria, were destroying the caterpillars, the latter
became sleepy, and hung bent like horseshoes on the twigs, or
in masses at the tops of the trees. If such caterpillars are
squeezed, a brown stinking liquid exudes, whilst healthy
caterpillars exude green liquid.

e. Remedial Measures.

i. Collection, and destruction of the eggs by fire, from autumn
till the middle of April. The piece of bark on which the eggs
are laid is removed, and the eggs scraped off with a knife into
a bag furnished with a wooden funnel-shaped mouth. The
stems are cleared up to 16 feet high, preferably by day-
labourers, at first on foot and then with a ladder, and the
woods in which many moths have been observed should be
first treated. This treatment is easier in smooth-barked pole-
woods of spruce than in older woods with rough bark.

One gramme-weight of eggs contains about 1,200, and the
cost of collection is about 3rf. to Is. for 15 grms. In the winter
of 1839-40, in the Biesenthal forests near Eberswald, 10 tons
of eggs were collected. The eggs should be burned in small
lots, as otherwise they explode like gunpowder.

ii. Killing the clusters of newly-hatched caterpillars in April
and May by means of cloths, brushes, or by rubbing them
with moss, sods, etc. Great care must be taken to seize the
proper moment for this operation, and a delay of only a few
days may prevent its being done. The cloths, etc., used may
be soaked in tar to render their action more efficacious. This
operation is also best done by daily labour, but under careful
supervision, one overseer being appointed for every 20 to 30
workmen. One man should be able to work over 6 to 8 acres
per diem, and the most suitable place to work in is among
young poles, where the caterpillars can be readily seen, and
are not too high up the stems.

iii. Collection of caterpillars and pupae, commencing in June.
Small caterpillars are usually collected in young growth, on to
which they have been blown ; later on, when they have ceased

318 PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

spinning, they are shaken down from the poles. It is preferable

to collect the pupae.

iv. Collection of $ moths from the beginning of July. This

should be done as soon as they emerge, and in the earliest

hours of the morning; it gives the best results during cool

weather. A cloth may be covered with adhesive matter, and

used to daub the insects.

It is not yet fully decided whether this measure is very

effective or not, some authorities, such as Altum, ranking it as

the best to be adopted, and others, as Ratzeburg, considering

it as almost useless.

In the forests near Ebersdorf in Reuss-Greiz, between the

26th June and the 12th August, 1868, 600,000 ? were destroyed

at a cost of £270.

v. Trenches are usually of little use. Smearing the stems
in winter from the ground up to the large branches with a
mixture of lime (£ bushel), soft soap (3 lb.), potash (J lb.), clay
and cow-dung destroys the eggs. This method can be used
for orchard trees only.

vi. The application of high grease-bands about 2 in. wide at
a height of 16 kto 20 ft. from the ground, above the places
where eggs are laid. This should be done at the end of March
or April, and the bark here is sufficiently smooth, and requires
no preliminary scraping. The rings are smeared by means of
a broad brush fastened at right angles to a long pole. This
has in many cases proved an excellent remedy. The little
caterpillars remain sitting in thousands below the rings, which
cut off their way to the crowns of the trees. The composition
used should retain its fluidity for some time, but need not be
very sticky, as the caterpillars to be caught are so small.

Large fires lighted at night in the forest to attract and burn
the moths have failed to do any good. In 1890, in the Bavarian
forests the moths were attracted by electric lights to the mouth
of a large funnel into which they were sucked by an exhaust
current of air produced by steam power. Large numbers
were collected by this method, and killed, but it cannot be
stated whether the utility of this proceeding is commensurate
with its expense.

Low grease lands, as already described, page 300, for the

NOCTUIDAE. 319

pine-moth, are also useful, as many nun caterpillars spin
themselves down or crawl down to the ground. They have
such an objection to the grease bands that they sit below them
by thousands and die of starvation.

The collection of eggs, caterpillars, and pupae gives good
results only at the beginning of an attack. When the insect
appears in swarms, the collection of moths and the use of
low grease bands are the most effective measures. High grease
bands cost too much. In the case of low grease bands, the
undergrowth must be cut and burned, the areas attacked
should be isolated by a sufficiently broad grease barrier, and
so should intact areas.

Although the Scots pine is usually first attacked, it does not
suffer so much as the spruce, as the stem of the latter bears
eggs up to the top and the young caterpillars begin by eating
the yearling needles. In the Scots pine they commence lower
down with the old needles. The Scots pine is not therefore
killed, as long as the year's needles are spared, while the
spruce dies if 80 per cent, of the needles are eaten.

Liparis dispar, L., the gypsey moth, which in Europe attacks
all broadleaved trees, was introduced into Massachusetts by a
person who wished to interbreed it with a silk-moth. This
pest increased in numbers over 350 sq. miles, and became so
destructive to trees and crops that the State had to organise
measures for its extermination on an immense and expensive
scale, 375,000 dollars being spent in 1890—1894.

FAMILY IV. — NOCTUIDAE (NIGHT MOTHS).
Description of Family.

Moths with long, setaceous antennae, usually covered with
fine hairs, and sometimes pectinate in $ ; ocelli present;
proboscis long ; wings narrow, during repose roof-like or level ;
frenulum present. The markings of the fore- wings are usually
characteristic and take the form of three or four transverse
lines of which the second from the outer margin is elbowed,
and of three spots ; two are situated near the anterior margin,
the outer being kidney-shaped (reniform stigma), the inner
circular (orbicular stigma] ; the third is elongate, and is

320 PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

beneath the orbicular spot (claviform stigma). These mark-
ings are constant in position, but some or all of them may be
absent. The body is thick, and usually covered with down ;
the head surrounded by a collar. Flight nocturnal or during
twilight, hardly ever by day.

Caterpillars usually bare, rarely hairy, commonly with 10
prolegs, sometimes with 8 or 6.

Pupation of the bare caterpillars generally takes place in the
ground, in a cocoon made of grains of sand bound together by
a few threads. The hairy caterpillars spin a cocoon above
ground. Pupae usually slim, spindle-shaped and dark coloured.
Many of the caterpillars live on woody plants, eating needles
and leaves, but the majority of them feed on grasses and low
plants. A few species are highly injurious to forests.

f

Fig. 163. — Nocliia piniperda, Panz. (Natural size ; fig. c enlarged.)
a Male, b Female, c Eggs on a pine-needle, d Caterpillar, c Pupa.

1. Noctua piniperda, Panz. (Pine Beauty, or Pine Noctua).
a. Description.

Moth with a wing-expanse of 35 mm. ; fore- wings russet-red
marbled with grey ; orbicular and reniform stigmata yellowish-
white, conjoined, the latter large, oblique and produced towards
the tip of the wing ; hind-wings and abdomen greyish-brown.

Caterpillar 40 mm. long, with 16 legs, almost hairless, of a
yellowish-green, with 3 or 5 whitish-coloured stripes and a
light-brown head.

NOCTUA PINIPERDA. 821

Pupa somewhat elongate, of a bright brown colour, with two
spines on its tail.

b. Life-history.

The moth appears from the end of March to the beginning
of May.

The ? lays 30 to 70 round, dull-green eggs on the needles of
old Scots pines.

The caterpillars hatch out in May, spin freely when young,
and are fully grown by the middle of July.

Pupation takes place at the end of July or beginning of
August, under moss, dead leaves, on or in loose earth, usually
under the cover of the tree on which the insect feeds. The
pupae are sometimes found in colonies, in the holes whence
stumps, etc., have been extracted.

Generation annual. The caterpillar sometimes appears in
enormous numbers, but is susceptible to changes of the
weather. It is tolerably common in pine woods throughout
Great Britain.

c. Relations to the Forest.

The caterpillar attacks chiefly the Scots pine, especially
when 20 to 40 years old, but in case of necessity it may feed
on older trees and other conifers, such as spruce, Weymouth
pine and juniper.

When young the caterpillar, according to Eatzeburg, bores
into the bud-sheaths of the spring shoots, which thus become
brown, wilt and die. Later on the needles are attacked,
beginning with their edges, and finally they are entirely
devoured, usually on the lower branches, but also high up in
the crown. The attack lasts from May till July, but is not so
destructive as that of Gastropacha pini, L., as the Scots pines,
even if extensively stripped by it, usually form new buds and
recover. One should therefore await results before felling
woods that have been completely stripped of needles. Only
when the fatal rosettes of needles (Fig. 143) appear is the
death of the trees imminent. The insect inhabits hilly
regions, and is most common in forests where the soil has
become impoverished by removal of litter.

322 PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

d. Protective Rules.

Mix broadleaved trees with Scots pine.

Protection of enemies : Fox, badger, hedgehog, shrew, cuckoo,
crow, starling, thrush, titmice, golden-crested wren, etc.
Calosoma sycophanta, L., is very useful on the Continent, and
many parasitic insects and fungi attack the larvae.

Fungi (Empusa sp.) killed nearly all the caterpillars in the
Tuchler Haide in 1867, their bodies being covered with
yellowish-grey sporangia, which after rain became dark brown.
The infected caterpillars were brittle like the pith of elder, and
filled internally with a yellowish substance.

e. Remedial Measures.

i. Pigs may be admitted to the woods from July till hard
frost sets in. In the forest district of Cloppenburg in Olden-
burg in 1845, 58 pigs in 29 days (November and December)
are estimated to have destroyed 16,000,000 pupae.

ii. Caterpillars may be collected from the middle of May
onwards by beating the stems, or in July by picking them
from lower growth, or at the foot of the stripped trees, where
they often collect in numbers.

iii. Pupae may be collected during the winter, under moss,
etc. ; the holes whence stumps have been extracted should be
specially examined.

iv. Moths may be collected by striking the trees in cloudy
weather or by " sugaring."

Trenches are not of much use, as the caterpillars are little
given to wandering about.

2. Noctua (Agrotls) restigialis,* Eott.

a. Description.

Moth with an expanse of wing of 80 to 35 mm. Fore-wings
ashy grey, mingled with brown, variable in depth of colour,
with fine black veins, the three stigmata conspicuous, darker

* Larvae of the different species of Agrotis usually live in the ground; they
gnaw through plants above the roots, a.nd in America are appropriately termed
-

j t _ __ J T_ _

NOCTUA VESTIGIALIS. 323

than the ground, the orbicular and reniform with light borders,
the former sometimes reduced to a point. * Hind-wings light
grey with darker borders.

Caterpillar 35 mm. long, with 16 legs, of a dull brownish
grey ; head with a triangular frontal spot, and another on the
vertex, meeting at their apex, their borders forming a X .

Pupa brown, terminated by two very short points.

b. Life- his tor y.

The moth appears from the middle of August till the middle
of September.

The eggs are laid on the ground amongst the grass and
herbage.

The caterpillars hatch in September, and hibernate in the

$

Fig. 164. — Noctua vestigialis, Rott. (Natural size.}

soil when half-grown ; as they are earth-coloured it requires
an accustomed eye to detect them.

Pupation takes place from the end of June till August, either
in the ground, in a cocoon, or exceptionally among the needles
of young Scots pine.

Generation annual.

The caterpillar dislikes the light, and during the day remains
in the ground or concealed under the leaves of the plants on
which it feeds.

c. Relations to the Forest.

The caterpillars of most species of Noctua are termed
" surface caterpillars," and those of the present species chiefly
feed on agricultural crops, young shoots of grasses, potatoes,
turnips, etc., towards harvest time. It also attacks the Scots
pine and the larch as seedlings, in their first and second years,

Y2

324 PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

and exceptionally the seedlings of broadleaved trees. The
little one-year-old -seedlings are usually hitten off by it in
April and May close to the collum, never deeper than 1 in.
under ground. The larva then feeds on the root, the lower
part of the stem, and. lastly on the needles. In June, when
the plants are somewhat older, they are bitten off at about
the middle of their height, and the stem and roots gnawed.

Two-year-old seedlings usually have their weaker side
shoots bitten off, more rarely the leading shoot as well, and
some of the needles are eaten ; the bark may also be gnawed,
but such plants commonly recover from the injury they have
received.

The damage is usually done at night, when the caterpillars
crawl along the surface of the ground from one plant to
another ; during the day-time they proceed under ground.

Poor sandy soil in plain districts is most frequented by this
pest.

This insect has recently become very injurious in North and
North-east Germany. It is tolerably common on the coasts
of the British Isles, but is rarely met with inland, and has
attracted little or no attention as an injurious species.

d. Protective Rules.

i. Areas both in nurseries and in the forest which are to be
sown up should be thoroughly weeded in the previous year, as
the ? will not lay her eggs except among grass and herbage.

ii. For planting-out, not seedlings of the first year, but 2- to
3- year-old plants with balls of earth should be employed, as
the caterpillars find it difficult to bore through the firm earth
of the balls.

iii. Protection of enemies.

e. Remedial Measures.

Pigs may be driven into places where this pest has appeared.

The ground may be ploughed up or trenched with hoe or
spade, and the caterpillars collected and destroyed. In quite
loose sand the plants may be lifted by hand, and those
uninjured or slightly injured replanted.

NOCTUA SEGETUM. 825

The caterpillars may be poisoned by laying baits of cabbage
or lettuce-leaves sprinkled with arsenic along the beds.
The moths may be caught by " sugaring," and destroyed.

3. Noctua (Agrotis) segetum, Schiff. (Turnip Dart-Moth},
a. Description.

Moth with a wing-expanse of 40 mm. ; fore-wings yellowish-
grey or yellowish-brown, with darker marks, stigmata of the
same ground-colour as the wings, the reniform and orbicular
margined with black ; hind-wings milky-white, with no lunate
spot.

Caterpillar 50 mm. long, with 16 legs, coloured like that of

a

Fig. 165. — Noctiia segetiim, Sehiff. (Natural size.}

the former species, but with the triangular spots of the forehead
and vertex separated at their apices by a space, X-
Pupa light brown, with two long anal points.

b. Life-history.

The moth appears from the end of May till the middle of
June. The ? flies a few days later than the $ . The larval
life is passed in the ground, the caterpillars hatching out in
June and July, and pupating in April and May.

Generation annual. Very common everywhere in Germany
and in the British Isles.*

c. Relations to the Forest.

The caterpillar chiefly attacks the roots of grasses, cereals
and root-crops, also seedling and one-year-old spruce plants.
In some Prussian forest districts it has also been observed

* Vide Miss Ormerod, op. cit., p. 201.

826 PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

attacking one-year-old plants of Scots pine and beech.
Except during hard weather in the winter its attack lasts from
August to April. Seedlings are bitten off below the cotyledons,
and one-year-old plants gnawed about the collum, so that they
frequently die. In 1864 this insect proved very destructive
in Silesia. In 1880, it destroyed spruce, Scots pine and
beech near Stralsund. It is said to destroy wheat in Kussia.
The protective measures are the same as for the previous
species.

FAMILY V. — GEOMETRIDAE (LOOPERS).
Description of Family.

Antennae of the imago either filiform or setaceous, with a
thickened basal joint, not unfrequently pectinate in $ ; ocelli
absent ; proboscis short ; wings large, broad and delicate,
usually lying more or less level in repose, sometimes sloping ;
frenulum always present. Bodies slim, resembling those of
butterflies. Flight usually at dusk, or by night ; a few species
fly in sunshine. Caterpillars bare, or only slightly hairy, with
10 (rarely 12) feet ; they move about by looping, owing to the
absence of the first 3 or 2 pairs of sucker feet ; hence their
name, loopers or span-worms.

Pupae long, with a short pointed tail, bright brown, lying
usually without cocoon under grass, moss, or in the soil.

The caterpillars feed on needles, leaves, buds, etc., and a few
species are injurious to forests.

1. Geometra piniaria, L. (Bordered -ivhife or Pine Looper-Motli) .
a. Description.

Moth with a wing-expanse of 35 mm. $ bright yellow, with
a sharply-defined area at the tip of tbe fore-wings and the
margins of both pairs black-brown, hind- wings with two trans-
verse dark bands ; antennae bipectinate. ? reddish-brown,
the tip of the fore-wings, borders, and 1 or 2 transverse bands
on both wings dark brown ; antennae setaceous. In both sexes
the under-side of the wings is brownish, with dark lines and
numerous spots, and a broad light-yellow band across the
middle of the hinder pair.

GEOMETRA PINIARIA.

827

Caterpillar 35 mm. long, with 4 prolegs, smooth, yellowish
green, with 3 white dorsal stripes, of which the middle one is
broadest, and two broad yellow stripes along the spiracles.

Pupa&k first green, later bright brown, with sharply-pointed
tail.

I). Life- history.

The moth flies in May and June. The $ is fond of flying
about on sunny sultry days ; its flight is unsteady. The ? is
also very active. When resting, the moths have their wings
upright, or else half-raised.

Fig. 166. — Geometra piniaria, L. (Natural size.)
a Male, b Female, c Caterpillar, d Pupa.

The smooth, somewhat flattened green eggs are laid in a
row (2 — 12) on Scots pine needles in the crowns of the trees.
The caterpillars hatch out at the end of June or the beginning
of July, arid are fully grown by October, when they let them-
selves down from the trees by threads. If the weather be
mild, caterpillars may even be found in December. Pupation
occurs in October and November under moss or other soil-
covering, or in the soil, usually under the cover of the trees
on which they have been feeding,

The moth emerges in May or June.

Generation annual. Very common, and widely distributed
in pine woods.

328

PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

c. Relations to the Forest.

The caterpillar attacks the common Scots pine, rarely
other pines, the spruce or silver fir, and prefers 20- to 40- year-
old trees, but will even attack trees up to 60 years of age.

The needles are eaten from the beginning of July to the
end of October, but not the buds. At first the shoots of the
current year are spared, but later on they are also attacked.
The young caterpillars gnaw the sides of the needles (Fig. 166) ;
as they get larger they eat down to and beyond the mid rib.
The full - grown larvae cut off the
points of the needles, but eat the
remainder completely. Complete
defoliation seldom results in the
death of the trees, as the attack
commences late in the season, and
the buds well provided with reserve
material produce fresh foliage the
ensuing year. Only when a wood
has been seriously attacked for two
successive years, the second attack
destroying most of the needles, do
the trees die. If, however, a cold
and prolonged winter should succeed
a somewhat early attack of the pre-
ceding year, the buds may become
too weakened to produce useful
needles and the trees may die, after
one attack only. As long as the cam-
bium is found healthy the wood may be saved. It is there-
fore unnecessary to commence immediate felling of defoliated
woods, as after an attack of the pine-moth. Dense woods in
sunny aspects of warm hill districts are preferred by this
moth, and windy borders of the woods are avoided.

Fig. 167. — Scots pine needles
attacked by G. piniaria, L.

d. Protective and Remedial Rules.

Mix beech with conifers.

Protection of enemies, as for Trachea pinipcrda.

Admission of pigs from October to April (50 pigs to 500 acres).

GEOMETRA BRUMATA. 329

Collection of pupae in winter.

Collection of caterpillars in August by shaking the poles.

Painting rings of grease or lime-whiting 12 to 15 cm. broad
on the trees at 1 m. from the ground. This costs 7s. to 8s.
per acre for tar, and 4s. to 6s. for lime, and has proved
effective.

Baking up into heaps, and burning the soil-covering. This
method gave excellent results over about 190 acres in Pome-
rania in 1881-83 ; about J to f of the pupae were burned with
the litter, and most of the remaining ones being exposed by
the removal of the soil-covering were eaten by birds. Where
the soil-covering had been left intact, the moths appeared in
the following spring in large numbers. The ashes must be
spread over the ground. In dealing with the attacks of this
looper, the forester should continually fell sample trees, in
order to become acquainted with the progress and condition of
the insects, the appearance of parasites and the degree of
resistance offered by the trees.

The extensive Scots pine forests near Nuremberg, weakened
by the wholesale removal of litter, suffered greatly from the
pine looper in 1893-96, about 125,000 acres being ravaged of
State, communal, and private forest. Twelve hundred work-
men were engaged at 4s. a day to work up the dead wood,
64,000,000 cubic feet.

2. Geometra (Cheimatobia) brumata, L. (Winter-moth),
a'. Description.

Male with a wing-expanse of 25 to 30 mm. ; fore-wings
ample, grey-brown, with several darker transverse wavy lines;
hind-wings lighter, with a faint dark waved stripe in the
middle. Female 8 mm. long, of a brownish-grey, wings short
and aborted, with two dark bands across them, antennae and
legs long, the latter strongly developed.

Caterpillar 16 mm. long, with 4 prolegs, hairless, at first
grey, later yellowish-green, with a dark dorsal line, and 3
bright longitudinal lines on either side.

Pupa 11 mm. long, thickset, yellowish-brown, with two small
outwardly-pointed hooks on its tail, in a loose cocoon.

380

PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

b. Life-history.

The moth appears from October to December, and the <?
flies especially at evening-time.

The eggs are first greenish, and later on reddish ; in all
200 to 300 are laid, either separately or in clusters of 3 or
more, on buds, veins of leaves, and points of twigs of almost
all broadleaved trees. The ? ascend the trees usually by the
east and north-east sides, which are protected from rain.

The caterpillars hatch at the end of April or in May, are
full grown by the middle of June, and in July let themselves
down by threads from the crowns of the trees in order to

Fig. 168. — Geometra brumata, L.
a Male. b Female. c Caterpillar. d Pupa.

pupate ; this takes place at the bottom of the trees in a smooth
hole 2 to 3 in. deep in the ground.

Generation annual. Very widely distributed and common,
a well-known orchard pest* throughout England.

c. Relations io the Forest.

The caterpillar attacks several broadleaved trees, especially
orchard trees, the oak, hornbeam and lime ; to the former,
especially to apple and pear trees, it is most destructive, the
fruit-crop being weakened or destroyed. When young, the
caterpillar bores into buds through the side, and later attacks
blossoms and leaves, as well as the green shoots and young
fruits. It continues to spin during these attacks, and when
disturbed will let itself down and climb back again to the tree
by a thread. After destroying the foliage of standards over

* Vide. Miss Ormerod, o/t. rif., p. 338.

831

coppice, it will attack the underwood up to the middle of
June, and great damage is thus done at times.

d. Protective Rules.

Protect enemies.

Grease-bands should be applied to the trees in the middle of
October in order to catch the ? moths on their way up the
trunks. The trees are usually encircled with paper strips 4 in.
broad, bound to the tree by string above and below, and the
tar or composition is painted on to the paper, the lower part of
which being bent upwards to prevent the composition from
trickling down.* These bands catch many other insects which
are destructive to orchard trees, such as the apple-blossom
weevil, Anihonomus pomorum, L., and the codlin moth,
Carpocapsa pomonella, L. The caterpillars of the last species
creep under the paper to pupate.

The practice of spraying with arsenical washes before
flowering, or after the blossom is set, is a valuable method of
treatment.

Other species of Geometridae, which emerge in the winter
months, and the females of which are apterous, such as
Hibemia defoliaria, L., etc., may be dealt with when injurious
in the same manner.

The pupae may be destroyed in orchards from July to
September by trenching the ground a foot deep below the
trees, and stamping it firm.

FAMILY VI. — TOKTEICIDAE (LEAF-ROLLER MOTHS).
Description of Family.

Moths with somewhat short, filiform, or bristle-like antennae
with a thick basal joint ; 2 ocelli. Wings rhomboidal, the
anterior pair usually bright-coloured, roof-shaped in repose ;
frenulum present.

Generation usually annual.

Caterpillars with a few short hairs on little warts ; with 10
prolegs ; usually with a horny shield on the prothoracic seg-
ment and a horny anal flap. Very active, and strong spinners.

* For a good account of these grease-bands and nature of the grease to be
used, see Miss Ormerod, op. cit., p. 342.

332 PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

Pupation in a cocoon either above or in the ground. Pupa
with rows of spines on their backs. The caterpillars attack
the buds or shoots, the fruits and seeds, or the needles or
leaves of broadleaved or coniferous trees. The characteristic
rolling up of leaves is only practised on broadleaved species.
Many insects injurious to forests are included in this family.

1. Halias chlorana, L. (Green Willow Leaf-Roller),
a. Description.

Moth with wing expansion of 20 mm. ; fore-wings and
thorax light green, the former with a whitish anterior border;
head, hind-wings and abdomen white, the latter sprinkled with
greenish-grey scales.

Caterpillar 15 mm. long, with 16 legs, of a dirty flesh-colour,
with a dark dorsal stripe, and a few bristles. Pupa light
brown, with rounded head and smooth hinder extremity.

b. Life-history, etc.

The eggs are laid in April and May on the terminal buds of
young willows, especially on Salix viminalis, L. The solitary
caterpillar hinders the development of these buds in May,
spinning up the terminal leaves into a bundle which is bent
towards one side of the shoot in which it lives ; it feeds from
May till July, not only on the leaves, but on the tender young
shoots of the osiers. The lengthening of the osiers is thus
rendered almost impossible, and a straggling production of
side-shoots results. In July the larvae pupate on leaves or
shoots, in white boat-shaped cocoons. The rnoth appears 14
days after pupation. Neither Hess nor J-udeich are clear
about the subsequent life-history, but as osiers are cut down
in December, there is probably a second generation, eggs being
laid in July, pupation in September and the pupae hibernating
near the ground.

c. Protective Rules.

Cut off the shoots containing the caterpillars, in May and
June and again in August. Each bundle contains only one
larva, which should be killed.

TORTRIX V1RIDANA.

338

2. Tortrix viridana, L. (Oak Leaf-roller),
a. Description.

Moth with wing-expansion of 18 to 22 mm. ; fore-wings
uniformly light green, and hind-wings light grey; whitish
fringes to all the wings.

Caterpillar 15 mm. long, with 10 prolegs, at first greenish
grey, afterwards dull green, with head and anal flap hlack,
with warts on the back. Pupa 11 mm. long, slender and
black.

c

f

Fig. 169. — Tortrix viridana, L.
a Moth, b Caterpillar suspended by a thread, c Pupa.

I). Life-history.

The moth flies during daytime at the end of June and
the beginning of July. The eggs are laid singly or in little
clusters on the already bitten buds of the oak, and pass the
winter there. The caterpillars appear in April and May, and, as
pupation approaches, spin threads by which they let themselves
up and down from the branches ; they pupate usually at the
beginning of June, on the twigs of the trees which have
been attacked, generally in the upper leaves, which they roll
together, and also in bark-cracks.

Generation annual. Everywhere tolerably common, and
sometimes present in enormous numbers. Very destructive
to foliage in oak-forests in the south of England.

334

PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

c. Relations to the Forest.

The oak leaf-roller moth infests oaks only, chiefly the
pedunculate oak because it shoots before the sessile oak, and

Fig. 170. — Oak trees stripped of foliage in Windsor Forest by 7\ rl rid nun ;
beech in full leaf. Photo by W. F. Perree.

chiefly tall poles and mature trees. The attacks of the
caterpillar involve the buds, leaves and inflorescence, and
spread from the summit of the crown downwards. The

TORTRIX BUOLTANA.

335

formation of foliage, blossoms and acorns for the year
is seriously compromised, and sometimes the former is
completely destroyed, and may then be restored
by Lammas-shoots.

In coppice-with-standards oak standards and
underwood only are attacked. The attacks of
this moth are very persistent, having lasted for
4 years, in the Steigerwald from 1869-72, and
in Windsor Forest during 1890-94.

d. Protective Measures.

Protection of enemies : starlings, rooks, jack-
daws, etc. Hardly any remedial measures can
be tried in forests. The caterpillars of the
Dunbar moth, Cosinia trapezina, which are car-
nivorous, are useful in clearing off their attack,
as well as that of the winter moth. This Noctuid
moth has a spread of wing of about 30 mm. ; the
fore-wings are variously marked with pale grey,
rust- colour, or brown, with transverse dark and
pale lines, the hinder wings greyish - brown.
The ? lays her eggs chiefly on oak. The cater-
pillars are pale dull-green, apple-green beneath,
and have 5 pale whitish or yellowish longi-
tudinal stripes, and numerous small black warts,
each surrounded by a white ring, eight to a
segment, arranged transversely on the first three
segments behind the head, and in a square of
four, with two below on each side on the
succeeding segments.

Pimpla scanica, Grav., is the commonest ichneumon- wasp
that attacks the oak leaf-roller.

Fig. 171. -
Oak-leaf
rolled up by
the cater-
pillar of the
Oak-tortrix.
(Natural
size.}

3. Tortrix (Retinia) buoliana, Schiff. (Pine-shoot Tortrix).*

a. Description.

Moth with wing-expansion of 19 to 22 mm. ; fore-wings
narrow, reddish-yellow, traversed by 6 — 7 broad, wavy y-shaped

* Vide Miss Ormerod, op. cit., p. 248.

386 PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

silvery marks, hind-wings dark grey ; both pairs with light
grey fringes. Thorax orange, abdomen grey.

Caterpillar 14 mm. long, with 10 prolegs, bright brown and
smooth, the head and first segment black.

Pupa yellowish-brown, with a row of fine prickles on the back

of the abdomen.

I. Life-history.

The moth appears from the end of June till the end of July.

During the day it sits somewhat concealed amongst the pine
needles, its colour assimilating with the withered pine shoots,
but it becomes active with the approach of twilight. The eggs
are laid among the terminal buds of young Scots pine plants.
The caterpillars hatch out at the end of August and in

Fig. lIZ.—Tm-trix buoliana, Schiff.
a Imago, b Larva, c Pupa.

September, they hibernate in the buds, becoming full grown in
the following May.

Pupation takes place at the end of May or June, at the base
of the injured shoot. The pupa is exposed, and the empty
pupal case may be seen for some time on the shoot.

The moth emerges 4 weeks later.

Generation annual.' The insect is common and widely
distributed wherever Scots pine trees are grown in Europe.

c. Relations to the Forest.

The Scots pine and occasionally the Weymouth, black and
cluster pines are attacked.

The insect exclusively attacks young growth, and prefers
weakly 6- to 12- year-old plants on poor soil and in sunny
situations.

TORTRIX BUOLlAtfA. 33 1

The attack is made by the larva boring into buds and shoots.
Late in the summer the buds, particularly the terminal buds,
are slightly gnawed at their base, so that turpentine exudes.
In the following spring, as soon as the plant begins to shoot
up, the caterpillar bores right through the pith of the young
shoots. Shoots eaten on one side become curved as in the

Fig. 173. — Pine-branch, showing distortion after antecedent injury by T. bitoliana
Schiff . A larval gallery is exposed in the broken shoot, a. (Natural size.)

figure, and if. no further injury is done, will recover their
vertical position, but the perforated shoots dry up, turn brown
and fall off. After destroying the terminal shoot, the larva
directs its attention to the side shoots ; it sometimes spins
several together, and passes from one to another. The attack
can be distinguished from that of the pine beetle by the
crumbling excrement found in the borings.

The injury causes the pine to send out brush-like shoots as
F.P. z

338 PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

lateral buds develop on all sides of the point of attack, and
the resulting loss of increment is considerable, as frequently
the pest recurs year after year.

d. Protective Rules.

Protection of birds, titmice, etc.

Careful planting and rearing of plantations of vigorous
pines, without undue crowding.

The shoots which are attacked may be broken off and
burned, from the middle of May to the end of June. This
plan is advisable only on small areas and at the commence-
ment of the attack. If made late, it destroys numerous
parasitic enemies of the caterpillars.

Eemoval of all misshapen stems at the first thinning, till
which time they are spared to help to cover the ground.

4. Tortrix (Retinia) turionana, Hb.

a. Description.

Moth with a wing-expanse of 16 — 18 mm. ; fore-wings
brown-grey, ochreous towards the tip, with leaden-grey trans-
verse wavy lines; hind-wings whitish, the tip greyish (<?) or
ochreous (?). Head and thorax ochreous; abdomen grey.
Larva 10 mm. long, with 16 legs ; light brown, with black
head and thoracic shield.

b. Life-history, etc.

The eggs are laid in May or June singly on the middle buds
of the whorls of the stem of young Scots pines (usually 5 — 15
years old). The caterpillar bores as a rule into the middle
bud, and hollows out the pith-canal in the course of the
summer. The shoot is checked from the commencement of
its growth and takes on a blackish-grey colour ; eventually it
dies and the lateral buds, which are seldom attacked, become
abnormally large.

Pupation takes place in the following year (at the end of April
or in May) in the hollowed bud, which is spun over with a
thin web, and the moth emerges at the end of May or the
beginning of June.

TORTRIX RESINELLA.

339

Other species of pine, such as the Weymouth pine and Pinus
ponderosa, Dougl., are liable to attack. The insect is less
common than the preceding.

c. Remedial Measures.

The injured buds, which can

be recognised by their small

size and dark colour, should be

cut off towards the end of April.

5. Tortrix (Retinia) resinella, L.
a. Description.

Moth with a wing-expanse of
16 to 18 mm. ; fore-wings slaty-
grey with numerous shining
leaden - grey transverse lines
forked on the fore-margin ;
hind - wings grey - brown ; the
fringes pale. Body slaty-grey.

Caterpillar 11 mm. or more
in length, with 16 legs, orange-
brown, with brownish-red head
and thoracic shield.

b. Life-history.

The eggs are laid in May and
June, just under the whorl of
buds of the recently - grown
shoots of young pines, usually
on the lateral shoots. The
caterpillar bores into the pith
and thus causes the growth of

a hollow gall-like resinous mass, as large as a pea, in which it
passes the winter. In the spring it continues feeding, causing
the gall to increase to the size of a cherry or of a small
walnut, and form a swelling on the underside of the shoot
which encircles two-thirds of it. On section the gall is seen
to be divided into two compartments by a strong vertical
partition. In the larger one the larva lives and pupates (in

z2

Fig. 174.— Eesiu-gall of T. rest-
nella, L., on a pine shoot.
(Natural size.")

340 PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

April or May of the third year) ; the smaller one contains its
excrement.

The moth flies about May ; the generation extending over
two years. As a rule the pine recovers its injuries ; but in an
unfavourable situation or after bad weather the attacked shoots
perish. The species is tolerably common in a few localities
in Scotland and in Windsor Forest.

The treatment consists in the destruction of the galls during
the second winter, and in cutting off affected shoots.

6. Tortrix rufimitrana, H.-Sch.

a. Description.

Moth with wing-expansion of 12-16 mm. ; fore- wings dark
greyish-brown, with lead-coloured wavy lines at their base, a
rusty yellow median band with a lead-coloured border, and a
round dark spot on a rusty yellow patch near the corner of the
wings ; hind-wings brownish grey, with grey fringes ; thorax
rusty yellow near the head, abdomen brownish-grey.

Caterpillar 10 mm. long, with 10 prolegs, of a dull yellowish-
green above and yellow below, with reddish-brown head.
Pupa 6 mm. long, bright brown.

b. Life-hislory.

The moth flies from June till the end of July, sometimes
also in May. The eggs are laid on silver-fir needles, where
they remain during the winter.

The caterpillars hatch in the succeeding spring, and when
fully grown at the end of June, let themselves down by threads,
and pupate in the soil-covering in a cocoon made of silk and
bits of earth. The moth appears 2 to 3 weeks later. Genera-
tion annual.

c. Relations to the Forest.

The caterpillar, commencing operations as the young shoots
appear in May or the beginning of June, eats the needles and
youngest shoots of the silver-fir. It devours the young
needles, bites off the older ones at their base and gnaws the
epidermis of the young shoots, spinning a thin web over the

TORTRIX PINICOLANA. 341

parts attacked. The insect prefers woods of 60 to 100 years
old, but when the moth appears in swarms, younger wood is
also attacked. The edges of the crowns of the trees become
reddish, and after attacks repeated for several years the trees
become stag-headed, the topmost branches being as bare as
brooms, and die. There have been several severe attacks in
Germany on silver-fir by this moth since 1876, and in 1879,
1,800 acres of forest were ravaged in Nagoldthal, and the attack
spread to the surrounding districts.

d. Protective Rules.

Mixture of other species with the silver-fir, and clean wood-
craft.

Protection of enemies : titmice, the wren, etc.

e. Remedial Measures.

Smoking out the caterpillars by burning green branches in
damp weather. This is done in May, by thinning affected
woods and collecting branches from trees and poles felled,
which are burned in heaps after taking necessary precautions.
In damp weather the smoke penetrates the leaf-canopy
and causes numbers of larvae to fall, which are swept into the
fire. This was done by Forstmeister Koch, with excellent
results, near Karlsbad.

Admission of pigs to the forest as soon as the cocoons are in
the soil covering, during the first half of June.

Eaking-up and removing the soil-covering whilst the pupae
are there.

Felling trees which are badly attacked.

7. Tortrix pinicolana, Zll.

a. Description.

Moth with wing-expansion of 18 to 22 mm. ; fore-wings long,
with strongly sinuate inner border, bright ashy-grey, with
numerous dark brown wavy stripes ; hind- wings somewhat
broad, of a uniform brown or ashy grey colour ; both pairs
with brownish-white fringes.

34-2 PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

Caterpillar 10 mm. long, with 10 prolegs, dark green, darker
on the back, with two brighter green stripes along the sides ;
head and prothoracic shield shining black.

ft. Life-history.

The moth appears in August and the beginning of September.

The eggs are laid at the base of young larch shoots, and
remain over winter. The caterpillars appear in May or June,
and pupate at the end of July or in August in a silken cocoon
amongst the needles, on twigs or, when the insect is very
numerous, in bark cracks. Generation annual.

c. Relations to the Forest.

The caterpillars usually attack only old larch, and chiefly
sickly trees, but when very numerous
they also attack healthy trees, and
underwood of spruce or P. Canbra
growing below the larch. They eat
the needles, at first those of the
lower shoots, subsequently climbing
. T I to the summit of the trees. The

insect sometimes appears in such

Fig. i76.-2br<r« pini- numbers ™ to completely strip the

cofana, Zll. trees of needles, and entire woods

may then appear with a brown

canopy, as if the needles had been burned. As a rule
fresh needles appear during an attack, but if it should last for
2 to 8 years, even the healthiest trees will succumb. Badly
stocked woods on shallow soil and with a southerly aspect
suffer most of all.

This insect is common in Switzerland, and has been
observed over fairly large tracts of forest in 1855-56-57,
1864-65, 1878-79 in the Ober Engadin, Wallisand Graubundt.
In 1879 in the Ober Engadin, where larch is the dominant
species, over 15,000 acres of forest were attacked by it. Also
in 1889, in the Tyrol. It is not uncommon among larches in
Britain.

TINEA VARIABILIS. 34-3

d. 'Protective Rules.
Protection of birds.
Smoking out as described for tbe preceding species.

FAMILY VII.— TINEIDAE.
Description of Family.

Imayos with long filiform or setaceous antennae, seldom
pectinate ; ocelli usually present ; wings long and narrow,
usually pointed, and, especially the hind-wings, characterised
by long fringes, during repose either roof-shaped or folded over
the body ; frenulum present ; legs stoutly .spurred. Generation
annual.

Caterpillars slightly hairy, usually with 10 prolegs. A few
species have only 6 to 8 prolegs, and those reduced in size (leaf-
miners).

Pupation usually in a cocoon. Pupae with a thin hairless
skin, rarely with spines on the abdominal segments, but cha-
racterised by the elongate wing-cases which reach almost to
the apex of the abdomen.

The caterpillars generally live in rolled-up leaves, or in
shoots, flowers, fruits, seeds, etc. Many species are leaf-
miners, living on the parenchyma of leaves, between the upper
and lower epidermis. Others bore into the pith, wood, bark
or buds. Few of them, however, are important enemies of
the forest.

1. Tinea (Hyponomeutd) variabilis, Zell.
a. Description.

Moth with wing-expanse of 18 to 20 mm. : fore-wings white,
clouded with brownish grey on the anterior border, with 3
irregular longitudinal rows of black spots, and a group of
smaller spots along the outer margin ; hind-wings brown-
grey ; fringes pale-grey or whitish.

Caterpillar 18 mm. long, with 16 legs, yellowish-grey, marked
with round black spots, with black head and thoracic shield.
Pupa light brown.

344 PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

b. Life-history, etc.

The eggs are laid at the end of June and in July on buds,
usually of underwood. The larvae do not hatch till the spring,
when they attack buds, leaves and blossoms under the protec-
tion of a conspicuous gauzy web, which they spin in common
over the ends of the branches.

The chief food-plants are the plum and apple trees, the
mountain-ash and especially the hawthorn. This caterpillar
has also committed great ravages among willows in Hungary.
It is very common in the British Isles, and often completely
defoliates hawthorn trees and hedge-rows in the open spaces
of London. Pupation takes place on the branches or trunk in
June or July in a white cocoon.

c. Remedial Measures.

Cutting-off and destruction of the caterpillar-webs at the
beginning of June. Destruction of the moths (July), which
often sit in conspicuous groups at a moderate height on the
trunks.

Where defoliation is an eyesore, as in public parks, the trees
may be carefully sprayed with a weak arsenical mixture or
syringed with a stronger jet of plain water or soap-mixture.

Other species of Tinea — e.g. T. padi, Zell., on the gean
(Prunus padus, L.) and on Rhamnus Frangula, L. — are closely
allied in appearance and habits.

2. Tinea curtisella, Don. (Ash-tiviy Moth).

a. Description.

Moth with a wing-expanse of 16 mm. ; fore-wings, head and

thorax white ; the former
with a large triangular dark-
grey blotch on the anterior
margin and with the base
and outer margin clouded
with blackish marks; hind-
wings and abdomen grey-
Fig. 176.— Tinea curtisella, Don. brown, the latter lighter be-
neath ; fringes grey-brown.
Caterpillar 1 to 10 mm. long, with 16 legs, bright

TINEA CURTISELLA.

34-5

honey-yellow with brown head and dorsal shield. (According
to Stainton the larva is greenish, marbled with
reddish-brown.)

Pupa yellow-brown, glossy, in a neat cocoon,
pointed at each end and of a silken lustre,
constructed away from the larval feeding-place.

1). Life-history.

•The moth flies in June and lays its eggs on
the leaves of ash, which are mined in July by
the newly-hatched larva. The larvae pupate early
in August on the ground among dead leaves.
After eight days' pupation, the moth appears in
the middle of August and lays eggs on the leaves.
Generation double. In the autumn, when the
leaves turn yellow and fall, the caterpillar, .which
is still very small, after mining the leaves till
near leaf-fall, bores into the sheathing scales of the
terminal buds ; here it moults and excavates a
hole in which to hibernate. Its presence is indi-
cated by the fine powder visible in the entrance-
burrow. As soon as the buds begin to swell in
the ensuing spring, the caterpillar begins to feed
on the buds, and reaches maturity about May.
The injured bud is incapable of development and
is outstripped in growth by the next uninjured
shoot, causing the ends of the branches to become
forked. The larvae then generally attack the leaves again,
and pupate at the end of May, the pupa being attached by
a thread to a twig. Chiefly young plants and saplings are
attacked. The summer attack is harmless, but the spring
attack causes forking.

The species is tolerably common wherever ash is grown.

Fig. 177.—
Ash - twig
inhabited
by larvae of
ash - twig
moth.

a Exuded
excrement.

(Natural
size.*)

c. Remedial Measures.

Cutting off the injured buds early in July, together with one
of the adjacent lateral buds. This prevents forking but is
practicable only in nurseries and on saplings.

346 PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

3. Coleophora laricella, Hbn. (Larch-miner Moth).

a. Description.

Moth with wing-expansion of 9 to 11 mm. ; wings very
narrow, shining ashy-grey, with very long fringes, especially
to the hind -wings.

Caterpillar 4 to 5 mm. long, with 10 prolegs, dark reddish-
brown. Pupa 4 to 5 mm. long, narrow, dark brown, with fine
bristles.

b. Life-history.

The moth flies in the daytime in May and June.

The ? lays its little roundish yellow eggs on healthy larch

Fig. 178. — Coleophora laricella, Hbn.
a Moth, b Caterpillar, c Larval case, d Pupa.

needles, usually only one egg on a needle. After 6 to 8 days
the eggs become grey.

The caterpillars hatch in June, and continue to grow till
September. They hibernate on the needles in a case. The
pupal stage is passed from the middle of April till May in a
case on the needles. The moth emerges in the latter half
of May.

Generation annual. Very common. The caterpillar is very
susceptible to late frosts, wet and cold rainy weather and hail.

c. Relations to the Forest.

This insect is a most dangerous enemy of the larch, and
prefers 10- to 40-year-old trees, but may also attack woods
which are older or younger than these. When other nutriment
fails, the insect attacks young spruce or pines that are either
under or among the larches.

COLEOPHORA LAUICELLA.

347

(t

The little caterpillar, as soon as it has emerged from the
egg, bores into the young larch-needles to about half their
length, so that their upper ends shrivel up and turn yellow, as
if injured by frost. The attack usually commences on the
lower branches and proceeds upwards, the top of the tree
being spared in moderate attacks.
The appearance of a plant which
bears a large number of infested
needles is very conspicuous and
characteristic.

In September the fully grown
caterpillar prepares a little case out
of the dry part of the needle, which
it cuts off for the purpose, and in
this it hibernates on the twigs,
usually at their tips, or in bark-
cracks, or among lichens on the
stems.

In the spring the caterpillar, carry-
ing its case with it, bores again about
half-way into a larch needle, and
about the middle of April finding its
old case too small, it fastens it along
the freshly hollowed-out needle, like
two fingers of a glove. It then cuts
out the adjacent walls of its old case
and of the needle, thus preparing a
new case twice as wide as the
former. This troublesome work occu-
pies several days, during which an
observer might imagine that there
were two larvae on a needle. When
the insect is ready for pupation it spins the new case firmly
to a needle.

The little insect likes sunny warm localities, sheltered from
the north and east, and prefers the westerly borders of woods,
avoiding isolated trees, probably on account of their exposed
position. It has been observed in Switzerland up to an
altitude of 3,000 feet, and in Germany and Britain it constantly

Fig. 179. —Larch -needles in-

jured by C. lartcella, Hbn.

(Natural size. )
a Larval cases. b Spinning

caterpillars. c Hollowed

and twisted needles.

348 PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

accompanies the larch, and has recently become abundant in
Switzerland, where the larch is indigenous. It sometimes
appears in myriads, 50,000 larvae having been found on a plant
only 12 years old in Schlucken, 1895.

Independently of its large numbers and wide dissemination,
its great hurtfulness results from its eating the needles twice
during the same year, and appearing year after year in the
same localities. As the larch disease almost always accom-
panies this insect, the latter probably renders the tree
susceptible to this highly destructive fungus. The loss of
increment is considerable, owing to the destruction of needles
in the spring, so that trees are often so weakened by repeated
attacks that they die.

d. Protective Rules.

Choice of suitable localities for larch, and planting it widely
apart.

Mixture of larch with beech, spruce, silver-fir, etc.

Early thinning, and removal of the thinned material, at the
latest, by the end of March.

Protection of titmice and other small birds.

e. Remedial Measures.

Pruning the lower branches of larch trees, on which the
insect usually appears.

Kemoval of badly attacked and weakened trees from the
middle of June till the end of August. The caterpillars in the
needles of these trees will not then become fully developed.

The little cases may be picked off the trees, and destroyed
during the winter and spring, but this plan can be followed in
forest nurseries only.

349

CHAPTER VIII.

DESTRUCTIVE INSECTS (concluded).

A. Hymenoptera.
FAMILY I. — TENTHREDINIDAE (SAWFLIES).

Description of Family.

SAWFLIES have straight, usually filiform or setaceous
antennae, rarely club-shaped, occasionally serrate, or in $
doubly pectinate, and with 3 to 30 joints ; 3 ocelli ; prothorax
usually very short ; wings with full complement of veins, the
fore-wings with 1 or 2 radial and 3 or 4 cubital cells.

Legs with a double trochanter ; the anterior tibiae with
two apical spines ; tarsal joints often furnished below with
membranous expansions, sometimes cup-shaped.

Abdomen sessile, of 8 segments ; in $ with protrusible
serrate ovipositor. «

Generation usually double, sometimes treble, but in the
cocoon-spinning sawflies it may be plurennial.

Larvae usually bright-coloured, with 8 or 18 to 22 legs,
resembling caterpillars but distinguishable usually by the
greater number of legs and by a conspicuous simple eye on
each side of the head ; they are social, and after 5 to 6
moultings spin a firm cocoon which is of oval or oblong-oval
form and often parchment-like in consistency. %

Pupation takes place in the cocoon about 2 weeks before the
sawfly emerges. The pupae are soft, and encased in a barrel-
shaped cocoon.

The larvae feed on needles and leaves ; they are often social
when young, and when disturbed assume a characteristic
g-like attitude. The perfect insects usually feed on honey.
Some species (Cimbex) girdle young beech-shoots probably in
order to get the sap. A few species are very destructive.

350 PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

1. Lophyrus pini, L. (Pine Sawfly).

a. Description.

Male with a wing-expansion of 15 — 16 mm. ; body black,
abdomen reddish at apex, spotted with white on the underside
of the first segment ; antennae doubly pectinate ; hind-wings
with a dark border.

Female with a wing-expansion of 18 — 20 mm. ; body dull-
yellow, with the head, 3 spots on the thorax, and the middle

Fig. 180. — Lophyrus pirn, L.

a Male. b Female.

•

of the broad abdomen alone blackish ; wings yellowish, slightly
infuscate along the outer margins.

Legs yellow in both sexes.

Larva 25 mm. long, with 22 legs, changing colour as it
becomes older, finally of a dull green, with oblique rows of
little rugosities and a round brown bead, and black semicolon-
shaped marks above the prolegs.

, Pupa enclosed in a 10 mm. long, leathery, and usually dark
brown cocoon.

I. Life-ltixtonj.

The sawfly appears in April and May, and again at the end
of July and in August. Only the $ appears to fly. The
much more numerous ? creep lazily along the twigs and
needles. The ? in April and early in May cuts slits into
Scots pine needles with her saw-like ovipositor, and lays
a sausage-shaped egg in each slit, depositing 10 to 20 in each

PINE SAWFLY.

351

needle, and 80 to 120 altogether ; she seals up each egg with
a frothy secretion.

The larvae hatch 2 to 3 weeks later, in May and June, and
those of the second brood in August and September. They
frequently moult, the empty skins hanging on the needles.
The second brood hibernate in cocoons under moss, or on
stems or twigs. There is not, however, always a second
brood, and the larvae of the first brood may then hibernate.
Pupation takes place at the beginning of July * in a compact
brown cocoon, among the needles, or in bark-cracks on the
stems of the pine. The
second brood pupate in
March or April in cocoons
under moss at the foot of
the tree they have attacked.

The saivflies of the first
brood appear at the end of
July or early in August,
about 2 to 3 weeks after
pupation. The insect when
ready for flight cuts a cir-
cular lid off the cocoon.
If an ichneumon fly should
emerge instead of the saw-
fly, a little hole appears at
the end of the cocoon (O)
instead of the lid. The
second brood usually emerge in 'April, but sometimes not till
July, when the sawflies of the two broods become intermingled.

Generation double, but frequently lasting over a year. In
rare cases it has lasted for 2 to 3 years. The insect is very
common on the continent of Europe and in the British Isles.

The naked larvae are susceptible to cold and wet weather.

c. Relations to Forest.

The larvae attack the Scots pine, and prefer sickly poles
where the leaf-canopy has been interrupted, 20 to 30 years

* Theodor Hartig states that cocoons spun under moss are dull brown, and
those on the tree silky ash-grey, dirty white, or yellowish. Even clean white
and rusty red cocoons may occur.

Fig. 181. — Pine-needles, with larvae and
cocoon of L. pini, L.

352

PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

old, on poor soils and with a sunny aspect. They also attack
young growth and trees up to the age of 120 years. Border
trees especially suffer.

The larvae till half-grown eat the needles in dense companies
of 60 to 80 and more. When young they merely gnaw the
edges of the needles; later on they eat them in short strips
parallel to the mid-rib, which they leave intact. An attack

Fig. 182. — 3 cocoons of
the Pine sawfly on
pine bark.

(Natural size.)

Fig. 183. — 2 empty cocoons of the
Pine sawfly on an oak-twig. The
upper one has lost the lid.

by the pine sawfly may be at once recognised by the remaining
yellowish, thread-like mid-ribs (Fig. 184).

The older caterpillars only leave short stumps to the needles.
The first brood chiefly devour 1 -year-old needles, and the
second brood those of the current year. The larvae also gnaw
the soft young bark in patches, often down to the wood.
After the crowns of larger poles are stripped, smaller Scots
pine poles, underwood, and young plantations are attacked.

PINE SAWFLY.

353

This and all other species of Lophyrus have the habit, when
disturbed, of bending the front part of their bodies in the
figure S (vide Fig. 181).

d. Protective Rules.

i. Maintenance of healthy
well - stocked Scots pine
woods, so that the soil may
not be impoverished.

ii. Protection of enemies :
cuckoo, starling, crow, goat-
sucker, swallows, etc. Mice
and squirrels open the
cocoons during the winter,
and devour many larvae.
Even the badger and fox
eat the larvae and pupae.

Many* parasitic ichneu-
mon ' wasps and Diptera
attack the larvae. So do
spiders, e.g., Steatoda sisy-
phia, Cl.

e. Remedial Measures.

i. Collection of larvae by
stripping or shaking them
from the trees on to cloths
spread on the ground, in
May and June, and again
in September and October.
One man shaking the trees,
with two boys to collect the*
larvae, can clear fifteen 25-
year-old trees before 9 a.m., and such work is most efficacious
in the morning when the larvae are slightly torpid.

ii. Collection of cocoons under the moss in winter. They
may be found generally near the base of the attacked trees,
and sometimes in masses as large as the fist.

iii. Admission of pigs in September and October, when the

* For a list of these, vide Taschenberg, op. cit., page 230.
F.P. A A

Fig. 184. — Pine-shoot with needles eaten
by L. pini, L. {Natural size.}

854 PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

larvae come down to hibernate. The pigs will not eat the
cocoons, which are too tough for their taste, but crush them
in numbers.

iv. Planks smeared with tar may be put up to catch the
sawflies, the tarred sides being turned towards the sun, and
the tar renewed from time to time.

v. Mixture of quicklime with the litter and then watering it.
The heat thus engendered kills the larvae and pupae that are
in the litter, and preserves the latter for the forest. This
remedy was tried with success on 6 acres of 12 — 15 Scots •
pine plantation with heather undergrowth, and cost 12s.
an acre.

vi. If no other remedy should be found effective, the
damaged wood must be cut down, and the roots grubbed up
late in the summer or winter ; branches may be spread on the
soil and burned before grubbing up the roots, and one or
two field-crops harvested before the land be restocked with
pines.

Several other species of Lophyrus of generally similar habits
also attack Scots pine. Miss Ormerod* states that much
injury was done in 1890 to three or four thousand acres of
young Scots pine in Argyleshire by L. rujus, Klug, the larvae
of which are dull greenish-grey, with black heads. The flies
appeared in August only, and the ? are reddish and the $
black ; both sexes have red legs.

Plants 2 to 6 feet high were more subject to attack than
older ones. In Germany the sawflies appear in May, and the
larvae May — July, to attack trees of all ages, but to prefer those
10 to 15 years old, and one-year-old needles. It attacks the
Austrian as well as the Scots pine, and appears to have
a single generation. It is not so common as L. pini, and
should be treated similarly.

The larvae of various species of Nematus (with 14 prolegs)
and Lyda (2 prolegs) also attack spruce, larch, and pines.
N. ericksoni, Hrtg., has been very destructive to young larch
in Cumberland in 1906. Its larvae may be recognised by
their grey colour, with a darker medium zone. N. laricis, t
Hrtg., also attacks larch ; its larvae are green.

* Op, cit., page 255,

WOOD-WASPS. 355

FAMILY II. — UROCERIDAE (WOOD-WASPS).
Description of Family.

Wood-wasps have straight filiform or setaceous antennae,
always shorter than the body, and with 11 to 30 joints ; 3 large
ocelli ; body long and cylindrical ; wings elongate with com-
plete venation. Legs with double trochanter, anterior tibiae
with a single apical spine. Abdomen sessile, with 9 segments ;
ovipositor elongate, projecting beyond the end of the abdomen,
and consisting of two lateral sheaths and a strongly serrate
median borer.

Generation lasting at least two years. Larvae cylindrical,
soft, and whitish, with 6 legs, and a spine at the rounded
posterior extremity. Pupae soft and white.

The larvae live chiefly in coniferous wood, in which the
perfect insects lay eggs with their long ovipositors. Pupation
also takes place in the wood, and the wood-wasp emerges by
a circular hole.

1. Sir ex juvencus, L. (Steel-blue Wood-wasp).

a. Description.

The insect attains a length of 12 — 30 mm. ( $ ) and, including
ovipositor, 16 — 36 mm. ( 2 ) ; thorax and abdomen steel-blue,
the latter in the $ with the 4th to the 7th segment inclusive,
yellowish red ; in ? the #teel-blue ground-colour of the
abdomen is iridescent, with a coppery sheen. Wings
yellowish, with brown margins. Legs chiefly reddish-yellow.
Ovipositor shorter than the abdomen. Larva up to 30 mm.
long, with 6 very small feet, white.

b. Life-history, etc.

The ? in July bores the bark of the Scots pine, usually of
trees in pole-woods, down to the sapwood, and lays an egg in
each hole. The larva eats out in the wood a curved burrow
of circular section ; at first it lives in the softer layers of the
sapwood, but after the first hibernation it bores deeper into
the tree, living on the resinous and starchy matters in the
burrow, the dust of which it packs behind it.

After a second hibernation, in the early summer of the 3rd
year, it constructs a pupal chamber at the end of the burrow,

AA2

356

PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

lining it with a glazed coating. The wood-wasp emerges in
July, by a larval-gallery, or by boring- for itself a short way
through the wood. The flight-hole is circular (being thus
distinguished from those of longicorn beetles that are oval), and

Fig. 185. — Pine-wood bored by the larva of Sirex jnvencus, L. (Natural stzc.~)
a Larval burrows partly filled with boring-dust ft. 7 Circular flight-hole.

about the fourth of an inch in diameter. The generation lasts
at least two years, and sometimes longer, the wasps appearing
from wood which has been worked up for some time.

In Germany, it sometimes attacks spruce as well as Scots
pine, and in the British Isles* it has been observed on larch,

* Miss Ormcrod, ojt. cit , page 209.

WOOD -WASPS.

357

silver fir, and other conifers. All wood-wasps prefer weakly
trees, which have been injured by deer, lightning, or wind,
and especially trees felled in the growing season and stripped
of bark. They never attack
actually rotten wood, or per-
fectly sound standing trees.
Miss Ormerod relates an in-
stance where, at Workington,
Cumberland, in 1889, 1,700
c. feet of silver-fir valued at
£30 were irretrievably ruined.
The damage done is economic, Fig 186>_Wood_wasp in the act of

not physiological. boring, exposed by splittiug the wood.

c. Protective Rules.

Eemoval of all high stumps and broken wood. Felling of
all weakly or damaged poles and trees in the thinnings, and
rapid removal of coniferous timber from the forest.

2. Sircx giyas, L. (Yellow wood-wasp},
a. Description.

Imago 20 — 32mm. (c?) to 45 mm. (?) in length; black,
head with a large yellow spot behind the eyes ; abdomen ( $ )
reddish-yellow, with the first and last segments black, ( ? )
black with the 2 anterior and 3 posterior segments yellow ;
legs black, with the knees yellow ; ovipositor nearly as long
as the body.

Larva, like that of the preceding species.

b. Life-history, etc.

This species is particularly attached to the spruce, but is
sometimes found in silver fir. Its habits are the same as
those of S. juvencus, L.

It is tolerably frequent in Britain, and prefers large
trunks.

The treatment of its attacks is similar to that adppted for
S. juvencus, L.

358 PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

FAMILY III. — CYNIPIDAE (GALL-WASPS).*
Description of Family.

Imagos with straight, filiform antennae, with 13 to 16 joints;
ocelli far back on the crown of the head. Forewings with only
6 to 8 cells, with no stigma, and with 1 radial and 2 to 3
cubital cells. Some species have no wings, or only abortive
ones. Abdomen pedunculate, laterally compressed and trun-
cate at apex, much shorter than the wings. $ usually very
small. Larvae usually thick and fleshy, curved, smooth, white,
and apodal. Pupae thick-set, smooth, and white. They are
divided into 3 groups : True Gall-wasps, Secondary Gall-wasps,
and Parasites.

1. True Gall- wasps.

The true gall-wasps bore with their ovipositor into leaves,
buds, shoots, fruits and other parts of woody plants, and they
insert one or more eggs in the wound. The egg hatches in
due time and the larva lives in a chamber formed in a growth
or gall, often of hard or woody consistency, formed by the pro-
liferation of the surrounding plant-cells. The growth of this
gall is not due to the irritation caused by the mother, but to
the stimulus caused by the internally-feeding larva. Galls
may be on roots, bark, buds, leaves, blossoms or fruits. They
may also contain one larval chamber, or many, the former
being most usual. The insect usually hibernates in the gall,
rarely under dead leaves.

The oak is attacked by about fifty species of gall-wasp, and
galls are chiefly found on badly-growing underwood in coppice
or high forest. This is probably due to the fact that tannic
acid flows into the gall tissues, which are thus rendered
immune to birds. The consequent damage is not serious, as
the attack is chiefly on foliage. At the same time galls on
buds or bark, when very numerous on seedlings or coppice-
shoots, may cause stunted growth. Some species, on account
of the tannic or gallic acid they contain, are useful in producing
the galls used in commerce.

Probably the most harmful species is the common marble

* As the family of Diptera, knowii as Cccitloni i/iiihie, contains ninny species of
gall-flies, it is preferable to term the Cynijridac (jull-ivasps.

GALL-WASPS. 359

gall-wasp (Cynips kollari, Hart.), which sometimes occurs in
large numbers on young oak plants. The galls* may be cut off
with a knife while they are still young and soft, and if thrown
away they dry and shrivel, and the maggots within perish.
Titmice are very useful in oak nurseries, as they pick the
maggots out of the galls.

It is interesting to know that in many species of gall-flies,
a wingless, hibernating, parthenogenetic generation always
alternates with a winged generation of both sexes. As an
example, the wingless agamic female form, Cynips aptera, is
hatched from galls on the roots of the oak, and hibernates in
the soil, laying in the spring, on the terminal buds of the
oak, a number of unfertilised eggs. These cause galls on the
terminal shoots from which the winged forms of both sexes,
C. terminalis, Fabr., develop. The fertilised ? of this insect
lays her eggs on the roots of the oak, and from them C. aptera
is hatched out, and so forth, t

2. Secondary Gall-Wasps.

These are also termed Inquilines, or fellow -lodgers, as their
? lay eggs in galls made by the true gall-flies, and their larvae
are either parasitic on the larvae of the latter, or else merely
live with them in the same gall, e.g., Synergus vulgaris, Htg.,
lives in galls of Cynips folii, L.

3. Parasitic Gall-wasps.

The ? lay their eggs in other insects in which their larvae
are parasitic, and thus form a connecting link with the
Iclineumonidae, e.g., Allotria erythrocephala,~H.tg.

Parasitic on the Rose aphis.

Hess gives a summary account of the chief species of
gall-wasps.

* Miss Ormerod, op. cit., p. 237.

f Many so-called galls, or malformations of plants, are caused by fungi or
bacteria as well as by gall- wasps and gall-flies. A beautifully illustrated book
on "British Vegetable Galls," by E. T. Connold, was published in 1901, by
Hutchinson & Co., Paternoster Row, London, and the author is now preparing
for the press a second volume, on oak-galls only.

360

PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

B. Diptera.
FAMILY I. — CECIDOMYIIDAE (GALL-GNATS).

Flies with long thread-like or nioniliform antennae, with

10 to 36 joints, usually with
whorls of hairs ; body delicate ;
wings moderately large with
rounded anterior border, con-
stricted at the base, often
iridescent, with 3 to 5 longi-
tudinal veins ; abdomen cylin-
drical, consisting of 8 segments,
in ? pointed and often furnished
with a projecting tubular ovi-
positor ; legs slender, the tibiae
unarmed at apex.

Larvae long fusiform legless
maggots, slightly flattened, with-
out chitinous mouth-armature,
but with a chitinous fork or
" anchor-piece " embedded in
the skin of the ventral surface;
usually pale yellowish or reddish.

The imagos lay their eggs in
needles, leaves or bark, in
which the young larvae feed by
sacking, and thereby cause gall-
like swellings.

Several species are common
on willows.

Fig. 187.— Larch twig, with galls
made by C. kelneri, Huschl.
(Natural size.')

1. Cccidomyia saliciperda, Duf. (Willotv Gall-gnat).

a. Description.

Fly 2 to 3 mm. long ; black-brown ; the wings milky-white
with whitish hairs ; antennae shorter than the body.
Larva yellowish red.

b. Life-history, etf.

The eggs are laid during May in rows on the bark of the
branches up to the thickness of one's arm of pollard-willows

CHERMES ABIETIS. 361

and on 4- to 8- year-old shoots of willows. Salix triandra,
L., S. fragilis, L., and S. alba, are all attacked. The
maggot bores horizontally through the bark, in which
from July to the following April it excavates short irregular
vertical galleries. This causes the appearance of spindle-
shaped swellings of the bark and underlying wood, at least in
the larger stems, which eventually become rough owing to the
irregular detachment of the bark. Pupation takes place in
the same spots, and the emergence of the flies riddles the bark
with small holes.

This species is sometimes decidedly common and injurious
to planted willow cuttings. The only satisfactory treatment
is the timely cutting-off and burning of the infested shoots
before emergence of the gnats.

The family of Cecidomyiidae also contains the Hessian-fly,
C. destructor, Say, one of the greatest of pests to cereal crops,
and various species attacking conifers, of which C. kellneri,
Hnsche., gives rise to galls on the buds of larch. Others pro-
duce galls on beech leaves (C.fagi, Htg.), and on birch leaves
C. letidae, Wtg.

C. Hemiptera,

FAMILY I. — APHIDIDAE (PLANT-LICE).
Description of Family.

Insects with long, usually filiform or setose antennae, of 3 to 7
joints; ocelli either absent or 3 in number; rostrum usually
well developed. Wings membranous, often absent, especially
in ? . Legs usually long and thin ; tarsi of 2 joints. They
move by flying, or running.

The species of Chermes comprise those aphides, that are of
most importance as being injurious to forest-trees, especially
to coniferae.

The mode of life of plant-lice is as follows : The hard-
shelled eggs that resist the cold are laid during autumn in
rows or groups on needles, leaves, buds or shoots, and hiber-
nate. In the spring, small wingless $ producing parthenogenetic
wingless ? issue from the eggs, and thus several generations

362

PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

arise of parthenogenetic insects. The last generation in
autumn is winged and produces $ and ? ; from the latter
eggs are produced and hibernate. Besides this dimorphism,
in the genus Chermes the insects migrate from one species of
plant to another in order to change their food. By piercing
plants or sucking them, they produce galls and other mal-
formations, on leaves, needles, buds,
flowers, etc., especially on broad-
leaved plants. Most species are
monophagous, almost every species
of plant having its peculiar plant-
lice. Most plant-lice produce honey-
dew from leaves, this being their
excrement.

In Chermes, there are three
different imagos : winged partheno-
genetic ? , wingless parthenogenetic
? , and wingless sexual imagos of
both sexes.

The wingless parthenogenetic ? ,
stem-mother orfundatrix, hibernates
alone on spruce buds. After three
moultings in the spring, she sucks
the opening buds, lays a number of
eggs and dies near them. The
sucking of the mother causes a gall
to form, and from the eggs, very
shortly, wingless lice arise, which
force their way deeper into the

gall, which therefore increases in size, chambers being
formed round the lice. The latter, after 3 moultings, acquire
rudimentary wings, and, opening the gall-covering, come out
as nymphs on the needles. After another moulting they
acquire wings.

Then some of the winged lice remain on the tree, and lay
eggs from which the hibernating parthenogenetic J'nudntri.r
arises. She continues to act as already described and corre-
sponding broods arise for several years.

The other winged lice leave the spruce for other conifers,

Fig. 188.— Gall of Chermes
abietis, L., on a spruce-twig.
(Natural size.")

CHERMES ABIETIS. 363

silver fir, larch, or pines, and lay eggs from which wingless
lice arise that winter on the tree and lay eggs next spring.

From these eggs some of the nymphs eventually become
winged lice that fly back to the spruce and lay eggs
there from which $ and ? arise. The other wingless
parthenogenetic ? continue their life on the other trees.

1. Chermes abietis, L. (Spruce- gall Aphis),
a. Description.

Wingless stem-mother, yellowish-green, becoming darker
when full-grown. Body covered with white wool. Gall-
dwellers bright yellow.

Winged lice, 2 — 2'4 mm. long, with dark head and back and
yellow undersurface. Sexual insects bright yellow.

b. Relations to the Forest.

The galls (in size from that of a cherry to that of a walnut)
which result from their injury are at first soft and green,
becoming later purplish-red in places and finally, when hard
and dry, brown. They contain a quantity of tannin. Their
size is characteristic, as is the fact that they are topped
with a sprig of needles, as long as, or longer than, the gall.
This is the stunted young shoot. The injured shoots take on
a characteristic curvature towards the side on which the gall
is growing. The loss of growth may be considerable.

The other hosts of this insect are larch, Scots pine, Cembran
pine, and in Eussia, the Siberian spruce.

The spruce-gall aphis is common both in plains and in hilly
country, and attacks young spruces especially in nurseries and
those which have been injured by frost or animals. It is also
common on the border-trees of 10- to 20- year-old plantations.
Fortunately the attack is usually confined to the side-shoots,
and the leading shoot escapes.

c. Remedial Measures.

Protection of the smaller insectivorous birds : tits, the nut-
hatch and golden-crested wren. A spider (Theridion) is an
active destroyer of this insect, spinning its web over the galls
and preventing the escape of its inmates. Direct treatment is

364

PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

troublesome ; the galls if on seedlings may be snipped off, and
the experiment may be tried of spraying the young trees in
April with kerosene-emulsion. (See the following species.)

2. Chermes coccineus, Ktzb.

The winged ? , 1'6 mm. long, are dark red. The galls formed
on the spruce by this insect are at first yellowish green, then
red, and lastly brown, but are much smaller than those of
C. abietis, L. They are also always on side-shoots, and are
never topped by a sprig of needles.
Isolated and border plants are usually
selected.

The intermediate hosts are the
common silver-fir and other firs. The
winged emigrants lay their reddish-
yellow eggs below the needles of firs.
The brown, later blackish, wingless
plant-lice, which come from these eggs
in 2 — 3 weeks, suck the needles and
lay yellowish or reddish-brown eggs
covered with wool, that hibernate.
These give rise to other wingless
plant-lice in the spring, on the young
twigs, from the eggs of which are pro-
duced winged and wingless ? . The
former fly back to the spruce and the
others remain on the silver-fir. From eggs laid by the former
the $ and ? arise.

Those that remain on the silver-fir cover the bark, which
looks as if it had been -powdered. Damp places sheltered
from the wind are preferred. Young silver-fir may be seriously
weakened by this attack, which is very destructive to silver-fir
in Scotland. Abies f/randis, Lindl., is said to escape injury.
Remedial measures as for C. abietis, L.

3. Chermes strobilobius, Kltb.

Galls on the spruce, intermediate in size between those of
C. abietis and C. coccineus. It looks like an unripe strawberry,
with, or without, a sprig of needles at top.

Fig. 189.— Gall of C. coc-
cineus, Rtzb. (Natural
size.*)

CHERMES STROBILOBIUS.

365

The larch is the intermediate host of this insect, and the
plant-lice on the larch were formerly
known as Chermes lands, Hart, (the
larch aphis).

a. Description.

Imago ? , rather smaller than the
preceding, blackish - brown, covered
with a white woolly down ; the
winged form dirty green, or with
the head and thorax reddish-brown.
No male is known.

I. Life- His for y.

The wingless females pass the
winter on the larch, like those of
C. alietis, Hart. They lay their eggs
and from April to August the aphides
sit and feed on the needles, which
become discoloured and acquire a
peculiar elbowed shape. No gall is
formed. They acquire wings in
August and disperse to other larches,
or to the spruce. When they are
abundant, the larches look as if they had been sprinkled
with snow.

c. Treatment.

Spraying with kerosene-emulsions, soft-soap, limewater or
weak solutions of corrosive sublimate. Keep spruce away from
larch nurseries.

4. Chermes sibiricus, Choldk.

The winged females greatly resemble those of C. coctineus,
Etzb., and C. strobilolius, Ktlb.

The galls, 3-10 cm. long, consist of a but slightly altered
bent twig, the needles on the inside of which become thick
and woody, but not coalescing as in the former galls. The
dark red plant-lice eventually produce winged offspring that
fly to the Scots, Weymouth or Cembran pines, and these lay
reddish-yellow eggs. Those that stay on the pines, formerly

Fig. 190. — Larch - shoot
attacked by Chermes laricis,
Hart. {Natural size.")

a Insects feeding on the
needles, which show a
characteristic angular bend.

366 PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

termed Chcrmes stroll, Htg., attack plants from five years old
and mature trees. Young plants become greatly weakened by
these attacks, and many Weymouth pines have thus been killed
in the Woburn Woods, Bedfordshire.
Remedial measures, as before.

FAMILY II. — COCCIDAB (SCALE-INSECTS).
Description of Family.

Very minute insects with moniliform antennae, of 6 to 25
joints ; rostrum rudimentary in the $ . $ with 2 or 4 mem-
branous wings without cells ; ? , except one apterous species,
Aleurodes chalidonii, Latr., swollen, more or less shield-shaped ;
one tarsal joint. The $ burrow their beak deep into the plant-
tissues and swell up into spherical bodies, and in May and
June lay numerous eggs on plants, and die on the eggs. The
eggs hatch into $ and 2 larvae that pupate in autumn or spring.
Single generation.

The imagos and larvae, under the protection of shields or
puparia, partly composed of fibrous secretion, partly of the
cast-off exuviae, suck the young shoots, leaves, bark, etc. of
perfectly sound plants, and cause blistering and disease in the
organs which they have attacked. In this way, beech, spruce,
oak, ash, robinia, and other plants may be attacked by different
species.

The most effective treatment known for nursery plants so
attacked is to wash them with limewater in the spring, or cut
off and burn infected twigs. The plants may also be treated,
when practicable, with paraffin emulsion or washes made by
forming a soap with boiling water, resin and potash. The
scales may also be scraped off with a blunt knife, or rough
brush, and the plants smeared with soft-soap and water.*
When scale appears on coppice-shoots or saplings, cut and
burn the affected plants.

1. Coccus fagi, Biirensp. (Scale-felt, or Beech woolly aphis).

Hitherto only the ? is known. This is a very small, pale-
yellow, legless, apterous scale-insect, measuring about ^ inch

* For apple-scale Miss Ormerod recommends 2 Ibs. soft soap, 1 Ib. flowers of
sulphur, 14 gallons of water.

SCALE-FELT, OR BEECH W.OOLLY APHIS. 367

in length, it is lens-shaped, being flattish below and highly
convex above. The mouth is on the underside of the body,
and composed of three hair-like appendages, united to form a
long sucking tube ; with it this insect pierces the bark and
sucks the sap. She has no power of locomotion. Almost
immediately after leaving the egg, she covers her body with a
white, felted, waxy secretion, which forms an excellent coat,
impervious to rain. Within this coat, she lives, lays her eggs
and dies.

The larvae are very tiny and active, and scarcely visible to
the naked eye. They possess three pairs of legs and a pair of
antennae, and like their parent are yellow. They can move
over the bark of the tree, but usually settle down under the
body of their dying or dead parent, preferring the deepest
parts of the bark-fissures, where they remain sucking the sap.
Each larva protects its body with wool, which is added to that
produced by previous generations. The secretion therefore
gradually thickens and spreads over the tree-trunk, forming a
more or less continuous mass. Larvae wandering over the
tJark are borne by the wind or by birds or insects to other
trees and spread the infection. The larvae hibernate,
and eventually lose their legs and antennae and become
parthenogenetic ? .

Young and old beech trees are attacked, the sheltered side of
exposed trees being selected. The attack sometimes lasts for
years without apparent injury to the tree, while others die, the
foliage gradually becoming discoloured and thin and the smaller
branches dying, the bark peeling off the branches and trunk.

In the extensive beech forests near Brussels, the absence of
thinning is said to favour the disease, and where thinnings are
made it is generally absent. It is extremely rare in the beech
woods of the Chiltern Hills, which are usually over-thinned.

Remedial measures. As given above.

2. Lecanium hemicryphum, Dalm.

Lecanium differs from Coccus by the ? swelling up over the
eggs and its back being chitinised to form the scale. This scale-
insect and the accompanying fungus, Apiosporium pinophyttum,
Tuckel., nourished by the honeydew, cause a black, paste-like

368

PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

coating on branches and twigs of 5- to 15- years-old spruce,
which makes them languish for
several years. It has done much
damage to spruce plantations in
Saxony, and near Tharand was found
on mature spruce, which had been
injured by locomotive smoke. This
insect is attacked by a parasitic weevil
(Brachy tarsus varius, Fabr.). Leca-
niumfraxini, Sign., attacks ash.

Another injurious genus of scale-
insects is Aspidiotus, in which the ?
live under a coat formed of larval
skins and a waxy scale, the $ under a
smaller waxy scale and one larval skin.

Aspidiotus salicis, L., attacks pop-
lars, willows and ash, and frequently
kills black poplar. When crushed, a
blood-red fluid exudes from the insects.
This species greatly impairs the growth of young ash.

Fig. 191. — Spruce - shoot
attacked by Lecanium hemi-
cryphum, Dalm. (Natural
size.}
a Feeding scale-insects.

D. Orthoptera.
FAMILY I. — GRYLLIDAE (CRICKETS).

Description of Family.

The insects of this family possess a thick, free head, with
long bristly antennae of many joints, and 2 or 3 ocelli ; hind-
wings folded longitudinally, and projecting beyond the wing-
cases, but often aborted, or absent, not roof-shaped in repose.
Body cylindrical ; fore-legs formed for burrowing ; tarsi
3-jointed. Ovipositor long, sometimes absent. The species
produce a chirping noise by rubbing the wing-cases together.

They dig holes in the ground, and live partly on larvae and
worms, partly on the roots, seeds and fruit of forest plants, or
on grass and herbage.

1. Gryllotalpa vulgaris, Latr. (Common Mole-cricket).

a. Description.

Imago 35 to 45 mm. long, reddish-brown or dark brown, and
lighter beneath ; the wing-cases short with black veins, not

MOLE-CRICKET.

869

covering the wings ; abdomen with two caudal processes.
Fore-legs sturdy, resembling hands, used for burrowing, like
those of the mole. The larva and nymph greatly resemble
the perfect insect in form and colour, but have the wings
undeveloped.

b. Life- history.

Pairing takes place under-
ground, from the beginning
of June till the middle of
July.

The ? during the month
of June lays 150 to 250
pale yellowish eggs, as
large as hempseed, in a
hole of the size of a hen's
egg, and about 10 to 12 cm.
below the surface of the
ground, with which it
communicates by a tunnel
or shaft, with a circular
section.

The earth above and
around the hole is rendered

more compact by the Saliva Fig ^..The^ole-cricket, Gryllotalpa

of the ? . The ? watches vulgaris, L.

the nest carefully, and when
disturbed returns to it by
the tunnel.

The young larvae appear after 2 to 3 weeks, and remain 3 to 4
weeks in the nest ; they then begin to burrow in the ground,
moult 3 times before October or November, and then hibernate
in the ground.

The nymph-stage takes place at the end of May or
beginning of June with the fourth moulting, the nymph
being active and feeding; with the last moult, instead of
the little lappets which represent the wings in the nymph,
4 true wings appear, and the form of the perfect insect is
assumed.

a Perfect insect, b and c Larvae in early
stages.

F.P.

B B

370 PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

Generation annual, but occasionally the larvae may persist
over another year.

c. Relations to the Forest.

The insect, in all its stages, damages forest plants. It bites
through the roots of young conifers, especially of spruce and
Scots pine, when 1 and 2 years old, while making its
burrows, which are about a finger's width. It also uplifts
young plants, which fall over and die. The mole-cricket also
bites off the germinating shoots of oak and beech before they
reach the surface of the ground, and the roots of young broad-
leaved seedlings, tearing the latter with its fore-legs.

Fig. 193. — Nest and eggs of the mole-cricket.

On the other hand the mole-cricket is useful by destroying
numbers of underground grubs. The ? has been observed to
eat some of her own brood.

Favourite localities for this insect are loose level sandy
soils, free from vegetation, but it is also found on clay lands.
Thinly stocked beds of seedlings are preferred to densely
stocked beds, and patches to lines of seedlings.

The mole-cricket also cuts through the roots of agricultural
crops. It is not yet decided whether it damages plants for its
own nourishment, or to clear the way for its burrows.

The mole-cricket is only local in England, and does not
occur in the north. It is perhaps commoner than is generally
supposed, as owing to its underground habits it is seldom seen.

MOLE-CRICKET AND LOCUSTS. 371

d. Protective Rules.

i. Isolation of seed beds by trenches 25 to 30 cm. deep and
wide ; if flower-pots or vessels with smooth sides be placed
with their tops level with the bases of these traps, many
crickets will be caught and may be destroyed.

ii. Protection of enemies. Mole, shrew-mice, crow, starling,
etc. The larvae of ground and rove-beetles also attack mole-
crickets.

e. Remedial Measures.

i. Destruction of nests in June and July. They may be
discovered from the circular orifice in the ground which leads
down to them, and by the wilting plants which may be near
them. They are dug out, and trampling, pouring hot water
over them, or«exposure to the sun will kill the brood.

ii. Destruction of the full-grown crickets in June. Great
caution must be exercised, as the creatures are very shy.
Just after dusk, the worker, who should be barefooted, ap-
proaches cautiously the places whence the chirping arises, and
exposes the concealed cricket by a stroke of the spade. When
seized the insect emits a thick black excrement.

iii. Ordinary flower-pots, 2 yards apart, may be placed in
nursery-beds, so that the crickets may fall in during their
nocturnal rambles. This method is most effectual at pairing-
time.

iv. Pour petrol, or tar and turpentine in equal parts, into
the holes, and then water till the holes are full, in order to
drive out the crickets. At Seligstadt, 100,000 crickets were
thus destroyed between June and August, 1897.

FAMILY II. — ACRIDIIDAE (Locusts).
Description of Family.

Insects with vertical heads, the antennae shorter than the
body, with not more than 25 joints ; wings roof-shaped in
repose, the fore-wings narrow ; body laterally compressed ;
tarsi with 3 joints, usually with a lappet between the claws ;
abdomen with an auditory organ on each side of the first
segment, ovipositor short.

BB 2

372 PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

Locusts are plant-eaters, and feed chiefly on the produce of
fields and meadows, but also on the foliage of broadleaved
trees and shrubs, especially when they come in swarms, and
they can then be extremely hurtful.

The commonest European species is Pachytyhis migratorius,
L., and its area of sub-permanent distribution is from lat. 40° N.
in Portugal to 48° in France and Switzerland, and rising east-
wards to 56° in Eussia, Siberia, N. Japan. Its area of occa-
sional distribution is wider, and it has visited England and
Scandinavia. It is also found in S. latitudes in New Zealand
and Australia, and in Mauritius and Africa. Only an occasional
visitor to India.

Acrydium peregrinum is permanent in Africa and tropical
Asia, especially India, and occasionally visits the South of
Europe, and in 1869, was found over a large part of England.

1. Pachytylus migratorius, L. (Migratory Locust).

a. Description.

Imago 35 to 48 mm. long (<?), 42 to 55 mm. long ( ? ),
coloured greenish, or brownish; pronotum produced into a
blunt point in front ; wings yellowish, or pale brown, almost
transparent, slightly darker at the tips; chest with white
hairs ; hind femora bluish on their inner side, with a black
ring in front of the joint ; hind tibiae yellow.

Larva with broad brown bands on the front part of the
back, and wingless until it has moulted four times.

b. Life-history.

The eggs are laid in the ground 3 to 4 cm. deep, in groups
of 70 to 80, and as the ? die immediately after laying, their
dead bodies lying on the ground show where eggs have been
laid.

c. Relations to the Forest.

Locusts devour chiefly agricultural produce, sometimes
appearing in such countless swarms as to leave nothing green
over many square miles of country. South Russia, with its
extended grain-producing plains, is specially liable to this
scourge, and so is Hungary. Its permanent home appears to

MIGRATORY LOCUSTS. 373

be the barren steppes of Central Asia. It occasionally spreads
westwards over Germany and as far as Belgium, and even into
the British Isles. While, however, devouring chiefly agricul-
tural crops, the locust does not spare the young leaves and
terminal buds of broadleaved trees, though it but rarely
strips off all the foliage of a forest. In 1880, in Istria, chiefly
oak and ash were attacked by it, other broadleaved trees
being spared. Vineyards were also attacked.

d. Protective Rules.

i. Destruction of eggs. Very difficult to carry out on a
large scale.

ii. Destruction of larvae — which is the best method.

They have been exterminated in Cyprus by an organised
system of digging trenches, into which the larvae are driven ;
strips of cloth on stakes lead up to the trenches, and the
locusts are crushed by thousands when the trenches are nearly
full, and then fresh trenches are dug. In South Africa, the
larvae, which may accumulate in masses, are killed by spraying
with coarse blue soap and water. The soap blocks up their
tracheae and kills them readily.

iii. Destruction of the full-grown locusts may be effected
during wet weather, when they fly with difficulty.

LIST OF DESTKUCTIVE INSECTS.

A list is here given of all the destructive insects dealt with
in this book, arranged according to the species of tree attacked
and the different organs of it which suffer.

The following details are given in the list : —

Organs of tree attacked : root, bark, cambium, wood, buds,
young shoots, needles, leaves, blossoms, fruits and seeds.

Stage of the insect at the time when it is injurious : larva,
imago ; or sometimes, in the case of OrtJwptera, or Hemiptera,
all stages, including the nymph or pupa.

Grade of injuriousness of insect.

Age of woods attacked : seedlings, young plants, poles, or
trees.

Characteristics of attack, which serve to indicate the offender.

374-

PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

The following abbreviations are used :—

I. Imago.
L. Larva.
A . All stages.
(V.G.) Vertical gallery.
(F.G.) Forked
(H.G.) Horizontal ,.
(L.G.) Ladder „ ; the charac-
teristic form of Trypodetulron.
(S.G.) Stellate gallery.
S. Seedling.

(Y.P.) Young plants.

P. Poles.

T. Trees.

* Highly injurious.

O Slightly

Insects not marked with cither of the

above signs are moderately injurious.

Those with the mark f placed after

them rarely occur in the case

referred to.

1. THE SPEUCE.

ROOTS.

WOOD.

Dolojmts marglnatus. L. (Y.P.) 214

* Gryllotalpa vulgarls. A. S.... 369
*Melolontha vulgaris. L. 2 to 3

summers. (Y.P.) 200

* J/. hlppocastanl. Id 209

Xocttta setjctum. L. S 325

BARK.

*Hylo1ilu* alilttix. I. (Y.P.) ... 225

*U.pinaxtri. Id 232

Plwades notatus. Id. f 233

P. jri.nl . I . ( Y. P. & P.) 235

P. Jiercynlae. I. T 235

iStropJwsomus coryli. I. (Y.P.) 220

S, obesus. Id 220

CAMBIUM.
Hylaxte* palliatus. I. & L.

(V.G.) (P. & T.) 262

JUyclojthilm plnlpcrda. I. & L.

(V.G.)T.f 265

M. minor. I. & L. (H.G.) (P.

& T.)t 271

Phsodexnotat'us. L.(Y.P.&P.).f 233

P.2>lni. Id 235

P. hcrcyniae. L. T 235

*Tontinm ti/jxynt/rfinff. I. & L.

(V.G.)T..... '. 238

*T. amtiinv*. I. & L. (F.G.) &

(S.G.)T 246

OT. lidentntus. (Y.P. & P.)

(S.G.).f 253

*T. chalcographus, I. & L.

(S.G.) P. &T 248

OT.stenngrapJitis. I.& L. (L.G.).f 250
T. lari'cis. I. & L. (V.G.)
P.&T. , .. 251

Ilylecoetvs d-ermexMdc*. I.&L.T. 216
Si>r,r jure tic us. L. T.f ......... 355

«S'. giga*. L. (P. & T.) ............ 357

*T(>inicux lincatus. I. & L.
(L.G.) (P. & T.) ............... 255

BUDS.
*Llparix inonarhu. L. (P. & T.) 310

YOUNG SHOOTS.

Chcrme* abietis. A. (P. & T.)
Large galls ........................ 361

*Hylollm allctls. L. (Y.P.) ... 225
Lecanmm, hcinirrt//>li>//>/. A.
(Y.P.&P.) ....... . ................ 367

NEEDLES.

Geomctrapunana. L.(P.&T.)f 326
Lccdithiiii Jic»iicr///>/i/ni/. A.
(Y.P. & P.) ..... ................ 3(57

*Lij)tir'ix iiu»i<icl)a. L. Trees of
all ages ........................... 310

OMeloltmtltii spp. I. (P. & T.)... 200
.\wtmi ]ii Hi prrtlii. L.(P.&T.)f 320
Sitvurx linrttfH*. I. (Y.P.) ...... 220

Strophowmut coryli. I. (Y.P.) 220
S. obesus. Id ...................... 220

INFLORESCENCE.

()M<>lol»n1li,irultinrix. T.(P.&T.) 200

CONES.

A>u>lii/iii (tbirfit. L ............. 217

GERMINATING SEEDS.

>. I.

214

LIST OF DESTRUCTIVE INSECTS.

375

2. SILVEE FIE.

ROOTS.

PAGE

*Gryllotalpa vulgar is. A. S. ... 369
*Mclolontha spp. L. (Y.P.) 2 to
3 summers 200

BARK.

O Chermes coccineus. A. (P. & T.) 364

*IIyloUus abietis. I. (Y.P.)f ... 225

OLecaniwm spp. A. (Y.P. & P.) 367

Plssodeg piceae. I. P 235

OStrop/i-osomu* obesus. I. (Y.P.)f 220

CAMBIUM.

Hylastes palliatus. I. & L.

(V.G.) (P. &T.) 262

Pissodes piceae. L. (P. & T.)... 235
Tomicus clialcographus. I. & L. .

(S.G.) (P. &T.)f 248

T. lark-is. I. & L. (H.G.) (P.

&T.)t 251

WOOD.

Ollylecoetus dermestoides. I. & L.

T 216

Sirex spp. L. (P. & T.) 355

* Tomicus lineatus. I. & L.
(L.G.)T 255

BUDS.
Tortrix rufimitrana. L. T. ...340

YOUNG SHOOTS.

O Chermes spp. A. (P. & T.) ...363
Strophosomus obesus. I. (Y.P.) 220
Tortrix rufimitrana. L. T. ... 340

NEEDLES.

*Liparis monaclia. L. T.f 310

O Melolontha spp. I . (P. & T.) ... 200
O Strophosomw obesus. I. (Y.P.) 220

* Tortnx rufimitrana. L. T. ... 340

GERMINATING SEEDS.
QAgriotesspp. L 214

3. SCOTS PINE.

BOOTS.

ODolopius martj'matus. L. (Y.P.) 214

* Gryllatalpa vulgaris. A. S. ... 369
*M<AoU*tha spp. L. (Y:P.) 2 to

3 summers 200

*Noctua vestigialis. L. S 322

*N. seqetum. Id 325

BARK.
< Hylobius abietis. I. (Y.P.) ... 225

*H.2rinastri. Id 232

Lophyrw pud. L. (Y.P. & P.) 350

L. ntfus. Id 354

*Pi*so<!es notatus. I. (Y.P. & .

P.) 233

*P.pini. Id 235

''P.pinlpluUts. I. (P. &T.) ...235
Strophosomus coryli. I. (Y.P.) 220
S. obesus. Id 220

CAMBIUM.

Hylastes palliatus. I. & L.
(V.G.) T 262

*//. ater. I. (Y.P.) Near the

collum 263

H. opacus. Id 264

* Myelophilus pinijterda. I. & L.

(V.G.) Trees of all ages ... 265
*J/. minor. I. & L. (H.G.)

Trees of all ages 271

*Pissodesnntatus. L. (Y.P.&P.) 233

P.pini. Id. 235

*P. pinipliilus. L. (P. & T.) , 235
O Tomicus typographus. I. & L.

(V.G.) T.f 238

O T. amitinus. I. & L. (F.G.) &

(S.G.)T.f 246

O T. chalcoamphus, I. & L. (S.G.)

(P. &T.)f 248

*T.stenograplius. I. & L. (V.G.)

T 250

*T. Uriels. I. & L. (V.G.) (P.

&T.) 251

*T. bidentatus. I. & L. (S.G.)

Trees of all ages 253

T.acuminatus. I. & L. (S.G.) T. 255

376

PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.
WOOD.

Sirex juveneus. L. (P. &; T.)

2 summers 355

8. ffigeu. Id 357

•Tomic-u* llneat'us. I. & L.

(L.G.) (P. & T.)t 255

BUDS.
* Gastropacha 2>ini. L. (P. &T.) 294

Liparis monacha. Id 310

*Tortrixbvoliana. L. (Y. P.&P.) 335
T.turionanu. Id 338

YOUNG SHOOTS.

Ernoblus nigrhms 217

Hylobius abietis. 1. (Y.P.&P.) 225

H.plnastri. Id 232

*Myelophilusplniperda. 1. Pith

of trees of all ages 2G5

*M. minor. Id 271

*Tortrix buoliana. L. Pith of

trees of all ages 335

T. tudonana. L. (Y.P. & P.) 338
OT.res'mella. L. 2 years. (Y.
P. & P.) Resin-galls 339

NEEDLES.
* Gastropacha inni. L. (P. & T.) 294

* Geometra piniaria. L. (P. &T.) 326

* Li par <x wonacha. L. (Y.P.)

(P. & T.) 310

*Lop/iyru*jrini. L. (Y.P. & P.)

Social 350

*L. rufus. Id 354

*Noctua jnniperda, L.'(P.&T.) 320

.\. n-sfif/htlix. L. (Y.P.) 322

O Rltizotrogiis solstifiulix. L (P.

&T.) 210

Strophosonwi coryli. I. (Y. P.) 220

8. obesus. Id 220

8. Urn batw*. Id 220

INFLORESCENCE.

O Anobium abietis. L 217

QMelolontha tulyaris. I. (P.

&T.) ' 2UO

GERMINATING SEEDS.
OAgriotes spp. L 214

The above-mentioned insects also
attack other species of pines, such as
P. Strobvis, Laricio, Cc»il>r<i. >nont<in<i ;
but none suffers so much as P. sl-

BOOTS.

* Gryllotalpa wdgaris. A. S. ... 369
*MelolontJia spp. L. (Y.P.). 2

to 3 summers 200

JYoctua restiyialis. L. S 322

BARK.

Chermes laricis. A. Trees of

all ages 365

HyloUm abietix. I. (Y.P.)f ... 225

H.pineti. I. (Y.P.) 232

Pissodes notatus. I. (Y.P.
&P.) 233

CAMBIUM,

Pissodes not atus. L. (Y.P.&.P.)f 233
*Tomicus typogruphm, I. &, L.

(V.G.),T.f 238

*T. amitiiius. I. & L. (F. or

S.G.) T 246

4. LAECH.

T. cluilcographm. I. & L. (S.G.)

(P. &T.) 248

T.larltix. I. &L. (V.G.),P.&T. 251
WOOD.

Sirex jurencus. L. T 355

Tomicm lineatus. I. & L.

(L.G.)T.f 255

BUDS.
('<'<•} tloinyia. ItclliH'ri. L. Trees

of all ages 361

NEEDLES.

O Chcrim-x lurid*. A. (Y.P. &P.) :;c,:,
"" Coleop hora lancclla. L. (Y.P.

& P.) 346

/,!/>'/ d* ixonitdia. L. (P. &T.) 310
O Mcltilo-ntlia spp. I. (P. & T.) 200
Nematus enksoni. L. (Y.P.) 3.M
Nortim. rrxtif/if/lix. L. (Y.P.) 322
Tort /•/'./• ]>i nit-old IKI. L. T 341

(TERMINATING SEEDS.

214

LIST OF DESTRUCTIVE INSECTS.

377

5. BEECH.

BOOTS.

PAGE

ffryttotalpa Bulgaria. A. S. ... 361)
JUelolontha spp. L. (Y.P.) ...200

BARK.

Hylobiusabletls. I. (Y.P.)f... 225
crabro. I. (Y.P. & P.) 190

211
213

CAMBIUM.

*Agrllu$ virldi*. L. (Y.P.) 2
summers ..................... .....

A. angustulus. Id.f ...............

QScolyius intricatus. I. & L.

(H.G.) P. and branchesf ... 278

WOOD.

Cosrns aesculi. L. (Y.P.) 2
summers ...................... ..... 293

OHylecoetus dermestoules. L. T. 216
Tomicus domesticus. I. & L.
(L.G.) T ......................... 258

T. disbar. I. & L. (F.G.)
(Y.P.) ........................... 259

Xestoliumtesselatum. I.&L. T. 217

BUDS AND LEAVES.

O Apodems coryll. I.&L. (Y. P. )

Leaf-rolling 218

*Bonibyx pudibundtt, L. (P.

& T.) 304

JB. chrysorrlioea. Id 308

O B. slmilis. L. (P. & T. ) 309

OHibernia defoUaria. L. (P. & T.) 331
*Liparis 'monacha. L. (P. & T.) 310
MelolontlM spp. I. (P. & T. ) ... 200
Orchestes fagi. I. & L. (Miner).

Trees of all ages 221

Phyllolriw spp. I. (Y.P .) 220

ORM~otrogus solstitial'^. I. (P.

&T.) ' 210

O Rliynchites spp. I. & L. (Y.P. )

Leaf-rolling 219

Strophosomus coryli. I. (Y. P.) 220
S.obesus. Id 220

FRUITS.

Athous liaemorrholdalls. L. ... 214
Orchedes fagl. I. Unripe fruits 221

6. OAK.

BOOTS.

OCynips spp. I.&L., Galls ... 358

Gryllotalpa vnlgaris. A. S. ... 369
* Melolontha spp. L. (Y. P.), esp.

S 200

BARK.

O Coccus spp. A. (Y.P. & P.) ... 366

OCynipsspp. I.&L. Galls ... 358

OHylobiiu abietis. I. (Y.P.)f... 225

Vesjta crabro. I. (Y.P. & P.) 190

CAMBIUM.

Agnlus viridis. L. (Y.P.)f 2

summers 211

*A, angustulus. Id. 213

Hyleslnus crenatus. 1. & L.
(H.G.),T 275

Scolytus intricatus. I. & L.
(H.G.). P. and branches ... 278

WOOD.
Cossus ligniperda. L. T. 2

summers 291

OC. cesculi, L. (Y.P.) 2

summers 293

O Hylecoetus dermesto'idcs. L. T. 216
Lymexylon narale. L. T 215

* Tomicus di-spar. I. & L.

(F.G.), (Y.P.) 259

OXestobiumtesselatmii. 1. &L. T. 217

BUDS AND LEAVES.

*Bombyx nemtria. L. P. & T. 302

B. chrysorrhoea. L. (P. & T.) 308

OCynipsspp. I.&L. Galls.... 358

* Geametra brumata. L. (P. & T.) 329
Hibemia defoUaria. L.(P. & T.) 331

O Phyllobius spp. I. (Y. P.) 220

Stropliosomm spp. I. (Y.P.)... 220
*Tortrix viridana. L. (P. & T.) 333

378

PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

LEAVES.

PAGE

OApoderuscoryli. I. & L. (Y.P.)

Leaf-rolling 218

QAtteldbtu curculionoides. Id. 219
Bombyx pwdibunda. I;. (P.

&T.) 304

Jsijtaris wonnchd. L. (P. &D.) 310
*Melolontlui spp. I. (P. & T.)... 200
OOrcJtextes querrv*. I. & L.

Suppressed growth 223

(See preceding section.)

YOUNG SHOOTS.
Corymb-ites spp. I. (Y.P.) 215

PAOE

• I. & L. Galls... 35S

ll<jlobiuxubicn*. I. (Y.P.)f... 828

Lacon murinu*. I. (Y.P.) 215

^Piiflujtylus migratorius. I.

(Y.'P.) 372

St.rophoumui* spp. I. (Y.P.) ... 220

Teley/wrus obscurux. I. (Y.P.) 184

ACORNS.

L 211

Agrl

yi. obscuru*. Id 214

AtJiou* kaemorrhoid&U*. L. ... 214

Balaninux glandium. I. & L. 221

M spp. I. & L. Galls. . . . 358

7. HOKNBEAM.

ROOTS.
*Melolonthaspp. L. (Y.P.) ...200

WOOD.
Tomicus dixpur. I. & L.

(F.G.), (Y.P. & P.) 259

O Xextobiiiiii tesselatum. I. & L.

T. 217

BUDS AND LEAVES.

*Boml>yx neustria. L. (P. & T.) 302
B. shnilis. Id 309

* Geomctra brumata. Id 329

Hlbernla dffoliana. Id 331

LEAVES.

Hornby x pudlbundu. L. (P.

&T.) 301

*]{. clu-ysorrhoea. Id 308

Liparit monaehtt. Id 310

Melolontha spp. I. Trees of

all ages 200

OE/ti-otrof/uswlstitiaHii. Id. ... 210

(See preceding section.)

FRUITS.
Athouy kaeitwrrhoidal'us. L. ... 214

8. ELM.

ROOTS.

Gryllotalpa vulgar-is. A. S. ... 369
* Jfefc&m£*a spp. L. (Y.P.) ...200

CAMBIUM.

OHylcslnus vittatiis. 1. & L. T. 275
Scolytm. I. & L. (L.G.) (P. &
T.) 277

WOOD.
( W.V.VW.V lignipcrda. L. (P. «Sc T.)

2 summersf 291

(7. aetcull. L. (P. & T.) 29IJ

BUDS AND LEAVES.

Jt<nn.bya> newitria. L, (P. & T.) 302

Jl. <-h'r uxorrhont. Id 309

B.timili*. Id 309

Hlbernia dcfoliaria. Id 331

9. ASH.
ROOTS.
*Mclolontha spp. L. (Y. P.) ... 200

BARK.

]'rx/Hi crabnt. I. (Y.P. & P.)
On young shoots 190

LIST OF DESTRUCTIVE INSECTS.

379

CAMBIUM.

Tomwus dixpat: I. & L.
(F.a.) (Y.P. & P.) 259

BUDS.

*IIylcsin.us fraxlnl. I. & L.
(H.G.) (P. & T.) Bark
rosettes 273

//. crenatu*. I. & L. (H.G.) T. 275

• . Vr Tinea curtisella. L. (Y.P. &

Scvlytw Geoffroyt. I. & L. p ,

(F.G.) (P. & T.)f 277

WOOD. LEAVES.

COSHKH llgnlperda. L. (P. & JMelolontha spp. I. Trees of

T.). 2 summers 291 all ages 200

C. aescull. L. (Y.P.). 2 *Pachytylus mlgratorlns. I.

summers 293 (Y.P.) 372

10. MAPLE.

ROOTS. ! T. dispai: I. & L. (F.G.) (Y.P.

* Melolontha spy. L. (Y.P.) .. 200 i & P-) 259

OXestobiumtesselatum. I.&L. T. 217
WOOD.

Cossus lignlpcrda. L. (P. & LEAVES.

T.) 291 j *Melolontha spp. I. Trees of

*C. aesculi. L. (Y.P.) 2 all ages 200

summers 292 i Bombyx pudibunda. L. (P.

O Hylecoetm dfirmextoUes. L. T. 216 & T.) 301

Tomicns domcatlcus. I. & L. B. chrysorrhoea. Id 308

(L.G.) T 258 Liparis monacha. Id 310

11. ALDEE.

ROOTS. *Cryptorrliynchus lapathi. L.

*J/6'Z^^7mspp. L. (Y.P.) ...200 (Y.P.&P.) 223

_ Tomlcus dis2)ar. I. & L. (F.G.)

liARK. ^Y p AT p ^ 259

Cnjptorrhynchuslapathl. I. (Y. OXest^mtesse^u^L^T. 217

1 • J • _ 1.)

Yespa cmlro. I. (Y.P. & P.) 190

CAMBIUM. LEAVES.

Agrilu* rlrldls. I, (Y.P.) 2 QApoder** cvryli. I. & L. (Y.P.)

Leaf-rollmgt 218

WOOD. Bombyx pudUmnda. L. (Y.P.

QCossiis llgnlperda. L. T. 2 & P.) 301

summers 291 i Liparis monacha. Id 310

OC. aesculi: L. (Y.P.) 2 Rhynchitesspp. I. & L. (Y.P.)

summers 293 j Leaf-rollingf 219

12. POPLAE.
ROOTS. BARK.

(Y.P.)... 200 Cryptorrhynchux lapathi. I.

(Y.P.) 223

380

PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

CAMBIUM.

PAGE
Ayrilus viridis. L. (Y.P.) 2

summers. (Aspen.) 211

QA. sexguttatus. L. T. 2 sum-
mers 214

WOOD.
Cossics Ugn'iperda. L. P. & T.

2 summers 291

C. aesculi. L. (Y.P.)f 2

summers 293

Cnjptorrhynchus lapatki. L.

(Y.P.) 223

*Saperda carcharias. L. (Y.P.

& P.) 2 summers 280

8. populnca. Id. Branches... 282
Sesia aplformis. Id 289

BUDS.

I'Af.E

OJiinnby.1' Hcunh'iii. L. (P. & T.) 302
LEAVES.

Jlonilyx nrnxtritf. L. (P. & T.) 302

OB.chri/xnrr/ioi'H. Id 308

( 7t ri/*o»H'lf( jHi/tuli; I. & L. (Y.

P.) (stool shoots) 2S-I

C. tremulae. Id 2sr>

C. vtdgatitri-nui, I. & L.

(Y.P.)f 286

O Li puns monacha, L. (P. & T.)f 310

Mclolotitha spp. I. (P. & T.)... 200

Wihiihw/HxMlxfitialis. Id. ... 210

Rhynchltes spp. I.& L. (Y.P.)

Leaf-rolling 219

13. WILLOW.

ROOTS.
*MdoUntha spp. L. ( Y. P.) 200

BARK.
Crypton'hymJwslapathl. I. (Y.

P. & P.) 223

Vespa crdbro. I. (Y.P.) 190

WOOD.
Cecidoniyla salwlperda. L.

Gall-like swellings 3(50

* Cossutt ligniperda. L. (P. & T.)

2 summers 291

C. aescull. L. (Y.P.) Osiers.

2 summers 293

CryptorrliynchmlapatUl. L. (Y.

P. &P.) 223

Saperda carcliar'iax. L. (Y.P.

&; P.) 2 summers 280

8. populnea. Id 282

BUDS.

Bonibyx neudna. L. (P. & T.)t 3^2

OB. chrysorrhoea. L. P. & T. ... 308

B. xlmllis. Id. .. .. 309

YOUNG SHOOTS.
Hollas chlorana. L. (Y.P.)

Osiers

332

LEAVES.

QBombyx nemtria. L.f 302

B. chrysorrh oea. L 308

Ckrysomelapopull. I. & L.(Y.P.) 284

C. tremulae. Id 285

* C. vulgatisxima. Id 280

Hollas chlornna. L. (Y.P.)
Terminal leaves bound to-
gether 332

Lipdi'ia moinirliti . \j. Sallow 310

QMr.l»l<mtlui.K\>\>. 1 200

'/*. 1 210

14. BIRCH.

ROOTS.

Gryllotalpa vulgaris. A. S. ... 3(19
*Kelolo*tkaBpp. L. (Y.P.) ...200

BARK.
Vespa cmlro. I. (Y.P. & P.) 190

CAMBIUM.

Agriln.1 riridi*. L. (Y.P.) 2
summers 211

WOOD.

O CMXHX lit/iii/wi-fla. L. (P. & T.)

2 suuimei-s 291

LIST OF DESTRUCTIVE INSECTS.

C. aesculi. L. (Y.P.) 2 summers 293
OHylecoetus de nnest aides. L. T. 216
Tomicus dispar. I. & L.

(F.G.) (Y.P. & P.) ............ 259

T. domesticus. I. & L. (L.G.)

T ..................................... 258

LEAVES.

Hornby. ?• pudibunda. L. (P.
&T.) ..............................

304

PAOK

B. sim His. L. (P. & T. ) 309

Hibernia defoliaria. Id 331

Liparis monarha. Id 310

Melolontha vulgar is. I. Trees

of all ages 200

ORhynchites betulae. 1. & L. (Y.

P.) Leaf-rolling 219

OR.betuleti, Id 219

Stroyhosomm spp. I. (Y.P.)... 220

WOOD.
O Cossus ligniperda. L. (P. & T.)

2 summers 291

C. aesculi. L. (Y.P.) 2 sum-
mers 293

Toniicus domesticus. I. & L.
(L.G.) T.f 258

15. LIME.

BUDS AND LEAVES.
OBombyxsimilis. L. (P. & T.) 279
Geometra brumata. L. (P. & T.) 329
Hibernia defoliaria. Id 331

LEAVES.
Liparis monaclia. L. (P. & T.) 310

16. KOBINIA.

Elatcndae spp. L.

ROOTS.
214 I Melolontha spp. L

200

17. HAZEL.

BAEK AND SAPWOOD.
Agrilws atif/ustulf(S. L.

BUDS AND LEAVES.

Balaninus nucum. I

Geometra brumata. L

Strojrfiosoimis spp. I

YOUNG SHOOTS.

OEhynchites betuleti. I. & L.... 219
SPP- I

221
329

220

220

LEAVES.

OApoderus conjli. I. &L. Leaf-

rolling 218

Liparis monacha. L 310

ORhytichitesspp. I.&L. Leaf-
rolling 219

FRUITS.

Atlious haemorrhoidalis. L — 214

Balaninus nucum. I.&L 221

B.qlandium. I. & L.f 221

In concluding this Chapter, it is desirable to impress
strongly on the forester the necessity for a careful study of
forest insects. Inattention to these little creatures has
already in many cases been severely punished by the sacrifice
of the labour of years. It must not be imagined that insects

382

PROTECTION AGAINST INSECTS.

always attack in a secondary manner, that is, after a plant
has been weakened by previous in jury or disease, nor must the
danger arising from them be under-estimated, and this is
especially important as regards coniferous forests.

The most effective means for combating insect attacks
consist in careful and cleanly forest management, and in
repressing an attack at its very commencement ; once it has
attained large dimensions man's efforts against it are almost
powerless. In order that his attempts at repression may be
successful, the forester must know the life-history and rela-
tions to the forest of injurious insects ; for this purpose mere
book-learning will not suffice, but must be supplemented by
careful and continuous observation in the forest.

FIG. 194. — Ichneumons (/'/////-A' mfiitifrxttiiur}. 3 in flight, ? on tree.
From " Cassell's Natural History."

PAKT III.

PROTECTION AGAINST PLANTS.

385

PBOTECTION AGAINST PLANTS.

PLANTS injurious to forests are either weeds that cover the
soil, or climbers and parasitic phanerogams or fungi, which
attack trees and forest plants. The following sections will
contain an account of these dangerous enemies of the forest.*

* Books for reference on forest botany are : Dbbner, Dr. E. Ph., " Lehrbuch
tier Botanik fiir Forstmanner." Berlin, 1882. Schwartz, Dr. F., " Forstliche
Botanik." Berlin, 1892. Thaer, Dr. A., " Die landwirthschaftlichen Unkiauter."
Berlin, 1893. Capital illustrations and directions how to exterminate weeds.
The systematic names of the weeds are taken from Bentham and Hooker's
" British Flora," 5th edition, 1887.

F.P. C C

CHAPTEE I.

PROTECTION AGAINST FOREST WEEDS.

SECTION I. — GENERAL ACCOUNT.

1. Definition of the term Forest Weed.

THE term forest weed usually comprises wild plants, which
by their vigorous growth in masses more or less retard the
development of young forest plants. By extending the
meaning of the term, shrubs, and even many otherwise useful
trees, may be included, which when young injure the growth
of the principal local forest species. "When, for instance,
sallows or aspens spring up in large numbers in beechwoods,
or birches among conifers, or even the hardy and fruitful
hornbeam in the pole stage competes too freely with beech,
it becomes necessary to remove these inferior species in
cleanings. More detail on this point is given in sylviculture ;
it may, however, be noted here that the most numerous and
dangerous forest weeds are woody plants of more or less rapid
height-growth, the most bushy ones, and those producing root-
suckers being the worst. In Burmese teak forests, bamboos
which grow to heights of fifty feet and more within a few
weeks, may render teak reproduction impossible, until the
bamboos seed gregariously and die, or are killed by fires.

2. Classification of Forest Weeds.

In classifying forest weeds, the forester should be guided by
the following points : —

(a) Structure of the stem.

(b) Duration of life of the weed.

(c) Local occurrence.

(d) Preference for any particular soil.

(e) Amount of mineral matter in its ash.
(/) Demands as regards light and shade.

FOREST WEEDH. 387

(g) Kind of injury done.

(h) Eelative amount of injury.

It is highly interesting to note the changes which take place
in the constituents of the soil-covering in a forest according
to the species of tree grown, and the degree of density of the
cover.

a. Structure of Stem.

Weeds may be either woody or herbaceous. To the former
class belong broom, heather, bilberry, hawthorn, blackthorn,
brambles, elder, etc. : to the latter, willow-herbs, groundsell,
belladonna, foxglove, grasses (except bamboos), sedges, reeds,
and rushes.

b. Duration of Life.

Weeds may be either annuals, biennials, or perennials.

Most herbaceous plants, except some grasses, are annuals.
Mullein (Verbascum) and foxglove are biennials, producing
foliage in the first year and flowers and fruit in the second
year. This class is, however, rare among forest weeds, and
all woody plants and the rootstocks of many herbaceous plants
are perennials.

c. Local Occurrence.

Forest weeds may be classed as belonging to the plains, to
swamps, hills, or mountains. Of these, the flora of swamps
and of high mountains are most specialised.

d. Nature of Soil.

Weeds may be partial, or restricted to certain soils, or
indifferent as to soils.

The restricted class is divided into plants special to sand,
clay, loam, calcareous soil, or to peaty and sour soils. It
should, however, be remembered that the plants produced in
any locality are affected by the subsoil and surrounding
conditions as well as by the surface-soil, so that we must
not be surprised if a sandy soil, for instance, occasionally
produces plants peculiar to other soils.

Most forest weeds are indifferent as to soil, and appear on
soils differing from one another both physically and chemicalty.

c c 2

388 PROTECTION AGAINST PLANTS.

On sandy soils we find chiefly ling (Calluna vulgaris, Sal.)
and heather (Erica), broom (Cytisus scopfirius, Link.), lyme-
grass (Elymus arenarius, L.), maram-grass (Psamma arenaria,
Beauv.), sand-sedge (Carex arenaria, L.) ; Festuca glauca,
Schrad. ; Panicum glabrum, Gaud. ; etc.

On clay soils: coltsfoot (Tassilago Farfara, L.), wound-
wort (Stacliys palustris, L.), marestail (Equisetum) , cotton-
grass (Eriophorum), rushes (Juncus).

On loam, on account of its favourable nature, very numerous
weeds abound, such as all good meadow-grasses, bindweed
(Convolvulus), Veronica^ etc.

Calcicolous weeds are Viburnum Lantana, L. (way faringtree ;
rock-rose (Helianthemum vulyare, Gaertn.) ; Stacliys germanica,
L. ; Eubus saxatilis, L. ; many Papilionacece, and of grasses,
Melica and Sesleria.

On rich humus soil: raspberry (Rubus Idaeus, L.), balsam
(Impatiens Noli-me-tangere, L.), hemp-nettle (Galeopsis Te-
trahit, L.), black night-shade (Solanum nigrum, L.), etc.

On peats: -we find mint (Mentha pulustris, L., etc.); bog
myrtle (Myrica Gale, L.) ; Vaccinium idiginosum, L. ; Carex,
Eriophorum, Juncus, Scirpus, lousewort (Pedicularis), dock
(Rumex), loosestrife (Ly thrum Salicaria, L.), peat-moss
(Sphagnum, sp.), etc.

On saline soils : sea milk- wort (Glauxmaritima, L., Plantago
maritima, L.), samphire (Crithmum maritimum, L.), marsh-
samphire (Salicornia herbacea, L.), salt- wort (Salsola Kali,
L.), Armeria vulgaris, Willd. ; sea-lavender (Statice), sea-holly
(Eryngium maritimum, L.), maram-grass, etc.

e. Mineral Substances in Ashes of Weeds.

The mineral character of the soil on which plants will thrive
cannot be decided by the quantity of any substance such as
silica, calcium carbonate, or sodium chloride, which may be
found in their ashes. Different parts of the same plant
also contain different proportions of chemical substances.
Thus, there is much silica in the stem of grasses, and more
phosphates and potash in their seeds.

The physical nature of the soil, i.e., its degree of moisture,

FOREST WEEDS. 389

capacity for being heated, porosity, etc., has more influence
on the growth of plants than its chemical composition, though
the latter has an indirect influence on the physical nature of
soils.

In the strife between weeds and cultivated plants, the former
gain ground by the easy dissemination of their seed by wind,
water, or birds, as well as by their superiority in the struggle
for light and for space for their roots. If cultivation of the
fields were to cease in Europe, it is certain that, in 100 years,
only grassland, forest, or swamp would be found, according
to the degree of humidity of the soil.

/. Demands as to Light.

Plants are termed lightdemanding or shadebearing accord-
ing to their relative demands for light, or capacity for bearing
shade.

Heather is a decidedly lightdemanding plant, bilberry
(Vaccinium Myrtillus, L.), a half shadebearer : the holly,
juniper, and Daphne are shadebearing plants, as they flourish
in dense woods. Ivy (Hedera Helix, L.) and butcher's broom
(Ritscus aculeatus, L.) are also even more shadebearing.

g. Kind of Injury done.

Weeds may overtop young trees and deprive them of light
and dew ; they may constrict them, as in the case of the
woodbine, or, like the bindweed, completely stifle them by
growing over them ; they may smother and bend them down
-when pressed on them by snow, as dead bracken ; or, like the
peat-moss, Sphagnum, cause swamps. Some weeds, such as
bilberry, may form a dense mat with their roots, so that
natural regeneration of trees may be obstructed.

h. Degree of Injury done.

Weeds may be classed as very injurious, injurious, or
only slightly injurious. Many forest weeds are either
technically or indirectly useful, as will be explained in the
next paragraph.

390 PROTECTION AGAINST PLANTS.

3. Utility of Certain Weeds.

Some weeds are directly or indirectly useful in woods.

Many weeds, such as grasses, are directly useful for fodder,
thatch, or litter, or may be used by manufacturers, or for
medicine. A full account of such plants is given under
Forest Utilisation. The fruits of many shrubs afford useful
food for men, mammals, and birds.

Weeds may also be indirectly useful in the following
ways : —

(a) Soil-indicators. Giving evidence of certain physical or
chemical qualities of soils.

(b) Soil-fixers. Binding the soil on steep slopes, or on
shifting sands (sand-fixing grasses).

(c) Soil-improvers. Enriching the soil with their detritus,
and maintaining its moisture, reducing radiation, and
especially by preventing extremes of temperature in the
surface soil (mosses), other than Polytrichum and Sphagnum.

(d) Nui'ses, for young tender species in localities exposed to
frost, dry winds, or insolation. Thorny bushes and weeds of
an erect habit, such as the broom, are most useful in this
respect. Thorny bushes also protect all kinds of forest
plants against grazing animals or deer, and afford shelter
to useful birds.

On these grounds forest weeds should not always be
extirpated, but only when they do more harm than good.

4. Damage done by Forest Weeds.
A. General Nature of Damage.

The damage done by forest weeds is either direct or indirect,
many weeds being hurtful in both ways.

Directly injurious are poisonous plants, such as Daphne
Mezereum, L., nightshade, or belladonna, which are hurtful to
animals grazing in the forests. A dense growth of black-
thorn, roses, brambles, etc., is also a great hindrance to
fellings, and may therefore be considered directly hurtful.

The indirect Jiurtfulness of weeds is due to the following
causes : —

FOREST WEEDS. 391

i. The matted roots of many weeds increase the difficulty
of reproduction of the forest, as in the case of heather-, bilberry,
and couch-grass.

ii. The removal of valuable mineral matter from the soil,
which thus becomes impoverished, for instance, of potassium
phosphate in grass-seeds.

iii. Mechanical injury to young forest plants by birch,
aspen, sallow, grasses, etc., owing to deprivation of light, heat,
air, dew, or rain. Lightdemanding plants are thus soon
killed, and even shadebearing species cannot long withstand
such injuries.

iv. Injuries by smothering or constricting plants, as, in
summer, by honey-suckle, clematis, convolvulus, wild hops,
etc. In winter, by being pressed down on the plants by
snow ; bracken, tall grasses, etc.

v. Retention of excessive moisture in the surf ace- soil during
wet weather, and formation of swamps ; consequent increase
of damage by frosts : all peat-plants, and especially Sphagnum,
increase the swampiness of the soil.

vi. A dense growth of grass or weeds may prevent dew or
light rains, which merely dry off the surface of the weeds, from
penetrating the soil, and is thus very hurtful to plantations
and sowings during droughts. This may be easily proved by
digging up a sod and examining the soil beneath it. Besides
excluding moisture from the soil, the grasses, etc., draw up
the soil-moisture from below and transpire it into the air,
so that the denser the growth of grass, the drier the soil
becomes.

vii. Certain plants produce a sour or dry humus which is
unsuitable for most forest trees' : this is the case with heather,
reeds, and other sour grasses, sedges, etc.

viii. Shelter is afforded by grass and herbage to mice and
insects.

ix. Weeds and especially heather, increase danger from
forest fires.

x. Parasitic plants, other than fungi, that remove sap
from forest plants. They may be classified as follows : —

«. Parasites germinating and growing in the living tissues
of their hosts (mistletoe and LorantJms).

392 PROTECTION AGAINST PLANTS.

p. Parasites, such as dodder (Cuscuta), germinating on the
ground, but eventually attaching themselves to forest
plants.

y. Parasites nourished partly by their own roots, and partly
by attaching themselves to useful plants. Broomrape
(Orobanche) on broom, furze, ivy, hemp, lucerne, etc.
Latliraca sqiiamaria, L., on the roots of trees, especially
hazel.

xi. Epiphytes. Lichens do not remove sap from forest
plants, but live on water, air, and rotting bark, but when
attached to trees they are injurious by blocking the lenticels
and preventing necessary aeration of the internal tissues.
They harbour numerous insects, and increase the weight of
snow on the crowns of trees during winter. Trees with rough
bark, such as spruce, larch and pines, are most subject to
attacks of lichens, which increase in number with the age of
their hosts. The branches are more subject than the boles to
these attacks.

Incrustating lichens, such as Imbricaria, Hatysma, and
Lecanora are worse than beard-like lichens, UsnJKij Ercrnia,
and Alectoria. Lichens do most damage in moist valleys and
in crowded woods.

/' xii. Some weeds serve as hosts to injurious fungi, which
[may afterwards spread to forest trees or to agricultural crops.
Many parasitic fungi are most frequently found on weeds,
lor attack agricultural crops only after passing one stage
pf their existence on a weed.

Thus, certain grasses — e.g., Arrhcnathcrum and Arena—
spread certain kinds of rusts on to cereal crops, such as
Tilletia caries, Tul., and Ustildgo carlo, Tul. Puccinia (jra~
minis, Pers., on wheat comes from Aecidium Bcrberidis on the
barberry ; and oat-rust (P. coronata, Corda) from buckthorn.
Foresters should always look with suspicion on any fungus
appearing on wild plants.

B. Special Forms of Damage done by Weeds.

The amount of damage done to forests by particular weeds
depends on their wide dissemination and on the vigour mid
special nature of their growth. These are determined chiefly

FOREST WEEDS. 393

by the locality, the prevailing system of forest management,
and the state of the weather during the growing season. In
the second place, by the species of tree and age of crop.

Weeds are disseminated chiefly by winds which carry light
seeds and fruits by millions, as, for instance, the fruits of
Composite ; many birds, especially thrushes and blackbirds,
disseminate seeds either by pecking at the ripe fruit-heads and
causing the wind to disperse the seeds, or by eating the fruits
and voiding the indigestible seeds. This is especially the case
with hawthorn. Other birds, such as finches, eat the seeds of
many weeds and are so far serviceable. Hares, deer, and other
animals also carry seeds about in their fur. The seeds of many
riparian plants are carried down by streams and inundations.
i. DAMAGE ACCORDING TO SPECIES OF TREE.

Slowly growing species are more easily injured by the
growth of weeds than fast-growing ones, and of these, light-
demanding species suffer most. The vigour of the weeds is
greatest on the most fertile soils.

The following scale shows the degree in which the different
trees suffer from a strong growth of herbage.

Suffer most : — Osier- willows, elm, ash, maples, sweet chest-
nut, silver-fir, and spruce.

Suffer less : — Beech, hornbeam, and lime.

Suffer still less : — Oaks, alder, tree- willows, Scots and Black
pines, and larch.

Suffer least: — Birch, aspen, poplars, sallows, robinia, species
of Sorbus, Pyrus, Primus, and Weymouth pine.

This scale, of course, will vary for different localities which
suit certain trees better than others.

ii. SYSTEMS OF MANAGEMENT.

In high forests with natural regeneration, or artificially
planted undercover, the soil is not so liable to become covered
with weeds as in the clear-cutting system, which favours the
spread of weeds in the highest degree. The shelterwood
compartment system, also, if not very carefull}7 managed,
sometimes gives rise to masses of weeds on the felling-areas.

On fresh, and especially damp, rich soils, after a clear-
cutting, a dense growth of grass and weeds springs up in a

394 PROTECTION AGAINST PLANTS.

surprisingly short time. Thus, foxgloves and groundsel on
sandstone rock ; balsams and willow-herbs on basalt ; brooms
and genista on sandy soils — spring up in masses after a
felling. This can be explained only by a supposition that
the seeds of these weeds remain dormant in the soil, and
germinate only when the removal of the trees allows enough
heat and air to reach them.* Jhuming, or the thorough
burning of branch wood on the soil, after a clear-felling, may
destroy seeds of weeds in the upper layers of the soil, and
thus keep it free from weeds until it has been restocked with
forest growth.

iii. AGE OF WOOD.

Forest trees are most endangered by weeds in the first few
years of their life. Forest nurseries and cultivations, there-
fore, suffer most of all, and of these, sowings and natural
regeneration-areas more than plantings. Where weeds
abound, very small transplants should not be used, and
frequently four or five-year-old plants are preferable.

Some poles and coppice-shoots, and especially osier-willows,
are attacked and frequently killed by climbers and parasites.

In tropical countries, trees of all ages are liable to be killed
by the strong woody climbers and twiners (lianes) which
abound in the forests of these regions and attain several
feet in girth. These lianes may mount to the top of the
highest trees, depriving their crowns of light and bending
down and breaking poles with their weight. The twiners also
constrict trees, moulding their stems into corkscrew shapes,
and in the case of trees with a sapwood, the passage of sap
may be so interfered with, that the trees are killed.

iv. LOCALITY.

Fertile, fresh, and moist soils, especially on basalt, produce
more weeds than soils over dry sandstone rock. Damp air
also favours the growth of weeds, as can be seen from the
vigorous weedy growth on mountains. Fortunately, on good
soils, the growth of forest trees also enables them to get out of
the reach of the weeds sooner than in unfavourable localities.

* " Culturversucbe mit ruhenden samcn." Centnvllblatt f. d. ges. Forstwesen,
1894, p. 133.

FOREST WEEDS. 395

v. DENSITY OF FOREST GROWTH.
The growth of weeds which have taken possession of the
soil after a felling, makes way for a covering of moss, needles
or dead leaves, after the forest has been reconstituted. When
age again begins to open out the wood, or when, owing to bad
management, or to accidents, thin places and blanks appear,
weeds reappear in direct proportion to the amount of light
admitted to the soil.

vi. WEATHER.

Damp warm years are most favourable to a growth of weeds,
and during such years tender forest species require little or
no shelter. Hence for both these reasons weeds are then
most hurtful.

vii. HABIT OF THE WEEDS.

Perennial weeds, and especially those which produce root-
suckers, are much worse than annuals. Also those with dense
foliage and those which are social over extensive areas, or
gregarious in patches, injure forest plants more than scantily
foliaged and solitary growing weeds. Species such as black-
thorn, aspen, and forest-willows soon get the upper hand of
other weeds.

Weeds which by their decomposition yield dry or acid humus
are also hurtful, as they produce soil unsuitable for forest
vegetation. Dry humus formed of lichens, etc., contains little
carbon dioxide, easily crumbles, decomposes with difficulty,
and absorbs very little water. Acid humus, on the other
hand, formed by sedges and peat-plants, injures by exhaling
marsh-gas, and by containing certain organic acids that are
detrimental to tree-life.

5. Protection against Weeds,
a. Preventive Measures.

The following rules for keeping down forest weeds should
be observed : —

i. MAINTENANCE OF THE DENSITY OF THE FOREST.

Great care must be taken in the shelterwood systems, on
soil liable to become weedy, that the fellings are not too open.
The seeding-fellings must be dark, and the secondary fellings

396 PROTECTION AGAINST PLANTS.

made gradually. All blanks should be speedily filled in with
strong transplants.

ii. MODERATELY LONG ROTATIONS.

Long rotations should be avoided, and woods of light-
demanding species (oak, Scots pine, or larch), should be
underplanted at the right time with shadebearers (beech,
silver-fir, spruce, Weymouth pine, etc.).

If a soil-protection wood is to serve its proper purpose, it
must be introduced before grasses have sprung up and helped
to dry the soil.

iii. RAPID REPLANTING OF CLEARED AREAS.

Clear-cuttings should be rapidly restocked with strong
transplants planted closely.

iv. MAINTENANCE OF SOIL-COVERING.

The natural soil-covering of dead leaves, needles or moss
should be maintained, by keeping up a dense cover, and by
preventing the removal of litter.

v. DRAINAGE.

Drainage should be carried out on very damp localities,
before they are re-stocked.

vi. GRAZING.

A dense growth of heather may be kept down by sheep.
Cattle are useful in young deodar woods, with a dense growth
of shrubs, which grow most luxuriantly in the Himalayas.

vii. RULES FOR FOREST NURSERIES.

Nurseries should not be too near fields. The seed-beds and
nursery lines should be carefully weeded or hoed before the
weeds blossom, and during rainy weather. Burned sods
should be used as manure, as this destroys the seeds of weeds.
Manure from old manure heaps is often full of nettle-seed,
and when burnt compost is not strong enough for a nursery,
artificial manures, such as basic slag, in autumn, and sodium
nitrite or kainit, in the spring, should be sprinkled between
the lines of plants. If farmyard manure is used, it is better to
grow a crop of potatoes before restocking with forest plants.

FOREST WEEDS. 397

Spaces between plants may be covered with moss, dead
leaves or sawdust. This prevents the soil from caking and
retains moisture near the surface, and thus replaces completely
the expensive processes of working the soil, weeding and
watering. In damp places, burned compost introduces liver-
wort (Marcliantia polymorpha, L.), but this does no harm to
the plants.

b. Remedial Measures.

The nature of remedial measures to be adopted depends on
the habit of the weeds, their degree of development, and the
nature of the locality. The simplest measures will often
suffice, but sometimes special measures must be taken as
follows : —

i. In order to remove too great a soil-covering of grass and
herbage, cattle may be admitted, or the weeds may be pulled
up or cut down, always before the blossoming period. In
very bad cases the hoe or plough may be used all over the
area, and the land made to produce a field-crop before being
restocked with forest growth. The cutting of grass and
.herbage may be profitable, or the cost of the operation at least
covered by the sale of the produce. The weeds when mixed
with lime may be collected into heaps, and then yield valuable
manure for forest nurseries, or they may be burned and their
ashes spread over the soil.

ii. If the soil is covered with short woody plants they may
be mowed down or pulled up, as in the case of heather ; rasp-
berries may be simply beaten down, and softwoods, such as
sallows, pulled up, or cut off at about one foot from the ground,
or the woody plants may be girdled close to the ground.

This cutting should be done in July, at the height of the
growing season, when the power of reproduction is least,
as there is then least reserve-material in the roots and
rhizomes. In coppice and coppice-with-standards, inferior
species such as blackthorn should be cut out several years
before the underwood is felled. Binding tightly suckers or
shoots of woody weeds with wire is sufficient to kill them.

iii. To remove from trees the coating of lichens and moss
which close their lenticels and deprive them of air, various

398 PROTECTION AGAINST PLANTS.

instruments may be used, as shown in the figures ; but this
would only be done for specially valuable trees or in orchards.
A mixture twenty parts by weight of wood-ashes with one
part carbolic acid may also be used. This is boiled and
smeared on the stems with a brush, and in a few days' time
all the lichens will fall off. Limewater has the same effect.
A .mixture of 3 Ibs. of blue stone, 2 Ibs. of lime, and 30 gallons
of water may also be used. It is best to remove lichens on
dry days in spring, or autumn, as, thus, numerous injurious
insects are also killed.

iv. In Indian forests, woody climbers are cut periodically,

Steel- wire brush.

Ditto, with hole for handle.

Fig. 195.— Fig. 196.

Tree-scraper.

and especially two years before fellings, as they then rot and
no longer bind trees to be felled to others intended to remain
standing.

SECTION II. — SPECIAL ACCOUNT.

The following is a list of the weeds most hurtful in the forests
of Central Europe, with an account of the special means of
combating them. It is best to consider them in order of their
demands on light and the amount of injury they do, and not
according to their systematic botanical arrangement.

The following groups occur :—

1. Liyhtdemanders, which generally spring up on blanks
and felling-areas.

2. Half-shadebcarers, occurring in the interior of woods as
soon as they become too light. All shrubs and herbs belong-
ing to this class grow all the better in the open.

BROOM. 399

3. Shadeb carers, springing up in more or less closed woods.

4. Weeds of icet or turfy soils.

5. Lianes.

6. Parasitic phanerogams.

7. Weeds acting as hosts to injurious fungi.

In each group, first the woody species and then herbaceous
ones will be considered.

1. Lightdemanding iveeds.

These weeds injure forest plants by overtopping them and
excluding light and other atmospheric influences, or by
occupying the soil with their roots, or in both ways. They
may also produce a humus which is unfavourable to forest
growth.

a. Broom (Cytisus scoparius, Link.).

This evergreen shrub attains six feet and more in height,
and prefers deep sandy or loamy soil ; it springs up on clear-
ings in mild localities, and is found throughout Europe. The
seed may remain dormant in the soil for many years. It may
be submerged in water for several decades without losing its
germinative power. Burning undergrowtn often results in
the germination of dormant broom seed, and in the Ardennes,
where basic slag is put on to heather soil, a dense crop of
broom often results.

Broom, when not growing too densely, may be useful to
young broadleaved plants, such as oak-saplings and stool-
shoots, by affording them shelter against frost, but a dense
growth of broom is very destructive to one- and two-year-old
pine and larch sowings.

Protective Measures.

It is best to uproot the young broom at its first appearance,
or it may be cut off at mid-stem, when the stems dry up and
do not shoot out again. This plant, as well as all other weeds,
should be removed before the seeds are ripe, in this case in
July. Its removal may repay the cost, as it is used for litter,
fuel, and for making brooms, hedges or thatch. It may be
browsed down by sheep. In Italy, between the Alban and

400 PROTECTION AGAINST PLANTS.

Sabine mountains, regular crops of broom are cultivated with
rotations of five or six years, and used for fuel.

5. Furze (Dies).

There are two species of furze common in Britain, Ulex
suropaeus, L., and U. nana, Forst. The latter blossoms in
the autumn, when the larger species is in fruit, the former in
the spring and early summer.

In order to clear furze from tracts that are to be planted, it
is best to burn it in the summer, and then cut down the
burned stems. It grows slowly from the rootstocks, and a
new plantation will come away from it.

There are several species of Genista, termed in England
dyer's- weed, needle-furze, etc., which may be treated like
broom, but are never so troublesome here as on the Continent.

c. Wild Briar (Rosa).

There are several species of wild briar, the commonest being
liosa canina, L. They spring up wherever the soil is not too
wet, both in plains and hills. Their great power of sending
out suckers renders them very injurious to forest growth, and
the best way to get rid of them is to dig them up by the

roots.

d. Common Ling and Heather.

Ling (Calluna vulgaiis, Salisb.), Scotch heather (Erica
cinerea, L.),and cross-leaved heather (E. Tetralix,Ij.),&B well
as other species of Erica, cover large areas, the first chiefly in
Central and Northern Europe, the second in Western Europe,
from the south of Spain to Norway, and the last to the west
in Southern Europe, but in the north extending eastwards as
far as Sweden and Livonia. They grow in very variable soils,
but prefer sandy tracts, especially when poor and dry. A
luxuriant growth of heather is a sure sign of a poor, shallow,
sandy soil, or of one that may have become impoverished by
bad management. Heather is injurious not only by filling
the ground with its roots, and excluding atmospheric influ-
ences, but also by producing as it decays an unfavourable
humus, on which only pines, birch and aspen thrive. It is
highly inflammable in the spring, and when burning in dry
windy weather may cause extensive conflagrations in coniferous

COMMON LING AND HEATHER.

401

forests. Heather is soon killed by the shade of trees. In
Scotland, lichens fostered by the moister air produced by the
shelter of tree-growth attack and destroy heather.

Heather reproduces itself chiefly by seed carried by the
wind, and less by suckers and shoots.

Protective Measures.

i. Maintain a close forest growth.

ii. Graze the heather down by sheep, but this can be done
only as long as the heather is young and tender. Old, tough
heather will be eaten by
sheep only as a last re-
source ; they will prefer
young forest plants.

iii. Cut down or mow
the heather, specially
strong scythes being used
for the purpose. This
should be done either
early in spring or late in
summer, in order to keep
the soil somewhat pro-
tected against the heat of
summer and the winter's
cold. The material may
be used as fuel, thatch or litter, or made into brooms.

iv. Burn the heather in situ. This may be done when
there are no forest plants in it the destruction of which should
be avoided, or immediately after a coppice felling. Fire-traces
of sufficient width should be made around the areas to be
burned, and the burning should be done on dry, still days in
March or April, the fire being lighted to leeward, or downhill,
and closely watched.

v. The ground may be stripped of sods containing the roots
of the heather, and a crop of oats or rye produced, if advisable,
before planting it up with Scots pine. The mineral soil must be
exposed, so that the plants' roots are not in the sour humus.
The instrument shown in Fig. 197 is used for this purpose.
If there is a superficial pan it should be pierced.

F.P. D D,

•ft

Fig. 197.
a b = 4 inches ; c d = 10 inches : \a = 60°.

402 PROTECTION AGAINST PLANTS.

e. Birch.

The two species of birch (Betula alba, L., and B. pubcsccm,
Ehrh.) ascend to 5,000 ft. The former is indifferent as to
soils, and the latter prefers boggy ground. They are sometimes
hurtful in coniferous forests, as their hard, whip-like branches
break off the tender spring-shoots of conifers. Owing to their
rapid growth when young they may be also prejudicial to
young oak plants, but may act as useful temporary nurses to
the latter against frost and drought. As birch has a number of
collmn-buds, it should be cut below the level of the soil. It
does not usually produce suckers.

/. Other Lightdemanding Weeds.

The best remedy for the remaining lightdemanding weeds

is to effect natural regeneration of the wood, or to replant it,

if clear-cut, as soon as possible. They are St. Jolm's-wort

(Hypericum) ; balsam (Impatiens Noli-me -tang ere, L.), which

grows in damp, fertile soil, in masses often a yard high and

over large areas ; willowherb (Epilobiuui angustifolium, L.) on

similar soil, the seed of which appears to remain latent for a

long time, and is carried far and wide by the wind ; groundsel

(Senecio), springing up in masses on sandy soils, the seed

carried far by wind (these plants also act as hosts to parasitic

fungi); hawkweed (Hieracium) ; Atropa Belladonna, L., on

fertile damp soil in shady mountain forests of Europe and

Asia (Himalayas), is very poisonous : foxglove (Digitalis) may

grow in such masses that the hill-side appears red, both

species, D. purpurea, L., and the yellow one, D. grandiflora,

which is not indigenous in Britain, are poisonous; Vcrbascum,

four species found on dry, stony ground ; nettles (Urtica urens,

L.), an annual, and the perennial nettle, with strong rhizomes

(U. dioica,"L.), are frequently troublesome in forest nurseries;

wood-rush (Luzula) , tour species common in mountain forests.

Grasses deserve a separate paragraph. The most common

injurious kinds are: — Species of bent-grass (Agrostis); Aim

caespitosa, L., and A. flexuosa, L. ; Melica ciliata, L. ; sheep's

fescue (Festuca ovina, L.), and other species of fescue ; couch-

or twitch-grass (Agropyrum (Triticum) repens, Beauv.) ; lyme-

grass (Elymns arenarim, L,) ; mat-grass (Nardus stricta, L.) ;

BRAMBLES. 403

spreading rnillium (Millium effusum, L.). Grasses with fairly
broad leaves grow on deep, moist, fertile soil — they are termed
Haingraser, in German. Anger grater is the term applied to
narrow-leaved grasses, that grow on shallow, dry and poor soil.

The damage due to a dense growth of grass is of several
kinds : the soil may become matted with its roots, which may
prevent the seed of forest trees from reaching the ground ;
young growth may be choked, the soil dried up, or moisture
kept in, and frost increased ; damage may also be done by
mice and insects which shelter in the grass. When grass
grows densely, it is a sign that the forest is too thin and
admits too much light. Twitch flourishes in sandy soils,
creeping in all directions through the soil and filling it with
rhizomes ; it may even penetrate roots of living plants, and
thus interfere with their growth.

Weedy places may be treated as already stated for heather,
and are best recruited by means of transplants. Twitch is got
rid of by repeated ploughing, and by collecting and burning its
rhizomes ; three years' grazing on land where it grows is very
useful, as finer grasses then gradually replace it.

In tropical and sub-tropical countries, the dense growth of
grass, frequently exceeding six feet in height, is one of the
most serious impediments to forestry. Such grassy tracts are
burned annually, the fires extending for miles, and wherever
the grass borders on forests, or in the form' of savannah is
intermixed with thinly stocked trees, danger from fire occurs
during every dry season.

2. Half-shadebearers.

These are all woody plants, except ferns and mosses.

(a) Blackthorn (Primus spinosa, L.) is common on moist,
loamy, and clay soils, and on marls, and ascends to 3,000 feet
in mountains. It stands frost better than hawthorn, and
replaces it for hedging in very frosty localities. It sends out
roots and suckers, and has a spreading root-system, and does
much harm in regeneration areas and among coppice. It is
best to dig it up by the roots in clearings, or cut it back
several years before the coppice is felled.

(fc) Bramble (Eubus fruticosus, L.). There are numerous

D D 2

404 PROTECTION AGAINST PLANTS.

varieties of this species, termed blackberry or dewberry
bushes, the latter (R. caesius, L.) growing in moister localities
than the common blackberry, which prefers well-drained soils
and hedgerows.

Brambles frequently cover large areas in fresh and moist
soils, sending out new suckers every year. To keep down
these widespread pests of the forester, seeding-fellings should
be dark. Admission of cattle is also useful. In case there be
a dense growth of brambles on the ground it should be
trampled down round plants that require protection, or be
beaten down with a billhook. Brambles should be cut as little
as possible, as this only increases the production of suckers.
Plants which they are crowding should be set upright, and
their branchlets placed over the brambles. If this be done
early in the summer then little will be needed in the autumn, but
it may be necessary to repeat the operation the succeeding
year ; by the second winter, the plants will probably get out of
reach of the brambles. Cutting or digging up the brambles
is expensive, and not ^o effectual as the above procedure.
Where a reproduction area is overgrown with brambles, and
there is little natural regeneration, it will be better at once to
plant up the area.

(c) Raspberry (Rubus Idaeus, L.). This grows chiefly on
fertile but stony soils rich in humus. Its habit is straight,
and it does not produce such dense growth from suckers as
the bramble, but may become dangerous, and should then be
treated similarly to the latter. Grazing has a very repressive
effect on the growth of raspberry canes.

d. Hawthorn (Crataegus Oxyacantha, L.).

Hawthorn is not particular about locality, and is widely
spread up to altitudes of 3,000 feet. The rich shoots and
extensive root-system of this slow-growing shrub, which attains
a height of 20 feet, are destructive to young conifers, but in
forests open to grazing it protects oak, ash, maple, and other
broadleaved trees until they have grown above it, when it
forms a thorny defence around them until they are too large
to be injured by cattle. It also forms capital hedges, bearing
trimming well, and shelters the nests of many useful birds

FOREST WILLOWS. 405

from small carnivora and other enemies. Where it is harmful
to your;g growth, it should be dug up or cut back in cleanings
and thinnings. Various thorny bushes in India similarly
Afford great protection to bamboos and other valuable species
in grazed forests.

e. Other Shrubs and Bushes.

The wild gooseberry-bush (Ribes Grossularia, L.), elder
(Sambucus), guelder rose (Viburnum Opulus, L.), wayfaring
tree (V. Lantana, L.),' the spindle tree (Euonymus europaeus, L.),
and privet (Ligustrum vnlgare, L.) are widespread, the latter
and Viburnum Lantana, L., chiefly on calcareous soils in hills.
None of these plants are, however, particularly hurtful to
young forest growth, except the herbaceous dwarf-elder
(Sambucus Ebulus, L.), which grows in masses from rhizomes
in damp places. Daphne Mezereuw, L., is a small shrub
growing in hilly and mountain woods on damp soils, and is
highly poisonous.

/. Forest Willows:

Sallow (Salix Caprea, L.) flourishes, especially in beech
woods, on fresh soils in plains and hills, but will also grow on
dry soil and in mountains up to 5,500 feet, attaining at times
the dimensions of a small tree ; it sends out numerous stool-
shoots, but has a shallow root-system, so that it may be easily
pulled up by the hand, as well as the other willows mentioned
below. Its heartwood is bright red.

Sallow takes root anywhere, even on exposed rock, and
grows about six feet in height in a single season, so that it is
extremely injurious in young plantations.

Salix cinerea, L., a variety of the sallow, is a smaller plant
of a shrubby nature ; it sends out suckers on damp soils and
along water courses ; ascends to 3,000 feet.

Salix aurita, L., resembles the sallow in its habit, but sends
out suckers; it ascends to 5, 000 feet, indifferent to wet or dry soils.

Salix repens, L., is a small, straggling bush, growing chiefly
on turfy and heather land, and also near swamps ; ascends to
3,500 feet.

All these willows when hurtful to forest growth should be
cut back or pulled up in cleanings and thinnings.

406 PROTECTION AGAINST PLANTS.

g. Aspen (Poptdus Iremula, L.).

Aspen is a tree which is disseminated throughout Europe,
except in the extreme south, up to 70° N. latitude, and 5,000
feet altitude ; it is often very hurtful to valuable forest plants
owing to its rapid growth and abundant production of suckers.
The roots of a felled aspen, which spread far from the stump,
close to the surface of the ground, remain dormant for years
after the parent tree has been removed ; they then send up
numerous suckers from adventitious buds after the wood in
which the aspen formerly grew has been cleared. The aspen
is not particular as regards soil, but can grow on cold, wet
soils, and is frequently found in frosty localities, as, for
instance, on the London clay in Epping Forest.

The aspen is also a host for an injurious fungus, Melampsora
Tremulae, Tul., which, in the forms M. Pinitorqua, liostrup.,
and M. Laricis, Hartig, attacks pines and larch, and will be
described further on (pp. 444, 469).

Cutting down the suckers is of little avail, nor is extracting
the stumps and longer roots of felled trees, but girdling a
standing tree gradually dries it up and in about two years
prevents the formation of suckers. The tree may also be felled
about three feet above the ground, and the stump barked.

h. Bilberry (Vaccinium Myrtillus, L.).

This is a small shrub attaining 16 inches in height, and
growing throughout Europe up to 5,000 feet altitude, in masses,
on fresh, damp, and even somewhat sour soil. Its seeds remain
for two seasons in the ground before germinating. It may also
be found on dry sandy soils, but not on calcareous ones. It
prefers a slight shade, especially of pines. When it appears in
masses it denotes insufficiency of stock and deterioration of
the soil, and the surface-soil becomes choked with its roots. Its
berries are valuable for making alcohol and preserves.

The cowberry (Vaccinium Vitis-Idaea, L.) is an evergreen
plant attaining 8 inches in height, and growing on loose,
damp, sandy soils in high, cool places ; it is gregarious, and has
a distribution similar to that of the bilberry, growing, however,
in moister soil than the latter. A dense growth of either of
these species hinders natural regeneration and increases the

FERNS. 40?

difficulty of artificial restocking. There is then no alternative
but to take up these plants in sods, beat off, in situ, all the soil
attached to their roots, and remove them. The cowberry plant
is also the host of a fungus that attacks silver-fir (p. 419).
Planting is better than sowing where bilberries prevail, and
spruce is the best species to plant on soil that produces them.
V. uliginosum, L., is found on swampy land and mountain-
tops, and the cranberry (V. Oxycoccos, L.) in patches on
peaty soils. Both species are unimportant to the forester.

i. Ferns.

The commoner kinds of ferns found in forests are : Poly-
podium vidgare, L., Beech fern (P. Phegopteris, L.), Male
fern (Neplirodium Filix-mas., Hooker), Lady fern (Asp{enium
Filix-faemina, Bentham), and Bracken (Pteris aquilina, L.).

The above prefer damp and stony ground, and their
appearance denotes a fertile soil, as well as a slight opening
out of the leaf-canopy. They spread above and below ground
often to the prejudice of young forest plants, by causing
excessive moisture, and depriving them of light, and by being
pressed down on them in a rotting state in winter by the
snow. This frequently kills lightdemanders. Bracken often
covers wide stretches of deep sandy land, but its sub- aerial
parts are extremely sensitive to frost.

In the case of bracken, the best plan is to knock off the soft
young shoots in early summer, which can be done easily with
a stick before they have unrolled. This injures the rhizomes,
so that only weakly shoots are produced, which may be knocked
off or neglected. Dried bracken is largely used in England and
elsewhere for litter, and in the Forest of Dean, repeated early
cutting, in August, instead of October, has greatly weakened
the rhizomes of the plant, so that only a short weak crop is
produced, as compared with that in the Windsor and New
Forests, where it is cut later in the autumn.

Tc. Mosses.

Two, out of 42 species of Polytrichum, are hurtful mosses
common in forests: Polytrichum commune, L., and P. juniper-
inum, Hedw. The former produces dense convex tufts in damp
places, and the latter on drier ground. These tufts may be

408 PROTECTION AGAINST PLANTS.

distinguished at a distance by their darker green colour from
the paler and brandy mosses, Hypnum and Hylocomium, which
form a useful soil-covering in forests. They are chiefly found
in high forest, and especially in spruce woods, and do harm
by. fa vou ring excessive moisture in the ground and injuring1
the germination of seedlings. The tufts should be turned
over and broken up.

The branchy mosses that form the normal soil-covering in
coniferous woods (about 123 species) may become so thick, as
to render the soil too moist for the germination of naturally
fallen seed. Or they may be tall enough to overshade natural
seedlings. In such cases, the mossy covering should be
removed, so as to expose the mineral soil.

3. Shadebearing Weeds.

These are all woody plants. Alder-buckthorn (Rhamnns
Frangula, L.) is common throughout Europe on damp ground,
and chiefly in lowlands ; it produces many suckers, and is
spread much by birds which eat the berries. It is used for
gunpowder-charcoal.

The common buckthorn (R. catharticus, L.) is a thorny
shrub with spreading roots and many suckers, found on
similar soil to the former, and along banks of streams.

Both kinds are hosts of a fungus destructive to cereals
(p. 418). They may be dug up during cleanings.

Dogwood (Cornus sanguined, L.), on fertile moist soils,
ascends to 2,600 feet in mountains, and sends out numerous
stool shoots. The wood is used for skewers, and was formerly
employed for arrows.

Holly (Ilex Aqmfolium, L.), a large evergreen prickly shrub
or small tree, found chiefly on good damp loam or loamy sand :
it coppices well. Where it abounds it is possible to plant only
strong transplants between the holly bushes, and the latter
need constantly cutting back, until they are no longer
dangerous. Holly makes excellent hedges, but requires
plenty of humus. It is calciphobous like sweet-chestnut, and
attains a height of 80 — 40 feet in Britain, but on the Continent
chiefly a bushy undergrowth in forests.

Holly (German, Hulst) was considered a holy or preservative
plant, preserving one from evil influences, hence its use in house

FOREST WEEDS OF WET PEATY SOIL. 409

and church decorations at Christmas, and as a sign before a
public-house. Birdlime is made from its cortical parenchyma.

Butcher's broom (Riiscus aculeatns, L.) grows in dense woods
in the south of England, it is unimportant for the forester.

Nightshade (Solanum Dulcamara, L.), a small shrub growing
in shady, damp, low lands and along banks of streams, climbing
up to 10 feet in height on pollard willows and osiers. This
plant, as well as S. nigrum, L., which chiefly grows along road-
sides, is highly poisonous.

Common juniper (Juniperus communis, L.) is a coniferous
shrub widespread all over Europe, in plains and mountains,
up to 6.000 feet in the Alps. It is very hardy and indifferent
to soils. It spreads owing to thrushes which swallow the berries.
Grows well in the open and also in dense pine woods. This
species and J. Sabina, L., are hosts of fungi that attack
Pomaceae (p. 419). Should be cut down or pulled up when
dangerous to young growth.

4. Forest Weeds of Wet Peaty Soil.

To this group belong the numerous species of the following
genera.

Bushes (Juncus, L.), (Scirpus, L.), Cottongrass (Eriophorum,
L.), Sedges (Carex, L.), Beeds (Calamagrostis, Adams), and
Marestail (Equisetum, L.).

All these, except the last, may be termed half -grasses, and
they all form sour herbage, and are chiefly found in lowlands,
or on peat, and are somewhat lightdemanding. Equisettim
arvense, L., is a troublesome weed in somewhat wet sandy
loam in forest nurseries, its rhizomes being deep down in the
soil, and their extraction requiring deep trenching.

Sphagnum. Several species of this peat-moss exist and grow
chiefly in the open, in opposition to Polytrichum, which grows
under cover. They are most dangerous mosses, producing
peat and swamps, and rendering the soil unsuitable for forest
growth. They discharge their spores with an audible sound.

The inyasion of sour herbage and peat-mosses is best kept
down by maintaining the leaf-canopy. If a swamp has been
formed it must be drained ; sometimes, however, on flat land,
with a tendency to swampiness, as shown by the presence of

410

PROTECTION AGAINST PLANTS/

these weeds, after a forest crop has been cleared, ash and
alder should be planted instead of
oak and beech, the swampiness dis-
appearing after the forest growth has
been reconstituted.

5. Lianes.

The first three European lianes given
are woody, and the others herbaceous.
The shoots of all lianes should be cut
repeatedly below the ground till no
more appear. There is no necessity to
unwind the twiner, unless it is a woody
species, as it soon dries up after being
cut from the root.

(a) Traveller's joy (Clematis Vitalba,
L.) is widespread throughout Europe,
chiefly on hills and mountains ; it is a
half-shadebearer and attains a height
of 20 feet, climbing up stems, bushes,
and rocks. The shoots may strike root
whereever they rest on soil, and the
plant sometimes grows in masses and
is dangerous to young forest plants.

(b) Honeysuckle or woodbine (Loni-
cera Periclymenum, L.),a twiner growing
in hedgerows, edges of woods, and inside
woods throughout Western Europe ; it
is found on damp soil and chiefly in
lowlands. A half-shadebearer, twining
round saplings to a considerable height,
and thus producing misshapen spiral
stems as in Fig. 198. If no suitable
stems are available, it covers the
ground and the herbaceous plants
growing on it. It does much damage
to valuable saplings in coppice-wifch-

standard and also to larch plantations. L. Caprifolium, L.,
with connate upper leaves, is common in Southern Europe,

Fig. 198. — Woodbine
climbing spirally round a
young spruce and partly
enclosed by the wood of the
latter.

COMMON IVY. 411

and has become wild in certain localities further north; it
has similar habits to the former.

(c) The common Ivy (Hedera Helix, L.) is widely distributed
and extends over the milder parts of Europe, Northern Asia,
into India and Japan, and North Africa. It climbs trees, rocks
and walls by means of its adhesive rootlets, which however
suck no nutriment from the host on which it is growing, but
merely support the ivy. The smaller forest variety is said not
to flower, and sometimes covers the soil of a forest. Ivy grows
away from the light, except its blossoming shoots, which have
undivided leaves and grow towards the light. Matthieu*
considers ivy hurtful to forest trees by interfering with the
passage of the sap, and by covering the crowns of trees with
its foliage, and it certainly, at times, like the honeysuckle,
constricts oak and other saplings and poles. The ivy,
however, rarely ascends higher than the middle of the crown
of a growing tree, and may be useful in preventing the forma-
tion of epicormic branches on standards. It dries the surface
of walls on which it is growing, and also the soil when creeping
over it. Ivy sometimes attains very large dimensions, a plant
at Montpellier being 450 years old and 9| feet in girth.

(d) Bindweed (Convolvulus, L.) : C. arvensis, L., chiefly
found in fields and waste places ; C. sepium, L., in hedges and
thickets. Both species are extremely troublesome in nurseries
and in osier beds, as their deeply seated rhizomes fill the
ground, and their shoots twine round and bear down the young
plants.

To deal with these pests, the ground when bare should be
trenched, and the soft whitish rhizomes of the bindweed
collected and burned. It is difficult to do this thoroughly, as
the roots go down to 18 inches in the soil.

Black bindweed (Polygonum Convolvulus, L.) is chiefly
found in fields and waste places, and has similar habits to the
above. It is however an annual plant and injurious only in
nurseries.

(e) Wild hop (Humulus Lupulus, L.). The hop is found in
damp places in lowlands ; it twines from right to left up
woody plants and drags them down. The rootstock alone is

* Flore forestiere, 1897, p. 200.

412

PROTECTION AGAINST PLANTS.

perennial. Hops are injurious in osier beds and in alder
coppice. They should be dug up.

6. Parasitic phanerogams,
a. Mistletoe (Viscum album, L.).

This interesting plant lives as a semi-parasite (obtaining
carbon from the air, but water, nitrogen, and mineral matter
from the sap of its host) on many conifers and broadleaved
trees, and chiefly on their branches. The hosts, or trees on

which it lives, are, most
frequently, the apple tree,
both wild and cultivated
varieties; next, the silver-
fir ; frequently, birches,
poplars (except aspen), limes,
willows, Scots pine, moun-
tain-ash, and hawthorn ;
occasionally, robinia, maples,
horse - chestnut, hornbeam,
and aspen.

It is very rarely found on
oaks, but has been observed
on pedunculate oak at Thorn-
bury, Gloucestershire, and
elsewhere in Europe, also
on Quercus coccinea, Moench.,
and Q. palustris, Moench.
The alders, beech and spruce
appear to be always free from mistletoe, and it very rarely
attacks pear-trees.

It is commoner in Southern Europe than in the North, and
is extremely abundant where cider is made. In the N.-W.
Himalayan districts, it is frequently found on apricot trees,
which are the commonest fruit-trees there.

Its white berries are eaten by birds, chiefly by the missel-
thrush (Turdus visciuorus, L.), and the seeds are either rubbed
by the beak against branches of trees, or voided on to them ; the
seeds, owing to the viscous nature of the pulp surrounding
them, then become attached to the branches.

Fig. 199. — Acer rubrum, L., attacked
by mistletoe (?«). (Reduced.)

Th a i

MISTLETOE.

413

The plant sends down modified roots (haustoria), termed
sinkers, through the bark as far as the wood. It also emits lateral
shoots, or cortical roots, into the bast, chiefly in the longitudinal
direction of the branch of its host, and these do not grow down
into the wood. The growing
point of 'the cortical root ob-
tains nourishment from the
bast, but does not injure the
cambium ring ; the cortical root
sends down as far as the wood
fresh sinkers, which also absorb
nourishment: upward shoots
from it pierce the bark into
the air ; these, like the original
sub-aerial shoots, ramify and
become covered with foliage,
and bear fruit. The haus-
toria elongating outwards like
medullary rays become deeply
embedded in the wood of the
host by the growth of the
latter ; thus the older part of
the cortical root gets gradually
driven outwards by the growth
of the bast until it is cut
off by the formation of
corky tissue within the bast,
when it eventually falls off
with the older bark. The

Fig. 200 (After Hartig).— Diagram
representing the growth of the cortical
root and sinkers of mistletoe. The
terminal point of the cortical root (c]
is close to the wood. The growth of
bast (b) drives the cortical root nearer
and nearer to the outer hark, (e) are
dead sinkers, the cortical root of which
has been cut off for several years by the
production of cork in the bast.

sinkers thus losing connection

with the living mistletoe die

inside the wood by which they

are gradually surrounded. As

they are formed of soft tissue, they soon decompose and

eventually disappear, leaving a series of holes in the wood.

This dying of the cortical root is quicker in the Scots pine
than in the silver-fir owing to the earlier formation of
rhytidome, or true bark, in the former.

The portion of the host to which the 'mistletoe is attached

414

PROTECTION AGAINST PLANTS.

generally swells owing to a supply of carbohydrates being
absorbed by it, produced partly by the mistletoe. Where only a
branch is attacked, the damage done to forest trees is not worth
mention, but when this extends to the stem, the wood becomes
technically injured, being no longer suitable for timber, and is
liable to be broken by the wind.

Fig. 201.— Silver-fir (w) attacked by mistletoe (m).

(£) Annual shoot (b) opposite leaves of latter.

(Natural size.)

Fig. 202.— Silver-fir
wood perforated by
mistletoe, the haus-
toria of which have
been absorbed.

Extensive damage is thus sometimes done in old Scots pine
and silver-fir forests, owing to neglect in removing infected
trees in the thinnings ; nearly every tree in a compartment
may then be attacked by mistletoe.

As a remedial measure, pruning off the mistletoe is useless,
for the cortical root sends out new shoots, which break
through the bark of the host and develop into new plants.
The only effective plan is to prune off the whole infected branch

LORANTHUS EUROPAEUS. 415

and cover the wound with tar, or to cut down infected trees in
the thinnings. For fruit-trees, and in nurseries, the former
method should be adopted.

Mistletoe makes good fodder for cattle, and for roe- deer in
winter. Steamer loads of it are sent from Normandy to
London for Christmas decorations.

b. Loranthm europaeus, L.

This species attacks chiefly oaks, Quercus Cerris, L., Q.
sessiliflora, Salisb., less
frequently, Q. pedunculata,
Ehrh. and Castanea vul-
yaris, Lam. ; also lime.
It is found throughout
Southern Europe and as
far north as Saxony, not in
Britain. It grows chiefly
on the branches of stan-
dards over coppice.

The main difference
between the growth of
this parasite and mistle-
toe, besides its outward

Figs. 203 and 204. — Loranthus europaeus, Jacq. Fig. 203 reduced,
Fig. 204 natural size.

appearance with bright yellow berries, is that the lateral
shoots of the first haustorium occur in the cambium and
sapwood and not in the bast, and continue to grow parallel
to the woody fibres of its host, sending out no sinkers.
These shoots terminate in a wedge that looks as if it splits
the wood as it proceeds, but at the commencement of their

416.

PROTECTION AGAINST PLANTS.

second season, they can no longer proceed except in the
cambium, now further outward, and therefore grow from a
new growing point above the old one ; this occurs at the
commencement of each season's growth, so that a series of
wedge-shaped steps are produced in the sapwood of the host.

Fig. 205. — Quercus Cerris, L., with two Loranthtis
(I). (a) Swellings produced by the
, (b) Stunted leader of the oak which
will eventually die.

Fig. 206 (After Hartig).—
Loranthtis europaetts, L.
(d Haustorium growing in
sapwood. (x) Terminal part
of ditto. (e) Section of
another haustorium.

Places on the host where the parasite is exposed to the air
swell up into masses as big as a man's head, whilst the branch
of the host not only suffers in growth, but frequently dies.
The damage done is therefore greater than by the common
mistletoe. The seeds are carried on to the trees by birds, and
chiefly by the missel-thrush. The younger portions of the
shoots of this parasite absorb from its host water and nitro-
genous and mineral matter, while it partially nourishes the
host with carbohydrates formed by its own aerial branches.

rrn

DODDER, 417

There are in India many species of Loranthus, which grow
on various species of forest trees* ; these they seriously injure.
Fortunately, infected trees are not generally found except
along the borders of a forest. Infected trees should be cut
out in thinnings. Arceuthobium Oxycedri, M. Bieb., is a small
loranthaceous parasite, on Juniperus excelsa, M. Bieb., in the
N.W. Himalayas ; also on a juniper in the French Alps,
Algeria, and Asia Minor ; also on several pines, in N. America.
It often kills its host.

c. Dodder (Cuscuta, Tournef).

There are several species of Cuscuta, of which C. Epithymum,
L., is the commonest in Britain, growing chiefly on furze,
thyme, ling, etc. ; and also on clover and lucerne ; whilst C.
Epilinum, Weihe, chiefly grows on flax ; and C. europaea, L.,
on hops, nettles, vetches, etc., and also on many trees and
shrubs, such as hazel, willow, poplar and blackthorn.

The various species of dodder germinate in the ground,
but speedily die unless they become attached to weeds or
agricultural or forest plants, on which they climb and pierce
down to their woody bundles by means of haustoria, or
sucker-like roots.

The plants attacked by these parasites are killed or
weakened, or bent down by the weight of the dodder, and
much damage is thus done in India to small forest- and
avenue-trees, and to fruit-trees.

Of European forest plants, osier-willows suffer most, as an
abnormal growth is produced at places where the haustoria
have pierced the cortex of the host, thus rendering the osiers
unfit for basket work.

In the case of agricultural crops, care should be taken to
obtain seed free from dodder- seed. Where the dodder attacks
osiers, the shoots with the dodder on them should be cut as
low down as possible, at the beginning of the blossoming
period (end of June and beginning of July), and forthwith
burned. This operation should be repeated in consecutive

* Vide paper by G. M. Eyan, "Indian Forester," December, 1899, p. 472
Loranthus longiflorus, Desrousseaux, is very common on teak standards over
coppice in the Bombay Presidency.

F.P. E E

418 PROTECTION AGAINST PLANTS.

years, as seeds of the dodder may remain 2 and 3 years
dormant in the ground. Hares spread the infection by
swallowing the seeds and passing them undigested on to the
ground.

As dodder spreads from forest plants, and hedgerows where
it is very frequent, to crops, its destruction is urgent from
motives of general utility.

7. Forest Weeds acting as Hosts for Injurious Fungi.

The common barberry (Berberis vulgaris, L.) is a shrub
widely spread over Europe, both in the lowlands and moun-
tains, and generally along the edges of forests. It grows
even on poor sandy soil, soon attains a height of 12 feet, and
sends out its deep root-system in all directions. Barberry is
very hurtful as the host of black-rust (Puccinia graminis,
Pers.) that attacks wheat and other cereals, and should there-
fore never be used to form hedges. Its use for this purpose
has been prohibited in Prussia since 1880.

Puccinia graminis, Pers., forms yellow lines of sporangia
on the blade of wheat and other grasses which afterwards
become reddish-brown, and in this way the nourishment of the
plants attacked is intercepted and the crop reduced. It lives
alternately in the form known as Aecidium Berberidis, Pers.,
on species of Berberis, or Mahonia, the spores of which falling
on cereals and other grasses hibernate as P. graminis, the
spores from which re-infect the barberry and so on. Another
form, crown-rust, P. coronata, Corda., which also forms a
rust on cereals, and especially on oats, arises from Aecidia
that form golden-yellow swellings on Rhamnus catharticus
and E. Frangula, the two species of buckthorn already
described.

Species of Ribes are the hosts of Cronartium ribicolum,
Dietr., which produces Weymouth Pine blister (Peridermium
Strobi, Kleb.).

Species of Senecio harbour Coleosporium Senecionis, Fr.,
which alternates in the form of Peridermium Pini acicola,
Pers. (p. 461), a fungus attacking the needles of Scots and
other pines, and described further on. Species of Coleosporium

LIST OF FOREST WEEDS. 419

growing on Euphrasia and Tussilago also produce pine-needle
blister.

The aspen (Populus Tremula, L.) has its leaves infected with
a fungus, Melampsora pinitorqua, Eostrup., so that its foliage
may appear quite golden-yellow in August, and then rapidly
fall. The sporocarps of this fungus on aspen leaves eventu-
ally turn dark brown, hibernating on the fallen aspen leaves,
and in the spring, the spores infect Scots pine and larch
with the fungi. The alternate forms (pp. 444, 470) on pine
and larch will be described in the next chapter.

Vaccinium Vitis-Idaea, L., acts as host to Melampsora
(C alyptospora] Goeppertiana, Kiihn, which, growing on the
stem of this plant, develops spores infecting the needles of
silver-fir with Aecidium columnare, Alb. (p. 462).

Species of juniper form the alternate hosts of several
species of Gymnosporangium, a rust-fungus attacking several
pomaceous species :

Gymnosporangium davariaeforme, Jacq., infects the common
juniper, and its spores subsequently attack pears, hawthorns,
or whitebeams (Pyrus Aria, Ehrh.)

G. Sabinae, Winter, on the common juniper and on the
savin (Juniperus Sabina, L.), also occurs on pear trees.

(3. confusum, Plowr., spreads from junipers on to pears,
medlars, quinces and hawthorn.

G. juniperinum, Winter, occurs on rowan (Pyms Aucuparia,
Gaertn.), and perhaps on apple leaves.

Species of starwort (Stellaria) and Cerastium are the hosts
of a fungus causing silver-fir canker and witches-broom
(p. 448).

The forester should always look with suspicion on weeds
or shrubs in his forests that may be infested with fungi, and
if the injuriousness of these fungi to agricultural' crops or
forest or fruit-trees is proved, he should if possible eradicate
the wild plants on which they first appear.

E z

420 PROTECTION AGAINST PLANTS.

8. Classification of Forest Weeds according to their Powers
of Injury to Forests.

Hess has classified forest weeds as very injurious, less, and
least injurious. As the amount of harm that weeds occasion
varies greatly with circumstances, it would appear to be
sufficient to give the following list of the most injurious
forest weeds :—

WOODY PLANTS.

Broom (To conifers).

Heather.

Brambles.

Aspen.

Bilberry.

Mistletoe.

Loranthus.

Blackthorn.

Forest Willows.

Birch.

Honeysuckle.

HERBACEOUS PLANTS.

Grasses.

Bracken.

Sphagnum.

Dodder.

Bindweed.

Epilobium.

And other tall weeds, when growing in masses.

421

CHAPTEK II.

PROTECTION AGAINST FUNGI.
SECTION I. — GENERAL ACCOUNT.*

1. Position of Fungi in the Vegetable World.

PLANTS belonging to the lowest division of cryptogamous
plants — which is termed Thallophyta, and includes among
other families bacteria B>nd fungi — have at most only rudimen-
tary differentiation into stems, leaves, and roots ; and consist
of cellular tissue, which may, however, in certain cases become
hardened.

Bacteria — termed also Schizomycetes, or fission-fungi, from
their habit of constantly dividing to form new cells, are plants
consisting of cells the diameters of which are usually consider-
ably less than ^ jn of a millimetre. They are parasitic or
saprophytic on organic substances, and under certain condi-
tions may multiply enormously in the blood or digestive organs
of men or animals, and cause highly infectious diseases such
as cholera, malaria, typhoid fever, etc.

Marshall Ward has published some papers in the " Pro-
ceedings of the Eoyal Society" proving that sunlight is preju-
dicial to the growth of bacteria, which cannot therefore thrive
on or in the young sub-aerial organs of forest plants ; certain
bacteria, however, according to Hartig, cause bulbs and potato
tubers to rofc, yet he states that the only disease in European

* Cf. "A Text-hook of Plant-diseases caused by Cryptogam ic Parasites, "by G-
Massee. London : Duckworth & Co., 1903.

"Fungoid Pests on Cultivated Plants," by M. C. Cooke. London: Spottis-
woode & Co., 1906.

Von Tubeuf, Dr. Karl, " Pflanzenkrankheiten durch kryptogame Parasiten
verursacht." Berlin, 1895. English translation by W. Smith. Longmans,
London, 1899.

Hartig, R., " Lehrbuch der Baumkrankheiten." Berlin, 1889. English trans-
lation of earlier edition of above by Somerville and Marshall Ward. Macmillan
& Co., London, 1894.

Nisbet, " The Forester." Blackwood & Sons, 1905. Vol. II., pp. 141—187.

422 PROTECTION AGAINST PLANTS.

trees hitherto ascertained to be due to bacteria occurs in the
case of Pinus halepensis, Mill.

By their presence in the soil, bacteria greatly assist vegeta-
tion by decomposing and dissolving organic refuse, and the
fact that a forest soil when exposed for some time to the action
of the sun's rays becomes less fertile than when it is con-
stantly sheltered by trees is in complete accordance with
Ward's researches.

As already stated, bacteria, and certain fungi as well, also
protect forests by killing* insect pests in enormous numbers.
The only thallophytes which cause serious injury to plants
are fungi that are devoid of chlorophyll and therefore obtain
their nutriment from other dead or living organisms. In
the former case, they are termed saprophytes and in the
latter, parasites. Another class of fungi obtaining nourish-
ment from humus, but becoming attached to and rendering
abnormal the roots of many trees and shrubs, deserves notice.
Fungi growing on the exterior of other plants may be termed
epiphytic.

The number of known fungi is very great, over 5,000 ; here
only those which affect the growth of forest plants will be
considered.

2. Classification and Importance of Fungi from a Forest

Point of View,
a. Saprophytic Fungi.

As saprophytic fungi live on dead or dying organisms, they
do not cause disease, but follow or accompany an already
diseased condition of their hosts. Fortunately, the majority
of known fungi belong to this class. Fungi that are sapro-
phytic in certain cases, as Armillarea mellea, Vahl., on rotten
stumps of beech and other broadleaved trees, may be parasitic
on other trees, such as conifers.

b. Parasitic Fungi.

Parasitic fungi attack healthy plants, and either cause a
sickly condition or actual death to their hosts. Some parasitic
fungi subsequently become saprophytic in tissues which they
have killed.

GENERAL ACCOUNT OF FUNGI. 423

c. Epiphytic Fungi.

Among epiphytic fungi the family Tuberacei deserve
mention, as they sometimes form underground mycelia in
soils rich in humus, and thus cover the roots of Cnpuliferae,
conifers, willows, limes and other plants, to the exclusion or
modification of their root-hairs. This altered root with its
matted coating of mycelium receives the name mycorhiza, and
the fungus has the power of absorbing nutritive matter from
the soil and conveying it to the roots of the host. These fungi*
do not in any way injure the plants on which they grow, but
feed them more richly than the plants can feed themselves
by their own root-hairs, in the absence of the fungi. Edible
truffles belong to this family, and are commonly found in oak
forests in the South of England and the more southern part
of Europe.

The study of fungi should be followed as carefully by the
forester as that of injurious insects, although the damage
recognised as done to forests by insects is much greater than
by fungi and the remedies against them are more effective,
it being often difficult, if not impossible, to combat hurtful
fungi. As, however, no remedy can be devised without
studying the causes of diseases which break out among forest
trees, the importance of the study of fungi injurious to our
trees must be admitted. The forester should be able to say
whether any fungus is the cause, or merely a consequence of
a disease or injury ; he must know how to observe phenomena
in the forests, and should hand over the specimens he may
collect to be examined by mycologists.

The treatment of the question here adopted is therefore
purely from a forest point of view. The anatomy and physio-
logy of fungi should be studied, and a knowledge of mycology
is pre-supposed. A few remarks on the life-history and dis-
tribution of fungi are, however, advisable, and a short account
of the structure of fungi cannot be dispensed with.

3. Mode of Life of Fungi.

Fungi are cellular plants without chlorophyll, and are either
unicellular or formed of many branching elliptic cells, as in

* ?ec Frank's " Lehrlnjch der Botanik," 1893,

424 PROTECTION AGAINST PLANTS.

yeast, or of elongated cells termed liypliae with apical growth,
which may remain undivided or become divided into cell-rows
by septa, or transverse membranes.

They are best known and classified by the forms of their
reproductive structures, which are generally sub-aerial, as in
the common mushroom ; but the mass of the hyphae grows and
spreads through living or rotten wood, in humus, or other
media, forming a collective growth termed a mycelium. The
mycelia of fungi may consist merely of branching hyphae, but
large masses of mycelium are sometimes formed in hollows of
rotten wood, as by Polyporus sulphur CMS, Fr.

The reproductive organs of fungi are often formed on special
branches of the hyphae termed sporocarps, certain cells of
which produce myriads of isolated cells or spores, which on
escaping into the air or soil are capable, under suitable con-
ditions, of giving rise to new individual fungi. Spores may be
produced either sexually, or asexually by division, the latter
mode being by far the commoner, the spores thus formed by
the abscission of cells at the terminal points of hyphae being
termed conidia. For an account of the formation of sexual
spores (carpospores] special books* may be consulted. Among
them are certain thick-walled spores termed oosporcs, or
resting spores, which are rich in nutriment and, unlike
conidia, do not germinate as soon as they are mature, but
may remain dormant for prolonged periods, as in Phytophthora
Fagi, E. Hrtz. Sporidia are secondary spores produced by
promycelium by the germination of resting spores.

As a rule, conidia remain only for a few days in a condition
fit to germinate and produce new individuals, but they appear
in immense numbers in the air or soil, are of microscopic size,
and are sometimes carried for miles by wind or water, or even
by men and animals. Infection may also be conveyed by
seeds in the case of certain rusts, which Dr. Cook} says attack
seeds, such as those of celery, wheat, or hollyhock by
various species of Puccinia. The resting spores are usually
larger than the conidia, better protected and richly provided

* Dr. K. Goebel's " Outlines of Classification of Special Morphology <>r Plants.*1
Translation by H. E. F. Garnsey, Oxford Clarendon Press, 1817. Do I'.ary,
" Morphology and Physiology of Fungi," etc., same translator and publisher.

f Gardeners' Citron., 13 May, 1905.

GENERAL ACCOUNT OF FUNGI. 425

with protoplasm, and in certain cases may remain alive up
to 3 or 4 years. Conidia and carpospores germinate when
they meet with favourable conditions of temperature and
moisture ; it may be laid down as a general rule, that conidia
serve to reproduce the fungi in great numbers, while the
carpospores carry on the species over winters or prolonged
dry seasons.

Fungi do not usually require the same amount of heat as
the higher plants for their development, and their fructifying
organs are usually most numerous in October. As already
stated, they may be either saprophytic or parasitic, while
some fungi are epiphytic, living on the epidermis of leaves or
shoots, and merely piercing into it from time to time with
delicate minute haustoria, or root-like ramifications of the
hyphae, which are devoid of any root-cap. The mycelia of
parasitic fungi live on or in the tissues of living plants or
animals, their spores gaining admission into the former through
wounds, lenticels or bark-cracks, or through the stomata of
leaves or young shoots, or the soft growing points of roots.
There they germinate, and emit tender thin-walled, generally
colourless hyphae, which, when very young, are filled with
protoplasm ; but cell- sap or bubbles of air soon occupy part
of their lumina, the protoplasm then merely lining the walls
of the hyphae or passing into younger cells. Oil may also
be found in the hyphae, especially when they pass through
tissues of the host which are rich in reserve-material. This
oil is frequently of a golden-yellow colour, as in many kinds of
rusts on leaves or shoots.

The hyphae grow by their apices, and their terminal cells
are always rich in protoplasm. In the case of parasitic fungi,
the hyphae may grow either in an intercellular manner between
the tissue elements or in the resin-ducts and other intercellular
spaces, merely sending their haustoria into the lumina of the
tissue-elements, or, if the hyphae are furnished at their apices
with a ferment capable of decomposing the cell-walls, they
themselves penetrate through the cell-walls of their host, and
thus pass from one cell to another. As they proceed, the
younger cells of the hyphae procure protoplasm from the older
cells, in which eventually nothing but air is left.

426 PROTECTION AGAINST PLANTS.

The walls of the hyphae are at first always soft and colour-
less, but when older they may be considerably thickened and
coloured brown or greenish-blue, as in rotten spruce- or beech-
wood. Sometimes the hyphae unite into compact bundles with
hard walls, termed rhizomorphs, which resemble roots, and
serve to carry the mycelia through unnutritious or dry media.
These are very conspicuous in Armillarea mellea, Vahl. Hyphae
also sometimes unite into small tuber-like bodies termed
sclerotia, which have thick cell-walls, and are richly supplied
with protoplasm and oil, and, as in Rosellinia quercimi,
R. Hrtg., may remain for some time dormant and resist desic-
cation, but under favourable conditions develop new mycelia
or sporocarps.

In this way the mycelia of parasitic fungi live on the tissues
and nutritive material of their host, and interfere with its
transpiration and assimilation; they also dissolve the cell-
walls and their contents, often causing hypertrophy or excessive
formation of cells, and chemical change in the cell-wall. In
the latter case, they cause the death of the host. Insects
frequently attack trees which have become weakened by fungi.
Eventually the fructifying organs, which are characteristic for
each species of fungus, break out on leaves, twigs, bark or at
the scars of dead branches, sometimes through perforations
made by bark-beetles, sometimes on the roots of the host, or
on rhizomorphs, as in Armillarea mellea, Vahl. Innumerable
spores issue from the sporocarps, some of which find suit-
able resting-places, and the fungus-life recommenc.es in fresh
hosts.

Most fungi are very transitory, and their life occupies only
a few months or weeks. In the case of others, the resting
spores hibernate, and the mycelia of some fungi may live for
two, three, or many years. Most of the destructive forest
fungi have the latter character. The polymorphy which exists
in the case of certain fungi requires an explanation here.
From the spores of certain fungi the same form does not
always appear, but sometimes one perfectly distinct, unlike
the parent fungus, and living on a different host ; its spores
may even produce a third form, though eventually the original
fungus is reproduced. Thus, many fungi, formerly considered

GENERAL ACCOUNT OF FUNGI. 427

as distinct species, are now recognised as being merely stages
in the development of one species. The most highly organised
of these stages, in the case of any species, is considered to be
that which bears sexually fructifying organs or their equiva-
lents. Fungi which thus grow in different forms on different
hosts are termed heteroecious ; some, however, go through all
their forms on the same host.

4. Distribution of Fungi.

The spread of fungi is favoured by certain conditions of the
weather and locality. It depends chiefly on heat and moisture,
light being prejudicial, many fungi growing in the interior of
trees or in the ground. Fungi can flourish and become
numerous only under suitable conditions, so that in damp
years, and especially in damp sheltered localities, they thrive
better than in dry years and exposed places. Thus, in a wet
June, Melampsora pinitorqua, Rostrup., is most destructive to
pine trees. Nutriment rich in nitrogen favours their growth.

Parasites attack not only weakly plants but the most
flourishing individuals. The conditions which most favour
their spread — damp air and wet soil — are, however, unfavour-
able to many woody species, and external injuries of any kind
to trees admit the spores of fungi to the inner tissues of the
injured tree and thus favour fungoidal attacks. Wild plants,
especially when growing in masses, are just as exposed to their
ravages as cultivated plants. Coniferae suffer more from fungi
than broa^leaved species, because the latter recover more
readily from injuries.

The question, whether a fungus is the cause or conse-
quence of a disease can be solved only by infecting a perfectly
healthy plant with the spores of a fungus, and observing the
results. The external circumstances which favour and hinder
the development of the disease must also be noted. Such
observations are troublesome and difficult, and demand great
care and foresight to avoid deceptive conclusions. Much
information has, however, already been obtained, and every
year is adding to our knowledge of the subject.

A glance must be given over the species and modes of attack
and the spread of a disease. In the case of diseases which

428 PROTECTION AGAINST PLANTS.

are induced by certain conditions of soil and weather, the
whole of a wood almost simultaneously shows symptoms of
disease. An attack by fungi, on the contrary, is propagated by
infection from one or a few individuals which are first attacked,
and therefore starts from a centre, spreading generally in a
centrifugal manner, like the fairy-rings in a meadow due to
Marasmius oreades.

5. Protective Measures against Fungi.

In order to prevent the attacks of fungi, good sylvicultural
rules must be observed as regards the regeneration and
tending of the crops of trees.

The most important of these are : to grow species suitable
to the locality ; to cultivate the plants scientifically, and to
plant strong plants and in suitable mixtures, especially of
broadleaved trees with conifers ; early cleanings ; timely
thinnings ; pruning from November till January ; avoidance
of injuries to standing trees during fellings; tarring wounds.

To combat the individual fungi successfully, their life-
history must be known. Special rules are :

Isolation of attacked plants by trenches ; removal of
diseased plants ; pruning attacked branches ; destruction of
weeds that serve as hosts for injurious fungi ; spraying
diseased plants with fungicides * ; removal of infected
fallen needles or leaves. All infected material should be at
once burned in situ.

SECTION II. — FUNGI ATTACKING CONIFERS.

The next two sections give a list of the fungi which experi-
ence has shown to be injurious to forest trees, with a short
description of their external appearance, the classes of woods
and localities liable to be infected, and the distribution-areas
of the fungi ; also an account of the damage done and the
means for combating it. The most injurious species are
marked with an asterisk. For a full description of the
pathology of each disease induced by fungi, reference is

* Cf. Lodeman, " The Spraying of Plants." New York : The Macmillan Co. ;
London, Macmillan & Co., 1903.

HONEY FUNGUS.

429

invited to the works of B. Hartig,* on which these notes
are chiefly founded.

It is best for the purpose of Forest Protection to distinguish
fungi attacking coniferous trees from those attacking broad-
leaved trees, and within each group according to the organ
attacked (roots, stem, branches, needles or leaves, or fruits).

A. Boot-fungi.

*1. Armillarea mellea, Vahl.

a. Description and Mode of Attack.

The honey fungus, formerly named Agaricus melleus, L.,
which is one of the commonest in the British Isles, causes a

a Root of a Scots pine killed by A
mellea, Vahl. a Rhizomorph, exter
nal to root, which it bores at a.

b Flattened rhizomorph passing between
the dead wood and bast of a, Scots
pine ; its left-hand branches are white,
and resemble ordinary mycelia.
Fig. 207.

well-known disease in conifers. The symptoms are : — Yellow
colour in the needles, which gradually dry up, and fall ; the
shoots wilt ; the base of the stem swells up, and the bark peels
off, whilst turpentine exudes freely, clogging together the soil
around the tree ; the bark decays, and fibrous fungoid tissues

* " The Diseases of Forest Trees," fl. Hartig. Translated by Somerville and
Marshall Ward. Macmillan & Co., London, 1894.

430

PROTECTION AGAINST PLANTS.

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GENERAL ACCOUNT OF FUNGI.

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432

PROTECTION AGAINST FUNGI.

appear in the soil, seldom deeper than four inches, that are
termed rhizomorpks. These latter are persistent mycelial
hyphae like sclerotic fibres, and resemble branching roots;
they sometimes anastomose. White ribbon-like bands of
mycelium are formed between the bast and sapwood and in
hollows in the dead bark and bast, and often spread like a
net ; mycelial strands which pass into the soil from these
white bands are round and dark-brown rhizomorphs, which
may also develop between the wood and the cortex, but are
then flat.

Fig. 208.— Eight-years-old Scots piue killed by A. inellea, Vahl. a Sterile rhizo-
morphic strands, b and c Fertile ditto ; some of the sporophores are abortive.
d Sporophores springing from mycelia under the bark. (Itectuced.)

Plants which have been attacked eventually die, and when
young generally in tbe first year of the disease. If the dead
plant be examined microscopically it will be found that the
bast and cambium have been destroyed, the resin-ducts are
full of hyphae and enlarged and deprived of resin ; fine hyphae
also proceed along medullary rays towards the centre of the
tree. Starch is transformed into turpentine which flows from
the tree.

HONEY FUNGUS.

433

The edible sporocarps first come to light in great numbers
during damp weather in October, at or near the base of the
dead trees, and spring from the rhizomorphs.

Fig. 209 represents a sporo-
carp. Its cap varies in colour
from that of honey to a
dirty brown, with dark,
hairy scales ; its lamellae are
yellowish-white, and become
later on speckled with reddish-
brown. The cylindrical stem
of the sporocarp is at first
dull red, and bears a flocky
white ring. The sporocarps
emit myriads of white conidia,
which spread the infection to
other coniferous plants and
to dead broadleaved species,
on which it is saprophytic.

The brown rhizomorphs
grow in all directions through
the soil, and by means of
their soft apices bore into
the roots of neighbouring
plants and trees, which they
eventually kill. In dense
young growth, whole groups
of plants may be thus killed
and considerable blanks pro-
duced. In old woods, the
attack is more confined to
individual trees, and the
disease spreads several feet
up their stems

Fig. 209. — Fully-grown sporophore of
Armillarea mellea, Vahl. r Rhizo-
morph. (Natural size.}

1}. Subjects of Attack.

The fungus attacks all indigenous or exotic conifers, especi-
ally the Scots and Weymouth pines and the spruce ; the larch
not unfrequently suffers, but the black pine rarely. Plants

F.P. F F

434 PROTECTION AGAINST FUNGI.

may be attacked from four to a hundred years old, but especi-
ally between four and fifteen years. In dense sowings and
multiple plantings the disease is at its worst, especially when
the wood was originally stocked with broadleaved trees on
which the fungus is saprophytic, such as beech, oak, horn-
beam, birch, species of Pyrus and Primus,* etc. The stumps
of broadleaved trees left in the ground of a plantation form
nurseries which propagate the fungus. The fungus also
attacks timbers of bridges and other forest- works.

Plants which are attacked generally die either between
April and July, or from the middle of October to the end of
November, and frequently the healthiest and most flourishing
plants succumb. It is difficult to recognise plants which are
attacked until the year before they die, when their needles
turn pale and their shoots are stunted.

In older crops of trees, bark-beetles frequently come with
the fungus ; it is not yet decided whether the fungus is always
the primary cause of injuries in such cases.

In Kussia, the fungi are collected for food, and spores may
easily escape from the sacks in which the fungi are trans-
ported, and spread the disease. Attacks of bark-beetles
frequently accompany the fungus in Eussia.

c. Protective Rules.

i. All stumps and roots of broadleaved trees should be
thoroughly extracted before plantations of conifers are estab-
lished on the site of a broadleaved wood, and where the
disease has once appeared dense sowings of conifers and
multiple planting should be avoided. When the disease shows
itself-

ii. All plants which are attacked must be dug up with all
their roots and the rhizomorphs and burned. Should this
produce a blank, the ground must be thoroughly trenched and
all strands of rhizomorphs extracted before it is replanted, and
then it is best to plant broadleaved species.

* A. mellea, Vahl., is said bj Hartig to be sometimes parasitic on species of
Prunvs. Mr. C. G. Rogers reports that a sycamore, forty years old, was killed
by this fungus in 1897, at Hartley, near Plymouth.

FOMES ANNOSUS. 435

iii. Small isolation-trenches should be dug round plants, or
groups of plants which have been attacked, so as to localise
the injury and prevent a further spread of the rhizomorphs.
The trenches should be far enough from the attacked plants
to exclude all rhizomorphs from the healthy trees.

*2. Fames annosus, Fries.
a. Description and Mode of Attack.

This parasite, formerly named Trametes radiciperda^. Hrtg.,
is very destructive in pine and spruce forests of North
Germany, and is not uncommon in the British Isles ; it causes
root-rot in the Scots pine, spruce and other conifers, and has

Fig. 210. — Sporocarp of Fames annosus, Fries., oil a Scots pine root. (Reduced?)

been found on old stumps of birches and beech which have
been injured by mice, although it is probably not parasitic on
broadleaved species. Trees attacked by it are eventually
killed. Eoot rot may, however, be due to other causes.

The infection usually comes from the diseased roots of a
neighbouring tree, but also from conidia. The colourless
soft mycelium is more delicate than that of the honey
fungus, resembling tissue paper, and is developed in the bast
and wood of the root-system of trees. The walls of the bast
and wood-cells are bored and disintegrated by numerous
hyphae until the roots become totally rotten. The rot pro-
ceeds from an infected root upwards into the stem and from
the collar downwards into the hitherto sound roots, only in
the Scots pine does the resinous root-stalk form an impedi-
ment to the ascent of the mycelium. In spruce-wood, the

FF 2

436 PROTECTION AGAINST FUNGI.

presence of this parasite is decidedly shown by the appearance
of black spots surrounded by white colour in the spring-wood.
Outwardly the mycelium penetrates cracks in the bark, in the
form of small yellowish -white tufts.

The sporocarps are chiefly on the root-stalk, but also on
the roots, either in the form of incrustations or masses like
yellow or snow-white grapes. Under favourable circumstances
of growth they may assume the form of brackets.

The disease generally spreads rapidly, turning the wood
first brown and then white and causing large hollows in it.
By the artificial infection of six ten-year-old Scots pines, five
of them were killed in a year and a half. (K. Hrtg.) .*

b. /Subjects of Attack.

The fungus has been observed on the Scots and Weymouth
pines, the spruce, silver-fir, of all ages up to 90 years, also on
juniper and on Scots pine transplants from five years old.
Pinus rigida, Mill., is very susceptible to its attacks. Its
spread is favoured by mice and other animals which carry
the spores in their fur. Trees which are attacked have pale
needles and stunted shoots, as in the case of the honey fungus.

c. Protective Rules.

i. Mixing broadleaved trees with conifers.

ii. Kemoval of all infected trees and of all rhizomorphs, as
soon as they are noticed, and filling up the gaps with broad-
leaved species.

iii. Digging up and charring all roots which show traces of
sporocarps. Hess considers isolation-trenches of little use in
this case, as they only favour the production of conidia from
the exposed hyphae. Hartig, however, considers it possible to
scrape the walls of the trenches free from conidia, though this
could probably be done only in isolated cases of the disease.
Isolation trenches will at any rate prevent the infection of

* Mr. B.T. Butler, cryptogamic botanist to the Government of India, wrote a
paper (" Indian Forester," Nov. 1903) showing that F. annosus, Fries., has black
rhizomorphs. Such were also discovered by Dr. Mayr. Professor of Forestry,
Munich. They penetrate the soil to a depth of 20-30 cm., one descending 3 m.

RHIZINA INFLATA. 437

healthy trees by contact between their roots and those of
diseased ones.

3. Rhizina inflata, Quelet.
a. Description and Mode of Attack.

This root fungus, also named 11. widulata, Fr., kills Scots
pines of various ages. As the malady spreads in a circle,
centrifugally from the point of infection, it is termed in
France " Maladie du roncl." It may be recognised by the
dying and falling of the needles of affected trees, from the
month of June. On digging up affected plants, the ground
around their roots is found bound together by numerous
hyphae, but there is no flow of resin, as in the case of the
honey fungus. From the bark of the pine-roots protrude
numerous white mycelial hyphae, like Rhizoctonia* which grow
to three or three and a half feet from the affected plants in a
richly branched, threadlike mycelium. Their whiteness is
due to drops of etherial oil, exuding from the fine hairs at the
ends of the hyphae. These hyphae spread in the soil, infect
neighbouring plants, and penetrate their wood.

Massee states that the fungus is saprophytic on stumps and
on peat. It was so destructive to Scots pine, on a loamy soil, in
the Forest of Belleme (Orne), in France, that its cultivation
had to be abandoned.

The sporocarps resemble morels, are from 1 to 5 cm. in
diameter, and of a dark chestnut or chocolate colour. They
occur in the ground, connected with the mycelium.

I). Subjects of Attack.

The fungus attacks plants of all ages, from four years old.
In Belleme, 50 years old trees were attacked. Besides Scots
pine, Weymouth pine, silver-fir, larch, Douglas fir and Sitka
spruce, also sweet chestnut have been attacked. It is sapro-
phytic on old felling-areas.

c. Protective Rules.

Mix broadleaved trees with conifers. Choose conifers
suitable for the locality. Isolate affected trees by trenches.

* Rltizoctouia crocorum, D.C., forms a subterranean web of filaments, termed
" copper web," and attacking the crocus.

438 PROTECTION AGAINST FUNGI.

B. Wood and Bark Fungi.

*4. Trametes Pini, Fr.
a. Description and Mode of A Hack.

The mycelium of this fungus develops in the heart wood of
the Scots pine and other trees causing ring-shake. The
spring-wood of the annual zones becomes gradually reddish-
brown, with numerous regularly distributed perforations
coated with white, and at length disappears. The remainder
of the wood, and especially the resinous autumn-wood, remains
intact for some time, but eventually succumbs so that the tree

Fig. 211. — a Sporophore of Trametes pini, Fr., on the smooth cortex of a
Scots pine.

may become completely hollow. As the mycelium develops
most rapidly lengthwise along the infected ring, we find zones
of attacked and sound wood alternating. The rotting wood,
except in the slightly resinous silver-fir and in spruce
branches, is generally bordered by a zone rich in resin which
prevents the outward spread of the mycelium. The spores
gain admission to the wood through fresh wounds in branches,
where green branches have been broken or pruned, and at
other wounds. The hyphae destroy the cell walls and pene-
trate the heartwood, usually leaving the sapwood unaffected.

At the scars of dead branches in the case of an infected
pine or larch, or anywhere on the bark of a spruce or silver-
fir, bracket-like brown sporocarps eventually appear and emit
spores which may germinate on fresh wounds, unclosed by
resin, on other trees.

FUNGI CAUSING RED OR WHITE ROT.. 489

b. Subjects of Attack.

This disease is commonest near villages and towns where
forests are much exposed to mischief, and also in forests
liable to wind- or snow-break.

Trametes Pini is prevalent on trees from forty years old and
upwards, as it does not generally attack sapwood owing to its
turpentine, and because wounds in young trees are usually
soon closed with resin. It attacks the larch, spruce, and
silver-fir, as well as the Scots pine. In the silver-fir, decay
spreads to the youngest woody zones which contain little
turpentine.

The sporocarps may become very old, up to sixty years, and
attain large dimensions. The technical value of the wood is
greatly impaired by the disease. The fungus is common in
the Scots pine forests of North Germany, and in the Harz and
Thuringer-Wald and South Germany, chiefly on the spruce.
In the Carpathians it attacks silver-fir and larch woods. It
occurs in the British Isles.

c. Protective Rules.

i. Mix broadleaved trees with conifers.

ii. Pruning living branches of Scots pines which already
contain heartwood must be abandoned. Living branches may
be pruned up to thirty years of age, as they contain no heart-
wood, and the infection is less liable to occur in young wood.
In any case prunings should be clean cut with a saw, and, in
silver-fir, at once tarred over.

iii. All infected trees should be removed during thinnings.
In this way the sporocarps may be destroyed and the spread
of spores hindered ; also wood of diseased trees may be utilised
before the decay has gone too far, as it is at first frequently
confined to the upper part of a tree.

Wherever rot is due to wound-fungi, it may be avoided
by attention to the rules given for Trametes Pini, Fr.

Notes regarding Fungi causing Red or White Hot.

A short account will here be given of certain fungi belonging
to the order Basidiomycetes, family, Polyporeae, which assist

440 PROTECTION AGAINST FUNGI.

in causing red or white rot in standing trees, the origin of
which may, however, be due to certain bad conditions of
the soil (pp. 673 and 679).

In the case of red rot, the substance of the cell-wall is
dissolved by a ferment contained in the protoplasm of the
hyphae of the fungi, and a residual substance consisting of
gum, tannin, mineral matter, etc., remains, which, owing to
the oxidation of the tannin, assumes a reddish-brown colour.

Red Rot is caused by the following fungi : —

a. Polyporus vaporarius, Fr.

On spruce and Scots pine, and rarely on silver-fir, both
roots and wounds above ground being attacked. Wood
attacked by this fungus becomes dark-reddish brown, and full
of rectangular cracks, as in the case of Merulius lacrimans, Fr.,
which causes dry rot in timber. When rubbed between the
fingers, the rotting wood falls as a yellowish dust. Snow-
white branching mycelia, several yards long, are formed ; the
sporocarps form white incrustations. The spores gain entrance
to the trees through wounds, and the fungus is also common
on beams in buildings.

I. Polyporus Schtveinitzii, Hrtz.

This is termed P. mollis, Pers., by Hess, but Hartig has
now given the correct name as above. It is found on Scots
pine, and also Weymouth pine and larch. Kesembles (a), but
no white branching mycelia occur. Sporocarps reddish -brown
brackets.

c. Polyporus sulphureus, Fr.

On the larch and silver-fir ; it is also a very common parasite
on several broadleaved trees, and will be described further on.

White llot is produced when the ferment of the hyphae
decompose the lignine of the cell-walls, leaving the white
cellulose untouched, which accounts for the light colour of the
decomposed wood. Some of the causes of white rot are the
following : —

(d) Polyporus borealis, Fr. On the spruce ; the wood turns
brownish-yellow, and characteristic radial grooves appear in

PINE -BLISTER.

441

the spring-wood which are filled with white mycelia, the
latter having a strong tendency to spread horizontally. The
sporocarps are annual, bracket- shaped, and frequently in
tiers.

(e) Polyporus fulvus, Scop. It produces white rot in the
silver-fir, and rarely in the spruce. It is frequently associated
with silver-fir canker, described further on, its spores entering
the wood by the cracks in the cankerous swelling. The wood
becomes yellowish, and if clean-cut, appears intersected by
numerous white longitudinal bands. Narrow dark lines appear
at the junction between the sound and rotting wood. The
mycelium is yellowish, at first growing strongly, but becomes
later on very fine. The bracket-like sporocarps are yellowish-
brown above, ashy-grey below, and almost smooth. This
fungus is found also on cherry-trees.*

*5. Peridermium Pini, Wallr. var. corticola.

(Pine-blister.)
a. Description and Mode of Attack.

Scots pines infested with this disease, which is very common
in the British Isles and called pine-blister, are termed foxy trees
by English foresters (Fig. 296, p. 681). Massee states that it is
not yet (1903) known how this
fungus inoculates trees, and
the teleutospore form of it
is unknown. It may be a
form of Coleosporium sene-
cionis, Fries., described fur-
ther on, but this is denied
by Cornu and Klebahn.

Hess described the disease, ^- 2 12.-Section of pine attacked by pine-

blister at a for seventy years, (After

in 1866, being probably the Hartig.)
first to do so.

The disease may be recognised by the compressed orange-
yellow coloured little tufts of the aecidia, or sporocarps, which
break through the bark of branches and stems of the Scots
pine in June, and eventually burst and set free their spores.

* For a further account of red and white rot, see pp. 673 et seq.

442

PROTECTION AGAINST FUNGI.

The empty sporocarps then appear white. As a rule only
bark infected in the previous year produces aecidia. The
colourless, septate hyphae of this fungus grow perennially in
the intercellular spaces of the bark, bast and medullary
rays of its host, sending short haustoria through the cell-walls
to the cell-cavities. The mycelium is developed chiefly in the

bark and bast, but penetrates into
the wood to a depth of a hand.

The mycelium converts the starch
in the wood-cells into turpentine,
which becomes infused by drops in
the tissues, and cuts off the supply
of sap. Every year it spreads chiefly
longitudinally from the diseased to
the sound wood, so that the canker,
which is covered with resin, con-
stantly increases in size. The sap
being confined to the sound portions
of the wood, produces abnormally
large annual zones on the side of the
tree away from the canker (Fig. 212),
and when the infection has gone
nearly round the tree, its crown dies
above the point of attack, sometimes
within a year, but in other cases a
long period up to sixty or seventy
years may elapse before the crown
is killed.

Hot dry summers accelerate the
death of the crowns of infected trees,
as the wood surcharged with resin

cannot pass on enough water to supply the loss by transpira-
tion. Although the summit of the tree is dead, the lower
part of it may continue to live, provided there are enough
living branches below the canker to nourish the tree.

Whether or not infection must always proceed from a wound
in the cortex of the tree is as yet undetermined. Parts of
the stem older than twenty to twenty-five years appear
incapable of being infected.

Fig. 213.— Peridermium pini,
Wallr. (corticola), on a 5-year-
old shoot of a mountain pine.
The sporocarps are closed
(#), or have already burst (b).
(Natural size.)

PERIDERMIUM STROBI. 443

The spores of this fungus germinate on the leaves and stem
of Vincetoxicurn qfficinale, Mnch., and on other species of Vince-
toxicum, producing the fungus, Peridermium Cornui, E. et
Kleb. The teleutospores from this again infect pines. As,
however, there is no Vincetoxicum in Britain, where pine-
blister is very common, there appear to be two forms of the
disease, one P. Cornui, E. et K., and the other P. Pini, Wallr.,
the teleutospore form of which is unknown.

b. Subjects of Attack.

Scots and black pines of all ages are attacked by pine-blister,
but preferentially fifteen to twenty years old poles. It attacks
only organs two or more years old, and is commonly found at
verticils of branches and in the crown of the tree. It has
been often observed in mixed forests of pine with beech or
hornbeam, where the branches of the broadleaved species,
swayed by the wind, have rubbed off the bark of the pines.

The disease is well known all over Europe west of Poland.

c. Protective Measures.

Fell infected pines as soon as the disease is noticed.*

6. Peridermium Strobi, Kleb.

(Weymouth Pine-blister.)
a. Description and Mode of Attack.

The Weymouth pine-blister resembles the ordinary pine-
blister externally. It attacks the cortex of stems and branches,
and especially at the verticils, causing long swellings. .From
these, yellow pustules eventually break out, which on bursting
emit spores in a dark yellow powder. The mycelium grows
for years in the cortex, and produces blisters (secidia) every
year. The disease kills the stem and branches above the seat
of infection, and sometimes the tree.

The disease is contracted by an intermediate host. This is
either a currant or gooseberry bush. Among the former,
Ribes niyrum, L., R. rubrum, L., and R. aureum, Pursh., are

* See Klebahn, Dr. H., " Fbrstliche Blatter," 1891, p. 151. Id. Forstlich-
natu»wissenschaftlicbe Zeitschrift, 1897, p. 334.

444 PROTECTION AGAINST FUNGI.

the chief infectors. The uredospores appear on the lower
surface of the leaves of these plants, at the beginning of June,
as small yellow cushions. The teleutospores that arise from
them are brown and in rows. The sporidia that come from
them and germinate on the Weymouth pine, cause swellings,
in which a mycelium grows, and next spring, spermagonia are
formed, and secidia later on. Species of liibes are again
infected, and the disease becomes widely spread. The fungus
on the Ribcs is named Cronartium ribicolum, Dietr.

b. Subjects of Attack.

The fungus attacks young plants and poles of Weymouth
pine, chiefly on their stems. It also attacks lateral branches
of older trees; tree-parts older than 20-25 years appear to
escape.

In 1880, about 30 per cent, of the Weymouth pine in
Bremen Town Park were attacked and seriously injured by
this fungus. The disease has also appeared in other districts
in N. and S. Germany and in Denmark. It is reported to
have originated on Cembran pine (?) in the Baltic provinces.
It has not yet been noticed in America, the home of the
Weymouth pine.

c. Protective Measures.

i. Secure healthy plants of Weymouth pine, when buying
from nurserymen.

ii. Eemove and burn all infected plants.

iii. Cut out infected poles in thinnings.

iv. Do not allow any species of Biles to grow within at
least fifty yards of Weymouth pine plantations.

*7. Melampsora pinitorqua, Rostrup.

(Pine Branch-twist.)
a. Description and Mode of Attack.

This fungus, formerly named Caeoma pinitorquum, A. de
Bary, is developed, especially in North Germany, in the cortex
of the young shoots of the Scots pine. Before they have
attained their full length, at the end of May or beginning of

PINE BRANCH-TWIST.

445

June, long yellow sporocarps of the fungus appear, which
eventually turn reddish yellow, and become raised like cushions
until the epidermis of the host splits and so allows the dis-
semination of the spores, whilst turpentine exudes from the
split. As the growth of the pine-shoot is checked at the split,

Spring shoots of Scots pine attacked by Melampsora pinitorqua, Bostrup.

Fig. 214. — Part of shoot in middle Fig. 215. — Entire shoot (£) exuding resin,

of June with sporocarps (a). The needles have been pulled off.

but goes on normally elsewhere, the infected part becomes
concave, and the healthy part bends over it. If the attack is
slight the sickly place may heal over, and the branches recover
their erect position. Often, however, splits follow one another
so frequently that the shoots become twisted in various direc-
tions. At length it may happen that the bark is attacked all

446

PROTECTION AGAINST FUNGI.

round the shoot, the supply of water is then cut off, the needles
turn yellow, and the shoot dies towards the end of June or in
July, hanging down as if it were frozen.

The plant, by sending out several side-shoots at the base of
the lost leader, endeavours to replace it ; but these shoots

Fig. 216.— Part of a two-
year-old shoot, bent at
7 owing to the wounds
caused by Melampsora
pinitorqua, Rostrup.

Fig. 217. — Crippled condition of a Scots pine shoot
which has been attacked by M. pinitorqua for
several successive years. (Reduced?)

usually become infected in succeeding years. The mycelium
of the fungus grows in the green cortex and becomes perennial
in a plant which is once attacked, while sporocarps annually
appear in the spring-shoots, except in very dry springs. The
infected wood becomes brown down to its pith.

WITCHES-BROOM. 447

This fungus alternates as Melampsora Tremulae, Tul., on
the leaves of the aspen, which produces resting-spores or
teleutospores ; these hibernate on the dead aspen leaves, and
produce promycelia in the spring from which spores develop,
which then infect young pines. Eostrup first discovered, in
1883, that Caeoma spores generated on aspen leaves.

b. Subjects of Attack, and Distribution.

This fungus attacks chiefly young — one to ten years old-
Scots pine, also Weymouth and mountain pines, but never
trees over 30 years old ; it is most frequent on damp soils, and
in cold, moist, early summers. The exemption of older pines
from the attacks of this fungus is probably due to the fact
that the spores proceed from dead aspen leaves lying on the
ground.

One to three years old cultivations of pines may be entirely
destroyed by it, the disease spreading centrifugally from a
centre of infection ; and in older woods, especially after a
succession of rainy years, such misshapen stems may be formed
that the marks of the damage always remain patent ; the
development of the malady is however retarded by dry weather,
and the disease disappears about the thirteenth year. This
disease is known all over Germany, especially in the north,
and did great damage between 1870 and 1873. For attacks
by M. Tremulae, Tul., on larch needles, vide p. 469.

c. Protective Measures.

Careful choice should be made of suitable localities for
growing Scots pine.

Immediate pruning and burning of infected shoots should
be effected.

Remove aspen from pine woods.

Witches-broom.

Witches-broom is an abnormal hypertrophy of twigs appear-
ing on manj^ broadleaved and coniferous trees, and is caused
by the action of animals as well as of plants.

448 PROTECTION AGAINST FUNGI.

, i. ACTION OF ANIMALS.

Biting by cattle, chiefly goats, or by deer, mice, mites, or
insects. The witches-broom on lilac, for instance, is caused
by mites (Phytopus Loewi, Nal.) ; also on willows (Phytoptu
triradiatus, Nal.), etc.

ii. ACTION OF PLANTS.

Parasitic fungi cause witches-broom on silver-fir (Mclamp-
sorclla Caryophyllacearum, Schroter), No. 8. On hornbeam
(Exascus Carpinl, Kostr.) ; Birch (E. betulinus, Eostr.) ; cherry
(E. Cerasi, Fuckl.), etc. It is not known what causes witches-
broom on Scots and Weymouth pines, spruce, larch, or beech.
Hoffmann, of Giessen, states that two species of Cladosporium
cause this hypertrophy on Scots pine, but this is still unproved.
Goeppert states that it is due to a local swelling of the
cambium, but does not explain how this arises. These witches-
brooms, as well as those on the Scots pine, do not appear to
be very prejudicial to their hosts : that on silver-fir is described
under next heading.

*8. Melampsorella Caryophyllacearum, Schroter, formerly
named Mcidium elatinum, Link.*

(Silver-fir Canker.)
a. Description and Life-history.

This fungus causes the well-known silver-fir canker and
witches-broom. The latter may be distinguished from normal
shoots of silver-fir by its erect, brush-like growth, resembling
the parasitic growth of mistletoe, on the drooping branches of
the fir, and by the small yellowish-green needles growing all
round the shoot, which fall off in their first autumn. There
is also a slight swelling of the affected shoot, and in it the
mycelium of the fungus grows in the cortex and bast of the
host, passing into the younger shoots and needles till the
witches-broom, which appears to live only for sixteen years, dies ;
the mycelium still lives in the cortex of the cankerous swelling,
but apparently not in the wood. It does not grow down

* " Der Weisstannenkrebs," Dr. Karl N. Heck. Berlin, Springer, 1894. Also
two papers by E. Fischer in Zeitschrift fur Pflangenkraukheiten, Vol. XI., pt. 6,
1901 and 1902, pp. 321—343.

SILVER-FIR CANKER. 440

through the cortex of an infected branch into the stem, but a
stem-canker is produced when the stem grows over the
infected base of a branch.

The canker may be distinguished externally by a swelling
either on one side of, or all round the stem, on which the bark is
deeply cracked and dark brown, showing here and there a little
resin ; it crumbles away in parts, exposing the wood. It may
be found at any height on young or old trees or their branches,
and may attain a large size. The mycelium which grows in

Fig. 218. — Shoot of Silver-fir attacked by M. caryophyllacearum, Schroter.

a Cankerous swelling, b Needles of the witches-broom. (Natural size.} After

Hartig, from Proc. of Royal Soc., Vol. 47.

the cortical parenchyma is the same as that which produces a
witches-broom, but the latter is formed only when the
mycelium reaches a living bud. If, however, the shoots are
old and have no living buds, no abnormal shoot-production
takes place, and the canker alone is formed. The infection
appears to spring from a wound in the shoots affected.

The golden or orange-coloured sporocarps (Spermagonia and
Stylospores) are formed on the under surface of the diseased
leaves. They appear in two rows, open and emit their spores
in June, the needles subsequently dying. The witches-broom
continues growing for about 16 years, chiefly upwards, and
branching freely, resembles a mistletoe plant on the usually
horizontal branches of a silver-fir. It at length dies, and only

F.P. G G

450

PROTECTION

Al NST I T \ < ;

the canker remains, which does not produce any sporocarps.
Hess stated (1900) that no one has yet succeeded in infecting
a tree artificially by the spores of this fungus, and that

Fig. 219. — Old witches-broom on the Silver-fir. a Cankerous swelling caused by the
mycelium of the fungus.

SILVER- FIR CANKER.

451

a case of polymorphy may be concerned here, but the

alternate host of the fungus, if one existed, was not then

known. In 1901, however, E. Fischer, of Berne, succeeded in

infecting species of SteUaria with spores from a silver-fir

witches - broom, and obtained Melampsorella Caryophyllace-

(irum, Schroter, also named Melamp-

sora Cerastii, Pers. This fungus

attacks species of SteUaria and

Cerastium, common weeds in fields

and hedgerows adjoining silver-fir

forests.

The damage done is direct and
indirect, the former consisting in
loss of increment and depreciation
of the quality of the wood, as
cankered wood cannot be used for
constructions. The indirect damage
consists in increased danger of
breakage by storms or snow, and
a greater disposition to insect
attacks and those of other fungi,
such as Polyporus fulvus, Scop.,
and Agaricus adiposus, Fr., which
soon render the wood very brittle.
A practical distinction is made be-
tween sound and diseased cankers ;

sound cankerous wood is 30 per cent, heavier than uncankered
wood, it is also harder, less fissile, and absorbs only half as
much water. Sound cankerous trees yield some pieces of good
timber, but badly cankered trees are only fit for fuel.

Several cankers may be sometimes seen on the same tree,
and cankered trees may die outright in hot summers. The
canker may live for 50 years and longer. Mr. H. Ingold has
calculated, that, in the Vosges, 21 cankered trees are broken,
to one sound tree, and 11 dry up, to one sound tree.

b. Subjects of Attack and Distribution.

The disease is everywhere widespread in silver-fir forests,
both mixed and pure, and especially in the Black Forest,

G G 2

Fig. 220.— Canker on a Silver-fir
about 45 years old caused by M.
Caryophyllacearum, Schroter.

452 PROTECTION AGAINST FUNGI.

where in a mature crop of 240 trees per acre, on the average
14 — 16 trees are cankered. It is common in Windsor Forest.
The fungus also attacks Abies picta, Forb., A. balsamea, Mill.,
A. Nordmanniana, Lk., A. cephalonica, Loud., and A. Pinsapo,
Boiss. Cankerous stems are found on every soil and locality,
but the disease is less prevalent on sandy soils arid at high
altitudes than on loam or in or near the plains, where the
progress of the disease is more rapid.

The damage in old woods is greater than in young ones on
account of the increase in value of the trees, and in pure high
forests than in mixed selection-forests.

c. Protective Rules.

Mix other species not subject to the disease with the silver-fir.

Prune off the witches-brooms, which chiefly appear on young
trees, by sawing off infected branches close to the stem before
the spores are dispersed, and tarring the wounds.

Kemove cankerous stems in thinnings and preparatory
fellings, and transport them speedily from the forest. Even
dominating cankerous trees should be removed, and dominated
trees left to replace them. Those cankered all round should
be first felled, as the crop must not be overthinned from fear
orwindfall.

Old woods full of cankerous trees should be felled before the
prescribed period. The group-system practised in Baden
allows this to be done, and it is the most effective remedy.

Weed away Stellarias and Cerastia from the neighbourhood
of silver-fir woods, and do not grow silver-fir near the outer
boundaries of such woods. It is probable that the disease
originates otherwise, besides from infection from the weeds
referred to.

*9. Nectria Cucurbitula, Fr.

(Spruce Nectria.)
a. Description and mode of Attack.

This fungus produces the spruce-bark disease, and more
rarely attacks the Cembran pine and larch. Its external
symptoms are : — Pale colouring of the needles, the bark and
bast turning brown and drying up, generally after insect
attacks, and less frequently after wounds from hail or other
causes. Numerous clusters of little red, gherkin-like sporocarps

SPRUCE NECTRIA.

453

appear in the bank, which may run into one another like felt.
Conidia issue from them from late in the autumn till the
spring, and infect surrounding plants through any wounds
they may have, and spread the disease.

The branching mycelium grows chiefly in the sieve-tubes of
the soft bast and* the intercellular spaces
between them. The growth of the fungus
is very rapid, but appears to proceed
chiefly in the season of rest of the bark-
tissues, not in that of their vegetation,
when it is usually arrested. When the
fungus has spread all round the stem,
the tree dies, or at least that part of it
which is above the point of attack. If
however, the diseased tree can retain any
sound bark on one side till the ensuing
spring, it is saved, for it protects itself
by producing a corky sheath between the
sound and diseased part, which stops
the further progress of the fungus.
The dead bark is then thrown off, and
the cankerous place grown over.

' 1). Subjects of Attack, and Distribution.

The fungus appears chiefly on young
spruce from three to thirteen feet in
height, and both in pure spruce woods
and in mixtures of spruce and beech.
It has also been observed on Cembran
pine and larch. It is very common
in frosty localities. The conidia gain
admission to the tissues only through
external wounds, which are therefore

extremely dangerous in localities where a Clusters of gporocarps
the fungus is present. Badly-growing On the dead bark,
plants are the more subject to its attacks,

as injuries by insect or hail heal up less readily than in
the case of vigorous plants, and are therefore longer exposed
to the attacks of the fungus.

Fig. 221. — Spruce
attacked by Nectria
" la, Fr.

454 PROTECTION AGAINST FUNGI.

In 1850, the moth Tortrix pactolana, Zellv had ravaged the
spruce forests of Bohemia ; damage by this insect is, however,
generally only of a temporary nature, but in this case, it was
followed by Nectria, and great destruction of the spruce
occurred. The fungus has also appeared recently in the forests
of Bavaria and Wiirtemberg, but seems to- be absent from
North Germany. Nisbet states that it is common in Britain,
though generally as a saprophyte on dead branches only.

c. Pro tec five Rules.

Cut down young stems and shoots attacked by the fungus
with a pair of vine-shears in autumn and early winter. This
method does not cause the spores to be so scattered as when
the stems are felled with a billhook. It costs about Is. 6d. an
acre.

The larger stems attacked must be felled at the same time.
In both cases all the infected parts should be removed care-
fully, and burned in an out-of-the-way place, as the spores
easily spread from any pieces left lying about.

*10. Dasysci/pha calycina, Fuckel.

(Larch-blister.)

a. Description and mode of Attack.

The nomenclature of this fungus has passed through several
stages : Willkomm, in 1867, described it as Corticium
Amorplmm, Fr.,* which in reality attacks the cambium of
silver-fir ; but in 1868, H. Hoffmann (Giessen) named it Peziza
calycina, Schum. In 1874, B. Hartig showed that the larch
fungus differed from P. calycina, Schum., which attacks silver-
fir, spruce and pines. He therefore named it P. Willkommii,
E. Hrtg. This has large aski and elliptic spores, the former
fungus having oval spores.

Masseet states that the spores are globose and names the
fungus DasyscypJia calycina, Fuckel, and states that a very

* Corticium ainorphum, Fr.,in the cambium of silver-fir, may cause the whole
tree to dry up and die without losing its needles. Large blanks have thus
been caused in a forest near Neuchatel, Switzerland. " Rev.des E.et F.," Feb. 1
1897.

t Vide paper in Transactions Royal Scottish Arboricultural Society by
G. Massee, 1903.

LARCH-BLISTER.

455

similar fungus, D. resinaria, Eehm., attacks chiefly spruces,
but also larch. This latter fungus also attacks Pinus excelsa,
Wall., and, in America, is very destructive to Abies balsamca,
Mill. Both species are wound-parasites, but can enter the
tissues of the living tree through wounds made by a minute
parasite, Exosporium, the spores of which in damp atmo-
sphere can germinate
on the cortex of
seedlings or young
branches. The sporo-
carps of Exosporium
appear on the surface
of the larch as minute
black dots and cause
cracks in the bark,
filled with resin,
through which Dasy-
scyphaspoi'es can gain
admission.

Dasyscypha caly-
cina, Fuckel, causes
the destructive larch-
blister, of which the
symptoms are as
follows : — Appear-
ance of little swellings
on the stem and
branches, chiefly be-
low the crown; the
bark splits and tur-
pentine exudes, form-
ing light grey-coloured patches, and the split increases till the
wood is exposed. Little yellowish- white sporocarps of the size
of a pin's head appear in the cracks. These are incapable of at
once producing fertile spores, and merely wither away if
exposed to dry winds. Where they are surrounded by moist
air, however, they develop into cup- shaped fructifications,
whitish above and pale red below, and these give rise to fertile
spores, which infect other trees, The dead parts of the tree

Fig. 222. — Portion of Larch-stem attacked by \Dasy-

scypha calycina, Fuckel.
a Cracks with outflow of resin, b Sporocarps.

456 PROTECTION AGAINST FUNGI.

turn black, and owing to the swelling of the walls of the
canker and the local stoppage of the growth, its centre
forms a spoon-shaped depression, and the canker itself is
spindle-shaped. Several cankers may appear on the same tree.

The fungus can gain admission only through wounds,
frequently of brachyblasts eaten by Coleophora laricella, Hbn.
(vide, p. 846), punctures made by Che.rmes (pp. 361 — 364), or
due to snow-break, etc. After the entrance and sprouting of
the spore the richly-branching mycelium traverses the bast,
but only during the spring, as its further progress is cut off by
the formation of corky tissue separating the diseased place from
the still healthy bast. The exposed wood exudes turpentine,
and in the autumn the mycelium grows again from the cambium
into the healthy bast and increases the size of the canker.
Fresh layers of cork again cut it off, and the growth of the
mycelium is repeated, a protracted contest between the tree
and the fungus usually ensuing. In the Tyrol, a living larch
tree has been seen affected by a canker 100 years old.

When the canker is small and the growth of the larch
vigorous, on account of the locality being suitable for it, the
damage done is limited to the point of attack. When, however,
the parasite grows fast and the growth of the tree is not
vigorous, the mycelium may penetrate the wood by the
medullary rays even down to the girth, and the flow of sap is
seriously interrupted. The tree then begins to languish,
needles turn pale, twigs dry up and die, while fresh cankers
develop, especially in damp places. In such localities the
cankers may be of reduced size, but the mycelium spreads
throughout the wood, and the sporocarps appear in all directions
on the bark.

b. Subjects of AtfarJc, and Distribution.

D. calycina, Fuckel, attacks Larix europaca, D.C., wherever
it grows. It occurs in Britain, also, on Scots pine, mountain
pine and silver-fir. Japanese larch, L. Lcptolepis, Gord., has
also been attacked (Berlin, 1895, Hennings).

The larch-blister or canker is found in localities which differ
widely from one another, but is most prevalent in damp places
with moist air and in frosty and cloudy localities. The

LARCH-BLISTER. 457

disease spreads most rapidly in plains and valleys and among
low hills. Trees ten to twenty years old suffer most, but the
attack is rare in the case of trees more than forty years old.
Dense stocking does not suit the larch, and assists in spreading
the disease ; sowings therefore suffer more than plantations,
and pure woods more than mixed woods. Larches growing
with broadleaved trees are least liable to canker. Mr. Michie,
in his book on larch (Blackwood & Sons, 1885), says, that
after the first fifteen years tree-parts are safe from attack.
Hence, in a larch tree, 30 years old, and 45 feet high, the first
twenty feet or so are safe.

The disease originated in the Alps, and when during the
first twenty years of this century extensive larch 'plantations
were made all over Northern Europe they escaped the disease,
even when on inferior soils, but spores of the fungus probably
found their way down with larch seed from the Alps, and
the disease became widespread in more recent plantations.
In the Alps, it is usually confined to individual trees, and
does not ruin whole woods as in Germany, Denmark, and
Britain.

The reason is, that, in the Alps, there is a sudden change
from winter to quite warm weather, so that the needles develop
rapidly, whilst at lower elevations the soil becomes heated at
the end of March, and the larch needles then appear, but are
subjected to the treacherous spring weather, and do not harden
till the beginning of May. During this prolonged period of
development of the needles they are liable to attacks of Coleo-
vhora laricella, Hbn., and of Chcrmes, which promote the
spread of the canker. In the Alps, moreover, the fertile
spores are only produced in damp places, near the lakes for
instance.

It should also be remembered that, in its native country,
larch has its roots covered by deep snow till May, and that
the soil contains plenty of moisture throughout the year,
though, owing to the sloping ground on which the larch
grows, this moisture is never stagnant. In Britain, then,
whenever there is not much winter snow, a moist covering of
dead beech leaves, or a deep porous soil resulting from much
disintegrated rock, are the best substitutes for Alpine snow.

458 PROTECTION AGAINST FUNGI.

The larch roots can then spread freely and obtain plenty of
nourishment, and the tree then grows vigorously, and either
escapes the disease or grows away from it.

It is probably everywhere in the British Isles damp enough
for the fertile spores to be produced, though the disease is not
yet prevalent in Ireland ; but it is stated that on good fertile
soil near the Scotch lakes the larch grows so rapidly as to
outgrow the disease, even when infected.

Vigorous larch trees are growing at Colesborne, in
Gloucestershire, on the banks of a stream in a damp valley,
and the larch -blister is more fatal in the drier, flatter eastern
parts of Britain than in the moister hilly west, or in Ireland.

The disease causes loss of increment, and reduces the
quality of the timber, it encourages insect attacks and snow
and wind break, and may kill trees outright. Wherever,
therefore, larch grows badly owing to unfavourable soil, or
climate, it is better to give up planting it.

c. Protective Rules.

i. Great care should be taken in the selection of sites for
larch plantations ; pure larch-woods should be avoided, except
in early youth, and larch should be given plenty of room. It
prefers northerly aspects and well- drained but not dry soil,
slopes of hills and mountains, fertile but not too binding
soil, plenty of room for root-development, and abundance of
dead leaves or snow on the soil, so that the ground may not
be heated and the larch forced into growth early in spring
and afterwards retarded by the spring-frosts. No tree requires
more light or room than the larch.

ii. Larch grows best when mixed with beech, silver-fir,
or spruce, which may be introduced after the larch poles
have been thinned.

iii. Great care should be taken in thinnings to avoid wounds,
especially in knocking off dead branches, which should never
be done with the sharp side of a billhook.

iv. All badly cankered larches should be cut out in thinnings.
Plantations ruined by the disease should be felled and replanted
with another species.

PINE-SHOOT FUNGUS. 459

11. Cenangium Abietis, Duby.

(Pine-shoot Fungus.)
a. Description and Mode of Attack.

This fungus causes the death of isolated shoots of young
pines. As a rule, only yearling shoots are attacked, but some-
times 2 to 3 years old shoots also, chiefly at their tips. The
shoots die from April till June, from the top downwards.
Mycelia are found in the dead shoots, including their buds.
The cells of the cortex turn brown and become filled
with resin, the tissues are rent. The inner tissues down to .
the girth also turn brown. The mycelium is most abundant
in the buds. The needles die from the base, contrary to those
attacked in the pine needle-cast (p. 465). They turn yellowish
green, yellowish brown, and eventually brown.

This is not a wound-parasite. The sporocarps are dark
brown roundish cushions, breaking out from the mid-nerves
of the needles or from the base of yearling shoots, but chiefly
from those 2 — 5 years old dead shoots. The spores germinate
only after the dead shoots have fallen to the ground, where
they obtain sufficient moisture. w

If the number of infected shoots is sufficiently numerous,
the trees attacked may die, otherwise the damage consists in
loss of increment only.

b. Subjects of Attack, and Distribution.

This fungus specially attacks Scots pine, of any age, but
chiefly 12 — 20 years old thickets and polewoods. Also black
and Weymouth pines. Until 1883, it was considered as
saprophytic only on dead spruce and silver-fir branches.
Then F. von Thiimen suggested that it is parasitic on Scots
pine. This was proved to be the case in 1892 by Frank., the
fungi having appeared in 184 Prussian forest districts. The
exceptional nature .of the weather in 1892 certainly assisted
in its spread. The fungus occurs in France and Sweden, as
well as in Germany.

Hartig considers that the damage done in 1892 was due
to the intense insolation in February and March, while the

460 PROTECTION AGAINST FUNGI.

roots of the pines were in frozen ground, and could not
therefore supply the water lost by insolation.

c. Protective Rules.
Eemove affected poles in the thinnings.

12. Pestalozzia Hartigii, Tubf.

This fungus causes a disease in spruce and silver-fir seed-
beds and nursery-lines. Its first symptoms are that a number
of plants turn pale and die, and when pulled-up it will be
noticed that their cortex close to the ground is withered,
whilst above this withered portion the stem has attained its
usual dimensions. The mycelium of the fungus may be found
in the bark, where the contraction in the stem takes place,
and sporocarps spring from the point of attack.

This disease appears to attack several broadleaved species
as well as conifers, and all infected plants should be at once
pulled-up and burned. For instance, in a beech-nursery at
Vicdessos, Ardeche, altitude 1,350 m., the plants were lined
out at two years old, and by August became chloritic and dried
up. Those remaining in the seed-beds were not attacked.*

Pull up and burn all affected plants.

13. Septoria parasitica, B. Hrtg. •
(Spruce-shoot Fungus.)

This fungus causes the wilting and death of young spruce
shoots, especially lateral shoots. The needles of the attacked
plants become brown and wilt, as if they had been
attacked by late frost, and generally break off. In the course
of the summer globose black pycnidia appear at the base of
the shoots, from which threadlike conidiaphores arise. These
appearing in white rows, spread the disease in May on the
fresh opening shoots. Sitka spruce is also attacked.

This disease has been observed chiefly in young spruce, in
nurseries and plantations. It also attacks the leading shoots
of poles, and sometimes causes groups- of plants to die,
as in Ehrenfreidersdorf, in Saxony. It is common in the
Hertogenwald, near Spa, in the Ardennes.

Cut off and burn diseased branches.

* Henry : " Rev. des E. et F.," 1901, p. 537.

DOUGLAS-FIR BLIGHT.

461

14. Botritis Douglassii, Tubf.

This fungus, termed Douglas - fir blight, and known
for several years, as attacking 2 — 6 years old Douglas firs,
in 1895, was found on young Scots pine in Holland (Kitzema
Boos). Wellingtonia seedlings have also been attacked at
Kew.

The needles, especially the upper ones, wilt, and the
whole plant's growth is weakened. A brownish grey mycelium
appears on the upper shoots, which become curved and die,
the needles falling off. Conidia form on the fallen needles
and minute black sclerotia on the dead branches. The latter
produce conidia if the air be moist. Young plants are
frequently killed. Nisbet states that this fungus is identical
with Sclerotinia

I

fuckeliana, De Bary
(J5. cinerea), the vine
pest. This, how-
ever, appears to be
doubtful.

Spray with Bor- \I H ft 41* a

deaux mixture and
burn affected plants.

C. Needle-fungi.

15. PeridermiumPini
acicola, B. Hrtg.

(Pine Needle-rust.)

During April and
May, on the one-year
or two-years needles
of young pines of
different species,
orange - yellow blis-
ters appear, about the size of a mustard seed, often several of
them being in a row on one or both • ides of the needles. When
ripe, they turn brown and split, emitting their spores and
leaving on the needles blackish spots with lighter borders.
The mycelium is perennial on the needles, and without killing

Fig. 223. — Peridermium Pini acicola, R. Hrtg., on
Scots pine needles, a Burst sporoearps.

462 PROTECTION AGAINST FUNGI.

them, may, during the ensuing year, develop fresh aecidia.
The needles die and fall only when the disease is very intense.
The pine needle-rust, as the disease is termed by Massee,
comes from spores of species of Coleosporium senecionis, Fr., a
fungus infesting several species of Senecio, chiefly biennials,
S. vulgar is, L., S. viscosus, L., S. vernalis, W. et K.

The fungus prefers plants 3 to 10 years old, but may attack
trees up to 30 years; it is widespread throughout Europe,
including the British Isles, but does little harm to the trees it
attacks. Weed out groundsell from pine woods that it attacks.

16. Aecidium Abietinum, Alb. et Schw.

This fungus causes a needle-rust, which appears at mid-
summer on the previous year's shoots of the spruce, the
needles then assume a dull reddish-yellow colour ; during
August, bright-red aecidia of the size of a pin's head project
from the needles, and at the end of August or the beginning
of September they burst and emit their yellow spores
in a cloud of dust. The affected needles, which on lateral
shoots are usually only on the upper side of the branches, die
and fall before the close of the year, and the fungus may be
thus distinguished from Chrysomyxa Abietis, Ung. The
alternate hosts of the fungus are several species of rhodo-
dendron in the Alps, and Lcdum palustre, L., in Finland and
parts of North Germany, and these plants carry the disease
through the winter. Spruce trees of all ages are affected,
especially in the Alps, from an altitude of 1,000 metres to the
highest limit of spruce, where whole spruce-woods sometimes
assume the yellowish-red colour. The disease is also very
prevalent in Eussia ; no practical remedy has been devised
against it.

17. Aecidium columnar -e, Alb. et Schw.

(Silver-fir Needle-rust.)

Aecidia break out in July and August on both sides of the
mid-rib of silver-fir needles, in the shape of long yellow
blisters full of spores. This fungus alternates as Melampsora
Goeppertiana, Kiilm, on the cowberry (Vaccinium Vitis-
Idaca, L.), and causes that plant to become abnormally

SPRUCE NEE OLE -RUST.

463

tall, with a thickened spongy stem, at first whitish, then
rosy-red, and eventually dark brown.

The fungus kills silver-fir needles and causes them to fall,
but it is not widely spread and becomes dangerous only when
young thickets of silver-fir spring up among cowberry plants,
when the latter should be uprooted and destroyed.

Fig. 224. — Spruce twig attacked by Chj-ysomyxa Abietis, Ung., in autumn.
(^Natural size.")

18. Chrysomyxa Abietis, Ung.

(Spruce Needle-rust.)
a. Description and Life-history.

This form of spruce needle-rust may be recognised by dull
yellow bands appearing from May to the middle of June on
yearling spruce needles.

They gradually become broader and assume a brighter
yellow colour. Towards the end of August brownish longi-
tudinal stripes appear on the affected needles, which by

464

PKOTECTION AGAINST FUNGI.

November assume a golden-yellow colour, and swell up
slightly on one or both sides of the mid-rib ; the fungus
hibernates on the tree in this condition. The swelling
becomes greater at the beginning of spring, and from April
to the middle of May the epidermis of the needle bursts
and the spores are scattered, the affected needles, parts of
which are still green, wilting and falling in June and July.
The spores which are disseminated in May, when the
young shoots of the spruce are forming, can then infect

them and continue
i ^ the disease.

I. Subjects of Attack,
and Distribution. •

The fungus attacks
only yearling needles,
usually those on the
lower branches, and
rarely near the top of
the tree.

Spruce is most sub-
ject to this disease
when from 10 to 40
years old. In damp,
dense, 10 to 20 years
old thickets, the fun-
gus is most common,

Fig. 225. — Spruce needles attacked by Chrytior.iyxa
^dbietis, Ung. (Somewhat enlarged.)

a & b First appearance of disease in the form of

pale-yellowish marks on needles.
c Needle with reddish-brown longitudinal blisters

(end of March and beginning of April).
d Needle with fully formed orange-yellow cushion

(May).

but the nature of the

soil does not appear to have any influence on it. It is met
with up to altitudes of 5,000 feet, and is most frequent on
south and south-west aspects, or in valleys exposed to the
south, whilst damp weather favours its spread, wherever spruce
is extensively grown.

The damage done consists chiefly in loss of increment, and
exposure to attacks by bark-beetles, but the trees are not
often directly killed by it. Spruce trees are not usually
sufficiently advanced in growth to become infected when the
spores ripen, and thus frequently escape.

The disease occurs in Germany Denmark, and Sweden.

PINE NEEDLE-CAST.

c. Protective Rules.

465

i. Careful choice of suitable localities for spruce.

ii. Carry out early and strong thinnings, especially on
trees affected by the disease, and promptly remove the latter
from the forest.

*19. Lophodermium Pinastri, Schrad.

(Pine Needle-cast.)
a. Description and Life-history.

On the primordial needles of young Scots pines, solitary
brown spots may appear in July or
later on in the year, and if the affected
needles are examined microscopically,
the mycelium of Lophodermium (Hys-
teriuni) Pinastri, Schrad., will be found
in them. Black spermagonia subse-
quently appear before winter, but their
spores do not germinate, as ascocarps do
not develop till the second year after
infection. As a rule the diseased pri-
mordial needles die in the spring, with-
out falling from the plants, and older
needles frequently turn completely brown
in March and April and fall off, owing
to the formation of cork at their base.
This sudden shedding of pine needles is
the characteristic of the disease so widely
spread in Germany and termed Schiitte,
or needle-cast, which may, however, be
due to other causes besides the fungus,
as explained on p. 685. If, owing to a
mild, wet winter and spring, the black
sporocarps should burst, which only
happens when they are exposed to much moisture, the spores
issue from them and infect fresh plants. This, however,
frequently happens only after the needles have fallen. Dry
summers and cold winters therefore impede the spread of the
fungus, which is frequently only saprophytic on old, dying

F.P. H H

Fig. 226.— (0) Yearling
Scots pine needles
attacked by Pine
needle-cast, the base
green. (#) Dead two
years old needles. Hipe
apothecia (#) and empty
pycnidia («/), in April.
After Hartig.

466 PROTECTION AGAINST FUNGI.

pine needles, in crowded seed-beds. This saprophytic form
of the disease was always present in the Scots pine nursery
at Coopers Hill College, but never injured the pine seed-
lings or transplants. The latter were kept two years in seed-
beds and two years in nursery-lines, and about 50,000 healthy
four years old plants were removed from the nursery every
year from 1891 to 1900.

b. Subjects of Attack, and Distribution.

Needle-cast attacks Scots pine wherever it is grown ; also
black and maritime pines are attacked.

As a rule, the fungus attacks only 1 to 5 years old plants, but
it has been observed on poles up to twenty years old. Damp
cloudy localities are favourable to its spread, and plains
and lowlands suffer more than mountains and hills. Large
regeneration-areas and dense stocking also favour its spread.
Under certain unfavourable conditions of soil and climate, the
cultivation of Scots pine must be abandoned, owing to this
disease, and the area stocked with Wey mouth pine,* or some
other resisting species.

c. Protective Measures.

i. Spray 2 to 3 years old plants, in July, with Bordeaux
mixture, 50 gallons water, 6 Ibs. CaS04, 4 Ibs. unslaked lime,
6 Ibs. soft soap. A French nurseryman thus treated Scots
pine seedlings ; in the following February, not a single plant
sprayed showed a sign of disease, while 80 to 100 per cent, of
those unsprayed were dead.

ii. Mix spruce or Weymouth pine with Scots pine, in
lines or belts running from north to south, so as to interfere
with the dissemination of the spores by damp westerly winds.

iii. In nurseries, the seed should not be sown thickly in
drills, and the yearlings should be transplanted into nursery-
lines, or at once into the forest. New Scots pine nurseries
should be made in localities free from the disease, best among
broadleaved trees, in any case not near pine-woods, which are

* According to Hartig, the Weymouth pine in Germany and Denmark suffers
from a similar fungus, Hypoderma Ir achy spor urn, llostr., and the larch from
Lophodermium laricinum, Dub'y, which however may be only a saprophyte.
Rostrup states that black piue is attacked by L. gilvum, which kills its needles.

ftfiDfif

LOPHODERMIUM MACROSPORUM. 467

especially dangerous to the west of the nursery. The spaces
in nursery-beds between the rows of seedings should never be
covered with pine branches, which favour the spread of the
disease, but with leaves of broadleaved trees or moss,
iv. Burn carefully all affected plants.

20. L. macrosporum, K. Hrtg.
a. Description and mode of Attack.
a

Fig. 227. — a Under surface of a spruce twig in winter, attacked by Lophodermium

macrosporum, R. Hrtg.

a Dead brown needles at the base of the second year's shoot.
)8 Freshly attacked third year's needles.
7 Needles with black perithecia.
b Brown needles with ripe perithecia ()3) not yet burst.

This fungus on the spruce, according to E. Hartig, causes
either needle-rust or needle-cast.

The former disease appears in mountainous regions at mid-
summer as a rusty discoloration of needles on two years old
shoots, and- in the plains later during autumn ; finally black
sporocarps (Perithecia} appear on the under surface of the
infected needles, which burst longitudinally and emit their
spores in the succeeding April or May. The needles with the
empty sporocarps remain on the tree for several years. At
first only the needles on two years old and older shoots are
attacked; later on, those of yearling shoots as well. This is

HH 2

468 PROTECTION AGAINST FUNGI.

due to the fungus requiring from six months to three years to
develop its sporocarps. At first, the needles are more resis-
tant, but when the tree becomes weakened, they are more
easily killed.

In the case of needle*cast a more virulent form of the
disease occurs, and the needles turn red in August, then
brown, and fall before the winter.

The spores of all species of Lophodermium gain admission
through the stomata, and the wetter the weather, the sooner
the spores ripen.

b. Subjects of Attack, and Distribution.

The disease affects chiefly pure crops of 15 to 30 years old
spruce, especially in the lower part of their crowns, but is
unimportant except when needle-cast takes place. Dense
crops are most affected ; mixtures of spruce with other species
suffer less. The mineral nature of the soil and the altitude
appear to have no influence, but in Saxony, the disease is
worst on fertile, moist soil and on S. and W. aspects, where
the spores ripen, at the time of the prevailing winds. When
badly attacked, the trees die, in the third year of an attack.

c. Protective Measures.

i. Avoid pure crops of spruce, wherever the disease is
common.

ii. Cut out and burn affected subjects.

iii. Eemove the soil-covering of dead needles near affected
trees, and do not use this litter in spruce woods.

21. Lophodermium nemsequium, D. C.

This is a very similar fungus to that described above, and
affects the previous year's and older needles of silver-fir,
turning them brown and eventually causing them to fall from
May to July. Numerous dark brown pustules may be noticed
on the upper surface of infected needles, and long dark-brown
sporocarps eventually break out in the mid-rib of their lower
surface. The spores are only half the size of those of No. 20.

They ripen in April of the succeeding year, on the needles

LARCH NEEDLE-CAST.

469

in their third year, or on older needles, but a large number of
the infected needles have generally fallen before this occurs.

This disease is widespread in silver-fir forests, and has
proved destructive in the
Erzgebirge, where the
trees lose most of their
needles.

Burn affected subjects.

22. Sphaerella laricina,

n. sp.
(Larch Needle-cast.)

a. Description and mode of
Attack.

Often in July, smaller or
larger brown specks appear
on larch needles, on which
later very small black
conidiophores project in
groups. From beneath
these, the colourless my-
celium, which is richly

ramified, develops in the needles, partly in their intercellular
spaces, partly in the cells of their parenchyma.

Inside the conidiophores, small hollows develop with very
fine basidia, at the ends of which are very small conidia.
These fall oft' and are carried away by wind, or washed out
by rain, and reach the young twigs of the tree, where, after
a few hours, they germinate and infect the needles. The
needle-cast thus increases progressively in intensity. By the
death of the twigs, the longitudinal growth of the affected
plants suffers, and owing to crowding by neighbouring trees,
they often die. The fall of sickly or dead needles commences
in July.

On the needles that fall to the ground in the following
summer, globose, dark brown perithecia develop, which
spread the disease. The mycelium growing in the needles
becomes hard, thick walled, and is coloured light brown.

Fig. 228. — Twig of Silver-fir attacked by
L. nerviseqiiiuni. +

a Unaffected needles.
b Attacked needles turning brown.
c Needles with ripe sporophores.

470 PROTECTION AGAINST FUNGI.

The club-like asci in the perithecia contain eight 1 -celled and
later 2-celled spores. The perithecia ripen at the end of May
and the beginning of June. In three weeks from the moment
of infection, they produce fresh conidiophores.

b. Subjects of AttacJc, and Distribution.

The fungus appears to attack larch of all ages. Dry,
breezy localities are less liable to the disease than damp foggy
ones. For this reason, larches on mountains, where the
summer air is dry, whenever the air is cloudless, are less
endangered than those on hills and in lowlands. The season
during which the fungus can form conidia is much shorter
in mountains than in lowlands.

The danger is greatest in pure larch woods and in mixed
woods of larch and spruce. In the former, the infection is
easy, owing to the propinquity of the larch trees ; in the
latter, the fallen infected larch needles lie in masses on
the spruce branches, where the ascophores can easily infect
the larch. A mixture of beech and larch is favourable, as the
dense fallen beech leaves hinder the spores from ascending.

Japanese larch is also attacked.

In the cold, wet summer of 1894, this disease was so
prevalent in Upper Bavaria, that by the beginning of August
most of the larch needles had fallen.

c. Protective Measures.

i. Grow larch in suitable localities.

ii. Mix larch with beech and not with spruce.

Melampsora Trcmulae, Tul., also named Caeoma laricis, Hrtg.,
p. 447 (Fig. 238, p. 486), also induces larch needle-cast. Aspen
should not, therefore, be grown in larch woods.

23. Trichosphaeria parasitica, E. Hrtg.
a. Description and mode of Attack.

The fine colourless mycelium of this fungus covers the
twigs of the silver-fir down to the buds, especially on their
under surface, and spreads to the lower needles, whilst the
shorter upper needles usually escape infection. The mycelium

TRICHOSPHAERIA PARASITIC A.

471

forms superficial white cushions on the white lines of stomata
of the needles. They therefore become discoloured, and at
length quite brown ; they do not, however, fall from the tree,
but hang down, being still attached to the twig by the mycelia
of the fungus.

In November, on the brown cushions appear small globose
tomentose perithecia, con-
taining greyish spores, which
easily germinate when they
fall on twigs of silver-fir, and
the disease is thus spread.
The mycelium hibernates on
the twigs and needles and
grows again on to the new
spring-shoots, attacking the
needles from the base up-
wards, so that needles on the
older shoots which escaped
during the previous year
may now be attacked.

Trees once attacked by this
fungus appear never to be-
come free from it, from
which its dangerous nature
is evident.

b. Subjects of Attack, and
Distribution.

Fig. 229.— Twig of Silver-fir attacked by
. Trichosphaeria parasitica, R. Hrtg.
a Sound needles.
b Dead brown needles fixed to the twig

by mycelial strands.
c Under surface of needles with white

mycelia and dark sporocarps.

This disease is widespread
in silver-fir forests and espe-
cially among 20 to 40 years old woods on the lower branches
and on advance-growth, and according to von Tubeuf, it also
attacks the spruce, but is rarer than on silver-fir. It has
done much damage in the Bavarian forests, near Passau and
other places. It has been noticed that lower branches of
silver-fir attacked by Trichosphaeria parasitica, E. Hrtg.,
escape attacks by Corticium amorphum, Fr. (p. 454), when
neighbouring silver-fir are attacked by the latter fungus.

472 PROTECTION AGAINST FUNGI.

c. Protective Measures.

Underwood, and diseased branches and twigs, should be
removed by clearing, pruning and cutting off twigs with
shears.

24. Herpotrichia nigra, E. Hrtg.

(Spruce Black Needle-rust.)
a. Description and mode of Attack.

The grey mycelium of Herpotrichia nigra, E. Hrtg., forms
an irregular, dark coat on twigs and needles of the spruce,
the mountain pine, and the juniper, up to about a meter from

the ground.

b. Subjects of A ttacJc, and Distribution.

This fungus occurs in the Bavarian Alps only in mountains
where snow lies long, and there is very deadly, natural
regeneration being sometimes entirely prevented ; it is less
hurtful at lower altitudes. It covers the young plants, in
seed-beds, under the snow, to such an extent that in spring
they cannot remain upright. It also does much damage to
mountain pine. Juniper is also attacked.

c. Protective Measures.

i. No nurseries should be made where snow lies deep in
mountains.

ii. Plant close to the stumps of felled trees.

D. Fungi attacking Cones.

25. Aecidium strobilinum, Alb. et Schw.

(Spruce-cone Fungus.)

This fungus develops its mycelium in the still green scales
of spruce-cones and destroys them. The hemispherical brown
aecidia are crowded together on the inner surface of these
scales.

The infected cones which have fallen to the ground may be
easily detected by their opened-out appearance. Spores enter
the young cones early in spring. The teleutospores are not
yet known. The disease occurs wherever spruce is grown.

Another fungus, Aecidium Conorum Piceae, Ess., also affects
spruce-cones, and may be distinguished from the above by

FUNGI ATTACKING CONES.

473

there being at least two aecidia on each scale of the affected
cones. After the aecidia burst and disperse their spores, pale
spots are left on the scales.

Fig. 230. — Spruce cone attacked
by Aeeidium strobilinwn, Ess.

Fig. 231. — Sporophores of A.
strobilinum, Alb. et Schw., on
the under surface of a scale of
a spruce cone.

SECTION III. — FUNGI ATTACKING BROADLEAVED TREES.

The numbers of dangerous fungi attacking broadleaved
trees may be limited for description here, to eight, besides
some wound-parasites. The most destructive are marked
with an asterisk, as in the list given on the next page.

A. Boot-fungi.
*1. Rosellinia quercina, E. Hrtg.

a. Description and Life-history.

The leaves of infected 1 to 3 years old oak seedlings become
gradually pale and at length dry up. This commences with
the topmost leaves and proceeds downwards. At the top of
the taproot just below the surface of the ground, the bark
and wood turn brown and shrivel up, and this at length
spreads to the whole taproot and the plant dies. On pulling
up the plant and examining its tap-root, black spheroidal
sclerotia of the size of a pin's head are seen, which spring
from numerous brown rhizornorphs, which have branched
freely and surround the plant's roots, and are prolonged into

474

PROTECTION AGAINST FUNGI.

the soil. These rhizomorphs readily communicate the disease
to roots of neighbouring plants, as in the case of the honey
fungus.

Organ attacked.

No.

Name of fungus.

Species attacked.

Natural order.

Family.

A. Root-system

1.
2.

*Roselllnia quer-
citia, R. Hrtg.

Oak . . . .'

Pyreiwnnj-

<•(>{<>«.

Melanomeac.

B. Stem and
branches (in
the wood or
bark).

Polypot'us sul-
phureus, Fr.

Oak and birch

Basldlonii/-
cetes.

Pol i/poreae.

3.

*Nectria ditis-
sima, Tul.

Beech, oak and
other broad-
leaved trees.

Ateomyotte*

Sphatn,,.;:,.*

4.

JV". cin>i<(l>(i riiKi.
Fr.

Maple, lime,
horse chest-
nut, elm.

»

»

5.

6.

Aqlaospora tal-
eola, Tul.

Oak ....

»

»

C. Cotyledons
and leaves.

* Ph ytoph th or a
fagi, R. Hrtg.

Beech, maple,
ash, robinia,
and conifers,
esp. spruce,
S. pine.

Phy corny -
cetes.

Perono-

7.

RltytisiHM a (••('!• i-
num, Fr.

Maples . . .

.-\si-omycetes

8.

Melampxord /////•-
tigii, Thiiin.

Willows . .

Ui-edinecn .

Melampsor-

aceae.

The method of infection is very interesting ; as the tap-root,
except at its lower extremity, is protected by cork, the shoots
of the mycelium attack the side roots. At the places where
these branch off from the main roots, little fleshy swellings
are formed, which send out conical processes through the cork
into the inner tissues of the tap-root. The fungus grows only
in damp warm weather, and if the weather be dry, the infected
plant can delay the progress of the fungus, by cutting it off by
cork-formation from the still healthy tissues. By means of
the sclerotia, the fungus can persist through dry periods, or

POLYPORUS SULPHUREUS. 475

hibernate, which the ordinary mycelium cannot do. The
disease is also perpetuated by conidia springing from the
portions of the mycelium growing above ground, or by spores
produced either from the sub-aerial portion of the oak-plant
or in the ground, these as a rule only germinate in the year
following that of the original infection.

b. Subjects of Attack, and Distribution.

This fungus is very dangerous in seed-beds and dense sow-
ings in the open up to 2,600 ft. altitude, especially in wet
years. It is common in North-West Germany, also in Wiirt-
temberg, where, in 1890, it killed 100,000 1—3 years old
seedlings.

c. Protective Rules.

i. Places where the fungus has appeared should be isolated,
by digging trenches one foot deep to prevent the spread of the
rhizomorphs.

ii. Plants which have been attacked must be at once
removed and burned, which can always be done in nurseries.

B. Stem and Branch Fungi.

2. Polyporus sulphureus, Fr.

This widely-distributed fungus, which is very common in
the British Isles, and has been already referred to as attacking
the larch and silver-fir, destroys the wood of oaks, sweet
chestnut, poplars, tree-willows, alders, birch, etc., and fruit-
trees.

The infection occurs at wounds in the branches of trees ;
the wood, in consequence, turns reddish-brown, cracked and
dry, the mycelium spreading through the cracks and forming
large felted white sheets, it also fills the vessels, which on the
different sections of the wood appear like white lines or
points. At the scars of dead branches, or other parts of the
stem, large sulphur-yellow, fairly smooth, fleshy sporocarps
appear annually which are somewhat reddish above and very
conspicuous.

All infected trees should be felled if this does not open out

476 PROTECTION AGAINST FUNGI.

the wood too much, and great care should be taken during
fellings to avoid wounds. Broken or forked branches, which
it is advisable to remove, should be sawn off cleanly and the
section tarred.

Other Wound-Parasites attacking Oak and other Broadleaved

Trees.

All such fungi gain admission through wounds and broken
branches, so that they can be avoided by good silviculture.

a. Polyporus dryadeus, Fr.

White and yellow irregularly shaped longitudinal marks
appear in the wood, which at length becomes cinnamon-
coloured and rotten. The sporocarps are large, brown and
hoof-shaped, but do not last long.

b. Polyporus igniarius, Fr.

The commonest cause of white rot. Infected wood becomes
pale yellow and gradually lighter in colour and softer. The
tannin is at once attacked and decomposed by young mycelia
of this fungus, so that oak-wood loses its characteristic odour,
the absence of which is an excellent practical test of incipient
unsoundness. This fungus also occurs on fruit-trees and
other broadleaved trees. ' Sporocarps, hoof-shaped.

P. betulinus, Bull, and P. laevigatus, Fr., cause red and
white rot respectively in birch, the former having roundish
sporocarps, and the latter, incrustations.

c. Hi/dnum diver sidmx, Fr.

Also causes white rot in oak and beech. The wood, and
especially its spring zones, turns ashy-grey, at first in stripes.
The sporocarps are yellowish-white incrustations or brackets.

d. Thelephora perdix, R. Hrtg.

Produces the well-known partridge-wood form of rotten- wood
(Rebkuhnholz), which is common in Germany, but not known
as British by Marshall Ward. The dark reddish-brown rotten-
wood becomes honeycombed with whitish blotches surrounded

BEECH-CANKER. 477

by hard walls. Later on, these blotches become greyish-yellow,
and are filled with mycelium. The sporocarps, brownish-yellow
incrustations.

e. Stereum hirsutum, Fr.

Snow-white or yellow longitudinal bands surrounded by
brown tissue appear in the wood,- which is said to be yellow-
or white-piped. Sometimes the whole of the wood turns
uniformly yellow. The sporocarps, at first mere incrusta-
tions, later on assume prominent brown horizontal edges.
Common in Britain.

*3. Nectria ditissima, Tul.

(Beech-canker.)
a. Description and mode of Attack.

Beech-canker, which may be recognised by the local
destruction of the cortex, resembles silver-fir and larch
canker. It may be produced on the beech, either by Nectria
ditissima, Tul., or by insects (Lachnus exsiccator, Alb., Coccus
fagi, Barensp., p. 366), or by frost. The disease is sometimes
occasioned by several of these agents.

The attacks of the fungus may be diagnosed by the local
destruction of the cortex, and the appearance of small white
tufts of conidiophores ; and later on by dark-red, spherical
sporocarps on the canker. The infection always arises at a
wound caused by abrasures of bark by felled trees, hail, etc.,
and from the point of infection the fungus spreads more or
less regularly in the wood, but most quickly along the stem.
The wood turns brown and dies wherever it is attacked. The
diseased portion of the wood appears sunk into the stem,
owing to the hypertrophy of the growth of the portions of the
stem round the canker.

Thus the attacked branches and stems become spindle-
shaped. The canker becomes every year deeper and more
open.

b. Subjects of Attack, and Distribution.

The beech-canker chiefly attacks the beech, but oaks, ash,
hornbeam, hazel, alder, lime, cherry, maple, and especially

478

PROTECTION AGAINST FUNGI.

apple, are also attacked. It is found in thickets 5 to 7
years old, but also in 100 years old woods, and is worst
amongst healthy smooth-barked trees.

Infected branches eventually die, and infected trees in the.

Fig. 232. — Nectria ditissima,
Tul., on a beech. a Com-
mencement of the disease,
which has proceeded deeper
into the wood at b.

Fig. 233. — Canker on an oak caused by
Nectria ditissima, Tul.

course of time assume extraordinary shapes, and are fit only
for firewood.

The disease has been known since 1865 in the Saxon Erz
mountains and in the extensive beech forests in Hesse. It is

CORAL- SPOT DISEASE. 479

common in the British Isles, especially on apple trees. It is
frequently associated with the attacks of the insects mentioned
above, which expose the cambium zone to the admission of
spores, by the wounds they make in the bark.

c. Protective Rules.

Cut out all infected trees in cleanings and thinnings, pro-
vided too large gaps are not thus caused in the standing-crop.

Avoid all injuries to the bark during felling operations.

Affected branches in orchards should be pruned down to
the sound wood (October till March), and the exposed sections
covered with coal-tar.

Burn all cankered wood.

4. Nectria cinnabarina, Fr.

(Coral-spot Disease.)
a. Description and mode of Attack.

The presence of this parasite in living broadleaved trees
may be diagnosed by the breaking out of the vermilion-
coloured sporocarps, which eventually turn brown and finally
white, on the stem or branches of the tree, chiefly in the
autumn, after rainy weather. Healthy shoots suddenly dry
up and die, the wood turning green or black. The infection
takes place at a wound of some kind, chiefly of branches, but
also of roots. The mycelium grows rapidly in the wood,
pierces the walls of the wood-fibres, decomposes the starch,
and leaves a green substance within the infected tissues. The
cambium and bark remain sound, but by the destruction of
the wood, the water-supply is cut off from the crown, the
leaves wither and drop off, and the shoots dry up. The sporo-
carps appear in autumn or spring on the dead bark of the
infected trees, and the- danger of infection is then greatest.
Severe frost or sun-blister may produce wounds, through
which the spores gain admission to the wood.

b. Subjects of Attack, and Distribution.

This fungus is saprophytic on the dead branches of various
broadleaye,d trees and shrubs, such ^s maples, cherries, robinia,

480

PROTECTION AGAINST FUNGI.

dogwood, blackthorn, birch, etc. Marshall Ward notes that
it may be often seen on pea- or bean-sticks, which become
dotted with red points.

As a parasite, it attacks young plants of maple, lime, horse-
chestnut, elm, and mulberry, and soon kills them. It is very
widespread throughout Europe.

m :,

Fig. 234.— Maple stem showing the
vermilion coloured sporocarps (a) of
Nectria cinnabarina, Fr.

Fig. 235. — Section of Maple stem
attacked hy Nectria cinnabarina, Fr.
Between a and b the wood is coloured
bright green owing to the decomposi-
tion of the tissues.

c. Protective Rules'.

i. Clean pruning of broken branches and tarring the
wounds.

ii. All twigs, branches, or stems which show sporocarps of
the fungus should be cut off and burned.

OAK BARK- BLISTER. 481

5. Aglaospora taleola, Tul.
(Oak Bark-blister.)

The bark of oaks that still possess a smooth cortex,
becomes brown in patches, either on one side only, or all
round, and the affected part dies. The dead bark may be
either in little patches surrounded by living bark, or may
extend to a yard and more along the -stem. The diseased
places vary in breadth, being pointed at their upper and lower
extremities. The mycelium grows in the cortex, and pene-
trates also into the sapwood, which may become brown and
die ; the heartwood is not affected.

Between the diseased and healthy tissues, a broad zone of
cork develops, which excludes water from the inner tissues.
The border of the diseased cortex therefore dries up and
produces no sporocarps. Between this dry border zone and
the rapidly decaying bark, cracks occur. The cortex under
the cork, which persists for a few years, decays and is finally
thrown off. The cankered spot thus produced quickly forms
a callus and heals up.

In the second year of the disease, round or oval sporocarps
appear in the cortical parenchyma, under the cork. In the
midst of them, one or two (rarely three) little prominences
pierce the cork zone and exhibit openings of one or several
perithecia surrounded by white powdery conidia. The sporo-
carps in the cortex consist of dark brown pseudo-parenchy-
matous mycelia. The bottle-shaped perithecia, containing
ascospores, protrude from this mycelium. As a rule, several
of these ascospores coalesce.

It is not yet decided whether or not this infection does any
injury to the affected parts.

Pestalozzia Hartigii, Tubf. (p. 460), attacks young broad-
leaved plants in nurseries and on natural regeneration areas.
It is commonest on 2 — 5 years old beech, maple and ash,
which it eventually kills. The disease runs the same course
as that already described for conifers. It was very prevalent
in different parts of Germany during the wet summers of
1888, 1892,

F.P, I 1

482 PROTECTION AGAINST FUN<;l.

C. Seedling and Leaf Fungi.
* 6. Phytophthora Fayi, R. Hrt^i.

(Beech-seedling Mildew.)
a. Description and mode of Attack.

This .very destructive fungus, also named P. omnivora,
De Bary, causes great damage among beech seedlings ; these,
when affected, turn black and die from below upwards, during
their germination or% immediately after the cotyledons have
appeared. The little stem shrivels up and turns brown above
and below the cotyledons, whilst they are still green, or dark
specks appear on the cotyledons or on the young leaves.
Within six or eight 'days after the first appearance of the
disease, it attacks the whole plant, especially in protracted
rainy weather in the months of May and June. In dry
weather the attacked plants appear as if singed by fire. It is
frequently accompanied by Lachnusfagi, L., a species of aphis.
The first infection of the beech by the parasite comes from
oospores that have remained in the ground since former
sowings. The mycelium, which is intercellular, spreads into
the stem and cotyledons, and numerous hyphse break through
the epidermis or stomata, and produce lemon-shaped spor-
angia. After the bursting of these, fresh sporangia are formed,
and the spores are spread in all directions, and in this way
the disease may extend over a considerable area of young
plants by attacking their cotyledons, or primordial leaves.
The development of the fungus is so nipid that in rainy
weather and in damp localities, in 3 or 4 days after the first
appearance of the disease, sporangia are formed on the host.
At the same time, thick-walled oospores are produced sexually
within the cotyledons ; these fall to the ground in the rotting
tissues, and may then remain alive for four years and more.
These oospores reproduce the malady from year to year if the
place be used again for sowing beech. In dense sowings on
damp soil, the fungus infectg the roots of the plants until
whole rows of them die at once.

Beech natural reproduction in shady woods, beech seed-
beds and nursery lines, as well as those of other species,
suffer greatly from this lungus.

SYCAMORE LEAF-BLOTCH. 483

b. Subjects of Attack, and Distribution.

The fungus has been observed to attack beech, maple, ash,
and robinia, at the seedling stage, and several conifers, especi-
ally the spruce and Scots pine. Hence the name " omnivora."
The symptoms are similar in these other cases. If only the
leaves of the seedling are affected, it may recover, but when-
ever the stem is attacked from below, it succumbs. Worms
drag down infected seedlings into their holes, and hence gaps
sometimes arise in what was formerly a flourishing nursery-
bed.

This fungus causes considerable damage to all the species it
attacks, and the spores are transported by wind, mice, roe-
deer, and by the tread of men or horses, or even cart wheels.
Damp, warm years are favourable to the spread of the fungus.
It has been noticed all over Germany.

c. Protective Rules.

i. Use Bordeaux mixture, as already described (p. 466).

ii. Pull up all infected plants and collect leaves lying on
the ground as soon as the disease is noticed, and burn them.

Seed-beds should be carefully watched in May and June for
this malady. The workman should wear an apron, in which
he places the infected plants, and should take care not to
tread on the beds and bury any oospores. Any bed which has
been attacked should be examined daily.

iii. The soil in nurseries may be thoroughly burned, by
digging trenches 30cm. deep and 30cm. apart, and filling them
with dry brushwood and burning this. Keep the fire going
for two days.

iv. Beech and coniferous seed-beds, where the disease has
appeared, should for several years be used only for transplants,
and it is then best to change the species grown.

7. Rhytisma acerinuin, Fr.
(Sycamore Leaf-blotch.)

This fungus causes black spots on the leaves of maples,
especially of the Norway maple and sycamore.

During damp weather in July, round yellowish spots J to

l I 2

PROTECTION A(JAINST FUN<:l.

J inch across appear on maple leaves, and turn black in
August, retaining a lighter tint on their borders. The leaves
fall earlier than is usual. On the fallen leaves during winter
and the following spring numerous sporocarps develop on the
black spots, and they open in long cracks in damp weather.
The spores which issue from them in the spring germinate on

Fig. 236. — Rhytisma acerinum, Fr., on a leaf of Norway Maple. The dark blotches
(«) are surrounded by a dead lighter coloured zone (b).

the leaves and produce fresh spots as before. The parasite
appears to be an annual, and is very common.

The damage done is mostly due to reduced assimilating
powers of the leaves and is relatively unimportant.

Where the dead leaves are swept up and burned, as in parks
and gardens, the disease does not spread, but in places where
dead maple leaves are allowed to lie about in ditches, etc., it
may recur annually to the detriment of the beauty and shade
of the trees.

WILLOW LEAF-BLISTER.

485

8. Melampsora Harticfii, Thiim.

(Willow Leaf-blister.)
a. Description and mode of Attack.

On the leaves of several species of willow, and especially on
their under surface and the ends of their young shoots, little
golden -coloured
cushions, subse-
quently turning
brown and then
black, may appear
at the end of May
or the beginning of
June. Leaves which
have been attacked
soon become marked
with black blotches
and fall off; the
badly infected shoots
also die from their
tips downwards.
The sporonarps hi-
bernate on the dead
leaves lying on the
ground and produce
p r o m y c e 1 i a and
sporidia in the
spring, the spores
from which spread
the malady by ger-
minating on fresh
leaves and shoots.

The same disease

infects species of Ribes (currant or gooseberry plants), as
Caeoma Ribesii, Link., but this intermediate stage is
unnecessary in the life of the fungus.

Fig. 1%1—Salix acutifolia, Willd., attacked by

Melampsora Hartigii.
a Green leaf with oraiige yellow sporocarps.
I Leaves with black patches, withering.
c Sporocarps on the epidermis of the stem.

486

PROTECTION AGAINST FUNGI.

1). Sitbfecls of Attack, and Distribution.

The fungus which occurs in Britain, is most destructive in
its attacks on the Caspian willow (Salix acutifolia, Willd.), but
also attacks S. daphnoides, viminalis, purpurea, etc. Yearling
shoots suffer most, and 2 to 4 years old shoots are less liable
to infection.

c. Protective Rules.

Cut off and burn all infected shoots as soon as they are
noticed. All infected dead leaves should be collected during
the autumn or spring and burned.

Infected osier-beds may be sprinkled by means of an
ordinary white-washing brush with dilute carbolic acid, one
part to 500 of water. This should be repeated several times,
and costs about Is. an acre. Bordeaux mixture may be used.

Cultivation of the Caspian willow may have to be abandoned
when the fungus is prevalent, which is much to be regretted as
this willow thrives on dry soils and has proved useful on railway
embankments, sand-hills, etc.

Melampsora Salicis-Capreae, Pers., is common on S. Caprea,
L., S. aurita, L., and S. cinerea, L., and develops aecidia of
Caeoma Eronymi, Gmel., on the spindle-tree.

Fig. 238.

-Aspen leaf with sporocarps of Melampsora Tremulae, Tul.
After Hartig.

PART IV.

PROTECTION AGAINST ATMOSPHERIC INFLUENCES.

489

PROTECTION AGAINST ATMOSPHERIC
INFLUENCES.

FORESTS from the seedling stage up to maturity are subject
to the influence of the weather, and may thus be injured in
various ways. The chief meteorological phenomena in question
are frost, heat, wind (especially storms), heavy rainfall, hail,
snow, rime and ice.

As a matter of course, these phenomena frequently act
beneficially on vegetation ; frost disintegrates the soil and
prepares it for the reception of seed and the growth of forest-
plants ; the wind disseminates the seed gof many trees and
shakes snow from off their crowns which might otherwise be
broken by its accumulating weight ; atmospheric precipitation
and heat are indispensable for vegetable growth ; snow is a bad
conductor of heat, it keeps the soil comparatively warm in
winter, and protects young plants from frost. Snow also
absorbs much air and with it carbon dioxide ; the decomposi-
tion of mineral matter on which the formation of soil chiefly
depends is expedited by carbon dioxide, so that winters with
heavy snowfall are highly advantageous in this respect.

Forest Protection has, however, less to do with the beneficial
action of these phenomena than with the damage they may
inflict on forest plants, and the means acquired by experience
for protecting them.

The amount of damage done is conditional on several
circumstances. In the first rank are the extent and intensity
of the phenomenon, but the season and the state of the
weather before, during and after the calamity are also of
importance.

In the second place, the nature of the wood and locality
should be considered ; of great importance are the species of
tree grown, the system of management of the forest, and the
age and density of the injured woods, as different species and
age-classes suffer in different degrees from bad weather. As

490 PROTECTION AGAINST ATMOSPHERIC INFLUENCES.

regards locality, the soil and configuration of the ground
affect the amount of damage done, as they determine the
energy of growth of the forest plants from their youth up. The
chief points here are the chemical and physical nature of the
soil, the altitude and aspect of the locality. The nature of
the soil-covering may also be of importance. Since then all
these items may be combined in a great variety of ways, the
damage done must vary greatly according to circumstances.

The mode of occurrence of frost, wind, hail and snow
should be studied under meteorology, the importance of a
thorough knowledge of which to the forester is obvious.*
More or less complete meteorological observations and records
have been made during the last twenty years at the German
and French forest experimental stations. Of special import-
ance, as regards Forest Protection, is a steady and complete
record of serious damage by frost, storms, hail, snow, rime,
either in one of the registers provided for by a working-plan,
or in a special Record of forest calamities, giving not only a
complete account of the area affected and amount of damage
done, but also of all local facts that favoured or attenuated the
evil. The results of the protective measures adopted must
also be narrated. Localities specially liable to damage by
frost, storms, or snow, should be marked in special colours on
the range maps.

By circulating suitable directions, and by adopting a uniform
system of recording facts, the compilation of a general
account of experience in various forest districts will be
considerably facilitated.

* Among numerous works on meteorology, the following may be referred to :
Mohn, H., "Griindziige der Meteorologie," 5th edition, with 24 charts and
45 woodcuts. Berlin, 1898. Hann, Julius, " Handbuch der Klimatologie."
Stuttgart, 1897. English translation by Robert De Courcy Ward. London,
Macmillan & Co., 1903. Davis' "Meteorology." Boston, 1893. "Meteorology,"
Encyclopaedia Britannica, Vol. xxx.

491

CHAPTEE I.

PROTECTION AGAINST FROST.

As regards its distribution, frost may be either widespread
or local ; as regards season, early frosts occur in the autumn
and late frosts in the spring. Early or late frost may be
either widespread or local. Late frosts are commoner in
Europe than early frosts, and occur chiefly in lowlands, early
frosts being more prevalent in mountainous regions. The
extensive damage done by late frosts is due not only to their
frequency, but also to the susceptibility of plants during the
revival of vegetation in the spring. Frosts in May are usually
most fatal, June frosts being rare. April frosts are less
dangerous, vegetation not being sufficiently advanced to suffer
greatly. In the North-West of India, early frosts usually
do most damage, as the bright days and cold nights of
November sometimes involve daily ranges of temperature
of 40° and even 50° F., that are fatal to the sappy shoots
of trees.

Wintgr-frosts in Europe rarely injure indigenous trees,
though they may kill unprotected exotic evergreen plants
such as laurels, etc. The mild winters experienced in the
west of France and of the British Isles, render possible the
outdoor cultivation of many plants whose natural habitat
is further south, and which would succumb to the severe
winters of more easterly European countries, as was the case
with the common gorse, and many exotics, in Surrey, in
1895. Seeds have been subjected to temperatures of liquid
air (—180° C.) for 110 hours without injury, germinating just
as freely as other test seeds not so treated (Mr. Horace Brown
and Prof. Dewar, 1897).

Frost damages forest-plants in four ways : —

i. By freezing to death young woody plants or young
organs of plants.

492 PROTECTION AGAINST FROST.

ii. Splitting the stems of trees.

iii. Causing canker in stems of trees.

iv. Uprooting young plants.

SECTION I. — FROZEN PLANT-ORGANS.*
1. External Appearance of Injured Plants.

Frozen plants, or organs of plants, become soft, flexible and
hang down or wilt. When dead they eventually turn brown
or black. These outer signs result from the reduced tension
of the tigsues injured by frost, and from their inability to fulfil
their proper functions. Foliage frequently falls prematurely
owing to early frosts, a film of ice forming at the base of the
petiole, as in robinia and elder, which may become leafless
in a few days, the fallen leaves remaining quite green and
apparently unaffected by the frost. In other trees, as horn-
beam, beech or oak, the frozen foliage may die and turn
brown, and remain on the tree until the buds swell in the
spring, the normal autumnal leaf-fall being prevented by the
fact that the leaf is killed before the usual layer of cork, which
causes defoliation, has formed at the base of the petiole.

M. Her relates ("Rev. des E. et F.," July, 1897, p. 424)
that in a frost in February, 1895, in the Hautes Vosges, near
the Lake of Longemer, young silver-fir attacked by frost did
not lose their lower branches, which were protected by snow,
while their middle branches, above the snow, were killed.
The budp of the two or three highest verticils remained
dormant for a year, producing no shoots in 1895, and some
of them not even in 1896, whilst the terminal bud produced a
leader in the summer succeeding the frost. Hence it appears
that organs may be affected by frost, without being killed,
and that the most vigorous organs, such as terminal buds,
best resist frost.

2. Explanation of the Action of Frost.

Death by freezing is usually caused by late frosts, less by
early frosts. Winter frost rarely kills indigenous plants.

* Goppert, Dr. H. R., " Ueber das Gefrieren, Erfrieren tier Pfhumni mid
Schutzmittel dagegen." Stuttgart, 1883.

FROZEN PLANT-ORGANS. 493

The death by freezing of plants, or certain parts of plants,
is usually due to a rapid thaw rather than to the direct effects
of the low temperature to which they have been exposed.
This is because, owing to the low temperature, the liquid
contents of the affected tissues becomes denser, and a change
ensues in them. The cell-sap, when converted into ice,
expands 10 per cent., and sets free part of the air which it
contains ; this increases the size of the pores and the per-
meability of the membranous lining of the cell-wall, which
loses its powers of resistance to the passage through it of
certain substances, and allows the cell-sap to pass into the
intercellular spaces of the plant, where it freezes. The
injured tissues thus become limp from loss of water.

A similar result happens in the case of frozen starch-paste,
in which tlie water and starch become separated, and will
not reunite after a thaw. The air escaping from the frozen
tissues may also decompose the chlorophyll, and hence the
brown and eventually black colour of the dead organs. If,
however, the ice formed in the intercellular spaces thaws
slowly, the cell-wall may recover its normal elasticity and
reabsorb the water before the chlorophyll has decomposed.
With a rapid thaw this is impossible, as the water then remains
in the intercellular spaces, and death ensues.

The effect of allowing the thawed water to become
reabsorbed may be well observed in a meadow after a sharp
frost in May, when the grass has been in full growth. No
bad results follow from the frost, unless men or animals tread
on the frozen grass, but wherever they do, the crushed grass
appears black and dead, as if singed by a red-hot iron. This
is because the crushed tissues will not allow the return of the
sap when the thaw sets in. The more water an organ or plant
contains, the more it is subject to be frozen. The old theory
that plant-cells are split by the freezing of the cell-sap, and
consequent expansion of the ice, is not true; in the first
place, the cell is not filled with sap, and secondly, the cell-
wall is sufficiently expansible to resist an extension of j^th
of its volume, supposing it were full of sap and the sap
converted into ice.

Hartig states that cortex and bast containing concentrated

49 4 PROTECTION AGAINST FROST.

sap do not freeze so readily as young wood and leaves, which
contain a more watery sap, and which, owing to the scarcity
of intercellular spaces in wood, turn to ice within the lumina
of the cell, at the same time depriving the cell-walls of their
water and causing them to shrink.

Severe frost may thus impair the young zones of sap wood
in a tree without killing the cambium. The formation of
heartwood may thus he hindered and several zones remain
intermediate between sapwood and heartwood, forming a ring-
shake in the wood. Or the sapwood may be actually killed
and separated from the cambium, which continues the circum-
ferential growth of the wood outside the dead wood, so that
after the tree has been felled the inner portion may be found
completely separated from its outer zones by cup-shake.

Molisch agrees with H. Miiller Thurgau in the theory that
Sachs' view that rapid thaw kills plants is not generally
correct. Hess, however, considers that the results of experi-
ence in vineyards and forest nurseries are strongly in favour of
Sachs' view, and also states that Thurgau has reconsidered
his opinion, and has shown that a frozen plant may be saved
by slow thawing, that would certainly be killed if thawed
rapidly.*

3. Amount of Damage done.

a. General Nature of Damage.

Late and early frosts often kill young plants and destroy the
foliage, shoots, blossoms or young fruit of trees. This retards
their upward growth, causes a loss of increment and reduction
in quantity or complete loss of the crop of fruit; thus the
management may be impaired, especially when natural
regeneration is desired. Early frosts hinder the complete
ripening of the wood, especially in coppice-shoots; by the
early fall and killing of leaves forest trees suffer a loss in
potash and phosphoric acid, if these substances have not
completely returned to the stem, as they do before the normal
leaf-fall. Owing to the narrow annual zones of wood which
are formed in years of severe frost, they may be recognised on

* Molisch, H., " Untersuchungen iiber das Erfrieren tier Pflan/.en." Jena,
1897.

FROZEN PLANT-ORGANS. 495

an inspection of a cross-section of a stem. Frost also causes
certain forms of canker in broadleaved trees.

The physiological effects of severe winter-frost consist chiefly
in killing wood which is not fully ripe, and which has been
spared by the early frosts. In this way, either the youngest
shoots, the autumnal woody zone, or the whole annual ring of
wood inside the cambium-zone may suffer and cause cup-shake
in wood. Where cup-shake is thus caused, the concentrated
sap in the cambium-zone preserves it from damage, while the
zone of the sapwood next to it becomes so dried by the freez-
ing of the sap within it as to separate partially or entirely
from the cambium. Mechanical injuries done by winter-frost
will be described further on.

The damage done under the headings: species, tree-part,
system of management, age, locality, soil-covering, density of
stock, and weather will each be considered separately.

1. Species of Tree.

As a rule, broadleaved trees are more susceptible, to frost
than conifers, and species which prevail in the south suffer
more than those from the north. As special conditions affect-
ing the extent of the damage done by frost, the degree of
development and power of recovery of the plant are important.
Thus the beech and oak are equally liable to injury by frost,
.but the oak suffers less than the beech, as it shoots out later
in the spring. .

As regards recovery from damage, the oak is also more
favoured than the beech, for if its leader be frozen, lateral
buds develop new leaders, but the beech having fewer dormant
buds cannot do this so well. The oak can also put out a
second foliage during the year if the first be frozen, but the
beech cannot. Hence wood-formation is less hindered in the
oak than in the beech. Similar considerations affect other
species. As regards conifers indigenous in Central Europe,
the . silver-fir is most susceptible, but I have had a bed of
yearling silver-fir at Coopers Hill, quite unprotected during
the winter 1902-3, and planted them out safely under cover in
spring. Older silver-fir in the nursery had their young shoots
severely frozen in the spring.

496 PROTECTION AGAINST FROST.

A classification of woody plants according to their suscepti-
bility to frost is not impossible, but can only be of local value,
as the earlier or later shooting out of a tree depends on the
altitude, as well as on the species grown.

The following list groups trees according to their suscepti-
bility to late and early frosts : —

i. VERY FROST-TENDER SPECIES.

Ash, walnut, plane, sweet chestnut, beech, oaks,* robinia
(early frosts), silver-fir.

ii. MODERATELY FROST-TENDER SPECIES.

Sycamore, Norway maple, Salix viminalis, L., spruce, larch,
cluster pine. In many localities, spruce suffers so severely as
to be placed in group i.

iii. FROST-HARDY SI-ECIES.

Hornbeam, elms, rowan, aspen, poplars, willows (except
S. viminalis, L.), alders, birches, horse-chestnut, limes, hazel;
Scots, Black, Weymouth, Cembran and mountain pines ;
juniper.

In the case of very severe late frosts, species in the last
group, such as the Scots pine, may suffer, or be killed when
quite young.

If the locality be taken into account, as sea-coast, flat, hilly,
or mountainous land, some modifications must be made in the
above groupings.

In general, local trees which shoot out early are more or
less frost-hardy, for instance, the birch, alder, and sallow;
frost-tender species such as the oak and ash shoot out later in
the spring, and the beech, which shoots earlier than either,
owes its immunity from frost to its power of resisting cover
under which spring frosts do not occur. The faculty of pro-
ducing adventitious buds (oak and silver-fir) is helpful to those
species.

The larch, which shoots out early in the spring, suffers in
low situations from late frost.

* Some North American oaks and ash-trees suffer les$ th.an. European species ;
Turkey oak is less hardy than either.

As r

FROZKN PLANT-ORGANS. 497

As regards extreme winter-cold the following somewhat
different scale applies :—

i. VERY FROST-TENDER SPECIES.

Sweet chestnut, plane, walnut, many fruit trees, such as
apricot, peach, quince and cherry.*

ii. SOMEWHAT FROST-TENDER SPECIES.

Pedunculate and sessile oaks, ash, elms, beech, robinia,
silver-fir, yew.

Frost-hardy Species.

Maples, horse-chestnut, lime, poplars, willows, hornbeam,
birch, alders, Pyrus sp., hazel; spruce, Scots, Weymouth,
Mountain and Cembran pines, larch, juniper.

Pyramidal poplar is the least hardy of the poplars, rowan
least hardy of 'the Pyrus sp. The Weymouth pine may send
out second shoots in summer, which are usually killed in
autumn or winter.

As regards the susceptibility of exotic trees that have been
introduced into Central Europe, the following experience has
been gained in Germany : —

A. Susceptibility of Exotic Trees to Late and Early Frost.

i. VERY FROST-TENDER SPECIES.

Black walnut, all hickories, Turkey oak ; Abies Nordman-
niana, Spach. (Caucasus), Douglas fir, Jeffrey's pine, Pinus
ponderosa, Laws.

Black walnut is slightly less susceptible than common
walnut. Carya amara, Nutt, is the hardiest hickory. Nord-
mann's fir, sprouting late, is less susceptible than common
silver-fir.

ii. FROST-TENDER SPECIES.

American ash, grey walnut (Juglans cinerea, L.), sugar maple,
Calif ornian maple (A. circinatum, Pursh.) ; Sitka (or Menzies)
spruce, Corsican pine, Japanese larch.

* Apricots and peach trees are killed by 26°— 30° C., walnut by 30°— 32° C.,
the cherry-tree by 31°— 32° C.

F.P. K K

49 vS PROTECTION AGAINST FROSt.

iii. FKOST-HAKPY SPECIES.

Canadian poplar, cherry birch (Betula lenta, L.), white
spruce, Pinus rigida. Mill (pitch pine), Lawson's cypress,
Sequoia Wetting toniat Seem., red cedar (Juniper us rinjun-
ana, L.).

Young seedlings of pitch pine are occasionally killed by
early frosts. Lawson's cypress and Wellingtonia are somewhat
susceptible to frost for the first 4 — 5 years.

B. Susceptibility of Exotic Species to Winter-Frost.
It appears useless to give Hess' list of delicate species, as it
includes some plants that are quite hardy in the British Isles.

Frost-hardy Species.

Ked oak, ashleaved maple, sugar maple, American ash, all
hickories, cherry birch, Canadian poplar, Nordmann's fir,
Balsam fir, Douglas fir, Sitka spruce, white spruce, Pinus
ponderosa, Laws., Japanese larch, Lawson's cypress, Welling-
tonia, red cedar.

From these lists, it appears that the introduced exotics
hardly suffer more from frost than indigenous species. Several
species not mentioned by Hess, such as Thuja gigantea, Nut-
tall (T. plicata, D. Don., according to Sargent), Taxodium
distichum, Kich., are frost-hardy in Britain. In the west of
the British Isles numerous species thrive, which cannot with-
stand the frosts of Central Europe, or even of the eastern
counties of Great Britain.

c. Part of Tree.

The inflorescence, opening leaves and young shoots suffer
most ; the developed leaves and needles less, and least of all
the buds. In silver-fir and spruce the damage is nearly
always confined to the spring-shoots, the old needles escape,
and as in the silver-fir the terminal buds open out later than
the lateral buds, the latter are more often frozen.

d. System of Management.

Coppice, especially with short rotations, suffers more than
high-forest, as the susceptible young growth occurs so

FROZEN PLANT-ORGANS. 499

frequently. If the cutting of coppice is delayed in the spring,
the annual shoots may not be completely lignified before they
are exposed to early frosts. The underwood in coppice-with-
standards suffers less than simple coppice, owing to the shelter
afforded by the standards. The various shelterwood systems
constantly afford shelter to young growth, and are therefore
less liable to danger from frost, than the systems of Coppice
and of Clear-cutting in High Forest.

e. Age of Wood.

Woods are most exposed to danger in youth, especially
during the sprouting of the seed ; a single frosty night at this
period may at once annihilate the results of a forester's care.
The chief danger continues until the young plants have grown
above the local frosty zone. As, however, this varies accord-
ing to the configuration of the ground, a scale of susceptibility
for each species, according to age, cannot be attempted.

Quick-growing species in breezy hilly localities are most
favourably situated, while slow-growing tender plants in valleys
and plains suffer most.

In the case of widely-spread frosts and exceptionally low
temperatures, the leaves and shoots of taller trees may suffer.

f. Locality.

The following localities are specialty liable to injuries by
frost : —

i. Damp, low-lying places with stagnating air, for instance,
narrow, closed-in valleys, or small depressions in the ground,
termed frost-hollows. In such places, frost-hardy species such
as hornbeam, aspen, and birch are naturally invasive, whilst
the more valuable species become stunted, and there is gene-
rally a plentiful coating of lichens on the trees. If, in such
depressions, the soil is moist or wet, or there are water-courses
or swamps near at hand, the evaporation of the water still
further reduces the temperature, whilst owing to the absence
of air-currents the cold air is not replaced by warmer air from
the neighbourhood. If, on the contrary, the soil is dry, the
plants become cooled by their own radiation, and by the

K K 2

500 PROTECTION AGAINST FROST.

descent of heavy, cold air from above, which collects like
a lake over the low ground and causes sharply-defined
frost-limits.

ii. Woods on north-easterly, easterly, south-easterly or
southerly aspects suffer most from frost; on the two
former aspects, because, unless sheltered by a hill, they are
exposed to cold frosty winds, whilst the sudden exposure to
the sun's rays after sunrise increases the danger' of easterly
aspects. On south-easterly and southerly aspects growth
begins earlier in the spring than on colder aspects, prolonging
the period of exposure. On south aspects the variations of
temperature are also greater than on cooler aspects. Northerly
and westerly aspects are least exposed to injury by frost.

iii. High plateaux are more heated by the sun than low-
lands, where the atmosphere is denser ; vegetation on them is
therefore more precocious. But the radiation of heat at
night is greater than in lowlands, and consequently there is a
greater range of temperature, while woody plants stand sudden
changes from heat to cold worse than intense cold.

As a rule, valleys, lowlands, and plateaux suffer more from
frost than hills and mountain sides.

iv. Wet impermeable soils, such as cold clays, induce low
air-temperature, and frost holds out longer there. The richer
and deeper the soil, the more quickly do plants recover from
freezing and grow out of the reach of frost.

<j. Nature of Soil-covering.

A dense and high growth of grass and herbage increases the
danger from frost, as it prevents the soil from being heated,
diminishes the circulation of the air, and reduces the tempera-
ture by transpiring moisture and radiating heat. From
observations made at Viernheim in Hesse, the temperature
over an area covered with grass may be 16° F. lower than
on a plot of similar land bare of vegetation. On the other
hand, a lightly shading growth of birch, sallow, thorns, broom,
etc., will reduce radiation and thus preserve from frost plants
of valuable species which may be growing among the woody
undergrowth. Under conditions otherwise the same, frost
penetrates more slowly and less deeply into a soil covered with

FROZEN PLANT-ORC4ANS. 501

humus, dead leaves, etc., than on bare soil, though in the
former case the frost remains longer.

h. Density of Stock.

Natural regeneration-areas as well as plantations and sow-
ings under a shelterwood, which reflects, back the radiated
heat towards the ground, whilst the crowns oi: the shelter
trees prevent rapid changes of temperature, suffer much less
from frost than sowings and plantations in the open. Young
plants suddenly exposed by the removal of a shelterwood are
highly susceptible to damage by frost, and large areas of
spruce 6 feet in height may be thus killed.

Damage by frost is much less in well-stocked woods than
where blanks or thinly-stocked places occur. Unrestricted
radiation of heat and non-circulation of the air expose such
places to frost ; in the same way young growth surrounded by
tall woods is often frozen.

/. State of the Weather.

The clearer the sky during day-time and the brighter the
night, the greater is the danger from frost, especially with an
east wind. It seldom freezes with a cloudy sky, as then the
heat radiated from the ground is reflected back again by the
clouds. Late frosts accompanied by rime are more dangerous
than black frosts, as the coldness of the air is still further
increased by the evaporation of the frozen dew. In a pro-
longed frost, accompanied by cold dry winds, the frozen twigs
may be dried up and killed. A wet autumn generally
increases the subsequent bad effect of the winter's cold. ^

As a rule, in Central Europe, all danger from frost is over
by the middle of May, but exceptions may occur, and in 1892
the grass-temperature at Coopers Hill, in Surrey, from the
13th to the 16th June, varied between 25° and 32° F.,
so that potato-shoots and bracken were frozen and killed
in the neighbourhood. In mountainous regions, late frosts
are to be feared till July. In the north of India, night-
frosts may occur, on clear nights, from October till the
end of March, and they cause considerable damage to

502 PROTECTION AGAINST FROST.

Sal (Shorea rcbusta) and other winter-green and ever green
trees.* Very extensive damage was done to saplings and
poles in N.-W. India by severe frost in February, 1905.

4. Register of Severe Frosts.

Damage by frost is usually local. There are, however,
years in which damage is done over extensive areas, these
years being termed frost-years. The dates below refer solely
to frost-years.

In Central Europe, during the fifty-two years from 1848 to
1899, severe late frosts occurred, on the average, every other
year ; the worst years for persistence and severity of these
frosts being 1854, 1866, 1876, 1878, 1880 and 1894. Not a
single month is absolutely free from frost, not even July or
August. On May 21st, 1894, the foliage of the oak standards
in the lower ground of Prince's Coverts, near Esher, in Surrey,
was entirely destroyed by frost, whilst much damage was also
done to the ash and other underwood ; the crowns of the oak
trees, which were blackened by the frost, did not become
completely green again till the middle of July. A similar
event happened in the Forest of Dean on May 29th, 1819.1

In Central Europe, during the present century, there has
been one hard winter every five or six years, the coldest years
previous to 1895 being 1829-30 and 1879-80, when atGiessen,
on the 10th December, 1879, and in February, 1830, tempera-
tures of 81° and 25° below zero, F., were observed. The lowest
temperatures measured at Coopers Hill were 16° F., in
December, 1879, and 10°'l, in February, 1895. Lough-
borough is one of the coldest places in Britain, and its minima
on the 8th, 9th, and 10th February, 1895, were 5°, 4° and 1°
below zero, F. During 1895, the frost continued night and
day at Coopers Hill from January 25th to February 18th,
and skating lasted till the middle of March.

5. Protective Measures.

Protective measures against frost may be taken during the
formation and utilisation of woods.

* Many trees in India lose their leaves in tin- spring after retaining them
throughout the winter.

t "The Forest of Dean," by II. (J. Nicholls. J. Murray, London. IS'iS.

FROZEN PLANT-ORGANS. 503

a. During the Formation of Woods.

i. Drain wet places and all swamps in the forest before
restocking.

Moisture is not always favourable to frost, for Wollny
states that dry humus has a low specific heat and is a bad
conductor, while wet humus has a high specific heat and is a
good conductor. In accordance with this principle, cranberry
swamps in Carolina are irrigated during the blossoming
period, when frost is feared ; also, in Northern India, vegetable
gardens and sugar-cane crops are irrigated in order to obviate
danger from frost. In sphagnum peat-bogs, a thin layer of
peat is left at the base of the bog, when the peat is cut, in
order to reproduce the peat, and unless this is kept wet, frost
and drought kill the peat.

ii. Abandon attempts to grow frost-tender species in the
open. Such species as beech and silver-fir should not be
grown in bad frost localities, and, in any case, should be
protected by planting beforehand, or simultaneously with
them as nurses, fast-growing hardy trees, such as Scots pine,
larch, birch, or white alder.

iii. Natural regeneration under a shelterwood and keeping
seeding-cuttings dark should be preferred, especially on easterly
or southerly aspects. Low, branching shelter-trees should be
pruned to promote air-circulation.

iv. Strong transplants should be used, plants with balls of
earth and mound-planting being preferable for frost localities.
On wet ground, ridge-planting may be adopted.

v. Protective belts, 30 to 40 feet wide, of spruce, or Scots
pine, may be established along the easterly boundaries of
a wood.

vi. Where areas to be restocked are covered with a dense
growth of grass or herbage, this should be removed before
planting or sowing is attempted.

vii. Transplants should be lifted from the nursery early
in the planting season and heeled-in in shady places near the
area to be planted, in order to delay their sprouting. Silver-
fir planted out late in the spring suffers less from May frosts
than spruce planted out early or in the previous autumn,
because its buds open later.

504 PROTECTION AGAINST FROST.

viii. Wherever frosts are to be feared in forest nurseries,
the following rules should be observed : —

They should be situated on northerly or north-westerly
aspects.

Seed should not be sown too early, say before the 1st
of May ; it should be well covered.

In autumn, beds of seedlings may be covered with
brushwood, and seed-beds with dead leaves, moss, or
saw-dust. In spring, brushwood or shelter-mats may be
used. These latter may be placed on light wooden
supports and can then be removed and replaced at will.
Smoky fires may be kindled during the night, the
clouds of smoke preventing radiation from the ground.
This practice is extensively followed in French vineyards,
coal-tar, or small boxes filled with refuse resin, being
burned.

Plants which are covered with rime may be watered with
cold water before sunrise so as to delay their thawing.

Nurseries should be kept free of weeds.*
(ix.) Tender ornamental evergreen plants may be wrapped
up during winter in matting or straw, until they have grown
beyond the reach of frosts. The so-called hardening of trans-
plants which have been a few years in the ground is due to
the fact that their roots get gradually deeper into the soil, and
conduct the heat of the soil to the plants better than superficial
roots. Covering the base of transplants with cinder-dirt or
dead leaves also protects them from frost.

All parts of plants, which in spite of these precautions have
been killed by frost, should be pruned, and frozen plants, such
as oak-saplings, which have collum-buds, may be cut back
level with the ground. Dead conifers and plants like beech*
which coppice badly, must be pulled up and the vacant spots
replanted with strong transplants.

b. During the Tending of Woods.

i. Prune all stems of their lower branches that stand over
young growth, both in high forest and coppice-with-standards,

* Mr. W. Forbes states that in his nurseries, exposed to severe frost on the
27th May, 1899, the spots which carried most weeds experienced the
injury.

FROSTCRAC'K. 505

in order to favour the interchange of air in the lower strata of
the atmosphere.

ii. Preserve the natural soil-covering of dead leaves,
needles and moss.

c. During the Utilisation of Woods.

i. In natural regeneration-fellings, the shelterwood should
be only gradually removed, the final felling being delayed till
the plants have grown out of the reach of late frosts. In
frosty localities, regeneration-periods will be long — from 20
to 30 years.

ii. In the case of clear-cuttings, only small areas should
be cleared at one time.

iii. A protective belt should be left intact on exposed
easterly and north-easterly borders of a wood, at any rate
until the young growth which it protects is out of danger from
cutting winds.

iv. Coppice-fellings must be effected in the spring; if
made in autumn, winter-frosts would injure the stools ; they
should also run from west to east, so as to protect the young
growth from cold winds ; this precaution is specially necessary
for oak coppice, as frozen oak-shoots thaw rapidly when
exposed to the rising sun.

SECTION II. — FEOSTCRACK.
1. External Appearance.

Frostcrack* are long splits caused in stems by winter-frost,
which start at the bark and proceed radially and more or less
deeply towards the centre of the tree. They are frequently
followed by the formation of projecting longitudinal ridges on
the stem of an affected tree, which are termed frost-ribs.

2. Explanation.

Frostcracks are due to the contraction of the wood along its
periphery and radius, owing to extreme cold.

It has been proved by actual measurement, that the
diameters and girths of trees of various species are lessened
by their loss of heat during severe winters, and that there

506

PROTECTION AGAINST FROST.

is a certain ratio between the degree of frost and the girth
of the tree (Duhamel, Caspary, M. Hartig, Nordlinger,
Vonhausen).

The contraction of the wood, the reasons for which have
been explained in the preceding section, commences at freezing-
point and increases as the mercury falls, but the stem recovers
its original dimensions during a thaw. If, therefore, the
temperature but slowly decreases, so that the tree becomes
gradually colder from the exterior, inwards, the volume of the

Fig. 239. — Transverse section of an oak with two frostcracks. a and b.

bole contracts equably, and no rupture of the wood occurs.
For a tree to crack there must be a rapid fall of temperature,
down to -18° C. (0° F.). The external layers of wood (sap wood)
then freeze to such a degree that much water passes from the
cell-walls and passes into the cell-cavities. The central zone
(heartwood, or imperfect heartwood) is either unaffected or
much less affected than the outer zones ; it remains, therefore,
either unfrozen or much less frozen than the latter. The
circumferential contraction is therefore chiefly confined to the
outer zones of the wood, and consequently they can no longer
enclose its unRhrunken central portion, and the outer zones
therefore split radially and longitudinally, the crack thus

FROSTCRACK. 507

formed penetrating more or less deeply towards the centre of
the tree. The expansion of the sap, which flows into the crack
and freezes, also assists in further splitting the tree and in
extending the crack to the centre.

Most frostcracks occur on cold nights, between midnight
and 8 a.m., when the temperature is lowest, and the contraction
of the wood is consequently greatest ; the split is accompanied
by a noise like a pistol-shot.

3. Damage done.
A. General Nature of Damage.

The timber of trees cracked by frost is of reduced technical
value, and secondary damage by insects or fungi may
supervene.

The extent of the damage depends on the depth of the
crack, which varies with the severity of the frost.

Frostcracks close again with the rising temperature, after
the ice which has formed in the wood has thawed, and the
sap fills the cell-walls again. A new zone of wood forms over
the wound ; owing to the reduced pressure of the bark, this
new zone is broader than the previous ones. If the cold
continues to increase the crack increases in length and depth.
Frostcracks may attain lengths of 6 feet and more.

In subsequent years considerably less degrees of cold in
winter suffice to open out the crack again, as there is only the
thin wood of one year's zone to be cracked. It is closed up
again during summer. If this process be repeated for
several successive cold winters, owing to the successive super-
position of annual callus growths, a bevel-edged projection,
termed a frost-rib, is eventually formed, as shown in Fig. 239.
If there should be a succession of mild winters, a frostcrack
may heal up and not extend any further. But the bark,
which freezes much less readily, and is therefore less liable to
contraction, than the wood, may exercise tension on the latter
and prevent it from cracking, even in hard winters. In such
cases internal frostcracks result, which may be either radial
or peripheral. In the oak, such internal frostcracks are
said to occur only on the root-stock. As secondary damage,

508 PROTECTION AGAINST FROST.

attacks by insects and fungi (Xcctria and Polyporm sp.)
may frequently ensue.

B. Damage done in Particular Cases.

(a) Species. — Hardwoods with large, medullary rays are
most subject to frostcrack. Deep roots also favour it, as they
pass into zones of soil which are only slightly affected by the
air temperature and thus keep the stem comparatively warm.
This difference of temperature between the outer and inner
zones of the wood of a tree increases its liability to crack.

Oak, beech, walnut, elm, ash and sweet chestnut are the
trees most subject to frostcrack, and Turkey and sessile oaks
more than pedunculate oak. The sap, which pours from the
wound after a thaw, turns dark brown and betrays the injury
which the tree has received.

Frostcracks also occur in the case of softwoods, such as the
horse-chestnut, lime, poplars, and tree-willows. They are
rare on conifers, and then chiefly on the silver-fir.

(b) Part of Tree. — Frostcracks usually occur in the lower
part of the stem of a tree, especially at places where the growth
is uneven near the root-stock, at knots, or where the stem is
eccentric.

Splitting is furthered by local wounds owing to the admission
and freezing of sap, and is very common in the case of coppice-
shoots which have been allowed to grow into trees, and which
are always unsound at their base. Splits from the root-stock
proceed upwards and from a knot downwards; on eccentric
stems, they are always towards the largest diameter.

In the case of stems of a regular shape, the south side
suffers most from frostcrack, and then the east and north
sides, the westerly side suffering least of all. The south side
suffers most, because the most vigorous circumferential growth
takes place there, and the tissues are consequently very
sappy.

(c) Systems of Management. — Standards over coppice suffer
most, as they are exposed to cold winds, whenever the under-
wood is felled. Standards in high forest, which are exposed
after growing in a dense wood, are also very liable to frost-
crack.

FROSTCRACK. . 509

In the Kottenforst, near Bonn, an area of 7,400 acres
at an altitude of 426 feet, where the treatment is that
of coppice-with-standards, and the soil, clay with an imper-
meable substratum, over twenty per cent, of the oak stan-
dards are frostcracked. Frostcrack is also very prevalent in
the seventy to eighty-year-old oak-woods in Windsor Forest,
owing to the absence of underwood, and it is also extremely
common in the open parts of the Forest of Dean, where the
underwood has been browsed down by sheep.

(d) Age of Tree. — Large old trees, as a rule, suffer more
from frostcrack than younger trees, because the differences in
temperature between their outer and inner woody zones are
greater.

(e) Locality. — Fertile and moist soils favour frostcrack. It
is very frequent in narrow valleys along watercourses, where
the night temperature falls exceptionally low in winter.

(/) Season. — Frostcracks generally occur late in the winter,
when the sap begins to flow, provided intense cold should
set in. The sapwood then rapidly cools and contracts, while
the inner zones of the wood retain a higher temperature and
do not contract. Long-protracted and gradually falling
temperatures are not so dangerous. Storms increase the
danger by blowing the frozen stems backwards and forwards ;
Hess even considers it probable that storms may occasion
frostcracks at the commencement of a thaw, but as the outer
zones of the wood would then be expanding, whilst the inner
zones remain cold, a cup-shake, or separation of the wood
along a portion of the whole of an annual ring, would probably
result.

4. Protective Rules.

i. Thoroughly drain wet soils.

ii. Keep up the density of woods, and underplant all
pure oak high forests with a shade-bearer, such as beech or
silver-fir.

iii. Establish protective belts of spruce along the north-
eastern, eastern, and south-eastern boundaries of a wood.

iv. Abandon the practice of reserving oak and other
standards in places where frostcrack is common.

510 PROTECTION AGAINST FROST.

SECTION III. — FROST-CANKER.

Cankers may be caused by frost among young broadleaved
species, such as oaks, ash, maples, beech, fruit-trees, etc.,
which have not yet grown above the local frost-level. Thus,
at the base of a young s''oot, which has been repeatedly frozen
down to the main stem, the living bark separates from the dead
wood. A callus forms round the wood in the growing season,
but is frozen on the recurrence of severe frost, and as, in
frost-hollows, this may happen annually, a canker is thus
formed, and the wood may be killed down to the pith, on the
side from which the branch arose. These cankers are formed
near the root-stock of oaks and ash growing in depressions on
stiff clay soil ; they may be distinguished from others caused
by fungi, as they increase in size only after severe frost.

Frost-cankers on Shorea robusta are very common in frosty
depressions in Northern India, the shoots being killed down
to the ground annually until an abnormally large flattened
stool is formed. Coppice-shoots of a variety of sweet chestnut
from the south of France are also similarly frozen down in
Alsace, while the common variety of the tree produces splendid
coppice-poles.

SECTION IV. — UPROOTING OF SEEDLINGS BY FROST.
1. General Account.

During February and March, when night-frosts alternate with
thaws in the day-time, it is often found that young seedlings
are raised with the soil, and in the subsequent thaw, when the
soil sinks back again, their roots lose their held on the ground,
and the plants fall over and die. This action is termed frost-
lifting, the seedlings being lifted by the alternate frost and thaw.

In such cases the surface-soil is raised by the conversion of
the water in it to ice-crystals, and the little seedlings are thus
lifted above their original position. When the thaw sets in,
and the soil gradually softens and returns to its original level,
the plants cannot do so, as their roots are in the deeper and
still frozen soil, while the surface-soil is thawing ; when, there-
fore, the soil has completely thawed, the plants lose their
root-hold and fall over, as shown in Fig. 240. Even when the

UPROOTING BY FROST.

511

soil is thawed completely, the plants cannot resume their
original position, their roots not being stiff enough.

a

Fig. 240.— Spruce seedling (a) lifted (b), (c] and (d) and uprooted by frost (e).
(N) Original ground-level.

2. Damage done in Particular Cases,
(a) Species and Age of Plant. — Nearly all woody plants may
be uprooted by frost during the first two years of their life,

512 PROTECTION AGAINST FROST.

and especially those of shallow-rooted species, such as spruce,
birch, alder, beech, hornbeam, etc. Even ash, sycamore, and
silver-fir are not unfrequently uprooted in this way. Sweet
chestnut, hazel and oaks escape this form of injury on account
of the depth to which their tap-root descends during germina-
tion. The greatest damage is done in nurseries to seed-beds
and beds of transplants, and to sown areas in forests.

(b) Locality. — Certain soils and localities suffer more than
others in this way. Thus, provided they are moist — fine
soils, such as peat, fine sand, marls and loam, are most
exposed to frost-lifting. Dry sandy soils do not suffer. As a
rule, the finer-grained a soil is, the more water it absorbs,
and plants are therefore more easily lifted in such soils,
whilst in coarse-grained, sandy soil the water descends, and
the surface is therefore not subject to lifting. Soil bare of
herbage is also more easily lifted than soil which is kept down
by the roots of grass and weeds.

As regards locality, deep depressions suffer most, as there
is then less chance of the moisture draining away. Warm
aspects, except westerly ones, suffer most, as, on them, thaw-
ing and freezing follow one another most frequently ; northerly
aspects hardly suffer at all from frost-lifting.

3. Protective Rules.

(a) For the Forest. — Drain away all superfluous moisture
by open drains ; drain-pipes may be used only in nurseries.
Planting should be preferred to sowing, and ball-planting is
the best security against this evil, while spring-plantings
suffer less than autumn-plantings. Where sowings are
adopted, oats may be mixed with the seed, which should be
sown rather densely. Preserve the natural soil-covering of
weeds when plantations are made on soil liable to be lifted
by frost.

(b) For Forest Nurseries. — Mix clay soils with 25 to 83 per
cent, of sand. Raise the seed-beds so as to secure good drain-
age. Sow deeply and densely, and cover the spaces between
the drills or rows of plants with straw, dead leaves or saw-
dust, all of which are bad conductors of heat ; even cinder-
dirt mixed with sand may be used ; this delays thaws. After

UPROOTING BY FROST.

513

weeding between the rows of plants, fill with good soil all
inequalities thus produced in the beds.

It is advisable in autumn to leave a few weeds in the beds,
as their roots give coherence to the soil. Any plants which
have been uprooted by frost, should be at once replaced, and
fine soil placed round them. This is not an expensive opera-
tion if boys are employed, and costs only from threepence to
fourpence per thousand plants.

Fig. 241,— Effects of Wind on Beech. Altitude, 2,500 ft,
Photo, hy R. E. Marsden,

-

F.P,

L L

514

CHAPTER II.

PROTECTION AGAINST INSOLATION.

INSOLATION may dry up seeds and young plants, or twigs and
branches of trees ; it may also scorch or crack the bark and
wood of trees.

SECTION I. — DROUGHT.

1. Appearance and Cause of Injury.

A period of more than 14 consecutive days without rain is
termed "absolute drought"; a "partial drought" is when
for 28 days the average daily rainfall is not more than
one-hundredth part of an inch.*

Woody plants, and parts of them which have been dried by
the sun, have much the same appearance as if they had been
killed by frost ; blossoms, leaves, needles and young shoots
first wilt, then gradually turn brown and shrivel up ; they
finally fall off, although dried leaves may remain for a long
time hanging on the trees.

This drying-up of leaves and shoots is the result of pro-
longed hot, dry weather, which abstracts much moisture from
plants and from the soil ; transpiration being thus greatly
increased, plants pass off more watery vapour into the air
than their roots can absorb from the soil, which, becoming
continually drier, is less able to meet their demands. The
action of heat on forest plants is therefore indirect, as the sun's
rays do not kill them directly.

2. Damage done.
A. General Account.

Owing to the want of the necessary moisture in the soil
usually caused by high degrees of heat, seeds may not secure
sufficient water for germination, and young seedlings may
be killed. In the case of older plants the foliage dries up and
falls prematurely, the younger shoots may be killed, and the
annual wood-increment considerably reduced.

Drought at the commencement of the growing season reduces

* "British Rainfall" (Ed. Stanford, i-ong Acre, 1906).

DROUGHT.

515

the height-growth (1893) ; at its close, it reduces radial growth
(1887). Dry years, as well as frost years, may be detected on
the transverse sections of a bole by narrow annual zones.

Professor Henry,* of Nancy, measured 250 trees in order to
ascertain the loss of diameter increment, in the very dry
summer of 1893, with the following result : —

Reduction of diameter in the years —

Species.

Soil.

1891.

1892.

1893.

Oak ...

Loam

From
100

To

83

Per-
centage.
17

To

77

Per-
centage.
23

Calcareous

100

91

9

75

25

Beech

Deep clay

100

77

23

41

59

M

Shallow calcareous

100

56

44

30

70

Hornbeam

—

100

86

14

49

51

Spruce

—

100

77

23

44

56

Occasionally single stems, or groups of poles, may be
killed by insolation ; this is frequently the case with beech
standards, which after growing in a dense wood are exposed,
as mother-trees, in seeding-fellings. The yield of dead wood
in dry years is very considerable.

In seasons of drought plants cannot obtain sufficient nitrogen
compounds from the soil; E. Mer also proved that starch-
production in the leaves is weakened. Plants by premature
leaf-fall also suffer a considerable loss of combined nitrogen and
phosphoric acid, that prejudices the formation of fruit and seed.

Professor Krausf analysed the leaves of lilac, Conms mas,
L., and horse-chestnut with the following results : —

Chemicals.

Dead Leaves in Summer.

Autumn Leaves.

N.

1,947

Percentage.
24

1,370

Percentage.
14

P20«

522

6-5

373

3-8

K20

2,998 37-3

3,831

39-7

Ca02

Other mineral matter

1,878
8,028

—

2,416
9,636

—

" Rev. des E. et F.," 1895, p. 75.

I " Die Sommerdurre der Baume," " Central Blatt fur das Gesammte Forst-
wesen," 1875, p. 206.

LT O
Ll Af

516 PROTECTION AGAINST INSOLATION.

Thus, nitrogen and phosphoric acid are only about half as
bulky in autumn leaves as in summer-dried leaves, potash
being nearly equal in both, while lime and other mineral
matter is greater in the autumn leaves.

Similar figures hold good for the leaves of other forest
trees, and it is therefore evident that nitrogenous matter and
phosphoric acid pass back in the autumn from the leaves
into the twigs, and that if the foliage should fall prematurely,
the trees must lose a quantity of these valuable substances.

Other secondary dangers caused by drought are a greater
liability of trees to insect-attacks, and increased danger from
forest fires.

B. Damage under Special Conditions.

(a) Species. — The relative susceptibility of trees when very
young to be injured by insolation is shown in the following

groups :—

i. VERY SUSCEPTIBLE SPECIES.

¥

Beech, ash, sweet -chestnut, black alder ; silver-fir, spruce.

ii. SUSCEPTIBLE SPECIES.

Hornbeam, sycamore, Norway maple, limes ; white alder,
birch ; Cembran pine, larch.

iii. HARDY SPKCIES.

Oaks, elms, field-maple, horse-chestnut, robinia, planes,
Pyrus spp., wild cherry, poplars, willows ; Scots, Austrian,
Weymouth and mountain pines, and juniper.*

The drought of the year 1893, according to Mer, caused
the silver-fir in the Vosges Mountains to produce only f — j of
its normal diameter-increment and \ — f of the normal length-
increment.

(b) Age of Tree. — Sowings and plantings in the open are
most exposed to damage during the early years of their life,
until they have completely covered the ground. On poor,
shallow soils, and in hot places, without lateral shelter, plants
aged up to twelve or fifteen years may die from drought. It
has been observed that older transplants on weedy ground
suffer more from drought than younger transplants on fresh

* Austrian pine has proved very successful for planting dry calcareous rock
at Rochefort, in Belgium.

DROUGHT. 517

clearings, as in the latter case dew and rain have more access
to the soil. When once a plantation has closed in, so as to
cover the soil completely, the chief danger from drought is
over ; but occasionally spruce poles have been killed by
prolonged drought.

(c) Locality. — In plains and hilly lands, the danger from
drought is greater than in mountains where the most
extensive forests are found, as then damper air, more
frequent precipitations and inoister soil prevail. Eegions
over 1,500 — 1,800 feet altitude have little to fear from drought.
Small flat hills and narrow ridges suffer most of all.

As regards aspect, the southern and south-western slopes
suffer most from drought, and the northern slopes least of
all. In very narrow valleys which have been cleared of
trees, or are scantily wooded, the reflection of the heat from
side to side greatly increases its effects, and rows of houses
have the same effect on street-avenues.

As regards soils, woods growing on calcareous soils, and
especially on stony superficial soils above calcareous rocks,
suffer most from heat ; then those on stiff clays, whilst sandy
soils are more favourable as regards drought, especially when
the grains of sand are fine ; woods on sandy loams and loams
stand drought best of all. This is due to the following
causes : poor shallow calcareous soil is not retentive of
moisture, while the porous rock beneath it drains away water
rapidly from the surface ; marls and clays become hard when
exposed to heat and crack in all directions; coarse sands
suffer more than fine sands on account of the greater capil-
larity of the latter, which attracts water from below ; loams
readily absorb rain, dew and snow-water, and retain moisture
in the subsoil, and can, therefore, easily replace the loss of
the surface-water.

(d) Soil-covering. — Weeds, and especially a dense tall growth
of grass, increase the dangers of drought, filling the soil with
their roots and absorbing and transpiring its moisture, which
would otherwise be available for the woody plants growing in
or above the grass. A light covering of isolated shrubs, on the
contrary, may prove beneficial by shading the valuable species.

Leaves and moss and the humus resulting from their

518

PROTECTION AGAINST INSOLATION.

decomposition on the surface of the ground shelter the roots
of trees from the sun.

(e) Density of Crop. — Woods in which the trees stand some-
what far apart from one another suffer more from drought
than well-stocked woods. Isolated, clean-boled standards
with smooth bark, such as beech, hornbeam, birch, silver-fir,
especially at noon, reflect the rays of the -sun on to the soil,
as shown in Fig. 242, and thus dry up the soil around them ;

young natural - regeneration
may fail completely around
such trees.

(/) Weather and Season of the
Year. — The drying-up of little
plants owing to drought may
be recognisable early in the
summer. A dry May with a
continuance of cutting east
winds soon disperses the
moisture in the soil that has
accumulated during winter, and
if there is insufficient rain
in June, many plants on areas
recently sown or planted may
be killed. If the dry weather
should continue throughout
July, more damage will be
done, and it is generally from
the middle of July till the

middle of August that the plants die, for the maximum
summer - temperature is attained at about a month after
Midsummer-Day.

Not until the beginning of September, therefore, can young
plantations and sowings which have hitherto escaped be
considered out of danger from drought.

3. Register of Dry Years.

During the past century, the following have been years of
drought in Central Europe : 1800, 1807, 1811, 1812, 1822, 1884
1842, 1846, 1857, 1858, 1859, 1863, 1865, 1868, 1874, 1876,

Fig. 242. — Damage to young growtl
by reflected heat.

DROUGHT.

519

1881, 1883, 1889, 1893, 1898 and 1906 (autumn) ; or, on
the average, one year in five. To give a local example, the
monthly rainfall and maximum temperature observed in
1893, at Coopers Hill College, Surrey, are here given.

MONTHS.

RAINFALL IN
INCHES.

AVERAGE MAX.
TEMPERATURE
IN DEGREES FAHR.

REMARKS.

1893.

Aver-
ages
1875-92.

Diffe-
rences.

1893.

Aver-
ages
1875-92.

Diffe-
rences.

January ...
February . . .
March
April
May
Juno .. ..

1-29
3-07
•38
•12
•76
•75
2-14
1-35
1 01
6-10
1-84
3-00

1-98
1-70
1-52
1-77
1-92
2-22
2-72
2-38
2-26
*2-61
2-54
2-01

- -69
+ 1-37
-1-14
-1-65
-1-16
-1-47
- -58
-1-03
-1-25
+ 3-49
- -70
+ -99

55-4
63-6
66-4
73-6
67-4
72-4
68-1

47-1
53'2
59-8
66-3

68-7
68-8*
64

+ 8-3
+ 10-4
-j- 6'6
+ 7-3
- 1-3
+ 3-6
+ I'l

•3 in. of the March rainfall
fell on the first 5 days of
the month, about '5 in. fell
on the 12th July, and 2*5 in.
on the 10th October.
The temperature was
above 80° F. on the 21st
April, on 4 days in June, 5
days in July, 8 days in
August, and once in Sep-
tember, the maximum being
91-8°, on the 19th August.

July...

August
September-
October ...
November..
December ..

Totals ...

21-81

25-63

-3-82

* For 17 years only.

All farms on the shallow soil above the chalk suffered greatly
from drought, and there was scarcely any hay, and corn was
very short in stalk. As regards the effects on forest growth,
there was an enormous crop of acorns and sweet-chestnuts. All
the lime blossom fell without maturing fruit, and isolated
beech, elm and lime-trees lost most of their foliage in August.
The heavy fall of rain in February and the first few days of
March soaked the ground so thoroughly, that a plantation of
twenty acres of three-year-old Scots pine transplants on the
Bagshot sands, in Windsor Forest, was a complete success, in
spite of the drought.

4. Protective Rules,
a. During the Formation of Woods.

i. Natural reproduction is preferable to artificial sowing, or if
it cannot be carried out, choose deep-rooted strong transplants
and cover the planting spots with sods or large stones.
Nursery transplants, when planted out in the forest, stand

520 PROTECTION AGAINST INSOLATION.

drought better than seedlings taken directly from the seed-beds.
Coniferous plants taken from the nursery with balls of earth
round their roots, stand drought less well than strong well-
rooted transplants ; mound-planting also gives bad results in
very dry years, and it may then be necessary to plant out spruce
only under shelter of birch or Scots pine nurses.

ii. The soil should be deeply trenched, and sowing, or
planting of yearlings, should be carried out simultaneously
with the growth of a crop of oats, or buckwheat, which will
shelter the young plants till the autumn ; the deeply trenched
soil enables Scots pine seedlings to form deep roots, and soil
which has been well worked parts with moisture less freely,
and is more hygroscopic than a compact soil. In years of
drought and on poor dry soils, moss should be placed between
the lines of sowings ; this costs about £1 an acre.

iii. In hot countries, planting should be done at the very
commencement of the monsoon, and sowing is often preferable,
as many plants, such as teak, form very long tap-roots imme-
diately after germination. Planting may also be done by
means of plants grown in small bamboo-baskets, which soon
rot and allow the roots to spread in the soil.

b. Rules for Nurseries.

i. Subdivide the area of the nursery by narrow evergreen
hedges, or provide temporary side shelter by mats ; these
precautions are especially necessary for spruce.

ii. Trench the nursery-beds deeply in autumn, and manure
with compost, or burned sods ; this not only keeps the beds
free from weeds, but also promotes the development of strong
fibrous roots.

iii. Transplant yearling plants, especially of spruce, into
nursery-lines.

iv. Nursery-beds of seedlings may be temporarily protected
by sticking branches into the ground on the south side of the
beds or all round them, or by covering them with mats,
supported by a framework, 4 to 6 feet high, as in protecting
plants against frost. The mats may be removed during
showers, and only placed over the beds at the hottest time of
day, from 11 A.M. to 8 P.M. Such shelter should also be

DROUGHT. 521

withdrawn in the autumn in order to harden the plants. Where
branches are used to protect plants from the sun, Scots or
Weymouth pines are preferable, as broadleaved branches soon
have their foliage shrivelled, and spruce needles fall off, while
silver-fir foliage is too dense.

(v.) Keep the beds free from weeds, as weeding prevents the
soil from caking, and renders it hygroscopic ; for this purpose
the spaces between the plants should be hoed in hot summers,
even if there are no weeds. Soft earth may be placed on either
side of the rows of plants, when the beds are weeded.

vi. The plants may be watered, or irrigated ; it is best to
water in the evening, and when watering has been commenced
it must be repeated from time to time till rain falls, as it
encourages the formation of superficial rootlets, which would
soon die should the beds become too dry. On this account the
beds should be watered only when absolutely necessary. The
crust of earth on the surface of the beds, due to watering, must
from time to time be broken up with the hoe. An account
of nursery-irrigation is given in Schlich's Silviculture.*

c. Rules for Tending Woods.

All epicormic branches must be pruned from standards
reserved in high forest, or over coppice, as they keep rain and
dew from the young plants, and render the standards stag-
headed. The standing-crop should be kept as dense as possible,
and the natural soil-covering preserved. Trees along the
boundaries of a forest, or along roads, should be kept dense,
and the outer row be allowed to branch down to the ground,
so as to exclude dry hot winds from the forest. A series of
horizontal trenches may be dug along dry slopes, in order to
retain the rain-water.

d. Rules during Utilisation of Woods.

The seeding-cuttings on poor dry soils should be kept dark,
but at the same time, after a good crop of seedlings has sprung
up, the plants should be rapidly or gradually exposed according
to their demands on light so that they may get the full benefit
of rain and dew, and develop rapidly. All isolated smooth
barked mother-trees should be felled, and the bare patches

* " Manual of Forestry " (3rd edition), Vol. II., p. 137.

522 PROTECTION AGAINST INSOLATION.

round their stumps planted up. Small narrow felling-areas
should be established, running from north-west to south-east,
as far as this can be done without danger from storms, so that
the young crops may get lateral shelter from the old wood to
the south-west of them.

SECTION II. — BAKK- SCORCHING.
1. External Appearance.

The name bark-scorching* denotes a well-known malady of
trees, which generally occurs on the western or south-western

Fig. 243. — Transverse section of a beecli affected by bark-scorching, cut 12 feet
above the ground. The damage is limited to the sector a b c.

sides of stems and in directions intermediate to them, the
W.S.W. side being the commonest seat of injury, while it only
exceptionally happens on the southern side of a tree. This
injury is first rendered visible by the drying up of the bark of
affected trees, which assumes a reddish colour, and then

* The term bark-scorching is used in Somerville's translation of Hartig's
Diseases of Trees, anil is a better term than lnirk-hlixt<>>-, which has alivadv
been applied to diseases caused by fungi.

BARK-SCORCHING. 523

gradually splits lengthwise and horizontally from the stem, and
falls off in pieces. The injured sapwood turns brown, the
brown colour fading gradually towards the still sound wood.

The exposed wood becomes rotten owing to the admission and
germination of spores of various species of Polyporus. By
strong and repeated insolation, the rot spreads in a wedge-
shaped manner down into the heart of the tree in the direction
of the medullary rays (Fig. 243).

The destructiveness of the fungi is frequently hastened by
the fact that a strong growth of grass and herbage dries up
the surface moisture of the soil.

2. Explanation.

Bark-scorching is the result of powerful insolation. If the
sun beats directly on a stem, its west and south-west sides
become considerably heated. The southern side of a tree is
less heated owing to the frequent easterly winds, which blow
during hot anticyclones when the sky is clear, and skim past
the southern side of trees, and reduce the temperature of their
bark and sapwood on that side, whilst the W.S.W. side of the
tree is not affected by the east wind. This explanation is
confirmed by the fact, that when the southern side of a tree
is scorched, it has been found to be sheltered from easterly
winds by an adjoining dense wood. The greater effects of the
sun's rays on the W.S.W. side of a tree are also due to the fact
that the maximum daily temperature is in the afternoon, when
the sun has passed the meridian, and that the lower the sun
is, the more direct are its rays in the radial direction of the
stem, and the more intense are their effects.

Vonhausen found that the maximum temperature on the
W.S.W. side of a tree, between its bark and sapwood, was
120° F. when the air-temperature was 91° F., while in
Bavaria, on the 18th August, 1892, with an air-temperature
of 96'8° F., Hartig observed a temperature of 131° F.
between the bark and sapwood of some isolated 80-year-old
spruce trees. Cambium cells of European trees cannot with-
stand temperatures between 104° — 130° F. any better than
leaves and herbaceous shoots, which are speedily killed by
such temperatures.

524 PROTECTION AGAINST INSOLATION.

8. Damage done.

(a) In general. — This malady reduces the technical value of
the steins and frequently kills a tree. The forest-owner thus
suffers a loss of timber and increment, to which may be added
danger of breakage and of insect-attacks, and exposure of
young growth requiring shelter.

(b) Species. — Bark-scorching affects chiefly trees with thin
and persistent smooth cortext, free from cracks.

Species of trees that produce thick bark, and the bark of
which is rough and fissured, do not suffer. Their dead coarse
bark is a bad conductor of heat, and never becomes heated to
the same extent as smooth bark.* The bast under coarse bark
offers a further protection to the cambium against insolation.

Beech suffers most, then spruce and Weymouth pine.
Next come hornbeam, ash and sycamore ; next, Norway maple,
lime, horse-chestnut, sweet-chestnut, cherry, rowan and apple-
tree, sometimes silver-fir.

Oaks, elms, field-maple, birch, most species of Pyrus, Scots
pine, black pine and larch never suffer from bark-scorching.

(c) Part of the Tree. — Bark-scorching affects only the clear
bole of a tree, and generally its lower part from the base
upwards. The portion of the stem which is immediately
above the root-stock suffers most where there is no underwood,
owing to the heat reflected from the ground, while the fact
that sap is earliest in motion near the base of trees may
contribute. The taller the stem and the higher the crown
above the ground, the more exposed is a tree to scorching.
Large knots or low branches localise the injury to the part of
the stem which is below them. Stems covered with moss or
lichens resist insolation, and so do trees that are branched
down to the ground.

An example of the bad effects of pruning trees exposed to
insolation may be seen in the Mirwart Estate in the Belgian
Ardennes, where a number of spruce trees planted to give
shelter along the eastern side of a meadow have been pruned
of all their lower branches, and are all badly scorched.

* Hartig states that in September, at 10 a.m., with an air-temperature of
69-8° F., the temperatures on the S.K. side of thin-barked beech mid spnu-e
were 98'6° F. and 82'4° F., while that o£ Scots pine was 68° F.

BARK-SCORCHING. 525

(d) Age of Tree. — The trees mentioned above are exposed to
injuries by bark-scorching from the age of poles upwards, but
large trees suffer more than smaller ones ; the latter, owing to
the greater curvature of their stems, do not receive so much
direct heat as the former, and they radiate heat more freely
than large trees. In beech woods, where bark-scorching is
frequent, 60- to 70- year-old beech trees suffer most.

(e) Position of Trees. — Bark-scorching attacks trees standing
in the open only, and especially those which have been
recently exposed, after standing in a dense wood ; also trees
along the westerly and south-westerly boundaries of a forest.
Trees forming a dense leaf-canopy are never attacked, as
their bark cannot become heated like that of exposed trees.
Exposed trees do not always suffer in the first year after
exposure ; sometimes four years pass before bark-scorching
occurs, but this depends on the state of the weather.

(/) Locality. — The locality and its surroundings, and the
nature of the soil-covering, may be here considered. As
westerly and south-westerly aspects are most exposed to
danger, any woods forming protective zones in these direc-
tions prevent or reduce the effects of insolation. Undergrowth
and soil-covering of dead leaves and humus are also useful, as
the reflection of the sun's heat from the ground is much
greater when the soil, and especially calcareous or sandy soil,
is fully exposed. The malady is most frequent during the hot
months in beech forests.

4. Protective Rides.

(a) Avoid fellings by which beech- or spruce- woods may
become exposed to the west, south-west, or south.

(b) Do not leave beech-standards near the threatened
boundaries of a wood. In France it has been usual to lop the
side branches of trees in woods bordering on roads, in order
to prevent injury to the roads by drip and shade. This pre-
disposes beech and other smooth-barked trees to scorching.
It is better to fell such trees and encourage advance growth,
which shelters the wood, without endangering the roads.

(c) Mix oak, elm, birch or conifers with beech.

(d) Allow the trees on the western and south-western

526 PROTECTION AGAINST INSOLATION.

borders of a beech or spruce forest to branch freely down to
the ground ; this may be secured by making timely thinnings
in young woods.

(e) Avoid high prunings in the case of beech standard-trees,
or any pruning of beech or spruce trees growing in hedgerows.

(/) Protect the soil-covering of dead leaves, moss, etc., and
preserve the undergrowth along the borders of a forest.

(g) For the protection of specially valuable avenue trees,
their bark may be smeared with a mixture of whitewash, clay
and water, cow-dung and water, etc.

Trees that have been scorched should not be removed, as
they shelter trees behind them which would otherwise be
attacked ; it is better to form a protective belt of some shade-
bearing species, and not to remove the injured trees till this
has attained a sufficient height.

SECTION III. — HEAT-CRACK.

Beling states that cracks in trees have been caused by
insolation ; this happens in the spring (April and May), when
there are considerable differences between the day- and night-
temperatures, and the ground being still cold, the centre of the
tree does not expand so much as the bark. Cracks are thus
formed on trees standing on southerly or south-westerly slopes,
chiefly on beech 30 to 70 years old, but also on sycamore,
hornbeam, oak and ash. The splits extend up the stem from
near the level of the ground to 20 and more feet in height.
Owing to the drying and loosening of the bark, local decay
may be introduced into the wood, but small cracks usually
close up again without any permanent injury resulting.

Schlich observed in the early part of 1895, during severe
frost, that the bark of beech-standards cracked or split when
the sun rose in the morning. All such cracks or splits
occurred in the south-east or south side of the trees, the
cracking being followed by an outflow of sap. Trees which
had thus been injured in previous years showed a considerable
amount of decay in the wood, having the appearance of bark-
scorched trees.

As the resulting injuries are usually unimportant, no special
measures need be taken to prevent heat-crack.

527

CHAPTER III.

PROTECTION AGAINST WINDS.

WINDS may be classified in various ways, by their speed, as
winds and storms ; tbeir origin — land- or sea- winds ; their
direction according to the point of the compass from which
they blow ; the damage they inflict on forests, by drying up
the soil, impeding height-growth and the formation of a
regularly-shaped crown in trees, or by breaking and over-
throwing individual stems or whole woods, the last injury
being caused only by storms.

Wind, by blowing caterpillars from older trees on to young
growth, may also increase the damage done by insects ; this
has been observed frequently in the case of attacks by the nun
moth. Winds also spread the spores of fungi.

SECTION I. — PREVALENT WINDS.

South-westerly winds are most prevalent in Central Europe,
especially during autumn and early winter. They blow as
cool winds during summer, and are comparatively warm in
winter, and bring much moisture and rain-clouds from the
ocean. Dry winds from the north-east and east prevail
generally during the spring, the cutting north-east wind on the
coasts of the Adriatic being termed bora. The well-known
cold north-east wind, named mistral, blows down the Eh one
Valley, in France, and in Switzerland a hot dry wind from
the south frequently prevails during the summer months and
is termed fohn. Cold winds from mountains down on to valleys
and plains blow generally at night, forming air -cataracts.

1. Damage done.
A. General Account.

Prevalent winds dry up and disperse the soil-covering,
blowing dead leaves from slopes and ridges, and heaping
Ibhem uselessly in hollows ; they hinder the formation of dew,

528 PROTECTION AGAINST WINDS.

and spread the spores of fungi, and the seeds of forest-weeds.
Easterly and north-easterly winds dry up the soil and young
plants, and injure the foliage and fructification of trees. Strong
south-westerly winds cause a misshapen growth of the crowns
of trees, especially near the sea-coast and on the south-westerly
borders of forests, where the trees are stunted in height and
have their crowns bent over towards the east (Fig. 241, p. 513) ;
they also break off blossoms and tender shoots, whilst damp
winds near the sea-coast also injure trees by the salt they carry,
which the rain washes from their leaves into the soil, rendering
it salt and unsuitable for certain kinds of vegetation. This
influence may be felt to a distance of five miles from the sea.
The results of these injurious influences are : — impoverish-
ment of the soil, a rank growth of weeds, failure of reproduc-
tion, languishing of young growth, loss of increment and
forking of old trees, spread of fungi, etc.

B. Damage under Special Conditions.

(a) Species. — Broadleaved trees suffer more than conifers
from dry winds.

The tender young foliage and inflorescence of beech and horn-
beam are frequently so dried up by the north-east wind that
they appear to have been frozen or scorched by summer heat.

The elm, oak, lime and birch are less liable to damage.

Where the larch is exposed to south-westerly gales, especi-
ally on shallow soils, it becomes sabre-shaped, curving out-
wards and upwards from its base ; this is due to the wind
from its seedling stage continually blowing the tree out of the
vertical direction, which it strives to regain by continued
upward growth. Orchard trees are similarly affected, whilst
poplars and willows grow with their stems bending towards
the east.

As regards winds blowing from the sea, experience gained
near the Baltic and North Seas shows, that silver-fir, elms,
aspen, black poplar and birch withstand their action well.
The shrub-like mountain-pine (Pinus montana var. uncinata
Rand.) also withstands the action of winds along the sea-coast
better than Scots pine, and is extensively planted in Denmark
and along the Baltic coast. In Britain, black pine, the

PREVALENT WINDS. 529

Corsican variety of Pinus Laricio, the cluster or maritime pine,
and of broadleaved species, sycamore, Norway maple and white
poplar are very resistant. Oak suffers somewhat from saline
spray, beech still more, and the spruce most of all.

(b) Age of Trees. — Seedlings and little plants, especially in
sowings and plantations, and young coppice-shoots suffer
most severely from cutting winds, until the ground is com-
pletely covered by their interlacing branches. Coppice suffers
more than high forest, especially when the rotation is short,
and high forest suffers the less, the closer is the leaf-canopy.

(c) Locality. — The most exposed localities are coast forests,
cultivated plains with hedgerow trees, ridges and tops of
mountains and hills, valleys running east and west, easterly
aspects unprotected by higher hills, unsheltered plateaux, etc.

The amount of soil-desiccation by wind varies with the
nature of the soil and wind. The faster the wind blows, the
more moisture is removed from the soil. The damper the
soil, the more water it loses, but deep soils suffer much less
than shallow soils. Soil covered with low vegetation loses
the most water, that covered with dead leaves and humus
least. Bare soil is intermediate. Dry winds, under other-
wise similar conditions, remove more water than moist winds,
and warm winds more than cold winds. Wind also reduces
the quantity of carbon dioxide in the air contained in the soil,
and reduces the soil-temperature, the greater the velocity of
the wind, and the greater the angle at which it meets the
surface of the ground. Late spring and early summer are
the most dangerous seasons.

2. Protective Rules.

The chief rules consist in the maintenance of a good leaf-
canopy, especially in localities exposed to prevailing winds.
Along sea-coasts, therefore, and in high mountainous regions
and other exposed places, natural regeneration, selection
fellings and the formation of protective belts are advisable.

Wherever clear-cuttings are preferable, after a consideration
of all local conditions, the following special rules should also
be observed : —

(a) After leaving a protective belt as far as the destructive

F.P. M M

580

PROTECTION AGAINST WINDS.

AV4

t

action of the wind precludes clear-cutting, establish narrow
cutting-areas.

(b) Planting with balls of earth is advisable ; if planting is

being done during a dry east
wind, the plants' roots should
not be exposed even for ten
minutes, unless they are
covered by damp moss.

(c) Sowings should run
from north-east to south-west,
and soil should be heaped up
on the south-east side of the
lines, as shown in Fig. 244 ;
this secures the young plants
against frost and heat and
I is also the best protection

against dry winds from the
j: east and south. It can, how-

Fig. 244. ever, be employed only on flat

ground, for sowings on slopes

must always be horizontal, in order to prevent the soil and
seeds from being washed away by rain.

(d) Mix conifers with broadleaved trees.

(e) Belts of conifers 20 to 30 feet wide as in Fig. 245 should
intervene between broadleaved woods and cultivated land, and
should be established along forest

roads. Corsican pine, spruce and
silver-fir are the best species for
the purpose, but if the soil is too
dry for them, Scots or Black
pines may be used. These pro-
tective belts are extremely use-
ful in sheltering woods from
drought and prevent the removal
of dead leaves by the wind,
damage by frost, etc. ; the exter-
nal trees should be allowed to branch down to the ground,
and along forest roads there should be a strip of land free
from trees beyond the belt, to prevent the roads from being

OOO OoOOOOOOOO

Fig. 246.

a Broadleaved wood.
b Coniferous wood.

STORMS. 531

kept moist by the drip from overhanging trees. * This is
greatly preferable to lopping the border trees along a road-
side, which, besides its unsightly appearance, admits the
wind into the forest, and exposes the bark to sun-scorching.

(/) All undergrowth which springs up along easterly and
north-easterly forest boundaries affords a natural protection
belt and should be carefully preserved.

(0) Coppice should be cut from the west, south-west or
north-west towards the opposite bearings. In high forests
this is only permissible on plains which are exposed to the
east and for storm-firm trees such as the oak.

SECTION II. — STORMS.
1. Origin of Storms.

All winds are caused by differences in atmospheric pressure
resulting from unequal temperatures of the air in different
localities. Whenever the equilibrium of the atmosphere is
thus disturbed, a current of wind sets in to restore it.

A storm is a wind with a velocity of at least 20 to 25 meters
in a second. Its approach is accompanied by a barometric
minimum. A hurricane has at least a velocity of 35 meters
per second.

A line joining all places having the same atmospheric pres-
sure, as indicated by the height of the barometric column of
mercury, after compensation for the elevation of the place
above sea-level and for temperature, is termed an isobar.

If maps are drawn, as in the Times' weather reports, show-
ing the different isobars for every tenth of an inch, it will be
noticed that they surround tracts from which either the pres-
sure decreases in all directions, termed barometric maxima or
anticyclones ; or, from which the pressure similarly increases,
which are termed centres of depression, barometric minima or
cyclones.

The wind always blows from the regions of high pressure
towards the depressions, i.e., from an anticyclonic region
towards a centre of depression ; it does not, however, blow in
a direction normal or perpendicular to the isobars, but greatly
inclined to this, owing to the effects of the earth's rotation,

M M 2

532 PROTECTION AGAINST WINDS.

which give's it a twist to the right in the northerly hemisphere.
The strength of the wind varies with the barometric gradient,
or difference in atmospheric pressure at places distant one
geographical mile normal to the isobars. The closer, there-
fore, the isobars are for any difference in the height of mer-
curial column, the greater is the gradient and the stronger the
wind.

The isobars become crowded together wherever the pressure
is lowest, and this fact, combined with the twist to the right
of the winds rushing in from all directions to fill a depression,
causes the revolving storms also termed cyclones, the absolute
axes of which are more or less calm. Thus on the southern
side of a depression, the wind blows from the S.W., on its
western side from N.W., on its northern side from N.E., and
on its eastern side from S.E.

The isobars are closest together on the western sides of
depressions, so that the strongest storms come from a westerly
direction (S.W. to N.W.). The depressions usually pass to
the north of Central Europe, and traverse the continent from
west to east, so that storms usually begin blowing from S.E.
and gradually change to S., S.W., W., and N.W. Most of
these storms travel across the British Isles, having originated
in the Atlantic ocean or Gulf of Mexico, but the south-easterly
direction of the wind before a cyclone is not very noticeable here.

Powerful storms therefore depend on the existence of
barometric depressions, which may be only partial or irregular
interruptions of an isobar, in which case the storm extends
over a limited area only. Violent storms of limited extent
but withs teep gradients that do considerable damage over a
narrow zone of country, are termed tornados.

The direction of winds may be considerably modified in
mountainous countries, by the spurs of the mountains as well
as the directions of the valleys. Thus, a west wind may be
converted into a north or south wind during its jprogress
through a valley.

It is a still more frequent case for a south-west wind to
become a south wind, and a north-west wind, west.

These local wind-directions must be considered whenever a
working-plan is prepared.

STORMS. 583

The rates of storms are given as follows by Rouse : —

Yards Miles

per second. per hour.

Storm, or tempest ... 24 50

Great storm . . . . 29 60

Hurricane . ... . 40 80

Destructive hurricane . . 4J9 100

2. Damage done.
A. General Account.

Storms shake the roots of trees up and down in the ground
and may either give a tree a decided leaning in a particular
direction, or tear it out of the ground by its roots and with
the earth adhering to them, or break its stem or branches.
Such uprooted or broken trees are termed windfalls.

Whether the tree is blown down or broken depends
partly on the intensity of the storm and partly on the
relative power of resistance of its roots or stem. Breakage
happens when the roots resist better than the stem, windfall
when the roots are the weaker. Breakage may also be due
to one tree falling on others. The amount of resistance
to storms which the roots or stern of a tree offers, equal con-
ditions being presupposed, depends on the nature of the soil
(its compacity and degree of moisture, e.g., whether its resist-
ance has been weakened by heavy rain before a storm), and
that of the locality (plains, or hillsides, aspect, gradient, etc.).

Independently of the above, the storm-firmness of our trees
varies according to species, length of bole, nature of crown,
soundness of the wood, density of crop, mode of formation, and
tending, as well as on other local circumstances. Each of
these factors will be considered separately.

The roots of the trees that are stretched by the wind are
termed anchor-roots, those on the lee side of the tree prop-
roots. The prevailing opinion is that the anchor-roots hold
up the tree against a storm, as the anchor holds a ship.
Hesse, however, agrees with Nordlinger in attaching more
importance to the prop-roots. In support of this he states
that in a roadside avenue running N. and S., the trees on the
W., having their prop-roots in the firm road, hold better against

584 PROTECTION AGAINST WINDS.

storms than those on the E. side of the avenue, that have
their prop-roots in softer soil.

Storms not only overthrow single trees, but also whole woods.
A wood may have narrow clearings cut into it by storms corre-
sponding to their direction, or large blanks may be made.

Breakage may be of stem, fork, crown, or branches ; the stem
may be broken off close to the ground, or at some distance above
it, and whirlwinds frequently twist the entire crown off trees.

The damage done by storms may be direct or indirect.

To the former class belong : — Loss of increment and
breakage of timber, which may become only fit for firewood ;
damage to young growth owing to the breakage of underwood
by trees standing over it which have been blown down ;
increased cost of exploitation or of reproduction of woods;
reduced prices, owing to an excess of material being suddenly
thrown on the market ; irregularities in age-classes and in
carrying out working-plans, also disorder in thinnings and in
preparatory fellings. The disturbance of a forest working-
plan may be so great, that it may become necessary -to
recalculate the annual yield of a forest, and to prepare a new
table of annual felling-areas.

Indirect damage done by storms is chiefly confined to
invasions of weeds in the blanks and regeneration-areas
where the trees have been blown down, and to attacks of bark-
beetles.

B. Damage under Special Conditions.

(a) Species of Tree. — Conifers are far more exposed to
damage than broadleaved species. Extensive destruction of
broadleaved woods by storms is comparatively rare.

It would be difficult to draw up a comparative table of trees
of different species according to their capacity to withstand
storms, as the amount of damage done is greatly modified
by local circumstances; but evergreen foliage and shallow
root-systems render trees liable to be broken or blown over.
As these two qualities are united in the spruce, this species is
specially liable to damage by storms, as experience has proved.
If, at any time, other trees suffer more than the spruce,
tbis is due to the nature of the soil, to the extraordinary
violence of the storm, or some other special circumstance.

STORMS. 535

When species such as silver-fir, or Scots pine, with strong
root-systems, are hindered from developing them normally,
owing to the nature of the subsoil, they are exposed to danger
equally with the spruce, and even more so ; for in such cases
they are compelled to have shallow root-systems which, unlike
the spruce, they rarely develop evenly in all directions.
Danger is also increased in the case of the Scots pine by the
higher centre of gravity it possesses than the spruce.

A list of species arranged in ascending order of storm-
firmness can therefore be drawn up only after allowing for
the effects of local circumstances on each species, and pre-
supposing a rational treatment in accordance with sylvicultural
requirements.

From this point of view, conifers are arranged in the follow-
ing order : — Spruce, silver-fir, pines and larch. Of the pines,
the mountain and Cembran pines are most storm-firm, then
the Corsican pine, the Black pine, and the cluster, Weymouth
and Scots pines.

As regards broadleaved species, those which are shallow-
rooted, such as aspen, birch, beech, and hornbeam, are least
storm-firm. The beech is more frequently blown down than
any of these species, because it is most abundantly grown. In
the woods above G6rardmer, in the Vosges, the porportion of
beech increases under natural regeneration with the altitude,
in the mixed forest of silver-fir, spruce, and beech ; and at the
crest of the mountains, 4,000 feet, beech alone remains, the
conifers being unable to resist the prevailing westerly gales.
The following trees are fairly storm-firm : — ash, sycamore,
Norway maple, elm, alder, lime and walnut ; the deep-rooted
oaks withstand storms best of all.

(b) Age of Tree. — Storms chiefly damage woods of advanced
age, the second half or last third of a rotation being most
endangered.

Extensive damage is rare in woods under sixty years of
age, and occurs only under exceptional conditions, such as
shallow-rootedness of young woods, soil without much con-
sistency owing to saturation by rain, woods in very exposed
localities or when assailed by exceptionally violent storms.

Damage to young trees consists more in causing them to

536 PROTECTION AGAINST WINDS.

deviate from the vertical position, less by uprooting, and less
still in breakage.

In the storm on the Baltic coast in 1872, in the Greifswald,
25-years-old Scots pines were affected. In 1876, 15 to 20-
years-old spruce and Scots pines were seriously damaged. In
some pole-woods 25 to 30 per cent, of the stems were bent an
angle of 30 degrees towards the east and north-east.

(c) System of Management. — High forests are most exposed
to danger from storms. The shelterwood compartment system
leaving mother trees evenly distributed over the felling-area,
is most endangered. In localities exposed to storms (mountain
sides, etc.) this system is inapplicable, as the mother trees are
inevitably blown down.

Whether uneven-aged and irregular Selection forests suffer
more from storms than the even-aged woods of the Clear-
cutting system, is still an open question, which can only
be answered after thoroughly considering the modifying
influence of localities, and the degree of skill with which the
woods have been treated. Hesse believes that the Selection
and Group systems give more security against storms than
the Clear-cutting system, as the trees in the latter are more
crowded and have weaker roots, but under the former systems
the trees to be felled must be very carefully selected.

Among the coppice systems, that of lopping side branches is
the worst, as trees so treated have long narrow crowns, on which
the wind can exert leverage. Pollards suffer less, and ordinary
coppice least of all. Coppice-with-standards is also storm-
firm, as only the standards can suffer, and damage to these
is inconsiderable, owing to their strong root development and
the uniformity of their crowns, due to their growth in the open.

(d) Nature of Stem. — Long, cylindrical stems with elevated
and expanded crowns, having high centres of gravity, and
affording strong leverage to the winds, are greatly exposed to
damage by storms. Thus standards in high forest above
young growth are peculiarly liable to be thrown or broken.
Damaged or sickly trees, such as forked trees, those with
deca3'.ed roots; trees injured by game, insects, cankers, fungi,
cup-shake, bark-scorching, etc., are very liable to windbreak ;
this, as a rule, occurs at the damaged place.

STORMS. . 537

Uprooting of the tree with the soil attached to its roots is
most frequent in the case of spruce or beech.

Breakage of crown or branches is most common in the case
of Scots pine, alder, ash and robinia. The forked branches
and crown of the two latter species are frequently broken by
storms. In the case of oaks it is chiefly the dry branches of
stag-headed crowns which are blown off by storms. In the
Vosges, a distinction is made between silver-fir trees with a
U fork and those with a V fork, the latter being more liable to
breakage. Cankered silver-fir are very liable to breakage.

(e) Locality. — In Germany, forests on hills and low
mountain-chains are more affected by storms than those in
higher mountainous regions. During the ten years, 1870 — 80,
in the Thiiringer-Wald and the Harz, damage by storms was
chiefly at altitudes of between 800 and 1,800 feet ; but in 1876,
extended to 2,300 feet. This is because at higher altitudes
spruce trees are shorter in the stem than those growing lower
down, are also grown less crowded with low crowns in Selection
forests, and have thus greater powers of resistance against
storms than the crowded lanky stems of lower altitudes.

The configuration of the ground has a marked influence on
the amount of damage done to forests by storms.

Gentle westerly slopes bordering on extensive plains or
plateaux suffer greatly, and so do outlying hills and mountain
ridges ; also, narrow valleys running from the west or south-
west towards the east or north-east. The damage is then
done on the north and south slopes of these valleys, which
the wind attacks in flank. Every bend in the valley reduces
the violence of the wind. To endangered localities also belong :
hills at the end of narrow valleys or outliers that project into
them and steep slopes directly in the way of the storm.

A storm that descends a hillside is much more dangerous
than one blowing up-hill. Whenever south-westerly winds
prevail, a storm, after crossing a mountain ridge, must
descend its north-easterly slope. If the west or south-west
slopes of the hill are denuded of trees, or if the wind has to
find its way across the ridge through narrow felling-areas
between high woods, or by funnel-shaped ravines, the damage
done on the north-easterly slope will be increased, as the air

538

PROTECTION AGAINST WINDS.

becomes condensed owing to the confined space in which it
moves, and this increases the violence of the storm.

It is found that storms do more damage down-hill than
up-hill, and for the following reasons : —

i. The root-system of individual trees is usually weaker
down-hill than up-hill. Not only the anchor-roots, but also
the prop-roots are more oblique in the soil to the wind-
direction on the easterly
aspects, i.e., away from the
wind. The descending storm
therefore finds only a feeble
resistance in the roots ; the
wind blowing up-hill has to
overcome not only the resis-
tance of the anchor-roots, but
a*so those of the prop-roots,
ii. An ascending wind has
to contend with the friction
of the tree-crowns, as well,
as of the soil, which reduces
its force. Moreover, the
prop-roots of the trees on
the western slopes, exposed
to the wind-direction, are
more vertically inclined to
the latter, and therefore

Fig. 246.

offer a stronger resistance, than on the easterly slopes.

iii. The centre of gravity of a tree has to be raised less
when blown over from above than from below, as. the annexed
diagram shows : —

Here s is the centre of gravity of the tree, and w, wi, two
roots, and if the tree is to be thrown up-hill by the wind, s
must be raised through a b ; if down-hill, through c d, which
is less than a b. The greater the gradient of the slope, the
more endangered is the tree.

The nature of the soil exercises an unmistakeable influence
on the extent of the damage done by storms.

Shallow, loose, spongy soil affords a bad root-hold ; this
explains the great amount of windfall which occurs on moors

STORMS. 539

and sandy soils ; soils above a subsoil of stiff clay, into which
the trees' roots do not penetrate, are also very subject to wind-
fall. It has been observed that windfall in the Schwarzwald is
more frequent on the red sandstone formation than on gneiss,
granite, basalt or porphyry. In woods that have been planted
on the sites of old fields, windfall is frequent, owing to the
looseness and comparative poverty of the soil "in mineral
matter. Soils in which root-rot frequently occurs, such as
calcareous soil, or land with a wet subsoil, are liable to windfall.

A high soil-covering, such as heather, broom, thorny or
shrubby undergrowth, is beneficial, as these plants bind
together the particles of soil, and also exercise considerable
friction on the air in motion.

The state of the weather before and at the commencement
of the storm also exercises considerable influence on the
damage done.

Heavy rainfall accompanying a storm greatly diminishes
the coherence of the soil, and increases the danger of up-
rooting, its effects vary of course with the nature of the soil.
This was the case on the occasion of the terrible storms in
1872 and 1874. Frost, on the contrary, greatly increases the
coherence of the soil, especially when the ground is covered
with snow.

(/) Density of Crop. — Trees grown in the open, owing to
their well-developed root-systems, and low pyramidal crowns,
withstand storms much better than stems which have been
drawn up in dense woods. Trees recently exposed in thin-
nings and regeneration fellings suffer most. The latter
improve in their powers of resistance, as they get accus-
tomed to their open position. Their root-systems become
enlarged ; in crowded woods, however, the stems afford one
another mutual protection against the wind.

Damage is considerably greater in isolated woodlands than
in extensive forests, as the various crops in the latter afford
one another mutual support.

(g) Season. — Storms may occur at any season of the year, but
the most destructive storms are during the six months between
the autumnal and vernal equinoxes. Storms in spring are more
dangerous than in autumn, as the soil is then generally less

540 PROTECTION AGAINST WINDS.

firm. Since 1870, damage to Prussian forests by storm, snow
and rime have been recorded in all the Eoyal Forest districts,
and the results published by the directors of the Forest
experimental stations. This praiseworthy undertaking should
be followed by all State Forest Administrations.

3. Register of Storms.

During the past century, the following are the dates of the
most widespread and disastrous storms : —

1800 (3rd and 9th November, especially in the Harz).

1801 (29th and 30th January).

1833 (17th and 18th December).

1834 (4th January).

1836 (29th November and 24th— 26th December, from
the E.).

1839 (30th — 31st October, especially in the Harz, from
the E.).

1842 (3rd May).

1853 (14th and 15th December, from S.E.).

1866 (16th November).

1867 (8th April).

1868 (7th, llth, and 29th. December).

1869 (17th December).

1870 (26th and 27th October).

1872 (12th and 13th November, especially near the Baltic,
from the N.E.).

1875 (8th and 13th November).

1876 (12th and 13th March). In this storm, about thirty
million cubic feet of timber were blown down in the State
and Communal forests of Hesse, or 84 cubic feet per acre,
being 125 per cent, of the total annual yield of the forests.
The same storm cleared 24 cubic feet per acre in the Saxon
forests, or 40 per cent, of their fixed annual yield. During
the same year, 350,000 cubic feet of broadleaved trees were
blown down in the Forest of Compiegne.

1877 (30th and 31st January, and 10th and 12th
February).

1879 (20th and 21st February, 25th June, 20th November,
and 5th December).

STORMS. 541

1880 (21st October).

1881 (14th and 15th October).

1883 (17th— 19th October).

1884 (20th and 28th January).

1885 (15th October).

1888 (24th— 26th November).

1890 (23rd, 24th and 27th January).

1892 (29th— 30th March, in the Vosges; from E.).

1893 (16th and 17th November). Terrific storms over the
north of England and Scotland accompanied by violent
rain, the wind blowing at 90 miles an hour in the Orkneys ;
1,850,000 trees, valued at £282,263, were blown down in
Perthshire and Forfarshire, the only conifers resisting the gale
being Corsican and maritime pines.

1894 (12th February and 22nd December). The December
storm was similar to that of 1893, and only did less damage
to the Highland woods because there were fewer trees left
to be blown down. Great numbers of rooks, starlings, and
other birds were entangled in the branches of trees and killed,
or blown into the sea.

1895 (5th— 7th and 12th— 13th December ; chiefly in S.
Germany, but also in Schleswig-^Eolstein and the Harz).

1895 (5th— 7th October, from N.E.).

1898 (4th— 7th December).

1899 (12th— 13th January).

1900 (14th February ; 28,000 trees, including 15,000 oaks,
blown down in the Forest of Berce, Sarthe).

1902 (13th February; 292,500 cubic feet of timber, chiefly
spruce, blown down in Forest of Gerardmer, Vosges; from
N.E.).

Taking a general view of the storms in Central Europe,
during the past century, the years 1801, 1833, 1868, 1876,
1893, and 1894, have been the worst, and there has been, on
the average, one destructive storm-year every three years.

Whirlwinds are of rare occurrence in Central Europe, and
are usually only of limited extent and short duration. On
the 1st August, 1877, a whirlwind fifty miles to the north of
Berlin destroyed three-and-a-half million cubic feet of
standing timber over a breadth of two-and-a-half miles.

542 PROTECTION AGAINST WINDS.

The coast districts between the mouths of the Mississippi
river and Charleston are subject to terrific hurricanes, and in
August, 1893, scarcely a tree was left standing in the islands
there, nearly 2,000 people were killed, and £1,000,000 worth
of property destroyed, the wind having blown at the rate of
125 miles per hour.*

4. Protective Rales,
a. During the Formation of Woods.

i. Favour the cultivation of broadleaved species wherever
this is possible. The damage done by storms during the last
ten years is a warning to foresters who are so ready to convert
broadleaved into coniferous forests ; this should be done only
in cases of extreme urgency.

ii. Drain damp localities before making regeneration-
fellings.

iii. Use strong transplants 4 to 6 feet apart, so as to ensure
the growth of sturdy trees. Planting spruce gives better
results than sowing it.

iv. Mix deep-rooted species with shallow-rooted ones ; for
instance, mix oak, ash, sycamore, larch, or Scots pine with
beech and silver-fir, and silver-fir, beech and larch with spruce.

Von Wiehl (Olmiitz) placed rows of storm-firm trees in
spruce woods every 150 metres, five or six rows of oak,
sycamore, Scots, Weymouth, and Cembran pines, according to
the soil and locality, transversely to the storm-direction, in
flat land from N. to S., elsewhere parallel to the sides.

v. Maintain protective belts along the boundaries of a forest,
where prevailing winds are to be feared, especially along farms
and neighbouring woodlands. Boundary ditches should not
be dug along these boundaries, as they cut through the roots
of the nearest trees.

1). During Tending.

i. Early, frequent and moderate thinnings should be made,
so as to ensure normal root-systems, sturdy stems, and regu-
larly shaped crowns. During the thinnings, as far as is
possible without interfering with the proper density of the crop,
all trees should be removed which have suffered injury to their

* " Scribner's Magazine," February, 18U4.

STORMS. 543

bark, or which are forked, diseased or affected with fungi. If
the proper density of the crop would be impaired by wholesale
removal of bad trees, begin with the worst and remove the
others in future thinnings. It is better in thinning spruce-
woods not to dig up stumps, as in so doing the roots of
neighbouring trees may be cut through. Heavy thinnings in
lanky and hitherto densely growing woods are dangerous.

ii. Trees along the borders of a forest should be allowed to
branch low down the stem.

iii. Endangered border trees standing over young growth
may be temporarily preserved by thinning out their crowns,
and cutting those branches which extend at right angles
to the direction of the prevailing wind. This has been
successfully carried out with spruce at Stammheim, in
Wiirttemberg.

iv. Carefully avoid all causes leading to defects in trees;
thus, resin-tapping should be stopped in spruce forests,
deer which peel trees should be shot, and careful forest
protection secured.

c. During Fellings.

i. Avoid very long rotations, as the area of a forest exposed
to danger from storms increases in proportion to the length
of the rotation. Thus, considering that danger from storm
commences when the trees are fifty years old, we have : —

With 120 years' rotation -^-ths of the area endangered.
,, 90 ,, ,, <ytns ,, ,,

60 „ „ Jth

ii. All greatly exposed places in mountainous regions should
be regenerated by the Selection system, and the slopes should
not be touched till the summit has been regenerated.

iii. Eegeneration in narrow strips commencing in the direc-
tion opposed to the prevailing wind, should be substituted for
regeneration extending at once over a whole compartment,
especially in spruce forest.

In the Black Forest, where silver-fir predominates, the
group system of felling in patches, gives excellent results, as
plentiful natural regeneration results.

544

PROTECTION AGAINST WINDS,

iv. Woods should always be regenerated in the direction
opposed to the prevailing ivinds, that is, generally, from east or
north-east to west or south-west, so as to secure a constantly

12345

r-4 r-3 r-4 r-1 r

Fig. 247. — Normal arrangement of age-classes in a wood ; r, length of rotation.

graduated succession of young woods on the windy side of the
older woods. Nothing can ward off storms better than such a
slope of trees as is shown in Fig. 247.

As such a succession of felling-areas may encourage insect
attacks and would not be practicable over the whole area of a
forest, it is usual to arrange the age-classes in a number of
cutting-series, running more or less parallel to one another
through the forest from east or north-east to west and south-
west. Age-classes are, however, seldom so arranged that an
old wood will not occasionally be found directly opposed to the
force of the wind, after it has been exposed by felling another
mature wood to the west of it, and in such cases, a severance-
felling is required.

This is a narrow clearing made through a wood, to
strengthen the border trees on its weather side, so that by
the extension of their crowns and root-systems, they may
protect the dense wood beyond them from storms. Severance-
fellings should be forty to fifty feet broad, and as nearly as
possible at right-angles to the direction of the prevailing
wind ; they must be made before the trees are too old to
respond to the increased exposure to light. Spruce woods, in
which a severance-felling is to be made, should not be more
than 20 — 80 years old. The cleared space should be at once

STORMS. 645

planted up, and thus itself form a protective zone when the
woods beyond it have been felled.

The young wood must be 10 — 20 years old, before the felling
of the old wood in front of it begins. Severance-fellings
should not be risked in woods more than 50 years old.

Severance-fellings favour the system of small felling-areas,
which have many great advantages. We must not, however,
go too far in this matter. There is certainly a loss of yield
in making a severance-felling, as part of an immature crop
is sacrificed. The financial aspect of the question must
therefore be considered, and whether the danger from storms
justifies the sacrifice.

Severance-fellings are very extensively used in the
Thiiringian forest, and in the Saxon State forests.

Fig. 248.

When felling actually commences in a crop protected by a
severance felling, a protective belt should be left along its
eastern border, consisting of a double or treble row of trees,
the crowns of which have been thinned by lopping away some
of their branches, as shown in Fig. 248.

v. Felling-areas should have long straight boundaries, as
fellings in outlying corners of a forest may easily admit
storms.

vi. A system of rides with storm-firm borders should be
laid out, which affords protection against storms.

The principal rides should be parallel to the storm-direction,
and the secondary rides at right angles to it, so as to face the
storms.

F.P. N N

546

PROTECTION AGAINST WINDS.

10 years old. 30 years. 50 years. /O years.

Fig. 249.— Plan of part of the Zellaer Forest, with 3 severance-fellings, a b e.

JO

.10

C

SO

East

Fig. 250. —Section of the wood along A B.

The numbers refer to the average age of the wood, a b c Severance-fellings, d Road.
The 10-year-old wood is a protective plantation.

STORMS. 547

Fellings in high forest follow one another from east or
north-east to west or south-west, according a& a compartment
is cleared in several years, or in one year.

Figs. 249 and 250 show the arrangement of the age-classes
in a forest at Sternberg, in Thiiringia. If it is wished to fell
the 70-year-old wood without endangering that 50 years old,
which it at present shelters from the west wind, it becomes
necessary to separate the two woods by a severance- felling.
This, as the diagrams show, has been already done six years
ago, when the strip was planted with 4-years-old spruce trans-
plants, which now form a 10-year-old protection belt to the
50-year-old trees. The westerly border-trees of the latter,
have now become so wind-firm that the severance-felling (6)
might be widened. Another severance-felling (a) has also
been made between the 30 and 50-years-old woods, because
the latter is to the west of the former and will first be mature.
The proposed widening of (a) is marked in Fig. 249 by a line,
and in Fig. 250 by shading, but it cannot be carried out until
the younger wood has become more wind-firm.

There is no apparent necessity for the severance-felling (c),
as the woods on both sides of it are of the same age, but it
has been cut, in order that the large 50-years-old wood may
be divided into two cutting series, both beginning from the east
in order to avoid the necessity of having too large felling-areas.

Indispensable severance-fellings, such as a and I, are
termed protective, whilst those like c, made for administrative
reasons, are termed silvicultural.

Fig. 251 represents a normal arrangement of age-classes in
a forest,* the periodic blocks being variously shaded, and the
compartments drawn square instead of oblong, so as to take
up less room. The white compartments are the youngest,
forming the woods of the fifth period, and the darkest compart-
ments are those of the first period, where fellings will be at
once commenced. The intermediate shades represent the
second, third, and fourth periodic blocks.

* A period is an integral part of a rotation, and a periodic block is the area of
forest which will be felled during any period. Thus a rotation of 100 years
may be divided into 5 periods of 20 years each, and a working-section of a
forest into five periodic blocks, the trees in which are aged respectively 0 — 20,
21—40, 41—60, 61—80, and 81—100 years.

N N 2

548

PROTECTION AGAINST WINDS.

N

Fig. 252.
a I c = 45 degrees.

Denzin has, however, proposed that this arrangement of rides
parallel and perpendicular to the storm-direction, which is the
one usually employed, should make way for one at an angle of

STORMS.

549

45 degrees (a b c) to these directions, as shown in Fig. 252.
This he considers to afford better protection to woods of second
period against south-west, west-south-west, and south-south-
west winds. Borggreve is also in favour of this system of rides.
The objection to this arrangement is that, although, after
the dark areas have been felled, the woods of the second period
are better protected against west and south-west winds, yet
they are completely exposed to the cutting north-east with the
accompanying danger from rime.

Fig. 253.
a Heaps of stones, b Pruned and topped spruce trees.

It is also not prudent to adopt such a system universally, as
storms are not always in the same direction.

Hess thinks that further experience is necessary before
deciding between these two arrangements, and also as regards
the shape of compartments, whether square,* rectangular,
parallelograms, or trapeziums, as this may also affect the
amount of damage done by storms.

vii. It is useless leaving standards of shallow-rooted species,
such as spruce, in exposed places.

viii. Stumps should not be dug up in preparatory and seeding
fellings, where storms are to be feared. After storms have
damaged valuable middle-aged woods, further damage may be

* The question of the direction of fellings in mountainous districts, and of
the proper shape of compartments, is discussed in detail by Karl Heyer, in " Der
Waldbau," 1878, pp. 52 et gey.

550 PROTECTION AGAINST WINDS.

prevented by thinning out the crowns of trees left standing on
the exposed sides of woods, and lading their roots with stones
if they are easily procurable (Fig. 253).

5. Treatment of Windfalls and Wood-breakage.

On account of danger from bark-beetles, which follow
extensive breakage in a wood, prompt measures must be taken
after damage has been done by a storm.

(a) As soon as possible, using all available labour, and
mechanical means (transportable steam-saws, etc.), convert
the broken material and, remove it from the wood, after
stripping the bark from all stems and broken pieces, at any
rate of conifers. Trees that are still standing obliquely, or
resting against other trees, can be left till the following season.

(b) All wood unfit for timber should be split and the stacks
of fuel should be set up in well-aerated places. All rubbish
may be made into charcoal or even burned, if necessary.

(c) Stems that cannot at once be sold, should be barked,
to prevent insect-attacks. Whether they should be completely,
or partially barked in strips depends on circumstances, chiefly
on the species of tree. Complete barking is the best protection
against insects, but it favours cracks and fungoidal attacks.
For Scots pine, strip-barking in 1894 gave excellent results.
For spruce it is best to bark completely, except that narrow
rings of bark may be left at the ends and in the middle of
each log.

(d) Stumps and roots of coniferous trees should be grubbed
out and split up, even if a pecuniary loss is involved. In
broadleaved woods, on the contrary, uprooted stumps should
be replaced in the ground, or at any rate, the earth knocked
from the roots and the holes filled up. Ordinary cart- jacks
may be used to replace the stumps ; they cost about 45s. each,
and two jacks are required for each stump. In a beech-wood,
fifty-one men at two shillings a day replaced 422 stumps in
this way at a cost of fourpence a stump.

(e) Wherever labour is insufficient to deal with all the fallen
and broken wood, the trees uprooted with balls of earth may
be left for a year.

Such trees, if broadleaved, obtain much moisture from

STORMS. 551

their roots and may even put out foliage for two years in
succession, and have even borne mast. Conifers only may be
attacked by beetles and the wood become unsound when left
in this way.

When the stumps are sawn off, the wood above the saw-cut
should be firmly encircled with a chain, in order to prevent
splitting of the log.

(/) Favourable conditions of sale should be offered so that
all broken wood may be sold as soon as possible. All intended
fellings should be postponed until the volume of the broken
wood has been calculated, and deducted from the annual yield.
If there is more wood broken than the fixed annual yield, all
principal fellings should be postponed for a year or more.

Some idea of the large quantity of wood which is blown
down may be gained from the fact that in the spruce and
silver-fir State forests in Wiirttemberg, about one-third of the
fixed annual yield comes from windfalls and breakage.

6. Treatment of Woods ivliicli have been Damaged by
Storms.

When we consider the great variety of local circumstances
which influence the degree of damage done by storms, it is
impossible to draw up special rules for the treatment of injured
woods which will meet all cases that may occur.

A few general rules will, however, be given which are
applicable to the commoner cases for trees and poles, no
damage being done by storms to thickets of saplings or to
coppice-shoots. Further information on this subject should
be obtained from books on silviculture.

A. Injured Trees.

All mature or nearly mature woods that have been badly
invaded by storms should be felled earlier than was otherwise
intended ; this is especially true for woods which have thus
become full of blanks. If, however, the storm has caused
only a few blanks, the date fixed for fellings need not be
anticipated.

Small blanks due to the fall of single trees, or small groups
of trees, cannot well be planted up, as plantations succeed

552 PROTECTION AGAINST WINDS.

badly in such places, and within ten or fifteen years the crowns
of the surrounding trees will close them again. Larger
blanks, however, should be at once planted, before they
become covered with weeds, unless natural regeneration can
be secured. In planting blanks, about 20 to 25 feet should
be left unplanted round them, as plants within this strip
would suffer from the shade of the surrounding trees.

In filling blanks in injured spruce and silver-fir woods,
beech, hornbeam, sycamore, or silver-fir are preferable ; but
if the forest contains red deer, silver-fir plants will require
fencing with hurdles. Woods of Scots pine and larch, when
damaged by storms, may be filled up with spruce, Weymouth
or Corsican pines. Beech woods that have been invaded,
where the soil is deep, should be planted with oak, and on
good but stony soil, with sycamore ; in wet places, with ash,
or alder. When the next felling takes place, these groups of
young trees will be carried on for another rotation, but will be
thinned and pruned where they endanger the future young
beech. They will eventually yield fine timber trees.

B. Injured Poles.

It is very difficult to decide on the proper treatment of pole-
woods when broken into by storms. Premature fellings would
be undertaken only when the damage done is on a large scale,
or when these woods interrupt the normal cutting-series,
or when they would not expose neighbouring woods to
the west.

In most cases the felling of broken poles will be considered
in connection with the volume of broken timber from older
compartments.

In general, the treatment of damaged pole-woods will vary
according to species, locality, area of blanks, etc.

Small blanks could be left unplanted for the same reason as
that given for older woods. Larger blanks could be planted
with tall transplants of beech, hornbeam, or sycamore. Lime
and white alder are also suitable species. Larch and Wey-
mouth pine owing to their rapid growth would soon fill up the
blanks, but the larch does not thrive everywhere, and the

STORMS.

553

Weymouth pine does badly in mountainous districts. Here
also 12 to 18 feet interval should be left between the plantation
and the still standing poles.

Woods intended for natural regeneration may be trained
up by means of heavy thinnings to produce seed earlier
than usual.

554

CHAPTER IV.

PROTECTION AGAINST HEAVY BAIN.

1. Daniar/e done.
A. General Account.

HEAVY and prolonged rainfall and occasionally water-spouts
damage forests by carrying away the dead leaves, the soil, and
seeds ; by uprooting young plants, the roots of which are not
sufficiently developed, such as seedlings and nursery trans-
plants recently put out ; by causing local swamps, destroying
roads and ditches, loosening the roots of trees, preventing
fruit from ripening, and breaking it off.

The results are impoverishment of the soil, failure of
sowings, blanks in plantations, inundations, liability to wind-
fall, loss of seed, etc.

B. Damage under Special Conditions.

The conditions on which the extent of the damage de-
pends, independently of the force and volume of the rain-
fall, are chiefly the age of the crop, and the nature of the
locality.

Only young plants the roots of which are insufficiently
developed run the risk of being uprooted. These are chiefly
young germinating seedlings, and transplants just lined out in
nurseries, or planted in a felling-area.

As regards the locality, steep slopes with loose light soil,
which are neither covered with woody growth, nor with
herbage, moss or dead leaves, are most liable to damage.
Loose soil when saturated with rain renders the roots of trees

PROTECTION AGAINST HEAVY RAIN. 555

less secure against windfall. Clay soils are also injuriously
affected by heavy rains, as a crust forms on their surface
excluding air from the roots of plants.

2. Protective Rules.

(a) Maintain the forest growth and natural soil- covering of
herbage, moss, and dead leaves on all steep slopes exposed to
denudation.

In high forest, it is best to have natural regeneration
under a shelterwood, but on slopes, coppice is less heavy
than high forest, and protects the soil as well. In plant-
ing up such localities, the slopes may be terraced with
advantage, and planting, which is preferable to sowing,
should be in horizontal lines commencing at the top of the
slope. For dry calcareous slopes the Austrian pine is most
suitable.

(h) Establish a system of horizontal leaf-catching trenches,
or protective trenches on dry slopes.

These trenches differ from one another by their dimensions.

The protective trenches are from 10 to 12 inches deep and
25 to 33 feet apart ; they should be in lengths of 12 to 30 feet,
to prevent the formation of drains. These trenches retain
the excess water after heavy rain, and part with it gradu-
ally to the soil, the permanent moisture of which is increased.
Leaves are washed and blown into them and the soil is
thus enriched with humus and rendered more porous and
deeper. In oak and beech forests, they catch the acorns
and beech-nuts which are rolling downhill, and thus natural
regeneration may be secured. Even the spoil-heaps from
the trenches afford suitable sites for the germination of

If, however, the trenches are intended merely as leaf -catchers,
they are shallower and closer to one another than the protec-
tive trenches. Excellent results have been obtained in the
Hessian district, Lindenfels, by the use of leaf-catching trenches.
They cost about 9d. to Is. per running meter.

(c) All measures which cause or favour loosening of the
soil should be abandoned in steep places ; these are :—

556

PROTECTION AGAINST HEAVY RAIN.

extraction of stumps, pasturing cattle, trenching the soil,
removal of litter, etc.

(d) In order to protect forest roads from the effects of
violent rainfall, ditches and culverts should be constantly
kept free from weeds, silt and dead leaves. Where the road

Fig. 255.— Hailstones (natural size) that fell at Seaford on May 30th, 1897.
From a photo by Wynttr, Seaford.

passes through a sandy cutting, the banks on either side
may be terraced and fixed by wattle-work fencing, stakes of
living willows being used, and sand-fixing species planted
between the fences.

557

CHAPTEE V.

PROTECTION AGAINST HAIL.*

1. Damage done.
A. General Account.

HAIL completely beats down young plants, and injures sap-
lings, poles and young trees by breaking off leaves, blossom,
fruits, young twigs, and leading shoots, and by stripping off
flakes of bark, either in little patches or short strips, and thus
exposing the cambium-zone. The marks of the wounds made
by hail in the bark of trees are often noticeable for a long
time, the amount of damage done depending on the size of the
hailstones.

Birds, and game such as hares and roes, may be killed by
large hailstones. The greater the size of the latter the greater
the damage done.

The direct consequences of damage by hail are : loss of incre-
ment, disease, deformed growth, decreased production of seed,
and even death of young plants and poles.

The indirect damage consists in insect attack and the admis-
sion through the wounds made by hail of spores of species of
Nectria and other fungi.

B. Damage under Special Conditions.

Conifers suffer most from hail, especially the Scots, Austrian
and Weymouth pines, the spruce and silver-fir somewhat less ;
the larch soon recovers from injuries to its shoots or barjk.

Among broadleaved species, those with less power of
occluding wounds, and with thin bark, such as the beech,
suffer most, but the oak, robinia and other trees when young

* Riniker, Hans: "Die Hageschlage in Kanton Aargau." Berlin, 1881.
" Mittheilungen des Vernischen Statistischen Bureaux." Bern, 1885, 1886.
" Die hagelschlage seit," 1878.

558 PROTECTION AGAINST HAIL.

may be seriously injured ; the birch owing to its elastic shoots
and leathery bark does not suffer much from hail.

Young plants 1 to 15 years old are most endangered, year-
lings being often destroyed by a hailstorm ; and sowings,
especially when on a large scale, suffer more than plantations.
Poles 15 to 30 years old suffer less than younger plants, while
serious damage is rarely done to trees over 30 years old. The
later in the spring the hail occurs, the greater is the damage,
especially to smooth-barked, weakly plants.

Oak-coppice for bark and osier-beds may suffer severely
from hail. The damaged oak shoots are difficult to peel, and
the osier wands break at the injured points. Even coppice-
with-standards may often suffer severely. In high forest,
open woods suffer more than dense woods, and isolated
trees and those along the borders of the forest suffer most.
Westerly, south-westerly and north-westerly aspects are chiefly
threatened, as hail usually falls with a west or south-west
wind. The stronger the wind, the greater the damage.

2. Prevalence of Hailstorms.

Hailstorms are not very common in Europe, they occur
only in late spring or summer and generally during the day-
time. They are very severe in Northern India, occurring
generally during April and May, and the stones are then
frequently as large as walnuts, and batter stucco buildings as
if they had been subjected to a volley of musketry and even
penetrate corrugated iron roofs. Such hailstorms may com-
pletely strip the young shoots from trees and tea-bushes, in
the latter case causing damage which may be estimated at
thousands of pounds for a tea district.

In Germany there are, on the average, only about five hail-
storms a year, but on the west coast of Europe there are
about fifteen. These are sometimes very local, extending
only over small areas. Thus, in Cambridgeshire, within fifteen
miles round Chatteris, one shilling per acre insurance for
agricultural crops against hail is charged ; outside this zone,
sixpence per acre.

Hailstorms are very prevalent in Wiirttemberg, where
thousands of acres of cultivated land are annually laid waste

PROTECTION AGAINST HAIL. 559

by hail; a record of them has been kept since 1828. The
chief results of the statistics there recorded may be summarised
as follows : —

Communes with fields on hill-sides with south-westerly,
westerly and north-westerly aspects suffer most. East, south-
east and north-east aspects suffer much less.

Hailstorms generally come with the S.S.W., W. and W.S.W.
winds. They follow the course of large river-valleys, when
these run N.E., but leave the valleys when they run in other
directions.

No connection between systems of forest-management, nor
species of trees grown is discernible, either on the severity or
frequency of the hailstorms.

Observations have also been made at the Meteorological Office
at Zurich in Switzerland, between 1883 and 1893, and in dis-
cussing these, Dr. C. Hess* states that hail is more frequent
in valleys than on mountains, where it is often transformed
into sleet or rain. Near marshes and lakes, hail is more
frequent than over woods. On passing over cultivated lands
or hill forests, there is a tendency to a decrease in the intensity
and at times an entire cessation of the hailstorms. Hailstorms
follow a regular line and maps could be constructed showing
where the crests of the hills should be protected by forests.

A hailstorm most destructive to woodlands occurred on the
2nd of August, 1888 at Chybi, in Austrian Silesia. On 1,917
acres of forest, belonging to the Archduke Albrecht, three
confluent hailstorms almost completely destroyed 500 acres of
young woods and plantations, and injured 800 acres of poles,
middle-aged and old woods to such an extent that they had to
be felled.

Mr. Eebmann, forstmeister at Strassburg, describes the
great damage done by a hailstorm on the 30th June, 1898,
which crossed Alsace from Avricourt in France, past Worth
to Karlsruhe into Bavaria. The storm travelled at 34 miles
an hour over a distance of 437 miles, lightning being almost
continuous. The stones were sometimes as large as the fist
and killed much game and birds, one man and two horses.

* Extract from "Nature," January 3, 1895. Translated from " Naturwis-
senschaftlich Wochenschrif t " for December 9, 1894.

560 PROTECTION AGAINST HAIL.

About 3,500,000 cubic feet of old timber was broken and thrown
down, besides great damage done to young wood and to the
agricultural crops. The falling of such masses of hail caused
the air to rush in all directions, and trees were consequently
blown down from all points of the compass.

According to Claudot (" Rev. des E. et F.," 10th March, 1896)
French official statistics give 27,000,000 francs as the average
value of the annual damage done by hail to French crops in
1825-36, whilst in 1884-88, this damage averaged 105,000,000
francs, so that insurance rates against hail have increased so
as to become sometimes prohibitive.

Owing to the disastrous effects of hail on agriculture, the
question whether the maintenance ol woods on mountains
and hills affects the prevalence and severity of hailstorms is
highly important. It is found that in Canton Aargau, in
Switzerland, districts with much woodland suffer less from hail
than less wooded districts.

District. Woodland Hailstorms

per cent. annually.

Zosingen - 40 2

Lenzburg 32 6

Muri 19 10

In the northern part of this canton, the hailstorms prevail
in the badly wooded tracts, and are scarcely known in the
well wooded ones. In Bohemia, however, observation has
not supported any connection between woodland and hail.

3. Protective Measures.

i. All hill-tops and ridges should be wooded and all blanks
in forests should be filled with strong transplants.

ii. Adopt selection fellings in districts subject to hail-
storms.

iii. Mix broadleaved trees with conifers, so that if the
latter are seriously injured there may still be left material to
restock the woods.

iv. Seriously injured spruce and Scots pine are ruined and
must be felled. With larch and silver-fir recovery is possible.
Young broadleaved plants should be cut back and allowed to
shoot up again.

56]

CHAPTEK VI.

PROTECTION AGAINST SNOW.

1. Damage done.
A. General Account.

SNOW injures forest plants by its downward pressure when
lying on their branches.

The resulting damage consists either in snoiu -pressure or
snowbreak.

The action of snoiv -pressure consists in the bending or
uprooting of entire stems, often with the ball of earth round
their roots, or branches may be torn out of the stem.

Snowbreak is said to occur when the stern or branches yield
to the weight of snow accumulated on them and break, either
across the bole, the crown, or branches. When the ground
is soft, bending chiefly occurs, when it is frozen breakage.

A special form of injury arises when a mass of snow sliding
down a hill-side falls on undergrowth and crushes it ; this
resembles an avalanche, and is not uncommon on cold aspects.

B. Damage under Special Conditions.

The direct results of excessive snowfall resemble those
occasioned by storms (p. 533). Much game is also destroyed.
Fortunately rabbits cannot thrive in snowy mountains, as
in the higher Ardennes.

The indirect damage done by snow is the softening of the
soil and predisposition to denudation and landslips ; swelling
of mountain torrents, owing to rapid melting of snow, causes
disastrous floods.

a. Species of Tree.

Trees with pendulous or flexible leaders or branches, such
as birch, larch, deodar, and others with a tendency to a squat
shrub-like habit and to form side-shoots into leaders, such as
the mountain-pine, green alder, and most rhododendrons, are

P.P. 0 0

562 PROTECTION AGAINST SNOW.

adapted to grow in regions where much snow falls annually.
On the contrary, trees with brittle attachment of the branches
to the stem, such as Pinus rigida, Mill, and some Eucalypti,
may withstand frost, but are broken to pieces by the snow.

Most European trees withstand snow fairly well, but ever-
green conifers suffer most from it, in the following order :—
Austrian and Scots pines and spruce ; less — silver-fir.

Weymouth pine resists snow well, owing to the elasticity of
its branches, and the larch suffers much less from snow than
other conifers owing to its having no needles in winter for
snow to rest on, but it may be injured when snow falls in
autumn before it has lost its needles. Cembran pine is
another tree found at high altitudes ; though growing slowly,
it attains a great age, and resists the snow owing to its tufted
foliage and tendency to form new leaders, which the silver-fir
also possesses.

The Austrian pine does not resist snow well owing to its
dense crop of long needles, which allow much snow to rest on
its crown. The spruce generally suffers more than Scots pine,
as it grows at altitudes and on aspects where snow is most
frequent and least liable to thaw ; the Scots pine, on the other
hand, is chiefly grown in plains where snow is less frequent
and thaws sooner and cannot therefore accumulate in masses
on the crowns of the trees. Wherever the spruce and Scots
pine grow together in mixed woods, it is found that the latter
is less resisting owing to the brittle nature of its wood ; the
branches of the spruce, being more elastic and splitting less
readily, can support a greater weight of snow than pines. The
silver-fir is more resisting than the spruce, owing to the greater
depth of its root-system and the more upward insertion of its
branches. In Windsor Forest, after a heavy snowfall, the
position of any cluster pine can be at once recognised by the
heap of broken branches under the tree.

Among broadleaued trees, the beech suffers most from snow,
not on account of its possessing less powers of resistance, but
because it ascends higher in mountains than other important
broadleaved species.

Alder, robinia, aspen, and crack-willow suffe'r on account of
their brittle branches, and even the birch is broken badly if

SNOWBREAK.

563

snow should fall before it has lost its leaves. Hornbeam

stands the danger better, and so do ash, maples and oak.

It is, however, more difficult to draw up a scale of broadleaved

trees according to their powers of

resisting snow, as so few broadleaved

trees form woods in mountainous

districts.

The lower part of stems growing on
mountain slopes exposed to heavy
snowfall curves outwards before be-
coming vertical owing to the pressure
of the snow which accumulates behind
it, especially during the youth of the
tree. In hollow depressions on steep
slopes, the weight of the descending
snow is so great, that masses of it slide
down every year and crush all the
seedlings they meet. Such places in
the Himalayas are bordered by species
of maple and horse-chestnut which
apparently withstand the sliding action
of the snow better than conifers or
evergreen oaks, which are the chief
components of the Himalayan forests
between 7,000 and 9,000 feet altitude.

b. Part of Tree.

Young trees may be bent down, by
snow, individually or in masses, inclu-
sive or exclusive of the ball of earth
around their roots.

Tearing out of branches by wet snow
from the stern, as shown in Fig. 256,
is a less common form of damage, by
which the stem becomes almost worth-
less for timber, and more liable to fresh
breakage. If all the branches of a

Fig. 256. — Portion of
the leading shoot of a

verticil are thus torn out, the leading sPruce' six branches of

, , . • i i T rrn • o which have been torn off

shoot invariably dies. This form of by snow.

o o 2

564

PROTECTION AGAINST SNOW.

injury is common with pines, and branches up to 2J inches
thick are thus torn out, the holes becoming filled with resin,
and the torn branches eventually falling off, so that the
damage done to the tree may escape notice. In the case of
spruce, the branches thus torn out are not generally more
than 1J inches thick.

Amongst broadleaved species, softwoods, including birch,
suffer most in this way, then ash and maples ; beech and oaks
suffer less, though much similar damage was done by snow to
oaks in Windsor Forest in October, 1878, when they were in
full leaf.

According to the age of woods so affected, sometimes the
leaders and branches, at others the stem at different heights
above the ground, are more subject to snowbreak.

The former mode of injury is commonest in seed-years
among older conifers, as the cones increase the weight on the
crown of the tree.

Stem-breakage usually occurs in the case of trees injured by
resin-tapping, game, or by other causes, or trees which are
forked or cankered at or above the seat of injury. The
exuding resin and the usual local decay at the wound
reduces more or less the elasticity and strength of the
stems. Observations in the Harz show the influence of
wounds on snowbreak most clearly up to an age of about
45 years. Even thinnings have an influence, as most
stem breakage at wounds occurred in heavily thinned
woods. Thus the percentage of broken stems in the Harz,
as counted by von Hague (1859-60), in 32-year-old
spruce poles injured by game and resin-tappers, is as
follows : —

BREAKAGE OF STK.MS.

At the
point of injury.

Above the
seat of injury.

Rcinarkn.

73

27

Unthinned wood.

75

25

Slightly thinned a

year before.

88

12

Heavily thinned a

year before.

SNOWBREAK.

565

The following table gives von Seelen's observations on
damage by snow in December, 1883, in the Hasselfeld forest
range.

PERCENTAGE OF

BREAKAGE.

Place of Breakage.

Remarks.

30-40-year-

Over 40

old, trees.

years old.

Root-collum

6

17

6 feet up the stem

62

3

Altitude 1,800 feet,
site nearly level. The

(Of these at a place where

younger wood had

bark was in j urecl)

(00)

(1)

been heavily thinned.

1,030 stems were

Over 6 feet up stem to crown

20

30

counted.

Within the crown

12

50

c. System of Management.

As the species which suffer most from snow are grown in
high forest, that system is most liable to snowbreak.

Woods, where the trees in each compartment are of even
age and height, suffer more than uneven-aged woods, such as
those grown under the selection system ; in the former case,
snow may lie in masses like a flat roof over the crowns of the
trees, especially when the wood is densely stocked, whilst in
uneven-aged woods the snow has a greater surface to cover,
the tree-tops being irregular in height, and more snow reaches
the ground by falling between the crowns of the trees. In the
second case, the wind also enters the wood more freely and
shakes the snow from the crowns of the trees.

Hence, in localities liable to snowbreak, the selection and
group systems are more suitable than other high forest
systems. In coppice-with-standards, the lanky tellers occa-
sionally suffer soon after a felling. Pure coppice is rarely
injured by snow.

d. Age of Wood.

Slowly growing species such as silver-fir, spruce and beech
are most endangered by snow between the ages of 20 and 60
years, quickly growing species such as Scots pine and larch

566 PROTECTION AGAINST SNOW.

between the ages of 15 and 30 years. Thickets 1 to 20 years
old withstand snow better owing to their elasticity, and woods
over 60 years old suffer less, on account of the greater size of
the trees, although in Thuringia 60 to 100-year-old woods
have suffered severely. A distinction must, however, be
made between bending and breakage. Bending owing to snow
is most frequent in woods 20 to 40 years old, and occurs
generally in patches.

Snowbreak, on the contrary, is most frequent in woods
40 to 60 years old and even in older woods. The crown and
leading snoots of the trees are chiefly broken in woods up to
60 years old, whilst in older woods branches are broken off the
stem. In otherwise uninjured woods, stem-breakage is
generally near the base of the crown and occurs here and there
to individual trees. Younger drawn -up stems are often broken
in groups, and sometimes in strips, owing to the action of
wind during or after the fall of snow.

In the extensive snowbreak which happened in the Harz
forests in December, 1883, trees of the following categories
were injured in following proportion for the whole area
affected : —

Age of Woods Percentage of

in Years. Breakage.

20—30 . ..-/;. . . 10

30—40 . . ... . 25

40—50 . . . ' '. . . 25

50—60 . . , . ... 20

60—70 . . . . . . 12

70—80 . •: . . '•.., .... . 5

80 and over ... . . 3

e. Locality.

Mountain-forests are more affected by snowbreak than
forests of the plains and lowlands. The localities in Germany
most exposed to snowbreak lie between altitudes of 1,300 and
2,400 feet ; the snow falls more abundantly at higher eleva-
tions, but then the flakes are smaller and drier, and do not
become so readily attached to the trees; lower down, on the
other hand, the fall of snow frequently changes into rain. In

SNOWBREAK. 567

Switzerland, in 1885 damage by snow extended to an altitude
of 6,560 feet above sea-level.

No aspect is jibsolutely safe against snowbreak ; most
snow in Central Europe comes from a westerly direction, from
which quarter also the strongest winds blow. The south-
easterly, easterly and north-easterly aspects, especially just
below the crest of the hills, suffer most ; the snow falling
most abundantly in such places and being less easily shaken
from the trees by the wind, accumulates on their crowns.
Since, also, freezing winds blow chiefly from the east, a frozen
crust is then formed over the snow, on which more snow
lodges when there is a subsequent snow-storm. North and
north-westerly aspects suffer less, and westerly, south-westerly
and southerly aspects least of all. Depressions and sheltered
spots in valleys are much exposed to snowbreak, as the wind
cannot free the crowns of the trees from snow in such places.

Fertile, deep, moist soil (above granite, basalt, porphyry)
favours growth in height, produces brittle coniferous wood,
and disposes the trees to breakage. Slowly grown short trees,
that occur in unfavourable localities, are much less endangered.
Too much moisture in the soil is also unfavourable, as the
roots have a bad hold on the ground.

A strong growth of grass and herbage is bad in plantations,
as the snow presses the weeds on the young plants.

/. Mode of Formation.

Under otherwise equal conditions young pole-woods which
have grown up in dense thickets suffer most from snow, their
scanty root- systems and slender drawn-up stems exposing
them to danger. Poles resulting from sowings suffer more
than plantations where from the first each individual plant
has had sufficient room for its development. Planting two or
more plants in each planting spot, termed multiple-planting,
is also less favourable where snow is to be feared than planting
single plants.

The distance between the planting-spots is also important,
as plants with stronger roots, and crowns, capable of resisting
the pressure of the snow, result from wide planting. Such

568 PROTECTION AGAINST SNOW.

plants may, however, be uprooted, at least at high altitudes,
owing to the large surface of their crowns, so that wherever
this danger is to be feared planting- spots must not be too far
apart.

Observations made in the Harz forests in December, 1883,
after the disastrous snow-storm already referred to, gave the
following percentages in 100 acres of spruce woods which were
bent down and broken by the snow :

Single planting, 18,
Multiple planting, 26,

so that the single planting suffered about one-third less than
multiple planting.

Mixed woods consisting of broadleaved trees and conifers
suffer less than pure coniferous woods, as less snow rests on
the trees, and the broadleaved species are less liable to injury.
Beech, sycamore and hornbeam should therefore be mixed
with spruce or silver-fir. The larch has not succeeded in
German mountain-forests, but it grows admirably in the
British Isles when mixed with beech and other conifers, pro-
vided the soil is suitable, and such mixtures are well adapted
to withstand heavy falls of snow.

ff. Effect of Thinnings.

Woods which have been properly thinned are generally less
liable to damage than unthinned woods, not only on account
of the sturdier forms of the trees and their more regular
crowns, but also because more snow reaches the ground in
thinned woods, and the weight of the snow which rests on the
crowns of the trees is less than when the woods are very
dense. The wind is also more effective in thinned woods in
shaking the trees free from snow.

Extensive snowbreak has indeed been observed at times in
thinned woods, but this does not invalidate the above reason-
ing, for sometimes thinnings are put off too long, and if
excessive snow should fall on weakly stems just set free by
a strong thinning, it is evident that much damage may be
done. It is therefore to a certain extent an affair of chance,
as regards the first thinning in a dense thicket, whether
damage by snow occurs or not, but the longer the wood

SNOWBREAK. 569

escapes damage after the thinning has been effected, the better
it will resist should a severe snow-storm occur.

In thinned . woods, individual stems are more liable to
breakage, whilst in unthinned woods whole patches of poles
may be crushed. Biihler* has undertaken some very interest-
ing experiments to investigate the effects of thinning on snow-
break. They show that heavy thinnings are less affected by
snow than light thinnings ; it is not the dominant poles with
regularly shaped crowns that are so much endangered by the
snow as the badly grown poles with lop-sided crowns, and
these are removed in heavy thinnings as well as dead, dying
and dominated poles. A heavy thinning somewhat interrupts
the leaf-canopy, and thus allows more snow to reach the
ground than in a dense pole-wood.

h. State of the Weather.

The snow is the more destructive the wetter and larger
the flakes and the more quietly it has fallen. Small flakes
pass more easily between the branches of the trees, and dry
snow is more easily shaken off them by the wind than damp
snow. During a frost, however, wood is more brittle, and
consequently breakage is easier.

The greatest damage is done when a thaw sets in after a
fall of snow, and is followed by a frost, a fresh fall of snow
and a strong breeze. Such a combination of circumstances
will cause extensive snow-breakage in woods of all ages,
whether sown or planted, thinned or unthinned, forming a sad
picture of devastation for the forester, who sees the results of
his care at once nullified.

2. Record of Damage clone by Snow.

Snowbreak being of a local nature only, the occurrence of
serious damage in the Harz mountains maybe cited. During
the sixty-six years ending with 1897, there have been nineteen
disastrous years of snowbreak, or one year in every four, the
worst of which were as follows : —

In January and February, 1844, in Hanover, two million

* "Schneedriick u. Durchforstungsgrad," " Practischer Forstwirth," 1890.
Nos. 3—6.

570 PROTECTION AGAINST SNOW.

stems were broken by snow, over 95 per cent, of which were
under 7 inches in diameter. In November and December,
1875, in Brunswick, 6,734,000 cubic feet of timber were
broken by snow on 85,635 acres, being at the rate of 78 cubic
feet per acre, about half the fixed annual yield of the forests.
The chief damage was done on the northern side of the
mountains. From the 10th to the 13th December, 1883, and
from the llth to the 27th January, 1884, 22,500,000 cubic
feet of timber were broken in the Hanoverian Harz, and about
7,000,000 cubic feet in the Brunswick State forests.

In the winter of 1894 95, owing to the very heavy snowfall,
much game was killed in Obersteirrnark. On an area of
1,793 square miles, 5,642 head of red-deer, chamois, and roes
perished, being about 15 per cent, of the stand of game,
estimated at 21 head per square mile.

3. Protective Rules.

Protective rules against damage to forests by snow should
be drawn up, either on the principle of reducing the power of
attachment of the snow to the trees, or of strengthening the
latter. The question will be discussed under the heads of
formation, tending, and utilisation of the woods.

a. Formation of Woods.

i. Species endangered by snow should not be planted
in snow localities, especially in pure forests. Scots pine is
absolutely out of place in regions where snow lies deep in
winter. The chief species here should be the spruce, silver-
fir, or larch.

ii. In planting spruce, introduce a mixture of silver-fir,
larch and broadleaved trees, such as beech and sycamore.

iii. Natural regeneration, especially for silver-fir and beech,
and also for spruce, will give better results than regular plan-
tations ; it produces the trees in groups and with a mixture of
broadleaved species, which should be encouraged.

iv. Where the clear-cutting system is followed, strong
nursery-trained transplants should be used to restock the
felling-areas, the plantations being made in lines parallel to
the direction of the prevailing wind, so that the snow may

SNOWBREAK. 571

fall between the plants. The plants should be somewhat
closely planted wherever heavy snow is to be feared, so that
they may afford one another mutual support against the snow.

v. Avoid sowings in the open, planting with strong trans-
plants (no multiple planting) and that have not been too
closely lined out in nurseries, so as to produce strong,
resisting plants.

It is better to plant in lines, which should be parallel to
the direction of the prevailing wind, so that snow can be
driven between the rows of plants. At lower elevations
the rows should be 3J to 5 feet apart, at higher elevations
2j to 3J feet, to prevent the branches being torn out. The
plants may be 2J to 3J feet apart in the rows. Wider planting
has given bad results in the Harz.

vi. An excessive growth of grass, bracken or other weeds
should be removed from young growth, as it may be pressed
down by the snow over the plants and kill them.

~b. Protection during Thinnings.

i. The most efficient measure to protect woods against
snowbreak is to make timely thinnings, in accordance with
sylvicultural rules, and suitable to the circumstances of each
case. In woods endangered by snowbreak, thinnings should
commence early, be frequently repeated, and increase in
intensity with the age of the trees. At the same time great
care must be taken in the first thinning of densely stocked
pole-woods.

ii. All injuries to the bark of trees, including resin-tapping,
must be avoided.

iii. In specially valuable young pole-woods, the snow may
be shaken from the trees ; this measure was successfully
applied to 10 to 20-year-old Scots pines in Wiirttemberg and
Silesia in 1868, but can evidently be carried out only on a
small scale.

c. During the Principal Fellings.

i. Felling by the selection or group methods should be
followed in high mountain regions, on peaks and ridges, as
this favours uneven heights in the trees. Uniform covering
of the crop with snow is thus prevented.

572 PROTECTION AGAINST SNOW.

ii. Wherever clear cuttings are practised, the felling-areas
should be of small extent, so that areas 'of even-aged wood
should not be too extensive; several series of felling-areas
should therefore be established.

iii. In coppice-with-standards, only strong tellers should be
reserved.

4. Treatment of Injured Woods.

The treatment of injured woods will depend on their age
and the species of which they are composed, and the kind of
damage they have experienced.

If extensive damage has been done by snow, the first duty
of the forester is to remedy matters as soon as possible; in
coniferous woods especially, alLbent and brokeiLwooji -should
be^at onca-worked up ancLsoliL Trees on which three or four
verticils of living branches have been spared may be left
standing, after carefully pruning off their broken branches.
Stems which have been bent over from the ground may
recover their erect position owing to their elasticity and
striving towards the light, and in any case they assist in
keeping the soil covered. The woodcutters, who are removing
broken stems, may be directed to set the bent stems upright,
and, if necessary, attach them by string or wire to stems
which are still erect.

For the rest, the treatment depends chiefly on the species,
the age of the injured crop and the extent and nature of the
snowbreak.

Young coniferous woods which have been broken in patches
and strips should be replanted with large transplants of beech,
sycamore, larch ; spruce, silver-fir, or Weymouth pine may
also be used, in accordance with the suitability of the soil for
each species. Breakage of leaders is often repaired naturally
by formation of new leaders, by Scots pine and larch, even
though it may for long be recognised by double leaders,
bayonet leaders, etc.

Older coniferous woods, when greatly thinned by snow-
break, should_be underplanted ; spruce-woods with beech and
silver-fir ; Scots pine woods with spruce and sessile oak. The
remarks (p. 551) already made regarding repairs of damage
done by wind are also applicable here.

SNOWBREAK.

573

Injured broadleaved woods, especially beech pole-woods,
may be repaired by cutting back the bent stems at heights
of 12 to 18 feet from the ground, the stems being bent
straight. In case of very serious damage, however, the
injured woods, if not too old for reproduction from the stool,
must be cut back close to the ground, and the thinned wood
underplanted with beech or silver-fir. In order to fill larger
gaps between the trees, sessile oak, larch, Weymouth pine,
white alder and robinia may be used, the two latter at low
altitudes.

By means of a combination of all these plantings, woods
like coppice-with-standards will result, which, owing to their
unevenness in age, height and rate of growth, will be better
able to withstand future falls of snow.

Fig. 257. — Beech bent by siiow. Sihlwald, near Zurich.

574

CHAPTER VII.

PROTECTION AGAINST RIME.*
A. General Account of Damage.

RIME and ice may incrust and overlade stems, crowns and
branches, and thus break or uproot trees. Eime, unless
accompanied by snow, seldom seriously damages trees, but
this is not the case with ice, and when this is followed by
snow and a stiff gale, forests may suffer very considerably.

The damage done resembles that effected by storms and
snow.

B. Damage under Special Conditions.

a. Species.

Coniferous woods suffer more than broadleaved woods.
Scots pine and other pines suffer most, then spruce, silver-fir
and ktrch. If larch be covered with needles, it may suffer
more than spruce.

In broadleaved woods, poplars, willows, alder and robinia,
on account of their brittle wood, are most endangered, but as
these trees are not extensively grown, their damage is not
very important. The beech, on account of its dense foliage,
suffers considerably. Oaks and birch, in leaf, also suffer
greatly.

b. Afje of Crop.

Whilst damage by snow chiefly affects thickets and young
pole-woods, ice and rime will do more damage to middle-aged
and even mature woods. Scots pine and larch-woods thirty to
sixty years old and beech-woods from forty to eighty years
are most liable to injury. Pole- woods are generally bent, but
may be sometimes crushed by the weight of ice they bear, as

* Vide "Notes on Hoar Frost " : C. B. Plowright, "Journal of K. Hort. Soc."
March, 1891.

GENERAL ACCOUNT OP DAMAGE.

575

Fig. 258. — Oak tree, branches broken by rime. From vol. xiii.
K. Hort. Soc.," " Notes on Hoar Frost," Plowriglit.

Journal of

if by a gigantic roller. Older trees are generally broken either
in their boles, leaders or branches. Conifers laden with cones
suffer most from breakage of leaders. Old oaks, especially
when stag-headed, have their branches broken.

576

PROTECTION AGAINST RIME.

c. Locality.

The damage done by rime and ice, in Central and Northern
Germany, chiefly occurs at altitudes between 1,600 and 2,600
feet. In South Germany, up to 3,300 feet, crops suffer the more
the faster their growth and the shorter the interval since the
last thinning. The wetter the soil the more trees are up-
rooted. Northerly, north-easterly and easterly aspects suffer
most, especially steep slopes and depressions exposed to the
north-east wind. Woods suffer on both sides of valleys

running east and west, whilst
in valleys running north and
south only the east aspect
suffers.

d. Density of Crop.
Isolated trees suffer more
from rime and ice than trees
growing in dense woods, as
they have a larger surface
exposed, and this applies to
avenue trees, seed-bearers in
regeneration - fellings and
standards over coppice, and
also to trees along the easterly
and northerly borders of a
wood, or of an exposed felling-
area. Trees afford one another

mutual protection in a dense wood. At the same time, lofty
poles just set free from a dense growth by a thinning may
suffer considerably.

e. Weather.

Most damage by ice occurs in January and February ; but
trees may be endangered in November and December. North
and east winds specially favour ice-formation.

Fig. 259. — Needles of Scots piue
encrusted with ice.

C. Record of Bad Years.

The damage done by rime and ice as well as by snow is of a
local nature, and in the Harz mountains there were thirteen

GENERAL ACCOUNT OF DAMAGE.

577

bad years between 1821 — 1897, which were also the years n
which much snow-break occurred.

The weight of ice on the trees is sometimes considerable,
as much as fifty pounds on six pounds of wood. A most
destructive ice-break occurred between the 18th and 25th of
November, 1858, in the Spessarfc, Odenwald, part of the
Bavarian Palatinate and Ehenish Prussia, in which the ice-
crust was eighteen to twenty times the thickness of the wood on
which it rested. In the Spessart, 2,750,000 cubic feet of wood
was broken ; in the Odenwald, nearly 2,000,000 cubic feet ; in
the State forests of the Palatinate, 11,000,000 cubic feet and

Fig. 260. — Shoot of Scots pine covered with ice.

about half as much, in the Communal forests. Observations
showed that a spruce plant 3J feet high had to support
165 Ibs., and single Scots pine-needles, over half an ounce of
ice. The picturesque forms of the ice-encrustations are shown
in Figs. 259 and 260.

In France and Central Germany, from the 22nd to the 24th
of January, 1879, there was most extensive breakage of woods
by ice, which is described by Janin in the Revue des Deux
Mondes. In certain broadleaved forests, about 50 per cent,
of the stems were broken, and in carefully thinned Scots pine-
woods, 70 per cent. In the forest of Fontainebleau, about
5,300,000 stacked cubic feet of wood were broken, thin twigs
of wood and telegraph wires being encrusted with ice to a

F.P, p p

578 PROTECTION AGAINST RIMK.

thickness of 8 inches. Living larks were found frozen to the
ground by their feet" and tails, and in the Champagne district
dead partridges were picked up covered with ice.

Great damage by rime to elm and other trees is described
by Plowright as having occurred in Norfolk on Jan. 7th, 1889.
(Fig. 258.)

D. Protective Rules.

(a) Formation of strong young growth. Where danger
from rime and ice is feared, the Scots pine must be excluded
or mixed with other species.

(b) Maintenance of the leaf-canopy even in old woods.
Heavy thinnings should not be made in dense pole-woods.

(c) Isolated standards should not be reserved in high
forests.

(d) A protective belt should be maintained on the north-
eastern and eastern borders of woods.

(e) Wherever danger from rime-frost is greater than from
storms, cuttings should be made*in woods from south-east to
north-west ; the south-westerly gales then blow along merely
the face of the felling-areas, and endanger a few border-trees
only. The correct direction for felling-series can be decided
only after a thorough knowledge has been acquired of the
configuration of the ground and of the local factors.

E. Treatment of Injured Woods.

Reference is here invited to Chapter III., p. 557, and
Chapter VI., p. 570, dealing with woods damaged by storms
and snow, as those which have been injured by ice will require
similar treatment.

PAKT V.

PROTECTION AGAINST NON-ATMOSPHERIC PHENOMENA.

P P U

581

PROTECTION AGAINST NON-ATMOSPHERIC
PHENOMENA.

THE chief non-atmospheric phenomena to which forests are
exposed are swamps, floods and torrents, avalanches, shifting
sands and forest fires. Damage to woods by these agencies
will now be described.

582

CHAPTER I.

PROTECTION AGAINST DAMAGE BY SWAMPS,
FLOODS AND TORRENTS.*

WATER acts either as a meteoric phenomenon, or as stagnant
or flowing water on the surface of the ground, or in the soil ;
its effects are partly mechanical and partly physiological.

The chief mechanical effects consist in soil-denudation,
landslips, or floods. Physiological damage is done to plant-
life and to the soil hy stagnant water causing hogs and
marshes. Damage to forests hy heavy rain has already been
dealt with (p. 554).

SECTION I. — SOIL-DENUDATION.
1. Description.

Soil-denudation on steep slopes may be due either to subsoil-
water, surface-water, or to mountain torrents.

Subsoil-water or surface-water on hill-sides may cause land-
slips, which bring down the soil with the vegetation growing on
it, and expose the subjacent rock ; this may occur either when
the slope of the hill-side is excessive, or when there is an
impermeable substratum which prevents the further descent
of the water into the hill.

Excavations of pits or quarries at the base of a hill may
have a similar effect.

Mountain torrents may cause soil-denudation, or form ravines,
by deepening their beds and by wearing away their banks.
The latter effect occurs chiefly at sharp turns in the course of
the torrent, when one bank is formed of rock and the other
of loose material. The force of the water increases with its

* Kraft, Gustav., " Beitrage zur forstl. Wasserbaukunde." Hannover, ism1.
Demontzey-, " Etude sur les Travaux de lleboisemerit et de Gazounement des
Montagnes." Paris, 1878. Id. Trait i? Pratique, 1882. Von Scnkendorf. M V»-r-
bannuug der Wildbache." Vienna, 1884. Landolt, ll Die Biiche, Schneelawiiu-n
und Steinschlage." Ziirich, 1886.

SOIL-DENUDATION. 583

velocity, and may be assumed to be proportional to the sixth
power of the velocity of the stream.

To cite an example, a formidable landslip occurred on the
15th November, 1879, at Vitznau, on Lake Lucerne. Here,
at the foot of the Kigi, a mass of earth exceeding 35,000 cubic
feet, and covered with trees, fell down the mountain side and
filled a depression, burying a chapel under mud to a depth of
twenty feet.

Landslips occur frequently in all mountain chains, and in
the Himalayas attain vast proportions ; the Gohna landslip,
in 1893, for instance, brought down enormous quantities of
rock across a valley, damming up a tributary of the River
Ganges. This led to the formation of a lake 10 miles long
and 500 feet deep, which eventually burst the dam in. August,
1894, causing a flood 30 feet deep to rush down the Ganges
valley and flood the town of Hardwar. Owing to the establish-
ment of telegraphic communication, and to careful watching
at the dam, all the inhabitants of the valley received timely
warning of the probable bursting of the dam, and no lives
were lost.

2. Damage done.

Soil-denudation reduces the forest area, buries plantations
and young growth in mud, injures and destroys forest roads
and other works, and fills up ditches. Ravines that become
constantly enlarged by surface drainage are formed on hill-
sides, whilst the beds of watercourses are raised, interrupted
and altered, by the material brought down by the water;
inundations are thus caused. The amount of damage done
increases, the steeper the slope and the more broken its
contour, and the looser the soil and the greater the weight
of the woody growth. Localities where landslips are likely
to occur may be recognised beforehand in wet years by cracks
forming in the soil.

8. Protective Rules.

The best protective rules to adopt against these dangers are : —

(a) Careful maintenance of a continuous woody growth on

mountain-peaks, ridges and all dangerous slopes. Forests in

534 PROTECTION AGAINST NON-ATMOSPHERIC PHENOMENA.

such places we protection forests, and should be managed either
by selection or as coppice. For mountain-tops and plateaux,
the selection system is best, when accompanied by the timely
planting up of all gaps that may occur in the wood ; but on

Fig. 261.

steep slopes, high forest presses too heavily on the soil and
should make way for coppice with short rotations.

(b) Wherever a landslip is to be feared, the bank should
be kept up by wattle-fences, by protection of the soil-covering,
and by not extracting the stumps of felled trees. The various
protective measures which may be adopted, depend on the
cause of the danger and the circumstances of the locality.

SOIL-DENUDATION. 5S5

Surface-water, or subsoil-water, for instance, may be con-
ducted away from above the endangered place by ditches or
drains. All quarrying below the threatened hill-side must
be stopped.

(c) The following measures provide against damage by a
mountain torrent :—

i. Reafforesting the collecting-area of the stream ; the
methods to be adopted for this object are described
further on.

ii. Securing the sides and bed of the torrent by revetments,
from its collecting area, downwards.

iii. Reducing the force of the stream by terracing its bed,
and constructing across the stream wattle-work fences or
masonry works which keep stones and silt from accumulating
in the lower parts of the stream.

iv. Terracing the slopes of the valley on either side of the
stream, and fixing them by means of sowings or plantations.

4. Remedial Measures.

When, in spite of every care, landslips or ravines have been
caused by abnormally heavy rain, or by melting snow, pro-
tective works should at once be constructed. A revetment
made of wattle-work, or of logs fixed in position by piles
driven into the ground (Fig. 261, A), may prevent the
occurrence of further damage. If, however, the landslip is
extensive, several such constructions, one above the other,
must be made, and the earth between them be brought to a
uniform slope and planted up. In certain cases, complicated
masonry revetments are required.

In order to make natural revetments (Fig. 261, B and C)
woody growth must be on the spot. The bush is partly cut
through, splashed, and pegged down, with its crown uphill.
Where there is no woody growth, trellis- work with living
branches of willows or dead branches (Fig. 261, D and E)
should be employed. Fig. 261, F, shows how these willow
trellises may be planted along a slope. Wherever a landslip is
feared, adjoining trees should be felled, as they would otherwise
fall in and add to the damage.

586 PROTECTION AGAINST INUNDATIONS.

SECTION II. — INUNDATIONS.
1. Causes of Inundations.

Inundations originate in valleys and plains owing to the
sudden thaw of masses of snow in the mountains or plateaux
above them, or to prolonged or heavy rainfall, or to the
interruption of watercourses hy landslips.

The last of these causes is frequently due to clearing forests
from mountain sides, and to bad management of protection
forests. When, on hill-sides, the effects of rain and surface-
drainage are not reduced by a full leaf-canopy and by the
binding effects of the roots of the trees on the soil, as well
as the sponge-like action of the natural soil-covering of dead
leaves and moss on the surface-water, the latter runs down
unimpeded into the valleys, bringing with it quantities of
boulders, gravel, silt and mud ; this raises the beds of the
watercourses, and causes them to overflow and spread
destruction far and wide into the lower country, especially
by leaving cultivated lands covered with gravel and silt after
the floods have subsided.

Most inundations in Central Europe occur in April, when
they are due to the general melting of the mountain snow, or
in August or November, owing to heavy rainfall.

2. Damage done.

Inundations carry away the soil-covering and humus from
forests, causing swamps and cold soil; they destroy young
plants, hinder the formation of coppice-shoots, interrupt
fellings and the export of forest produce, and often carry
away timber to great distances. The floating wood endangers
bridges, river-bank protection works, and works constructed to
facilitate the floating of timber. In spring-floods, trees
growing along the banks of streams may suffer from the
friction of the ice which is carried down. Many game-animals,
especially roe-deer, are drowned.

The mud brought down by the flood, however, richly com-
pensates for the loss of soil-covering and humus. Eiver mud
contains not only nutritive mineral salts, but yields lime in
a fine state of division, which is therefore readily absorbed by

INUNDATIONS. 587

plants, and is an excellent manure for lands' that are poor in
lime. The higher the floods, the greater is the deposit of
mud.

Dr. Schulze of Darmstadt gives the following percentages
for the constituents of Khine mud : —

1871. 1872.

Potash . . . 0-43 0*19

Lime . . . . 14'06 15*65

Phosphoric acid . . 013 (Ml

Humus . . 2-86 2'12

Professor Nessler of Carlsruhe found the following con-
stituents in mud from the Upper Ehine.

Per cent. Per cent.

CaO .u 13-8 17-5

P205 . , . . 0-08 0*14

Humus , \ . 1*1 4'4

The average amount of calcium carbonate was 27*5 per
cent. The percentages of potash and phosphoric acid are
small, but always greater than in ordinary agricultural soil.

Besides the supply of large quantities of soil, the utility
of floods also consists in the increase in subsoil-water,
specially useful for forests in dry years, and the destruction
of rabbits, mice, cookchafer-grubs, etc., that burrow in the
ground.

The greatest recent floods in Central Europe in 1856, 1868,
1879, 1882, 1885, 1888, 1889, 1890, 1892, 1896, 1897, and
1899, chiefly affected the Alpine districts of France and
Switzerland, Hungary and Austria.

In 1856 the Ehone caused fearful floods, which drowned
numbers of people and damaged property to the extent of
.£8, 000,000. One of the results of these floods was the enact-
ment by the French Legislature of the laws for the reboisement
of the denuded mountain-sides, of the 28th July, 1860, and
of the 8th June, 1864, for regazonnement, or restocking them
with grass.*

* " Forest Law," Baden- Powell, 1893, p. 248. Laws for the protection of
mountain forests in Germany, Switzerland, and Italy are also referred to.

588 PROTECTION AGAINST INUNDATIONS.

Terrible floods occurred in Switzerland in 1868, and in
Hungary in the valley of the Eiver Theiss, in March, 1879.
In September, 1882, damage estimated at £1,000,000 was
caused by floods in Carinthia and the Tyrol, and there
were serious floods in the Khine valley in 1882, and in the
regions of the Elbe and Oder in 1888. The great floods in
Silesia and Brandenburg in the summer of 1897, caused the
promulgation of the law (1898 — 99) for protection of the
tributaries of the left bank of the Elbe, in Silesia. Extensive
floods occurred in the Thames and Severn valleys, and other
districts in the South of England, in November, 1894.

Serious floods* occur in Northern India nearly every year
between July and September, after the commencement of the
summer monsoon, and owing to the great damage thus caused
to irrigation canals fed by the Ganges and Jumna rivers, the
forests on the southern slopes of the Siwalik Hills are now
managed as protection forests. The Indian forest officials!
have for years recommended the adoption of similar measures
to the lower hills between the Jumna and Sutlej rivers, as
the first burst of the monsoon on the annually grazed and
burned sandy hills above the Hoshiarpur district causes most
disastrous inundations every year, besides bringing down
quantities of sand, gravel, and boulders which have encroached
considerably on the agricultural land below the hills, so that
by 1891, lands belonging to 914 villages were affected, and
30,000 acres of richly fertile and long cultivated land laid
waste, besides immense damage being done annually to rail-
way and road embankments, etc. The hills were formerly
covered with forest growth, but during the last forty years,
flocks of goats and herds of buffaloes belonging to about
eighty hamlets of squatters have been allowed to browse
down and destroy the forest growth which formerly fixed
the soil on the hills, and would spring up again were the
annual grazing and burning of the undergrowth restricted.
A law, termed the Siwalik Act, was passed by the Punjab
Legislative Assembly in 1900, which permits the Local

* Vide " Indian Forester," vol. xii., p. 418.

f Ibid., vol. v., p. 3. Baden- Powell's Report. Moir's Report, vol. x., p. 271 ;
vol. xiii., p. 525 ; vol. xvii., p. 216

INUNDATIONS. 589

*

Government to make rules regulating the cultivation of
land, the felling or firing of trees, quarrying and pasture
on such areas.

3. Protective Rules.

Private agency can usually do little or nothing to prevent
floods. The action of the State is indispensable, as the cost
of the erection and maintenance of the works necessary to
secure this object is quite out of proportion to the value of
the property on which they must be erected, and the work
of fixing the beds of mountain torrents and reafforesting
hill-sides in process of denudation must be carried out over
a large area.

The most effective measures depend on the careful manage-
ment of mountain forests in the catchment-areas of dangerous
watercourses, the main principle being to meet the danger at
its source.

Although observant* people discovered these facts and wrote
about them a century ago, a long time elapsed before improved
forest management and the erection of the necessary works
were undertaken in regions that were threatened in this way.
Serious and successful action, however, is now being taken in
France, in Austria-Hungary, and in Switzerland, to counteract
the causes of floods.

The chief rules to be followed are : —

i. Regulation of Torrents and their Feeders. — The following
account of torrents is taken from an address by Fankhauser,
to the Berne Forestry Association, June 18th, 1897.

In every torrent there are three distinctly marked
divisions : —

1. The catchment area.

2. The channel course.

3. The cone of debris.

The principal mass of water forming a torrent comes from
the catchment area. Single drops of rain falling on the
topmost ridges flow down their bare sides in fine, thread-
like streams, and unite into larger and larger brooks. Mere

* Von Aueisberg, Innspruck, 1779.

590 PROTECTION AGAINST INUNDATIONS.

drops wash away only earth and sand, and loosen the larger
rocky masses, but the brooks carry down stones and gravel.
The masses descending on all sides are received by the
channel course. After heavy rain, the raging torrent rushes
down its narrow bed, weighted with earth, sand and stones.
It tears away and undermines fresh material from the bed
and sides of the stream, and the projecting banks give way
and add to the moving debris.

When the torrent emerges from its narrow bed into the
level plain, its force diminishes. The rubbish is heaped up
into a cone of debris, or may be washed away by a larger
stream or river.

The most striking phenomenon in each torrent is the
varying amount of water. The Ehine at Basel varies
between its highest and lowest level, as 1 : 20. The torrent
of Faucon, in the Lower Alps, once carried off 70 per cent,
of the rainfall, or 60,000 cub. m. of water, in twenty minutes,
and at the same time, 180,000 cub. m. of rubbish.

By regulating torrents and their feeders the formation of
the products of denudation is reduced, the velocity of the
water is slackened, earth, gravel and boulders are retained
in the mountains, while, if possible, a steady and continuous
flow of water is maintained.

Works of the following nature should be designed in
accordance with the nature of the locality, the characters
of torrents, the area of the collecting ground, and the funds
available : —

(a) Barricades of trees with their entire crowns thrown across
torrents, or stones strongly joined together, with a tree in
front of them. These protect the base of the torrent from
deepening. Large masonry barricades are best made bow-
shaped, with the bend up-stream. The nearer they are to
one another, the better protection they afford.

(b) Paving in masonry the bed of the torrent. This not only
prevents deepening, but also obstructs the carrying down of
silt, etc. These linings are made as in Fig. 262, A and B. The
bow-shaped form A is preferable, but the polygonal form is
easier and cheaper to construct, and suffices when the debris
is not composed of very large pieces,

INUNDATIONS.

591

(c) Valley -revetments. (German, Thalspcrren ; French,
Barrages.} These are constructions that reduce the gradient
of the torrent bed and the destructive power of the water.

Fig. 262.

They protect not only the bed of the torrent below them, but
raise its level behind them.

These revetments may be made of wood or of masonry,
the latter owing to its superior durability is far preferable.

Fig. 263.

Their mode of construction varies, according to circumstances ;
they are erected at regular intervals and collect silt and
stones behind them. For small torrents and where rapid
cheap work is required, mere, wattle-fences may suffice,

592 PROTECTION AGAINST INUNDATIONS.

Fig. 268 shows how a valley is protected by a series of
barrages.

(d) Wattle-fences. These consist in simple wattle-fences
made in curves and almost horizontal, the central point being
somewhat lower than the sides ; they are afterwards raised
as the bed of the torrent rises (Fig. 264, A and B). When
further denudation is no longer feared, the middle of the
ravine is paved with stones as shown in Fig. 264, C. The first
fejices are erected at distances apart of three meters ; they
are commenced from below and continued up-stream. Their
erection is continued until the bed of the ravine is raised high
enough for no more denudation to be feared.

This simple plan, devised in 1838 by Jenny, is advisable

A B c

Fig. 264.— Jenny's Wattle-Fences.

where only mud free from large stones comes down, and for
lateral ravines leading into the main torrent.

(e) Addenda. All the above-mentioned works serve to
secure the bed of the torrent. The question of maintaining
its sides will be discussed further on.

Such works are useful in districts with granite or other
rocks, other than limestone. Torrents coming from limestone
districts or from glaciers cannot be properly regulated.

In connection with the above works, the slopes leading
down to the torrent must be properly graded, and a system
of horizontal protective trenches laid out, so as to cut off the
soil-water and distribute it over a larger area. These trenches
have proved extremely useful in preventing floods. They
are beneficial to forest-vegetation, facilitate plantations, and
also revi e the original springs of water.

The local forest-staff should carry put the above works and

INUNDATIONS. 593

should possess the necessary technical and local knowledge
to do so.

In France, up to 1898, the Government had acquired
375,000 acres in mountain districts for reboisement, and
spent £13,100 in 1905-6 on the necessary works, having by
1892 spent altogether £1,820,000 on the reboisement of
156,197 acres.

Extensive works have also been carried on in Austria
since 1882, £180,000 having been spent up to 1894. In
Switzerland, in the four years 1894-7, about £50,000 has
been spent for the rectification of torrents, in engineering
works and planting.

ii. Wasteland in Mountain Regions, especially on sloping
ground, should be planted up, and the forests in such regions
carefully maintained.

Surell,* in 1841, published a paper on the subject, making
the following assertions : —

(a) The covering of mountain soil with well-managed woods
prevents the formation of destructive torrents, whilst the
clearance of mountain woodlands favours them.

(b) The reboisement of mountain districts will rectify
mountain torrents, while the clearance of forest and its
soil-covering doubles the strength of the torrents, and causes
new ones.

A treatise on forest protection cannot go very far into the
subject of the management of mountain forests. The following
remarks, however, are useful : —

The forest should be under the selection system. Planting
is better than sowing for wasteland and blank spaces. The
species to be cultivated are chiefly Mountain and Cembran
pines, larch and spruce. The lines of plants should be at an
angle of 45° to the course of the torrent. Grass seed, consist-
ing of a mixture of Avena elatior, L., Bromus erectus, Huds.,
Holcus lanatus, L., should also be sown. Uprooting of trees
and stumps in fellings must be abandoned. Pasture, usage
of litter and other destructive forest usages must be absolutely
forbidden.

* " Etude sur les Torrents des Hautes Alpes." Paris, 1841.
F.P. Q Q

594

PROTECTION AGAINST INUNDATIONS.

It must

iii. Regulation of the Loirer Course of the Stream, in order
that it may, as far as possible, be able to carry away high
floods without danger to the surrounding country. A river is
said to be regulated when the water is in the middle of the
bed and flows away evenly, and the banks are firm.

In regulating watercourses the following points must be
attended to :—

a. The profile of the watercourse must be normal,
be deep enough to carry down small debris

when there is an average quantity of water,
and also wide enough to carry off floods
without acquiring any great velocity. Too
narrow beds must be widened, and too
broad beds reduced in width.

b. The gradient of the bed of the water-
course must be so modified that its velocity
will not be too great nor too slow. The
former is effected by means of weirs, and
the latter by shortening its course, as
shown in Fig. 265.

c. Fixation of the. River-banks. * This
can be done by plantations, or by special
works.

For a full account of the measures to be taken in the lower
part of a stream, see Vol. V., " Forest Utilization," p. 374.

4. Management of Forests on Land liable to Inundations.*

The management of forests on land liable to be flooded
includes much that is special to the circumstances of the case.
Species should be chosen that can withstand a good deal of
moisture in the soil and occasional submersion ; such are the
pedunculate oak, elms, black alder, willows, black and white
poplars, and the ash. In the wettest places the common alder
and willows are found ; ash is more sensitive to soil-moisture
than poplars and the pedunculate oak.

Among exotics are, Juglaus nigra, L., Carya alba, Nutt.,
C. amara, Nutt., Acer calif or nicum, Torr., and Fra.i-inux

* Rebtnann, "Die Rheinvvaldungen und deren Bcwirthsliaftunjj:. ' Alliro-
mine Forst. u. Jagd. Zeitung, 1896, pp. 360—381.

Fig. 26

INUNDATIONS.

americana, L. ; the latter withstands water hetter than the
common ash.

Pollarding, the Selection system, and Coppice-with-standards,
rich in standards, are suitable systems of management. Tree-
willows may be pollarded, hut poplars are best managed by
cutting only their side branches, as pollarded poplars soon
decay. Both poplars and willows speedily reproduce the bark,
which has been rubbed off by ice ; they are generally grown
from strong cuttings. Oak, elm and ash may be grown in
High Forest.

Reproduction is effected by planting saplings and slips,
as natural regeneration is difficult to
A obtain on areas liable to floods.

A large number of saplings must be
planted, to replace those that are injured
by floods and to kill blackthorn and
other noxious weeds.

In the case of Coppice-with-standards,
a much larger number of tellers is

8

Q

7

ff

£

J

2

i r JT VL

IK JT

Fig. 266.

Fig. 267.— Section from A to B, showing
comparative heights of wood.

reserved at each felling than is usually the case under this
system, in order to keep down inferior species such as black-
thorn. Osier beds, chiefly of Salix riminalis, S. purpurea, etc.,
may be planted by means of cuttings, and cut over annually.

In the case of High Forest, or Coppice-with-standards, the
felling-areas should be arranged at an oblique angle with the
course of the stream as shown in Figs. 266 and 267, I. being
the youngest and VIII. the oldest wood, and alternate compart-
ments differing in age by half the rotation.

Such an arrangement affords shelter to the young growth
and prevents floods from carrying away beyond the next strip
of wood the felled timber lying on any area.

Q Q 2

596 PROTECTION AGAINST SWAMPS.

Fellings should take place when the water is lowest, or
when it is frozen. Timber should be removed up to the
advent of spring, and the commencement of the floods.
Grass-cutting and removal of litter may be carried on freely
in such forests, without danger of impoverishing the soil,
which is enriched by the annual floods ; pasture, however,
should not be allowed.

SECTION III. — SWAMPS.
1. Formation of Swamps.

The soil of a locality becomes wet when the drainage-water
has not a sufficient outlet. If there be no outlet for the water,
swamps or peat-bogs may be formed. Either swamps or bogs
may be caused by rain, snow- or spring-water, or water from
rivers and ponds.

Drainage may be prevented either horizontally or vertically,
the former if the water cannot escape superficially owing to an
insufficient fall of the ground ; the latter, if it cannot escape
by penetration into the subsoil owing to an impermeable
substratum of clay, turf, clayey or marly loam, soil encrusted
with iron, or massive rock, especially in horizontal layers.
Sometimes both these causes are at work, when the harm
done is intensified. The local causes of swampiness may vary
considerably.

(a) In low-lying plains, swampiness is generally caused by
flowing water, owing to a slight depression in the ground and a
stiff soil.

(I)} In basin-shaped valleys along watercourses (Taliiry),
swamps may be caused by surface-water, or by underground
infiltration from the stream ; the former happens after floods,
when the overflow cannot find its way back into the stream,
owing to the presence of high land along its bank. Part of the
overflow must then remain on the low land, especially when
the subsoil prevents the descent of the water. Lagoons along
the sea-coast are formed in this way.

Water may spring through permeable soil from neighbouring
watercourses, and when it thus appears in depressions, it

FORMATION OF SWAMPS.

597

denotes a high level of water in the stream and complete
saturation of the soil.

(c) In high plateaux, swampiness is due to heavy rainfall, or
to snowfall with subsequent thaw, or to saturation of the air
combined with an impermeable subsoil accompanied by the
growth of swamp-forming mosses or other plants.

(d) Swamps on a hillside are generally caused by springs, the
water from which cannot penetrate into the ground on account
of a subsoil of clay or of horizontal rocky strata. If the soil

Fig. 268.
a. Impermeable stratum, b. Permeable stratum, c. Water.

on a hillside should be permeable above and impermeable
below, all the water in it descends to the base of the hill,
where it rises above the ground-surface and forms a swamp
(Fig. 268). If, however, the permeable stratum terminates in
the slope, drainage-water will spring out of the hillside, along
the line where the two strata coalesce.

2. Damage done ly Swamps,
a. General Account.

The damage done by swampy ground is as follows : —
i. Instability of the trees, which favours windfall, especially
of the spruce.

ii. Stunted growth and liability to decay in the roots and
stems of trees, and consequent loss of increment and sometimes
death of the trees. The bad growth of trees on wet soil is due
to the exclusion of oxygen from the roots and to the low tem-
peratures of the soil and air, as wet soil may reduce air- tempera-
ture by 9° to 14° F., or to the formation of humic acid and

698 PROTECTION AGAINST SWA Mi's.

carbohydrates instead of carbon-dioxide in the soil. Healthy
growth and activity of roots is consequently much impaired.

iii. Increased damage by frost, sometimes killing off young
plants (p. 499).

iv. Difficulties in forest management in regeneration and
harvesting, also in transport. The wetness of the soil increases
the difficulty of cultivating it, and often renders spring-planting
quite impossible ; seeds do not germinate in too wet a soil, and
young plants often perish.

v. The tendency of a swamp to increase in area is another
cause of danger to the forest.

b. According to Species.

Hardly any forest species can withstand continuous stagnant
wetness of the soil, but the degree of resistance to it shown by
different species differs considerably. Experiments made in
the Palatinate, where there is an impermeable subsoil, show
that trees resisted a very wet soil in the following order: —

Pedunculate oak, elm, poplars, willows, hornbeam, common
alder ; ash, sessile oak ; Scots pine, spruce ; beech, silver-fir.

It is strange to find the alder so low in this scale, as other
observations tend to prove that this species can withstand
more moisture than the elm. The birch, and especially Betala
pubescens, Ehr., will withstand much moisture in the soil, and
so will the rowan (Pyrus Aucuparia, Gaertn.)

c. Age of Wood.

Young plants are frequently killed by inundations. Poles
and trees on swampy ground suffer generally from root-decay,
especially the spruce, larch, and Scots pine.

d. Locality and Nature of Soil- Covert/ if/.

Swamps are more frequent in lowlands than on hills and in
mountain districts, on massive than on stratified rocks, and on
heavy stiff soil than on loose soil. Local swamps may occur
where the substrata are horizontal, as on the Buntersandstein
in the Black Forest.

Certain forest weeds, such as sedges, reeds, peat-plants, and

DAMAGE DONE. 590

especially peat-moss, predispose to swampiness, whilst per-
manent pasture dries up the surface- soil, but will not thrive
on very wet land.

e. Density of Standing -Crop.

Clearance of forests, especially in mountainous regions,
favours the formation of swamps ; it may be observed as a
general rule, that swampy ground, when once stocked with
young wood, becomes gradually drier as the wood grows older
and covers the ground. This is especially true for coniferous
forest, and the efficacy of the Scots pine for draining swamps
is well known in Ireland, where many bogs have been formed
on the former sites of forests, as is proved by the presence in
them of bog-oak and other woods. The damp, cold London
clay at Prince's Coverts near Esher, hardly ever dries up on
the roads through the forest, but the ash, hazel, and alder-
cqppice will be found to have dried up the soil on both sides of
an extremely wet road.

In the forest of S. Amand, near Valenciennes, in 1843, about
2,000 acres was wet heather land, the soil being sand with
a slight mixture of clay. This was gradually planted with
Scots pine, and these trees have drained the soil to a depth
of 5 feet, so that coppice with oak standards is now being
introduced in place of the pines. Snipe have almost
disappeared.

The valley of the Upper Ehone affords a warning example
of the effects of clearing forests on the formation of swamps ;
the high land above the river having been cleared of forest
at the end of the eighteenth century, in order to afford land
for agriculture. Field-crops, however, have made way for
pasture, and the quantity of hay produced annually has
decreased, till at last the formerly forest-clad areas have
become covered with moss and converted into swamps.
Eeafforesting the area, as in the Dammersfeld, has been
attempted, but is a difficult task.

In explanation it should be noted that in mountain regions
with a cool, humid atmosphere, which is unfavourable to evapo-
ration, the amount of water taken from the soil is proportional
to the extent of leafy surface exposed to the air, and to the

600 PROTECTION AGAINST SWAMPS.

surface of the crowns of the trees standing on the area. The
greater the amount of leaf-canopy, the more atmospheric pre-
cipitation falling on it is evaporated, and so much the less
reaches the ground. Broadleaved trees act in this manner
during the season of growth, but evergreen conifers throughout
the year. In addition to this, the absorptive action of the
roots, and the power of transpiration possessed by the foliage
of trees must be reckoned, as well as the suppression of swamp
moss by the cover of the trees.

Observations made between 1868 and 1871 at the double
Bavarian meteorological stations, which are in pairs — in the
forest and in the open — show that according to the season from
25 per cent, to 32 per cent, of atmospheric precipitation (rain,
snow, &c.), and averaging 26 per cent, for the whole year, did
not reach the ground directly, but remained on the crowns of
the trees. In 1882, Fautrat found that 20 to 27 per cent, of
rainwater remained on the trees in Alsace-Lothringen. Much
of this water, however, drops from the foliage or trickles down
the stems of the trees to the ground.

There are certain localities — for instance, level land with an
impermeable substratum and high atmospheric temperature—
where swampiness of the soil is, on the contrary, increased by
forests. In such cases, the rapidity of evaporation depends on
the unimpeded action of the sun's rays and of dry winds', and
clearing the ground of forests will increase the effects of these
forces.

The action of forests, where the soil-covering of dead leaves,
moss, and humus is carefully preserved, in maintaining moisture
near the surface of the ground and protecting the soil from the
effects of insolation and drying wind, is very valuable on hot
aspects and steep slopes, especially in hot countries, where
water may be thus stored in the spongy soil-covering. A
steady supply of water is thus maintained in springs on the
hillside, while the absence of tree growth, on the other hand,
allows rainwater to drain rapidly down and causes floods
after heavy rainfall, and the watercourses may run nearly
dry during the hotter months of the year.

Ebermeyer has proved by numerous observations that on a
heavy clay soil, the root-zone of a spruce forest, from 16 to 32

DRAINAGE. 601

inches below the surface, is much drier than the corresponding
zone on bare fallow land, the opposite being the case as regards
the uppermost layers of soil, which are protected by the leaf-
canopy of the trees from insolation and the drying action of
winds, while the moss and dead needles retain much moisture
near the surface of the ground. Investigations in Russia by
Ototzky, and in France by Henry, have confirmed this in the
strongest possible manner, and for other trees besides spruce.

/. Season.

In countries with heavy snowfall, where the snow remains
lying on the ground throughout the winter, the soil is wettest
in the spring, after the snow has melted.

In the south-east of England, the soil is probably wettest
from November till March, but dries up rapidly after the 1st of
March till July, owing to the scanty rainfall and the prevalence
of dry east winds.

3. Protective Rules.

(a) In mountain regions, and in very rainy districts, such as
the boggy parts of Ireland, where the formation of swamps is
to be feared, forests should be maintained and be completely
stocked, and shadebearing conifers are best for the purpose.

The spruce probably exercises the greatest action in draining
soil, the superficial roots of this species acting like drain-pipes;
the Scots and Austrian pines are also very useful in suitable
localities, and retain a large proportion of the atmospheric
precipitations on their needles and branches.

(b) Marshy plants should be removed from the ground, and
in damp, low-lying places the circulation of the air should be
increased by clearings, thinnings, pruning and removal of
undergrowth.

(c) All ditches and watercourses in forests should be kept
open, and at least once a year should be cleared of water-
plants, dead leaves and mud.

(d) Mountain torrents should be regulated.

SECTION IV. — DRAINAGE.

A superfluity of water in the soil can be thoroughly rectified
only by drainage. Before, however, undertaking such a work,

602 PROTECTION AGAINST SWAMPS.

a thorough inquiry should be made into all the bearings of
the question, as extensive drainage- works, especially in
mountainous districts, may damage a wide tract of coun-
try, and thus quite outweigh the advantages gained by
affording a larger area for forest-growth and an increased
yield of wood. Experience shows that by draining swamps
and moorland at high altitudes, the supply of moisture to
the soil and atmosphere may become so reduced that forest-
growth and agriculture suffer in districts lower down. This
calamity is especially liable to affect older deep-rooted woody
species, and woods accustomed to plenty of moisture in the
soil. Drainage causes subsidence of the soil, and thus the
roots of shallow-rooted trees such as spruce may become
exposed, while pedunculate oak and ash may become stag-
headed, owing to their roots being less supplied with moisture
than was formerly the case. Before, therefore, drainage is
attempted, the demands on moisture of the species growing or
to be grown on the drained area should be considered.

Neighbouring lands may also be affected by the lowering of
the level of the underground water and drying up of the
surface-soil, which may have bad effects on field-crops.

If the drainage of mountain forests be effected on a large
scale, the distribution of atmospheric precipitation may be
altered ; the drier air may hinder the condensation of watery
vapour, and the formation of dew and clouds may be lessened.
Instead of frequent gentle showers, irregular storms of rain
may come with disastrous results.

A further disadvantage is the reduction of the quantity of
water in brooks and rivers, by which timber-floating, water-
carriage and works for utilising water-power may suffer
seriously.

Keuss states that the harm done by ill-advised drainage is
most apparent in the Dobris mountain forests of the Colloredo-
Mansfeld family; through the extensive- drainage system, over
50 miles in length, effected there between 1858 and 1867, the
growth in forest and field fell off to such an extent that it
became necessary to fill up most of the drains. In the Harz
mountains also, in 1840, much harm was done by too exten-
sive drainage, whilst the attempts made since the middle of

DRAINAGE. 603

the present century to drain the peat-bogs in the Hannoverian
Harz districts and to plant them with spruce have proved
extremely costly, and given such poor results that they have
now been abandoned.

On the above grounds — the danger of drying up sources of
useful water-supply, and the fear that benefits resulting from
forest drainage works may not repay the outlay involved — the
construction of such works on a large scale is to be depre-
cated, and the forester should not as a rule venture beyond
draining small local swamps, which may sometimes be ren-
dered innocuous or even useful when converted into fish ponds,
by excavating them or constructing a darn.

From a general view, therefore, of the matter, it follows

Fig. 269.
a. Vertical drain, b. Impermeable stratum, c. Permeable stratum.

that the advantages of drainage are greatest and the dis-
advantages least for forests on fairly level ground, whilst the
reverse is true for mountain forests. The advantage of
draining swamps as regards sanitation, circulation of the
air and avoidance of malarial fever, need only be referred
to here.

The following methods are employed in drainage :—

1. Vertical drainage.

2. Surface-drainage : —

(a) By open ditches.

(b) Kaiser's method of drainage.

3. Underground drainage by covered drains : —

(a) By trenches.

(b) By glazed pipes.

(c) By ordinary draining tiles.

604- PROTECTION AGAINST SWA MI'S.

1. Vertical Drainage.

Vertical drainage is carried out by piercing an impermeable
stratum and thus allowing the water to descend into a lower
permeable stratum and be thus drained off. One or more
borings of sufficient breadth should be made through the
impermeable stratum at its lowest point, as shown in Fig. 269.

As an instance of the effects of vertical drainage, the
planting of part of the Bagshot sand district, near Bagshot,
by Schlich (1890-1900), may be cited. The land was mostly
flat, with a pan 6 to 18 inches below the surface. It formed
a swamp .during winter, and was often very dry in summer.
The pan was bored through at the planting holes with a
pickaxe, and Scots and Weymouth pines planted. This
communication between the upper and lower strata of the
soil led to a complete drainage of the surface, and a fine crop
of pine trees is now growing there.

2. Surface Drainage,
a. By Open Ditches.

i. MODK OF LAYING OUT A SYSTEM OF DRAINS.

The mode of laying out a system of drains depends on the
nature of the locality. On level ground and in valleys, a
complete network of drains is laid out after the land has been
carefully levelled, and consists of main drains, leaders and
feeders.

The main drain should run along the lowest part of the
area to be drained, necessary excavations being made to give
it a uniform gradient between 0*5 and 1 per cent., and to
conduct it into the nearest watercourse.

The leaders must carry off the water in the shortest direction
from the feeders to the main drain, while the feeders have to
collect water from the soil and conduct it to the leaders, the
direction of which depends on the gradient of the ground.
When the gradient is moderate, the main drains and leaders
should run along lines of greatest fall ; if it is too steep, their
length must be increased by causing them to wind or bend so
that the drainage water may not wash away the bed or sides
of the drains, and cause the formation of ravines. The best

DRAINAGE.

605

fall for drains is from 0*5 to 1 per cent., but sometimes the
lie of the ground may necessitate a certain length of drain of
greater gradient.

The feeders should be obliquely inclined to the line of
greatest fall in order to collect the maximum amount of water

o

from the soil, and they should conduct the water into the
leaders, to which they may be either at right angles or oblique.
The former system, as shown in Fig. 270, has the advantage
of draining the largest area with the shortest length of drain.
Fig. 271 shows oblique drainage, and the more acute the angle

Fig. 270. Fig. 271.

Plans of drainage, h. Main-drain, s. Feeders.

between the feeder and leader, the less will be the area drained
by a given length of ditches.

Thus a, b, c, d > a, b, e, f > a, 6, g, h.

The choice of the angle between the feeders and leaders
depends chiefly on the gradient of the ground, the less the
gradient the more acute the angle ; feeders the bed of which
gradually deepens as they approach the leader will be most
effective.

Feeders can be laid out parallel to one another only when
the gradients are uniform. Figs. 272 to 274 show some
interesting ne'tworks of drains by G. Koch.

600

PROTECTION AGAINST SWAMPS.

The proper interval between the feeders depends on the
quantity of water to be drained away, the configuration of the
ground and the nature of the soil. The interval between
any two feeders will be inversely as the quantity of water in
the soil. The looser the soil, the more easily is it drained.
On the average, according to circumstances, intervals of 16 to

Fig. 274.
Plans of drainage.

22 yards may be chosen. In very wet land, the interval
between the feeders may be reduced to 10 yards, whilst on
drier land it may be extended to 30 yards.

A practical method of determining this interval is given by
Heyer, as shown in Fig. 275. Cut a feeder A, and another B
at different distances from A till the water in the soil at the
middle point C between the two feeders falls to the depth C D,
to which it is required to drain.

DRAINAGE.

607

Water percolating from a river should be collected as near
it as possible by" deep drains running along the river-side, and
leading back into the river lower down stream. Overflow
from a stream can be kept back only by the construction of

C

embankments, as in the English fen districts, or along the river
Severn.

On slopes, water should be collected at the points of issue
from the water-bearing strata, before it can form a swamp.
Thus the water should be collected in a drain k k running
along a contour-line on the hill-side (Fig. 276), and then
conducted down-hill by a leader A along the line of greatest

Fig. 276.

k. Feeder, a. Main
drain at the base of a
hill.

Fig. 277-.

D. Chief feeder. A. Main
B. Leader from a spring q,
small swamp t. C. Feeders.

drain,
and a

fall, any outlying swampy places in depressions being con-
nected with the latter. Wherever the fall and the extent of
the area to be drained are considerable, several such drains
may be constructed, one above the other.

608

PROTECTION AGAINST SWAMPS.

When the gradient is slight and much water collects
(Fig. 277) in a swamp, besides the main drain A, a few con-
fluent drains should be cut, that lead into the main drain.
They should join the main drain at a very acute angle, so
that the passage of the water in it may not be interrupted,
nor its walls undermined by water from the lateral drains.

ii. DIMENSIONS OF THE DRAINS.

The breadth of the drains depends on the amount of water
in the soil,' the gradient of the ground, and the purpose of the
drains. The wetter the soil and the slighter the gradient,
the broader must be the ditches ; the leaders being broader
than the feeders, and the main drain than the leaders. From
1 to 2J feet is a sufficient width for the feeders, and 3 to
5 feet for the leaders and main drain.

The depth of the drains depends on the depth to which the
land is to be drained, and on the physical nature of the soil

Fig. 278.

and subsoil. Clay requires a greater depth of drainage than
loam, and this again than sandy loam. In peaty soils, the
drains should go down to the mineral subsoil. In practice,
the depth of drains is usually half their width, and draining
to too great a depth is prejudicial, costing in excess of the
requirements of the case, and depriving the subsoil of reserve
water which will be required by the trees during dry weather.
The amount of water on the land during summer, not in early
spring, should be considered in fixing the depth of drains.

The slope of the sides of the drains depends on the degree
of coherence of the soil, and on the gradient of the drain ;
the looser the soil and the steeper the gradient, the gentler
must this slope be. In Fig. 278, a is one meter, and the slope

DRAINAGE. 600

may be J on peat, 1 on clay or stiff loam, 1J on sandy loam,
2 — 3 on sand.

The main drains may be provided with sluices at suitable
places, so that they can be closed and the drainage stopped
during dry seasons.

iii. TIME FOR DRAINING.

Drainage should precede planting by a few years, so that
the ground may become sufficiently dry and may settle down
before the plants are put in ; a dry period of the year, e.g., late
summer or autumn, should be chosen for the execution of the
work.

iv. METHOD OF DIGGING THE DRAINS.

Operations should be commenced with the main drain at
the lowest part of the land, in other respects the system
already described for digging boundary-trenches should be
followed (p. 18). The earth removed from the drains should
not be placed too close to them, as it may then be washed
back again by the rain ; it should be used for filling-up
hollows or spread evenly over the surface of the ground,
which is beneficial in wet places by raising their level. After
the main drain has been dug the feeders and leaders should
follow. It is most economical to give the work out to be done
on contract.

v. ADVANTAGES OF THE METHOD.

The advantages of the method of draining by open ditches
when compared with closed drains are : —
Cheap execution.
Keady discovery of places requiring repair, and cheapness

of repairs.
Its disadvantages are : —

Loss to the forest growth of area occupied by the ditches.
Difficulties in transport of produce.
Liability of the ditches to damage by men, cattle, etc.
Too complete and rapid removal of water. This may
cause temporary injuries for want of moisture in the
soil, and may damage lands below the drained area.
F.P. R R

610 PROTECTION AGAINST SWAMPS.

The loss of area taken up in open drains is not of any
practical importance in forestry, and provided care be taken
about the number and dimensions of the ditches, the other
disadvantages of the method may to some extent be avoided.
In mountain forests, where the snow is long in melting, and
which are subject to unusually heavy rainfall, a system of
open drains along the line of steepest gradient removes such
a large volume of water from the forest, that this method,
which is usually employed, especially on peaty ground, where
the flowing water in the drains cuts into the land below, is of
doubtful expediency. Under such circumstances the following
method is preferable :—

b. Kaiser's Method of Drainage.

The principle of Kaiser's* method of drainage consists in
avoidance of the direct removal of the water from the forest
and yet in a complete drainage of the wet land.

This is effected by the lowering of the water-level by means
of a number of interrupted drains (collecting trenches) dis-
tributed uniformly over the area to be drained, combined with
a system of small ditches widening out laterally.

The collecting trenches are 1 to 2 meters long, about
1 meter deep, and 1 meter wide, and are dug horizontally
along contour lines. The lateral trenches, that unite these
collecting trenches, and the dimensions of which correspond
to the depth to which the water-level is to be reduced, are at
right angles to the collecting trenches.

The following reasons are given in support of Kaiser's
method of drainage : —

i. In every case too rapid and complete drainage, with its
injurious consequences, is prevented.

ii. The degree of drainage required by the proposed plan-
tation is completely under control, as the lateral drains are
dug only deep enough to reduce the water-level sufficiently.
The water removed from the soil and from the spoil-heaps
that remain alongside the collecting trenches fills the latter

* Kaiser. " Beitrage sur Pflege der Bodenwirthschaft mit besonderc
Riicksicht auf die Wasserstandsfrage." With 24 plates. Berlin, 1883.

DRAINAGE.

611

and the lateral drains only to the same height as the latter
has been reduced in the remainder of the area.

iii. In the first place, evaporation over the whole area is
increased by the action of the sun and winds on the exposed
water in the collecting trenches. In the second place, the
surface having become drier and warmer by the drainage,
increases the evaporation, and favours the capillary ascent of
water from the sub-
soil ; it also warms
the air near the sur-
face of the ground.

The results of this
process must be
favourable to the
growth of plants.
By the gradual dry-
ing up of the surface,
peat-mosses and sour
grasses disappear
and the chemical and
physical condition of
the soil improve.
The formation of
peat ceases ; the de-
composition of the
humus becomes
normal. Lichens

Fig. 279. — Kaiser's method of drainage.

disappear from the stems. Danger from frost is diminished.
Annual shoots, hitherto short, become longer. The water is
thus utilised for the service of the forest.

The above method was tried in 1883 and subsequent years
in the Bavarian Eoyal forest of St. Oswald on peaty areas,
it is represented in Fig. 279. The collecting trenches were
dug in depressions and other places where the peat was
wettest. The lateral feeders were 30 to 45 centimeters wide
and deep, quite deep enough for young spruce to become
rooted above the subsoil water. The excess water was con-
ducted from the collecting trenches by little trenches a few
centimeters deep into a small watercourse named Seige, which

R R 2

612 PROTECTION AGAINST SWAMPS.

conveyed it lower down. If such a watercourse does not
exist a drain must be dug to receive and drain away the
surplus water. The system of drains gave admirable results,
and the cost was 12s. per acre, that of the upkeep per acre,
2s. annually.

The cost of open drains in Germany, in 1883, was about
8s. per acre, but the extra cost of Kaiser's drainage is incon-
siderable when compared with the superior benefits obtained.

The only objection to the method consists in the fact that
the collecting trenches — at least in depressions — form so many
little frost-holes, that increase local danger from frost.

3. Covered Drains.

a. Trenches.
i. METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION.

Underground drains are usually made as in Fig. 280.
The trenches should be about one foot broad at their base,
1J to 2J feet deep, and with a slope as steep as the nature of

Fig. 280 — Section of a drain.
a. Layer of stones, b. Layer of branches, c. Layer of earth.

the soil will allow. The trench is then half filled with stones,
which are covered with brushwood, reeds or sods, and the top
is filled in with earth.

Another method is to cover the base of the trench with
fascines or tied bundles of green osiers, branches of alder,
poplar or shrubs, which are used immediately after they have
been cut. The vacant spaces between the fascines along the
sides of the trenches are filled up with moss, and the whole

DRAINAGE. 613

covered with earth, as before. This mode of drainage, known
to the Romans, was introduced into England by Elkington,
and was much practised until 1820. It has the advantage of
preventing excessive drainage, and may serve its purpose in
places to be planted up, until the roots of the plants can
themselves drain the soil.

ii. DURABILITY.

Brushwood-drains when the fascines are of alder branches
will last from 8 to 10 years ; they rot sooner on calcareous
soil and last longer on clay. As, however, the plants once
forming a thicket themselves drain the soil, and by the use of
fascines too much water is not removed, this method is highly
advantageous.

Drains made with stones may last for 50 years, and are
therefore preferable, unless temporary drains are sufficient for
the purpose.

iii. VALUE OF THE METHOD.

Owing to the high cost of this method of drainage, it is
used only for permanently wet ground. It is also largely
employed for culverts to lead water across roads.

b. Glazed or Cement Drain-pipes.

Drain-pipes made of glazed burned clay or cement and of
various dimensions are now generally used for culverts; they
unite the advantages of rapid drainage and facility for being
cleaned, with that of great durability.

c. Draining Tiles.
i. DESCRIPTION.

Draining tiles are cylindrical tubes of burned clay with a
circular section. They are generally 1 to 1J feet long, \ to J
inch thick, and their apertures 1J to 4J inches across. A
good draining tile should be well-burned and smooth within,
it should ring when struck, show a clean uniform fracture, and
stand sudden changes of temperature without cracking, for
which it may be tested by plunging it alternately into hot and

614 PROTECTION AGAINST SWAMPS.

cold water. The clay used for these tiles should be fairly
pure, and contain no lime nor coarse grains of sand. The
larger tiles are used for main drains and the smaller ones for
collecting drains.

ii. LAYING THE TILES.

Trenches for the tiles are similar to those in use for open
drains, their dimensions depending on the nature of the soil ;
their sides, however, should be vertical ; the main drains have
a fall of 2 in 1,000, and the collecting drains a greater fall,
and should be from 30 to 80 feet apart according to the nature
of the soil. The shortest distance for collecting-drains is
chosen when there is much subsoil-water in stiff clay or in very
fine grained soil with great capillarity ; in fact, the looser the
soil, tlie further apart the drains should be.

The depth of the collecting-trenches should be from 3 to 4J
feet, and at least 3J feet is necessary in cold climates, to
prevent damage to the tiles by frost ; the main drains should
be somewhat deeper.

After the trenches have been dug, which for very wet soils
should be in fine weather and with as little delay as possible,
the tiles should be laid carefully, beginning at the upper end
of the drains, and placed end to end at the bottom of the
trenches ; or, if the soil be loose, on a layer of clay or on
flat roofing tiles, which will give the bed of the drain an even
gradient, to which much attention should be paid. Brown*
recommends placing a layer of stones under the tiles, in which
ordinary drainage- water may run, while its level will rise to
that of the pipes only when the soil happens to be exceptionally
wet. This is because the rootlets of trees are attracted
towards wet substances in the soil, and will therefore branch
freely among the stones and yet not block up the pipes, which
are usually dry. Brown also advocates placing a layer of clay
over the pipes, so as to keep the upper rootlets from getting
into them.

The size of the aperture of the tiles depends on the degree
of wetness and capacity of the soil ; the more water there is
to be removed and the greater the danger of the tiles becoming

* " The Forester." Brown and Nisbet. Blackwood & Co., 1894, Vol. I., 55],

DRAINAGE. 615

choked with soil, the larger the aperture of the tiles, and in
sandy soil it should be at least two inches.

After laying the tiles, which should be done in dry weather,
and as rapidly as possible, the trenches are filled in with
earth, and the greatest care should be taken, especially when
the soil is stony, that the pipes are neither broken nor
displaced.

iii. DURABILITY.

The durability of the drains depends on the nature of the
soil, the quality of the tiles and the care taken in executing
the work. Well-burned tiles at depths of 3J to 4J feet should
last for 25 years and more ; for instance, draining-tiles laid in
1850, in the Prussian Crown Estates, were in good order in
1880.

The cost of draining with tiles is about £S per acre, and
this is, of course, prohibitive for purely forest work.

d. Comparison of Draining -Tiles with Open Drains.

Drainage improves soils by lowering the level of subsoil
water, and exposing a larger area of the soil to the influence
of atmospheric air, thus rendering it warmer and accelerating
the decomposition of humus. As compared with open drains,
draining-tiles waste no productive area, are less subject to
damage and drain the soil better, and their use is highly
advisable in agricultural lands, but in forests they are much
more costly to lay out than open drains, and they easily
become choked by the rootlets of trees and of weeds such as
Equisetum, Arundo, etc., and also by frogs' spawn. Deposits of
iron-ochre may also be formed in the pipes, and they may
become filled with sand.

Experience has shown that in forests all the disadvantages
of draining-tiles occur more frequently than in agricultural
lands, and they can be profitably used only in forest nurseries,
or for bad forest meadows. The production of hay in meadows
may be increased 25 per cent, by good drainage, and the
quality of the hay is also improved,

616

CHAPTER, II.

PROTECTION AGAINST AVALANCHES.*

1. Origin.

AVALANCHES are caused by the loosening and fall of masses
of snow or ice on steep smooth slopes in mountainous regions ;
they may consist of loose or massive snow, or both combined,
or of ice from broken glaciers.

a. Avalanches of Loose Snow.

These are locally termed Staublawinen, and occur in
November, when fine dust-like snow is falling ; they are due
to great steepness of the mountain sides, or to overhanging
masses of snow falling on to rocks, the snow being separated
into dust during its fall. They are of rarer occurrence than
other avalanches and seldom cause any damage.

b. Avalanches of Massive Snow.

Movements of the upper layer of massive snow, termed
Oberlawinen, occur chiefly from December to February, when
thick layers of fresh snow have fallen on to old frozen snow,
and become so weighty that they can no longer rest on the
smooth base beneath them.

c. Ground Avalanches.

When masses of snow which extend down to the surface of
the ground, roll or slide down a mountain side, they are
termed Grundlawinen, and are extremely dangerous. They
generally fall towards the end of winter at midday, during the
melting of the snow, and when a Fohn, or south wind, is

* Landolt, El., " Die Bache, Schneelawinen u. Steirischlage." Zurich, 1886.
Pollack, Vincenz, " Die Lawinen Oesterreichs und der Schweitx uml deren
Verbauungen." Vienna, 189^.

PROTECTIVE MEASURES. 617

blowing, and frequently during a storm. These are the
commonest and most dangerous avalanches, and leave tracks
which can be readily observed, as they occur over and over
again at the same places.

d. Glacier- Avalanches

Consist of broken fragments of glaciers.
The following remarks apply only to avalanches of massive
snow and ground avalanches.

2. Damage done.

The damage done to forests by avalanches consists in the
breakage of all woods lying in their way, and in the obstruc-
tion of streams and roads which they cause. The rush of air
that accompanies an avalanche is so great that it breaks
many trees up to a distance of several hundred yards from the
avalanche. Many ibex are also killed by avalanches. No
forest can withstand the rush of a large mass of snow down
the mountain side, and the higher, smoother and steeper, and
freer from wood a mountain-side is, the greater the danger
of avalanches, and the greater the rapidity with which they
fall.

A high soil-covering of hill grass affords considerable
protection.

In the winter of 1875-76, in the district of Kagaz, of the
Swiss canton Graubiinden, 500 avalanches occurred, and in
the district Schuls of the same canton, 381 avalanches. The
winter of 1887-88 was also distinguished by the number of
avalanches which fell — 1,094 avalanches, chiefly between
February and April, of which 871 (80 per cent.) extended to
forests. On an area of 3,300 acres, 2,870,000 cubic feet of
timber was broken and uprooted. The damage done by the
avalanches was valued at £17,220.

In Austria, during the winter 1887-88, damage by
avalanches was done to the extent of £28,000.

3. Protective Cultural Measures.

(a) The surface above the tree-limit should be fixed by
sowing grass. In order to afford a sufficient obstacle to the

618 PROTECTION AGAINST AVALANCHES.

sliding down of the snow, the grass should be mown so as to
leave a high stubble.

(b) All shrubs, such as rhododendrons, green alder, dwarf
birch, etc., should be preserved carefully on steep slopes.

(c) The forest must be maintained up to the tree-limit, and
this is the most important rule. Forests which serve to
protect the country from avalanches are commonly found in
Switzerland the Tyrol, and the Austrian Alps, and must be
properly managed so as to secure the object in view.

The best species for such forests are Pinus Cembra,
P. viontana, green alder, larch and spruce. The mountain-
pine and alder resist the snow action splendidly. Spruce
grows up to an altitude of 6,000 feet. Beech and sycamore form
useful mixtures up to 4,600 feet. The Selection system must
be adopted, and all gaps should beat once planted up. When
a new forest is being formed, sometimes sowing and sometimes
planting should be preferred. In stony, shallow calcareous
soils, pit-sowings are made under the shelter of stones, rocks,
dead branches stuck into the ground, or of logs iixed by stakes,
all of which protect against the sliding of the snow. In places
where there is deeper soil, in depressions, etc., multiple-
planting with three and four plants should be tried. The cost
varies from £5 to £8 per acre. Production of wood is of
secondary importance in such forests, and, as a rule, only
dead and broken wood should be utilised, and the stumps
should then be left in the soil, the felling being high above
the ground. Thickets of young wood must be carefully
thinned. Neither removal of litter nor pasture, more especi-
ally that of the destructive goat, should be allowed, but,
unfortunately, in such places browsing by goats is only too
common, and the tree-limit is being continually lowered.

4. Protective Works.

Protective works consisting either of ditches, rows of wattle-
fences or walls should be made above and below the line
where avalanches begin, which is easily recognised by a
sudden change in the gradient of the slope.

(a) Ditches. — Interrupted horizontal ditches, 6 to 16 feet

PROTECTIVE WORKS.

619

apart, are dug all over the area, being arranged like the
wattle-fences in Fig. 281 ; their construction on very steep
slopes is evidently not unattended with danger.

.&

Fig. 281. — Plan of fences for protection against avalanches.
a I. Line where the avalanches commence, c. Fences.

(I)} Rows of Wattle-Fences. — The stakes used may be either
of wood or iron. These are set up at intervals of from 20 to
50 feet, their central points being at those of a series of

Fig. 282. — Dry masonry wall for protection against avalanches.

equilateral triangles ; they should be 15 to 30 feet long, and
of wattle-work with branches plaited between stakes firmly
driven into the ground.

Such a system of wattle-fences allows soil to be formed on a.

620 PROTECTION AGAINST AVALANCHES.

rocky slope, which may afterwards be sown with grass, or
planted with trees or shrubs.

(c) Walls. — On stony ground, walls of dry masonry may be
erected instead of wattle-fences ; their mode of construction is
shown in Fig. 282. On steep rocky slopes, the rock must be cut
to admit the foundation of these walls, but this need only be
deep enough to prevent the walls from falling, owing to their
own weight. Such walls have proved effective in the Swiss
cantons, Uri, Graubiinden and Wallis, and cost 3s. to 6s. per
cubic meter. Confidence in them was greatly disturbed by
the damage since 1867, done in 1887-88.

Fig. 283. — Sandhill with marram grass. Holkham.

621

CHAPTEE III.

PROTECTION AGAINST SHIFTING SAND.*

UNDER the term shifting sand is meant a fine-grained sand
containing so little clay or humus that when dry and the soil
is badly covered with vegetation, it is set in motion by the
wind and blown from place to place. Shifting sand is generally
found on the sea-coast, but also in the interior of countries.
As the productive forest area becomes rapidly reduced by the
spread of the sand, the evil must be promptly and vigorously
met.

SECTION I. — SAND DUNES.

1. Description.

Sand is thrown up by the waves along the sea-coast at high
tide, and becomes under certain circumstances heaped up into
hillocks, or dunes, and is then carried further into the interior
of the country. Vasselot de Eegne states that the grains of
sand on the Gascon coast are too large to be carried like dust
before the wind, but are rolled up the slope of a dune and fall
over its ridges, so that the dune naturally attains a slope of
about 25° towards the sea, whilst its slope inland is generally
steeper, and may attain 60°. The sand is blown away from
the ridges or from any eminences in the dune, however slight
they may be, and is also carried through depressions made in
a ridge to the further side of the dune. Two forces are at
work on the sand — the sea-breeze which prevails during day-
time and drives the sand inland, and the land-breeze by night,
which finds the sand firmer owing to the dew, and is not so
effectual in blowing it back as the sea-breeze is in blowing it
forward.

* Wessely, Josef, " Der Europaische Flugsand u. seine Cultur." Wien, 1873.
" Notice sur les Dunes de la Coubre," par Vasselot de Regne. Paris, Imp. Nat.,
1878. " La Dune Littorale," par C. Grandjean. " Revue des Eaux et Forets."
July — December, 1887. Lehnpfuhl, " Dunenwanderung und Diinenwald "
(" Mundener Forstliche Heft," 2 Heft, 1892, p. 53).

622 PROTECTION AGAINST SHIFTING SAND.

On the coasts of the North Sea and of the Baltic, in Holstein,
Schleswig, Jutland, and in the Baltic islands, and along the
western coast of France, from the He d'Oleron to the mouth of
the Adour river, sand-dunes cover extensive areas, and until
effective measures were taken to fix them, large tracts of
cultivated land were buried in sand. Along the coasts of West
and East Prussia, for a distance of 150 miles, dunes extend to
a breadth never less than one-sixth of a mile, and unless they
are fixed they encroach inland yearly by 50 feet. The area of
European dunes is estimated at 21,000 square miles.

The coasts of the British Isles consist chiefly of rocky cliffs,
but sand-dunes are found in Norfolk, Somersetshire, Lanca-
shire, Elgin and other places along the coasts of Great Britain.

The dunes along the Bay of Biscay in the French Departe-
ments des Landes et de la Gironde extend over a total length of
140 miles, forming a series of parallel ranges about 160 feet
high and 4 miles broad. During the constant political troubles
of the middle ages, the natural forests of maritime or cluster
pine (P. Pinaster, Soland.), which formerly covered this area,
were burned and destroyed, and the saud invaded the country
at the rate of 60 to 70 feet annually, covering whole towns and
villages, cultivated fields, and vineyards. The passage of
watercourses to the sea was interrupted by the accumulated
sand ; a desolate malarious region, called Les Landes, resulted.
Swamps and lagoons of brackish water alternated with vast
tracts of arid sandhills, where a few sheep pastured, tended
by shepherds on stilts.

In 1787, the engineer Bre"rnontier published a treastise
showing that the dunes could be fixed by sowing sand-grasses
and pines, and the work of fixing the dunes of Gascony was
commenced in 1788, and has been continued with complete
success up to the present day. In 1810, the French Legisla-
ture passed an Act enabling the State to fix dunes belonging
to municipalities and private owners, by means of plantations,
the owners only recovering their property after paying the
cost of fixing the sand. This they have only rarely been able
to do, owing to the great cost of the operation compared with
the value of the reclaimed land.

About 800,000 acres have thus been dealt with, the annual

SAND DUNES.

623

charge for new work and for maintaining the dunes which have
been already fixed having been £8,400 in 1893. In this way
vast areas have been saved for agriculture, and enormous
tracts of pine-forests created, which afford work to a large
number of people in the extraction of resin and turpentine
from the trees, and in timber-works, the pine-forests of the
Landes now exporting about 600,000 tons of pit-timber to
Great Britain annually, besides large supplies of timber and
firewood for local use.

2. Construction of a Littoral Dune.

As an embankment along the coast prevents the wind from
driving the sand inland, the chief point to be secured is to fix

a. The Lion Dune.

b. The Porge Dune.

c. The Ferret Dune.
Fig. 284.

the sand, so as to form what is termed the littoral dune, the
mode of construction of which is as follows : —

Two parallel fences are erected along the coast, between and
on both sides of which the sand accumulates, the fences being
gradually raised till the dune has attained such a height that
only inappreciable quantities of sand are blown over it.

The fence facing the sea is a continuous line of paling, from
300 to 600 feet distant from high-water mark ; it is made of
inch planks 6 J feet long, 6 to 8 inches wide, which are pointed
below. They are inserted to f ths of their length into the sand,
and 1 inch apart, to allow sand to blow through. When the
sand has nearly covered the planks, they are raised three feet

624 PROTECTION AGAINST SHIFTING SAND.

by means of levers worked by one man against the next un-
raised plank, or by a stout rod passed through a chain fastened
round the plank and lifted by two men. This operation is
repeated until the proper height of the dune is attained, which
Grandjean places at 10 metres, or about 33 feet.

The back fence is usually made of wattle-work and prevents
the sand which has passed through the front fence from being
carried inland, and gives a proper contour to the dune. This
fence is replaced by a new one when it has become covered
with sand.

The preceding diagrams (Fig. 284) taken from Grandjeans'
work represent the ordinary sections of the littoral dune, and he
considers b and c preferable to a, as being much easier to
maintain. They have slopes of 26° or 27° facing the sea, which
corresponds with De R6gn6's natural slope of the dunes.
Grandjean, in the work already referred to, gives full and
satisfactory reasons for the height and gradient he prefers for
the littoral dune.

3. Material for Fixing the Sand.

The littoral dune can never be planted with trees, on account
of the salt spray of the waves and the strong sea-wind. In
certain places in Holland, masonry works and piles have been
erected to protect the dune, but as a rule flexible plants are
much more effective than rigid and costly works. Attention is
therefore directed to sand-grasses and sedges, and the best of
these for the purpose are : —

Sea marram, or matweed (Psamrna arenaiia, E. & S.) ;

Baltic matweed (P. baltica, Schrad.) ;

Sand lyme-grass (Elymus arenarius, L.) ;

Sand sedge (Car ex arenaria, L.).

All these plants are characterised by very long, much-divided
rhizomes, and can withstand being covered over and 'buried in
sand. The sea marram will grow only where it is continually
covered with fresh sand, and dies inland in the shelter of the
littoral dune, when no fresh sand covers it. It is termed
gourbet in France, and is exclusively used for fixing the littoral
dune along the Bay of Biscay. Next to the marram in repute

SAND DUNES. 625

for fixing the sand comes the lyme-grass, and these two species
are chiefly used for the purpose in Holland.

Other plants grow in gradually among them ; at first lichens
and algae, then grasses, as for instance Arenaria peploides, L.,
Aim canescens, L., couch-grass (Agropyrum repens, Beauv.),
and other plants, such as the sea-poppy, Glaudum luteum,
Scop. ; Lathyrus maritimus, Bigel ; and Hieracium wnbellatum,
L., etc. Vasselot de Kegne gives a very complete botanical
list of dune plants.

Several shrubs then appear on the land side of the dune, as
Salix repens, L. ; sea-buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides, L.) ;
Lycium barbarum, L. ; Tamarix, etc.

4. Maintenance of the Littoral Dune.

When once the littoral dune has been raised to a proper
height and profile and fixed by means of sea marram, it is
necessary to maintain it constantly in the same state ; any
undue accumulation of sand in any part of the sea side of the
dune at once causes an inland draught of sand on both sides of
it, which if not at once attended to will breach the dune.

Men termed gardes cantonniers are therefore stationed along
the littoral dune in Gascony, who cut away all vegetation except
the marram from its surface facing the sea, in order to prevent
undue accumulation of sand. As the marram grows readily
from cuttings during the colder six months in the year, the
workmen who cut it away from ridges plant it in depressions,
or if the season be too hot or dry for the cuttings to take root,
the pieces cut from ridges are merely placed on depressions.
In this way, by cutting away the marram where it is too dense,
and planting or placing it in depressions, the proper contour
of the dune is maintained, as the sand accumulates behind the
marram, and is blown away wherever the latter is cut.

In cases where the dune has been neglected and large
depressions have been formed, it may be necessary to use
wattle fencing to cause an accumulation of sand, but if ordinary
care be taken, the marram grass will suffice to keep the littoral
dune in good condition, and Grandjean believes that new
littoral dunes may be formed by means of it, without using the
fences described in section 8.

F.P. S S

626 PROTECTION AGAINST SHIFTING SAND.

5. Protective Coast Forest Zone, under the Shelter of
the Littoral Dune.

a. Description.

Under the shelter of the littoral dune, a protective zone
of various woody species mixed with gorse, species of genista,
heather, Tamarix, etc., is then allowed to spring up, but is
generally planted or sown artificially.

The species chiefly grown near the Baltic coast is the Scots
pine, over 8,000 acres of this species having been planted near
Dantzig between 1795 and 1850.

In Zealand, the uncinata variety of the mountain-pine
(Pinus montana, Mill.) has been used, and its great success is
due to its indifference to soil and climate, and its habit of
retaining its lower branches green for long periods. In France
the cluster pine is chiefly used, but it is liable to be frozen when
grown too far to the north.

Spruce, birch, or white alder may be mixed with the pines,
and in South-west France pedunculate oaks and Q. Tozza,
B.C. In depressions, the common alder, poplars, and willows
may be grown.

The different varieties of Pinus Laricio, Poir., and especially
the Corsican variety, maples and the silver poplar, are well able
to withstand the force of the strong sea- winds.

As a rule, the growth of protective forests near the sea coast is
poor, on account of the strength of the sea breeze and the poor
nature of the sand in which the trees grow, and which is being
constantly heaped over their roots, but protection and not timber
is required in a zone extending from 600 to 2,000 feet beyond
the littoral dune, and which if left unplanted would be a bare
sandy tract tending to spread inland and ruin existing forests.

In a coast-protection forest, short terminal shoots, procum-
bent stems, one-sided crowns and a leaf-canopy sloping down
seawards, are evidences of the struggle these woods carry on
with the wind, but it is a forest all the same.

The conditions of growth greatly improve as the distance
from the sea becomes -greater, so that further inland, especially
if the sand contains little flakes of mica, even superior species
such as beech or silver-fir may be grown, as in Alsensund

SAND DUNES. 627

in Schleswig. If, in any part of the protected zone, a shelving
cliff of sand unprotected by vegetation is exposed to the wind ;
it should be covered with branches of pine, gorse, broom, etc.,
placed like slates on a roof, and some sand-fixing grass sown
to prevent the sand from being carried inland.

b. Method of Formation.

The inequalities of the ground should first be levelled in order
to afford the wind as few points of attack as possible. Sand-
fixing grasses should then be sown or planted, the former
method being followed in France and the latter in Germany.
Pieces of the grasses should be planted in rows at right angles
to the direction, of the prevalent wind, holes being made with
a spade 1 foot to 2 feet apart, and three or four pieces of rhizome
planted in each hole so deeply that only about 6 inches of them
appear above the sand. They soon sprout and send out suckers
in all directions through the sand, which they fix most
effectually.

The cost of fixing sand with grass is that of 70 to 140 days'
work at 8s. a day, averaging £15 an acre. In Prussia, long-
rooted yearling pines are then planted 1 foot apart in rows
distant 3 feet from one another. The work is done with an
iron dibble, so as not to loosen the sand unnecessarily. Moun-
tain-pine is the best species in the north for fixing the sand,
other trees being eventually planted between the pines.
Cuttings of poplars or willows may be also planted.

In fixing dunes along the Baltic coast, Prussia spent £3,100
a year between 1884 and 1887, during which time 230 acres
were fixed with grass and 608 acres stocked with trees. This
is now being continued at an' annual cost of £5,000.

The planting is usually effected under the protection of the
littoral dune, and pine forests in the protective zone are then
managed under the Selection system, and broadleaved species
are coppiced.

In the Danish island of Zealand, up to 1866, sowing was pre-
ferred to planting, the sand being previously covered with a
thin coating of loam which was placed on the ground in heaps
in the autumn, and somewhat weathered by the winter's frost
before being spread over the area in the spring.

s s 2

628

PROTECTION AGAINST SHIFTING SAND.

In France the cluster pine is sown with other seeds in the
following proportion for an acre :—

Cluster pine seed . . . .26 Ibs.

Furze or gorse . . . . 2J „

Genista . ... . 2J ,,

Marram grass . . . . 2J „

Seeds to attract insectivorous birds 2J ,,

As the seed is sown, it is covered with 1,000 faggots, 3 feet

in girth and 5 feet long per acre of furze, broom, heather or

pine branches, furze being
preferred wherever it is
available. The faggots are
evenly distributed over the
area and opened out, and
the sowing is then com-
menced on the land side
towards the littoral dune
under protection of a
wattle - fence intended to
keep off the sand blown
back by the land breeze.
Each row of seed is covered
by the branches, which are
placed in rows with their
lower ends towards the sea,
so that each succeeding row
of branches partly covers

Fig. 285. — Psamma arenaria, Beauv.
b Surface level of ground, c Rhizomes.

the preceding one, being
arranged like slates on a
roof and kept steady by

spadefuls of sand thrown on them at intervals of 2 feet.
Areas of about 300 feet long by 60 feet broad are thus sown

at one time. Between 1862 and 1874, 5,200 acres were thus

sown in the Gironde at a cost of £30,646.

c. Tending the Woods.

The sand grasses used in fixing the dunes must not be cut
or pastured. The water rat and the larvae of Polypliyllafullo,
L., are the most dangerous enemies to the grass rhizomes.

SAND DUNES.

629

Dune forests must be strictly protected against grazing,
removal of litter and trespass. Article 366A of the German
Criminal Code punishes contra vencioii of police regulations
regarding dune forests with fines up to £7 10s., or imprison-

Fig. 286.—Elymus arenarii/s, L.

ment, and in Holland, four weeks' imprisonment is inflicted
for cutting grass on dunes.

Only dead or dying wood should be removed from the dune
forests.

d. Addenda.

The best English example of the fixing of shifting sands
is on the Holkham sand-hills, on the Norfolk coast, belonging
to the Earl of Leicester, where, since 1850, sea lime-grass and
marram have been used to fix the sands, and several species of.
pine planted, of which the Scots and Austrian pines have
proved most successful. The trees are planted widely, as
thinnings would be injurious, unless lop and top were
removed, owing to danger from fire. Now that the grass
is kept down by the trees, fires are rare. Extensive planting
of sand-hills has also been done in South-west Lancashire,
Scots, Austrian and Corsican pines, as well as alder, birch,
tamarisk and other plants, being used. Eabbits are the chief
danger to these plantations, being very common on sand-hills
along the coasts of Great Britain. Unless they are extermi-
nated, there is little hope of fixing the sand.

630 PROTECTION AGAINST SHIFTING SAND.

In India, along the Madras coast, extensive plantations of
C a marina equisetifolia, Forster, have been made, and grow
with extraordinary rapidity, yielding excellent fuel.

In the Cape Colony, shifting sands are sown with cluster
pine and Acacia Pycnantlia and decurrens, the seed being mixed
with rye seed/ as the rye protects the seedlings. A layer of
town refuse is first spread over the sand to assist in fixing it
and serve as manure, ten tons to three acres of sand.
Guprcssus macrocarpa, Gord., and Pinus Halepensis, Mill., do
well, also robinia.

SECTION II. — INLAND SAND.*
1. Description.

Inland sandy tracts generally originate from sandy hills, and
are due chiefly to the clearance or careless management of
forests, and especially to removal of litter. Extensive sheep
pasture on heather-land also readily sets sand in motion.
Large tracts of shifting sands are found in Hannover,
Oldenburg, Pommerania, etc. The greatest areas in Europe
of inland shifting sand are, however, in Hungary and South
Eussia.

2. Protective Rules.

Maintenance of forests, especially on sandy hills, is the chief
protective measure to be adopted. Not only must clearances of
forests be prevented, but all destructive practices leading to
their impoverishment must be stopped.

The following measures should be adopted in forests which
serve as a protection against shifting sand : —

(a) The Selection system should be adopted, or only very
small areas under a short rotation be cleared. Extensive
clearings must be avoided in any case, but the shelter-wood
systems with natural regeneration would be suitable were it
always possible to obtain natural regeneration on dry, sandy
areas. In the Gascon cluster:pine forests, clear-cutting is
adopted, as the trees that form the final crop, being tapped
for resin, do not produce seed. The pine seed is, however,

* Burkhardt, Dr. H., " Zur Kultur des Flugsandes," "Aus dem Waldc," 1877,
p. 167.

INLAND SAND. 681

produced so abundantly by trees adjoining the cleared area
and germinates so freely, that good results follow.

(b) In the case of artificial regeneration, and for filling up
natural regeneration, planting is preferable to sowing, but the
planting-holes should be small, and young plants used.

(c) The borders of the forest to windward must be kept
densely stocked and all underwood protected, while the soil-
covering is strictly preserved.

(d) Stumps should be left in the ground after fellings, and
cultivation of cereal crops in combination with sowings of
forest trees must not be undertaken.

(e) No pasturage should be allowed, and all servitudes for
pasturage, passage of cattle, usage of grass or litter should be
legally annulled.

3. Fixation of the Sand.

The supply of sand must be stopped at its origin by planting
up the sandy hills from which it comes. Loose sand may be
fixed by means of fences, or by covering it with branches or
sods, and both these methods may be combined. Planting sand-
grasses is not advisable, as it only increases the difficulty of
restoring forest growth to the denuded area.

a. Fences.

Fences are generally made by driving into the ground pine
stakes 6 to 8 feet long and 2J to 4 inches in diameter. They
should be driven 2 to 3 feet deep and supported alternately
on either side by means of oblique stakes, as shown in
Fig. 287.

Between the stakes, branches of Scots pine or of broom
should be intertwined, leaving sufficiently large interstices for
the sand to pass through, or else the fence would be broken by
its pressure. Poplar- or willow-cuttings may be used instead
of pine-stakes ; they take root, and their side-shoots may
eventually be twined into a -fence.

The fences should run at right angles to the direction of the
shifting sands, on both sides of roads, or other endangered
places, their ends being turned round to serve as a protection

632

PROTECTION AGAINST SHIFTING SAND.

against the winds blowing at right angles to the fences. Several
of these horseshoe-shaped fences may be made, at suitable
distances, parallel to one another, the distance between them
depending on the locality ; on level ground a fence will afford
shelter for 200 to 230 feet, but on hilly ground for not more
than half these distances, and on steep hill-sides not more
than 60 feet.

One man can make from 60 to 66 feet of fencing in a
day, non-inclusive of the labour of transporting the material.
Fence-construction is therefore costly, and fences are not used
at present so much as formerly, as they do not thoroughly

fulfil their object. In general, the formation of protective
fences is now not followed, as they are expensive to erect, and
the results are not considered sufficiently good.

b. Covering the Sand.

Before covering the sand, all unevennesses on the area should
be smoothed down. The wind acts with more force on rough
projections in the sand ; and the steeper the hillocks, the more
readily does the sand roll down them. Small depressions
should be filled up with brushwood or wattle-work.

Branches, weeds, grass, seaweed, and sods or straw are the
materials used, and, for the sake of economy, the nearest
available material should be chosen. Branchy stems of Scots
pine, juniper-bushes, heather, broom, reeds or rushes form
useful material, and sods are cut from grass or heather land.

Covering the ground with sods is the best method, and is
much followed in Hannover and Oldenburg, whilst straw is used

INLAND SAND.

633

in Flanders. The covering is chiefly employed for the most
endangered places, such as ridges, the windward side of hills,
depressions and roads ; other places may be readily stocked
with forest growth, provided fresh sand is not blown on to
them.

The covering should then be applied from W. or S.W. to E.
or N.E., the ground being either entirely or partially covered.
Koads are generally covered completely, but, in other cases,
partial covering is adopted on account of the high cost of
complete covering. The looser the sand the more complete

should be the covering, and it is always more prudent to do too
much than too little in this respect.

Branches are either placed on the surface of the ground, or
stuck into the sand, with the bushy end inclined away from
the wind, the rows partially covering one another, but their
use is not recommended on account of the difficulty in stocking
an area which has been completely covered with branches,
whilst if they are isolated, they are liable to be blown away.

Heather sods can be used only on level ground in pieces
1J to>2J feet long, and should be tossed equably over the area
by means of hay-forks, after it has been sown up with Scots

f»34 PROTECTION AGAINST SHIFTING SAND.

pine seed. In the Osnaburg heath, about twelve waggon-loads,
with two horses, of heather per acre, are required, and the cost
is £1 12s. per acre. Sowings thus carried out will generally
prove successful if the spring be moderately wet.

Sods are always laid with the earthy side downwards, and
should be firmly pressed down.

The diagrams on the previous page show how the sods may be
arranged. Where a sod is laid in the middle of each patch, it
should be larger than the others, and that form of sodding is
preferable, as the loose sand within the patches cannot get out.
The lines of sods should be at right angles to the direction of
the prevailing wind. The work of sodding should be done
during autumn, after the sand has been well soaked by rain, or
in the spring, and the ground should be at once sown or planted.

In Germany, partial sodding of the ground costs from £1 to £.3
an acre, with daily labour at Is. 1CW. Covering with branches
takes about forty or fifty cartloads per acre, and costs somewhat
less than sodding.

4. Stocking the Area.

Fixing the sand should be followed by stocking the area,
unless the two operations have been done simultaneously, or
the stocking precede the covering, as is the case wj^en branches
or heather are used.

The most suitable species are Scots or mountain pines.
These species are very hardy, and yield plenty of humus.
The mountain pine, owing to its creeping habit, covers the
ground admirably. Among exotics in West Prussia, Pimm
rigida, Mill., and P. Banksiana, LL, either pure or mixed
with Weymouth pine, have given excellent results.

Of broadleaved trees, the robinia, owing to its faculty of
producing suckers rapidly, fixes the sand, and has proved
successful in Hungary. For damp places, poplars and willows
should be used, the Canadian, white and black poplars being
most usual. Salix arenaria, L., the Caspian willow (S. acuti-
folia, Willd.), S. longifoUa, Host., or S. cincrea, L., may also
be planted, the latter rapidly covering the soil with its creeping
lateral branches, and it easily grows through any sand which
may be blown over it.

INLAND SAND. 635

In South Eussia, near Odessa, Ailanthus glandulosa, Desf., is
used on sand-dunes, and also in the south of France. This
very accommodating species grows rapidly and sends out
numerous suckers, and thrives on the hot southern slopes of
the Siwalik Hills in India, as well as in smoky London. The
cluster pine may also be used, as in Gascony, but it is not very
frost-hardy. Sowing is still employed in restocking bare sandy
tracts in France, 15 to 20 Ibs. of seed being used per acre ;
but in Germany, 3 to 4-year-old transplants with balls of earth
are now planted in rows at right angles to the prevailing wind.
The plants are put in deeply to prevent exposure of the roots,
and because they suffer in summer from the heating of the
sand. Scots pines do not suffer at all from this deep planting.
In order to get the area stocked as soon as possible, intervals
of only 2| to 3 feet are left between the rows, and the plants
are 1 to 1J feet apart in the rows. In Hannover, they are
planted with a heavy planting iron, termed Buttlar's iron,*
and a mixture of f peat with 2 per cent, unslaked lime and J
sand is used to fill the holes round the roots. The peat is
hygroscopic and retains moisture near the plants' roots.

Eobinias, poplars and willows are put in as cuttings in little
clumps, or in furrows. Sometimes the ground is cultivated
before the cuttings are put in, and Scots pine seed sown in the
depressions. Hubert recommends that grass seed should be
strewn over the plantations. In Austria, Jerusalem artichokes
(HeliantJius tuberosus) are frequently planted to shelter the
woody plants against heat and cold.

In case the sandy tract is so extensive that it cannot be con-
veniently planted up in one year, a plan of operations extending
over a series of years should be drawn up. A commencement
should then be made on the windy side of the area, and the
cultivation carried on in strips under shelter of the first year's
work. In the Landes of Gascony, shelter-fences are erected
to the leeward of each year's strip to protect the plants from
sand blown back by land breezes. Whenever the work is
thus gradually done, great care must be taken to fill up all
gaps in the areas to windward before commencing the work
beyond it.

* Vide Schlich's " Manual of Forestry," Vol. II., p. 124.

686 PROTECTION AGAINST SHIFTING SAND.

At Lingen, in Hannover, work has been carried out gradually
since 1818, when there were 3,327 acres to be stocked, of which
75 per cent, was shifting sand, and the balance cultivated land.
Between 1818 and 1832, 2,279 acres had been planted success-
fully, and the balance of 1,048 acres was fairly well stocked by
1837, the total cost, up to 1832, being £1 IBs. an acre.

Forests on shifting sand must be managed most carefully.
Pines are regenerated under the Selection or Strip systems,
and broadleaved species by coppice. No pasture or removal
of litter can be allowed.

An interesting account of the planting of shifting sands
near Dresden, in Saxony, written in 1894 by Mr. A. M. Eeuther,
Conservator of Forests, India, is here appended.

" A considerable area situated within the Dresden Forest
Circle has for many years been leased by the Military
Department with the object of providing parade-grounds for
the cavalry and infantry regiments stationed there. In 1867,
it was decided to extend the parade-grounds, for which purpose
a further area of 100 hectares was included in the lease ; and,
in order to obviate payment of compensation, the Military
Department allowed the tree- stumps to be extracted, and the
litter to be removed from this area after the forest on it had
been clear-felled.

"The surface configuration of this area is undulating, and the
soil consists mostly of pure sand, containing here and there an
admixture of clay, up to 18 or 19 per cent. Very soon after
the complete exposure of the soil, the sandy surface began to
grow unstable, and already in 1870 the shifting sand, moved
by the wind, covered not only the adjacent cavalry parade-
ground, but also blocked the more distant Konigsbrlicker
Chausse"e to such an extent as to interrupt all traffic on it. In
the next few years the evil assumed such large proportions
that it was found absolutely necessary to reaft'orest the area
with the least possible delay.

" Operations were commenced in 1874 by covering the whole
area with a network of wattled fencing. Strong stakes, 3 to
4 inches in diameter, were driven into the ground 2 feet apart,
in rows 1 chain apart running south to north, and interwoven
with branches of Scots pine, the wattled fencing thus formed

INLAND SAND. 637

being 2f feet high. At right angles to these lines of fencing
similar fences were made, about 50 yards apart, and 2 feet high.
Towards the west, where the general surface elevation is higher
and exposed mounds and ridges exist, the fences were placed
closer together than on the more sheltered east side, so that
the average area of each rectangle enclosed by the fences was
about 1 rood on the west, and about 2 roods on the east side.
The shifting of the sand was thus greatly reduced, and restricted
within the enclosures ; and already in 1875 it became possible
to begin planting. In that year birch and alder were planted
in rows along the fences (on the sheltered side), the planting
holes being filled with good soil brought from a distance ; and
in the following year planting up of the interior of each
rectangle was begun with Scots pine plants 1 to 2 years old,
which were put out in squares with the aid of Buttlar's plant-
ing tool, 8,200 plants being used per acre, and each plant
supplied with a handful of good humus soil. The compost
was prepared in autumn, and left lying in heaps during the
winter, and conveyed to the site of the plantation just before
the planting season in spring.

" The results are quite satisfactory in so far as the ground is
now7 fully stocked, and the surface soil completely consolidated.
But owing to the dryness and poverty of the soil, the growth
of the plants is in many places very miserable, many of the
Scots pines being only 1 yard high, though already 15 to 18
years old. The average height is, however, about 16 feet, and
for the most part the plants have closed overhea'd. The entire
area has been most carefully protected ; cattle have been
strictly excluded, and grass cutting disallowed, and all un-
authorised persons have been prohibited from walking across
it. These precautions were absolutely necessary to prevent
disturbance of the unstable surface soil, and to give the plants
a chance of establishing themselves.

" The cost of the cultural operations was 18s. per acre. .The
wattled fencing was constructed by a local battalion of Pioneers,
and therefore involved no direct outlay ; had the work been
done by paid labourers, the cost would have been about
per running yard of fencing." .

638

CHAPTEK IV.

PROTECTION AGAINST FOREST FIRES.*

FOREST fires are nearly always caused by human agency,
generally owing to carelessness, but are sometimes intentional ;
they are also occasionally due to lightning.

It is intended to treat the subject according to these causes,
taken in order.

SECTION I. — FOREST FIRES CAUSED BY HUMAN AGENCY.
1. Causes.

The following acts, omissions, or occupations may cause
forest fires : —

Kindling a fire without permission in a forest, or by the
side of a forest road, in order to warm themselves or to cook
their food, by travellers, or men engaged in felling trees, road-
making, etc.

Leaving a fire, which has been lighted by permission of the
forest manager, without completely extinguishing it.

Carelessness of charcoal-burners whilst burning their kiln,
or extracting charcoal from it.

Burning branches or weeds whilst cultivating crops on
forest-land or on fields adjoining forests, also burning moor-,
heather-, or grass-land. %

Burning bark to destroy beetles, etc.

Night-fires by poachers after fish or game ; burning out
wild bees. The collection of wild honey and wax is common in
East Prussia and in Kussia and India, and frequently gives
rise to forest fires.

Shooting in forests with rag or paper wads.

* Gerding, "Fires in the Luneberger Haide," " Frstl. Blttr.," 1886, p. 241 ;
Fernandez, "Notes on Indian Sylviculture" (2nd edition), 1893. This book gives
a very detailed account of the measures for combating forest fires.

CAUSES. 639

Smoking in forests ; throwing down burning cigar- ends or
matches.

Carrying on dangerous industries in or near forests, such as
the manufacture of pitch or turpentine, and also iron-smelting
furnaces, or foundries.

Sparks from locomotive engines, especially when burning
turf or lignite, and unprovided with spark-extinguishing
apparatus.

Intentional firing of forests for selfish motives, as when
shepherds or farmers burn extensive forest areas to obtain
fresh grass for their flocks and herds, for it grows up luxu-
riantly after a forest fire.

Motives of revenge, or superstition, as in India, where a
deodar forest was burned to propitiate the goddess of sniall-pox.

It follows from a consideration of the numerous causes, of
forest fires that the forester must be wide awake to prevent such
calamities'. Private resources are here quite insufficient, and
the State must assist by framing suitable laws, and by in-
structing officials to be active in enforcing them.

2. Kinds of Forest Fires.

Forest fires may be in the ground, in the soil-covering, or in
the crowns or stems of the trees.

a. Ground-fires.

These occur in peat, lignite, or. coal; they proceed slowly
unless they come to the surface, when they partake of the
character of fires in the soil-covering. Ground-fires rarely occur
in forests.

1). Surface-fires.

These are the commonest and most important fires the
forester has to contend against, burning the dead leaves,
heather, grass, and other soil-covering of a forest.

c. Fires in the Crowns of Forest Trees.

These are less frequent in Central Europe, though common
in North America and not unfrequent in India. They
generally arise from surface-fires, which spread to the crowns

640 PROTECTION AGAINST FOREST FIRES.

of the trees. A dense coating of lichens on the trees increases
the danger of the occurrence of crown-fires.

d. Fires in Stems.

Green trees seldom catch fire even from lightning,* and
when a whole stem is burned, there is generally some decay
present, and the trunk or branches of the tree are hollow.

3. Damhge done,
a. General Account.

Forest fires do direct damage by destroying whole woods,
and especially young growth. Eeproduction may be stopped
for the year by the destruction of blossom or fruit, while,
owing to repeated fires, broadleaved trees which are not killed
become misshapen and weakly. Game may be killed in
extensive fires. By heath fires in Hannover many hives of
bees are burned.

Indirect damage consists in the burning of the dead leaves
or needles on the ground, which prevents the accumulation of
humus and the improvement of the soil, and renders it poor,
hard and unsuitable for reproduction. Henry states (" Rev. d.
E . et F.," June 1st, 1902) that high forest produces the following
quantity of dead leaves in 6 years per acre :—

Beech . . . . . 10,500 Ibs.
Spruce ..... 13,500 „
Scots pine .... 18,000 „
Coppice- with-standards . . 4,000 ,,

There is about I f Ibs. of nitrogen in 100 Ibs. of dead leaves,
worth about Id. a pound. The value of the nitrogen destroyed
in the dead leaves is 14s. per acre for coppice-with-standards,
and three to four times as much for high forest.

A proper sequence of age-classes may be interrupted. The
annual burning of the soil-covering on hill-sides may cause

* Von Tubeuf, in 1892, observed that lightning had set fire to a growing
spruce tree, and the fire spread to neighbouring trees.

In the years 1877—1883, there were 509 fires in the Bavarian State forests,
which arose as follows: 2 from ground-fires; 416 (82 percent.), surface-fires;
70 (40 per cent.), combined surface and crown-fires ; 15 (3 per cent.), combined
surface and .stem-fires ; G (1 per cent.), stem-fires.

DAMAGE DONE. 64]

soil-denudation when it is followed by heavy rain ; this was
the case in the Siwalik hill-range, extending over fifty miles
between the rivers Ganges and Jumna, and its protection from
fire was demanded in 1882 by the Indian Irrigation Department
to prevent their canals from silting up. Some American forests
are so seriously injured by fire, that rainwater passes over the
soil, as over a roof. Observations have shown that up to 90
per cent, of the rainfall runs over the surface of burned forests
and fills the watercourses with silt and other debris.

There is an increased tendency to breakage and to damage
by insects, also to growth of weeds and consequent increased
cost of sowing and planting. Fires are extremely injurious in
forests on shifting sands.

After fires in Scots pine woods, the following insects may
become extremely abundant and destructive : Myelophilus
piniperda, L., in England and Germany, in Germany only,
Pissodes notatus, Fabr., Tomicus bidens, Fabr., T. Laricis,
Fabr., Hylastes palliatus, Gyll., and Hylurgus minor, Hrtg.,
Myelophilus minor, Hrtg., etc.

I. According to Species.

In Central Europe, conifers suffer much more than broad-
leaved species from fire, owing to their resinous nature, and to
the inflammable evergreen needles, which favour the spread
of the fires. The Scots pine and the Austrian pine are the
most exposed to danger. Other pines, such as Weymouth
pine, are grown only to a limited extent, or, as in the case of
Cembran and Mountain pine, they grow on high mountains,
where fires are less dangerous. The greater danger the Scots
pine experiences from fire is due to the early drying up of its
lower branches and to the dry nature of the soil-covering,
owing to the imperfect leaf-canopy of this tree and to the
nature of the localities (heather lands) on which extensive pine
forests occur. In France, the forests of maritine and Aleppo
pines are specially liable to fires.

After pines, come in point of danger, first, the spruce, then
silver-fir, and lastly, larch, owing to its being a deciduous
tree.

F.P. T T

642 PROTECTION AGAINST FOREST FIRES.

Phius rigida, Mill., in the Gotten forest near Bonn, in
March, 1893, produced shoots from dormant buds, after a fire,
but not a complete crop. The plants, 7-10 years old, were
cut back, after the fire, and produced 9 or 10 shoots each,
38 c.m. high.

Amongst broadleaved species, rough-barked trees, such as
oak and elm, withstand fires better than smooth-barked trees,
such as the beech, ash or sycamore.

Fires are evidently more frequent and dangerous in High
Forests than in coppices.

c. Age of Trees.

Young woods up to thirty years old are most exposed to fire,
at first owing to the presence of weeds, later on, as the struggle
for existence is strongest, and there is usually most dead wood
at this period.

Well-stocked woods between 30 — 60 years of age withstand
fires best of all, as middle-aged coniferous woods after the
earlier thinnings contain least combustible material, such as
dead wood, grass or heather undergrowth.

Woods over 60 years of age, where grasses and other weeds
spring up, again become more endangered.

The following average figures, taken from a list of forest
fires in Hanover between 1864 — 84, support the above con-
clusions. Out of 1,000 acres of forest, there were burned
annually during these twenty years : —

Age. Acres.

Broadleaved woods . . , . . '170

(1— SOyrs. 1-107

Coniferous woods . . .30—60 0'262

I over 60 0'354

Mixed coniferous and broadleaved I n-464
forest * . - -;• •-.. • • I
d. Locality.

Forests in plains, on account of the greater dryness of the
air, and frequently of the soil, suffer more than mountain-
forests. On sunny aspects fires spread much more rapidly
than on cool northerly slopes. A dry sandy soil increases the

DAMAGE DONE. 64-3

danger. Fire burns more slowly down-hill than up-hill, and
the more so the steeper the slope and the stiller the air. As
a slow fire is more easily regulated than a fast one, in jhums,
or cultivations on forest clearings where the branches and
undergrowth are burned, it is better to burn down-hill.

e. Soil- Cover ing.

A tall growth of heather, genista, broom, or grass, etc.,
increases the danger of fire, and so does an undergrowth of
juniper or of sundry conifers. A mossy covering is pre-
judicial only in seasons of drought, and a covering of dead
leaves or needles is usually a bad combustible, though fire in
it may smoulder on for days. Whenever much branch wood,
refuse of fellings and dead fallen wood, lie on the ground, the
danger is increased.

Above all, Scots pine woods on heathland with dry soil
and soil-covering and combustible foliage are most exposed to
forest fires. In a pine wood, where all the soil-covering has
been removed, a fire would find nothing to feed on.

In badly stocked Indian forests, the grass is frequently
6 — 8 feet in height, and in the open in Assam, the flowering
stems of reeds may attain a height of 24 feet. The fierceness
with which a fire passes through tall grass during the dry
season must be seen to be believed, the sparks and flames
sometimes crossing rivers one hundred yards broad.

The leaves of many of the Indian forest trees, such as the
teak (Tectoria grandis, L. fil.) and the Sal (Shorea robusta,
Gaertn.) fall in March and April during the dry season and
when dead are very inflammable.

/. Density of Growth and Extent of Forest Area.

In so far as density of growth kills down heather, grass and
other inflammable undergrowth, and provided all dead wood is
removed in the thinnings, a densely stocked wood is less liable
to be ignited than a thin wood with inflammable undergrowth.
Once, however, that a dense forest is ignited, and especially if
the fire is in the crowns of the trees, it can generally be ex-
tinguished only by a fall of rain, or a sufficiently wide gap in

T T 2

644 PROTECTION AGAINST FOREST FIRES.

the wood caused by a road, river, fields, etc., or by purposely
counter-firing or felling trees across its path.

If a forest is liable to be burned, it is better to subdivide it
into small areas by fairly numerous rides and roads.

g. Season.

Most fires in Central Europe occur in dry springs from
March to May when east winds prevail and the dry grass,
leaves, and weeds under the trees and the presence of numerous
workmen in the woods increase the danger.

The 509 fires in the Bavarian State forests (p. 640), during
the years 1877 — 83, which extended over 1,160 acres, occurred
in the following months: January, 4; February, 4; March,
118; April, 114; May, 140; June, 51; July, 43; August, 20;
September, 12 ; October, 2 ; November, 0 ; December, 1.
Thus 73 per cent, of the fires occurred in March, April and
May, and only 27 per cent, in the remaining months. Similar
results follow from statistics in Hesse.

Forest-fires also occur in hot and windy summers, as in the
years 1892 and 1893. Winter fires may occur on southerly
aspects with dry grass. Two hundred and fifty acres of forest
was thus burned at Oberammergau on the 14th January, 1898.
In the case of some fires, it has been remarked that they
generally fall off in violence during the night, but recover
force again after sunrise, this being due to the daily variation
in the strength of the wind, and sometimes to the nightly dew,
which may extinguish a fire.

In tropical and semi-tropical countries forest-fires occur
during the dry or hot seasons, and are very rare during the
more or less prolonged summer monsoon. Thus in the North-
West Himalayan coniferous forests, there may be fires in
November and December, until snow has fallen, and then
again from April till the monsoon breaks early in July, after
the melting of the snow.

In the extensive Sal forests at the foot of the Himalaya
mountains, extending from the Jumna river to the Borelli
river in Assam, there is danger from fire from February till
July, and this danger is increased by the fall of the dead Sal
leaves in March and April. In the western part of these

REGISTER OF FIRES.

645

forests the danger from fire is probably greatest in May and
June, whilst in the eastern parts in Bengal and Assam,
where spring rains occur, the forests are fairly safe from
fire in May, owing to the growth of fresh grass, which is
incombustible.

4. Register of Fires.

Forest fires are of frequent occurrence in the heathlands
of Berkshire, Surrey and Hampshire. They are not unfre-
quent in Germany in spite of the great care taken to prevent
them, but their extent and frequency are inconsiderable when
compared with Austria, the South of France, Sweden, Norway,
Eussia, Greece, India and North America. In this last
country, forest fires frequently extend over hundreds of square
miles of forest, and little or no trouble is taken to extinguish
or prevent them. The most disastrous forest fires which
have occurred in Germany during the present century are
given below : —

1800, 4th to 21st August, 5,675 acres in the Black Forest
near the Katzenkopf in Wiirttemberg.

1863, 28th to 30th August, 3,300 acres near Konigsbruch in
W. Prussia.

1880, 1st to 3rd May, 3,250 acres on the Liineburg heath.

In the Prussian State forests, during the interval 1892 —
1898, the following damage by fires was done : —

Year.

High Forest.

Coppice
and C. with
standards.

Wasteland
Heather, etc.

Total.

Area stocked
with Scots
Pine.

acres.

acres.

acres.

acres.

acres.

1892—93

8,436

117

1,623

10,176

6,285

1893—94

576

14

225

815

410

1894—95

539

_

539

427

1895—96

2,495

—

28

2,523

1,178

1896—97

102

—

4

106

101

1897—98

77

— •

—

77

46

It may be stated that, in Germany, on the average, out of
2,500 acres of forest half an acre is burned annually, or 0*02 per
cent, of the forest area.

In Austria, in 1881—85, there were 1,717 fires over 16,378
acres, the amount of damage done being £10,367.

646 PROTECTION AGAINST FOREST FIRES.

In France, between 1865 and 1870, about 25,000 acres of
cluster-pine forest was burned in Gascony, and a large area
was burned in 1893, including 1,200 acres near Arcachon in
the forest de la Teste. There was also a large conflagration
in these forests in 1898, extending over 63 miles, and causing
damage valued at £80,000. The worst districts in France,
however, for forest fires are the Departements of the Maures
and Esterel, north of Marseilles, where large areas of forest,
chiefly consisting of Quercus Ilex, L. and Pinus Halepensis,
Mill, are burned every year, and a special law has been
enacted for their protection from fire.

Extensive forest fires occur every year in Eussia. In Canada,
in 1868, it was estimated that 400,000,000 dollars worth of
standing timber was destroyed by fire. One of these fires
extended 160 miles in ten hours.

The forest fires in September, 1881, and again in 1894 in
the States Minnesota, Wisconsin and Michigan of the United
States of North America wete of enormous extent, hundreds
of human beings being burned with their houses and cattle.
Statistics are wanting to give some idea of the enormous
annual destruction of forests in N. America by fire, and
especially of the Southern pine (Pinus palitstris, Mill.) which
yields the best coniferous timber known in the whole world.*

Protection from fire of the State forests in British India has
been seriously undertaken during the last forty years, and
measures with this object in view are carried out on a large
scale and at considerable cost to the State. Thus, in 1899 —
1904, measures were taken to protect from fire 35,236 square
miles of State forest, the failures in this area amounting to
8 per cent. The cost of protection in 1891 — 92, averaged 10
rupees a square mile, or at Is. 2d. per rupee lls. 8d., being as
low as 2s. 4d. in the Bombay Presidency. Besides the above,
there are 66,196 square miles of State forest, in which either
the forest is of such a character as to demand no special
protective measures against fire, or its protection has not yet
been undertaken. This takes no account of protection against
fire in the forests of Native States, some of which are
admirably managed.

* Cf. A Primer of Forestry, Gifforcl Pinchot. Washington, 1903.

PROTECTIVE MEASURES. 647

5. Protective Measures.

From what has been already said, it is clear that for Central
Europe, protective measures against fire have chiefly to be
carried out in coniferous forests. The following rules will
serve for private forests : —

(a) Mixture of broadleaved species in coniferous forests,
either by single trees, groups, or in whole compartments, or as
protective belts round the coniferous woods. Such protection
is specially needed along the borders and roads through Scots
pine forests.

Birch, oak, beech, black poplar, and robinia are suitable
species, and the belts should be 25 to 35 feet broad, and may
be either High Forest or Coppice. Such belts are largely used
in the Landes of Gascony to protect the cluster pine from fire,
and should be kept free from heather, ferns, dead leaves, and
underwood, which are readily sold for litter. In the Tucheler
Heide, ditches 2 — 3 metres broad are dug round endangered
woods, and the spoil heaps formed into a mound inside the
ditch. These mounds are planted with birch one metre apart,
and have proved efficient. A similar plan is adopted in the
sandy parts of Windsor forest.

Except in coniferous mountain forests, belts of broadleaved
trees are practically useless in most parts of India, as trees
that retain their foliage during the dangerous months will
grow well only in moist places. In Assam, however, belts of
evergreen forest growing in low ground on either side of
watercourses frequently act as protective belts to the drier
deciduous Sal forest on either side of them.

b. Fire- Traces.

Wherever forests are surrounded by inflammable under-
growth such as heather, grass, etc., fire-traces of sufficient
breadth should be made along their boundaries, and internal
fire-traces are also required for all extensive inflammable forest
areas, to limit the extent of the damage done, in case a fire
should cross the boundary, or break out within it. The
number of internal fire-traces required for a forest must be
left to local experience, but the forest manager should remember

648 PROTECTION AGAINST FOREST FIRES.

that a considerable area of forest is rendered unproductive
when the length or breadth of the internal fire-traces are
excessive, and that the cost of protection is thus greatly
enhanced, so that he will limit the number and breadth of the
fire-traces to the minima compatible with efficiency.

Fire-traces in Europe are broadest for coniferous forest, but
rarely exceed 100 feet in breadth, while in India they are
sometimes 400 feet broad.

Whenever the soil-covering on the traces can be utilised for
thatching material, litter or fodder, it should be cut and removed.
This may often be done by concessioners at no cost to the owner
of the forest, or even on payment to him of a certain sum. It
frequently happens, however, that the soil-covering has no
local value, and must then be carefully burned to avoid the
greater expense of cutting it.

Before burning fire-traces, the soil-covering is usually cut
on guide-lines On either side of the trace, their breadth being
about three feet more than the height of the covering. For
greater safety, cross lines as broad as the guide-line are some-
times cut at intervals across the trace itself, so as to divide it
into segments, each of which may be burned separately.

The guide-lines should be cut some time before the fire-trace
is to be burned, and the cut material thrown on the trace,
where it will dry, and facilitate the burning. A broad short
scythe or a sickle may be used to cut the grass, heather, etc.,
from the guide-lines.

In burning the traces, it is a golden rule to remember that
grass and heather in the open become dry sooner than under
cover of the forest, so that border fire-traces may be burned
before the internal ones. In firing a trace, a still afternoon
should be chosen and men placed on either side of it, two of
whom fire the edges of the traces up to a cross line, if one has
been cleared, or if not, to a sufficient distance for the other
men to be able to beat out the return fire which runs along
the ground in the stubble towards the forest. The other men,
armed with evergreen boughs, which they can use to protect
their faces from the heat of the fire, keep back on the guide-
lines, or even in the forest beyond them, until they see the
return fire approaching too near the edge of the forest, when

PROTECTIVE MEASURES. 649

they rush forward and beat it out, leaving the flames from
either side to meet in the trace, and burn all the standing
grass or heather within it.

It should be noted that however still the air may be, before
firing a trace has commenced, the ascent of hot air due to the
fire will draw in colder air from all sides to fill up the vacuum
thus produced, and if the wind be blowing in the faces of the
men on one side of a fire-trace, lighting in the middle of the
trace, as well as along its sides, will draw in the flame away
/from the men on the dangerous side, in spite of the wind, and
will thus greatly facilitate their work.

On hill-sides, fire-traces should run along ridges, and they
may be made zigzag when the hill-sides are steep, and are
burned downhill. In forests where numerous fire-traces are
cleared annually, it is often advisable to mark off the limits of
the guide-lines by a simple trench of the breadth and depth
of a plantation-hoe.

Where the soil-covering is very dense and tall, it is better
to burn the traces twice, at first before they are completely
dry, and again whenever dead leaves fall on the traces after
the grass has been burned ; dead leaves should be swept away
or burned, in order to render the trace impassable by fire.
This leaf-burning is, however, a simple operation which may
be carried out by three or four men, whilst the first burning
in dense tall grass may require 20 men, or more.

If by accident, during the burning of a fire-trace, the fire
should get into the forest on either side of it, the further
burning of the trace must be suspended until the fire in the
forest has been extinguished ; to do this it must be attacked
on both sides by the gang of men and driven into the shape of
a wedge.

One or two trustworthy men should follow the firing gang
on either side of the trace, and should carefully extinguish all
smouldering embers on the guide-lines, and throw all burning
twigs and pieces of wood from the latter on to the middle of
the trace, so that there may be no possibility of the forest
catching fire from the very means which are taken to protect it.

Very full details as regards the practice of burning fire-
traces are given in Fernandez' Indian Sylviculture, and need

650

PROTECTION AGAINST FOREST FIRES.

not be repeated here, as in Europe the work of burning fire-
lines is much simpler than in hot countries.

c. Watching the Forests.

During the dry season, after all the fire-traces have been

t cleared, and until

sufficient rain has
fallen to render the
forest safe from fire,
it is often necessary
to appoint special
patrols to watch the
forest, in addition to
the ordinary protec-
tive establishment.
These men warn all
passengers along
the roads of the
danger from fire,
sweep off or burn
dead leaves on the
lire-traces, relieve
one another in
night - watching,
and instantly report
all cases of fire to
the forester and
forest guards, when
organised measures
can be taken to ex-
tinguish it. In
some cases, seats
are made for the
fire - watchers in
trees, with ladders

Fig. 289.-Russian watch tower for fire-guard. f°r ^nding them,

in order that any

outbreak of fire may at once be detected. In Russia, special
watch-towers are erected (Fig. 289).

PROTECTIVE MEASURES. fi51

d. Trenches round Peat Deposits.

Wherever peat occurs in the forest soil, deep trenches should
be dug round the peat deposits to isolate them from possible
forest fires.

e. Conduct of Thinnings.

Early and careful thinnings should be made in young
coniferous woods, and all dead branches should be pruned off
and removed. The least that should be done is to clear the
boundaries of all compartments of dead wood to a breadth of
30 to 45 feet.

/. Along Railway-Lines.

Fire-traces must be kept clear of woody growth, and of dead
leaves, heather, and other inflammable material along all
railway lines passing through forests. Most forest fires due
to sparks from locomotives break out within 30 feet of a railway
line, but to render the fire-traces quite effective, they should
be 60 feet broad. The French law regarding forest-fires in
the Maures and Esterel, makes such fire-traces compulsory
along all railway-lines running through the forests of those
Departemcnts.

A short act, for the United Kingdom, named the Railway
Fires Act, became law on the 4th August, 1905, making railway
companies liable for damage done to crops, to the extent of
^6100. This limit to the value of the damage does not meet
the necessities of the case, as regards extensive woods on dry
sandy soil.

(j. Roads and Rides in the Forest.

The network of forest-roads and rides may afford consider-
able assistance against fires. In order to protect the forest on
either side of roads from any risk of fire from sparks from
pipes, etc., of travellers, or cartmen, all inflammable under-
growth and dead leaves should be cleared from the roads, and
from a strip 10 to 15 feet broad on either side of them.

Some of the rides may be cleared as fire- traces, and where
the prevalent winds are from the west, it is better that rides
to be cleared as fire-traces should be at an angle of about 75

652 PROTECTION AGAINST FOREST FIRES.

degrees to the wind direction, as it is easier to burn them, and
they afford a broader barrier to a fire coming from the west
than if they were simply at right angles to the direction of
the wind.

Besides roads and rides, watercourses often form effective
fire-traces when the undergrowth is cleared away and burned
on only one side of |the watercourse at a time, but crossing
the watercourse at its bends, so as to form a uniformly broad
trace.

h. Size of Working Sections.

Where forest fires are to be feared, the working-sections
should be comparatively small, so that there may not be
extensive tracts of young woods, in which the danger from fire
is greatest over large areas.

*. Clearance of Felling-Areas.

The felling-areas should be rapidly cleared of all refuse, and
the produce of the thinnings also removed quickly, especially
in the case of faggots from coniferous trees.

When workmen sleep on the felling-areas, great care must
be taken as regards smoking, and fires should be allowed only
inside their huts, which should be surrounded by broad fire-
traces, as the wind might otherwise blow sparks into the forest.
In parts of Northern India, during the hot dry months of May
and June, it has been customary to suspend all timber works
owing to the risk of fire from the woodmen and carters, but
these men can easily be taught to guard the forest from fire,
and it is doubtful whether this restriction is necessary.

j. Other Measures of Protection.

Regulations restricting fires and smoking in forests in dry
seasons, and also regarding the use of fire-arms, should be
made by the State. The most complete State-regulations
regarding forest fires are those enacted in 1893 by the French
Legislature. Somewhat similar rules are enforced in British
India, except as regards railways, but they apply only to certain
State forests. The private forest-manager must see that all
State regulations regarding forest fires are observed, and should

PROTECTIVE MEASURES. 653

instruct the workmen engaged in occupations endangering the
forest, such as charcoal or lime burning, what protective
measures they must adopt, and should see that his instructions
are followed.

In the British Isles, in addition to the law regarding fires
caused by locomotives already referred to (p. 651), there is
a Scotch law (13 Geo. III., cap. 54), making it illegal to
burn muir or heath land in Scotland from llth April till 1st
of November, under penalties of 40s., £5, and £10 for first,
second and third offences, with alternative of imprisonment
for six weeks, two or three months respectively.

During the dangerous season, the forest guards must be
constantly on the watch against fires, as well as the fire-patrols,
if it has been found necessary to engage additional men.
All contraventions of the State regulations regarding forest
fires should be at once reported to the police, or to a
magistrate.

In order to prevent intentional firing of a forest, no privileges
to cut grass, or to graze, should be conceded on an area which
has been burned.

In India difficulties arise with sportsmen, when from fear
of fires the forests are closed to shooting during a season which
would be otherwise open. Special permission is sometimes
given by Government to forest officers to open the forest
temporarily to shooting after a heavy shower of rain, during the
dry season, or in order to shoot tigers, or other destructive
beasts. The shelter afforded to game or noxious animals by
high grass near villages may become a great nuisance to the
villagers, and the forest officers should not carry the practice
of protection from fire too far in such cases, and it may even
be advisable to burn off worthless tracts of scrub forest or
grassland for pasturage, so as to keep public opinion on the side
of the forester. On the other hand, Indian State forest officers
have direct power to arrest offenders, and to call on all forest
right-holders and workmen to assist in extinguishing a fire,
and in certain cases, privileges and rights to forest produce
may be temporarily suspended by the Government, in cases of
wilful firing of a forest by villagers, or their refusing assistance
when once a fire has broken out.

654 PROTECTION AGAINST FOREST FIRES.

A system of telephones in endangered forests is extremely
useful, enabling the managers to mass men at points where a
fire has hroken out. In the Count of Frankenberg's forests,
at Tillowitz in Silesia, such a system exists, connecting the
forest guards with the manager's office.

6. Rules for Extinguishing Forest Fires,
a. General Rules

If a fire should break out in a forest, the manager must call
on all available labourers from the nearest villages, as well as
the forest workmen, to hurry to the site of the fire, and carry
out the necessary measures for extinguishing it. The workmen
should bring bill-hooks, hoes, iron-rakes, and axes, and provide
themselves with saplings or branches to beat out the fire. The
chief object should be to limit the progress of the fire at the
smallest possible sacrifice of still unburnt woods. This is best
done by attacking the fire on both sides nearly parallel to the
direction of the wind, and gradually beating it out in the shape
of a wedge. The burned area must be abandoned to the flames.
The result depends on the presence of mind, courage, energy,
decision of character and practical directions of the head
forester present, and on the obedience, zeal and skill of the men.
The chief forester present must be thoroughly acquainted with
the locality, as it may be necessary to sacrifice an area of
unburned forest by counterfiring. In order to detect at once
any fires arising from sparks which may cross fire-traces, men
must be posted at all threatened points around the actual fire.
As it may take several days to extinguish an extensive forest
fire, arrangements may be required to work the available labour
force by relays, and to supply the men at work with food and
drink.

In countries like India, where forest fires are common,
wherever the villagers willingly come forward to help in extin-
guishing fires, concessions may be made to them of dead
firewood or thatching grass, and in case of the fire burning
the houses of a village, situated near the forest, the manager
should be ready to help with building and thatching material,
either free or at cheap rates.

PROTECTIVE MEASURES. 655

In such localities more than half the battle against forest
fires is won, when the protection of the forest from fire meets
with sympathy from the neighbouring villagers.

In France and Germany, it is usual to call out the soldiers
of a regiment quartered near the forest to assist in extinguish-
ing extensive forest fires.

The cost of extinguishing fires varies between 20 and 50 per
cent, of the damage done ; in Saxony, 1889-93, it was 23 per

cent.

b. Ground Fires.

The burning area must be isolated by digging trenches,
which must be deep enough to prevent the fire from finding
its way below them. Water should be poured on the burning
turf, or soil from the trenches heaped on to it.

c. /Surface Fires.

The fire should be beaten out with green branches as
already explained. Wherever there is a dense undergrowth,

Fig. 290.— Rake used in protection against fire.

as in the case of heather, it is better to beat down the fire
vertically, but where the soil-covering is low, the branches
should be used backwards and forwards like brooms to sweep
it out.

At the spot where the fire commenced, workmen should
clear away a strip of the soil-covering in order to isolate the
fire. Iron rakes, Fig. 290, of a special kind can be used for
this purpose with advantage, and uriburned litter may thus be
drawn by the teeth of the rakes towards the- workmen, or
burning litter be pushed away by using the rake reversed.

Freshly dug up earth may be thrown on the fire.

A clearance, or fire-trace, may be made in front of the fire
to stop its further progress. The distance- of this from the

656 PROTECTION AGAINST FOREST FIRES.

tire should be so chosen that the fire-trace may be completed
before the fire reaches it. In making this fire-trace, all the
soil-covering should be cut and removed, and if there is time,
a trench may be dug, and the earth from it piled up towards
the fire.

It may be necessary to counterfire from a road, stream,
ride or fire-trace ; the soil-covering is then burned, and this
fire directed so as to meet the advancing forest fire, when the
two fires meet and become extinguished for want of fuel.
This is a very efficacious remedy, but demands great care,
and can be carried out only when the air is fairly still, and
the undergrowth not too high, or fire may ignite the crowns
of the trees ; it will evidently be resorted to only in extreme
cases.

d. Crown Fires.

The wooded area must be interrupted by felling a strip of
trees in front of the fire, which is best done along a road or
ride. The smaller trees should be dragged away, if there is
time to do so, taller trees should be felled towards the fire and
their crowns lopped off, if possible.

Counterfiring is of little use against crown-fires, but may be
tried, if only young growth is burning.

e. Stems on Fire.

When a solitary hollow tree is burning, the hole may be
stopped with sods or earth. If, however, the hollow extends
to the top of the tree or through one of its main branches, the
tree must be felled, after clearing away the undergrowth and
soil-covering all round it, and the fire should then be extin-
guished with water or soil.

7. Watching the Site of the Fire.

In order to guard against a fresh outbreak of a forest fire,
its site should be carefully watched by trustworthy persons
until all further danger is over. In a coniferous forest,
where the soil is deeply covered with dead needles, danger of
rekindling may be incurred for a week or more after the fire
has been extinguished, unless rain falls. The manager

TREATMENT OF INJURED WOODS. 657

should go completely round the burned area and see that it is
properly isolated from the surrounding forest by clearings of
the soil-covering and trenches. All burning pieces of fallen
wood on the site of the fire should be covered with earth, and
wherever any fire reappears, it should be at once beaten out.

8. Treatment of Woods Injured by Fire.

The treatment of burned woods depends on their age, the
extent of the fire and the amount of injury done to the trees.

Burned young coniferous tvoods should almost always be dug
up and the area at once restocked. Occasionally young Scots
pines may put out fresh needles and recover.

Older coniferous ivoods with uninjured crowns and with
merely their bark singed may be left standing. If, however,
the bast and sapwood should be seriously affected, it will be
necessary to fell the trees, and especially if it is subsequently
found that they have been attacked by beetles, as, for instance,
Myelophilus piniperda, L., which will breed in the summer in
pine woods that have been burned in the spring, and pro-
ceed in the autumn to thin out the crowns of all the trees
around the site of the fire. Where this is to be feared, it is
better to fell all trees that are apparently so weakened by the
fire as to encourage the breeding of these destructive insects.

We should not, ho\vever, be very ready to fell broadleaved
trees, as oak-woods, for instance, sometimes recover after
being burned, especially the dominating trees, but beech are
more susceptible to damage by fire. It is better in doubtful
cases to await the next season of vegetation before deciding
what is to be done. Young broadleaved woods may be cut
back if seriously injured, but even this operation may be put
off till the ensuing spring, as it may then prove unnecessary.

More information is necessary as to whether it is advisable,
in particular cases, to fell, cut back or leave trees that have
been injured by fire.

9. Insurance against Forest Fires.

After several fruitless attempts to found a society for
assuring forests against fire, in 1895 the Munich Gladbacher
F.P. u u

658 PROTECTION AGAINST LIGHTNING.

Fire Insurance Company agreed to insure against damage by
forest fires throughout Germany, and appointed a forest
expert as manager of this branch of their business.

The company insures standing crops of trees up to the age
of 60 years, and felled timber as long as it is the property of
the insurer. Damage in burned forests is assured at its cost-
value whenever this exceeds its actual value. The premia
vary according to the greater or less danger of particular
crops from 45 pfennigs to 4 marks per 1,000 marks of their
insured value. For ordinary crops 1 — 60 years old —

Pure broadleaved woods . . 0-85 marks.

Mixed coniferous ,, . .1*20 „

Pure coniferous ,, . . 2'00
In Switzerland, insurance against fire has been effected
(1906) at 10 per cent, of the endangered capital.

In Belgium, insurance can be effected against forest fires at
the following rates of premium per 1,000 francs value : —

Broadleaved woods . . 60 centimes.

Conifers under 20 years old . 6 francs,
over . 5 francs.

SECTION II. — EFFECTS OF LIGHTNING ON TREES.*

Much has recently been written about lightning and its
effects on trees, but the causes of thunder-storms are not yet
clearly known. The action of lightning on trees also requires
further study.

1. Mode of Striking.

When lightning strikes a terrestrial object it is termed a
"direct stroke"

It is termed hot when it sets fire to the object, it is otherwise
cold.

A lack-stroke occurs when the accumulated positive or
negative electricity at the top of an object, such as a tree,

* Klein, " Das Gcwitter und die dasselbe begleitenden Erscheinungen." Graz,
1871.

Baur, " Der Blitz als Waldverderber," " Monatschrift fur das Forst. u.
Jagdwesen," 1873, p. 97.

Rippold. " Die Enstehung der Gewitter." Frankfurt-a.-M., 1897.

MODE OF STRIKING.

659

strikes downwards, the inducing electricity in the cloud

having struck in another direction, another tree for instance.

One theory of the action of lightning, that of F. Cohn, of

Fig. 291.— Elm tree struck by li

ept., 1897.

Breslau, is that when lightning strikes a tree the wet cambium-
zone conducts the electrical discharge, and the contained

u u 2

660

PROTECTION AGAINST LIGHTNING.

water is suddenly converted into vapour. The expansion thus
caused strips off the bark at the points of least resistance,
and if the hark be smooth and thin, large pieces of it may be
removed (Fig. 291). The wood may also be split from the top
of the tree downwards, the lightning entering at the fine twigs
on the top of the tree and running down the stem straight or
spirally according to the direction of the fibres.

2. Damage done,
a. General Account.

The effects of lightning on a tree are very various ; if the
tree be split, the bark is usually removed only in a narrow

Fig. 292. — Horizontal lightning-stroke along a I c on a beech tree.
a Four meters above the ground. I d A short dark line.

strip on either side of the tree, otherwise, occasionally in large
flakes. Even in the former case the tree generally dies, it
may be after a few years.

In other cases, pieces of wood are split off the stem, of all
sizes up to several yards in length (Fig. 293). The lightning
has even been known- to enter a beech tree 100 years old, in
Hesse, on the llth July, 1886, horizontally and then strike
down through its axis, as shown in Fig. 292. Sometimes large
arms of a tree, or its whole crown, have been broken off by
lightning. As a rule, the lightning runs down the tree into

DAMAGE DONE. 661

the ground, but in 3 per cent, of the cases observed it passed
off to other trees before doing so.

Neither carbonisation nor tearing open of cells have been
observed on trees struck by lightning.

The injured parts observed on the stem or main branches
of a tree are never the first point attacked. The lightning
almost always strikes the fine topmost twigs (the best con-
ductors), and proceeds thence along the main boughs and
stem. It then generally follows the direction of the fibres,
the path of least resistance. If the fibres are twisted, it
follows a spiral path. The cambium, wood, and pith of a
tree struck by lightning become discoloured, and often the
topmost leaves turn brown, those below remaining green.

Very little is known regarding the effect of lightning on the
inner structure and technical quality of timber. It is assumed
that wood struck by lightning has its hardness and strength
reduced. Wood and bark-beetles, wood-wasps and fungi,
attack the tree, which soon dies. It should therefore be felled
and converted as soon as possible.

When an unsound tree is struck by lightning it is some-
times set on fire, and the fire may then spread to the
surrounding forest.

It has also been repeatedly observed in coniferous forests,
that sometimes a whole group of trees may die from the
effects of lightning, the marks of which may only be visible
on one of the trees. This takes place some time after the
occurrence, and leaves an ugly gap in a fine wood. This has
been hitherto observed only in crops of Scots pine, spruce,
silver-fir and larch. It may be the effect of lack-stroke
(p. 658). In such cases the dead trees should be carefully
examined, as bark-beetles have been afterwards proved to have
caused the death of the unstruck -trees in certain cases.

The soil may be the cause (p. 664), or small lightning
strokes accompanying the principal stroke. Such a stroke is
termed group-stroke.

b. According to Species.

All species of trees are liable to be struck by lightning, but
oaks and other species with deep roots appear to be most

662

PROTECTION AGAINST LIGHTNING.

exposed to this danger, perhaps on account of their roots
forming better conductors to the moist subsoil than those of
shallow-rooted species.

According to the valuable observations made annually by
Dr. Hess from 1874 to 1890 in the forests of Lippe-Detmold,*
among broadleaved trees the oak suffers most, among conifers
the Scots pine. Then follow spruce and beech. The birch,
poplars, ash, alder, willows, larch, and other trees suffer only
exceptionally.

TREES STRUCK IN LIPPE-DETMOLD, 1874 — 1890.

Broadleaved trees.

Conifers.

Oaks

310

Scots pine .

. 108

Beech

33

Spruce

. 39

Birch

10

Larch

. 11

Poplars

6

Austrian pine

1

Ash .

4

Weymouth pine .

1

Willows .

2

Others

5

Other trees

8

Total

373

Total

. 165

The forest was stocked as follows :—

Oak .
Beech .
Spruce .
Scots pine

11 per cent.
70 „ „
13 „ ,,
6 ,, ,,
100

The danger therefore, considering the beech as 1, was 6 for
a spruce, 37 for a Scots pine, and 60 for an oak.

Other observations by Collodon,t Hellmann,t Cohn, and
Caspary give somewhat different results.

* " Ztschrft. fr. Fret. u. Jgdw.," 1879—1889.
f " Allg. Frst. u. Jgdztg.," 1875, p. 440.
t '-Frstl. Blttrn.," 1889, p. 20.

DAMAGE DONE.

663

Thus Hellmann, considering danger for the beech from

lightning as 1, gives —

Conifers

Oaks.

Other broadleaved trees
Cohn — Oaks

Poplars .
Caspary — Oaks .

Poplars

15

54

40

14 1 out of 40 trees

12 j" struck.

15 1 out of 93 trees

341" struck.

C. Hess (1896) found that pyramidal poplar is often struck,
and that in eight out of the ten cases he observed lightning
passed from the tree to a neighbouring building. Poplars should,
therefore, not be too near to buildings.

According to Collodon, near the lake of Geneva, poplars
rarely suffer from lightning.

In the " Eevue des Eaux et Forets,"* the results are given
of 15 years' experience in a forest composed as follows : —

Percentage of trees .
Trees struck by lightning
Eelative frequency .

Oak.

11
159

48

Beech.

70

21

1

Spruce.

13

20

5

Pine.

6

59
33

Others.

20

This agrees generally with the results obtained in Detmold.

Similar observations were made in the Bavarian State
forests, 1887—1890.

Trees struck.

Percentage of area occupied
by each species.

Scots pine

. 131

30-8

Spruce .
Silver-fir

.

. 88
. 67

j 41-50

Oaks .

. 61

1-82

Soft woods

(broadleaved)

. 11

2-41

Larch .

...

7

0-58

Beech .

.

7

10-79

Total .

. 372

Total . 87'90

* February, 1894, p. 78.

664 PROTECTION AGAINST LIGHTNING.

In the Saxon State forests, in 1897, the first year that such
observations were made, it was found that the danger for oak
was six times that for conifers.

On the whole, from these observations it is evident that
local circumstances such as proximity of lakes, dampness of
soil, density of growth, healthy or unhealthy condition of
trees, affect the question whether one species will be more
liable to attack than another in any particular locality.

Some experiments as regards the conductivity of electricity
by wood have been recently made by Jonesco, of the Wiirttem-
berg Society of Natural Science. In these experiments Holz's
electric machine was used.

1 turn passed the spark through oakwood,

12 to 20 turns through beech,

5 turns through poplars and willows.

The use of heartwood or sapwood and state of dryness of
the wood made no difference in the results, but the richness
of beech in oil prevents its being a good conductor.

Fischer ("Biologic der Holz Gewachse"*) distinguishes
between oily trees and starchy trees. In oily trees, the elaborated
starch, during winter and spring, becomes converted into oil and
passes into the pith, wood, and bark. Part of the starch in the
bark also becomes converted into glucose. In the starchy
trees, the reserve starch remains unaltered between autumn
and May.

The green wood of the oily trees (beech, walnut, birch,
lime), especially wood very rich in oil, is a bad conductor of
electricity. The starchy trees (oak, poplar, maples, ash, elm,
sorbus) are good conductors. Conifers are intermediate, the
Scots pine in summer being as poor in oil as the starch trees,
but rich in oil during winter. After the oil had been extracted
from wood of fatty trees by means of ether they became as
good conductors as typical starchy trees.

Starchy trees are therefore more in danger from lightning than
oily trees.

c. Locality.

Damp soils conduct electricity well, but in dry places when
the lightning has reached the ground, it may spread from

* Pringsheim'a '• Jahrbuch fur wisserischaftliche Botanik," Band xxii., p. 73.

DAMAGE DONE. 665

root to root of neighbouring trees and cause them to die in
groups.

It is probable that when sound well-conducting trees
growing on damp soil are struck the lightning passes
rapidly down to the earth without causing much breakage,
but that when rotten wood is met with, which is a bad
conductor, the crown or branches may be broken, or even
the tree set on fire.

The relative frequency with which trees are 'struck on
different soils in Lippe-Detmold is given below : —
Loam . • . . . . 220

Sand . . ... - 118

Clay . . . . . . 84

Keuper marl . . . . 35

Calcareous soil .... 23

Flooded land . . ... . 4

This may explain the greater danger to trees from lightning
in North Germany as compared with South Germany and
Austria. It is also possible that loam and sand, producing
most oaks and Scots pine, have high figures, while on
calcareous soil the beech predominates.

Trees are said to be more frequently struck by lightning in
badly wooded plains than in well-wooded mountain districts.
This is true for the bare middle Ehine valley and its adjoining
wood-stocked hills.

It is supposed that dense forests act as conductors and
allow electricity to pass gradually from the earth to the
clouds, whilst clearing the land of forests increases the heat
of summer and hinders the neutralisation of the electricity of
the clouds.

d. Density of Crop and Condition of Trees.

Lightning, according to Hess, strikes in preference trees
standing free from their neighbours, those in avenues and on
the border of a wood and also trees dominating over the rest
of a wood.

Sound trees are more frequently injured than unsound
trees, but dry trees may be struck, and stag-headed oaks
are frequently smashed to pieces by lightning. Thus, a

666 PROTECTION AGAINST LIGHTNING.

positively electrified cloud induces the separation of the
electricity in a tree, driving the positive electricity into its
roots and the earth, whilst the tree becomes charged with
negative electricity. The strength of this charge becomes
weakened by gradual discharge into the atmosphere from the
numerous twigs and leaves in the crown of a vigorous tree.
On the contrary, a tree with many dry branches and scanty
foliage becomes thoroughly charged with negative electricity,
and when struck by lightning receives a more violent shock
than a sound tree.

e. Season.

In Central and Western Europe the most frequent thunder-
storms are in June and July, between 3 and 5 p.m. or 1 and
2 a.m. These storms usually pass from S.W. to N.E. or
from W. to E.

In the case of heavy rain before the lightning-stroke, the
trees become better conductors, and are more liable to be
struck.

The average rate at which thunder-storms travel in South
Germany is given by C. Lang, the result of five years' obser-
vation, as 25 J miles an hour, which agrees with French
observations. In 1886, the greatest rate was 49 miles, the
least 6J miles, an hour.

3. Register of Damage by Lightning.

The frequency of thunder-storms in Central Europe decreases
as the latitude increases and in proximity to the Atlantic
Ocean, as the following average figures show : —

Number of Thunder-storms
Name of Country. per annum.

Italy . . . . . . . 38

Austria . - 23

Hungary, Baden, Wurttemberg . . .22
Silesia, Bavaria, and Belgium . . .21

Holland 18

Saxony and Brandenburg . . . .17
France and South Kussia . . . .16
Spain and Portugal ... . .15

DAMAGE DONE. 667

Number of Thunder-storms
Name of Country. per annum.

Schleswig-Holstein, Mecklenburg, Hannover,

West Prussia 13

North Eussia 10

Little Eussia 9

Sweden and Finland 8

England and Swiss Alps .... 7
Norway . . . . . .4

There has been no increase in the last thirty years in the
number of thunder-storms in Germany, Austria and Switzer-
land, but in most other European countries their frequency
has increased almost threefold, and this is considered to be
due to increase of railways, metallic roofs and pipes for gas,
water, etc., inside houses. The increased smoke from factories
also favours thunder-storms.

Some interesting facts regarding trees killed by lightning
are given below.

1848 (early in July) : Fifty-two Scots pines about 125
years old were killed by lightning at Sprillgehorge, in
Hannover, only one of them being directly struck.

1865 (spring) : Seventy 60-year-old spruce trees, only one
of which was struck, were killed by lightning in the Harz
Mountains.

1868 (llth May) : A green spruce tree struck and burned in
Kothenwald, in Eeuss.

1876 (17th July) : After a long drought, a dried-up moor
stocked with a thicket of 11 -year-old Scots pines and
spruce was fired by lightning at Aurich, near Neuenwalde.

1887 (summer) : Two lightning strokes about 70 feet
apart killed all the trees on about one-fifth of an acre stocked
with Scots pines and a few beech near Neustadt.

1887 (15th July) : Seventy-two large spruce trees were
killed by one stroke of lightning at Bruckenberg. It was
clearly seen from marks on the branches that the lightning
had passed from tree to tree.

1891 (summer) : On a road in Ober Hesse lightning struck
twelve wooden posts (spruce poles 8 feet high and 2 inches in
diameter) that were supporting plants of sycamore and oak

668

PROTECTION AGAINST LIGHTNING.

planted along 100 metres of roadway. No injury was done to
the living plants, but all the supports were struck and split,
the lightning passing through the ground from one post to
the other.

1895 (10th June) : At Bockling, in Graf Schulenburg's
forest, lightning set fire to a crop of 15-year-old silver-fir,
the fire extending over about sixty acres.

*mx3k

*.''.&:. .•*'

Fig. 293.— Oak tree struck by lightning, St. Amand, near Valenciennes,
23rd July, 1896.

PART VI.

PROTECTION AGAINST CERTAIN DISEASES OF
FOREST TREES,

671

CHAPTEK I.

GENERAL ACCOUNT OF THE DISEASES OP PLANTS.

1. Definition.

A FOREST plant is said to be diseased when, owing to
disturbances in the functions of its organs and in the
chemical or physical processes going on within them, it
assumes such a condition that it is hindered from further
useful development and may consequently die, either wholly
or in part. Disease therefore causes blanks- in woods of all
ages, and also loss of wood-increment and consequent
reduction in their value.

2. Causes of Disease.

Many different causes of disease in forest trees may occur,
for instance, old age, injuries by men and animals, injuries
by parasitic plants (weeds and fungi), by atmospheric agencies.
Disease is also due to certain local circumstances, such as soils
too poor in the chemical compounds necessary for plant-life,
soils too dry or very wet, too compact or too loose, etc.

Although much progress has been made during the last
twenty years in the study of the diseases of forest trees, a
wide field is still open for discovery in this respect.

3. Classification of Diseases.

The diseases of forest plants may be grouped according to
their origin, the nature of the organs which are attacked, the

* A capital account of the conditions of environment which encourage disease
in a plant is given in the Proceedings of the Royal Soc., vol. 47, " The Croonian
Lecture," by H. Marshall Ward.

Hartig. Dr. Robert, " Lehrbuch der Baumkrankheiten. " Berlin, 1889.

Frank, Dr. B., " Die Krankheiten der Pflanzen," 3 vols., 1896.

Soraner, Dr. Paul, "Zeitschrift fur Pflanzerkrankheiten." S uttgart. This
periodical commenced in 1891

672 PROTECTION AGAINST DISEASES.

progress of the disease and its importance in forestry. These
four headings have been considered in the following list :—

1. Diseases arising from physical agency (frost-crack, bark
blister, etc.) and those from physiological causes, such as red
and white rot.

2. Local diseases, such as of the roots, or of the stem, bark,
buds, leaves or shoots, or of the inflorescence and fruits of the
trees.

3. Acute or rapidly developing diseases, or chronic diseases
which develop slowly.

4. Diseases which merely cause loss of increment, and
others which affect the economic value of the wood, the latter
consisting either in an abnormal growth of otherwise healthy
woody tissue, such as burrs, twisted fibre, etc., or in an
unhealthy state*of the tissues, as in red or white rot.

The worst kinds of damage to forest plants by men,
animals, plants, and atmospheric agencies have been already
dealt with in the preceding chapters of this book. For the
study of abnormal growth in healthy wood-tissues, the reader
is referred to treatises on Forest Utilisation. In the following
pages will be described certain diseased conditions which
could not well be classified under any of the foregoing heads
and are limited to the following: — red rot, white rot, stag-
headedness, abnormal needle- shedding, and damage by factory
fumes.

673

CHAPTER II

BED HOT.*

1. Description.

BED ROT is a decomposition of wood, by which its elemen-
tary organs are gradually detached from one another, and it
becomes eventually converted into a loose-textured mass, at

Va

Fig. 294. — Section of a spruce suffering from red rot.

a Sound wood, b Discoloured wood where decay has commenced.
c Eotten wood.

first reddish-brown and passing through a dark brown con-
dition into a peaty substance resembling humus. Fre-
quently whitish mycelia may be noticed traversing the wood
longitudinally.

Eed rot (Fig. 294) occurs, according to its position, as root,
stump, stem, or branch-rot. A transverse section through the
rotting wood shows a great variety in the phenomena and
course of this disease, often in the same tree. Either certain

* Willkomm, Dr. Moritz, " Die Mikrospischen Feinde des Waldes." Dresden,
1866, pp. 31 and 219. Hartig, Dr. R., " Die Rotfaule der Fichte," " Monatschrift
fr. das Forstund Jagdwesen," 1877, p. 97, an excellent and comprehensive work,

F.P. X X

674 PROTECTION AGAINST DISEASES.

annual zones or groups of annual zones of wood between the
heart and sapwood are attacked,* or the disease occurs in
patches, or attacks merely the central zones of the tree or
branch. The sapwood is never attacked by red rot. The
rotten wood may eventually be completely decomposed, when
it disappears, leaving a hollow cylinder, in place of the heart-
wood, and this frequently without involving the death of the
tree. Sometimes the innermost portion of the stem remains,
forming a thin columnal, hard strand of wood united with the
sapwood here and there by similar strands where branches
have been enclosed in the wood.

The commencement of the disease may be recognised by a
light violet or reddish colour of the wood, and by the porous
spring zones being attacked before the harder autumn zones.

2. Modifying Factors,
a. Species.

Red rot occurs in almost every species of forest tree.
Among broadleaved species oaks and elms suffer most, and
among conifers the spruce and Scots pine. The disease
usually commences at the roots of spruce trees.

Root rot usually spreads upwards through the heartwood to
the branches. It may, however, on the contrary, gradually
descend from the branches through the stem to the roots.

b. Age of Tree.

Red rot is a normal condition of very old trees, but a disease
in the case of young trees. It has been observed in the spruce
from the age of 10 years and upwards.

c. Locality.

Wood may become rotten in all kinds of localities, but certain
conditions of the soil predispose trees to this disease. Such
are — soils very rich in humus, calcareous soils, soils very
compact or wet and cold, such as clays and peats which are not

* Termed Mondring in German and lunure in French.

RED ROT. 675

properly aerated, or where an impermeable substratum occurs
at an inconsiderable depth below the surface of the ground.
Wood also readily rots in places where cattle rest at midday,
owing to the excrement.

d. Treatment of Woods.

A dense condition of a wood, especially in moist or wet locali-
ties, favours the evil. Tapping for turpentine, barking by
game, and other injuries, such as pruning living branches
without tarring, frequently give rise to the first symptoms of
red rot in wood, especially when the trees are growing in
localities predisposing them to disease.

3. Causes.

Widely differing and frequently contradictory hypotheses
have been started to explain the origin of red rot. Usually
it is attributed to external circumstances, such as unfavourable
localities, injuries, etc., without further inquiry into its possible
causes.

The first scientific inquiry into the cause of red rot is found
in the works of Willkomm (1866), who designated a microscopic
fungus as the sole origin of the disease. He named this fungus
Xenedochus ligniperda, and another allied form which springs
from it Rhynchomyces violaceus, which causes the bluish colour
in rotting wood.

The question as to the origin of red rot was not by any
means solved by Willkomm's researches, as he merely proved
the presence of the above fungi in rotten wood, but did not
make experiments to infect sound wood by means of their
spores, so that it remained doubtful whether the fungi were
the causes or merely the consequences of red rot.

Eobert Hartig, in 1874, solved this question by proving that
red rot in the case of spruce, Scots pine, oaks, etc., really arose
from infection by parasitic fungi. Later on, in 1877, he further
proved that, at least for the spruce, unfavourable soils and
external injuries also induced the disease. As we have already
in chapter III., part II., discussed the infection of trees by
fungi, we have now only to deal with the two latter cases.

x x 2

676 PROTECTION AGAINST DISEASES.

a. Unsuitable Soils.

The kinds of soil which induce red rot in the roots of trees,
and chiefly in their deeper-lying roots, are generally peaty
humus, calcareous soils, soils containing pans or impenetrable
substrata of ochrous iron ore, lignite, clay or loam, also very
fine sand, not infrequently found in the lias formations in
Germany. Such subsoils interfere with aeration of the surface
soil, the oxygen so necessary for the roots of trees being unable
to reach them in sufficient quantity. This is due to the fact
that the air in spils too compact or waterlogged is gradually
deprived of its oxygen by the roots of the plants -growing on
it, and by the decomposition of the litter ; this loss of oxygen
is not sufficiently replaced by the admission of fresh air to the
soil. The denser the wood, the faster the evil progresses ; fungi
also accelerate the disease.

In the North-west German loamy heather tract, where pan
is very prevalent, more than 75 per cent, of the Scots pine
woods suffer terribly from red rot. Spruce, however, thrives
there.

This form of red rot is more prevalent with larch and some-
times with Scots pine than with spruce, for the roots of the
larch as well as those of Scots pine penetrate more deeply
into the soil, and therefore rot more readily than those of
spruce that spread in all directions in the upper layers of
the soil.

Scots pine, however, when grown on shallow soils, can pro-
duce superficial roots like those of spruce, whilst experience in
Windsor Forest shows that larch growing on a gravelly soil
above a pan always gets red rot, and this is confirmed by
A. D. Webster,* who states that larch always gets red rot
when grown on gravelly soils.

b. External Injuries.

Trees are frequently wounded during the felling, conversion,
and transport of timber. Wounds also arise owing to forest
pasture, game, mice, insects, from pruning green branches, or
from meteoric influences, frost-crack, bark-scorching, windbreak

* " Practical Forestry." William Rider & Son, London, 2nd edition, 1895.

RED ROT. 677

or snowbreak, hail, etc. Wherever the living tissues of the
wood are exposed, especially where the wounds are not clean-
cut, moisture penetrates into them, unless they are protected
by antiseptic substances, such as a natural flow of turpentine,
or by tar. With the entrance of water into the tissues, certain
chemical changes take place in their contents, and local disease
may arise. Spores of fungi also penetrate the tissues, such as
the spores of species of Polyporus in the upper parts of the
tree, or of Armillarea mellea, etc., in its roots.

4. Damage done.

Ked rot affects the technical value of wood in proportion to
its extent and degree of development, and to the innate value
of the tree which is attacked. Wood affected by red rot cannot
be used as timber, and is only of slight value as fuel. The
worst form of this disease is when it attacks a tree's roots, as
it then generally affects the whole stem ; the least dangerous
form is in the branches.

It is not rare in spruce woods 60 — 70 years old to find that
10 per cent, of the trees are rotten, whilst the liability of rotten
trees to windbreak and snowbreak is another cause of disaster.

5. Treatment of the Disease.

The rules for combating red rot depend on the cause of the
disease.

a. When due to Unsuitable /Soils.

Great care should be taken in planting to allot the species
of trees to soils suitable for their welfare.

Eemove densely growing mosses and other unfavourable
vegetation from damp mountain soils.

Drain and work up the superficial layers of compact soils.

In wet soils which cannot be drained, plantations should be
made on mounds or ridges.

On calcareous soils broadleaved species should be intermixed
with Scots pine and spruce ; low rotations of 60 — 70 years
should be adopted for spruce.

678

PROTECTION AGAINST DISEASES.

b. When due to Injuries.

Great care should be taken during timber-fellings and
transport.

Pruning of green branches should, if possible, be avoided, or
restricted to branches under 4 inches in diameter ; all wounds
made by pruning should be smeared with tar.

All rotten trees and stumps should be speedily removed
from the forest.

All measures dictated by forest protection should be strictly
followed in order to prevent injuries to the trees.

Fig. 295. — Frost-crack in an oak tree. Dillenburg.
Photo, by R. E. Marsden.

679

CHAPTEK III.

WHITE HOT.*

WHITE ROT is distinguished from red rot by the colour of
the decomposing wood, which is of a whitish instead of a
reddish hue. It is commoner among broadleaved species
(beech, hornbeam, maple, oak, chestnut, poplars, and willows)
than among conifers ; it is probably due to several causes
combined, but appears to be chiefly caused by fungi. White
rot is rarer than red rot, and its course less rapid. The
protective measures to be taken are similar to those against
red rot.

* Books referred to under " Red rot." Also see p. 440 of the present work.

680

CHAPTER IV.

STAG-HEADEDNESS.

1. Description and Causes.

IT has been already stated that red rot frequently attacks
very old trees, rendering their stems hollow, but another sign
of excessive old age is the death of some of the topmost
branches of a tree, which has no longer sufficient vigour to
pump water so far. The death of these branches causes them
eventually to break off, and atmospheric moisture is then
admitted into the trunk, and rot commences and penetrates
downwards towards the roots. Stag-headedness may, how-
ever, occur in immature trees, and is then due to one of the
following causes : —

(a) When trees which have been growing in a dense wood
are suddenly exposed as standards, as in natural regeneration
in high forest, or after the felling of the underwood in
coppice-with-standards, the surface moisture of the soil may
be reduced and the trees consequently become stag-headed.
In some cases such trees, and especially oaks, having com-
paratively soft bark, owing to their formerly protected state
in a dense wood, put out numerous epicormic branches from
the dormant buds along their stems, which absorb the sap
that would otherwise reach their crowns. This tends to cause
stag-headedness, which may, however, be obviated by one or
two prunings of the epicormic branches, until the bark
becomes too hard for them to form.

(b) In forests of lightdemanders such as oak, larch, ash,
Scots pine, the soil may be completely sheltered by the crop
up to a certain age, but after 40 — 60 years the leaf -canopy
ceases to be sufficiently close to protect the soil from the sun,
which gradually dries it up, and thus causes stag-headedness
in the trees, unless the soil be protected by an underwood of
shadebearers. This result follows more rapidly on hot

STAG-HEADEDNESS, 681

aspects, and the more superficial the soil, and the more
porous the subjacent rock, such as chalk or coarse gravel, and
the less the rainfall and relative humidity of the air in the
locality.

(c) Any interruption of the leaf-canopy in forests of all

Fig. 296.—" Foxy" Scots pine, Windsor Forest.

kinds may cause deterioration of the soil and consequent
stag-headedness.

(d) Drainage also, by lowering the level of water in the
soil of a forest, may deprive formerly thriving trees of suffi-
cient moisture, which their roots, adapted to reach water
near the surface, can no longer absorb in sufficient quantity.
Trees thus affected may become stag-headed. This happened
on a large scale with oaks growing in the Wild Park at
Carlsruhe, owing to the rectification of the course of the

682 PROTECTION AGAINST DISEASES.

Ehine, and consequent lowering of the water-level in the
soil. A similar result followed drainage in Windsor Park
with regard to some of the elms in the Long Walk avenue,
and it is not uncommon with alder-woods after drainage.
Continual and excessive removal of litter from a forest may
cause stag-headedness in immature beech forest.* It has
been noticed in certain two-.storied coniferous forests in
North America after the upper stage of trees had been felled,
and the sun allowed to dry up the soil-covering, that the
lower stage, the roots of which had spread superficially in
the layer of dead leaves and humus, became liable to stag-
headedness and death.

(e) Stag-headedness in the Scots pine may be caused, as
stated on p. 441, by the fungus Peridermium Pini, such trees
being termed "foxy" (Fig. 293).

It is found that though, in the case of conifers, stag-
headedness is speedily followed by the death of the tree, and
beech also speedily succumbs when similarly affected, yet
that some other broadleaved species, and especially oak, may
remain stag-headed for many decades without dying, although
the technical value of their timber rapidly deteriorates, and
their trunks may become completely hollow.

One of the worst instances of stag-headedness, on a large
scale, may be seen in the State forest of Compie'gne. Between
1775 and 1790, an area in that forest of about 6,000 acres
was clear-cut and planted by a contractor named Panellier
with pure pedunculate oaks. The soil was either very sandy,
or a stiffish clay, but wherever on adjacent land oak is mixed
with beech and hornbeam, excellent oaks are produced. In
the Panellier plantations, however, now 100 to 130 years old,
the ground is generally bare of underwood under the oaks.
The bark of the oak trees is yellow with lichens and they are
nearly all stag-headed and have ceased to grow, presenting a
deplorable picture. There are magnificent sessile oak trees
more than twice the age of the Panellier oaks on sandy hills,
called Les Hauts Monts, close to these pure pedunculate
plantations, but these sessile oaks are mixed with beech.

* Fiiret's " Waldschutz," translated by J. Nisbet, p. 59. Edinburgh, 1893

STAG-HEADEDNESS. 683

2. Treatment.

a. Preventive.

i. Maintain the soil-covering of dead leaves, moss, etc., in
order that the soil may not lose its moisture.

ii. Keep up a dense leaf-canopy, especially where the soil
is shallow and liable to dry up, and where the subjacent rock
is of a porous nature (chalk, gravel, etc.).

iii. Underplant all high forests of lightdemanders with
a shadebearer, such as beech or silver-fir, as soon as grass
or other herbage appears on the soil, and fill up with shade-
bearers any gaps which may have occurred in a forest owing
to windfall, or other injurious causes. Underplanting oak
forest with spruce may cause stag-headedness, on account of
the quantity of moisture the spruce absorbs.

iv. Do not plant spruce, alder, ash or pedunculate oak in
dry localities. The sessile oak will thrive on well -drained
hillsides, where it is hopeless to plant the pedunculate oak.

v. Avoid draining, unless it is absolutely necessary.

vi. High forest is more suitable than coppice-with-standards
in dry localities and those with superficial soil or above a
porous rock.

vii. When epicormic branches appear on oaks and other
standards in coppice-with-standards, or on standards left after
regeneration in high forest, they should be pruned off before
the next spring. It may be necessary to repeat the operation,
but after two seasons in the open the bark of the standards
becomes hardened, and the epicormic branches do not generally
reappear. In any case the stems of the standards will be
gradually sheltered again by the rising underwood, which will
effectually kill any epicormic branches still on the tree.

The appearance of epicormic branches on oak trees growing
in a dense wood is a sign of disease, and such trees should be
gradually removed in the fellings, as they will certainly become
stag-headed.

b. Remedial.

As a rule no remedy can be adopted when forest trees become
badly stag-headed, the only measure to be followed being to
fell them and utilise their timber before it becomes further

684 PROTECTION AGAINST DISEASES.

deteriorated. Slightly stag-headed ornamental trees in parks
or avenues may, however, be given a fresh start in life by
trenching the ground under their crowns, breaking up any
impermeable stratum under their roots, and manuring them
with rich leaf -mould. Stag-headed trees may also be pollarded ;
the reduced length of stem may then enable the roots to
nourish the pollard shoots sufficiently to prolong the life of
the tree for several decades.

8. Addendum.

The death of trees by " bleeding to death," a popular phrase,
is not uncommon with elms. The bark splits off in the
spring in flakes from a tree which appears to be quite healthy.
Sap exudes in frothy masses, and forms a deposit on the
exposed wood. This continues throughout summer, and if the
summer be a dry one the foliage eventually fades and falls off,
and the tree dies. In a case that occurred in the very dry
summer of 1906, the roots of the tree had been cut through
by new drainage works, the tree standing between two
cross-roads. Not a leaf was left on the tree by September,
although it was quite flourishing in April, and not more than
100 years old.

Bleeding and peeling of the bark has also been observed
on oaks in Cumberland (Bray ton Hall). New bark was,
however, formed under the flakes of bark that peeled off.

685

CHAPTEE V.

NEEDLE-CAST.*

1. Description.

SINCE the end of the eighteenth century, a disease, termed
needle-cast (in German, Schiitte), has been remarked on young
pines, the external signs of which consist in the gradual
reddish or reddish-brown discoloration of their 1- or 2- year-old
needles, which eventually die and fall off the plants. As a
rule these symptoms appear first in the spring (Vor-winter
Schiitte), but not unfrequently also in the autumn and early
winter (Nach-icinter Schiitte), and in South Germany the
latter often happens in years when the ground is free from
snow. A steel-blue or violet colour of the 1 -year-old pine-
needles in autumn is no sign of disease, provided yellow or
reddish-coloured spots do not also occur ; this is an instance
of the normal winter-colour of many evergreen plants, which
disappears as the thermometer rises in the spring, and gives
place to the ordinary green colouring of the needles. The
reddish discoloration and death of the needles proceeds from
their tips downwards, and chiefly affects the lower parts of
the plant near the ground. Pines thus affected resemble
those injured by drought, but at the commencement of the
disease more or less regularly distributed dark spots and
stripes appear, and later, in May, small black sporangia of
the fungus Lophodermium Pinastri, Schrad.t Also resin
collects on the sickly needles. The worst form of the disease
may be recognised when the buds become encrusted with
resin and dry-up, and then no recovery is possible for the
diseased plants.

* Freiherr von Lbffelholz, " Beitrag zu einer kritischen Nachweisung iiber
die Schiitte-krankheit der Kief er." Berlin, 1865. Holzner, Dr. Georg, "Die
-Beobachtungen uber die Schiitte der Kiefer und die Winterfarbung immergruner
Gewachse." Freising, 1877.

t See p. 465.

686 PROTECTION AGAINST DISEASES.

2. Modifying Factors.

The Scots pine suffers most from needle-cast, also the
black, cluster and mountain pines. The disease does not
appear to have been as yet observed on Weymouth pine, nor
on Pinus ligida, Mill., that is now extensively used for planting
waste land.

b. Age of Plants.

Two-year-old plants suffer most from this disease, but 3-
to 4- year-old plants may also be attacked, though the
danger becomes less every year. In years when the disease
is very prevalent, weakly plants may suffer up to the age of
15 years, but only up to about 6 feet from the ground.

c. Locality.

Pines growing in all kinds of localities are subject to this
disease, but it is chiefly prevalent in damp or ivet places
exposed to frequent fogs. Thus valleys and plains suffer more
than hills and mountains, where the snow protects the plants
during winter. In depressions and in cold valleys, the disease
is often very destructive. As regards aspect, southern and
western slopes are most endangered ; eastern slopes also suffer,
but northern slopes either not at all or only exceptionally.

The soil appears to have some influence on the disease, but
its effects have not yet been clearly explained. Stein* states
that Scots pine suffers most on pure sandy soils, but after all
it is on such soils that most indigenous Scots pine- woods are
found. Von Loffelholz t has observed that plants suffer less
on thoroughly cultivated soil than when the land has not been
previously broken up, and this may be due to the better root-
systems and superior hardiness of the plants in such cases.
It also appears that on peaty soil needle-cast is little to be
leared, which fact may be due rather to the treatment of the
pine-forests on such localities than to the nature of the soil.

* " Ueber die Schutte," Dr. F. Stein, " Tharandter Jahrbuch," voL viii., 1852,
pp. 208—225.

f The same, p. 41.

NEEDLE-CAST. 687

Emmerling* states that sowings of 1-year-old pines in the
North German heather-land suffer severely every year from
needle-cast, whilst those on the more favourable, sandy loam
are not affected by it.

It is clear that Scots pine is affected by needle-cast on all
kinds of soil, but that on loam the plants are stronger and
escape the danger better than on poor sand.

d. Soil-covering.

It is not yet decided what influence the nature of the soil-
covering has on the disease. It may, however, be laid down
as a general rule that ground covered with grass or weeds
is less liable to it than bare localities, but the favourable
influence of the soil-covering may be counterbalanced by
other causes.

e. System of Management.

Under a shelterwood, the young pines may entirely escape
the disease, or suffer only slightly, and lateral shelter from old
pine-woods acts favourably by reducing insolation and radiation
of heat from the ground. On large clearings, pines are almost
always subject to needle-cast. Areas densely sown late in
the year suffer most of all, when the individual plants have
very small root-systems and thin elongated stems.

/. Weather.

The disease is most frequent in March, April and May,
and a wide range of temperature, such as warm sunny days
and cold nights with rime, favours it. Cold, dry easterly
or north-easterly winds increase the evil. During cloudy,
rainy weather in spring, the disease may not appear at all, or
only slightly. It is also more frequent after damp winters
with light snowfall than after the ground has been well
covered with snow.

3. Geographical Range.

The disease occurs wherever the Scots pine is cultivated,
but is less common in colder countries, such as Eussia. It

* " Untersuchung liber die Ursache der Kiefernschiitte in Schleswig-Holstein,"
by Dr. A. Emmerling and Dr. G. Loges, " Allg. Frst. u. Jgdztg.," 1882, p. 135.

688 PROTECTION AGAINST DISEASES.

is not prevalent in the British Isles. In Germany it appears
to be connected with the extension of clear-cutting and
planting, which, since the end of the eighteenth century, has
so largely replaced the system of natural regeneration of the
Scots pine. In the damp, cold years 1850 to 1852 needle-cast
was widespread and very destructive in North Germany, and
again in 1881 to 1884. Pine-plants which have once suffered
from it are liable to be again attacked, as they are greatly
weakened by the disease.

4. Causes.

Numerous reasons have been given for the needle-shedding
disease, as quoted by both Von Loffelholz and Holzner. The
nature of the soil, the state of the weather, and combinations
of these have been cited. Some think that Lophodermium
Pinastri is the sole cause of the evil, whilst others hold it to be
due to a more rapid transpiration of water by the needles than
the roots of the plants can supply. It is therefore probable that
we have here to deal with many causes acting in combination,
one with another, but these may be reduced to the three
following : —

Needle-cast fungus, Lophodermium Pinastri, Schrad.

Frosts, and especially early frosts in autumn.

Insufficient absorption of water to supply that transpired
by the plants.

We have therefore to deal with three forms of the disease: —

(a) Fungoidal needle-cast.

(b) Frost needle-cast.

(c) Dry needle-cast.

It is difficult to distinguish these causes from one another,
as the fungus is always present, though frequently it may be
only secondary.

a. Fungoidal Needle-cast.

The necessary account of this disease has been given above
on p. 465. Hartig,* Prantl, and Tursley have supported the
fungus theory, but many phenomena appear which con-
tradict it, for example, from the disease beginning at the points

* Vide Hartig, " Lehrbuch der Baumkrankheiten." Berlin, 2nd edition, 1889,
p. 103.

NEEDLE-CAST. 689

of the needles, and the lower parts of plants suffering most,
and above all, from the fact that the disease frequently appears
in a single night, and is much commoner in broadcast sow-
ings than in natural regeneratiorr-areas. Hess has frequently
observed the needles to have been attacked in every plant
on a nursery-bed, after one night's hoar-frost succeeded by
a sunny day, and this altogether excludes the action of the
fungus as cause of the disease. Moreover, infection by the
fungus, which is favoured by heat and damp, would be easier
under a shelterwood than in the open, which is not the case.
The Lophodermium is, however, widely spread as a saprophyte
on dead needles of pines, as well as on those of the spruce and
juniper.

1). Frost Needle-cast.

G. Alers* and Nordlingert have proved that the disease is
frequently due to refrigeration of the plants on unprotected
soil free from snow, by radiation from the soil-covering, and
this opinion has been adopted by most practical men. Generally
autumnal frost is the cause, and late frost is not injurious,
except when there is a great difference between the night-
and day-temperatures. The fact that on older plants only the
lower branches lose their needles points to frost as the cause.

Frost needle-cast is common after wet, cold summers, during
which the young shoots of the plants have not been properly
lignified. Only late frosts can account for the needles turning
red in the spring, but experience has shown that they are not
nearly so destructive as early frosts. The fact that needle-
cast is so prevalent on clearings, in depressions and valleys,
and on uncovered ground where there is no obstacle to radiation,
renders it probable that in many cases frost is the cause of the
disease.

c. Dry Needle-cast.

The drying-up theory of the origin of needle-cast was
first published by Ebermayer,! who, during the progress of
his observations of soil-temperatures in the Bavarian forest

* Alers, " Centrlbl. fr. das ges. Frstw.," 1878, p. 132 ; 1893, p. 81. Also 1880,
p. 156 ; 1882, p. 159 ; 1883, p. 259.

t Nordlinger, " Krit. Blttr. fr. Frst. u. Jgdw.." vol. xlvi., 1863, p. 185.

| " Die Physikalischen Einwirkungen des Waldes in der Abhandlung," " Thar.
Frstl. Jhrbch.," vol. xxxiv., 1884, p. 158.

F.P. Y Y

690 PROTECTION AGAINST DISEASES.

meteorological stations, was led to adopt this view of the
matter. His theory is, shortly, as follows : — The young Scots
pine plants, owing to the frequently high atmospheric tem-
perature in March and April (66° to 77° F. in the shade),
are on sunny days compelled to transpire freely. Although
the soil is wet enough to replace the loss of water by trans-
piration, the action of the roots is restricted by the cold soil,
the temperature of which may be only 40° F., or less, down
to a depth of 4 feet. Hence the little plants wilt and the
needles dry up and die. This is not due, as in dry summers,
to the absence of moisture in the soil, but to the inability of
the roots to absorb water in the cold ground, and therefore an
abnormal drying-up of the needles ensues.

This theory will not explain needle-cast in autumn, when
the soil is warmer than the air, but when the needles are cast
in the spring, it is in complete accordance with the observa-
tions recorded on pp. 686 — 7, under the headings "Locality "
and "Weather." Sandy soils cool down at night to lower tem-
peratures, under similar conditions, than clays, and wet soils
become colder than dry soils. Insolation is greatest on bare
southern aspects.

5. Damage done.

As a rule, needle-cast is not fatal to the plants, and those
which have been attacked may recover, provided their terminal
buds are still uninjured. Naturally, however, the injured plants
languish for some time and are very liable to be attacked by
insects. If, however, the disease recurs, and the terminal buds
of the plants suffer, they have no chance of recovering.

6. Treatment.

As proper treatment of the disease will depend on its
origin, the present section will be divided into headings
according as the disease is due to a fungus, frost or the drying
up of the plants. The method of contending with the attacks
of the fungus has been already described on p. 465, and only
the two latter causes will be dealt with here.

a. Frost.

i. ^Regenerate Scots pine woods under a shelterwood.
Avoid large felling-areas in clearing Scots pine woods, and

NEEDLE-CAST. «91

wherever, owing to circumstances, natural regeneration is
impracticable, narrow strip-fellings should be effected, in
order to afford the young plants lateral shelter against
the sun.

ii. Avoid sowings, and especially broadcast sowings, in
artificial reproduction of Scots pine. When transplants are
scarce it is preferable to sow early in the year, in drills 10 to
12 inches apart. Densely growing seedlings should be thinned,
and a mixture of spruce with Scots pine-seeds acts favourably,
the spruce protecting the pines.

iii. Yearling pines are best planted out with balls of earth,
by means of Heyer's circular spade, so that all injuries to the
roots are avoided.

iv. Sowings of Scots pine should be abandoned in narrow
deep valleys and in depressions.

v. As regards forest-nurseries, the following rules hold
good : —

(a) The nursery should be in an exposed situation and not
too small in area. It should, if possible, be higher than the
surrounding land, never in a depression, or nearer than 50
yards to a wood to the west.

A wood to the west of the nursery reflects the rays of the
sun on to it, which, heating the soil, cause early germination
and shooting of the plants. This also favours stagnation of
the air and late frost.

(b) Beds of seedlings should be covered with dead leaves or
moss, leaving only the tops of the plants free.

(c) The beds may be protected by coverings, which should
not be too dense. They should be placed at about a yard
from the ground, towards the end of September, and before
the first early frosts, and may be removed as soon as late frosts
in spring are no longer to be feared. Throughout the winter,
the coverings may be partially removed during bright days,
but should be replaced before sunset. If the coverings are
placed lower down, the plants suffer from insufficient aeration,
but coverings such as are here described have proved very
efficacious in different parts of North Germany.

(d) Seedlings may be sprinkled with fine dry soil at the
beginning of September, so that only the needles remain

Y Y 2

692 PROTECTION AGAINST DISEASES.

uncovered. In case the earth should be washed away by rain,
it must be replaced.

(e) Nursery-beds should be manured with decomposed
beech leaf-mould. This has been strongly recommended by
several foresters, and a coating of about 1 to 1 J inches appears
to be sufficient. This prevents sudden wide ranges of tem-
perature in the surface soil, though it is not clear ,on this
account why beech leaf-mould is preferable to other similar
manure. It is stated, however, that heather-humus when used
instead of beech leaf-mould does not prevent needle-cast.

(/) When 2-year-old plants are used, the yearlings should be
lined out in nursery-lines.

&. Dry Needle-cast.

The principles to be followed in the case of this variety of
the disease should consist in plans for raising the temperature
of the soil, and reducing the intensity of the light, in order to
increase the activity of the roots and reduce transpiration.
Attempts should also be made to increase the powers of
resistance of the plants.

Soil-temperature is increased by the following measures :—

i. Draining wet soils.

ii. Deep cultivation and manuring, for instance with burned
turf, but these measures can be undertaken only in permanent
nurseries.

iii. Eaising the level of the soil about 1 foot in places pre-
pared for sowing or planting. This method is useful for other
reasons, and especially in the case of compact or wet soils.

iv. Covering the intervals between rows of plants in the beds
with substances that are bad conductors of heat, such as
moss, dead leaves, etc.

Intensity of light is reduced as follows : —

v. Eeproduction of Scots pine under shelterwoods, or with
lateral shelter.

vi. Sowing Scots pine with leguminous fodder-crops, such
as lucerne or saintfoin. This has given splendid results in
Brandenburg and Mecklenburg.

vii. The hardiness of the plants is increased by giving them
plenty of space from the first, by carefully preserving the

NEEDLE-CAST. 693

fibrous rootlets during transplanting, and by using transplants
with balls of earth round their roots.

7. Conclusion.

From the above, it is evident that the two varieties of the
needle-cast disease may be treated similarly. Needle-cast,
owing to the fungus, would indeed be favoured by some of the
rules given under (a) and (I) ; for instance, reproduction under
shelter, and manuring and covering with Scots pine-branches.

Two other methods of protection have recently been sug-
gested, but Hess has no experience of his own regarding their
efficacy. They are as follows : —

i. One or 2-year-old plants may be carefully dug up at
the end of September or beginning of October, when they
have assumed their normal winter colour, and placed in rows
in a bed of loose earth raised 27 to 30 inches from the ground,
and then covered loosely with a few dead leaves. The plants
will be green and in good order for planting in the spring,
when other plants left in the nursery-beds have become
quite red.

ii. According to the other method, trenches are dug 24 to
27 inches broad, and 30 to 40 inches deep, and the plants
placed in rows at the bottom of the trench with earth between
the rows, either in autumn or in early spring. Sticks are
placed across the top of the trench at distances of 6 to 8
inches, which are then covered with branches of Scots pine, or
of silver-fir. Spruce branches will not do, as the needles drop
off too readily. The density of the covering must be regulated
according to the state of the weather, and it should be denser
when there is a considerable range of temperature between
the day and night in the spring. In case of prolonged drought
the plants should be lightly sprinkled with water.

This method has been followed with advantage in certain
forest ranges in Prussia. A trench 10 feet long will contain
about 5,000 1 to 2-year-old pine-seedlings. It has not,
however, always proved successful, and it is doubtful whether
trenching plants in autumn may not be prejudicial. More
experience is necessary before it can be confidently
recommended.

694

PROTECTION AGAINST DISEASES.

695

CHAPTEK VI.

DAMAGE TO TBEES BY ACID FUMES FROM
FURNACES, etc.

1. Description of Injury.*

WOODS long exposed to acid fumes from iron- smelting
furnaces, alkali and other chemical works and brickfields, or to
excessive coal-smoke in crowded cities, become continually
more and more sickly, and may eventually die.

The needles of coniferous trees become discoloured at first on
the side from which the fumes come, turning yellowish, then
reddish, and finally falling off, probably owing to the action of
the acids on the chlorophyll. The buds at first escape injury,
but the twigs of the trees gradually die from the summit of the
trees downwards. In this way the crowns of the trees get
continually thinner, as if they had been attacked by the pine
beetle, and they eventually die.

Broadleaved trees suffer in a similar way, the damage to the
leaves showing itself by larger or smaller reddish blotches,
which gradually spread over the leaf till it dies and falls off
the tree. The fact that most broadleaved trees are leafless
during winter, when there is most smoke, accounts for their
comparative immunity in London, whilst in Lancashire large
coal-fires go on burning all the year round. Then, in propor-
tion to the area, there is ten times as much coal burned at
St. Helen's as in London, and consequently vegetation suffers
much more in the former place. ,

* Vide " Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry," pp. 202—206 and pp. 342
— 345. Lunge's " Manufacture of Sulphuric Acid Alkali," vol. i., p. 110 ; vol. ii.,
pp. 182—190. " Air and Rain," by Dr. R. Angus Smith, 1872. Hasenclever,
"Chemische Industrie," 1879. Von Schroder, Dr. Julius, and Reuss, Carl,
" Beschadigung der Vegetation durch Rauch und die Oberharzer Huttenranch-
schaden. ' ' Berlin, 1883. The best monograph on the subject. — Journal of Royal
Hort. Soc., March, 1891, "Trees and Shrubs for Large Towns," Maxwell T.
Masters ; also " Effects of Urban Fog on Cultivated Plants," F. W. Oliver.

696 PROTECTION AGAINST DISEASES.

Fruit-trees exposed to acid fumes cease bearing fruit before
the foliage is seriously injured, and St. Helen's was formerly
famed for its fruit; but since 1867, owing to the chemical
works in its neighbourhood, no fruit has been produced there.
Crops of wheat exposed to acid fumes may to all appearance
be ripe and full when scarcely a grain is to be found in the
ears. Boot-crops, such as potatoes and turnips, suffer less,
and on the whole trees suffer much more than grass or
agricultural crops.

In the Tavistock woods, large areas of oak coppice were
seriously injured by sulphurous fumes from arsenic mining
works. Owing to the diminished working of these mines, it
is now possible to replant the injured area with oak and
larch.

In 1861, extensive damage was found to have been done to
coniferous woods by the fumes from the works at Freiburg, in
Saxony, in some of which sulphuric acid is made from iron
pyrites. Stb'ckhardt* and Schroder,! at the Tharandt
laboratory, investigated the chemical components of the
smoke which cause the damage, and Hamburger! has done
the same more recently. Subsequent notices§ have appeared
about damage in the Oberharz owing to acid fumes, and the
area of forest damaged by three iron- works, in 1881, was
about 11,250 acres. In the Altenau forest-range this damage
has become noticeable since American ores have been smelted,
which contain more sulphur than the native ores.

Even by smoke from charcoal kilns Scots pine needles
have been reddened at a distance of 50 yards, but this is due
to the heat of the smoke.

2. Injurious Components of Smoke.

It has been proved by observations made at Tharandt, that,
of the components of the fumes from the Saxon Works, lead,
arsenic, and sulphur compounds, soot, etc., only sulphur
dioxide is hurtful to woody growth, and a similar result has

* "Tharandter Jhrbch.," vol. ix., 1853, p. 1G9; also vol. xxi., 1871, p. 218.
t Id., vol. xxii., p. 185 ; vol. xxiii., p. 217.
j Id., 1888, p. 144.

§ Reuss, " Ztschrft. fr. Fret. u. Jgdwsn. , 1881," p. (>.">. Also " Cntrlbltt. fr. d. ges
Frstw.," 1881, p. 267 ; id., 1882, p. 443.

DAMAGE TO TREES BY ACID FUMES. 697

been arrived at in the case of coal-smoke. In order to
ascertain the fact, various species of woody plants have been
subjected to frequent and prolonged exposure to artificially
produced fumes of each of the separate components of the
smoke. Sulphur dioxide in the soil has no prejudicial effects
on plants, as has been proved by watering them with diluted
sulphur dioxide solution, for the gas speedily becomes converted
into sulphuric acid, and forms harmless compounds with
alkalies in the soil.

The action of the sulphur dioxide when the air is moist, or
the leaves moistened with dew or rain, is rapid and decisive ;
it is probably absorbed by plants in the form of sulphuric
acid, being taken up in variable quantities by the leaves or
needles of different species of trees. It then proceeds from
the leaves into the twigs. The leaves or needles gradually
turn brown, owing to the decomposition of the chlorophyll
and tissues of the leaf.

Sulphur dioxide finds its way into the atmosphere by the
roasting of minerals containing sulphur, and from coal-fires,
coal containing about 2 per cent, of sulphur, chiefly in the
form of iron-pyrites. What minute quantities of this gas
suffice to kill plants was proved in 1864 by experiments with
spruce plants which were exposed to air containing only one-
millionth part of sulphur dioxide. After 335 puffs of the air,
the points of the needles began to turn brown, and eventually
turned completely brown.

It has also been supposed that the soot in smoke might
injure forest trees by blocking up their stomata, but this
mode of injury is not admitted by Stockhardt.

As injurious compounds of the smoke of other works may be
reckoned : vapours of mercury,* hydrochloric acid gas, oxides
of nitrogen, and chlorine, also steam containing soda particles
from cellulose-factories. The influence of hydrochloric acid
from alkali-works is shown whenever the air contains O'l
per cent, by a considerable increase in the chlorine in the
leaves. Leaves get brown or red edges, and eventually dry-up
and fall. Chlorine acts similarly, but more energetically.
Hydrochloric acid is very destructive to vegetation, sometimes

* Wagner's " Jhrbch.," 1874, p. 277.

698

PROTECTION AGAINST DISEASES.

forming dense clouds which, after escaping from alkali-works,
settle on fields and kill whole patches of the crops in them ;
it is, however, on the whole less hurtful to woods and crops
on a large scale than sulphur dioxide, and the same may be
said of the similar action of the oxides of nitrogen, and
chlorine. Dr. Angus Smith gives the following comparative
statement of acidity of air at different places in England : —

Locality.

HC1.

SO*

Remarks.

Blackpool, on the Lancashire coast

100

100

Dr. Smith

London . . . . . . . .

320

282

gave the pro-

portions in

Manchester ' . . . . . ^

396

410

S03, and £ths

of these are

St. Helen's . . . ,.

516

387

given here as

S02.

Underground Kailway, London

974

1243

In a field near Blackpool he found 20'27 grains of hydro-
chloric acid and 155*30 grains of sulphur dioxide in 1,000,000
cubic feet of air, and the quantities in the other places may
be calculated from these figures.

Dr. Hamburger* states that he exposed leaves to the action of

and of sulphuric

acids of equivalent strength, n being a normal solution of
49 grammes of sulphuric acid, or 36J grammes of hydrochloric
acid in one litre of water.

The normal solution produced discoloration in about half an
hour, yellowish-brown spots appearing in the middle of the leaves

and extending gradually over the whole surface. The ^ took
8 hours before signs of destruction appeared. The -^

JLU

acted in about a day, but the action of the sulphuric acid was

stronger than that of hydrochloric acid. The — ^— sulphuric

1,000

acid produced discoloration in about a week, while the n

1,000
hydrochloric acid required 10 days to do so.

* "Journal of the Society of Chemical Industry/' 1884, p. 205.

DAMAGE TO TREES BY ACID FUMES. 699

The . acid, equivalent to 24^ grammes of sulphuric acid

or 18£ grammes of hydrochloric acid in 1,000,000 parts of
water, seemed to have no action. Two greenhouse plants were

submitted to a daily spray of the ,,-7^ acid for a month, but

z,uuo

showed no corrosion.

3. Damage done.
a. General Account.

Among the direct kinds of damage done by acid fumes to
trees are : — loss of increment, thinning out of woods and
formation of blanks, injury to fruit, especially in the case of
orchard-trees, loss of fodder by destruction of grass in a
forest. Damage is done indirectly by rendering the woods
liable to insect-attacks, to fire and other dangers.

I). According to Species.

Conifers suffer more than broadleaved species from smoke,
even although the needles under similar conditions absorb
less sulphur dioxide and are in themselves less sensitive
and hardier than other leaves. This is due to the longer
duration of the needles and their consequently increased
exposure to the bad influence of the gas, and to the greater
powers of recovery possessed by broadleaved species.

Thus evergreen conifers are not only longer exposed each
year, but the evil accumulates from year to year as long as
the needles remain on the tree, whilst broadleaved trees
annually throw off their leaves.

Schroder* found that 1,000 square centimeters of leaf-
surface, containing double that quantity above and below,
will, within 36 hours, absorb sulphuric dioxide as

follows : —

c. cm.

Silver-fir needles, young . . . . 1'8

„ old ... . 1-4

Alder leaves ....... 7*9

* " Thar. Frstl. Jhrbch.," vol. xxii., 1872, p. 193.

700

PROTECTION AGAINST DISEASES.

Fig. 298. — Oaks near a manufacturing town, the foliage damaged by acid fumes,
photographed August, 1882.*

Fig. 299.— Same oaks photographed July, 1888, several years' cumulative injury
having killed the trees.*

* From Croonian Lecture by Marshall Ward (vide p. 671),

DAMAGE TO TREES BY ACID FUMES 701

When exposed a second time for 20 hours, the silver-fir
needles absorbed T6 c. cm., beech leaves 3'1 c. cm.

Webster* gives a list of trees and shrubs suitable for town-
planting, but among conifers only mentions the deciduous
Ginkgo biloba, or maidenhair tree, as flourishing in the worst
smoke-infected parts of London, and Retinospora plumosa
aurea, which has stood for seven years in one of the most
smoky districts of Glasgow, and looks almost as well as when
brought from the country.

Masters also recommends Ginkgo Uloba, and Pinus excelsa.

J. W. Sowerby, the Secretary to the Eoyal Botanic Society
of London, who has resided in the Botanic Gardens, Eegent's
Park, since 1842, states that when the gardens .were first laid
out (1839-45) special mounds were made and planted with
nearly all hardy species of conifers, and although the natural
soil of the gardens is a stiff yellow clay, suitable soil was
furnished for the different trees ; but in 1895, only a few
miserable plants remained, including five or six deodars,
and some yews, which last longest, but were then looking
very bad.

The amount of damage done to broadleaved trees depends
not only on the susceptibility of the leaves, but also on the
powers of recovery of each species, so that trees which unite
least susceptibility to greatest powers of recovery will suffer
least.

Schroder has drawn up the following list : —

1. Conifers : Silver-fir, spruce, Scots pine least susceptible.

2. Broadleaved plants : Beech, lime, poplars, alder, maples,
ash, hornbeam, aspen, oak.

The immunity of oak is not, however, confirmed by English
experience, and Marshall Ward states that oaks suffer greatly
from acid fumes. Perhaps the German authorities refer to
sessile oak, which is rare in England, where the pedunculate
oak abounds.

A Belgian! official report also considers the hornbeam

* "Practical Forestry," by Angus D. Webster. Eider & Son. 2nd edition.
London, 1895.

f "Kapport par la Commission d'Enquete relative a l'influence des Emanations
Acides sur la Vegetation," quoted by Dr. Angus Smith in an appendix to " Air
and Rain."

702 PROTECTION AGAINST DISEASES.

and oak as suffering most of all broadleaved species from
acid fumes and even places them above the larch in this
respect.

Borggreve at Miinden drew up a similar table to that of
Schroder, in the following order : —

1. Silver-fir, spruce, Scots pine.

2. Beech, lime, poplar, alder, maples, and ash.

3. Hornbeam, aspen.

4. Oak (least susceptible).

According to Hess's* own experiments elms (Ulmus mon-
tana and campestris) must be reckoned among resisting species.

The above grouping cannot always be relied on, as there
are too many modifying factors in particular cases. London,
with its constant coal-smoke and numerous factories and
frequent dense sulphurous fogs, should give better practical
results as to the comparative powers of resistance of trees
than any merely artificial laboratory experiments.

There are fine large flourishing plane-trees (Platanus
orientalisy\ L.) in Cheapside and on Ludgate Hill, which are
entirely surrounded by tall buildings, and the plane is
growing well on the Thames Embankment and in many parts
of London. The plane-tree sheds large flakes of its bark
annually, and its buds are sheltered by its sheathing petioles ;
these facts probably contribute to its immunity.

The following account of the trees and shrubs which flourish
in the Botanic Garden in Regent's Park, London, has been
kindly supplied by J. W. Sowerby.

" Of the plane there are many very large trees. Maples
of several species and varieties. Horse-chestnuts flower
and fruit as well as in the country. Poplars of many
species.! Elms, of which a belt surrounds the gardens,
and one old elm which was on the ground in 1838 is still
healthy.

* " Fretl. Blttr.," 1874, p. 31.

f Masters and Webster recommend for town planting P. orientalis acerifolia,
which has less deeply divided leaves than the normal plant, and may be dis-
tinguished from P. occidentalis, L., by the many fruit-balls attached to its
peduncles.

I Pojnilii* canademis, Desf., has a reputation in the Black Country for immunity
from the effects of fumes. P. balmmifera, L., is growing well in St. James' Park.

DAMAGE TO TREES BY ACID FUMES. 703

"Lime withstands smoke, but suffers from green aphis and
other pests, and looks shabby in early autumn, as the leaves
fall early. Kobinia thrives for 30 — 40 years, but then dies
gradually, perhaps owing to the cold clay soil of the gardens.
Two oaks remain small and scarcely grow, but have kept alive
for over 50 years. Laburnum does well, and so do white
and red thorns.

"Of shrubs, Auciiba japonica is best, and fruits freely, and
so do several varieties of privet. Lilacs and box do well, and
Mahonias fairly."

Webster adds the following to this list : species of Rhm
and Cotoneaster, Virginia-creeper, ivy and the vine, besides
Daphne Laureola, L., Skimmea japonica, Ribes sanguineus, and
Jasminum nudiflorum. He also gives a list of trees suitable
for town-planting, that generally agrees with Sowerby's list,
but also contains the following : Ailanthus glandulosa, Desf.,
Magnolia acuminata, L., Liriodendron tidipifera, L., Catalpa
speciosa, Engelm, Morns nigra, L. He states, however, that
horse-chestnuts, limes, and elms soon show signs of distress
when grown in smoky localities.

According to the Belgian official report, the black alder
(Alnus glutinosa, Gaertn.) may be seen growing close to
chemical works, and in situations very much exposed to acid
fumes, but apparently suffering very little from them.

In planting avenues, or parks, in a crowded city, however,
not only immunity from fumes has to be considered, but also
the nature of the soil, the desirability of the tree, and the
amount of shade it gives, and whether it bears radiation of
heat from the houses and streets. The poplar, having a
straggling crown and its branches being very brittle, is not
suitable, while limes, except Tilia heterophylla, Vent., are
liable to lose their foliage prematurely in hot dry summers.
Probably the plane and sycamore are the best trees for the
purpose. Of oaks, probably the Turkey oak (Quercus Cerris,
L.) is the only deciduous species which can at all resist the
smoke of a large city. Quercus Ilex is termed by Masters
a good town tree.

In the Black Country, near Wolverhampton, Dudley and
Bilston, the air is at present not nearly so impure as was

704 PROTECTION AGAINST DISEASES.

formerly the case when the shafts of the smelting furnaces
were open, and the furnaces themselves much more numerous
than at present. Dudley Park is exposed on the east to the
acid fumes of smelting furnaces, and yet ash, poplar, and
sycamore trees are growing there fairly well with elder,
hawthorn and hazel undergrowth, while beech appears on the
western slopes of the park, that are exposed to open
country where there are no furnaces. Grass grows well
enough in the Black Country, and there can be no reason
why the large extent of uneven grassy land near Bilston
(about 14,000 acres), where the coalfields have been worked
out, the soil being weathered shale, should not be planted
with trees, instead of remaining, as it is at present, a dreary
waste. It is said that to level this land would cost £100 per
acre, but no levelling would be necessary, if it were to be
planted up with trees, which grow well enough on similar
land in Belgium.

There are works at Bilston for galvanising iron, and the
molten zinc in which the sheets of iron are plunged is covered
with chloride of ammonium to prevent its oxidising. The
fumes given off during the process are said to kill all leaves of
trees near the works by June every year, but these fumes
probably extend only for a short distance from the works.

Since 1903 planting has been undertaken in the Black
Country under the auspices of the Midland Keafforesting
Association. (Vide Figs. 297, 298).

c. Age of Trees.

Woods suffer from acid fumes at all ages, but pales 15 — 30
years old appear to suffer most.

d. Locality.

The influence of the locality makes itself felt chiefly by the
direction of the prevailing winds which bring the fumes
towards the trees.

The Belgian Commission mentions 2,000 meters as the
greatest distance from chemical works, in the direction of the
prevailing winds, at which damage was observed. In certain
cases, however, woods have been injured at distances of

DAMAGE TO TREES BY ACID FUMES. 705

4J miles from the works, but naturally the amount of injury
done varies inversely with the distance. Trees bordering on
the wood, and especially on woods to the east and north-east
of the works, will suffer most. In narrow valleys even the
smoke of locomotives has proved prejudicial to trees on either
side of a railway. Oliver states that the effects of London
fog extend to 35 miles westward, and that seedlings of Cucur-
litaceae and tomatoes are thus killed at even that distance
from London.

It has been observed, chiefly in the Oberharz, that woods
growing on fertile soil resist acid fumes better than those on

poor soils.

e. Climate.

Exposure to light and moisture are not without influence on
the action of acid fumes. Leaves suffer more when dew is
resting on them than when they are dry. Thus the damage
will be at its maximum after rain at midday, and at its
minimum with cool nights and dry days. The damage during
rainy weather, though more severe than in dry weather, does
not extend far from the works, as the rain speedily dissolves
the fumes.

/. Sundry Circumstances.

When older woods overshade an underwood, the former may
protect the latter from damage by fumes, and trees standing
above the general leaf-canopy of the wood, such as standards
in high forest or above coppice, suffer most. The shelter
afforded to crops and orchards by walls and hedges is also
considerable.

Damage is not so soon marked in young woods under 30
years old as in older woods. In old woods, especially coni-
ferous, damage is soon recognisable. Their foliage soon
becomes thinner ; the shoots dry up, and death soon occurs,
often in two or three years.

4. Methods oj Recognising Damage.

The question regarding external or internal signs for recog-
nising damage by fumes is of great scientific interest. It is
also of practical importance, as in the disputes or lawsuits
between owners of woodlands and of smelting furnaces, the

F.P. Z Z

706 PROTECTION AGAINST DISEASES.

first ground for determination is whether the damage to
exposed woods is caused solely by the fumes or is due to other
causes (frost, heat, dry winds, infection, or fungi).

There are only two methods for determining the cause of
the damage : —

(a) Chemical analysis of the injured tree-parts (leaves,
flowers, etc.).

(b) Microscopic examination of the marks on the injured
needles or leaves.

On this subject there has been since 1895 a keen literary
dispute, in which Borggreve, Schroder, Hartig, Eamann, Vater
and Wieler have contended. Most of these disputants prefer
chemical analysis, to determine the amount of sulphuric acid
in the ashes of the leaves. This must obviously be done by
a chemical expert. The excess of sulphuric acid in affected
leaves over the amount in leaves from woods unexposed to
fumes decides the question. As, however, the quantity of S03
in perfectly healthy leaves varies much, Vater considers the
following conditions necessary to prove damage by fumes : —

1. All injured and sound trees experimented on must have
been growing on similar soil and at various distances from the
smelting furnaces.

2. As a comparison, the average quantity of SOa in sound
trees must not be taken, but sound trees must be found and
the quantity in them measured.

3. A sufficient number of sample trees must be chosen in
order that reliable results may be obtained.

K. Hartig prefers the microscopic method, at any rate for
spruce. He considers the foxy red colour of the contents and
walls of the cells bounding stomata, and, when the fumes are
very strong, the red colour of the prosenchymatous bundles,
as sufficient proof of the poisoning. Such needles cannot
assimilate C02. They remain apparently healthy for several
years on the trees, and die when the woody bundles become
affected.

Ramann and Soraner both disagree with Hartig's statement
that the change in the contents of the cells points exclusively
to damage by fumes, as it may be due to damage by other
factors.

DAMAGE TO TREES BY ACID FUMES. 707

Hess therefore considers the chemical analysis as the best
proof of damage done by fumes.

The presence of sulphur dioxide in the air near the
furnaces is also an important factor in this question, and
the air and the rain and snow that fall through it should
therefore be analysed.

5. Protective Measures.

No thoroughly efficient measures have been devised against
this evil. Tall chimneys, sometimes 500 feet high, carry
the fumes into the higher strata of the atmosphere, but it
has been found that hydrochloric acid descends from them to
the ground in dense clouds, and lays waste the vegetation at
greater distances from the works than before.

The best protective measure against hydrochloric acid is
to get it condensed, as is now done in the British Isles under
the Alkali Acts of 1863 and 1870, so that less than 1 per cent,
of the acid generated in the works escapes into the air.

There is more difficulty in dealing with the sulphur dioxide,
and even the most perfect smoke-combustion cannot free the
air of it. Attempts have been made in Germany to convert it
into sulphuric acid, but this removes only one- third of the
injurious gas, and at Clausthal, in Germany, 1,250 tons of
sulphur are annually sent into the air, greatly damaging the
coniferous woods in the neighbourhood.

The forester in districts where hurtful fumes exist can there-
fore act only by planting protective belts of strong transplants
of the most resisting trees in the direction of the factories, and
managing them entirely by the selection system. Under the
shelter of these belts it will be better, if possible, to grow
coppice or coppice-with-standards, which do not attain the
height of high forest. Conifers should not be grown near
smelting furnaces.

6. Estimation of Damage.

As owners of woods injured by factory fumes can claim com-
pensation in the courts of law, the question of estimating
the damage done is of great importance.

In 1864 the Freiburg works had to pay £2,750 compensation

708

PROTECTION AGAINST DISEASES.

for damage done to vegetation. Estimates of the value of the
damage must be made in accordance with the principles of
forest valuation, and involve much difficulty. More will not
be said on this subject here, but references are given below*
to German books specially dealing with it.

* Kraft, " Ueber die Berechnung der durch Hiittenrauch veranlassten Schadi-
gung von Holzbestanden," " Ztschrft. fr. Frst. u. Jgdw.," 1887, p. 270 ; Rudnick,
Id., 1889, p. 417.

Fig. 300.— Woodland Glade near Cradley, in the Black Country.
(Midland Reafforesting Association.)

INDEX.

Adders, 172

Aecidium Abietinum, 462
,, columnare, 462
,, Conorum Piceae, 472
,, elatinum, 448
,, strobilinum, 472

Aglaospora taleola, 481

Animals, injuries by, 95

Ants, 190

Aphididae, 361

Ash- twig moth, 344

Atmospheric influences, 489

Avalanches, 616

B.

Bacteria, 421
Badger, 129, 167
Bark, utilisation of, 27

,, rights to, 84

Bark-beetles, 148, 235, 434, 534, 641
Bark-blister, oak, 481.
,, larch, 454

Bark -scorching, 522
Bears, 135
Beavers, 135
Beech canker, 477

,, seedling mildew, 482

,, woolly aphis, 366
Bees, 193
Birch, 402

Birds, damage by, 136
,, useful, 167

,, protection by law, 1 72
Black-game, 138
Blackthorn, 403
Bordeaux mixture, 466
Bordered- white moth, 326
Botritis Douglassii, 461
Boundaries, 10
Bracken, 407
Brambles, 403

Branchwood, dead, 51
Broom, 399

C.

Caeoma pinitorquum, 444
Camels, 40, 47
Canker, beech, 477

,, silver-fir, 449
Capercailzie, 138
Cattle, 40
Centipedes, 173
Cerambycidae, 148, 279
Charcoal, 91
Chermes, 361, 457
Chrysomyxa Abietis, 462
Cinipidae, 358
Click-beetles, 214
Cockchafers, 200
Coccidae, 366

Colbert' sEeform of French forests, 2
Coleophora laricella, 346, 456
Coleoptera, injurious, 199

,, useful, 180
Communal forests, firewood, 61
Compiegne, forest of, 3, 107
Coral-spot disease, 479
Corticium amorphum, 454, 471, 682
Cossus, 148, 282, 291
Crickets, 368
Crows, 130
Cuckoo, 165
Cuscuta, 417

D.

Dasyscypha calycina, 454
Dean forest, 2

,, ,, plague of voles, 127
Death watch beetle, 217
Diptera, useful, 194

,, injurious, 367
Diseases of insects, 186, 302, 317, 322

,, of plants, 671
Dodder, 417

710

INDEX.

Dormice, 122
Dragonflies, 197
Drainage, 601
Drought, 514

E.

Easements, forest, 67
Elephants, 40, 47
Elm bark-beetle, 277
Epping forest, 89
Exoascus, 448
Exosporium, 455

F.

Factory fumes, 695
Fallow deer, 109
Ferrets, 118
Finches, injurious, 140
utility of, 168
Fires in forests, 638
Fisheries, 53, 89
Flies, 195

Fomes annosus, 435
Foxes, 117, 130, 167
Frost, 491
Frostcrack, 505
Frostlifting of seedlings, 510
Fungi, 418, 421

G.
Gall-flies, 360

,, -wasps, 358
Game, 53, 89
Gastropacha pini, 294
Geometridae, 326
Goat moth, 148, 282, 291
Goldcrests, 167, 244
Grease bands, 176, 300, 318, 331
Greased barriers, 176
Gulls, 168
Gypsey moth, 319

H.

Hail, 557
Hares, 40, 47, 115
Heatcrack, 526
Heather, 400
Hedgehog, 129, 167

Hemiptera, injurious, 361

useful, 197
Herdsmen, 48
Heron, utility of, 130
Herpotrichia nigra, 472
Honey fungus, 429

,, wild, 53

Hydnum diversitlens, 476
Hydrochloric acid, effect on trees,

697

Hylobius abietis, 225
Hylurgus piniperda, 265
Hymenoptera, injurious, 349

useful, 184
Hypnum, 50, 408
Hysterium Pinastri, 465

I.

Ichneumon wasps, 173, 184, 244
Insect diseases, 186, 302, 317, 322
Insects, classification, 149

,, index of destructive, 374

,, injurious, 199

useful, 180
Insolation, 514
Inundations, 586

J.

Jays, 139, 168
Juniper, 409, 419

K.
Kestrel, utility of, 130, 168

L.

Ladybirds, 183

Lapwing, 168

Larch blister, 348, 454

,, miner moth, 346, 456
Leaf -beetles, 283
Leaf -roller moths, 331
Leaves, utilisation of, 29

,, rights to, 84

,, injured by fumes, 695
Lepidoptera, 288
Lianes, 410
Lightning, 658
Litter, utilisation of, 49

INDEX.

711

Litter, rights to, 88

Locusts, 371

Longicorn beetles, 279

Looper moths, 326

Lophodermium macrosporum, 467
,, nervisequium, 468

,, Pinastri, 465, 688

Loranthus, 415

M.

Martens, 117, 122

Melamporella caryophyllacearum,

448
Melampsora Hartigii, 485

,, pinitorqua, 444

,, sp., 486

Mice, 123

Minor produce, 27, 53
Mistletoe, 412
Mole, 129
Mole-cricket, 368
Mouse typhus, 134
Musk beetle, 283

N.

Nectria cinnabarina, 479
,, Cucurbitula, 452
,, ditissima, 477
Needle- cast, larch, 469

pine, 465, 685
silver-fir, 468
,, spruce, 467
Needle fungi, 461
Nesting boxes for birds, 169
Neuroptera, useful, 195, 199
New Forest, 2
Noctuidae, 319
Nun moth, 310
Nurseries, protection of, 396

O.

Oak bark-blister, 481

. , leaf -roller moth, 333
Occlusion of wounds, 104
Offences in forests, 55
Orchestes fagi, 221
Orthoptera, 368

Owls, utility of, 130, 168
Ownership defined, 66

P.

Pannage, 31, 87, 171
Pasture, forest, 35, 86
Peridermium Pini, 441

,, (acicola), 461

Pestalozzia Hartigii, 460, 481
Peziza Willkommii, 454
Pheasants, 138
Phytophthora Fagi, 482

,, omnivora, 482

Pig, wild, 111, 167
Pigeons, 139
Pine beauty, 320

„ beetle, 265

„ blister, 441

,, branch-twist, 444

, , looper moth, 326

,, moth, 294

,, needle-cast, 465

,, shoot tortrix, 335
Plant lice, 361
Poison for mice, 134
Polecats, 117, 129, 167
Polytrichum, 50, 407, 409
Polyporus fulvus, 451

sp., 440, 476

,, sulphureus, 440, 475
Porcupines, 135
Property defined, 64

E.

Rabbits, 3, 116
Rain, 554
Rats, 124
Red deer, 97, 99
„ rot, 439, 673
Resin, 28
Retinia sp., 235
Rhizina, 437
Rhytisma acerinum, 483
Rights of common, 69

,, to water, 90

,, of way, 90
Rime frost, 574

712

INDEX.

Rodents, 114
Roe deer, 110
Rooks, 130, 335
Root fungi, 429, 473
Rosellinia quercina, 473
Rove beetles, 181

S.

Sand dunes, 621
„ inland, 630
Sawflies, 349
Scale insects, 366
Septoria parasitica, 460
Servitudes, 67
Sheep, 40, 167
Shrews, 129
Shrikes, 168
Silver-fir canker, 448
Sirex, 148
Snowbreak, 561
Softwoods, 81, 98
Soil denudation, 582
Sphaerella laiicina, 469
Sphagnum, 50, 409
Spiders, 173
Spraying plants, 177
Spruce canker, 452, 477
,, cone fungus, 472

needle rust, 463
Squirrels, 118
Stagheadedness, 680
Starlings, 167
Stereum hirsutum, 477
Stoats, 117, 129, 167
Stones in forests, 52
Storms, 531

Sulphurous acid fumes, 696
Swamps, 596
Sycamore leaf-blotch, 483

T.

Tachinae, 173, 195, 316
Template, 18

Termites, 199
Tiger beetles, ISO
Tineidae, 343
Tomicus typographus, 238
Tomtits, 167, 244
Tortricidae, 331, 454
Tree traps, 176
Trametes radiciperda, 435

Pini, 438

Trichosphaeria parasitica, 470
Turnip dart moth, 325
Turpentine, 2S, si

u.

Uprooting by frost, 510
Utilisation of forests, 23

Voles, 124

V.

W.

Wasps, 188
Wax, collection of, 53
Weasels, 117, 129, 1(57
Weeds, 386

,, hosts of fungi, 418
Weevils, 217
White rot, 439, 679
Willow beetle, 285

,, leaf -blister, -IS 5
Windbreak, 113, 550, 553
Windfalls, rights to, s:{
Winds, 513, 527
Windsor forest, 3, 33 1
Winter moth, 329
Witches' broom, I IT
Woodpecker, 7(5, 1 12, 2-1-1
Wood- wasps, '•>'>•')
Woolly aphis, ;5(><5
Wrens, 167, 2-1 I

END OF VOLUME IV.

). I.D., I'KINTKKS, LONDON AND TONUK I I" :K.

SD
371
S33
1906

Schlich, (Sir) William
A manual of forestry

Foresti

SCHLICH

SD

TITLE

Vol.4

Manual of forestry

S33

ISSUED TO

LIBRARY

FACULTY OF FORESTRY
UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO