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MARINE. BIOLOGIGAL LABORATORY. 


Received October 3, 1935 
44657 


Accession No. 


Given by Drs Hs....oes Ee 
Haverford Col 


*,*No book or pamphlet is to be removed from the Lab+ 
oratory without the permission of the Trustees. 


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cleanable, water resisting and 


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with soap and waiter. 


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VERTEBRATE ANIMALS 
. OF THE 


UNITED STATES 


. (Exclusive of Birds) 


ERAT 


By The Same Author 


A MANUAL OF THE 
COMMON INVERTEBRATE 
ANIMALS 


(Exclusive of Insects) 


REVISED. EDITION 


138 Entirely New Illustrations 
100 Former I]lustrations Redrawn 
WITH A GLOSSARY 
974 ILLUSTRATIONS 


854 PAGES 
CLOTH $7.50 


Tuis REVISION 


Brings up to date the nomenclature of the species 
introduced and revises the larger subdivisions of 
the animal kingdom. 5: 


Introduces other representative species. 


Increases representation from the fauna of the 
Pacific Coast Region. 


Corrects errors of fact in descriptions. 


Ps BLAKISTON S:SGN 8 CO ING; 


PHILADELPHIA 


A MANUAL OF 
LAND AND FRESH WATER 


VERTEBRATE ANIMALS 


OF VEE 


BIN INB SIR esis i0E 


(Exclusive of Birds) 


BY 


HENRY SHERRING PRATT, Pu.D. 
PROFESSOR OF BIOLOGY IN HAVERFORD COLLEGE, PA. 
AUTHOR OF ‘‘A MANUAL OF THE COMMON 
INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS,”’ ETC. 


SECOND EDITION or S97 
WITH 184 ILLUSTRATIONS ® h 


AND A GLOSSARY 


PHILADELPHIA 


EP BEAKISONZS SON &. CO; Inc: 
rors WALNUT STREET 


COPYRIGHT, 1935, BY P. BLraxiston’s Son & Co., INC. 


PRINTED IN U.S. A. 


BY THE MAPLE PRESS COMPANY, YORK, PA. 


TO THE MEMORY OF 


ISAAC SHARPLESS 


(President of Haverford College 1887-1917) 


a Lover of Nature and a Good Man 


a 


s 


ols, 


' Les i ih 
Petia sh 
» Se | 4 


“PREFACE EO: THE-SBCOND EDITION 


The main purpose of the revision of this Manual has been to reflect 
in it the numerous changes in the nomenclature of the Vertebrate 
animals of the United States which have been made in the past few 
years, and to define more precisely their known ranges of distribution. 
In the accomplishment of this purpose the author has freely utilized 
all the published sources of information at his command. For the 
group of Fishes he has followed in the main the Check List of the Fishes 
and Fishlike Vertebrates of North and Middle America by Jordan, 
Evermann and Clark (1930), and for the group of Mammals Anthony’s 
Field Book of North American Mammals (1928). In both these groups 
Jordan’s Manual of the Vertebrate Animals of the Northeastern United 
States, Thirteenth Edition (1929) has often been followed, the section on 
Fishes in this work having been revised by Dr. C. L. Hubbs and that 
on Mammals by Dr. H. H. T. Jackson. 

Dr. Emmett Reid Dunn, Professor of Biology in Haverford College 
and the author’s colleague, has thoroughly revised the sections on 
Amphibians and Reptiles, and the author is under a great obligation 
to him for this valuable service. The author is also under obligation 
to Joshua L. Baily Jr., San Diego, California, for reading and correcting 


the proof. 
HAVERFORD COLLEGE, 
HAVERFORD, Pa. 


PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDINON 


This Manual was written to furnish students of Zoology, students 
of the Geographical Distribution of animals, and Nature students, 
with diagnostic descriptions of the land and fresh water vertebrate 
animals of the United States, together with analytical keys by means 
of which they can be readily identified and their affinities determined. 
Many excellent hand-books for the identification of birds already 
exist, and their number is constantly being added to, and it is for 
this reason that this large Class has not been included in the present 
book. There is, however, a very real need of a general modern manual 
of the fishes, amphibians, reptiles and mammals of the country which 
shall give the accepted scientific names of species, as well as of the 
larger groups to which they belong, and also reflect the recent advances 
in our knowledge of their systematic and structural relationships, 
their manner of life and their geographical distribution. 

The region covered by this work is the whole of the United States 
between the Canadian and Mexican borders, neither Alaska nor the 
West Indian or Hawaiian Islands being included; the southern portion 
of Canada, however, is included, as it belongs to the same geographical 
region as the northern portion of the United States. Withcertain 
exceptions, all the species, as well as the geographic subspecies, of the 
four Classes of vertebrates above mentioned which are found in this 
large region, are described, the exceptions being those species which are 
of doubtful validity, those which are very rare, and certain Mexican 
species, chiefly of reptiles, which have been observed but a few times 
north of the boundary. Great care has been taken to state precisely 
the geographic limits, so far as known, of these species and subspecies. 

In compiling this work the author has utilized every source of infor- 
mation at his command, and is consequently under obligations to very 
many persons; to all of these he extends his heartiest thanks. The 
section on Fishes is based upon Jordan and Evermann’s ‘Fishes of 
North and Middle America,” and one of the authors of this funda- 
mental work, Dr. Barton Warren Evermann, Director of the Museum 
of the California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco, has read this 
portion of the manuscript critically. Large use has also been made of 
“American Food and Game Fishes” by the same authors, and of Jor- 

1x 


X PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION 


dan’s ‘“‘ Guide to the Study of Fishes”’ and ‘‘ Manual of Vertebrates,” 
and also of Forbes and Richardson’s “Fishes of Illinois,” the general 
arrangement of the main subdivisions of the Class being based on the 
last-named work. Smith’s ‘Fishes of North Carolina,’ Bean’s 
‘Fishes of New York,” and the various papers in the Bulletins of the 
Fish Commission and the Bureau of Fisheries, as well as numerous 
other publications, have also been used. In the arrangement of the 
Lampreys the recent revision of Creaser and Hubbs published by the 
Museum of Zoology of the University of Michigan has been followed. 

The arrangement of the Amphibians and Reptiles has been based 
upon Stejneger and Barbour’s “‘ Check List of North American Amphi- 
bians and Reptiles” and the descriptions and keys upon Cope’s “‘ Batra- 
chia of North America”’ and Cope’s “‘ Crocodilians, Lizards and Snakes 
of North America.’ Extensive use has also been made of many other 
works, especially Miss Dickerson’s ‘‘Frog Book,” Ditmar’s “Reptile 
Book,” and the State Reports of several States. The author is under 
an especial obligation to the important Smith college group of Herpe- 
tologists for bringing his arrangement and descriptions down to date, 
the morphological studies of Professor H. H. Wilder and Professor 
I. W. Wilder and the systematic studies of Professor E. R. Dunn having 
contributed to this end. The latter author, especially, has revised the 
sections on the caudate Amphibians and the Snakes and Turtles, the 
synopsis of the larve of the Plethodontide, which is largely new matter, 
being wholly by him. Dr. G. Kingsley Noble of the American Museum 
of Natural. History, New York, has revised the section on Frogs and 
Toads, and Karl P. Schmidt of the Field Columbian Museum, Chicago, 
that on Lizards and Crocodilians. The synopsis of the eggs and larve 
of Frogs and Toads has been taken from A. H. Wright’s “‘Life History 
of the Anura of Ithaca, New York.” 

The arrangement of the Mammals is based upon Gerrit S. Miller, 
Jr.’s “List of the North American Land Mammals in the United States 
National Museum, ro1t.”’ For the description and keys full use has 
been made of the various numbers of ‘‘The North American Fauna”’ 
prepared under the direction of C. Hart Merriam, former Director of 
the United States Biological Survey, the publication of which has been 
of epochal importance in the study of American mammals. Many 
other works have been useful, especially Elliot’s ‘“‘Synopsis of the 
Mammals of North America and adjacent Seas,” which is a work of 
fundamental importance. For accounts of the life and habits of 
mammals, Stone and Cram’s ‘‘American Animals,’ Nelson’s ‘‘ Wild 
Animals,” Seton’s ‘‘ Northern Animals,’’ and Audubon and Bachman’s 


PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION x1 


‘“‘Quadrupeds of North America”’ have been used. The senior author 
of the first named work, Dr. Witmer Stone, of the Academy of Natural 
Sciences, Philadelphia, has been so good as to read critically the whole 
manuscript of Mammals. 

The figures which have been introduced are intended to illustrate 
and explain the most important diagnostic features of the various 
groups of animals and to illuminate the keys and make them more easy 
to comprehend, and have been copied mostly from monographs, special 
treatises and textbooks; the author here extends his thanks to the 
authors of these figures and the publishers of the books in which they 
are found for the privilege of using them. 

In the use of scientific names of animals of the laws of priority estab- 
lished by the International Commission of Nomenclature have. been 
followed. The name of the author of each species, subspecies and genus 
follows the first mention of it in the descriptions, as is customary, 
and in those cases in which an author originally placed his species 
in some other genus than the one here given, his name is in parentheses. 
Wherever an author’s name appears more than once in the same genus 
it is usually abbreviated after the first occurrence. . No other abbrevia- 
tions of the names of authors’ appear except in the case of Linnzus, 
whose name is always shortened to ‘‘L”’ wherever he appears as the 
author of a scientific name. 

Much of the labor of compiling this work has been done at Cold 
Spring Harbor, Long Island, and the author wishes to express his great 
obligation to his friend and colleague, Dr. Charles B. Davenport, for 
his constant support and encouragement during its progress. He also 
wishes to thank his publishers, P. Blakiston’s Son and Company, 


for their many courtesies and their readiness in meeting his wishes. 
HAVERFORD COLLEGE, 
HAVERFORD, PA. 


PERE GNP Regt By Ey R AES See pat ews siveipias 12k pe ee hc he MOS aM Ra SRMPSEN Cte & ral Bx imt AS, I 
IE Xternalecharactersn wie vss fos) cuts: alee) so 2 cute Menon ra ieae Polatetan Sarre traitone ot tiewenals I 
Internalicharacterss: sve yie ilo cie eee Ah Gots an ape net Re sr er DD 4 
Distribution . lee Bs on us 1d Oe ws aoe AT he RE eee na 10 
IES EO TV; teak es hale sai ja Mites Vein) Seat SNR, cadre ogy hoe een as ear nee oO MOR erhee Pea 12 
OC) GySS1n (2710) eo er Si Sm sie Mctach oie ian tmeee 13 
Key; towne classes of vertebrates. ¢ 03)..." < tack. cas int te cheese ae 14 

CLASS. FISHES. :. . ae nee COPE R OT fran 0 ii Me le Ft Sie hy spr 15 
Onrthendentification of fishesSiue. a Fon 12s perce ee tae se reece ce, (he cee ener ae ee eae ae 15 
MVREASUTETIENTS s- & cave ce rtosn Panes eecied ic pe at vette se ase emai hs oAA® Cre mea a 15 
NESTS pee ae Tepe co oh Reds roe Lea ENT) od Ce eae Tet ae cal eh Ogee ce 15 
eaten er tes 2 Fore ee gar et) ae ar le CO ate ipo tee? Oh clan tom 
SCALES igek wot eo eae Pree ve OSS gt Sere AS eS ee eto ahah: Cae ene 18 
Ol G Ree a N EB ATES ergs oT OEE Uys BOD. eas Gen TAR ALINE os forget ca SE ee 19 
Head . 20 
Teeth . RnR a) rene see EN. toy oy Todt oy Sata rcs ag oe 21 
Enterdal’straetires: cee c, ook Fhe oe rs MA th tee etek ee 22 
IStOLYy terse oes te Sb Oe DO MIE es Lee OH werkl8 be OREN IS Le 22 
Numberioh speciessand«distributiony. eseniy sy roo eek ete esis il ie) oe nie Medic ate 23 
Key to the subclasses of fishes... ..... Bi SoM ci chs cantata ost treet eie 23 

SMnclassiies Gvelostomimea: y cnn Bi 2) ake A ole ih a Mead Seas arab eae 2 
Orders, -iyperotneta 2) 2°) Ye ls ices, NR AN ee Saas Nagrand 1, St hee eS 
Geers:  Hyperdattia (Lampreys)“. 2). sc Ae ale oe (eee eae a4 © ee eae 

Family Petromyzonide. ....... Bett geen hep oraes, to ere 

Subclass;2sea biscesy (hne true mishes)ay asus: co ileteauce oman eras oe ge eee 
Division 1. Selachii. ... . Ade Cote Ne Rees en ee ae i: 28 
DIVASIONG2 sR LINO ie rare Ys) Files cae Nae RC etre: say ei oars 28 
DT VISTONG2 tee Gl COSLOIML Grae Santee. okie ipl s mee cee Sahel cue fev tat ays ME ais eh 

Sericsures Ganolden(Ganoid fishes) ae. ao ieee Peis ee oe . 28 
Order 1. Chondrostei (Cartilaginous ganoids)........2... . 28 
Suborder i. ss 5elachoOstOMi nae tes Ono s ens atdikca hae be oc to eee ae 29 
BamilysPolyodontidey. ve eaym 20S po ertbey ona nye eel came sen ee LA520 
Suborder: 2.0 Glanlostoml'’, su, hie sais) ee bey Seay Seine ee eee oe 29 

Family, Acipenseridss (Sturgeons) 2°... oict) ) See. ip 2 
Order2s -Holoster (Bony ganoids) 3.) sn) 2 2 Gite. Sones ees be (o23T 
Suborder 1. Ginglymodi.... . Sah Mapes Robatense cd? ask Sees Pare 31 
Bamily- Gbepisosteide (Garpikes): 23555 >i. uncer eto mae 
Suborder 2. Halecomorphi. ... . Ser aig ese 8 Th ee EMRE ER se Rect 32 
BaenilyuAmud ae GB Owns). Bo ea oak see on een Ri alee 32 
Berice.2:. -leleoster ((Mae:bony fishes). \) 2 at Pu wk ep a ea eted ok telreas 33 
Order x. Jsospondyii (Herring trout). o6.°.< ease ccs pecker ls. 3) sy outa = 34 
SHDOLde LAL! os CLUPCOLGELY we obesity stance ee tame Al een 34 
Family 1. Hiodontide (Mooneyes)............ ch wt AY: 
Hamily. 2, .Dorosomide (Gizzard shad) ‘3.06 2250s On ha eae 35 
Barmilys3. » Clupeids (Herring: shad) = 95.3.0 2 c's. cae. peel 36 
SuboLderi2.) SalmOnOldel.ns we ice ito) teehee ee eee) SP cigs Pec 
Ramily; re. Corevonidc:(Wyiitensh) 05. sis ~)syisr alle on see eee 37 

xiii 


44657 


X1V CONTENTS 


PAGE 

Family 2: ©*Salmonidz (Salmon S*troat):’ <7 .40 2-2. AI 

Family 3. Thymallide (Graylings)...... . Pvp, eee Cm 

Family 4 /Osmerida. (Smelt) 5204.23 eS oo 

Order 2. Enchelycephali. .... . Deo eee eet os a deel eee oe 
Family Anguillide (Eels). ...... . a coats tr” Engh a eee 

Order 3. Eventognathi..... ee ee 
Family 1. Catostomide (Suckers: mauler: redbore) aera aoe sit : a espe 
Family 2. Cyprinide (Minnows; carp). ..... . Mee lags eS 5S 

Order 4..° Heterognathi< 2. one 2 Saree ea eee ee sy 
Family/Characinigaet: (6. i pvatcadt a cate he tie a ee esas 
Order 5. Nematognathi... . bag nt aie Rea eed ae OE so 
Family Ameiuride (Catfish; bullheads) Be yeh EDA Ae st eS 
Order 6. Haplomi... . 5S. oe. 6 ere eee 
Family 1. Umbride (Mud minnow aes Wath yee tk «CG enein OM a ee EL 
Family 2. Esocide (Pike and ee Rae ad 2 Gee re 

Order 7. Cyprinodontes. . . . fo le thes cere 
Family 1. Cyprinodontide (Killifish) Jc Wits tao eroe o's Aa ee 
Family 2. ‘Poecilluds (Top *minnows)* 2-2 2. |... 
Family 3. Amblyopside (Blind fishes). ..... . ..) (3 eee 
Orders:) salmopercei . =] sae eee Le) he de sl ne rere 
amily seercopsidcasas: eee see Sek AL col MEP GS Pe er aie ae 
Order 9. Xenarchi... . AE a aren eet. Yo TS 
Family 1. Aphredoderide (Pitate perch). fA Sai ae . a an ee 

Order to. Synentognathi (Garpike). EELS EE Sei isha. SS 
Family: Belonida: (Billfish)... 22.2 om.0 0 as 2 A ee 
Order. -Vhoracostets .) 22) Ne ne OY Neenah 2. 5 TEKS 
Family Gasterosteide (Sticklebacks). Dok ale WF Vee a eee 
Order-2* Anacanthint- 2) ps eS. Aen oy ee ee LE 
Family Gadide (Cods). ote dl OR a EG ae ES 

Order 13. Heterostomata (Flat. fees) Cr hae > RN UGA SS 5 eee eine alias 
Family Soleide (Soles). : 3 pe Spat eat oe ee 

Order 14. Acanthopteri (Gaia saved fishes) oa ok eee a eC 
Family 1. Atherinide (Silversides) . . . . . cine § Pe Se Boke Ser 
Family 2. Elassomide (Pigmy sunfish)... ..- . : eo Se 
Family 3. Centrarchide (Sunfish; black bass)... .....-.- . 107 
Family 4: -Percide (Perch)? 3 =~ 2 9% oe EE ee eer 
Family 5. itheostomids (Phe, darters)... - . . — 7.2 = fas See 
Family 6. Moronide (River bass) .... . one They ne 
Family 7. Sciznide: (Drums). 2... 5 « .; oS 5 at 

Order 15. Holconotic(Suri fishes) S— . |...92 =. Re ee ey 
Family Embiotocide. ... . eer res ese SS Se ale. TAS. 
Order.16).4Cataphracti.’ e431 (pe 2s in S'e 2 SURES sel tee ales ance oe 130 
Family Cottide (Sculpins)... . . aa! “hae aI a ee ee 

Order 27; “Gobioidea-. 5. 4. oS ASS 4 a ep 
Family’ Gobiide(Gobies).. 2.2% js at, ee 
CLASS 2. “AMPHIBIANS: 21-5. °: EE Pad foe bss hee Hearne A ES! 
LIStOny2 ges foe etlen aa NT, = EE RR Smet Res 5 i A oe MR STs: 
Number and distribution. . . . Sa RMR Cs 
Key to the orders of Amphibia in the United Genes SRE hanes) 2 =a 
Order 1. Caudata (Salamanders and newts). ...... . od) ke eS 
On the identification of caudate Amphibia... . . oa ge 136 
Key to the suborders of the Caudata. .: . 2 +... ss =<) % qbaee 137 


Suborder/r-e) Mita blige were eee tm ier Sa Be ee ey 


CONTENTS 


Superfamily A. Cryptobranchidea . . . 
Family 1. Cryptobranchide (Heliheadersy 
Superfamily B. Salamandroidea........ 
Family 2. Pleurodelide (Newts)....... jenn 
Family 3. Ambystomide (Salamanders). .... . 
Family 4. Plethodontide (Salamanders). .... . re a 
On the identification of the larve of the plegbadonaides We Poa ietss 
Family 5. Amphiumidz (Congo snakes). . . . 
Family 6. Proteidze (Mud puppies). . 
Suborder 25) Wieantes) =.) <0. a5. : 
Family Sirenide (Mud eels). . . . 
Order 2. Salientia (frogs; toads)... . 
On the identification of the Salientia. . . 
prbheradulite eee : 
” Key to the families of the palais i 
Family 1. Discoglosside. .... . EL te 
Family 2. Pelobatide (Spadefoot foads) Moo edo Re 
Family 3. Bufonide (Toads). ... . ES aa 
Family 4. Hylide (Tree toads). ... . 
Family 5. Ranidz (Frogs). 
Family 6. Microhylide (Narrow- Snouthed eae 
oueithereges:andManycel) vt, 6 cer! Weuee ce 
Key to the eggs of some of the common enerern Prose an toads: 
Key to the tadpoles of some of the common eastern frogs and toads 
ChASS sa REPTILES 


Number of species and Hierabution : 
Key to the orders of Reptiles. 

Order 1. Crocodilia. ae a ee A 
Habits amGedistrbmtone sms re 
Family Crocodylidz ies Bencacileshy 

Order 2. Lacertilia (Lizards). . 
Habits;and distributions 272. = = 
On the identification of lizards . . Sieh Hh ahs 
Key to the families of American Lacertilia . . . 
Family 1. Gekkonide (Geckos). ...... 
Family 2. Iguanide (Iguanas; swifts). . 
Bamilyez) Anguide. =. 2 - yak: 
HamilyaqeueAmmiellides te alte) cs 
Family 5. Helodermatide. 
Family 6. Xantusiide. ... . 
Family 7. Teiide (Swifts). 
Family 8. Scincide (Skinks). . 
Family 9. Amphisbaenide. ... . 

Order 3. Serpentes (Snakes). 
Habits and distribution. ... . . a 
On the identification of snakes . : 
Key to the families of Serpentes. . . . 
Family 1. Leptotyphlopide ... . 
Family 2. Boide (Boas). ... . «ae 
Family 3. Colubride (Colubrine erates Lik Pepe 
Family 4. Elapide snakes (Elapine snakes) ........... 
Family 5. Crotalide (Viperine snakes; rattlesnakes). ....... 


Xvl CONTENTS 


PAGE 

Order-4. “Testudinata (Turtles)... ‘3.2 5 ie ee oe 
Habits and distribution. -.-:-... EE eM Care he lee Sto, 2215 
On ‘the identification-of turtlesgo> yn see ee ee 
Key to the families of Testudinata. ...... sew ha) 2 ee he 
Family 1. Kinosternide (Mud turtles; musk pried aE o8 Re eo 
Family 2. Chelydride (Snapping turtles) . AN ey a DES ee eee 
Family 3. Testudinide (Pond turtles; land forties) ds tao Go > aod eo 
Family 4.., Trionychida:(Soft-shell- turtles) 7.0. = ee so a os ee a 
Family-5.° ‘Chelontidz: (Marine turtles) <0, Us ine a Se i eee 
Family 6: Demochelidz (Marine turtles). 2... 9-2) 2 ud: 3 Se 
CLASS ).5:2: MUAIMIMAT Sg) cae SPF hota aa ay a eA age laste ee tey Be tigen? mcs 
On the identification of mammals. .... . of sae teeny SAG aarp ae amma 
PListonya ye, hotest cle Say hs A hen ep emo 
Key to the orders of Perennials in the United States Sit at, ba AON SE aca ell ie eam 
Orderia Marstipialian 60.0 3.) ee a em arene MUR BA 5 ch Bu 
Suborder Polyprotodontia. ....... St. EL aO erie kay se eee mE 
Family Didelphuds\(Oposstims)). yay. cob 3 ke ay Rose S eee 
Order 2. Edentata... reer ge em 5 20405) 
Family Dasypodidé (Armadillos) Nyt Te deh eh (SY eo ad aie nr emma 
Order 3. Sirenia. . . boy Ae len Sale ee Nt ol 
Family Trichechide (Manatee). re er hee ee es OF 
Order 4. Insectivora.. . yy lice VS et aR eM eset stanin ne ee 
Family 1. Talpide enroles) a. lt Rn A ae kN Se 2 cae eT 
Family 2. Soricide Gites TNS Ge ea SAS cheney Bey a ey ee 
Orders. Chiroptera (Bats),3 15 00. fis GaGa to Re Bd, 
Subarder Microchiropteray, 74.) 9h 30.5 aesu or. seen pe oer 
Family 1. Phyllostomide .... . rag ace Ber ee ee ae 
Family<2,. -Vespertilionide: .. (7.202). sh <a es Gwe cose te 
Bamily 4.) Molossida 5)... : Ca one Siete ie PAL Sere oie, AEN! 
Order 6. Carnivora... . Shee polls 0 pany Pe se ee Nae =a eS 
Family 1. Urside iPeat AN hee teenage hae ae RAG Ge er eee ee 
Family 2. Canide (Dogs; wolves; foxes). .... . neth aoe aE? Bell aden CFG) 
Family 3. Procyonide (Racoons).... . 5 Mal ah aig SERA DS 
Family 4. .Bdssanscidz (Cacomistles)....>. 50. 24/5.) eee 
Famnlyos: . (Mustelida =) sea *. ely a eRe oe eer 
Subfamily 1. Musteline (Weasels; ay all gael! a) Bee 
Subfamily 2. Gulonine (Wolverines)... . . PT Sr eS 
Subfamily 3... Mephitinz.(Skunks)). .. : 25.5639 a) 
Subfamily 4. Tasxidiine: (Badgers) 2 02 = «4. 65a) hie) 
Subfamily*ss Gartrinas (Otters) 6 2 SS Se ip bch ple Oe 
Subfamily 6. Enhydrine (Sea otters) ........ i) ee Dee ea aoon 
Family 6. Felidae (Cats). .... STE 2p Se aA eee 
Order 7:/ -Pinnipediay (Seals) =) sf. 0.0 3). eo oo 2 Le 
Famnby x. Otani 05 gs, ios ks ce ae Pe eg 
Hamilye.” “Phocides)): 000.) 80. ee ee oes eee 
Order 8. Rodentia (Rodents). .... . te, 5 Rare te oro! oso re 
Family 1. Muride (Rats; mice) . Ror cf re ae ee 
Subfamily 1. Murine (House ae pail eae Were sys 13, 6 
Subfamily 2. Cricetine (Field mice; wood miceye as: ee aeee wil: shone 
Subfamily 3. Neotomine (Wood rats). .......- Perea 
Subfamily 4. Microtine (Meadow mice; muskrats). . ....... . « 304 
Family 2. Geomyide (Pocket gophers). .... . a ges hs a fitet 


Family 3. Heteromyide (Pocket mice; kangaroo rats)... .. . , SPSL 


CONTENTS 
Family 4. Zapodide (Jumping mice)... . . say 
Family 5. Erethizontide (Porcupines). ...... 


Family 6. Aplodontiidze (Mountain beavers). .. . 
Family 7. Sciuride (Squirrels; marmots) . 
Subianal yer mOCUGM eevee lve ss 
Subtamilysoey Pteromyime aug. e 
Family 8. Castoride (Beavers). . .. . ae 
Family 9. Leporide (Rabbits; hares)... . . 
Family ro. Ochotonide (Pikas) . . . 
Order 9. Ungulata (Hoofed animals)... . 
Suborder Artiodactyla)... 4... - a. 
Divisionsr. Suna (Pigs). a. eee 
Family Tayassuide (Peccaries) . . 
Division 2. Ruminantia. . Siero tle: 
Subdivision 1. Cervina (Deer)........ 
Family Cervide. . . 
Subdivision 2. Cavicornia. 


Family 1. Antilocapride (Prong-horn antelopes) . 


Family 2. Bovide (Cattle; sheep; goats). . . . . 
BEBLIOGRAPHY: “2002535. Bs Sg MTR demas Oho Bor 1k en a, aa 
LIST OF ‘AUTHORS . . 

GLOSSARY . . 

PNIDEDSE 3 5 a 


XVil 


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VERTEBRATE ANIMALS 
OF THE 


WINE Sees laies 


VERTEBRATES 


Vertebrates are bilaterally symmetrical animals with an interna 
cartilaginous or bony skeleton; with usually two pairs of locomotory 
appendages, the fore and hind limbs; with pharyngeal respiration; with 
a tubular dorsal central nervous system; with a ventral heart, a closed 
circulatory system consisting of arteries, capillaries, and veins, and red 
blood. 

The vertebrates are characterized as a group among animals by 
their large size and the high degree of specialization of many of their 
parts, and also by their general distribution over the earth. Every 
part of the surface of the globe, as well as the ground and the waters 
beneath and the air above it in which animals can in any way satisfy the 
need of all life of food and oxygen, is inhabited by them. The fishes 
and other aquatic forms abound in fresh and salt water, while the 
terrestrial and flying vertebrates inhabit all the continents, even the 
coldest and most inclement. 

External Characters.—The vertebrate body is in most cases more 
or less cylindrical in form, and is made up of four regions, the head, the 
neck, the trunk and the tail. The /ead, being the anterior portion of 
the body, bears the principal organs of orientation, which are the special 
sense organs, and the organs of prehension—the mouth with the lips 
and teeth where these are present; it also contains the large brain, which 
innervates these essential organs, enclosed, for its protection, in the 
skull. The neck is absent or unimportant in fishes and other aquatic 
vertebrates, but in most of the land forms is of great importance 
inasmuch as it is the flexible body region which gives the head the wide 
range of movement necessary to it in a rapidly moving terrestrial 
animal. In fishes the head and anterior portion of the body forms a 
wedge which must be pushed by the locomotory movements of the 


tail-fin through a resistant medium, and it is greatly to the advantage 
I 


2 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


of the animal that the head be joined solidly with the trunk and without 
the interposition of a flexible body region, which would lessen the driv- 
ing power of the caudal fin. Fishes, also, in their watery environment, 
do not depend so much on the sense of sight and the other special 
senses located in the head to orient themselves as do the land animals, 
because the density of the medium in which they live limits the carrying 
power of these senses, but they depend rather upon the lateral line sense 
and other special senses which reside in the skin over the whole body 
and are affected directly by the water surrounding it. Fishes are, 
consequently, often sufficiently oriented with regard to their environ- 
ment without moving, and may be observed to lie motionless in the 
water for long periods of time. 

The trunk contains the principal viscera and is the largest and 
bulkiest body region; in it also are the places of attachment of the 
two pairs of limbs. In the terrestrial vertebrates the trunk may be 
subdivided into two or three subregions, the thoracic subregion which 
with the fore limbs forms the anterior portion, the sacral subregion, 
forming with the hind limbs the posterior portion, and, in four-footed 
vertebrates, the lumbar subregion which lies between the other two and 
forms the pivot where the body bends when the direction of movement 
is changed. 

The paired limbs are wanting in the cyclostomate fishes, the most 
primitive vertebrates, and also in snakes and certain species of lizards. 
The anterior pair is wanting in certain species of fishes, and the posterior 
pair in many fishes and also in Siren among the amphibians and 
in the Cetacea and Sirenia among the mammals. The paired append- 
ages of fishes are the pectoral and ventral fins, which are flattened 
swimming organs stiffened by radiating bony and cartilaginous rods. 
In the other classes of vertebrates they are more or less cylindrical 
in form and each is made up of three main divisions. The proximal 
division projects directly from the trunk and articulates with it; 
the distal division of the appendages is applied to the substratum or 
medium on or in which the animal is moving, and is the most complex 
of the three in structure, terminating typically in the five digits. This 
number has, however, undergone a reduction in very many vertebrates 
—in extreme cases, like that of the horse, only one digit being present on 
each foot. In the four-footed vertebrates, also, the fore and hind pairs 
differ, in most cases, in the number of their digits and the essential 
uses to which they are put, the hinder pair having a smaller number 
than the forward pair, as is the case, for instance, in cats and dogs; 
inasmuch as the hinder pair principally propels the animal, the fewer 


VERTEBRATES = 


its points of contact with the ground the greater will be its effectiveness. 
In the Primates the digits may be used for prehensile purposes; in the 
flying vertebrates, the birds and bats, the fore limbs become wings. 

The tail of vertebrates is the postanal portion of the body, and is 
the principal organ of locomotion in most aquatic forms. In the 
terrestrial representatives it has lost its primitive significance and 
varies much among the various groups in relative length as well as in 
function, and may be rudimentary or absent altogether. 

The integument of vertebrates, which forms the outer covering 
of the body, consists of two distinct layers, the outer epidermis and 
the inner dermis, and its effectiveness as a protective envelope is 
increased by the growth of additional characteristic coverings, such as 
the bony dermal scales of fishes and the horny epidermal scales and 
plates of reptiles, feathers of birds and hair of mammals. The epi- 
dermal layer of the integument is soft and slimy in fish and amphibians, 
which live in or near the water, while in terrestrial vertebrates, whose 
bodies are exposed to the air, it becomes more or less hard and horny 
and the special integumental coverings of the land forms just men- 
tioned appear as specializations of it. 

One of the most conspicuous of the external characters of verte- 
brates, as well as of other animals, and consequently important in 
the classification of them, is their coloration. This is also a feature 
of great importance to the animal itself in its relation to its environ- 
ment, inasmuch as in a large class of cases the coloration of an animal 
tends to render it inconspicuous to its enemies and to its prey, and 
perhaps to increase the absorption of heat from the atmosphere or to 
prevent the too great radiation of bodily heat to it. The same color 
pattern, however, in numerous cases does not characterize all the indi- 
viduals of a species, the males being often colored differently from the 
females and the young individuals from the adults. The summer coat is 
also often different from the winter coat in color and markings. The 
practical purposes of these differences is sometimes hard to explain, but 
can often be correlated with the habits of animals and the need of con- 
cealment and protection at different times of the year and during dii- 
ferent periods of growth. A few species are dichromatic, there being 
two color phases which may characterize. individuals. The gray 
squirrel and the black bear are familiar examples, gray and black 
squirrels appearing in the same litter and black and brown (cinnamon) 
individuals in the same family of bears. Metachrosis, or the rapid 
change in color under the influence of external stimuli, is common 
among fishes, amphibians and lizards. Brown and green tones may 


4 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


alternate with each other in frogs and toads, mainly under the stimulus 
of light; the so-called chameleon of our southern States and many other 
lizards have a still more remarkable range of color change. Very old 
individuals in all the classes of vertebrates often show differences in 
coloration and markings which are due to wear and the fading of colors 
or loss or injury of parts. 

Internal Characters.—Characteristic of vertebrates, and often of 
importance in classifying them, is the internal skeleton, which forms 
the supporting framework of the body.. In the most primitive fishes 
this framework is composed entirely of cartilage and the ligaments and 
membranes which serve to bind its various parts together; in the 
higher fishes and all the other vertebrates it is formed principally of 
bone. The ratio of the cartilage to the bone that forms the skeleton 
varies much among vertebrates in the classes above fishes, it being 
the largest in the amphibians and the smallest in the birds. The 
backbone, the main skeletal axis of the body, is a flexible segmented 
column consisting of a succession of the similar disk-like or cylin- 
drical vertebre which grow around the unsegmented embryonic rod-like 
notochord and are bound together by intervertebral ligaments. The 
vertebre forming the column may vary in number in the various classes 
of vertebrates, ranging from 6 in certain amphibians to 300 in some 
snakes; they fall into groups which correspond to the main subdivisions 
of the body of the animal. The skull, or anterior portion of the axial 
skeleton, is composed of two parts, the cranium, which encloses and 
protects the brain and the organs of special sense, and the visceral 
skeleton, which surrounds the mouth and forms the framework of the 
face, the jaws, the tongue and the gills, where they are present. These 
two portions of the skull, which protect and support such diverse organs, 
develop quite distinct from each other, and are but loosely bound 
together in fishes, and more or less so in all other vertebrates in which 
the mouth is employed mainly in seizing the food and not in masticating 
it. In the mammals, however, which masticate their food, the need of a 
solid base to chew against has brought about a firm union of the vis- 
ceral with the cranial portions of the skull, which is thus given the 
compact character which distinguishes it. 

The other internal organs in vertebrates are usually of less impor- 
tance in classification, although the entire inner structure of the 
vertebrate body bears the characteristic stamp of the group. This 
is especially true of the circulatory system—the ventrally situated 
heart, the closed system of blood tubes and the red blood corpuscles. 
The heart is made up primarily of two portions, an anterior and a pos- 


VERTEBRATES 5 


terior, into the former of which the blood is poured by the veins, 
while from the latter it is discharged through the arteries and distrib- 
uted to the respiratory organs and throughout the body. In mammals 
and birds, whose bodies maintain a constant, relatively high tempera- 
ture, without regard to that of the medium in which they are living or 
the time of year, each of these portions of the heart is subdivided by a 
septum, so that the heart in these animals is composed of two pairs of 
chambers, the anterior pair forming the right and left auricles and the 
posterior pair the right and left ventricles; the right chamber in each 
pair contains venous blood which has been brought exhausted of oxygen 
and charged with carbon dioxide from the various organs of the body 
and the left chamber contains arterial blood brought purged of carbon 
dioxide and with oxygen renewed directly from the lungs. It is this 
complete separation of the venous from the arterial sides of the heart 
which results in the distribution of pure unmixed oxygenated blood 
over the body and the consequent maintenance in it of a relatively high 
and also constant temperature. 

In reptiles and amphibians, on the other hand, the ventricle is not 
thus divided into two completely separated chambers, but there is 
a communication of greater or less extent between its venous and 
arterial sides, and in consequence the freshly oxygenated blood in the 
left division is more or less diluted by the venous and vitiated blood in 
the right division before it is pumped through the arteries over the body. 
Metabolism, consequently, which bears a direct relation to the oxygen 
content of the blood, cannot be so active as in birds and mammals; the 
body temperature is not maintained at a constant level but is dependent 
to a certain extent on the temperature of the surrounding medium and 
varies with it. 

The heart of fishes contains venous blood only, the auricle and 
ventricle not being divided into right and left halves (except partially 
so in the Dipnoi); the blood is sent to the gills from the heart, where 
it is oxygenated, and then distributed directly throughout the body 
without first returning to the heart. 

The process of respiration, by which an animal or plant takes 
in oxygen from the surrounding medium and gives off carbon dioxide, is 
performed by a radically different body surface in vertebrates than in 
invertebrates. Being a transfusion process it requires a moist surface, 
and consequently while it may be performed by an aquatic animal 
through the outer surface it must be carried on by land animals in the 
interior of the body. The aquatic invertebrates, with the exception of 
the chordate forms, respire directly with the integument or with organs 


6 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


derived from it. The vertebrate, on the other hand, in common with 
all chordate animals, respires directly with the pharynx, the anterior 
portion of the digestive tract, and with structures derived from the 
pharynx; the medium in which the animal lives, whether water or air, 
must be drawn through the mouth into the respiratory organs by an 
incessently repeated muscular effort, the interruption of which, only for 
a few moments, will often kill the animal. In fishes the gills are paired 
lateral pockets of the pharynx which open through the integument to 
the outside; through these the breathing motions of the animal maintain 
never ceasing streams of water from which the thin-walled, delicately 
branched gill filaments absorb the respiratory air. 

In amphibians the larval forms, and to a large extent the adults 
as well, respire after the manner of invertebrates, by means of the 
integument. All amphibians, however, in the adult condition, respire 
also directly with the surface of the pharynx, and also in most species 
with the lungs, which arise as a ventral diverticulum of it, as well. 
The importance of direct pharyngeal respiration is shown by the 
rapid and regular respiratory movements of the throat of salamanders 
and frogs when in the air, which affect the pharynx alone and do not 
serve to introduce air into the lungs, and also by the total lack of 
lungs in a large group of salamanders. Amphibians are the oldest and 
most primitive terrestrial vertebrates; direct pharyngeal respiration 
was probably the earliest method among vertebrates of utilizing the 
atmospheric air for respiratory purposes, and may have grown out of the 
habit, not uncommon among fishes, of rising to the surface of the water 
and swallowing air. The lungs, in the earliest amphibians, were prob- 
ably primarily hydrostatic organs like the air-bladder of fishes, a 
function they still retain in many primitive salamanders, and to a cer- 
tain extent probably in all amphibians. 

In the amniotic vertebrates respiration is exercised by the lungs 
exclusively rather than by the pharynx directly, and the complexity 
of their structure in each group of such animals bears a direct relation 
to the intensity of the metabolism in that group. The cold-blooded, 
sluggish reptiles have sack-like lungs with relatively large and relatively 
few lung vesicles. The lungs of the warm-blooded vertebrates, on the 
other hand, which maintain a constant temperature in their bodies 
without reference to the surrounding medium, contain a dense mass of 
minute vesicles which represent a very much larger relative absorptive 
surface and gives the lungs the spongy texture characteristic of them, 
the birds with their higher temperature possessing lungs with smaller 
vesicles and consequently a larger relative surface than the mammals. 


VERTEBRATES | 


The union of the digestive tract in vertebrates with the respiratory, 
just alluded to, is peculiar to them and to chordates. The paired gill 
clefts in the lateral walls of the pharynx and the paired visceral arches 
which form their skeletal support are universal throughout the group 
and are not found in other animals. The character and position of the 
mouth and the jaws and their relation to the gill system are especially 
noteworthy. In the great group of Arthropoda the organs of mastica- 
tion are modified limbs and are lateral in position; in the Mollusca these 
organs, where they are present, are cuticular or calcareous thickenings 
on the surface of the mouth or pharynx, and the same is true of other 
invertebrate groups. In vertebrates, however, the jaws have a dorso- 
ventral position, and they and the slit-like mouth have had their origin 
respectively from the foremost pair of visceral arches and the foremost 
pair of primitive gill-cletts. The fact that the cyclostomate fishes, the 
most primitive vertebrates, are without jaws seems to indicate that the 
earliest vertebrates, like them, possessed a circular jawless mouth 
armed with cuticular teeth and with a series of about seven pairs of 
gill-clefts supported by cartilaginous arches posterior to it. When the 
true fishes, the ancestors of all other vertebrates, developed from a 
cyclostomate stock, the foremost two pairs of cartilaginous arches and 
the foremost two pairs of gill-clefts lost their primitive functions and 
were transferred from the respiratory to the digestive system of organs. 
The foremost pair of gill-clefts became the mouth while the foremost 
pair of arches reinforced by dermal bones formed the upper and lower 
jaws; the second pair of clefts became the spiracles in the elasmobranch 
fishes and the Eustachian tubes in the terrestrial vertebrates, while 
the second pair of arches formed the skeletal support of the tongue. 
The remaining five pairs of arches are gill-bearing in the fishes and 
support the gill-clefts; in the terrestrial vertebrates, however, they 
undergo a change of function during the embryonic period and lose 
their primary significance, being transformed into the cartilages of the 
larynx and trachea. 

The teeth of all vertebrates are identical in structure, being com- 
posed of dentine overlaid with enamel, and the identity of this structure 
with that of the placoid scales of the lowest of the true fishes shows that 
vertebrate teeth are directly derived from these scales. The actual 
form of the teeth in each group has been determined by the service 
they are expected to perform. In most fishes, amphibians and reptiles 
the teeth are employed only for grasping and holding the prey; they are 
conical in shape like a placoid scale and are usually more or less loosely 
attached in the oral cavity. In mammals, which use their teeth not 


8 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


only for grasping but for chewing their food, the teeth are firmly set in 
alveoli—deep cavities in the jaw bone—and have a variety of forms 
which fit them for grasping, cutting, gnawing or chewing. The teeth 
of alligators and the extinct toothed birds occupy a mid-way position, 
being elongated cones in form and set in alveoli. 

The digestive canal in vertebrates is characterized in general by 
great length and by the presence of two digestive glands of large 
size, the liver and pancreas, which originate as outgrowths of it, also 
by the mesenteries in the body cavity which support its various divi- 
sions. The intestine opens at the hinder end either directly to the 
outside through the anus, or into a cloaca which receives also the dis- 
charges of the excretory and reproductive organs. 

The excretory and reproductive systems are closely associated in 
vertebrates, often possessing ducts in common through which their 
products find a way to the outside. Reproduction is in all cases 
sexual; with a few exceptions among fishes the sexes are separate; sexual 
dimorphism is universal. 

The central nervous system of vertebrates, the spinal chord and 
brain, has no homologue among invertebrates. It originates in the 
embryo as a middorsal ectodermal groove, which sinks beneath the sur- 
face and forms a tube. The anterior portion of this tube widens and 
forms a series of five vesicles the walls of which become thick and 
folded, and the brain comes into existence; the posterior portion 
becomes the spinal chord. The cranial and spinal nerves proceeding 
from the brain and spinal chord to the special sense organs and the 
muscles of the trunk and appendages have a metameric arrangement; 
the same is true also of the sympathetic nervous system, which is inti- 
mately joined with them and controls the activities of many of the 
viscera. 

The characteristic special senses of vertebrates are smell, taste, 
sight and hearing. The sensory perceptions of aquatic vertebrates, 
especially fishes, are in many respects sharply different from those of 
animals which live in so attenuated a medium as the air, vibrations of 
the water being the most important stimulating agents which cause 
their sensory reactions. Vibrations of very low frequency, such as 
are produced by impacts on the water, currents and surface waves, 
undoubtedly affect the skin over the whole surface of the fish’s body; 
the lateral line, which is a specialized portion of the skin, is sensitive 
to vibrations of higher frequency, such as slight oscillations of the 
whole mass of the water, which are, however, too slight to stimulate the 
skin itself; the ear, which is a modified portion of the lateral line, is 


VERTEBRATES fe) 


attuned to vibrations of still higher frequency, such as cause the sensa- 
tion of sound. The ears of the lowest fishes, however, notably the 
cyclostomes and selachians, have not reached a development high 
enough to be stimulated by tonal vibrations, although they may be by 
noises sufficiently loud to produce vibrations which affect the skin or 
lateral line; the ear of such fishes is apparently merely an organ of 
equilibrium, the maintenance of which is probably the primitive 
function of the vertebrate ear. 

In aquatic vertebrates taste and smell are similar senses, causing 
similar reactions and having a similar purpose, which is the detection of 
food. Taste buds, in many fishes, especially bottom feeders, are not 
only present in the mouth, but are distributed over the skin, so that 
such fishes may be conscious of the presence of food which is near any 
part of the body, the pectoral fins and barbels being especially sensi- 
tive. Smell is probably perceived by fishes with the nostrils alone, 
and enables the animal to scent its food at a distance. 

The eyes of fishes and amphibians are adapted to near vision only, 
inasmuch as they have a spherical lens and lack the ciliary muscles 
by means of which the land animals accommodate their vision to the 
perception of distant objects. In many fishes the whole skin is also 
sensitive to light, independently of the eyes, the head and tail being 
more so than the trunk. 

The change in their sensory reactions which took place in vertebrates 
when the terrestrial forms first developed from the aquatic is well 
illustrated in the transformation of the tadpole into the frog. The 
tadpole has the sensory equipment of a bottom fish, and undoubtedly 
depends largely on vibrations of the water for its means of orientation; 
the lateral line is well developed, the ear does not appear at the surface 
of the head, there being no tympanum, and the eye is small and sunken. 
The frog, on the other hand, depends upon sight and hearing for its 
knowledge of its surroundings; it has very large projecting eyes, the 
tympanum is at the surface of the head and no lateral line is present. 
Thus, in the terrestrial vertebrates the general or contact sense, so 
important to fishes, falls into the background as a means of orienta- 
tion. In frogs, toads and reptiles, generally, which are the lowest of 
them, sight is apparently the best developed special sense, and the one 
most depended upon for information of the surroundings; also in frogs 
and many lizards, and undoubtedly in others too, the whole skin is 
sensitive to light, independently of the eyes. Hearing, smell and taste 
are all poorly represented. 


10 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


Birds also depend largely upon sight, and this sense has attained an 
extraordinary development in many species. The accurate vision 
of birds during swift flight and over great distances, and the instan- 
taneous accommodation of it to their rapid manoeuvres in the air, 
seem to indicate that birds have the best eyes among vertebrates. 
Hearing is also highly developed in birds; smell and taste, however, are 
apparently in a backward condition. 

In mammals all the special senses have reacheda very high develop- 
ment. As the bird is essentially a-creature of the air and must be able 
to see far and accurately, so the mammal belongs on or near the ground 
and in most cases finds its greatest security and advantage in its remark- 
able sense of smell. But its habit of life, which gives the mammal the 
most varied environment among vertebrates, makes all the special 
senses important to it, and has brought about the high state of perfec- 
tion which characterizes all of them. 

The muscular system of vertebrates has but few distinctive features. 
The body or somatic muscles of fishes and salamanders, which, being 
aquatic animals, move through the water by alternate to-and-fro 
movements of the trunk and tail, have a strictly metameric arrangement 
and longitudinal fibres, and the appendicular muscles of all vertebrates, 
although not metameric, are directly derived from them; both are 
striated in structure and voluntary in character. The body muscles 
of terrestrial vertebrates, however, especially those whose locomotory 
movements are carried on exclusively by the appendages, have most'y 
lost their primitive character, although it is still indicated in several 
of them, notably the rectus abdominis. The attachment of a muscle 
to a bone by a single tendon, by which the action of all the fibres is 
concentrated on a single point, is a peculiarly vertebrate character. 
The visceral muscles, which are involuntary and, with a few exceptions, 
unstriated, are present in the walls of the various tubular internal 
organs to which they impart the peristaltic movements characteristic 
of them. 

Distribution.—The United States covers an area of continental 
extent containing the greatest possible variety of conditions which may 
surround the lives of the animals living within it. Certain physical 
features of this area strike the attention of the observer as of especial 
importance. Of these the following may be mentioned; the great 
extent and number of the fresh water lakes in the northern portion of 
the country, the great river basins which characterize almost every part 
of it and especially that of the Mississippi, the mountain systems in the 
East and the West, the extensive coastal plains bordering the Atlantic 


VERTEBRATES II 


Ocean and the Gulf of Mexico, the great forested regions in both the 
eastern and western States, the well-watered, treeless prairies, the 
high, dry Great Plains, and the arid and mountainous Great Basin. 
Climatic conditions vary from the tropical heat and constant tempera- 
ture of southern Florida and the Mexican border to the Arctic cold and 
violent and sudden changes of the Canadian border and the high moun- 
tain regions, and conditions of moisture from the excessively wet 
western slopes of the Cascades which look towards the Pacific to the 
deserts of the Great Basin and the extreme southwest. 

The actual extent of territory occupied by any species of animal 
is determined by several factors, of which the most important are 
probably temperature and amount of moisture, both of which tend to 
check the migration of species and to confine them within certain more 
or less definite boundaries. The United States Biological Survey, 
has formulated the following two fundamental Laws of Temperature 
Control of Distribution: First, the northward distribution of terres- 
trial animals and plants is governed by the total quantity of heat 
during the season of growth and reproduction; Second, the southward 
distribution is governed by the mean temperature of a brief period 
during the hottest part of the year. The meaning of these laws is that 
each species requires a certain minimum total quantity of heat during 
the period of the year when growth and reproduction are going on, which 
is the summer season in temperate regions, and that this factor estab- 
lishes the northern limit of its distribution; also, that excess of heat 
through a sufficiently long portion of this period tends to check or stop 
growth and reproduction, and consequently the mean temperature 
of the mid-summer weeks, when the heat is the greatest, is the factor 
which establishes the southern limit of distribution of a species. 

On the basis of these laws the North American continent has been 
divided into three Life Regions, the Boreal, Austral and Tropical, the 
first two of which have been subdivided each into three Life zones. 
The Boreal Region is the portion of the continent north of the Canadian 
boundary, and is composed of the Arctic, Hudsonian and Canadian 
zones, each transcontinental in extent. The Arctic zone is the circum- 
polar region north of the northern limit of forests; it is the home of the 
muskox, polar bear, Arctic fox, wolf and hare and barren-ground 
caribou. The Hudsonian zone is the region of firs and spruces which 
extends as a wide belt between Labrador and Alaska, and southwards 
along the main ridge of the Rockies into the United States, and occurs 
also in limited areas in several high mountain regions in the Rockies and 
Cascades; it is the home, in Canada, of the woodland caribou, moose and 


12 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


wolverine. The Canadian zone is the region of the great coniferous 
forests and occupies southern Canada, extending extensively into the 
eastern and central northern United States, the higher Alleghanies and 
the mountains of the West. 

The Austral Region comprises the greater part of the United States, 
and is composed of the Transition, Upper Austral and Lower Austral 
zones, each transcontinental in extent, the limits of which may be 
seen by reference to the frontispiece. The life conditions of the 
eastern and western portions of these three zones are greatly affected 
by the differences in the precipitation of moisture in them. The one- 
hundredth meridian represents the approximate boundary between the 
well-watered prairies and the arid Great Plains, to the eastward of which 
the annual rain-fall is greater than 25 inches and to the westward it is 
less than that amount, except on the Pacific coast. The eastern 
divisions of the three Austral zones are also called the Alleghanian, 
Carolinian and Austroriparian, respectively, and the two most southerly 
western divisions are also called the Upper Sonoran and Lower Sonoran. 

The Tropical Region comprises the southern portion of the conti- 
nent and occupies only a small part of this country, being limited to 
the southern end of Florida, south of Lake Worth, and perhaps the 
valley of the lower Colorado. 

History.—The first person in modern times to unite the different 
classes of vertebrates in a single phylum was the French naturalist 
Lamarck, who, near the beginning of the 1oth century, divided all 
animals into the two groups of those with vertebre and those without. 
Aristotle, in his time, pointed to the same fundamental subdivision of 
the animal kingdom when he contrasted the several classes possessing 
red blood with those apparently without blood, their blood being color- 
less. The Swedish naturalist Linnezus, the founder of the modern 
system of classifying animals and plants, who lived in the generation 
immediately preceding Lamarck, did not take notice of the interrela- 
tionship of the classes of vertebrates notwithstanding the example of 
Aristotle, but gave each of these classes equal rank in his system with 
the invertebrate groups. Cuvier, who was a younger contemporary and 
fellow-countryman of Lamarck, adopted the term Vertebrata introduced 
by him as one of the four fundamental types into which he divided the 
Animal Kingdom, and the group maintained this rank in the zoological 
system of classification until about the seventh decade of the last 
century. At that time the epoch-making researches of Kowalevsky 
and others having shown the relationship of vertebrates with ascidians, 
Amphioxus and Balanoglossus, a new phylum was formed, first by the 


VERTEBRATES 13 


German zoologist Heckel, to include these groups, which received the 
name Chordata, under which the Vertebrata are now commonly rated a 
subphylum. 

The primary subdivisions of this subphylum was first made by 
Aristotle, who recognised four groups, namely, fishes, oviparous 
tetrapodous and apodous vertebrates (amphibians and _ reptiles), 
birds, and viviparous vertebrates (mammals). Linneus recognised 
the same four groups and named them classes in his system, giving 
them the modern names of Pisces, Amphibia, Aves and Mammalia, 
but he did not unite them in a single phylum. In Cuvier’s system 
the same classes were also recognised, but for the name of the second 
class the term Reptilia was employed in place of Amphibia. This 
system was maintained in the classification and the amphibians and 
reptiles placed in a common class until about the year 1850, when 
the French zoologist Milne-Edwards called attention to the fundamental 
subdivision of all vertebrates into two great groups, the Anamia and 
the Ammniota, and also to the fact that inasmuch as the Amphibia 
belong to one and the Reptilia to the other of these groups these two 
subdivisions of the Vertebrata should each constitute an independent 
class. Of the five classes of vertebrates thus formed the English 
naturalist Huxley in 1871 formed three divisions, the Jchthyopsida 
or fish-like vertebrates, the Sauropsida or reptile-like vertebrates 
and the Mammalia. 

Classification.— Over 60,000 species and subspecies of vertebrates 
have been described, grouped in 5 classes, of which about 30,000 species 
and subspecies are fishes, 1,700 are amphibians, 5,500 are reptiles, 
15,000 are birds and 10,000 are mammals. The primary grouping of 
these classes gives the following subdivisions: 

A. Anamia or Ichthyopsida.—Vertebrates whose eggs are deposited 
in most cases in the water and are without a shell; and whose 
embryos are protected only by an albuminous envelope and the 
water and not by an amnion; which respire by means of gills 
either during the whole or a part of life; and which have a slimy 
epidermis lacking special epidermal coverings (Fishes and 
Amphibians). 

B. Amniota—Vertebrates whose eggs (in the oviparous_ species) 
are laid on the land and have the protection of a shell; whose 
embryos have the additional protection of an amnion and respire 
by means of an allantois; which respire after birth by means 
of lungs; and have special epidermal coverings in form of scales, 
feathers or hair. 


14 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


1. Sauropsida.—Vertebrates which produce a very large egg and 
are either oviparous or ovoviviparous; which have a single 
median occipital condyle, and epidermal coverings in form 
of scales or feathers (Reptiles and Birds). 

2. Mammalia.—Vertebrates which produce a minute egg (except 
the Monotremata), and are viviparous with uterine embryonic 
development; which nourish the young by means of mam- 
mary glands; which have a pair of occipital condyles, and an 
epidermal covering in form of hair (Mammals). 


Key to the Classes of Vertebrates 


a, Aquatic vertebrates whose locomotory appendages are 
sh a1) RR Nien ree ACN CUR aed ol sah ACH 1. Fishes (pases). 
a» Aquatic or land vertebrates with legs or wings as locomotory 
appendages, or without them. 
b; Body naked (in American species), being without special 
integumentary coverings; toes without claws or 
MAM S20). cachevom sicvete Sata Mieke. 5B tae one te Apa 
be Body not naked, but with special integumentary coverings; 
toes with claws or nails. 


c: Body covered with horny scales or plates......... 3. Reptiles (p. 177). 
co Body covered with feathers (not included in this 
BOO artic ee ieee ay ee Pre ceo ee ger es 4. Birds. 


és) Body. covered with hairs. ase oes tis ner 5. Mammals (p. 243). 


CLASS 1. FISHES 
‘ 

Aquatic, cold-blooded vertebrates which have an integumentary 
covering of dermal scales or plates, and which breathe by means of 
pharyngeal gills. Median and paired fins are in most cases present, 
the latter being homologous to the limbs of the higher vertebrates. 
The heart has but one ventricle and one auricle, and contains only 
venous blood. The head is joined with the trunk without articulation, 
and there is no neck. No external ear-opening is present. With 
a few exceptions all fishes lay eggs, which develop without an amnion. 

On the Identification of Fishes.—The body of most species of fishes 
is more or less lenticular in shape and compressed laterally. In many 
species, however, the anterior portion is cylindrical, as it is in the 
eel, or more or less depressed (flattened), as in the catfish. The head 
forms the anterior end of the body, the hinder margin of the opercles 
marking the boundary between it and the trunk. The caudal or tail 
fin forms the posterior end, the caudal peduncle being the slenderer 
portion of the body from which it projects, the caudal fin and peduncle 
being postanal in position. 

Measurements (Fig. 1) —The length of a fish, as given in this book, 
is the distance between the tip of the snout and the base of the caudal 
fin, expressed in millimeters; the caudal fin is not included. The 
measurements of the head and of the depth (i.e., the greatest dorso- 
ventral measurement) of the body are not given in millimeters or by 
any other absolute scale, but are relative, being the number of times 
the length of the body is greater than that of the head or the depth 
of the body, respectively. Thus, the expression ‘‘head 3, depth 5”’ 
means that the length of the body is 3 times the length of the head 
and 5 times its own depth. 

Fins (Fig. 1).—The fins of fishes are of two kinds, the median or 
vertical fins and the paired fins. The median fins are the dorsal, caudal 
and anal fins: they are the more primitive of the two kinds, and alone 
occur in cyclostomate fishes. The dorsal fin lies in the middorsal plane 
and in many fishes is divided, so that there are two or even three or 
more of them. The caudal or tail fin is usually the largest and the 
principal organ of locomotion; its hinder margin may be either forked, 
concave, emarginate (slightly forked or notched), straight or rounded. 


15 


STATES 


VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED 


16 


"SUOT}JAIIOSOp OY} UI 0} podtojor ore ADY} YOIYM Aq soureu oy} pure ‘Yysy v Jo sjivd [eusJo}Xe OY T— ‘I “SIy 


uf jpuoyoad 


a | SS SS eS [E 


FISHES ty 


In the sturgeon and many other primitive fishes the backbone takes an 
upward turn at the base of the caudal fin and continues in the fin to 
near its hinder end, so that the greater part of the fin is ventral to the 
backbone; such a tail is called heterocercal (Fig. 2). In most fishes, 
however, the caudal fin is homocercal, that is, the backbone extends 
only to the base of the fin, which projects fan-shaped back of it. The 
anal fin lies in the midventral plane behind the anus; it is in most 
cases single, but in some species is divided. 


= 
= SSS 
SSS 

SS SSS 


Ci — 
Fic. 2.—Types of tail fins of fishes: heterocercal tail of sturgeon (upper left-hand figure) ; 
heterocercal tail of garpike (upper right-hand figure); homocercal tail of pike-perch (lower 
figure) (from Fishes of Illinois). 


The paired fins are the pectoral fins, which are anterior in position, 
and the ventral fins, which are posterior. The pectoral fins are imme- 
diately back of the head, either on the side of the body or on the breast. 
The ventral fins (Fig. 3) lie on the belly in front of the anus in the more 
primitive fishes, in which case they are said to be abdominal in position; 
in the more specialized fishes they are situated nearer the head, and are 
said to be thoracic in position when they are immediately beneath the 
pectoral fins and jugular when they are in front of the pectoral fins. 

The fins are stiffened and supported by slender bony rods called 
the fin-rays (Fig. 4). These are of two kinds, the soft rays, which are 
jointed and have divided or split terminal ends, and the spiny rays, 
which are stiff and not jointed and have undivided and sharp-pointed 
ends. 


18 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


The position of the fins and the number of soft and spiny rays are 
of great importance in descriptions of fishes. The number of the soft 
rays is expressed by Arabic and that of the spiny rays by Roman numer- 
als: thus, the expression ’ means that the 


a4 


rays of dorsal fin VI, 12”’ 
dorsal fin has 6 spiny and 12 soft rays. Where two dorsal fins are 
present the number of the rays of the anterior fin is separated from that 
of the posterior one by a dash. Thus the expression ‘‘rays of dorsal 
fins XI-III, 5”’ means that the anter- 
ior dorsal fin has 11 spiny rays and 
the posterior dorsal has 3 spiny and 5 
soft rays. In certain groups of soft- 


2 a rayed fishes, such as the trout, catfish 
; and others, the posterior dorsal fin is 
1 2 a fleshy structure without rays of any 


kind, and is consequently not men- 
tioned in such descriptions; it is called 
the adipose fin. 

Lateral Line (Fig. 1)—In most 
fishes the lateral line appears as a 
longitudinal series of modified scales 


t 
ee 
| 
Fic. 3.—Position of the ventral fins: Fic. 4.—Soft fin-rays (a); spiny fin-rays (6) 
(top figure), the ventral fins in an ab- (from Siissw, Fauna. Deut.). 


dominal position; (middle figure), in a 
thoracic position; (bottom figure), in 
a jugular position: 1, pectoral fins; 2, 
ventral fins (from Siissw, Fauna. Deut.). 


extending along the side of the body between the head and the caudal 
fin. In the lower, soft-rayed fishes it tends to run parallel to the line 
of the belly, and in the higher, spiny-rayed fishes to the line of the 
back. In many fishes it is not complete or is altogether wanting, at 
least so far as any external appearance is concerned. 

Scales (Fig. 5).—In some species of fishes, the catfish for example, 
the skin is naked and without any hard skeletal covering. In most 
fishes, however, the skin is protected by a layer of scales, and in a few 
groups by bony plates, prickles, or other skeletal structures. By 


FISHES 19 


far the greatest number of species have scales of one of two types, the 
cycloid or the ctenoid scales. These are thin rounded plates which cover 
the body more or less completely and are imbricated, that is, arranged 
in overlapping rows like the shingles on a roof, the free ends being 
directed backwards. Cycloid scales characterize the more primitive 
of the bony fishes, as the trout and salmon, and have a smooth hinder 
margin. Ctenoid scales have a more or less roughened surface and a 
dentate, serrate or spiny free hinder margin; they characterize the more 
specialized bony fishes, as the perch and the bass. In some species both 
types of scales are present, and in some species scales which are inter- 
mediate between the two. Certain ganoid fishes, as the garpike, have 


y © 


Fic. 5.—Scales of fishes: a, ctenoid scale (hinder end of scale at the right); b, ganoid 
scales; c, cycloid scale (hinder end of scale above) (modified from Cambridge Natural History 
and Jordan's Guide to the Study of Fishes). 
ganoid scales, which are rhombic in form and are not imbricated, while 
certain ganoids, as the sturgeon, and certain teleosts, as the sticklebacks, 
have bony plates on the sides of the body. 

In the description of a fish the average number of scales (Fig. 6) 
occurring in the lateral line between the head and the caudal fin is 
given. The number, also, occurring in a dorso-ventral series, between 
the lateral line and the back and the lateral line and the belly, is 
usually given. Thus the expression ‘“‘scales 5-46-11” means that 46 
scales occur in the lateral line, or if no lateral line is present in a lateral 
series between the head and the caudal fin, that 5 scales occur in a dorso- 
ventral series between the forward end of the dorsal fin and the lateral 
line and 11 scales between the lateral line and the anus or the forward 
end of the anal fin. These figures are never absolute for all the indi- 
viduals of a species, but are liable to vary a sixth from the average 
given. 

Color.—Fishes are among the brightest of animals. Their colors 
cover a wide range, and a statement of the markings of a specimen is 


20 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


usually an important part of a description. It must be remembered, 
however, that there is often a considerable variation in the coloration 
of a species in different individuals 
and at different times of the year, that 
the two sexes are often colored differ- 
ently, the female being duller than the 
male, and that bright colors, especially 
reds and blues, often fade after the 
death of the animal or when it has 
lain in a preserving fluid. 

Head (Fig. 7).—The portion of 
the head in front of the eyes is the 
snout. The mouth may be either ter- 
minal in position, inferior, subinferior 
or superior, and may also be either 
horizontal or oblique (Fig. 8). The 
nostrils are four in number, two on 
each side immediately in front of the 
eye. The upper jaw contains the 
paired premaxillary bones which sup- 
port its anterior portion, and also often 
the lateral portions as well, and the 
paired maxillaries, which lie above and 
behind the lateral portions of the 
premaxillary, on each side. The pre- 
maxillaries are, in many fishes, pro- 
tractile, that is, they can be thrust 
forward. In certain fishes a sup- 
plementary maxillary lies above the 
posterior portion of the maxillary, on 
each side. 

Many species of fishes, catfish for 

Fic. 6.—A portion of the lateral side instance, have one or more pairs of 
of a fish's body between the dorsal fin elongated tentacles called barbels 
illusteate the count of the seales the extending from one or both jaws 
lateral line series of which is in the (Fig. Is) 
middle, and the dorso-ventral series : 
above and below it (from Siissw. Fauna Below and behind the eyes on 
Bee): each side of the head is the cheek. 
Behind the cheek is the preopercle, and behind it the opercle; beneath 
them lies the interopercle and the subopercle; these structures form the 
gill-covers. Ventral to them lies the branchiostegal membrane supported 


FISHES 21 


by the branchiostegal rays, or as they are usually called, the branchio- 
stegals. The gills lie beneath the gill-covers, borne on four gill-arches 
(Fig. 9); posterior to these arches is a fifth arch which rarely bears gills 
but is usually massively built and bears teeth; it is called the pharyngeal 
arch. On the inner surface of the opercle near its anterior margin are, 


pes aS G7 8 8 101 Ie 


Fic. 7.—Head of a fish: 1, nostrils; 2, premaxillary; 3, mandible; 4, lateral portion of 
premaxillary; 5, maxillary; 6, supplementary maxillary; 7, cheek; 8, interopercle; 9, pre- 
opercle; 10, branchiostegals; 11, subopercle; 12, opercle. 


in most fishes, small gills called the pseudobranchie. In most fishes 
from the pharyngeal margins of each gill-arch a double series of car- 
tilaginous or bony rods project towards the gill-cleft; these are the gill- 


© © © 


a b c 


Fic. 8.—Position of the mouth: a, mouth terminal in position; b, mouth superior; ¢, mouth 
inferior (from Siissw. Fauna Deut.). 

rakers and they serve as a sieve to prevent particles of food from passing 
_ through the gill-clefts with the respiratory water. 

Teeth.—A few species of fish are without teeth. They are, however, 

usually present, and may be found, in the various species, on the pre- 

maxillaries, dentaries (lower jaw), vomer, palatines, pterygoids, sphe- 


22 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


noids, gill-arches, tongue and pharyngeals (Fig. 9). Short, slender, 
close-set teeth are called vzlliform; long, sharp teeth which project 
beyond the level of the others are called canine; teeth with blunt tips 
used for crushing shells are called molar; flat, mosaic-like teeth are called 
paved or tessellated; front teeth with cutting edges are called incisor. 
Internal Structures.—A knowledge of the internal anatomy of a 
fish is usually not necessary in order to make a systematic description 


Fic. 9.—The inside of the mouth (of the rock bass, Ambloplites rupestris) showing the 
dentition and the gill-arches: a, the roof of the mouth; b, the floor of the mouth: dn, dentary; 
ecp, ectopterygoid; enp, entopterygoid; hy, hyoid; lph, lower pharyngeal arch; p/, palatine; 
pmx, premaxillary; im, tongue; uph, upper pharyngeal arch; vo, vomer (from Fishes of 
Illinois). 


of it. The following features, however, are occasionally referred to 
in the descriptions in this book: the shape of the stomach; the number 
and character of the pyloric appendages or ceca of the stomach; the 
length and character of the intestine; the presence or absence of the air 
bladder, and its character when present; the character of the four ante- 
rior vertebrae, whether they are coéssified and have some of their ele- 
ments detached to form the Weberian ossicles which connect the air 
bladder with the ear; the unossified portion of the top of the skull in 
certain fishes known as the fontanelle. 

History.—Fishes, conspicuous and abundant animals as they 
are and important in the dietary of all peoples, have attracted the 
interest of naturalists from time immemorial. The modern scientific 


FISHES 23 


study of them is based upon the classifications of Peter Artedi and 
Linneus, who wrote in the 18th century, and Cuvier, who wrote in 
the early part of the roth. In recent times the most important single 
work is Giinther’s ‘‘Catalogue of the Fishes of the British Museum,” 
published in 1859-70. This work and Boulenger’s continuation of 
it published in 1898-1900 are fundamental for the modern systematic 
study of fishes. The fishes of America have attracted many brilliant 
students, the most eminent of the earlier ones being Louis Agassiz, 
who first placed the study of American fishes on a sound scientific 
basis. Since his death in 1873 the school of ichthyologists founded 
by him has been directed and carried on by David Starr Jordan, one 
of his pupils, who together with his pupils and associates has made 
the fishes of North America better known than perhaps those of any 
other equally large area. The ‘“‘Fishes of North and Middle America” 
by Jordan and Evermann (1896-1900), the Check List of Jordan, Ever- 
mann and Clark (1930) and the Manual of Vertebrates (1929), revised 
as to Fishes by C. L. Hubbs, are the foundation of the descriptions of 
fishes in this book. 

Number of Species and Distribution.—The Class, Fishes, 
includes over 30,000 described species and subspecies, grouped, as 
described in this book, in 2 subclasses. Over 600 species live in the 
fresh waters of the United States, grouped in about 36 families. The 
largest of these families are the Cyprinide with 311 species and the 
Etheostomideé with 115 species, as given in the Check List of the Fishes 
of North and Middle America of Jordan, Evermann and Clark (1928). 
The Catostomide with 83 species and the Cyprinodontide with 61 species 
are the next in rank; and these four families include two-thirds of all 
the species of fresh water fishes in the country. 

The fresh waters of the United States are very rich in species of 
fishes, as will be seen by a comparison with those of Europe, which, 
although having a land area of about the same extent and with a very 
varied surface, contains only about 125 species. It is the very large 
hydrographical basins of our country joined with its varied character 
and the relatively high temperature of the middle and southern portions 
of it which have brought about the multiplication of species of fishes 
within its borders. The Mississippi basin contains about 200 species 
and that of the Great Lakes about 150 species. 


Key to the Subclasses of Fishes 


a; Mouth without jaws; no paired fins; nostril median..1. Cyclostomata (p. 24). 
a2 Mouth with true jaws; paired fins present; nostrils 
PRUE CARs A Ae. sk Dn ep aita Seah a oe Haines Doak PCOS (Pp. 20). 


24 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


Subclass 1. Cyclostomata.—Fish-like vertebrates with a cylin- 
drical, eel-like body, without scales, paired fins, gill-arches or jaws; 
skeleton cartilaginous and without ribs; skull imperfectly developed 
and not separate from the vertebral column; nostril single, median; 
mouth suctorial; gills sac-like, 6 to 14 in number, opening to the out- 
side through paired pores; no genital ducts, sympathetic nervous 
system, arterial bulb, pancreas, spleen or air bladder; median fins on 
posterior half of body: about 20 species, mostly parasitic on fishes in 
both fresh and salt water, grouped in 2 orders. ‘The first of these orders, 
with 2 American species, the Californian hagfish, Polistotrema stouti 
(Lockington) and the Atlantic hagfish, Myxine glutinosa L., is exclu- 
sively marine. 


Key to the Orders of Cyclostomata 


a; Gill openings not near head; hagfish, all marine, and not included 
TH othiS OOK: Voce A Mee Se es ae Te, SR ee es 1. Hyperotreta. 
a2 Gill openings immediately back of head; lampreys............. 2. Hyperoartia. 


Order 2. Hyperoartia.—The lampreys. Body cylindrical ante- 
riorly, compressed posteriorly; fins median and well developed, the 
dorsal fin being more or less completely sepa- 
rated by a median notch into two fins; nostril 
just in front of the eyes and opening into a blind 
sac which does not communicate with the 
pharynx; eyes well developed in the adult; 
mouth suctorial, in the middle of a depressed, 
funnel-shaped oral plate, called the buccal funnel 
(Fig. 10), which has a fringed margin and is set 
with sharp, horny teeth or toothlike tubercles; 
tongue with sharp rasping teeth; bordering the 
mouth anteriorly and posteriorly, respectively, 
are the so-called supraoral and infraoral lamine, 

horny plates each with 2 or more teeth; intes- 
y Cae ion tine with spiral valve; 7 pairs of gill-sacs, the 
Jordan's Guide to the Study external openings forming a row immediately 
Be Sie back of the eyes: about 15 species, in fresh and 
salt water; 1 family, the Petromyzonid@, with about 8 species in the 
United States. 

Adult lampreys, in the case of most of the species, feed by attaching 
themselves to fishes and sucking their blood and rasping away the flesh, 
often killing them, and causing large sores and scars on those they do 
not kill; they are often destructive to fisheries. The marine species 


FISHES 25 


ascend the streams to breed. The young animals, which are called 
Ammocetes, are without functional paired eyes, suctorial mouth or 
teeth and pass through a metamorphosis; they live in this larval condi- 
tion two to six years, during which they burrow in muddy bottoms in 
the streams where they are born, feeding on minute organic particles 
which the current brings them. Several of the smaller species have 
apparently a very short adult life; the intestine is degenerate and non- 
functional and the buccal teeth are weak, blunt and more or less 
obsolescent; such species are probably not parasitic. 


Key to the United States Genera of Petromyzonide 


a; Buccal funnel with numerous teeth which radiate from the 
mouth in all directions (Fig. ro). 
b; Dorsal fin continuous; Great Lakes and Mississippi Valley. 


c, Expanded buccal funnel much broader than body....... 1. Icthyomyzon. 
c. Expanded buccal funnel narrower than body............2. Reighardina. 
» Two separated dorsal fins; Atlantic slope. . alae .3. Petromyzon. 


as Soest funnel with teeth which do not rodiatee ea the rath 
but lie in several groups (Fig. 12). 

b; A posterior row of small teeth connect the posterior pair of 
enlarged lateral teeth (Fig. 12). 


Spehaciien@oast and OlOME FOFMSs <5 2: o's aes Ue 's,5 ores iene 4. Entosphenus. 

Soe vilantice Slope nOniisimsrcs cds source Sic Cue ate sina bints oad 5. Lethenteron. 
bs No such row of teeth present (Fig. 13). 

Sey TEENS TEES) (oo (aye 10) clan oye 2 ate ee es ee 6. Lampetra. 

EreAtlantcislopetormse. (6. Sack i usu. tac. Mies Uehdec ol: 7. Okkelbergia. 


1. Ichthyomyzon Girard. Small fresh water lampreys with a single 
dorsal fin which has a broad notch in the middle and is joined with the 
caudal fin; muscle segments between gill and anus less than 60: 1 species. 

I. concolor (Kirtland). Silver lamprey. Length 300 mm.; color 
silvery; a small dark spot above each gill pore; supraoral lamina with 1 
to 4 (usually 2) approximated cusps; buccal funnel, when expanded, 
much wider than the body, and with a double row of marginal fringes: 
valleys of the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence River; southward and 
westward into the Ohio, Missouri and upper Mississippi valleys; 
northwards to Hudson Bay; common on the sturgeon and other large 
fishes. 

2. Reighardina Creaser and Hubbs. Similar to Jcthyomyzon, 
but with a narrow buccal funnel: 1 species. 

R. unicolor (DeKay) (Fig. 10). Length 150 mm.; supraoral lamina 
with 2 separated cusps; buccal funnel, when expanded, not wider than 
the body, and with weak or obsolescent teeth; intestine degenerate 
in the adult: basin of the Great Lakes; often abundant. 


26 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


3. Petromyzon L. Marine and fresh water lampreys with 2 sepa- 
rated dorsal fins: several species, 1 in the United States. 

P. marinus L. Lamprey eel; great sea lamprey (Fig. 11). Length 
up to 1,000 mm.; color blackish, more or less mottled; buccal funnel 
large, with strong, pointed teeth, the innermost lateral teeth being 
enlarged and usually bicuspid; supraoral lamina with 2 approxi- 
mated cusps; infraoral lamina with 7 to 9 strong cusps; muscle segments 
between gills and anus about 70: North Atlantic along the American, 
European and African coasts; southward to Florida, ascending the 
streams to breed; common in the interior lakes of New York and 
Lake Ontario. 


Fic. 11.—Petromyzon marinus (from Jordan's Guide to the Study of Fishes). 


4. Entosphenus Gill. Marine and fresh water lampreys with 2 
separate dorsal fins; teeth in groups, there being a marginal series 
bordering the edge of the buccal disc, several enlarged teeth on each 
lateral border of the mouth, a group on the anterior and one on the 
posterior part of the disc: 3 species, 1 in Mexico. 

E. tridentatus (Gairdner). Length 450 mm. or more; color dark 
brown; 4 enlarged lateral teeth on a side, the first and last bicuspid, the 
middle two tricuspid; infraoral lamina with 4 to 6 cusps; supraoral 
lamina tricuspid: Pacific Ocean, from Unalaska to southern California, 
ascending the streams, in the Columbia as far as Walla Walla. 

E. ciliatus (Ayres). Muscle segments between gills and anus 57 to 
67: streams of northern California. 

5. Lethenteron Creaser and Hubbs. Similar to Entosphenus: 
I species. 

L. appendix (DeKay) (E. wilderi Jordan & Evermann) (Fig. 12). 
Length 200 mm.; color bluish black; enlarged lateral teeth 3 on a side, 
all bicuspid; infraoral lamina with 8 to 11 cusps; supraoral lamina 
bicuspid; muscle segments between gills and anus 67 to 73; intestine 
of adult degenerate: in streams from southern New England to Mary- 
land; westward to Wisconsin and Iowa; northward into Canada; in 
eastern Asia. 


FISHES 27 


6. Lampetra Gray. Teeth very few, there being usually 3 enlarged 
two-cusped laterals on each side of the 
mouth; supraoral lamina with 2 separated 
cusps, joined by a bridge: 3 American species. 

L. ayresii (Giinther). Length 350 mm.; 
dorsal fins separated; 63 to 70 muscle seg- 
ments between gills and anus; teeth strong 
and sharp; infraoral lamina with 6 to 9 cusps; 
anterior portion of buccal disc with many 
teeth: coasts and streams of Europe, Asia 
and western North America from San Fran- 
cisco to Puget Sound. 

7. Okkelbergia Creaser and Hubbs. 
Similar to Lampetra: 1 species. ie Dei Yee 

O. lamotteni (LeSueur) CE: epy ptera Lethenteron appendix (from 
Abbott) (Fig. 13). Length 120 mm.; teeth 7/5 % 1s). 
much reduced in number and size; infraoral lamina with a crenulated 
crest and without distinct cusps; lateral teeth sometimes unicuspid 
and more or less obsolescent; anterior portion of buccal disc with 


\ ) 
¥O 


Fic. 13.—Buccal funnel of Okkelbergia lamotteni (from Creaser & Hubbs). 


usually 4 teeth; 54 to 60 muscle segments between gills and anus: in 
the Ohio and Potomac River basins. 


28 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


Subclass 2. Pisces.—The true fishes. Aquatic vertebrates with 
gills which are attached to bony or cartilaginous gill-arches; with true 
jaws; with median fins and usually two pairs of paired fins; in most cases 
with scales; with paired nostrils: 3 divisions. 


Key to the Divisions of Pisces 


a; Skeleton cartilaginous; skull without membrane bones; sharks; 
skates; (all marine, not included in this book)................ 1. Selachit. 
ao Skeleton in most cases bony; skull with membrane bones. 
b; Paired fins each with a segmented cartilaginous axis; respiration 
by gills and lungs (no American species and hence not 
included sin:this*bGOK) Ha. voce oe ac eRe ey 2. Dipnoi. 
bs Fins supported by fin-rays and without central axes.......... 3. Teleostomt. 


Division 3. Teleostomi.—Skeleton usually bony; skull covered 
with membrane bones separated by sutures; a single gill opening on each 
‘ side, the gills being supported by 4 pairs of arches in most cases, and 
covered by the opercles; air bladder mostly present: 2 series. 


Key to the Series of Teleostomi 


a; Skeleton” cartilaginous Gr bony... >. . 4.2 noes sree 1. Ganoidei (p. 28). 
aN SICE EEO DOI Yau. osu eo an oe Mors rere ee oe ee fee 2. Teleostei (p. 33). 


Series 1. Ganoidei.—The ganoid fishes. Fishes with either car- 
tilaginous or bony skeleton; with heterocercal or homocercal caudal fin; 
with either ganoid or cycloid scales or bony dermal plates; with an air 
bladder provided with an open duct connecting it with the pharynx or 
the cesophagus; with an arterial bulb with several pairs of valves; and 
with an intestinal spiral valve: 2 American orders, with about 13 Ameri- 
can species. 


Key to the American Orders of Ganoidei 


a, Ganoids without scales, with the body either naked or 


with bony plates; skeleton cartilaginous............. 1. Chondrostei (p. 28). 
a. Ganoids with the body covered either with ganoid or 
cycloid scales; skeleton) bouysse. 52) pes se cee 2. Holostei (p. 31). 


Order 1. Chondrostei.—Cartilaginous ganoids. Fish of large 
size and with the skeleton cartilaginous; notochord persistent; branch- 
iostegal rays weak or wanting; mouth ventral beneath a long snout; 
body naked or with bony plates; tail heterocercal: 2 suborders. 


Key to These Suborders 


aa. Body naked.’ aicajatles Stic wpa peien ote ahahate ot tetas Shar ete ar sons has 1. Selachostomt. 
a2 Body more or less covered with bony plates...............--- 2. Glaniostomi. 


FISHES 29 


Suborder 1. Selachostomi.—Skin naked: 1 family. 

Family Polyodontidz.—The paddle-fishes.- Body without scales 
and smooth; snout spatulate and very long; teeth minute, present 
only in the young; opercles rudimentary, prolonged behind on each 
side to form a long flap; spiracles present; 1 branchiostegal ray; air 
bladder cellular: 2 species and genera, 1 in China (Psephurus gladius). 

Polyodon Lacépéde. Gill-rakers very fine and numerous: 1 species. 

P. spathula (Walbaum). Spoonbill; paddle-fish. Extreme length 
1,800 mm.; extreme weight 150 lbs.; color olivaceous; head, with 
opercle, more than half the length of the body; spatula one-third the 
total length: Mississippi Valley; French Broad, North Carolina; Lake 
Erie; often common in the larger streams and lakes, where it feeds on 
small organisms in the mud; used for food and the roe made into caviar. 

Suborder 2. Glaniostomi.—Skin with bony scales; sturgeons: 
1 family. 

Family Acipenseridz.—Sturgeons. Large fish with 5 longi- 
tudinal rows of keeled bony plates on the body, a middorsal series and a 
lateral and an abdominal series on each side, between which are small 
plates or granules; mouth ventral and toothless, in front of which pro- 
jects a long snout; 4 barbels in a transverse row in front of the mouth; 
gill-slits 4, with an accessory opercular gill; no branchiostegal rays; 
ventral fins posterior; median fins with spine-like projections called 
fulcra: about 20 species; 7 species and 3 genera in America. 


Key to the Genera of Acipenseride 


MP SPER LC SIT ESEI Gar feats sence eer ie oe Me ere eae s 1. Acipenser. 
az Spiracles absent. 
b, Belly covered with subrhombic plates..............2. Scaphirhynchus. 
| Seer BNET, omy ECG As Am ene a Me Ae Rg ee Sh tt ee 3. Parascaphirhynchus. 


1. Acipenser L. Snout subconical; a small spiracle above the eye; 
tail subcylindrical and not mailed; pseudobranchiz present: cosmo- 
politan, in northern waters, both fresh and salt; 5 species in America; 
the marine species ascend the rivers to breed; the flesh is used for food, 
the eggs are made into caviar and the air bladder into isinglass; the 
food of sturgeons consists of small fishes, crayfish, snails, etc. 


Key to the American Species of Acipenser 


a; In the eastern and central States. 
b; In the Atlantic Ocean and its tributaries. 
c, Space between dorsal and lateral plates with 5 to 10 
Pore SHOU SING DALES eet fete Pectin ni Said serane se & ss. ot A. oxyrhynchus. 


Bor. VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


co Space between dorsal and lateral plates with very many 


seres Of miiute plates s..3..seteu< 1 aia one ee A. brevirostrum. 
by In the Great Lakes and upper Mississippi Valley......... 4. fulvescens. 
ao On the Pacific slope. 
br uateral plates anout:A4qc tific vente «2 eta oe ees 4. transmontanus. 
bs Wuateral: plates’ 20:60 30% ..> ashe false ene eee eee A. acutirostris. 


A. oxyrhynchus Mitchill. Common sturgeon. American sturgeon. 
Extreme length 3,600 mm.; extreme weight 550 lbs.; head 3.5; depth 
5-75; color olive gray, lighter below; dorsal plates 1o to 14; laterals 
27 to 29; ventrals 8 to 11; rays of dorsal fin 38; anal 27; snout long and 
sharp, almost as long as the head: Atlantic Ocean and its tributary 
streams from Main to South Carolina; often common; a valuable food 
fish. 


Fic. 14.—Acipenser fulvescens (from Jordan & Evermann). 


A. brevirostrum LeSueur. Short-nosed sturgeon. Length 800mm.; 
head 4; depth 5.5; color dusky; snout very short, about a quarter the 
length of the head; dorsal plates 8 to 11; laterals 22 to 33; ventrals 6 to 
9; rays of dorsal fin 41; anal 22: Cape Cod to Florida; not common. 

A. fulvescens Rafinesque. Lake sturgeon (Fig. 14). Length 1,800 
mm.; head 3.5; depth 5.75; average weight 50 lbs.; extreme weight 
too lbs.; color dark olive, often with large irregular blackish spots; 
sides paler or reddish; dorsal plates 11 to 15; laterals 38; ventrals 10; 
rays of dorsal fin 35; anal 26; plates large and rough in the young, 
becoming smoother and often lost with age:.basin of the Great Lakes 
and the Mississippi Valley and northwards; abundant; the largest fish 
in these regions. 

A. transmontanus Richardson. White sturgeon. Length 1,500 
mm.; head 4; depth 7; weight 125 lbs.; record length 4,000 mm. ; record 
weight 1,000 lbs.; color dark gray; dorsal plates 11; laterals 44; ventrals 
to to 12; rays of dorsal fin 45; anal 28: Pacific Ocean from Alaska to 
Monterey, ascending the streams, in which it may remain throughout 
the year. 

A. acutirostris Ayres. Green sturgeon. Length 2,000 mm.; head 
4.25; depth 7.5; weight 350 lbs.; color olive green, with a midventral 
stripe and one on each side above the ventral plates; dorsal plates 10; 


FISHES AE 


laterals 26 to 30; ventrals 7 to 10; rays of dorsal fin 35; anal 28: Pacific 
Ocean from San Francisco northwards, ascending the streams; not used 
for food. 

2. Scaphirhynchus Heckel. Snout broad and shovel-shaped; spir- 
acles absent; caudal peduncle slender, long and flattened, and covered 
with bony plates; pseudobranchiz absent; tail ending in a long filament; 
ribs 10 or IT: I species. 

S. platorynchus (Rafinesque). Shovel-nosed sturgeon. Length 
1,200 mm.; head 4; depth 8; weight 9 lbs.; color pale olive; dorsal plates 
17 or 18; laterals 41 to 46; ventrals 11 to 13; rays of dorsal fin 32; anal 
20: upper and middle Mississippi Valley; common. 

3. Parascaphirhynchus Forbes and Richardson. Like Scaphi- 
rhynchus but with the belly naked; ribs 20 or 21: 1 species. 

P. albus F. and R. White sturgeon. Length 1,000 mm.; weight 
5 lbs.; color very light gray or white; dorsal plates 16 to 19; laterals 
41 to 47; ventrals 10 to 13; rays of dorsal fin 35 to 43; anal 20 to 23: 
Mississippi and Missouri Rivers; rare. 

Order 2. Holostei.—The bony ganoids. Skeleton bony; branch- 
iostegals present; mouth terminal and with teeth; body covered with 
ganoid or cycloid scales; tail heterocercal; air bladder cellular and lung- 
like and connected by a sort of glottis with the cesophagus: 2 suborders, 
with 5 American species. 


Key to These Suborders 


Pe CALE SUP ANOIG Meh cres nt Meet asi. se Tee eM we bude ayers Se 1. Ginglymodi (p. 31). 
Umea COCO yt these In He See SoA Sand aces ayo, 2. Halecomor phi (p. 32)- 


Suborder 1. Ginglymodi.—Scales ganoid, rhombic in shape; 
vertebre opisthoccelous: 1 family. 

Family Lepisosteidz.—The garpikes. Body elongate and sub- 
cylindrical, with rhombic ganoid scales; jaws elongate, forming a 
long slender snout, the upper jaw of which is composed mostly of 
the premaxillaries; opercle supporting an acessory gill; branchiostegals 
3; spiracles absent; spiral valve rudimentary; rays of both dorsal and 
anal fins 8: 3 genera. 


Key to These Genera 


a; Snout more than twice the length of the rest of the head...... 1. Lepisosteus. 
a2 Snout not longer than the rest of the head. 

b, Large teeth in upper jaw in a single row..................2. Cylindrosteus. 
be Large teeth in upper jaw in 2 rows on each side...........3. Alractosteus. 


32 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


1. Lepisosteus Lacépéde (Lepidosteus Agassiz). Palatine teeth 
uniform; snout very long and narrow: about 1 species in the fresh 
waters of North America, and one (ZL. tropicus Gill) in Central America; 
flesh usually not used for food, except in the southern States. 

L. osseus (L.). Common garpike. Length 1,300 mm.; head 3; 
depth 10 to 13; color olivaceous, silvery below; hinder parts with 
black spots; very young animals with a black lateral band; scales 
in lateral line about 62: Great Lakes and Mississippi Valley to the 


SSE /, 
See SEG 
ee 


= <a 
a 
—— 


Fic. 15.—Atractosteus tristechus (Jordan & Evermann). 


Rio Grande; Atlantic and Gulf slope from Vermont southwards; in 
rivers and lakes, sometimes entering the sea; common. 

2. Cylindrosteus Rafinesque. Palatine teeth uneven; snout short 
and broad: 5 species. 

_C. platostomus Rafinesque. Short-nosed gar. Length goo mm.; 
head 3 to 3.9; depth 8 to 10; color olivaceous, but darker than L. osseus; 
scales in lateral line 56: Great Lakes and Mississippi Valley to Rio 
Grande; common; more so southwards. 

3. Atractosteus Rafinesque. Snout broad; large teeth in upper 
jaw in 2 rows on each side: 3 species. 

A. tristechus (Block and Schneider). Alligator gar (Fig. 15). 
Length up to 6,000 mm.; head 3.7; depth 8; color greenish, paler below; 
scales in lateral line 60: southern States, north to the Ohio and Illinois 
Rivers. 

Suborder 2. Halecomorphi.—Scales cycloid in shape; vertebre 
amphiccelous: 1 family. . 

Family Amiidz.—The bowfins. Body fusiform, compressed, 
with cycloid, imbricated scales; head subconical, covered with a hard 
bony helmet; snout short; branchiostegals 10 or 12; no opercular 
gill or pseudobranchiz; dorsal fin very long; tail convex behind, some- 
what heterocercal; lateral line present: 1 genus. 

Amia L. (Amiatus Rafinesque). With the characters of the 
family: 1 species. 

A. calva L. Dogfish; bowfin (Fig. 16). Length 450 to 600 mm.; 
head 3.7; depth 4 to 4.5; color dark olive or blackish, with traces of 


FISHES 33 


dark reticulate markings on the sides; paler below; male with a round 
black spot edged with orange at the base of the tail; dorsal fin with 
48 rays; anal io to 12; scales 67: eastern and central States, southward 
to Florida and Texas; northward to Vermont and Minnesota; common; 
in lakes and sluggish waters; not used for food. The eggs are deposited 
in a nest formed by the male in a gravelly or sandy bottom, who then 
guards them and also the young after they are hatched. 


X 
Pees 
x 


Fic. 16.—Amia calva (Jordan & Evermann). 


Series 2. Teleostei.—The bony fishes. Fishes with a bony 
skeleton and with usually a homocercal, never a heterocercal, tail; 
scales cycloid or ctenoid, or wanting; opercles present; air bladder 
usually present, but without cells and usually with a more or less 
rudimentary pneumatic duct, or none; without spiral valve; arterial 
bulb with a single pair of valves: many orders; 17 orders in the fresh 
waters of the United States. 


Key to These Orders of Teleostei 


a, Ventral fins, if present, abdominal (Fig. 3) in posi- 
tion; in eels absent. ; 
b; Head without scales. 
c; Fins without spines. 
d, Ventral fins present. 
e: Branchiostegals 4 or more; lake white- 
fish and herring, salmon, trout...... 1. Isospondyli (p. 34). 
e. Branchiostegals 3. 
f, Pseudobranchie present (rarely ab- 
sent); suckers, carp, dace, minnows 3. Eventognathi (p. 50). 
fo Pseudobranchiez absent (but one 
species in United States)......... 4. Heterognathi (p. 85). 
d; Ventral fins absent; eels................. 2. Enchelycephali (p. 50). 
c; Fins with spines. 
d, Barbels present; body scaleless; catfish... 5.*Nematognathi (p. 85). 
dy No barbels present. 
e; Body covered with scales; trout-perch.. 8. Salmoperce (p. tot). 
e> Body without scales, and either naked 
or with bony plates; sticklebacks....11. Thoracostei (p. 102). 


34 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


by Head wholly or partly scaly. 
c,; Lateral line wanting, or when present, imper- 
fect and median in position. 
d, Lateral margin of upper jaw formed of the 
maxillaries, the premaxillary being short; 


pikes piekerels etnies ees oe 6. 


d. Upper jaw formed by the premaxilary; 
kaillish scayvehish< arcsec ere sek ee 7 
co Lateral line ventral] in position (but one species 


in the United States): garhsh.. 3202 9a 10. 


ao Ventral fins thoracic or jugular (Fig. 3) in position, 
(except in the Atherinid@). 
b; Fins without spines. 


cy Head:symametrical:-burbots!. 2. G20. cs.)65 25% Ea 
c; Head asymmetrical; fatiish 2020... os see £3: 


be Fins with spines. 


c, Anus jugular in position; pirate-perch....... Q. 


c. Anus normal in position. 
d,; Body uniformally covered with scales. 


e; Spinous dorsal fin with less than 16 spines. 


f, Spinous dorsal with 6 to 15 spines; 


Spiny frayed fishesa(...ssaeee tines 14. 


f. Spinous dorsal with 2 to 8 spines; 


eo Spinous dorsal fin with 16 or more 


SDileS: SULMSMES sm.) eorre Moser tains ree TS: 


d. Body without scales or irregularly scaled; 


SCUlpIS! Peer nas cee eee ee 16. 


Order 1. Isospondyli.—Herring; salmon; 


Haplomi (p. 90). 
Cyprinodontes (p. 93) 


Synentognathi (p. 102) 


Anacanthini (p. 104). 
Heterosomata (p. 105). 


Xenarchi (p. tot). 


Acanthopteri (p. 105). 


. Gobioidea (p. 133). 


Holconoti (p. 130). 


Cataphracti (p. 130). 


trout. Fishes with 


unmodified anterior vertebre; lower pharyngeal arch simple, not 
falciform; head not scaly; maxillary distinct from the premaxillaries 
and forming part of the margin of the upper jaw; no barbels; air bladder, 
if present, with a pneumatic duct; fins without spines; ventral fins 
abdominal; scales usually cycloid, sometimes ctenoid, occasionally 
wanting: 20 to 25 families, mostly marine; 2 suborders and 7 families in 


fresh water. 


Key to These Suborders 


a1; INO-ddipose: fin: Presenty..cs cj. 2 bw rates 4 osc leieininetoaee 
dg Adipose fit: pReSGme en sor seas nihesks etnies ae 


.1. Clupeoidet (p. 34). 
.2. Salmonoidei (p. 37). 


Suborder 1. Clupeoidei.—Herring-like fishes; no adipose fin: 3 


fresh water families. 


FISHES 35 


Key to These Families 


MeL al MEME MPILES EMEA eke sets x's ccs pn hg Sateen ete eens eee 1. Hiodontide. 
ay Lateral line absent. 
b,; Last rays of dorsal fin much elongated.....................2. Dorosomide. 
Eee OESAlM phe MORIA ery, asec Scccss Salt. ¢ ovate asim nari ae ane at 3. Clupeide. 


Family 1. Hiodontidze.—The mooneyes. Body oblong, com- 
pressed, covered with silvery cycloid scales, short; mouth terminal, 
oblique; tail forked; branchiostegals 8 to 10; lateral line present; 
teeth on jaws, margin of the tongue, vomer, sphenoid, hyoid, pterygoid 
and palatines; eyes very large; no pseudobranchie; 1 pyloric appendage: 
2 genera. 

1. Hiodon LeSueur. Dorsal fin with 12 rays: 2 species, of little 
food value. 


Af) 
a 


Fic. 17.—Hiodon tergisus (Jordan & Evermann). 


H. tergisus LeSueur (Fig. 17). Mooneye; silver bass. Length 
300 mm.; head 4.3; depth 3; color olivaceous with silvery sides; rays 
of dorsal fin 12; anal 28; scales 5-55-7; belly behind ventrals somewhat 
carinated: basin of the Mississippi River; Great Lakes; common in 
large streams. 

H. selenops Jordan & Bean. Body elongate; length 300 mm.; 
head 4.1; depth 4; color clear silvery; rays of dorsal fin 12; anal 27; 
scales 50: Tennessee, Cumberland and Alabama Rivers; rare. 

2. Amphiodon Rafinesque. Dorsal fin with 9 rays: 1 species. 

A. alosoides. (Rafinesque). Mooneye. Length 300 mm.; head 
4.5; depth 3.5; color bluish; sides silvery, with a golden lustre; rays 
of dorsal fin 9; anal 32; scales 6-56-9; belly in front of ventrals cari- 
nated: Ohio River basin and Great Lakes region to the Saskatchewan; 
common northwards. 

Family 2. Dorosomidz.—Body short and deep, strongly com- 
pressed; scales cycloid; belly carinated; no lateral line; mouth toothless, 


6 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


On 


small; branchiostegals 6; pseudobranchie large; eyelid adipose; anal 
fin very long and low; tail forked: 1 genus. 

Dorosoma Rafinesque. With the characters of the family: 10 
species of mud-feeding fishes, in warm seas and rivers; 1 in the United 
States. 

D. cepedianum (LeSueur). Gizzard shad; mud shad. Length 
375 mm.; head 4.3; depth 2.5; color silvery, being bluish above; rays 
of dorsal fin 12, its posterior ray very long and extending back half 
the distance to the tail; rays of anal fin 31; scales 56-23; stomach like 
a fowl’s gizzard: Cape Cod to Mexico, in the sea and ascending the 
rivers; Mississippi Valley; introduced into Lakes Erie and Michigan 
and in ponds from New Jersey to Texas; common; of little food value. 

Family 3. Clupeidz.—Herring; shad. Body oblong or elongate, 
covered with cycloid scales; mouth large and terminal; teeth feeble 
or wanting; maxillaries formed of 2 or 3 pieces and forming side of 
upper jaw; pseudobranchie 6 to 15; no lateral line; branchiostegals 
6 to 15; tail forked: about 30 genera and 150 species, mostly marine, 
inhabiting all seas; a few species live in fresh water and several marine 
ones enter streams to spawn. A number of marine species, such as 
the common herring, Clupea harengus L., the alewife, Pomolobus 
pseudoharengus (Wilson), the shad, Alosa sapidissima (Wil.), the 
European sardine Clupanodon pilchardus (Walbaum) and the men- 
haden, Brevoortia tyrannus (Latrobe), swim in large, often immense, 
schools, and are very important food fish. 


Key to the Fresh Water Genera of Clupeide 


Ae LAWS Wall Peet Nuctcare cic cls ches bee tetra mete eed ieee 1. Pomolobus. 
Age PANVS UGOLIMESS Sen. oan tuete epi hae Sle ican Wades ie eee ce oe a 2. Alosa. 


1. Pomolobus Rafinesque. Body eliptical, compressed; scales 
cycloid; teeth feeble: many species, mostly in northern seas. 

P. chrysochloris Raf. Skipjack. Length 375 mm.; head 3.75; depth 
3.75; color brilliant blue above; sides silvery, with golden reflections; 
rays of dorsal fin 16; anal 18; scales 52; lower jaw projecting: Mis- 
sissippi1 Valley and Gulf of Mexico; common in the larger streams; 
introduced into Lake Erie and Michigan; of no food value. 

P. pseudoharengus (Wilson). Alewife. Length 375 mm.; head 4.6; 
depth 3.3; color bluish above, with silvery sides; a small black spot 
behind the opercle; rays of dorsal fin 16; anal 19; scales 50: Atlantic 
Ocean, south to South Carolina, entering the streams to spawn; in 
Lake Ontario and the lakes of central New York; very common. 


FISHES a7 


2. Alosa Cuvier. Body elliptical, compressed; jaws toothless; 
upper jaw with a deep notch at the tip: 3 American species. 

A. sapidissima (Wilson). Shad. Length 750 mm.; head 4.25; 
depth 3; color bluish above; sides silvery; a dark spot, or a row of 
several, behind the opercle; gill-rakers 60, very long and slender; rays 
of dorsal fin 15; anal 21; scales 60: Atlantic Ocean, Newfoundland to the 
Carolinas, ascending the streams to spawn; common; introduced into 
the Pacific Ocean, and very common from San Diego to Fort Wrangel; 
the most valuable food fish in the eastern States. 

A. alabame Jordan & Evermann. Length 375 mm.; head 4.6; 
depth 3; color like A. sapidissima; rays of dorsal fin 15; anal 20; scales 
55: streams entering the Gulf of Mexico. 

A. ohiensis Evermann. Length 375 mm.; head 4.5; depth 3.6; 
body very long and slender and compressed; rays of dorsal fin 18; anal 
18: Ohio River at Louisville; rare. 

Suborder 2. Salmonoidei— Whitefish; salmon; trout. Body 
elongate, more or less elliptical, covered with cycloid scales; mouth 
terminal; maxillary, with supplementary maxillary, forming the side of 
the upper jaw; tail forked; pseudobranchie present; no barbels; lateral 
line present; air bladder large; pyloric caeca very numerous; posterior 
dorsal fin adipose: 4 families and numerous species in the fresh waters of 
the United States. 


Key to the Families of Salmonoidei 


a; Branchiostegals 10 to 20. 


b; Mouth small; upper jaw extending to the eye (Fig. 18)....1. Coregonide. 
be Mouth large; upper jaw extending back of the eye (Fig. 
ES see RE ee ee ES es ke Tk beh in tO A TE ELI ER 
a2 Branchiostegals 6 to ro. 
MeOOSAL fin, Very LONE. eye tee Ie. tote 2 ae gohan 3. Thymallide. 
osduatsalannieshartes coh. is caer ene Bo ee anen eh eet 4. Osmeride. 


Family 1. Coregonidze.—Mouth usually small; the maxillary 
extending to a point in front of or beneath the anterior border of the 
eye; dentition feeble; flesh white: 5 genera, 1 in Arctic America, in 
lakes and rivers. 


Key to the Genera of Coregonide in the United States 


a; Lower jaw shorter than the upper; premaxillaries broad, with the 
cutting edge vertical or directed backwards. 
b, Gill-rakers long and slender, with 17 to 20 on lower limb...... 1. Coregonus. 


38 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


be Gill-rakers short, with 12 to 16 on lower limb.............. 2. Prosopium. 


3. Trillion. 
ay Lower jaw usually longer than the upper; premaxillaries with the 
cutting edge horizontal or directed forwards................. 4. Leucichthys. 


1. Coregonus L. Whitefish. Body elongate, compressed; head 
small; mouth small; teeth minute or wanting; pseudobranchiz large; 
air bladder very large: 18 species, in clear lakes in the northern hemi- 
sphere, those in Arctic America descending to the sea; 1 species in the 
United States. 

C. clupeaformis (Mitchill) (Fig. 18). Common whitefish. Length 
600 mm. or more; greatest weight about 23 lbs.; head 4.5 to 5; depth 3.5 


Zaes 


ae 
rons 


s<Z 
— 
Soo 


yy 
poss 

SS 

SSS 


Fic. 18.—Coregonus clupeaformis (from Jordan & Evermann). 


to 4; color olivaceous above; sides white; rays of dorsal fin 11; anal 11; 
scales 72 to 86, usually over 75; branchiostegals g to 1o; gill-rakers 
long and slender: Great Lakes and neighboring waters, and north- 
ward to the Arctic Ocean; abundant; the most valuable food fish in the 
Great Lakes. The whitefish feeds on small crustaceans and mollusks 
and lives most of the year in deep water, but in the fall and early winter, 
at spawning time, it approaches the shores. 

2. Prosopium Milner. River whitefish. Body slender; head short 
gill-rakers short and thick, 12 to 16 on the lower limb; no teeth on the 
jaws: 10 species; in northern America; 6 in the United States. 


Key to the United States Species 


a, Species in the eastern and central States. 


b; Upper jaw reaching beyond the front margin of eye...... P. stanleyi. 
bo, Upper4jawnot, reaching the eye. s. <2 2 oo faeces P. quadrilateralis. 
ae Species inthe tar westi2. 1; jarca s a winra toed aso Paha a een P. williamsoni. 
P. coulteri. 
P. spilonotus. 
P. abyssicola. 


FISHES 39 


P. stanleyi Kendall. Length 230 mm.; head 4.5; depth 4.3; color 
of back blue-black; sides and belly yellowish; body of male and of 
many females covered with white tubercles; rays of dorsal fin 10; anal 
t1; scales 10-82-7: lakes of Maine; abundant. 

P. quadrilateralis Richardson. Menominee whitefish; frosttfish. 
Length 300 mm.; head 5.5; depth 4.5; color dark bluish above; silvery 
beneath; rays of dorsal fin 11; anal 12; scales 8-g0-7; branchiostegals 8; 
gill-rakers short and stout; body slender and elongate: the upper Great 
Lakes and northward; lakes of the Adirondack region and of New 
England; common. 

P. williamsoni Girard. Rocky Mountain whitefish. Length 4oo 
mm.; head 4.5 to 5; depth 4 to 5; color bluish above; sides silvery; tins 
tipped with black; rays of dorsal and anal fins ro to 13; scales 8 to 10-78 
to 88-7 or 8; body elliptical, but little compressed; head short, conic: 
from western Montana into Washington and Oregon; southward in 
Nevada to the Truckee; common in clear streams and lakes. 

P. coulteri Eigenmann & Eigenmann. Length 200 mm.; color dull 
silvery; rays of dorsal and anal fins to to 11; scales 8-60 to 63-6; body 
heavy; snout blunt: head waters of the Columbia; rare. 

P. spilonotus (Snyder). Length 200 mm.; color silvery, spotted 
with dusky spots, which disappear with age; dorsal and anal fins with 
II rays each; scales 11-80-8; maxillary reaches eye: Bear Lake, Idaho, 
in deep water. 

P. abyssicola (Snyder). Length 225 mm.; color silvery; rays of 
dorsal fin 10, of ventral fin 11; scales 8-75-7; maxillary very short, not 
reaching the eye: Bear Lake, Idaho, in deep water. 

3. Trillion Jordan. Similar to Prosoprum, but with a very long 
sharp snout, and a large adipose fin: 1 species. 

I. oregonius (Jordan & Snyder). Chisel-mouth jack. Length 
425 mm.; head 4; depth 5; color silvery; rays of dorsal and anal fins 12; 
scales 9-86-6; body long and slender; snout very long, with a fleshy 
tip; adipose fin very large: basin of the Columbia; common. 

4. Leucichthys Dybowski. Ciscoes; lake herrings. Similar to 
Coregonus but differing from it in having a larger mouth and longer 
jaws, the premaxillaries being horizontal in position and the lower jaw 
usually more or less projecting; gill-raker very long and slender; jaws 
toothless: numerous species, in the northern hemisphere, 19 in the 
United States, 8 in Arctic America; all valuable food fishes. 

L. harengus (Richardson). Length 300 mm.; head 4.3; depth 4.5; 
body elongate; color dark bluish above; silvery on the sides; rays of 
dorsal fin 11; anal 12; scales 10-83-9; adipose fin very small: shallow 


40 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


waters of Lake Superior, Huron and Michigan; deep waters of New 
~ York lakes; variable; very abundant. 

L. ontariensis J. & E. Length 300 mm.; head 4.5; depth 4; color 
dark blue above, silvery on the sides; rays of dorsal fin 10; anal 11; 
scales 9-76-8; body elongate, elliptical, pale in color: Lakes Ontario and 
Cayuga; common. 

L. artedi (LeSueur). Common lake herring. Length 300 mm.; 
head 4.5; depth 3 to 4; color gray or greenish; sides silvery; adipose 
fin large; rays of dorsal fin 10; anal 12; scales 8-69 to 75-7; body elliptical; 
head long, compressed and pointed: Great Lakes, and neighboring small 
lakes; very variable; very abundant, occurring along the shores in 
immense schools; the most important of the lake herrings commercially. 

L. eriensis (J. & E.). Jumbo herring. Length 450 mm.; head 4.4; 
depth 3.4; color dark above, without blue shades; rays of dorsal fin 10; 
anal fins 11; scales 71; body very deep and robust: Lake Erie, especially 
in the northern portion, occasionally in Lake Huron; abundant; the 
best of the lake herrings as a food fish. 

L. supernas J. & E. Head 4.4; depth 4; color silvery; rays of dorsal 
fin 10; anal 12; scales 8-76-7; lower jaw projecting: Lake Superior, in 
deep water. 

L. reighardi Koelz. Length 225 mm.; body terete; head short; 
snout truncate; scales 75; fins edged with black: upper Great 
Lakes. 

L. alpene Koelz. Length 375 mm.; scales 80; body elongate: 
Lakes Michigan and Huron. 

L. kiyi Koelz. Body slender, small; head long and pointed; color 
silvery; the back densely pigmented; scales 84: Great Lakes, very 
abundant in deep water. 

L. bergei (Wagner). Body slender; scales 70; color pale; upper fins 
dark-edged: Green Lake, Wisconsin; in deep water. 

L. prognathus (H. M. Smith). Long-jaw. Length 375 mm.; head 
4.3; depth 3.5 to 4; color dusky above; sides silvery; rays of dorsal fin 9 
or 10; anal 10 to 12; scales 9-75-8; body thick; back elevated; mouth 
large; mandible projecting and very long, reaching to the hinder margin 
of the eye or beyond: Lake Ontario and other Great Lakes, in deep 
water; spawning in the summer. 

L. nigripinnis (Gill). Bluefin; blackfin. Length 450 mm.; head 
and depth 4; color dark bluish above; sides silvery, with dark dots; fins 
black; rays of dorsal fin 11; anal 12; scales 8-75-8; body elliptical; 
mouth large: Great Lakes, and small lakes of Wisconsin and Minne- 
sota, in deep water; common. 


FISHES AI 


L. cyanopterus J. & E. Length 320 mm.; head 4; depth 3.75; color 
silvery, bluish above; rays of dorsal fin 10 or 11; anal r1 or 12; scales 
8-76 to 87-7: Lake Superior, in deep water. 

L. hoyi (Gill). Cisco. Length 325 mm.; head and depth 4; color 
bluish above; sides silvery; rays of dorsal fin 10; anal 11 or 12; scales 
7-73-7; body slender; pseudobranchiz very large: Great Lakes; locally 
abundant. 

L. zenithicus (J. & E.). Long-jaw. Length 250 mm.; head 3.8 to 4; 
depth 4 to 4.75; color blue above, silvery on the sides; rays of dorsal fin 
ro or 11; anal 11 or 12; scales 8-77 to 83-7: Lake Superior, in deep 
water. 


Fic. 19.—Leucichthys tullibee (from Jordan & Evermann’s Salmonoid Fishes of the Great 
Lakes). 


L. tullibee (Rich.). Tullibee (Fig. 19). Length 450 mm.; head 4; 
depth 3; color bluish above; sides white with fine dots; rays of dorsal 
and anal fins 12; scales 8 or.9-67 to 74-8; body short, very deep, com- 
pressed; adipose fin large: basin of Lake Winnipeg; small lakes of 
Minnesota and Wisconsin; Lakes of central New York; common. 

Family 2. Salmonidz.—Salmon and trout. Mouth large, the 
maxillary extending to a point behind the eye; dentition strong and 
complete, teeth occurring on the jaws, vomer, palatines and tongue; 
scales small; flesh usually pink or orange in color: 4 genera in the 
United States. 3 


Key to Genera of Salmonide in the United States 


Banat in with 13.t0°r7 rays; Pacific salmon... .....2.25...%-% 1. Oncorhynchus. 
a2 Anal fin with from 9 to 12 rays. 
b; Body not spotted with red. 
Cc: Body spotted with black. 


42 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


d,; Vomerine teeth not numerous and often deciduous; 


Atlantic salmonie 3 4. eee at aa ee 2. Salmo. 
d. Vomerine teeth numerous and persistent; western 
LOU Ss eck 7 oy oes en ee ee 3. Trutta 
cz Body‘spoited wrth gray 24). s-tte ena ce ener aan 4. Cristivomer. 
bs. Body spotted with reds are (ee eee 5. Salvelinus. 


1. Oncorhynchus Suckley. Pacificsalmon. Body elongate, com- 
pressed, elliptical; mouth wide; during the breeding season, in the fall, 
the snout of the male becomes distorted, both upper and lower jaw being 
elongated, the former hooking over the latter, which is itself hooked at 
the tip, the teeth become enormously enlarged, a fleshy hump develops 
in front of the dorsal fin, and the flesh loses its pink color more or less 
completely: 6 species; north Pacific Ocean, ascending the rivers of both 
America and Asia to spawn; the most valuable commercial fishes in the 
country. The king salmon and blueback begin their run up the streams 
generally the last of March and continue it until the spawning season 
in the fall; the other species run only in the fall. The spring and 
summer are when the most valuable catches are made and when the 
fish are in the best condition. The fall catches are of far less commer- 
cial value as the flesh of the fishes is then poor, dry and colorless. 
The fish do not feed during the run, and most of them probably die 
after spawning. The young salmon descend the stream to the sea 
where they feed for a period of years, which for the king salmon is from 
3 to 5 years, before arriving at maturity, when they migrate to the 
spawning grounds. 


Key to the American Species of Oncorhynchus 


a; Gill-rakers short and comparatively few (20 to 25 in number); 


bi Tail with large oblong spots; scales very small............. O. gorbuscha. 
b. Tail without large oblong spots. 
c, Rays of dorsal fin 9; branchiostegals 13 or 14.......... O. keta. 
co Rays of dorsal fin 11; branchiostegals 15 to 19.......... O. tschawytscha. 
cs Rays of dorsal fin 10; branchiostegals 13 or 14.......... O. kisutch. 
ac Gill-rakers long-and'30 to, 4o:in Number. 60s ee ee ee ee ee O. nerka. 
O. kennerlyi. 


O. gorbuscha (Walbaum). Humpback salmon. Weight up to 
6 lbs.; color bluish, sides silvery; hinder part of back, adipose fin, and 
tail with numerous oblong spots; rays of dorsal fin 11; anal 15; scales 
very small, 200 in the lateral line; pyloric ceca 180: Pacific Ocean, 
from central California northwards; common in Alaska; introduced to 
the coast of Maine; of small food value. 


FISHES 43 


O. keta (Walbaum). Dogsalmon. Weight 12 lbs.; head 4; depth 4; 
color dusky above; sides paler; no spots, only fine dots, which may be 
absent; breeding male with brick-red sides, often barred or mottled; 
rays of dorsal fin 9; anal 13 or 14; scales 28-150-30; pyloric ceca 140 to 
185: San Francisco to Bering Straits; of small food value. 

O. tschawytscha (Walbaum). Chinook; king salmon; quinnat 
salmon. Length 600 to 1,500 mm.; usual weight 22 lbs.; extreme weight 
100 lbs.; head 4; depth 4; color dusky above; sides silvery; back and tail 
spotted with small black spots; rays of dorsal fin 11; anal 16; scales 
27-146-29; body robust; flesh red in the spring, becoming paler in the 
fall; pyloric ceca 145 to 185: Ventura river, California, to Alaska; the 
principal salmon in the Columbia and Sacramento Rivers; the most 
important food fish in the country; introduced into eastern America. 

O. kisutch (Walbaum). Silver salmon. Length 375 mm.; weight 
5 lbs.; color bluish green; sides silvery with dark punctulations; no 
spots except a few obscure ones; males mostly red in the fall; rays of the 
dorsal fin 10; anal 13 or 14; scales 25-127-29; pyloric ceca 45 to 80: 
San Francisco northwards; the principal salmon in Puget Sound and in 
the shorter rivers of Oregon and Washington; a very important food 
fish. 

O. nerka (Walbaum). Blueback; redfish. Length 600 mm.; 
weight 6 lbs.; head 4; depth 4; color bright blue above and without 
spots; sides silvery; breeding male blood red above, white below; rays 
of dorsal fin 11; anal 14 to 16; scales 20-133-20; body rather slender; 
flesh deep red: California to Alaska; the principal salmon of the Fraser 
River and of Alaska; after the king salmon the most important member 
of the genus commercially. 

O. kennerlyi (Suckley). Similar to O. nerka in structure, but about 
half its size when mature: Oregon and northwards into Alaska; in 
mountain lakes. 

2. Salmo L. Salmon. Body elongate; mouth large; dorsal and 
anal fins usually with 10 to 12 rays each; body usually spotted with 
black: about 30 species in the United States, mostly in the west. 

S.salarL. Atlanticsalmon. Length to 1,500 mm.; average weight 
15 lbs.; body slender, elliptical; head 4; depth 4; rays of dorsal fins 11; 
anal g; scales 23-120-21; color brownish above; sides silvery, with 
numerous black spots all over; young with 11 dusky cross bars, and 
spots and red patches: north Atlantic Ocean, ascending the rivers north 
of Cape Cod, and occasionally as far south as the Delaware; sometimes 
landlocked in lakes; an important game fish: northern Europe, as far 
south as northern Spain. The salmon enters the rivers in the spring to 


44 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


feed, but probably returns to the sea before spawning, and again ascends 
late in the fall for that purpose. 


Subspecies of S. salar 


S. s. sebago Girard. Smaller and non-migratory; average weight 2 
lbs.: Sebago Pond, Maine, and other lakes to the northward. 

S. s. ouananiche Jordan & Evermann. Average weight 2 lbs.; 
teeth, fins and eyes very large: Lake St. John and other lakes in Quebec. 

3. Trutta L. Trout. Similar to Salmo; vomerine teeth numerous; 
scales moderate or small, numbering 115 to 200: many species, all on 
the Pacific Slope and in the Rocky Mountain region, and allied to the 
European and Asiatic trout. 

T. clarkii Richardson. Cutthroat trout; black-spotted trout (Fig. 
20). Length up to 400 mm. or more; weight up to 20 lbs.; head 4; 


Fic. 20.—Trutta clarkii (from Jordan & Evermann). 


depth 4; rays of dorsal fin 10; anal 10; scales 39-160 to 170-30; body 
elongate; head short and blunt; pyloric ceca 43; color usually silver 
gray, profusely spotted with black, round spots which may extend on to 
the belly; lower jaw blotched with red (cutthroat); middle of side 
usually with a broad rosy wash: coastal streams and lakes from north- 
ern California to British Columbia and Alaska; up the Columbia River 
basin as far as Shoshone Falls; spawning in the spring and early summer. 

T. lewisi (Girard). Yellowstone trout. Similar to T. clarkii, but 
more robust; spots not extending on the belly: Columbia River basin 
above Shoshone Falls; head waters of the Missouri; Yellowstone Park. 

T. gibbsii (Suckley). Silver trout. Similar to 7. clarkii, but with 
scarcely any red on the lower jaw; scales 140 to 145: Idaho, Oregon 
and Washington between Shoshone Falls and the Cascades. 

T. henshawi Gill & Gordon. Tahoe trout; redfish. Similar to T. 
clarkii; body slender; head pointed; rays of dorsal fin 11; anal 12; 
color green above, sides silvery, with a copper shade; spotted all over: 
lakes and streams on the eastern slope of the Sierras. 

T. tahoensis J. & E. Silver trout. Similar to T. clarki; size very 
large; rays of dorsal fin g; anal 12; scales 33-205-40: Lake Tahoe, in 
deep water. 


FISHES 45 


T. virginalis Gir. Similar to T. clarkii; scales 145; spots small and 
confined to the back; size very large: upper Rio Grande basin; south- 
ward into Mexico. 

T. utah Suckley. Similar to 7. virginalis; color pale: Utah Lake and 
westward of the Wahsatch range. 

T. pleuriticus Cope. Similar to 7. clarkii; scales 185 to 190; size 
large; lower fins red; spots numerous: head waters of the Colorado. 

T. bouviert Bendire. Similar to T. clarkii; spots all behind the dorsal 
fin: Waha Lake, Idaho. 

T. stomias Cope. Green-back. Similar to 7. clarkii; body deep 
green above; spots mostly back of the anal fin: head waters of the 
Arkansas and South Platte. 


Fic. 21.—Trutta gairdneri (from Jordan & Evermann). 


T. macdonaldi J. & E. Yellow-fin. Similar to 7. clarkii; spots 
small and:numerous on hinder part of body, few or none anteriorly; 
lower fins bright yellow; size large: headwaters of the Arkansas. 

T. declivifrons Meek. Similar to 7. clarkii; color dark blue; fore 
part of the body with a sharp upward curve; scales 148; no spots except 
a few on the caudal fin: Lake Southerland, Washington. 

T. jordani Meek. Similar to 7. clarkii; spots very numerous and 
very black; fins orange; scales 146: Lake Southerland, Washington. 

T. gairdnert Richardson. Steelhead trout (Fig. 21). Length 750 
mm.; weight about 4 lbs.; extreme weight 20 lbs.; color olive green 
above; sides silvery; back and sides more or less covered with small 
black spots; sides often with a broad pink stripe; rays of dorsal fin 11; 
anal 12; scales about 150: Pacific Ocean and coastwise streams from 
northern California to British Columbia and northwards; an important 
food and game fish. 

T. beardslei Jordan & Seale. Blue-back. Similar to 7. gairdneri; 
color very dark blue; no lateral rosy band; under parts white, not silvery; 
size large; scales 130: Crescent Lake, Washington. 


46 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


T. crescentis Jordan & Beardslee. Similar to T. gairdneri; color 
very dark blue; spots not numerous; a large black blotch on the cheek: 
Crescent Lake, Washington. — 

T. bathecetor Meek. Length 600 mm.; head 3.5; depth 5.5; scales 
150; rays of dorsal fin 10; anal 11; color blue; spots numerous; form 
slender: Crescent Lake, Washington, in deep water. 

T. irideus Gibbons. Rainbow trout (Fig. 22). Length 375 mm. or 
more; weight about 3 lbs.; head 4; depth 3.8; rays of dorsal fin 11; anal 
10; scales 21-135-20; color bluish above; sides silvery, with a broad pink 
lateral band; back profusely spotted: in mountain brooks of the Coast 
Range of California. 


Fic. 22.—Trutta irideus (from Jordan & Evermann). 


T. shasta Jordan. Rainbow trout. Similar to T. irideus; colora- 
tion rather dark; spots extending at least to the lateral line; scales 145: 
streams of the Sierra Nevada from Mount Shasta southward; the usual 
rainbow trout of the fish culturists, which has been introduced exten- 
sively into the eastern States. : 

T. gilberti Jord. Similar to T. irideus; scales 165; back and sides 
profusely spotted: Kern River, California. 

T. stonei Jord. Similar to T. irideus; size much larger; scales 155; 
spots few, mostly on the hinder part of the body: upper Sacramento 
basin. 

T. agua-bonita Jord. Similar to T. irideus; size very small; scales 
175; sides and belly golden; spots few: south Fork of the Kern River, 
California. 

T. roosevelti Evermann. Golden trout. Length 30 mm.; head 3.5; 
depth 4; rays of dorsal fins 11; anal 11; scales 200; color olive above, 
golden yellow below the lateral line; a broad rosy lateral band crossed 
by ro black blotches and a midventral red stripe present; lower fins 
red; dorsal and caudal fins and tail alone spotted: Volcano Creek, Kern 
River basin, California. 


FISHES 47 


T. whitei Evermann. Golden trout. Similar to TJ. roosevelti; 
back and sides profusely spotted; scales larger; lower fins yellowish; 
no red on throat: in the western tributaries of the Kern River, California. 

T. smaragda Snyder. Greenback. Form slender; scales 124; color 
green above: Pyramid Lake region, Nevada. 

T. aquilarum Snyder. Length 480 mm.; head 4.2; depth 4.2; 
scales 136; color dark olive above; below the lateral line and on belly 
coppery red; a trace of red on the throat; profusely spotted above 
the lateral line: Eagle Lake, California. 

4. Cristivomer Gill & Jordan. Great Lakes trout. Body of large 
size, spotted with gray; scales very small; vomer elongate, with a raised 


Fic. 23.—Cristivomer namaycush (from yA i fs Evermann’s Salmonoid Fishes of the Great 
ares). 

median crest armed with strong teeth; hyoid with a broad band of 

strong teeth: 2 species, which are the largest of the trouts. 

C. namaycush (Walbaum). Mackinaw trout; lake trout (Fig. 23). 
Length 900 mm.; head 4.5; depth 4; average weight 16 lbs.; extreme 
weight oo lbs.; color dark gray, often greenish on the sides, every- 
where with rounded paler spots which are often tinged with reddish; 
rays of dorsal fin rr; anal 11; scales 185 to 205; body elongate; head 
very long; mouth large: northern North America from Maine to Van- 
couver and northward to the Arctic and Alaska; common in the Great 
Lakes, where after the sturgeon, it is the largest fish, and, after the 
whitefish, the most important fish commercially. 

C. siscowet (Agassiz). Similar to C. namaycush, but with a deeper 
body and an excessive development of fatty tissue beneath the skin; 
color paler; scales 175: Lake Superior; abundant in deeper water; also 
in Lakes Huron and Frie. 

5. Salvelinus Nilsson. Brook trout. Body moderately elongate, 
spotted with red; scales very small and imbedded and hidden; vomer 
elongate, with teeth on front end only, hinder portion depressed and 
without teeth; hyoid with weak teeth or none: many species, which live 


48 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


in cold, clear streams in the northern hemisphere, sometimes descending 
into the sea; 5 species in the United States. 

S. fontinalis (Mitchill). Brook trout; speckled trout. Length 200 
mm. or more; weight 1 lb. or more; extreme weight 8 lbs.; head and 
depth 4.5; color of back and sides dark olive, marbled or barred on the 
back and with numerous red spots on the sides, each spot margined with 
brown; lower fins dusky, edged anteriorly with black and orange; rays 
of dorsal fin ro; anal g; scales 37-230-30: Maine to Montana and Sas- — 
katchewan; northward into Labrador; southward in the Appalachian 
Mountains to Georgia; in none of the Great Lakes except Lake Superior; 
introduced into other parts of the country; spawning occurs in the fall, 
the eggs hatching the following spring. 

S. spectabilis (Girard). Dolly Varden trout. Length 500 mm.; 
weight up to 12 lbs.; head 3.6; depth 4; color olivaceous, the sides with 
round red spots nearly the size of the eye, the back with smaller, paler 
ones; rays of dorsal fin 11; anal g; scales 39-240-36; body rather slender: 
east and west slopes of the Cascade Range from the upper Sacramento 
to Montana, and northward into Alaska; common. 

S. alpinus (L.). Saibling; European trout. Length 225 mm.; 
head 4.5; depth 5; color grayish or greenish above, red beneath; sides 
silvery, with round red dots; rays of dorsal fin 13; anal 12; scales 195 to 
200; body elongate, compressed; back not marbled: northern and 
central Europe; introduced into Starling Lake, New York. 

S. aureolus Bean. American saibling. Length 300 mm.; head and 
depth 4.2; color dark green above, without mottling; sides silver gray, 
with small yellow spots; belly orange; fins very large; rays of dorsal fin 
g; anal 8; scales 35-210-40: Sunapee Lake, Maine and other lakes in 
Maine and New Hampshire; probably introduced from Europe. 

S. oquassa (Girard). Blueblack trout. Length 300 mm.; head and 
depth 5; color dark blue above with round red spots on the sides; rays of 
dorsal fin 10; anal 9; scales 230; body slender: Rangeley Lakes, Maine, 
and northwards. 

S. marstoni Garman. Similar to S. oquassa, but with a larger 
mouth and teeth and fewer red spots; rays of dorsal fin 13; anal 13; 
Lac de Marbre, Quebec. 

S. timagamiensis Henn and Rinkenbach. Mouth very large; 
maxillary extending beyond the eye; red spots very few: Timigami 
region, Quebec. 

Family 3. Thymallide.—Graylings. Bodyelongate, compressed, 
slender; head short; mouth terminal; maxillary extending to a point 
below the middle of the eye; tail forked; adipose fin present; dorsal fin 


FISHES 49 


very long and high, with simple anterior and bifurcated posterior rays: 
I genus. 

Thymallus Cuvier. With the characters of the family: 5 species, all 
in the cold waters of the northern hemisphere, 2 in the United States. 

T. tricolor Cope (Fig. 24). Michigan grayling. Length 450; 
head 5; depth 4.6; color purplish gray; sides with small scattered black 
spots back of head; dorsal fin spotted and with rose colored and dark 
stripes; rays of dorsal fin 21 or 22; anal 11; scales 93 to 98: northern 
Michigan; scarce. 


Fic. 24.—Thymallus tricolor (from Jordan & Evermann). 


T. montanus Milner. Montana grayling. Similar to 7. tricolor, but 
with dorsal fins a little smaller and with smaller scales; sides with trans- 
versely elongated spots: upper Missouri basin, above the Great Falls; 
locally abundant. 

Family 4. Osmeridze—Smelts. Body elongate, slender, small, 
covered with usually cycloid scales; head naked; mouth terminal; 
stomach a blind sac, the cardiac and pyloric ends being close together; 
pyloric ceca few or wanting; adipose fin present; tail forked: about 
I5 species, mostly marine, some of the species ascending the streams; 
2 freshwater genera in the United States. 

1. Thaleichthys Girard. Body very slender; scales very small; 
mouth small; teeth very feeble: 1 species in the United States. 

T. pacificus (Richardson). Candlefish. Length 300 mm.; head 
4.75; depth 6; color white, with numerous dark dots above; rays of 
dorsal fin 11; anal 21; scales 75; lower jaw projecting: Oregon to 
Alaska; marine; ascending the streams from the Columbia River north- - 
wards in enormous numbers in the spring; flesh very oily and of*delicious 
flavor; an important food fish; when dried used as candles. 

2. Osmerus L. Body very slender; teeth strong, those on the 
tongue long and fang-like; scales large; 5 species in the United States 
along the shores of both oceans, 1 ascending the streams. 


50 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


O. mordax (Mitchill). American smelt. Length 300 mm.; head 4; 
depth 6.5; color greenish above, with dark dots; sides silvery; rays of 
dorsal fin 10; anal 15; scales 68; mouth large, lower jaw projecting: 
Atlantic Ocean from Virginia to Labrador, ascending the streams in the 
winter to spawn in immense numbers; common in Lake Champlain and 
other lakes; often landlocked; an important food fish. 

O. thaleichthys Ayres. Length 200 mm.; head 4.5; depth 5.5; color 
olivaceous; rays of dorsal fin g; anal 14; scales 55 to 58: Pacific Ocean 
from San Francisco to Alaska, ascending the streams in February. 

Order 2. Enchelycephali.—Body very elongate, cylindrical, with 
minute imbedded scales or none; ventral fins wanting; anterior vertebre 
distinct, without Weberian ossicles; premaxillaries atrophied or absent; 
maxillaries lateral; air bladder, if present, with pneumatic duct; 
opercular and pharyngeal bones more or less deficient; fins without 
spines; gill-openings small; pseudobranchie absent: 1o families, the 
species being mostly marine and tropical; 1 species in the United States. 

Family Anguillide.—FEels. Body very elongate, compressed 
behind; head conical; mouth large, with projecting jaws; operculum 
present; dorsal and anal fins confluent with the caudal; scales minute, 
imbedded and hidden; lateral line present: 1 genus, with 4 or 5 species, 
which occur in fresh, salt and brackish water in all parts of the world 
except the Pacific coasts of North America and the islands of the 
Pacific. . American eels breed in the ocean between the West Indies and 
Bermuda, and die soon after. Spawning may also occur in fresh water. 
The young eels are very different in appearance from their parents and 
are called Leptocephali. During the second spring the young eels ascend 
the streams to feed in fresh water, in which they live several years. 
When they are full grown they descend the streams to the sea; their 
reproductive glands, however, do not mature for several weeks. Eels 
eat fishes, crustaceans and carrion, and are voracious feeders. They 
often travel considerable distances on land, through wet grass. 

Anguilla Shaw. With the characters of the family: several species, 
r in America. 

A. rostrata (LeSueur). Common eel. Length 1,500 mm. or less; 
weight up to 7 lbs.; color brown, often yellowish, paler beneath; head 
8.5; depth 12 to 17: Atlantic Ocean, from Greenland to Brazil; also in 
the West Indies; ascending all the rivers east of the Rockies; not found 
in the Great Lakes above Niagara Falls or the upper Mississippi Valley, 
unless introduced. 

Order 3. Eventognathi.—The suckers and carps. Anterior 
vertebre modified, with Weberian ossicles; fins soft-rayed, being with- 


FISHES 51 


out spines; ventral fins abdominal; no adipose fin; lower pharyngeals 
falcitorm, parallel with the gill-arches; maxillaries perfect; jaws tooth- 
less; no pyloric ceca; air bladder with pneumatic duct: 2 very large 
families of fresh water fishes. 


Key to Families of Eventognathi 


a, Lips usually thick and fleshy; dorsal fin with more 
EU IRU COTA Stee ta pte ceeiicinc TY Oo cud, re Banos ohare CONE: Mote 1. Catostomide. 
a2 Lips thin; dorsal fin with less than ro rays....................2. Cyprinide. 


Family 1. Catostomidz.—Suckers; mullets. Fishes of medium 
size, with an elongate, more or less compressed body covered with 
cycloid scales; head naked, without barbels; jaws toothless; mouth 
usually with thick, fleshy, protractile lips; sides of the upper jaw 
formed by the maxillaries; lower pharyngeal bones with a single 
row of teeth; branchiostegals 3; gill membranes united to the isthmus; 
pseudobranchie present; fins not scaled; dorsal fin often long; anal 
fin short; tail forked; air bladder large, divided into 2 or 3 compart- 
ments: about 15 genera and 7o species, of which 2 occur in eastern 
Asia and the others in the fresh waters of North America. They 
live near the bottom and feed on vegetation and small, inactive animals. 
In the spring they usually ascend the streams to spawn, often in 
swarms. The flesh of most species is not highly valued for food. 


Key to the Genera of Catostomide 


a; Dorsal fin long, with 24 to 30 rays; air bladder in 2 parts. 
bi Scales large, 35 to 41 being in the lateral line. 


1. Ictiobus. 
2. Megastomatobus. 
3. Carpiodes. 
be Scales smaller, about 56 in the lateral line............. 4. Cycleptus. 
a2 Dorsal fin with 9 to 18 rays. 
b; Scales small, 50 or more in the lateral line; air bladder in 
2 parts. 
c; Small species in the Rocky Mountain region; hinder 
diviston of air bladder slender: 0.02. 5.25 ost. --. 8s 5. Pantosteus. 
c. Hinder division of air bladder broad. 
d, No hump back of head. 
e; Mouth inferior, with thick papillose lips. 
Persecles. Small ((OVERSS) sky katie sky -te-x «eis Oe 6. Catostomus. 
fo Scales larger (under 50). 
ped) CONCAVE MNOV EN. <o va" <5 t.we Seer 7. Hypentelium. 
go Head not concave above............... 9. Thoburnia. 
e2 Mouth large, terminal, with thin lips......... 8. Chasmistes. 


is A Dich bomp back of the head... 2. .....2/2200~.. 10. X yrauchen. 


52 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


by Scales larger, 36 to 50 in the lateral line. 
c; Lateral line wanting or incomplete; air bladder in 2 


parts. 
d;. Lateral Ime entirely wanting. co. ar ees =e 11. Erimyzon. 
da. Lateral lineintenmupted:....-... ae eee eee 12. Minytrema. 


co Lateral line complete; air bladder in 3 parts. 
d, Lower lip entire or merely lobed. 
e; Teeth compressed; mouth small..............13. Moxostoma. 
14. Scartomyzon 
eo Lower teeth enlarged and cylindrical; mouth 
EY gk ae in eae ea oe Paneer mary emt sia ienn 16) - 15. Placopharynx. 
d. Lower lip split, forming two separate lobes...... 16. Logochila. 


1. Ictiobus Rafinesque. Buffalo fish. Large, rather stout fishes 
with large head, furrowed opercles and broad subopercles; fontanelle 
present; mouth inferior; lips thin, somewhat plicate; scales large; lateral 


Fic. 25.—Megastomatobus cyprinella (from Jordan & Evermann). 


line prominent; dorsal fin long, the anterior rays being longer than 
the others: 2 species in the United States, 1 in Mexico, all rather 
important food fish. 

T. urus (Agassiz). Black buffalo. Similar to M. cyprinella, but 
with a smaller mouth and a much darker color; head 4; lips thick, 
plicate; dorsal fin with 30 rays; anal 1o; scales 8-41-7: Mississippi 
Valley; less common than M. cyprinella. 

I. bubalus (Raf.). Small-mouthed buffalo. Extreme length goo 
mm.; extreme weight 35 lbs.; head 4; depth 2.5; mouth small, inferior; 
lips thick, plicate; color pale; dorsal fin with 29 rays; anal ro; scales 
8-39-6: Mississippi Valley; common; in the larger rivers. 

2. Megastomatobus Fowler. Similar to Jctiobus; dorsal fin 
elongate; mouth terminal, oblique; lips smooth and thin: 1 species. 


FISHES 53 


M. cyprinella (Cuvier and Valenciennes) (Fig. 25). Common 
buffalo. Length 900 mm.; extreme weight 50 lbs.; head 3.5; depth 
3; color brownish olive; rays of dorsal fin 27 to 29; anal 9; scales 7-37 
to 41-6: Mississippi Valley; common in large streams. 

3. Carpiodes Rafinesque. Carp suckers. Similar to Ictiobus, 
but smaller, pale and silvery in color and with a weak dentition: 
12 species; 5 in Mexico. 


Key to the Species of Carpiodes 


a, In the Mississippi and Great Lakes basins. 
bi Body subfusiform and robust; depth about 3................ C. carpio. 
bs Body thin and compressed; depth about 2.5; opercle striate. 
c: Lips thin and white. 


d,; Snout very blunt, the nostrils being near the tip........C. difformis. 
dowiteadusimalltand pointed... a2. ee cS Ai ae oe 3 eee C. thompsont. 
Ga Leipssemicksandsreddish in COlOL:. oes Agnoee eee: oka e C. velifer. 


Bee Mnb GRA rie SIO Sty. crcias te oe: a. aogs weore eh = Mine A Mesa eee wih ele eee C. cyprinus. 


C. carpio (Raf.). Carp sucker. Extreme length 900 mm.; extreme 
weight to lbs.; head 4 to 5; depth 3; color silvery gray; rays of dorsal 


Fic. 26.—Carpiodes cyprinus (from Jordan & Evermann). 


fin 27; anal 7; scales 36; lips thin: Ohio Valley, southwestward to 
central Texas; abundant. | 

C. difformis Cope. Length 300 mm.; head 4.5; depth 2.5; color 
silvery; snout very blunt; rays of dorsal fin 24, the anterior rays greatly 
elongated; anal 8; scales 6-35-6; dorsal fin very high: Ohio Valley and 
westwards; common. 

C. thompsoni Agassiz. Length 500 mm.; head 4.25; depth 2.5; 
color silvery; rays of dorsal fin 27; anal 7; scales 7-39 to 41-6; head 


54 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


small and pointed: basins of the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence; 
common. 

C. velifer (Raf.). Quillback. Length 300 mm.; head 4; depth 2.5 
to 3; color pale; rays of dorsal fin 26 or 27, the anterior rays twice as long 
as the others; scales 7-37 to 40-6; opercle striate; lips thick and flesh- 
colored in life, the two halves of lower lip meeting at an acute angle: 
Mississippi Valley and southwestward to the Rio Grande; common. 

C. cyprinus (LeSueur). Carp sucker (Fig. 26). Similar to C. 
velifer, but with a smooth opercle; body elongate: streams entering 
Chesapeake Bay; common. 

4. Cycleptus Rafinesque. Body elongate and similar to the two 
previous genera, but with a closed fontanelle; head very small: 1 
species. 

C. elongatus (LeSueur). Blackhorse; Missouri sucker. Length 
750 mm.; head 6 to 8; depth 4 to 5; color blackish; dorsal fin with 30 
rays, the anterior 2 or 3 being much prolonged; anal fin with 7 to 8 
rays; scales 9-56-8; mouth small; upper lip thick and pendant: Missis- 
sippi Valley, often common in large streams; a good food fish. 

5. Pantosteus Cope. Mountain suckers. Body small, elongate, 
similar to Catostomus; lips thick, papillose; mouth ventral, with a 
cartilaginous sheath on each jaw: several species, in the Rocky Moun- 
tain region, all of little food value. 

P. generosus (Girard). Length 200 mm.; head 5; depth 5.5; color 
light brown, with dusky spots; chin, fins and lateral band red in male; 
rays of dorsal fin 9; scales 15-81-14: Great Basin of Utah; very common. 

P. plebeius (Baird & Girard). Length 300 mm.; head 4.6; depth 
4.75; color dark brown with orange lateral markings in male; scales 
80; body stout: basin of the Rio Grande; very common. 

P. delphinus (Cope). Length 300 mm.; head 4.75; color bluish 
above, yellowish below; sides of male rosy; rays of dorsal fin 10; scales 
16-96 to 105-14; tail very slender: basin of the Colorado; very 
common. 

P. jordani Evermann. Length 300 mm.; head and depth 5; color 
dark greenish, speckled; males with orange lateral band; dorsal fin 
with ro or 11 rays; anal with 7 rays; scales 16-90 to 100-14, 48 before 
the dorsal: basin of the upper Missouri and Columbia; generally 
distributed. 

6. Catostomus LeSueur. Fine-scaled suckers. Body elongate; 
mouth rather large, ventral; upper lip thick, papillose and protractile; 
lower lip very large with a broad free margin usually in two more or less 
distinct lobes; scales small; dorsal and anal fins high and rather short: 


FISHES 55 


many species, all North American except C. rostratus Tilesius, which 
occurs in Siberia. 


Key to the Species of Catostomus here described 


a; More than 80 scales in’ the lateral line. 
bi Upper lip broad, with 5 or 6 rows of papille. 
c; Upper lip not projecting; in the Colorado River basin. 
dieinrthe lower Colorado’ basin: .., )..2).2% 2.0.2 bane tee C. latipinnis. 
daeln theaipper, Colorado: basin «30h nt 23 pete ee C. discobolus. 
co Upper lip very long and pendant; in the upper Missouri. .C. griseus. 
bo Upper lip narrow, with about 3 rows of papille. 
e; In thetnorthern United States. cece oe cls ae dette ns C. catostomus. 
sealing Dai rei WON Toye Baier Selene. Wee, Shes cna Ree ae acm ae ue C. tahoensis. 
aa Less than 75 scales in the lateral line. 
b; In the western States. 
c; On the Pacific slope. 


Blip ad leat CN ND KO ca i shear mar etary A Ee cto Aarne ee C. occidentalis. 
C. mniotiltus. 
Got OTEC ONE Belen i ante ite ses 6 oo e.aieneatnt eater 2 C. tsiltcoosensis. 
de tn Oreeortr ana. Calrormaeanatc vs ceca,2 it - ee eee. tes C. snyderi. 
C. microps. 
co In the Great Basin and the Rocky Mountains. 
dj akrom! Oreron to. Montana... snc. oe sites wens os ks C. macrocheilus. 
GLE 1 51 ON 2" RS ee ced a A er Do C. ardens. 
bein the eastern and central Stateési.. 2... ..ssci...<20+-++.6. COmmersontt. 


C. latipinnis Baird &-Girard. Length 600 mm.; head 4; depth 5.5; 
color dark olive; sides and fins orange; rays of dorsal fin 14 or 15; anal 
7; scales 19-89 to 102-18, 46 to 50 before the dorsal fin; lips very thick, 
the lower extending backward to beneath the eye; fins very large: 
basins of the lower Colorado; common. 

C. discobolus Cope. Length 300 mm. or more; head 3.8 to 4.5; 
depth 5.25; rays of dorsal fin 12 or 13; anal 7; scales 19 to 21-101 to 109- 
17 to 21, 52 to 63 before the dorsal fin; mouth as in C. latipinnis; 
muzzle extending to slightly beyond upper lip: upper Colorado basin; 
Montana. 

C. griseus (Girard). Length 500 mm.; head 4; depth 5.5; color 
brown; rays of dorsal fin to to 12; scales 16-go to 110-14; upper lip very 
long and pendant; lower lip deeply incised: upper Missouri basin; 
abundant in the Yellowstone. 

C. catostomus (Forster). Long-nose sucker. Length 750 mm.; 
head 4.5; depth 4.5; rays of dorsal fin 10 to 11; anal 7; scales 14 to 17-95 
to 117-13; upper lip with 2 to 4 rows of tubercles; lower lip deeply 
incised; mouth inferior; head very long and slender, the snout over- 
hanging the mouth: from Maine and the basin of the St. Lawrence 


56 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


and the Great Lakes to southeastern Oregon and the upper Columbia, 
and northward to Alaska; abundant northward; spawning in spring; 
of some food value. 

C. tahoensis Jordan. Red sucker. Similar to C. catostomus, but 
with 83 to g2 scales in the lateral line and a stouter body: region of 
Lake Tahoe; very abundant. 

C. occidentalis Ayres. Length 250 mm.; head 4.5; depth 5; body 
slender; color dark above; dorsal fin with 12 to 14 rays; scales 13-75-10, 
4o before the dorsal fin; middle California; common. 


Pe Ree 


Fic. 27.—Catastomus commersonti (from Jordan & Evermann). 


C. mniotiltus Snyder. Length 200 mm.; head and depth 4.8; rays 
of dorsal fin 12; anal 7; scales 57: Monterey County, California. 

C. macrocheilus Girard. Length 150 mm.; head 4; depth 5; color 
dark, with a darker lateral stripe; rays of dorsal fin 12 to 14; anal 7; 
scales 12-72-10; head large; upper lip with 6 to 8 rows of papille: 
Oregon and Washington, into Montana; common. 

C. commersonii (Lacépéde). Common sucker (Fig. 27). Length 
450 mm.; head and depth 4 to 5; color olivaceous; rays of dorsal fin 
12; anal 7; scales 10-55 to 70-9; mouth large; upper lip narrow, with 3 to 
5 rows of papillae: Maine, Valley of the St. Lawrence and Great Lakes 
to Montana; northward to New Brunswick, Labrador and Hudson 
Bay; southward into Georgia and Missouri; very common in small 
streams and ponds; a good food fish. 

C. ardens Jordan & Gilbert. Similar to C. commersonii, but with a 
larger mouth and lips; scales 12-70 to 72-12: Great Basin of Utah; 
very common. 

C. snyderi Gilbert. Length 500 mm.; head 4.5; depth 4; color 
dusky; belly white; rays of dorsal fin 11; anal 7; scales 13-70-11: 
Klamath Lakes region. 


FISHES 57 


C. microps Rutter. Length 130 mm.; head 4.5; depth 4.7; rays 
of dorsal fin 11; anal 7; scales 17-81 to 87-14; eye very small: Modoc 
County, California. 

C. tsiltcoosensis Evermann & Meek. Length 300 mm.; head 4.5; 
depth 5; rays of dorsal fin 13; anal 7; scales 13-65-8, 34 before the dorsal; 
fins small: coastal streams of middle Oregon. 

7. Hypentelium Rafinesque. Similar to Catostomus but with 
larger scales (about 50 in lateral line); head large, concave above: 
I species. 

H. nigricans (LeSueur.). Hog sucker. Length 600 mm.; head 4.5; 
depth 5; color olivaceous, sides brassy; lower fins red; back and sides 
with black blotches; rays of dorsal fin 10 or 11; scales 7-46 to 51-6; 
head large; upper lip very thick, with 8 to to series of papilla: New 
York to Minnesota; southward to the Carolinas and Arkansas; abun- 
dant in clear streams. 

8. Chasmistes Jordan. Head large; snout elevated; mouth ter- 
minal and very large, with a long, very oblique lower jaw; upper lip 
thin and smooth; lower lip with a broad flap on each side and narrow in 
front: 6 species, all in the far-west. 

C. lworus Jord. Length 450 mm.; head 3.5; depth 5; end of snout 
elevated; color dusky; back and sides covered with dark punctulations; 
rays of dorsal fin 11; anal 7; scales g-63-8: Utah Lake; very 
common. 

C. cujus Cope. Rays of dorsal fin 11; anal 7; scales 13-65-11: 
Pyramid Lake, Nevada, in deep water. 

C. brevirostris Cope. Rays of dorsal fin 11; anal g; scales 12-75-11: 
Klamath Lakes, Oregon. 

C. (Deltistes Seale) luxatus Cope. Length 900 mm.; head 4; depth 
4.8; color dusky, with black punctulations; rays of dorsal fin 12; anal 
7; scales 12-76 to 81-9; body elongate; head very long and slender: 
Klamath Lakes region, where it is abundant and the most important 
food fish. 

C. stomias Gilbert. Length 450 mm.; color dark above; rays of 
dorsal fin 10; anal 7; scales 14 or 15-76 to 82-11: Upper Klamath Lake; 
common. 

C. copet Evermann & Meek. Similar to C. stomias; scales 13-80- 
12; mouth very oblique: Klamath Lakes. 

9g. Thoburnia Jordan and Snyder. Similar to Catostomus, but with 
larger scales (about 50 in lateral line); head very small, flat above: 
I species. 


58 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


T. rhotheca (Thoburn). Length 125 mm.; color olive, with a black 
lateral stripe and black crossbars; scales 7-48-5; rays of dorsal fin 11; 
of ventral 8: Atlantic slope of Virginia. 

10. Xyrauchen Eigenmann & Kirsch. Like Catostomus, except that 
immediately behind the head is a very prominent, sharp-edged hump; 
snout blunt: 1 species. 

X. texanus (Abbott). Razor-back. Head and depth 4; rays of 
dorsal fin 13 or 14; anal 7; scales 13 to 15-72 to 77-13; color olivaceous: 
Colorado basin; abundant. 

11. Erimyzon Jordan. Body fusiform, compressed; scales large; 
lateral line wanting: 1 species. 


Fic. 28.—Erimyzon sucetta (from Jordan & Evermann). 


E. sucetta (Lacépéde). Chub sucker (Fig. 28). Length 250 mm.; 
head 4.25; depth 3; color dusky, with a coppery lustre; young with a 
broad black lateral band or series of blotches; rays of dorsal fin 11 to 12; 
anal 7; scales 36-15, in southern specimens, but 43-15 north of Virginia: 
Great Lakes region; Mississippi Valley; coastwise from Virginia to 
Texas; very common. 

12. Minytrema Jordan. Body elongate, little compressed, with an 
interrupted lateral line in the adult, and a small black spot at the base 
of each scale on the side: 1 species. 

M. melanops (Rafinesque). Spotted sucker. Length 600 mm.; 
head 4.3; depth 3 to 4; color dusky above, with usually a black blotch 
behind the dorsal fin; rays of dorsal fin 12 to 14; anal 7; scales 44 to 47: 
Great Lakes to Florida; upper Mississippi Valley to Texas; common. 

13. Moxostoma Rafinesque. Redhorse. Body elongate; mouth 
inferior; lips well developed, with transverse folds (Fig. 29); jaws with- 
out cartilaginous sheath; upper lip protractile; scales large; anal fin 


FISHES 59 


high, with 7 rays; fontanelle present: about 20 species, all in the eastern 
and central States; in rivers and lakes. 

M. papillosum (Cope). White mullet. Length 600 mm.; head and 
depth 4; color silvery; lower fins usually reddish; lips full, the folds 
broken into papille; rays of dorsal fin 12 to 14; scales 6-42-5: Atlantic 
slope, from Dismal Swamp to central Georgia; common. 

M. anisurum (Raf.). Whitenose. Length 450 mm.; head 4; depth 
3 to 4; color silvery; fins large; lower fins 
reddish; rays of dorsal fin 15; scales 6-42 to 
45-6; lips plicate; mouth large: Great Lakes 
region and Ohio River basin; common. 

M. aureolum (LeSueur). Common redhorse 
(Fig. 29). Length 600 mm.; head 4 or 5; depth 
3.5; color olivaceous; sides silvery; lower fins 
red in adult; rays of dorsal fin 12 to 14; scales ip Pagsd 

j Fic. 29.—Lips of Moxos- 
5-41 to 45-5 to 7; head small; lips thick: Lake toma aureolum (from Fishes 
Ontario to upper Mississippi Valley; south- ° 7": 
westward to Missouri and Arkansas; southeastward to ‘North 
Carolina and Georgia; common; the most important food fish of 
the genus. 

M. crassilabre (Cope). Length 600 mm.; head 5; depth 3.5; color 
pale yellowish or reddish; dorsal fin falcate, rays 12 or 13; scales 5-44-5; 
lips full: eastern North Carolina; abundant. 

M. collapsum (Cope). Small mouth. Similar to M. anisurum, 
but with a smaller mouth; lips plicate: lowland streams of North 
Carolina. 

M. macrolepidotum (LeSueur). Red mullet. Length 600 mm.; 
color silvery, lower fins orange-red; head broad; mouth large, with 
thick lips; scales 5-45-4: coastal streams Delaware Bay to North 
Carolina. 

M. duquesnii LeSueur. Similar to M. aureolum; scales 47: moun- 
tain streams of North Carolina and westwards. 

M. lesueurii (Richardson). Body compressed; mouth very small; 
dorsal fin falcate, rays 13; scales 6-45-5: Ohio Valley and Great Lakes 
and northwards. 

14. Scartomyzon Fowler. Similar to Mowxostoma, but of much 
smaller size and living in mountain brooks: 2 species. 

S. rupiscartes Jordan & Jenkins. Length 300 mm.; head 5; depth 
5.5 to 6; color olive brown; rays of dorsal fin 11; anal 8; scales 6-50-6, 18 
before the dorsal fin: south Atlantic States, from the Catawba to the 
Chattahoochee Rivers; often abundant. 


60 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


S. cervinum (Cope). Length 250 mm.; head 5; body elongate; color 
greenish brown, with a pale blotch on each scale, these forming con- 
tinuous lines along the sides; rays of the dorsal fin 10 to 12; scales 
6-43-5, 13 before the dorsal: from the James River to the Neuse; 
abundant in rapid water. 

15. Placopharynx Cope. Large suckers, like Moxostoma, except 
that the pharyngeal bones are stronger and the lower teeth very large, 
nearly cylindrical in form, and 6 to 10 in number; upper teeth small and 
compressed: I species. 

P. carinatus Cope. Big-jawed sucker. Length 750 mm.; head 4; 
depth 3.8; color dark olive green; caudal and lower fins bright red; rays 
of dorsal fin 12 or 13; anal 9; scales 6-45-6; head and mouth large; lips 
very thick: Michigan to Georgia and Arkansas; abundant in large 
streams. 

16. Logochila Jordan & Brayton. Like Moxostoma, except that the 
upper lip is not protractile and the lower lip is split, consisting of two 
lobes: 1 species. 

L.lacera J. & B. Harelip sucker. Head short; depth 4.6; color pale 
olive; sides and belly silvery; rays of dorsal fin 12; anal 7; scales 5-45-5; 
mouth large, inferior, the upper lip being prolonged: middle Mississippi 
Valley; locally common. 

Family 2. Cyprinidee.—Minnows; carp; dace. Small or medium 
sized fishes with an elongate body, usually covered with cycloid scales 
and with a naked head; margin of the upper jaw formed by the premaxil- 
laries alone; jaws toothless; the two paired lower pharyngeal bones 
parallel with the gill arches, each being falciform in shape and bearing 
t or 2 (in some European species 3) rows of teeth on each side, there 
being 4, 5 or 6 teeth in the main or hindermost row in the American 
species, and 1 or 2 teeth in the other row, if present at all; pseudo- 
branchie usually present; branchiostegal rays 3; gills 4; fins typically 
spineless; ventral fins abdominal in position; air bladder large, with 
usually 2 compartments: over 200 genera and 1,000 species, in North 
America and the Old World, all in fresh water; most of which have 
no food value. 

The American species are mostly small, often very small, fishes 
which abound in every brook and small stream. Many are very 
brightly colored, especially in the springtime when the males have their 
nuptial coloration of reds and yellows. Numerous conspicuous tuber- 
cles may also cover the top of the head and other portions of the body 
of the male at this time. Two important members of this family have 
been introduced from Europe, the carp and the goldfish, both how- 


FISHES 61 


ever natives of China, where they have been domesticated from time 
immemorial. 

In the classification of these small fishes the lower pharyngeal teeth 
(Fig. 30) are of great importance, and their number and form are 
usually given in the descriptions. Thus ‘‘teeth 4-4”’ means that there 
is a single row of 4 pharyngeal teeth on each side of the mouth; “teeth 


Fic. 30.—Lower pharyngeal teeth of the chub (Semotilus atromaculatus): a, head of fish 
with left opercle removed showing the left pharyngeal arch back of the gill-arches; b, the 
two pharyngeal arches, the formula of the teeth being, 2, 4-5, 2 (from Fishes of Illinois). 
4-5”’ means there is a row of 4 teeth on one side and 5 on the other; 
“‘teeth 1, 4-5, 2’? means there are 4 teeth in the main or hindermost 
row and 1 tooth in the second or foremost row on one side, and on the 
other side 5 and 2 teeth, respectively, in the two rows. In the herbiv- 
erous species the teeth are nearly straight, and either without a hook 
at the tip or with a slight hook. Near the base of the tooth is often a 
masticatory surface in the form of a groove. 


Key to the Genera of United States Cyprinidz (not including the European Carp 
and the Goldfish) 


a; Digestive canal very long, being more than twice the length 
of the body; peritoneum usually black. 


b, Digestive canal wound around air bladder.............. 3. Campostoma. 
bs Digestive canal not wound around air bladder. 
c; Pseudobranchie absent; on the Pacific slope.......... 4. Orthodon. 


co Pseudobranchiz present. 
d, Each jaw with a conspicuous horny plate; in the 
crm Wasi Hecke. woke crete ns): 5 caress se eee 5. Acrocheilus. 
d. Jaw without horny plate. 
e, Teeth in main row usually 5-5. 


f, Lateral line complete; in California.......... 6. Lavinia. 
f. Lateral line incomplete; eastern and central 
SELES Se tee Nee Sota h eos Roane a ener ais 7. Chrosomus. 


e. Teeth in main row 4-4. 
f, First ray of dorsal fin not peculiar. 
gi Teeth long and scarcely hooked.......... 8. Hybognathus. 
go Teeth short and distinctly hooked........ 9. Dionda. 


On 
is) 


f. First ray of dorsal fin separate and joined with 
the other rays by a membrane. 


g, Lateral line-tncomplete: ces 6 cone se oe 10. 


ge Uateral ‘lineicompletescns s+. ser.. .5-o+ 2 ue +s 
a2 Digestive canal short, less than twice the length of the body; 
peritoneum usually pale. 
b; Teeth mostly blunt and enlarged, but slightly hooked; 
large fishes on the Pacific Slope. 


ex No“barbels.present... 250 k.24: foci ee ee ive 
>, Barbels presente. «asin ssisc)-aucerea pie ae ale Oe ee eee 13. 


be Teeth slender, hooked; species mostly not on the Pacific 
Slope. 
Cc, Teeth in main row 5-5 or 4-5. 
d; Barbels present, often very small. 
e, Tail symmetrical; in the eastern and central 
States. 


fy Dorsal fin without a: blask'spot.°)..2.01 fe. 2 5s T4. 
{> Dorsal fin<with a: blacksspots< coy. cs TS: 


e. The upper lobe of tail longer than the lower; in 


Galton yas nc ehe ee oe cas A ae cheese as 16. 


d. Barbels absent (except in Margariscus). 
e; Abdomen behind ventral fins rounded and scaled. 
f; Teeth 2-rowed, usually with 2 teeth in the 
lesser row. 
g, Size very large, the length being up to 1,000 


go Length not over 400 mm. 


h, Caudal peduncle very long and slender. . 18. 


he Caudal peduncle stout. 
i; Lateral line complete. 
j1 Mouth moderate in size; the Pacific 


Slope and Rocky Mountain 
region. 

k, Anal fin with 7 or 8 rays; fins 
low. 


1, Caudal peduncle very deep. . 19. 


l, Caudal peduncle not’ very 


deep ida ica eons eae 20 

ky Anal fin with 9 to 22 rays; fins 
GGG covcysrhtneware bee aie eee 21 
22. 


je Mouth very wide; lower jaw much 


projecting; Atlantic Slope...... 23. 


ig Lateral line incomplete or wanting; 
eastern and central States. 


ji Lateral line very short........... 24. 


je Lateral line more or less incom- 
plete. 


VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


Pimephales. 


. Hyborhynchus. 


M ylopharodon. 
M ylocheilus. 


Leucosomus. 
Semotilus. 


Pogonichthys. 


. Ptychocheilus. 


Gila. 


Siboma. 


. Tigoma. 


. Cheonda. ~ 


Richardsonius. 


Clinostomus. 


Pfrille. 


FISHES 

k; Minute barbel present........ 25. 

ky No barbel present; lateral line 
SHOES ste sors see eee eee 26 
js Lateral line wanting............. DK 

f. Teeth 1-rowed, being either 4-5 or 5-5 
ei in ene.extreme western States:,. vise... 28. 
29 
go In the central and southeastern States. 

ie MlOUtMVERULCALY 3 o% oc sss see ele ae 30. 
Hae VIOGGOeMORIZOM UAL. ssh cs). 2 o' dom dares or 


e. Abdomen behind ventral fins compressed to an 
acute edge which is scaleless; central States... 
c. Teeth in main row 4-4, the lesser row being often absent. 
d, Lower jaw normally formed. 
e: Barbles absent; eastern and central States. 
f; Mouth not like that of a sucker. 

g, First (rudimentary) ray of dorsal fin sepa- 
rated from next ray, to which it is joined 


bye mem Prana. .wileckse tern esd « 3 a2 


g» First ray of dorsal fin closely joined to next. 
h, No cavernous channels in mandible and 
opercle. 
i, Teeth in rt or 2 rows, 4 being in the 
main row and 1 or none in the 
short row on each side or both. 


ji Dorsal fin nearly above the 
ventrals. . pee Ree at 

je Dorsal fin imiostle Behind ifn 
DEV ENIL RAISE aA me Ryict MARE aye Ie orcs i ae a 

ig Teeth in 2 rows, being 2, 4-4, 2, or 

rarely 1. 

ji Size moderate; length mostly 
E25 MAM: TOGO MM. 6 s)..65% 2 3 a0: 
37: 

je Size very small; length 50 mm. to 
LOO MUM MM ey cicien.. «y's 503i, «)s qoute ke 38 
39 


he Conspicuous cavernous channels in 
mandible and opercle. . 
f. Mouth and lower lips fleshy kee a ighelersie 41 

e2 Barbels present. 


f, Scales very small, 60 to go in the lateral line. 


gi Premaxillaries not protractile............ 42. 


ge Premaxillaries protractile. 


hi Barbels minute, Rocky Mountain region 43. 
he Barbels well developed............... 4Q. 


f. Scales large, 35 to 50 in the lateral line. 
gi Size small or moderate. 


Bee 


63 


Margariscus. 


. Hemitremia. 


Totichthus. 


Siphateles. 


. Hesperoleucus. 


Opsopeodus. 
Opsopea. 


Notemigonus. 


Ceratichthys. 


Hybopsis. 


Cyprinella. 


Luxilus. 
Hydrophlox. 


. Notropis. 
. Lythrurus. 


. Ericymba. 
. Phenacobius 


Rhinichythys 


A pocope. 


Couesius. 


64 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


h, Teeth 1-rowed, being 4-4. 
i; Scales about 38 in the lateral line. 


ji Scales without a keel............ 44. Extrarius. 
Jo_ocalesiwitheakeely ose ieee 45. Macrhybopsis. 
ig Scales 44 to 50 in the lateral line... .46. Erimystax. 
he Teeth 2-rowed, being 2, 4-4, 2 ort..... 47. Erinemus. 
go Size large, being 250 mm. or more in length. 
hy tHead largcevand broads 7 4\..8. eee 48. Nocomis. 
he Head small, very broad, depressed..... 50. Platygobio. 
do Lower jaw 3-lobed; eastern States................ 51. Exoglossum. 


1. Cyprinus L. Body robust, compressed; mouth with 4 long 
barbels; snout rounded; pharyngeal teeth 1, 1, 3-3, 1, 1; scales large; 
dorsal fin very long; anal short: 1 species. 

C. carpio. L. European carp (Fig. 31). Length 450 mm. or more; 
head 3 to 4; depth 2.75 to 3.4; color blackish gray above, yellowish on 
the sides and belly; 3 spinous and 17 to 21 soft rays in dorsal fin and 3 


Fic. 31.—Cyprinus carpio (from Siissw. Fauna Deut.). 


spinous and 5 soft rays in the anal fin; scales 5 or 6-35 to 37-5 or 6: 
fresh waters of eastern Asia and introduced into Europe and America; 
abundant and an important food fish in the eastern and central parts of 
the country. 

2. Carassius Nilsson. Body oblong; mouth without barbels; scales 
large; pharyngeal teeth 4-4; dorsal fin very long: 1 species. 

C. auratus (L.) Goldfish. Length up to 400 mm.; color olivaceous, 
becoming reddish or golden in domestication, but often reverting to the 
natural color, when wild; 2 spinous and 18 soft rays in the dorsal and 2 
spinous and 7 soft rays in the anal fin: Asia and Europe, first domesti- 
cated in China; in many ponds and streams in the eastern States. 

3. Campostoma Agassiz. Body elongate; teeth with an oblique 
grinding surface and a slight hook; air bladder surrounded by numerous 
convolutions of the very long alimentary canal, an anatomical feature 
found only in this genus of fishes: 4 species, 1 in Mexico. 


FISHES 6 


On 


C. anomalum (Rafinesque). Stone roller. Length 200 mm. or 
less; head 4.2; depth 4.4; color brownish, with a brassy lustre and a 
dusky vertical bar behind the opercle; dorsal and anal fin each with a 
dark cross bar; male with many tubercles in spring; rays of dorsal 
fin 8; anal 7; scales 7-53-8: New York to Michigan, southward to 
Georgia and Texas; westward to Wyoming; abundant in small streams; - 
herbivorous. 

C. formulosum Girard. Head short, with a projecting snout; head 4; 
depth 4.5; color grayish, with a black spot at the base of the tail and one 
on the dorsal fin; scales 46: Texas, from the San Antonio to the Rio 
Grande. 

4. Orthodon Girard. Body elongate; teeth 6-6 or 6-5, compressed 
and nearly straight; scales very small; pseudobranchiz absent: 1 species. 

O. microlepidotus (Ayres). Length 375 mm.; head 4; depth 4.5; 
color olivaceous; rays of dorsal fin g; anal 8; scales 21-105-12; teeth 
very long: basin of lower Sacramento and San Joaquin; abundant. 

5. Acrocheilus Agassiz. Body elongate; teeth 4-5, hooked; jaws 
each with a conspicuous, broad, straight, horny plate; size rather large: 
I species. 

A. alutaceus Agassiz & Pickering. Chisel-mouth. Length 300 mm.; 
head 4.5; depth 4; color very dark, body studded with minute dark 
points; rays of dorsal fin 10; anal g; scales 20-85-16: basin of the lower 
Columbia, as far up as Spokane and Shoshone Falls; southeastern 
Oregon; abundant. 

6. Lavinia Girard. Body elliptical, compressed, with a slender 
caudal peduncle; teeth 4-5 or 5-5, slightly hooked; size large: 1 species. 

L. exilicauda Baird & Girard. Hitch. Length 300 mm.; head 
4.6; depth 3.3; color dark, speckled, with silvery sides; rays of dorsal fin 
to; anal 12; scales 13-64-18: Coast Range, from Monterey to Clear 
Lake; common. 

7. Chrosomus Rafinesque. Body moderately elongate; size small; 
teeth 5-5 or 4-4, moderately hooked; scales minute; lateral line short 
or wanting: 4 species. 

C. erythrogaster Raf. Red-bellied dace (Fig. 32). Length 75 mm.; 
head 4; depth 4; color brownish olive above, often with black spots; 
sides and belly silvery, with 2 black lateral bands, one running from 
the snout through the eye and curving down along the belly to a black 
spot in the tail; male in spring with yellow fins and bright scarlet belly; 
teeth 5-5; rays of dorsal fin 8; anal 9; scales 16-85-10: central New 
York and Pennsylvania to Dakota; southward to Alabama; common 
in clear, small streams; one of the brightest of the minnows. 


66 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


C. eos Cope. Similar to C. erythrogaster, but with a slenderer body, 
the lateral line often wanting and the two lateral black bands uniting in 
the caudal peduncle: east of Alleghenies. 

C. dakotensis Evermann & Cox. Similar to C. erythrogaster, but 
smaller and stouter and without the black spot on the tail; rays of dorsal 
-fin 8; anal 8; scales about 80, 24 in a cross series; teeth 4-4: Missouri 
River basin in Nebraska and South Dakota. 

C. oreas Cope. Similar to C. erythrogaster, but with a somewhat 
different color pattern, the upper band ending in the caudal black spot, 
the lower band ending at the anal fin; scales 67: head waters of the 
Roanoke River and the Tennessee; abundant. 


Fic. 32.—Chrosomus erythrogaster (from Fishes of Illinois). 


8. Hybognathus Agassiz. Body elongate; teeth 4-4, with little or 
no hook; scales large; rays of both dorsal and anal fins usually 8; lateral 
line complete: 4 species. 

H. nuchals Ag. Silver minnow. Length 150 mm.; head 4.5; 
depth 5; color olivaceous green; sides silvery; rays of anal fin 7; scales 
5-38-4, 12 to 14 scales before the dorsal fin: New York to the upper 
Missouri; southward to Georgia and Texas; common in large rivers. 

H. hayi Jordan. Like H. nuchalis, but with a slenderer body; 
scales 5-36-3: lower Mississippi region, northward at least to Memphis. 

H. regia Girard. Similar to H. nuchalis, but with a shorter and 
deeper head: Lake Ontario and New Jersey to James and Neuse Rivers. 

H. hankinsoni Hubbs. Similar to H. nuchalis, but with a shorter 
head and darker color: Great Lakes basin; west to Colorado. 

9. Dionda Girard. Teeth short, hooked; body elongate; scales 
large: 6 species, 2 in Mexico. 

D. serena (Girard). Length 60 mm.; color dusky with a black 
lateral band; scales 5-32 to 34-3; teeth hooked: western Texas. 


FISHES 67 


D. episcopa (Girard). Length 75 mm.; color dusky, with a black 
lateral band; scales 9-37 to 41-4; teeth hooked: western Texas. 

D. nubila (Forbes). Length 60; head 4.5; depth 4; color very dark 
with a dark lateral band; rays of anal fin 9; scales 5-37-3; teeth hooked: 
western Illinois to Wyoming; southward to the Ozarks; common. 

D. plumbea (Girard). Color uniform; rays of anal fin 7; scales 53 
to 58; teeth hooked: Oklahoma, Arkansas River basin. 

10. Pimephales Rafinesque. Teeth 4-4, one or more hooked; upper 
jaw protractile; dorsal fin over the ventrals, its first ray separated from 
the rest by a membrane; size small: 2 species. 

P. promelas Raf. Fathead. Body stout; length 60 mm.; head and 
depth 4; color olivaceous; belly yellow; a dark lateral band; dorsal fin 
with a large black cross bar; male with a black head and with several 
large tubercles in the spring; lateral line variable, being nearly wanting 
or complete; rays of dorsal fin I,7; anal 7; scales 7-47-4; body short 
and deep: Maine to Montana, southward to Tennessee and the 


pivibe OER 


% Mae ‘ elders OY ie = 


Fic. 33.—Hyborhynchus notatus (from Fishes of Illinois). 


Rio Grande; common in sluggish brooks, especially in the Missouri 
basin. 

11. Hyborhynchus Agassiz. Similar to Pimephales; body elongate: 
lateral line complete: 1 species. : 

H. notatus (Raf.). Blunt nose (Fig. 33). Length too mm.; head 
4.5; depth 5; color olivaceous; sides bluish, with a dark stripe; a dark 
spot towards the base of the dorsal fin; rays of the dorsal fin I, 8; anal 7; 
scales 6-45-4: Quebec to Dakota, southward to Alabama and Arkansas; 
very common in small streams west of the Alleghanies. 

12. Mylopharodon Ayres. Body elongate; head large; teeth 2, 4-5, 
2; mouth terminal, large; lips thickened; lateral line continuous; dorsal 
fin behind the ventrals; size very large: 1 species. 

M. conocephalus (Baird & Girard). Length 900 mm.; head 3.5: 
depth 4.6; color dark, without red; rays of dorsal fin 8; anal 8; scales 17- 
74-7; body elongate, fusiform, compressed; caudal peduncle very 
long: Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers; southeastern Oregon; not 
common. 


68 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


13. Mylocheilus Agassiz. Body elongate; upper jaw protractile 
with a small barbel on the maxillary; size large: 1 species. 

M. lateralis Agassiz & Pickering. Whitefish; chub. Length 300 
mm.; head 4.2; depth 4.5; color dark above and pale beneath; sides 
silvery, with two dark lateral bands enclosing a silvery band; teeth 
I Or 2, 5-5, 2 or 1; rays of dorsal fin 8; scales 12-77-7: Oregon into 
British Columbia to the Fraser River; eastward to Flathead Lake; 
often enters the sea; abundant; a good food fish. 

14. Leucosomus Heckel. Similar to Semotilus; size large; scales 
not crowded anteriorly: 1 species. 

L. corporalis (Mitchill). Fallfish; chub. Length 450 mm.; head 
and depth 4; color steel blue above; sides and belly silvery; males in 
spring with belly and fins red; rays of dorsal fin 8; anal 8; dorsal fin 
half way between nostril and tail fin; scales 8-45-4, about 22 before 
the dorsal fin: from Maine and the St. Lawrence to the James, east of the 
Alleghanies; common in swift streams and clear lakes; a game and food 
fishes. 

15. Semotilus Rafinesque. Body stout; head large; upper jaw pro- 
tractile; a minute barbel on the maxillary just above its extremity; teeth 
2, 5-4, 2, hooked; size large: 2 species. ; 

S. atromaculatus (Mitch.) (Fig. 30) Horned dace; common chub 
Length 250 mm.; head 3.75; depth 4; color dusky bluish; dorsal fin with 
a conspicuous black spot at its base and bordered by red in front in the 
male; teeth variable; rays of dorsal fin 7; anal 8; scales 9 to 11-55 to 
69-5 to 7; dorsal fin midway between pupil and tail fin: from Maine to 
Wyoming; southward to Alabama; common, chiefly in small streams. 

16. Pogonichthys Girard. Body elongate; maxillary with a barbel; 
caudal fin asymmetrical, the upper lobe being much the longer; size 
large: I species. 

P. macrolepidotus (Ayres). Split-tail. Length 300 mm.; head 4.2; 
depth 3.75; teeth 2, 5-5, 2, hooked; color uniform, sides silvery; rays of 
dorsal fin g; anal 8; scales t0o-66-6: central California; common. 

17. Ptychocheilus Agassiz. Body elongate; caudal peduncle stout; 
no barbels; teeth 2, 5-4, 2; scales small; lateral line decurved; size very 
large: 4 species. 

P. oregonensis (Richardson). Squawfish. Length up to 1,200 mm.; 
head 3.75; depth 5; color greenish; belly silvery; rays of dorsal fin 10; 
anal 8; scales 20-70: extreme northwest, ascending the Columbia and 
tributaries into Montana; common; a food and game fish. 

P. umpque Snyder. Similar to P. oregonensis; scales 75 to 80: 
coastal streams of central Oregon. 


FISHES 69 


P. grandis (Ayres). Similar to P. oregonensis; rays of dorsal fin 
8; anal 8; scales 70 to 80: central and northern California; Oregon; 
common. 

P.lucius Girard. White salmon. Length up to 1,500 mm.; weight 
up to 80 lbs.; head 3.5; depth 5.5; color uniform; rays of dorsal fin 9; 
anal g; scales 83 to go: Colorado basin; very common; the largest species 
in the family. 

18. Gila Baird & Girard. Body elongate; caudal peduncle long and 
slender; tail widely forked; teeth 2, 5-4, 2, hooked; scales very small; 
dorsal fin behind the middle of the body; size large: 3 species. 

G. elegans B. & G. Bony-tail. Length 300 mm.; head and 
depth 5; color bluish above; rays of dorsal fin 9; anal 10; scales 
23-85-10; back arched; head short and broad: Colorado and Gila 
Rivers; abundant. 

G. robusta B. & G. Roundtail. Length 400 mm.; head 4; depth 5; 
color plain; rays of dorsal fin 9; anal 9; scales 17-80-10: Colorado and 
Gila Rivers; very common. 

19. Siboma Girard. Lateral line complete in adult; caudal pedun- 
cle very stout; dorsal above ventrals; scales comparatively large and 
well vmabriented 2 species. 

S. crassicauda (Baird & Girard). Length 300 mm.; head 4; pire a. 
color brownish; scales 9-56-7; body short, compressed, deep: California, 
common in the Sacramento and San Joaquin. : 

20. Tigoma Girard. Lateral line complete in adult; caudal pedun- 
cle not stout; scales small and not closely imbricated; dorsal behind 
ventrals: 7 species. . 

T. bicolor (Girard). Length 300 mm.; head and depth 3.75; color 
dusky above, silvery below; scales 13-60-7; teeth 2, 5-5, 2; dorsal fin over 
ventrals: Klamath Lakes, Oregon. 

T. atraria (Gir.). Chub. Length 350 mm.; head and depth 3.5; 
color blackish, the scales dotted and with dark edges which form lines; 
rays of dorsal fin 9; scales 10-55 to 63-5; mouth very oblique: Great 
Basin of Utah; Yellowstone Park; Snake River basin; common. 

2h Onetsnge Girard. Lateral line complete in adult; anal fin 
long; scales not closely imbricated: 8 species. 

C. coper Jordan and Gilbert. Length 150 mm.; head 4.25; depth 
3.75; color bluish olive above; sides silvery; scales very small, 19-80-12: 
Great Basin of Utah; very common. 

C. egregia (Gir.). Length 85; head 3.6; depth 4.25; color blackish 
with 2 parallel, lateral dark bands separated by a light one which meet 
on the caudal peduncle, and a broad red band; belly golden, reddish in 


= 


10 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


male; rays of anal fin 9; scales 12 or 13-52 to 56-6 to 8: northern Nevada; 
very common in Lake Tahoe. 

C. hydrophlox (Cope). Length 125; head 4.3; depth 4; color dusky, 
with a dark lateral band between 2 silvery ones; in males the dark band 
and belly being red; rays of dorsal fin 9; anal 10 to 13; scales 12-58-5: 
Salt Lake basin; Snake River; very common. 

22. Richardsonius Girard. Similar to Cheonda; anal fin very long: 
4 species. 

R. balteatus (Richardson). Length 150 mm.; head 4.5; depth 3.25; 
color plain, usually with a dark lateral band; rays of dorsal fin 10; anal 
Ir to 22; scales 13-55 to 63-6; body compressed: Columbia basin and 
streams entering Puget Sound; southeastern Oregon; eastward to 
Montana; common. 

23. Clinostomus Girard. Lateral line complete; mouth very 
wide, the lower jaw much projecting; dorsal behind ventrals: 2 species. 

C. elongatus (Kirtland). Shiner. Length 125 mm.; head 4; depth 
5; color dark bluish, mottled with paler; a broad black lateral band, the 
anterior half of which is crimson in the spring in males; rays of anal fin 
9; scales 10-70-5; head long; mouth large: region of the Great Lakes and 
upper Mississippi Valley; common in clear streams northwards. 

C. vandoisulus Cuvier & Valenciennes. Length 125 mm.; head 3.6; 
depth 4.75; color bluish green, mottled; a dark lateral band; males in 
spring bright red anteriorly; rays of dorsal fin 9; scales 48 to 53: streams 
about Chesapeake Bay to Georgia; common in clear, swift streams. 

24. Pfrille Jordan. Lateral line incomplete; scales minute; body 
plump: 1 species. 

P. neogeus (Cope). Length 75 mm.; head 4; depth 4.25; color dusky 
above, with a dark lateral band; in spring belly and lower fins crimson in 
males; lateral line incomplete; teeth 2, 4-5, 2; scales 18-80-10; head 
very large: region of the Great Lakes and upper Mississippi Valley; 
rare. 

25. Margariscus Cockerell. Lateral line incomplete; maxillary 
mostly with a small barbel; dorsal behind ventrals: 2 species. 

M. margarita (Cope). Length 75 mm.; head 4; depth 4.25; color 
dusky olive above; sides silvery; belly white, males crimson in spring; 
rays of anal fin g; scales punctate, 11-52 to 58-8; lateral line more or less 
incomplete; snout very blunt: Susquehanna to the James; not common. 

26. Hemitremia Cope. Lateral line incomplete; no barbel present: 
2 species. 

H. vittata Cope. Length 60 mm.; head and depth 4; color dark 
- above; a black lateral band; males scarlet in spring; a small black spot 


FISHES aI 


at base of tail; scales 7-43-5; lateral line very short: basin of the Tennes- 
see; common in northern Alabama. 

27. Iotichthys Jordan and Evermann. Size minute; no lateral line: 
I species. 

I. phlegethontis (Cope). Length 35 mm.; head 3.75; depth 3.3; 
color olivaceous, with a dark lateral band; belly golden; rays of dorsal 
fin 7; scales 6-36-4, 17 before the dorsal fin; teeth 1, 5-4, 2; lateral line 
absent: basin of Great Salt and Sevier Lakes; very common; the smallest 
of the family. 

28. Siphateles Cope. Roaches. Body stout, somewhat com- 
pressed, mouth oblique; no barbels; size moderate; teeth 4-5, 
5-5 or 6-5; rays of dorsal and anal fins usually 8: numerous species in 
America, Europe and Asia; 7 species in the United States, all in the 
extreme west. 

S. olivaceus (Cope). Length 300 mm.; head 4; depth 4.3; teeth 
5-5; body slender, compressed; color dusky olive above; body and fins 
dotted with black; scales 11-56-6: Lake Tahoe and Pyramid Lake; very 
common. 

S. bicolor (Girard). Length 200 mm.; head 4; depth 4.5; color 
olivaceous with a bluish lateral band; body with some brown spots; rays 
of anal fin 7; scales 9-48-6; teeth 4-5: Lakes of southeastern Oregon; 
Sacramento-San Joaquin Basin common. 

S. oregonensis Snyder. Length 200 mm.; head and depth 3.6; color 
dark; scales 13-52-8: southeastern Oregon. 

S. columbianus Snyder. Length 136 mm.; head and depth 3.7; color 
silvery, dark above; scales 12-49-7: southeastern Oregon. 

29. Hesperoleucus Snyder. Similar to Siphateles, but with a 
shorter head and a slenderer body: several species, all near San Fran- 
cisco Bay. 

H. symmetricus (Baird & Girard). Length 125 mm.; head 3.75; 
- depth 4.2; color dusky above; sides pale, more or less dotted with black 
and sometimes with a dark lateral band; rays of dorsal and anal fins 8; 
teeth 5-4; scales 14-52 to 67-5; body rather elongate: central and 
northern California, Oregon, Nevada and Utah. 

H. venustus Snyder. Length too mm.; head and depth about 
4; color silvery, with a narrow lateral stripe; rays of dorsal fin 9; 
anal 8; scales 53: in streams entering San Francisco and San Pablo 
Bays. 

H. navarroensis Snyder. Length 90 mm.; head and depth 3.6; 
color dark above, silvery below, with a narrow lateral stripe; rays of 
dorsal and anal fins 8; scales 56: Navarro basin, northern California. 


VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


~I 
bo 


H. parvipinnis Snyder. Length 80 mm.; head and depth 3.9; scales 
59; rays of dorsal fin 8; anal 7: Gualala River basin, California. 

30. Opsopceodus Hay. Mouth very small, terminal; teeth 5-5 or 
4-5, strongly hooked; upper jaw protractile; size small: 2 species. 

O. emilie Hay. Length 55 mm.; head 4.5; depth 4.4; color yellow- 
ish; sides silvery, with usually a dark lateral band; a black spot on 
dorsal fin; rays of dorsal fin 9; anal 8; scales 6-40-4; mouth very oblique; 
body elongate, compressed: Lake Erie to Georgia and Texas; common 
towards the south in sandy lowland streams. 

31. Opsopcea Jordan and Evermann. Similar to Opsopeodus, 
but with mouth subinferior and nearly horizontal: 1 species. 


Fic. 34.—Notemigonus crysoleucas (from Jordan & Evermann). 


O. bollmani (Gilbert). Length 50 mm.; head 4.4; depth 4.6; color 
dark olive, with a black lateral band and a large spot at the base of the 
tail; rays of the dorsal and anal fins 8; scales 5-37-4; mouth slightly 
oblique; lateral line on but 7 or 8 scales: Georgia and Tennessee to 
Kansas; scarce. : 

32. Notemigonus Rafinesque. Breams. Body elliptical, strongly 
compressed, the belly forming a keel behind the ventral fins which is 
naked; teeth 5-5, hooked; no barbels; dorsal fin behind the ventrals: 
Europe and America; 2 species in the United States. 

N. crysoleucas (Mitchill). Golden shiner (Fig. 34). Length 300 
mm.; head 4.5; depth 3; color clear greenish above; sides silvery, with 
golden reflections; fins yellowish; rays of dorsal fin 8; anal 11 to 14; 
scales 10-46 to 55-3; mouth small, oblique; lateral line decurved: 
Nova Scotia to Dakota, southward to Tennessee and Texas; very 
common in weedly ponds and streams. 


FISHES 73 


N. bosci (Cuvier & Valenciennes). Rays of anal fin 16; scales 
8-43-2; lower fins scarlet in males: south Atlantic States. 

33. Ceratichthys Baird and Girard. Body stout; teeth 4-4; dorsal 
fin over ventrals and with its first ray separated from the rest by a 
membrane: 2 species. 

C. vigilax Baird & Girard. Bullhead minnow. Length 75 mm.; 
head 4.25; depth 4.5; color dusky olive or yellowish with a dark lateral 
band which terminates with a black spot; dorsal fin with 8 rays, on 
each of which is a black spot; anal rays 7; scales 8-42-6, 28 before 
the dorsal: Ohio to Iowa, southward to Georgia and Texas; very 
common. 

34. Hybopsis Agassiz. Minnows. Small fishes with teeth 4-4 or 
I, 4-4, I or 0; scales rather large, not closely imbricated, 32 to 39 in 


Fic. 35..Hybopsis atrocaudalis (from Jordan & Evermann). 


the lateral line; first ray of dorsal fin rudimentary; dorsal fin without 
black spot and nearly over the ventrals; anal fin with 7 or 8 rays: 
about 35 species, many in the west and southwest. 

H. bifrenatus (Cope). Length 50 mm.; head and depth 4.2; straw- 
color, with a black lateral band bordered by orange on the snout; 
scales 5-36-3, 13 before the dorsal fin; body slender, lateral line very 
short; snout very obtuse: Massachusetts to Maryland, in coastal 
streams; not common. 

H. anogenus Forbes. Length 35 mm.; head 4.25; depth 4; color 
dusky with a dark lateral band through the eye ending in a black spot 
at the base of the tail fin; mouth very small and oblique; chin black; 
snout obtuse; scales 34 to 37: western New York to northern Illinois; 
scarce. 

H. atrocaudalis (Evermann) (Fig. 35). Length 60 mm.; head 4.5; 
depth 4.5; color olivaceous, with a black stripe through the snout and 
eye, a dusky lateral shade and a small caudal spot; belly yellow; scales 


74 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


36, 14 before the dorsal fin; mouth very small: northern New York 
to South Dakota; southward to Texas; not rare. 

H. heterodon (Cope). Length 60 mm.; head 4; depth 4; color oli- 
vaceous; chin black; sides with a dusky band; scales 5-36-3, 13 before 
the dorsal fin; snout pointed; body stout: western New York to Kansas 
and Minnesota; common. 

H. blennius (Girard). Length 60 mm.; head 4; depth 5; color 
pale olivaceous, with sometimes a darker lateral stripe; scales 5-32 to 
38-3, 15 before the dorsal fin; mouth small, horizontal; snout obtuse: 
Great Lakes region to Dakota; southward to Tennessee and Texas; 
abundant in small streams. 

H. deliciosus (Girard). Length 60 mm.; head 4; depth 5; teeth 4-4; 
rays of anal 7; lateral line complete; color pale olivaceous: basin of the 
Great Lakes and the Mississippi; very common. 

H. procne (Cope). Length 60 mm.; head 4.75; depth 5.25; color 
olivaceous, with a dark lateral band; scales 5-32 to 34-3, 13 before 
the dorsal fin; rays of anal fin 7; body slender: Delaware River to the 
Neuse, in coastal streams; very common. 

H. kanawha Jordan & Jenkins. Length 85 mm.; head 4.4; depth 
4.6; color translucent green; sides silvery; rays of anal fin g; scales 
4-37-2, 16 before the dorsal: tributaries of the Kanawha River, Virginia. 

H. spectrunculus (Cope). Length 75 mm.; head 4; depth 5.5; 
color pale olive; silvery white below; a dark band along the sides and 
a conspicuous black spot at the base of the tail fin; rays of anal fin 9; 
scales 37, 15 before the dorsal fin: head waters of the Tennessee River; 
very common. 

H. topeka Gilbert. Length 90 mm.; head 4; depth 3.6; color oli- 
vaceous, with a dusky lateral band ending in a small caudal spot; 
males in spring and summer with sides and lower fins bright red; 
scales 5-35-4, 14 before the dorsal fin: western Iowa and eastern South 
Dakota to Kansas; common. 

H. dorsalis Agassiz. Length 60 mm.; head 4; depth 5; color light 
olive with dusky streaks and specks; rays of anal fin 8; scales 5-35-4, 
17 before the dorsal fin; body slender: Missouri and Nebraska to 
Minnesota and New York; common in muddy streams. 

H. nocomis Evermann. Length 60 mm.; head 4.3; depth 5; color 
yellowish, with dark specks and a dark lateral band; scales 6-36-3; 
teeth 1, 4-4, 1;.eyes large: Trinity, San Marco and Comal Rivers, 
Texas; common. 

H. shumardi (Gir.). Length 75 mm.; head 3.75; depth 4.2; color 
olivaceous with dusky streaks and dark specks; eyes very large; scales 


FISHES 75 


5-30-2, 12 before the dorsal fin; rays of anal fin 7: Ohio and Tennessee 
basins to Iowa and the Ozark region; common towards the south in 
cold streams. 

H. hudsonius (DeWitt Clinton). Spot-tail; shiner. Length 150 
mm.; head 4.75; depth 4; color very pale; sides with a broad silvery 
band; usually a black spot at the base of tail fin; teeth 1 or 2, 4-4, 0, 1 
or 2; scales 5-39-4, 18 before the dorsal fin; body elongate; head short; 
muzzle blunt: Dakota to New England; southward in coastwise 
streams to Georgia; in large rivers and lakes; abundant in the Great 
Lakes; very variable. 

35. Cyprinella Girard. Teeth similar to Hybopsis; scales closely 
imbricated, 31 to 44 in the lateral line; dorsal fin usually behind the 
ventrals; anal fin with 8 or g rays: 15 species. 

C. lutrensis (Baird & Girard). Redfin. Length 75 mm.; teeth 
one-rowed, 4-4; head 3.6; depth 3 to 4; color of male steel blue; male 
tuberculate in spring with belly and fins red; a conspicuous violet cres- 
cent behind the shoulder; females plain greenish; scales 6-35-2; back 
arched; body compressed: southern Illinois to Dakota; southward to 
the Rio Grande; very common in clear brooks southward. : 

C. macrostoma (Gir.). Head 4; depth 4.1; color brownish; sides” 
silvery; teeth 1, 4-4, 1; rays of anal fin g; scales 36: Kansas to the Rio 
Grande. 

C. stigmatura (Jord.). Spotted tail. Length 110 mm.; head 4.5; 
depth 4.75; color pale olive with a large black spot at the base of the 
tail fin; scales 7-42 to 44-3, 20 before the dorsal fin; body elongate; a 
large blotch on the dorsal fin: Alabama basin; very common. 

C. cercostigma Cope. Like C. stigmatura except that there are 
37 to 39 scales in the lateral line: sandy streams tributary to the Gulf, 
from the Pearl to the Nueces Rivers; abundant. 

C. trichroistia (Jordan & Gilbert). Length 85 mm.; head 4.1; 
depth 4.25; color steel blue above; sides white, with a large black spot 
at the base of the tail fin; dorsal fin red with white tips and a broad 
dusky band at its base; belly and lower fins white; scales 6-42-3: 
Alabama basin; common. 

C. callistia (Jord.). Length too mm.; head 4.2; depth 4.6; color 
very dark blue; sides silvery violet, with a reddish lateral band; belly 
and lower fins white; dorsal and caudal fins red, with a white tip; 
caudal spot present; scales 5-40-3: Alabama basin. 

C. eurystoma (Jord.). Length too mm.; head 4.25; depth 4.3, 
color olivaceous; sides silvery, with a black caudal spot; belly and lower 
fins white; scales 6-39-3: basin of the Chattahoochee River. 


76 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


C. cerulea (Jord.). Length 75 mm.; head 4.3; depth 4.6; color 
steel blue; sides and belly white, with a lateral blue-green band and a 
spot at the base of the tail fin; fins bright yellow with white tips; scales . 
6-38-3: Alabama basin; common. 

C. whipplii (Gir.). Silver-fin. Length too mm.; head 4.3; depth 
4.6; color silvery, being bluish in the male; edges of scales dusky; a 
large black spot on the upper posterior part of the dorsal fin; paired 
fins white; scales 5-35 to 40-3: western New York to Minnesota; south- 
ward to Alabama and Arkansas; abundant in clear streams. 


Fic. 36.—Luxilus cornutus (from Fishes of Illinois). 


C. galactura (Cope). Length 150 mm.; head and depth 4.3; color 
steel blue above; a black blotch on the hinder rays of the dorsal fin; 
caudal fin yellow at base; scales 6-41-3: Ozark region to Georgia and 
South Carolina; abundant in mountain streams. 

C. camura (Jordan and Meek). Length 100 mm.; head 4.3; depth 
3.5; color as in C. whipplii; rays of anal fin 9; scales 6-38-4: Arkansas, 
Kansas and southwestern Missouri; not rare. 

C. pyrrhomelas (Cope). Length 80 mm.; head 4; depth 3.75; color 
dark steel blue, abruptly white below; head reddish; dorsal fin very high, 
dusky at base, with a black blotch above and red in front; anal fin large 
and with ro rays; tail fin very broad, pale at base and tip and with dark 
and scarlet cross bands; scales 6-35-3: Santee basin, Carolina; very 
common. 

36. Luxilus Rafinesque. Shiners. Teeth 2, 4-4, 2 or rarely 2, 
4-4, 1; scales large, about 4o in the lateral line; size relatively large; 
anal fin with 9 rays; usually with no black spot on dorsal fin: 6 species. 

L. cornutus (Mitchill). Common shiner; redfin; dace (Fig. 36). 
Length 125 to 200 mm.; head 4; depth 3.3 to 4.4; teeth 2, 4-4, 2; color 


FISHES 77 


dark steel blue above, silvery on the sides and belly; forward part of 
body tuberculate and lower fins and belly of males salmon pink in spring; 
a dark shade behind the shoulder; rays of anal fin 9; scales 6-37 to 40-3; 
body short, compressed; lateral line decurved: entire region east of the 
Rockies except the Atlantic coast region south of the Neuse River and 
Texas; very common in small streams; very variable. 

L. cerasinus (Cope). Shiner. Length too mm.; scales 6-37-3; 
sides marked with irregular cross bars, otherwise like L. cornutus; 
colors very brilliant; basin of the Roanoke, in mountain brooks. 

L. albeolus Jord. Length 175 mm.; like L. cornutus, but with paler 
colors; scales 38: Roanoke, Tar and Neuse Rivers; not in mountain 
streams. 

37. Hydrophlox Jordan & Brayton. Similar to Luxilus; size rather 
small; anal fin mostly with 8 rays: 8 species. 

H. macdonaldi Jord. & Jen. Length 125 mm.; head 3.75; depth 
4.75; teeth 2, 4-4, 2; color greenish; rays of anal fin 9 or 10; scales 
7-42-2; mouth large, the lower jaw projecting: basin of the James and 
Shenandoah Rivers; in mountain streams; common. 

H. coccogenis (Cope). Length 125 mm.; head 4; depth 4.25; color 
olivaceous, males rosy in spring; a vertical scarlet bar on the preopercle; 
lower jaw projecting; upper half of dorsal and caudal fins dark; scales 
7-42-3: mountain streams from Kentucky to Georgia; common. 

H. zonatus (Agassiz). Length 125 mm.; head 4.25; depth 4.6; color 
olivaceous, with a dark lateral line; male in spring with red belly and 
sides; rays of anal fin g; scales 6-39-4: mountain streams in Tennessee 
and the Ozarks; common. 

H. rubricroceus (Cope). Red fallfish. Length too mm.; head 4; 
depth 4.5; color steel blue, with a dark lateral band; fin all red; head 
pale red; in high coloration the whole body more or less red; rays of anal 
fin g; scales 7-38-3: head waters of the Tennessee and Savannah Rivers. 

H. chlorocephalus (Cope). Length 60 mm.; head 4; depth 5; color 
olivaceous, with black specks which form a lateral band ending in a 
dusky spot at the base of the tail fin; upper part of the head metallic 
green; belly in males red; scales 6-39-3: Santee basin; common in 
mountain streams. 

H. chiliticus (Cope). Length 50 mm.; head 4; depth 5.5; color 
olivaceous, with a silvery lateral band; dorsal and anal fins each with a 
vermilion band; a dark caudal spot; scales 7-36-2: basin of the Great 
Pedee River; common in upland streams. 

H. altipinnis (Cope). Length 60 mm.; head 4.3; depth 3.5; color 
greenish, with a silvery lateral band and a black band across the eye and 


78 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


snout; lower jaw blackish; rays of anal fin 9; scales 5-36-2: basin of the 
Great Pedee and Cape Fear Rivers; in pine woods; common. 

H. roseus (Jord.). Length 60 mm.; head 4.3; depth 4.5; color oliva- 
ceous, with a dark lateral line; fins red in male; top head red; rays of 
anal fin always 7; scales 5-38-5; body short and stout; a dark caudal 
spot: lowland streams of the Gulf States from the Ogeechee to the 
Mississippi; common. 

H. chalybeus (Cope). Length 50 mm.; head 3.8; depth 5; color dark, 
with a black lateral band; belly straw color, orange in spring males; a 
small dark caudal spot; scales 6-35-3; body slender; mouth very oblique: . 
Ogeechee River to the Delaware, in coastal streams and swamps; 
scarce. 

H. chrosomus (Jord.). Length 60 mm.; head 4.3; depth 5; color 
greenish; belly silvery; a scarlet bar across the dorsal, anal and the base 
of the caudal fins; a narrow scarlet lateral band; a small black spot at 
base of tail fin; scales 5-37-3: Alabama basin; very common. 

H. xenocephalus (Jord.). Length 70 mm.; head 4.2; depth 5; color 
dark olivaceous, with a dark band along the sides of the caudal peduncle 
and the head and a dusky blotch at the base of the tail fin; males with- 
out red; rays of anal fin 7; scales 5-38-3: Georgia to Mississippi; common 
in pine woods; descending to the sea. 

38. Notropis Rafinesque. Shiners. Body elongate, with little 
pigment; teeth 2, 4-4, 2; anal fin long, with 9g to 12 rays; scales not 
closely imbricated, with 45 to 50 in the lateral line; first ray of dorsal 
fin rudimentary; dorsal behind or over the ventrals: 10 species. 

N. ariommus (Cope). Length 125 mm.; head 3.75; depth 4.25; 
color olivaceous; rays of anal fin 9; scales 6-39-2; eyes very large: basin 
of the Ohio and Tennessee Rivers; common about Indianapolis. 

N. jejunus (Forbes). Length 75 mm.; head 4; depth 4.6; color 
pale, with a broad silvery lateral band; rays of anal fin 7; scales 5-37-3; 
teeth 2, 4-4, 1: western Pennsylvania to Kansas; southward to Tennessee 
northward to Winnipeg; not rare. 

N. leuciodus (Cope). Length 75 mm.; head 4.5; depth 5; color oliva- - 
ceous; sides silvery, with a purplish lateral band; a black spot at base of 
tail fin; scales 5-39-3: basin of the upper Tennessee; very common; 
not in mountain streams. 

N. telescopus (Cope). Length too mm.; head 4.25; depth 4.75; color 
pale greenish, the scales dark edged; rays of anal fin 10; scales 5-35 to 
38-3; mouth very oblique; eyes very large: basin of the upper Ten- 
nessee, in cold streams; very common; also in Arkansas. 


FISHES 79 


N. stilbius Jord. Length 75 mm.; head 4.2; depth 5; color pale 
green; sides with a broad silvery band and numerous dark dots which 
form a blotch at the base of the tail fin; rays of anal fin 10; scales 5-37-2; 
teeth 2, 4-4, 1; eyes very large: Tennessee and Alabama; common. 

N. atherinoides Raf. Length 150 mm.; head 4.6; depth 5.5; color 
translucent green; sides silvery; rays of anal fin 11; scales 5-38-3; body 
long and slender; mouth very oblique; eyes very large: Great Lakes 
region and Ohio and Mississippi Valleys; northward to Winnipeg; 
common in lakes and river channels. 

N. dilectus (Gir.). Length 85 mm.; head 4.6; depth 4.5; color very 
pale; snout and base of fins rosy; rays of anal fin 11; scales 7-38-3; 
body elongate; mouth oblique: basin of the Ohio to the Rio Grande; 
common. 

N.rubrifrons (Cope). Length 70 mm.; head 4; depth 5; color oliva- 
ceous; sides silvery ; rays of anal fin 10; scales 5-39-3; mouth very oblique: 
New York and western Pennsylvania to southern Michigan; southward 
to Mississippi and Kansas; very common in clear streams, especially in 
the Ohio Valley. 

N. photogenis (Cope). Length 75 mm.; head 4.25; depth 5.5; color 
olivaceous; sides and belly silvery, with dark specks along the lateral 
line rays; rays of anal fin 10; scales 6-40-3, 25 before the dorsal fin: 
western Pennsylvania to Michigan and southward; common in clear 
streams. 

N. scepticus (J. & G.). Length 75 mm.; head 3.75; depth 4.5; color 
pale green; sides with a silvery band; rays of anal fin 10; scales 6-38-3, 
14 before the dorsal fin; eyes very large: the Cape Fear to the Santee 
Rivers; common. 

N. micropteryx (Cope). Length 70 mm.; head 4.5; depth 5.5; color 
olivaceous; sides silvery, with a dusky blotch at the base of the tail fin; 
rays of anal fin ro; scales 6-39-2; body very slender, compressed; mouth 
large, oblique: head waters of the Cumberland and Tennessee Rivers; 
also in the Ozark region; common. 

N. metallicus J. & M. Length 45 mm.; head 4; depth 5; color dark 
brown, with a rosy band from the eye to the upper lobe of the tail, below 
which is a metallic dusky band ending in a broad black spot at the 
base of the tail fin; rays of anal fin 11; scales 5-35-3: swamps and streams 
in southern Georgia and northern Florida. 

39. Lythrurus Jordan. Similar to Notropis; body elongate, com- 
pressed; scales closely impricated; dorsal fin with a black spot and 
behind the ventrals; anal fin with 10 to 12 rays: 4 species. 


80 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


L. lirus Jord. Length 60 mm.; head 4.3; depth 5.25; color pale 
green; sides with a metallic blue band formed of dark dots; fins red in 
males; rays of anal fin 10; scales 8-45-4: basin of the Tennessee and 
Alabama Rivers; common in sandy streams. 

L. roseipinnis (Hay). Length 85 mm.; head 4.5; depth 4; color 
dark, the scales above having dark dots; a dark lateral band; vertical 
fins red; rays of anal fin 11; scales 8-45-3; body slender, compressed; a 
black spot on the dorsal and anal fins: tributaries of the Gulf from 
Mississippi to Florida. 

L. umbratilis (Gir.). Redfin. Length 75 mm.; head 4.25; depth 4 
to 4.5; color steel blue above; pale beneath; a dark spot at the base of 
the dorsal fin; male in the spring with belly and lower fins brick red and 
with white tubercles covering the anterior portion of the body; rays of 
dorsal fin 7; anal fin 11; scales 9-40, 3; body stout, compressed; caudal 
peduncle long: western New York to Minnesota; southward to Ala- 
bama and Kansas; common in small clear streams. 

L. atripes (Jord.). Blackfin. Dorsal and anal fins each with a 
black bar across its upper part: southern Illinois and Iowa. 

L. cyanocephalus (Copeland). Dorsal fin with 8 rays; anal 11 to 13; 
scales g-50-3; top of head blue: Minnesota to Ohio river basin; common. 

L. matutinus (Cope). Rays of dorsal fin 8; scales 7-44-3; colors 
pale; body slender; males with snout, chin and upper half of dorsal fin 
red; a dark caudal spot: Neuse and Pimlico Rivers; common. 

40. Ericymba Cope. Body elongate; teeth 1, 4-4, 0, hooked; scales 
large; dorsal fin above ventrals; eyes very large; dentaries, interopercles 
and suborbitals broad and with conspicuous mucous channels: r species. 

E. buccata Cope. Length 1oomm.; head 4; depth 5; color olivaceous, 
with silvery sides; rays of dorsal and anal fins 8; scales 5-33-3; breast 
naked: western Pennsylvania and Michigan to western Florida and 
Kansas; locally very common. 

41. Phenacobius Cope. Sucker-mouths. Body elongate; teeth 
4-4; hooked; mouth small, ventral, each side of the lower lip enlarged 
into a fleshy lobe; rays of dorsal fin 8; anal 7; isthmus very broad; size 
small: 4 species, which look like young suckers. 

P. teretulus Cope. Length 85 mm.; head 4.6; depth 4.5; color pale 
yellowish, the scales above dark-edged; snout blackish; a plumbeous 
lateral band; scales 6-43-5: Kanawha River, West Virginia; not 
common. 

P. mirabilis (Girard). (Fig. 37). Length 85 mm.; head 4.3; depth 
4.6; color olivaceous, with a silvery lateral band and a conspicuous 
black spot at the base of the tail fin; scales 6-43 to 51-5: Illinois River to 


FISHES 81 


Arkansas; basin of the Tennessee River; rather common in sandy 
streams. 

P. uranops Cope. Length too mm.; head 4.75; depth 6; color pale 
olivaceous, with a dark spot at the base of the tail fin; scales 7-60-6: 
upper Tennessee basin; common in the river channels. 

P. catostomus Jordan. Length too mm.; head 4.5; depth 5.6; color 
olivaceous, with a silvery lateral band, dark at the base of the tail fin; 
scales 7-60-5: Alabama River basin; common. 

42. Rhinichthys Agassiz. Body elongate; head long and slender; 
a minute barbel on the maxillary; teeth mostly 2, 4-4, 1 or 2, hooked; 
scales small; dorsal fin behind the ventrals; coloration dark; males rosy 
in the spring: 3 species, t in Mexico. 


Fic. 37.—Head of Phenacobius mirabilis: a, side view; b, ventral view (from Fishes of 
Illinois). . 

R. cataracte (Cuvier & Valenciennes). Long nosed dace. Length 
125 mm.; head 4; depth 5 to 5.5; color dark olive, paler below; back 
almost black; a dark spot on the opercle; body elongate; head long; 
mouth inferior; rays of dorsal fin 8; anal 7; scales 65: New England 
to the Columbia; southward to North Carolina and the Great Salt 
Lake basin; in swift streams; common and variable. 

R. atronasus (Mitchill). Black nosed dace. Length 75 mm.; head 
4; depth 4.5; color blackish, with a black lateral band; males in spring 
with the lateral band, lower fins and sometimes the whole body crimson, 
the lateral band in late summer becoming orange and later getting dark; 
rays of dorsal fin 7; anal 7; scales 64; teeth 2, 4-4, 2: New England to 
Minnesota; southward to Alabama; very common in clear brooks; 
very variable. 

43. Apocope Cope. Similar to Rhinichthys except that the pre- 
maxillaries are protractile; rays of dorsal fin mostly 8; anal 7: 10 species, 
all in the Rocky Mountain region. 


Key to the Species of Apocope 


ai, Teeth, 1, 4-4, 1. 
bi Dorsal fin with 8 rays. 
Cc; Scales small, more than 70 in the lateral line. 
Gates EA DO UL, OO stark et, ak wacarter oO ac meee eet A. oscula. 


82 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


ds Seales about: 7Ocus S45 ese ees ee A. yarrowi. 
ds: Scalés abotit.. 74:5. 2. scene ee a eee tan eee err eel A. couesit. 
co Scales. less than youn thejlaterai dines. 5.5. o.oo: an cae A, adobe. 
A. nevadensis. 
A. nubila. 
b Dorsal fin with to or 11 rays, the anterior one spinelike. 
Gi. Scales'63' ta 7oulsss hs Ae ee ee eee eee 4. umatilla. 
Go Scales-52: tO.87 3 4 Aaes casa wep cen Gree A. falcata. 
ae” Teeth gaae coo, steko ee cee we ecw eg ne ee A. chrysogaster. 


A. oscula (Gir.). Length 60 mm.; head 4; depth 4.75; color dusky 
olive; a scarlet patch above the gill opening and one on the side of the 
muzzle; scales 18-89-15: lower Colorado and Gila Rivers; not rare. 

A. yarrowi Jordan & Evermann. Length 125 mm.; head 4.1; depth 
5 to 5.5; color dark olive, with 2 ill-defined dark lateral bands; scales 
16-78-13: Colorado River basin; very common. 

A. couesit (Yarrow). Length 110 mm.; head 4; depth 4.25; color 
dark gray; scales 12-74-11: Colorado River basin. 

A.adobe J.& E. Length too mm.; head 3.6; depth 4.5; clay colored, 
with a dark lateral band; scales 12-63 to 70-10: Sevier River, Utah; 
locally abundant. 

A. nevadensis (Gilbert). Head 3.5; depth 4; color brown, much 
speckled above, and with a dark lateral stripe; scales 65: warm springs 
in the deserts of southwestern Nevada. 

A. nubila (Gir.). Length 85 mm.; head 3.75 to 4.6; depth 3.75 
to 5; color dark gray, with a faint lateral band; scales 47 to 70, usually 
52 to 65: coastwise streams of Washington, Oregon and basin of the 
Columbia to Idaho; Yellowstone Park; southeastern Oregon. 

A. umatilla Gilbert & Evermann. Color dark, mottled; anterior 
ray of median fins spine-like; scales 13 or 14-63 to 70-7 or 8: Payette 
and Umatilla Rivers, Idaho. 

A. falcata Eigenmann & Eigenmann. Color dark, mottled; fins 
falcate; ventral fins with inner rays united with the body; scales 52 to 
57; Columbia River basin; locally abundant. 

A. chrysogaster Gir. Color dark iron gray, with a darker lateral 
band; scales 88; teeth 4-4; males with a yellowish belly: Gila River 
basin. 

44. Extrarius Jordan. Teeth one-rowed, 4-4; 1 or 2 pairs of 
barbels on the maxillary; 36 to 38 scales in the lateral line; snout pro- 
jecting: 3 species. 

E. tetranemus (Gilbert). Length 50 mm.; head 4; depth 5.3; color 
silvery, spotted with black; lateral line with 36 to 38 scales; 2 long 


‘ 


FISHES 83 


barbels on each side; head very slender; dorsal fin over the ventrals: 
basin of the Arkansas; not rare. 

E. estivalis (Girard). Length 60 mm.; head 3.75; depth 5.3; color 
silvery, spotted with black; scales 6-36-4; head very slender; snout pro- 
jecting beyond the mouth: Platte River to the Rio Grande; common 
in sandy river channels; not in small brooks. 

E. hyostomus (Gilb.). Length 60 mm.; head 4; depth 5.5; color 
silvery speckled with black; scales 37; snout long, acute, projecting 
beyond the mouth half its length: Indiana to Iowa; southward to the 
Alabama River; northward to Minnesota; common in sandy river 
channels. 

45. Macrhybopsis Cockerell & Alliston. Similar to Extrarius: 
1 pair of barbels; scales each with a longitudinal keel: 1 species. 

M. gelidus (Girard). Length 50mm.; head 4; depth 5; color silvery, 
speckled with black above; scales 6-44-4; snout very long, projecting in 
front of the mouth; rays of anal fin g; caudal peduncle very long and 
slender; tail deeply forked; eastern Nebraska to Wyoming and Mon- 
tana; locally common. 

46. Erimystax Jordan. Teeth one-rowed, 4-4; 1 pair of barbels; 
scales 44 to 50 in lateral line: 2 species. 

E. dissimilis (Kirtland). Length too mm.; head 4.5; depth 5; 
color olivaceous, mottled; sides with a bluish lateral band, in which is a 
series of dusky spots; eyes very large; scales 6-40 to 47-5; body long and 
slender: Lake Erie to the head waters of the Tennessee; common in the 
river channels. 

E. watauga J. & E. Similar to H. dissimilis; scales 5-48 to 52-4: 
Virginia to Arkansas; northward to Indiana. 

47. Erinemus Jordan. Teeth two-rowed, 1, 4-4, 1 or 0; scales 
large, 34 to 40 in lateral line; 1 pair of barbels: 1 species. 

E. labrosus (Cope). Length 75 mm.; head 4.25; depth 4.2; color in 
males dark steel blue with black markings, in females silvery with a 
blue lateral streak; a large dark spot on the hinder rays of the dorsal fin; 
a small spot at the base of the tail fin; scales 5-34 to 40-3: basin of the 
Santee; common. 

E. hypsinotus (Cope). Length 75 mm.; head 3.75; depth 4; color 
silvery, with a double series of black specks along the lateral line and a 
black lateral band; males with red fins; scales 5-40-3: Santee basin; 
rare. 

E. rubrifrons (Jordan). Length 75 mm.; head 4; depth 5; color 
olivaceous, with a plumbeous silvery lateral band; snout in males red 


84 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


with numerous dust-like tubercles and in the spring with red fins; 
scales 5-36-3: basin of the Altamaha, Georgia; common. 

E. hyalinus (Cope). Silver chub. Length 75 mm.; head 4; 
depth 5; color greenish, with a silvery lateral band; scales 5-38-45 rays 
of anal fin 7: New York to Iowa; southwards to Alabama; very common 
in the Ohio Valley. “ 

E. storerianus (Kirtland). Length 250 mm.; head 4.3; depth 4; 
color greenish, sides silvery; no red present; scales 6-40-4; body com- 
pressed, the back elevated; eyes very large: Lake Erie to eastern 
Wyoming; southwards to Tennessee and Nebraska. 


Fic. 38.—Nocomis biguttatus (from Fishes of Illinois). 


48. Nocomis Girard. Size large; mouth large, nearly terminal; 
dorsal fin slightly behind the ventrals; eye small: 1 species. 

N. biguttatus (Kirtland). Horny-head; river chub; jerker (Fig. 38). 
Length 250 mm.; head 4; depth 4.25; color bluish olive; sides with 
greenish reflection; fins pale orange; a dusky bar behind the opercle; 
males in the spring with a crimson spot on the side of the head; scales 
6-41-5; adults with a swollen crest on the head: Pennsylvania to 
Wyoming; southward to Alabama; very common in larger streams. 

49. Couesius Jordan. Body elongate; mouth terminal; a barbel on 
each maxillary; teeth 2, 4-4, 2, hooked; scales small; rays of both dorsal 
and anal fins 8: 4 species in the United States, 1 in Mexico. 

C. plumbeus (Agassiz). Length 150 mm.; head 4.5; depth 4.5; 
color dusky; sides silvery, with a dark lateral band; free margin of the 
dorsal fin concave; scales 11-60 to 70-7: Lake Superior to northern 
New York and New Brunswick; very common northwards. 

C. dissimilis (Girard). Like C. plumbeus, but more robust; free 
margin of dorsal fin nearly straight: upper Missouri and Black Hills 
region. 

C. greent Jord. Length 150 mm.; head 4; depth 4; color dark olive; 
sides reddish silvery; a dark streak under the eyes; scales 10-57-7; body 
robust; back convex: head waters of the Fraser River; Idaho. 


FISHES 85 


50. Platygobio Gill. Body elongate, somewhat compressed; teeth 
2, 4-4, 2; head broad and flat; a barbel on each maxillary; rays of both 
dorsal and anal fins 8; scales large: 2 species. 

P. physignathus (Cope). Length r50 mm.; head and depth 4.6; 
color olivaceous, with a plumbeous lateral band; belly white; scales 
6-48-5, 20 before the dorsal fin; body slender: upper waters of the 
Arkansas; very common in the river channels. 

P. gracilis (Richardson). Flatheaded chub. Length 300 mm.; 
head 4.25; depth 4.75; color pale olive; head white; scales 6-50-5, 23 
before the dorsal fin: head waters of the Missouri and Yellowstone to 
the Saskatchewan; eastward to Kansas City; common in river channels. 

51. Exoglossum Rafinesque. Body moderately elongate; the two 
sides of the lower jaw united its whole length, instead of forming a 
broad arch, and looking like a projecting tongue; teeth 1, 4-4, 1: I 
species. 

E. maxillingua (LeSueur). Cut-lip; nigger chub. Length r50 mm.; 
head 4; depth 4.5; color olivaceous; a black bar behind the opercle; 
rays of dorsal fin 8; anal 7; scales 8-53-5: St. Lawrence River and Lake 
Ontario to Virginia; locally abundant. 

Order 4. Heterognathi.—The four anterior vertebre modified 
and coéssified, and Weberian ossicles present; fins soft-rayed; lower 
pharyngeals not falciform; ventral fins abdominal; no pseudobranchiz: 
2 families of tropical fishes, represented by a single species in Texas. 

Family Characinide.—Adipose fin present; head naked; scales 
cycloid: 300 species. 

Astyanax Baird and Girard. Body oblong, compressed; lateral line 
complete; premaxillary teeth in a double row: 40 species. 

A. mexicanus (Filippi). Head 4; depth 3; color olivaceous, with 
a lateral silvery band and a black caudal spot; rays of dorsal fin 10; 
anal 21; scales 6-38-6: southern Texas and Mexico; abundant. 

Order 5. Nematognathi.—Catfish. The four anterior vertebre 
modified and with Weberian ossicles; no subopercle; ventral fins 
abdominal; fins soft rayed, except the dorsal and pectoral fins, each 
of which has a single spine; scales wanting, the skin being naked or 
with bony plates; the border of the mouth formed by the premaxillaries, 
the maxillary being often rudimentary; barbels present on the maxil- 
laries: several families, 1 in the fresh waters of America. 

Family Ameiuridz.—Body elongate, naked; upper jaw formed of 
premaxillaries alone; maxillaries rudimentary; barbels 8, on anterior 
part of head; adipose fin present; a stout spine forms the anterior 
ray of dorsal and pectoral fins; lower pharyngeals separate; air bladder 


86 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


large: over goo species and too genera, most of which are fresh water 
fish living in the warmer regions of Africa and South America, especially 
the Amazon region; a few species marine, mostly in tropical waters; 
about 30 species in the United States, none of which are on the Pacific 
slope except a few which have been introduced. 


Key to the Genera of Ameiuride in the United States 


a; Posterior margin of adipose fin not adnate to back. 
bi Rays of anal fin 17 to 35. 
c; Complete bony ridge extending from the head to the dorsal 


Lit ae Re ee creme aM ote says AO EEG GMs! is 1. Ictalurus. 
ce Bony ridge from head to dorsal fin interrupted. 
‘ dy -Wailgin forked 3.5" sate se ete inn ic Bere et become oes 2. Villarius. 
d. Tail fin truncate or lunate. 
Gp VES MOTI ae seeks ye ec sete Octet ne each 3. Ameiurus. 
eo) Eyesrunder.the-skin<scavienisies si om aut sete 4. Grontas. 
bev dkays: of-amealhhina ie tours sacs a. o ater scan etd aia ear ana 5. Opladelus. 
a2 Posterior margin of adipose fin adnate to back; size small or very 
small. 
b, Adipose fin separated from caudal fin by a distinct notch......6. Noturus. 
by Adipose fin not separated from caudal fin. 
CRECLOrAL SPINES MO’ SELEALC Assis Orne cee sse eee eee 7. Schilbeodes. 
> JPectoralispines; more Onless Senrate. (a.m Pores 8. Rabida. 


1. Ictalurus Rafinesque. Channel cats. Body slender; head 
conical; mouth small; supraoccipital process prolonged posteriorly, 
its emarginate end receiving the anterior tip of the second interspinal, 
thus forming a continuous bony ridge between the head and the dorsal 
fin; rays of dorsal fin usually I, 6; caudal fin deeply forked; 8 barbels 
present: 4 species, 1 in Guatemala, all important food fishes. 


Key to the United States Species of Ictalurus 
a; Body not spotted. 


Dee Anal tin with 29 LOM CFANS ! cag... cider a ilare craks ks ene ee I. furcatus. 
bs Anal tin with 24-t0-26 ray se: : Saad sate os & ate oe eee ee I. anguilla. 
Aor DOU SPOLLEG OL: ote Wi Oak apanie nse See REN Bead <a ee I. punctatus. 


I. furcatus (Cuvier and Valenciennes). Great forked-tail cat (Fig. 
39). Extreme length 1,500 mm.; extreme weight 150 lbs.; average 
weight ro lbs.; head 4.5; depth 5; color silvery; anal fin almost one third 
the length of the body: Mississippi Valley and Gulf States; northward to 
Jowa and Ohio; abundant in the south. 

I. punctatus (Raf.). Channel-cat; spotted cat (Fig. 40). Extreme 
length 900 mm.; extreme weight 25 lbs.; head 4; depth 5; color oli- 
vaceous, with small irregular round black spots; anal fin with 25 to 


FISHES 87 


29 rays: Great Lakes region, Gulf slope and Mississippi Valley regions; 
generally abundant in the channels of large streams. 

I. anguilla Evermann & Kendall. Eel cat. Length 450 mm.; 
color pale bluish or yellowish: Mississippi Valley from northern Illinois 
to Louisiana. 


~ SSS SS S 
Fic. 39.—Anal and caudal fins of Ictalurus furcatus (from Fishes of Illinois). 


2. Villarius Rutter. Caudal fin lunate or forked; body similar to 
Ameiurus; size large; supraoccipital process prolonged posteriorly, but 
not reaching the dorsal fin: several species. 

V. lacustris (Walbaum). Great Lakes catfish. Length up to 
1,500 mm.; average weight 8 lbs.; extreme weight 4o lbs.; head 4; depth 
5; color slaty; sides paler; rays of dorsal fin I, 5; anal 25 to 32; tail 
deeply forked: Great Lakes basin and large lakes and rivers northwards. 

V. catus (L.). White cat. Length 600 mm.; head 3.8; color pale 
bluish, without spots, but sometimes mottled; anal fin with about 
1g rays; tail deeply forked; head very broad and mouth very large: 


Fic. 40.—Anal and caudal fins of Ictalurus punctatus (from Fishes of Illinois). 


eastern States from New York to Texas; introduced into California; 
very common in coastwise streams and swamps. 

3. Ameiurus Rafinesque. Small catfish and bullheads. Body 
rather stout; head broad; mouth large; rays of dorsal fin about I, 6; anal 
24 to 27; tail usually convex or truncate; barbels 8: premaxillary teeth 


88 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE-UNITED STATES 


a transverse band (Fig. 41): numerous species, all in America except 
A. cantonensis, in China. 

A. erebennus Jordan. Body elongate; length 300 mm.; head and 
depth 4; color black above, pale below; fins and barbels black; tail 
truncated: coastwise waters from New Jersey to Florida; rare. 

A. natalis (LeSueur). Yellow cat. Length 450 mm.; head 3.5; 
color yellowish, clouded with darker; caudal fin truncated; body 
stout; mouth wide: from Great Lakes region southwards into Virginia 
and Texas; very common. 


Fic. 41.—Premaxillary teeth of: a, Ameiurus melas; b, Schilbeodes gyrinus; c, Opladelus 
olivaris, and d, Noturus flavus (from Fishes of Illinois). 


A. nebulosus (LeSueur). Common bullhead; horned pout. Length 
up to 450 mm.; head 3.8; depth 4 to 4.5; color dark yellowish brown, 
mottled with darker; anal fin with 21 or 22 rays and extending about a 
quarter the length of the body; upper jaw longer than the lower: 
Maine to North Dakota; southward to Virginia and Texas; introduced 
into California; very common. 


Subspecies of A. nebulosus 


A. n. catulus (Girard). Color nearly black: Texas; common. 

A. n. marmoratus (Holbrook). Color strongly marked: Indiana 
to Florida. 

A. melas (Raf.) (Fig. 41, a). Black bullhead. Length 250 mm.; 
depth 3.5 to 4.5; color blackish; body stout; anal fin very deep, with 
17 to 19 white rays: northern New York to Nebraska; southward 
to Kentucky and Texas; common, especially westward of the Mississippi. 

A. platycephalus (Gir.). Brown cat. Length 450 mm.; head 
3.5; color olive brown; body very slender; head flat and broad; upper 
jaw projecting; anal fin with 16 to 20 rays: Carolina and Georgia; 
common. 


FISHES 89 


4. Gronias Cope. Blind catfish. Eyes covered by the skin: 1 
species. 

G. nigrilabris (Cope). Length 250 mm.; color black above; anal 
fin with 18 rays; eyes rudimentary, beneath the skin; barbels short: 
in cave streams tributary to the Conestoga River in eastern 
Pennsylvania. 

5. Opladelus Rafinesque. Body large, elongate; head very wide 
and flat; mouth very large, with a projecting lower jaw; skin thick and 
villose; premaxillary teeth form a broad villiform band, convex anteri- 
orly, with a backward prolongation on each side (Fig. 41); anal fin 
slightly concave: 1 species. 

L. olivaris (Raf.). Mud cat; goujon. Extreme length 1,500 mm.; 
extreme weight 100 lbs.; average weight 35 lbs.; color yellowish, mottled 
with brown or greenish; body slender; anal fin with 12 to 15 rays; 
dorsal. spine short: Mississippi Valley and Gulf States; common in 
deep, sluggish waters. 

6. Noturus Rafinesque. Body elongate and similar to Opladelus; 
dentition also similar (Fig. 41); adipose fin long, low and keel-like 
and adnate posteriorly and separated from the tail by a notch; a 
poison gland at the base of the pectoral spine; skin tough and villose: 
I species. 

N. flavus Raf. Stone cat. Length 300 mm.; head 4.25; depth 
5-6; color yellowish brown; dorsal spines very short; anal fin with about 
16 rays; barbels short: Great Lakes region and westward into Montana; 
southward to Texas; often common in small sluggish streams. 

7. Schilbeodes Bleeker. Mad-toms. Body small, elongate; head 
flattened; mouth large, with a somewhat projecting upper jaw; teeth 
in a broad convex band in each jaw (Fig. 41); adipose fin as in Noturus; 
anal fin with 12 to 23 rays; a poison gland as in Noturus: several species, 
some very rare, in southern and western States, in small streams; the 
sting of the sharp pectoral spines may be very painful. 

S. gyrinus (Mitchill). Mad-tom (Fig. 42). Length 125 mm.; head 
3.5 to 4; depth 4 to 5.5; color uniform yellowish brown, with a narrow 
lateral black streak; pectoral spine smooth; adipose fin continuous with 
the tail fin; anal fin with 13 to 15 rays: Hudson River and westward 
throughout the Great Lakes region and Mississippi Valley; common 
towards the north. 

S. nocturnus (Jordan and Gilbert). Length 75 mm.; head 3.6; 
color dark brown, dotted with black; rays of anal fin 15 or 16: adipose 
fin high, joined to the caudal: Mississippi Valley from Indiana to 
Arkansas. 


go VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


8. Rabida Jordan. Mad Toms. Body similar to Schilbeodes; 
pectoral spines serrate behind: several species; pectoral spines able to 
give a painful wound. 

R. exilis (Nelson). Length too mm.; head 4; depth 5 to 6.5; color 
yellowish, mottled; anal fin with 14 to 17 rays: Wisconsin to Kansas; 
common. 

R. insignis (Richardson). Mad-tom. Length 250 mm.; head 4.25; 
depth 6; color dark brown, somewhat mottled; fins dark edged; anal fin 
with 14 to 16 rays; upper jaw projecting: New York to South Carolina; 
very common in coastal streams. 


Fic. 42.—Schilbeodes gyrinus (from Fishes of Illinois). 


R. miura (Jordan). Length 1oo mm.; head 4; depth 5; color 
mottled black and gray, with 4 black blotches; top of head, tip of 
dorsal, middle of adipose and edge of caudal fins black; adipose fin with 
a deep notch, but connected with the tail fin; anal fin with 13 to 15 rays: 
Mississippi Valley and tributaries of Lake Michigan; common. 

R. leptacantha (Jordan). Length 75 mm.; body slender; color 
yellowish, mottled; spines short; rays of anal fin 14: Gulf States, in 
sandy streams; rare. 

R. gilberti (Jordan & Evermann). Length too mm.; body slender; 
color yellowish; base of tail fin and most of its lower lobe black; rays of 
anal fin 15; dorsal fin black at base: Roanoke River; common. 

R. eleuthera (Jordan). Length too mm.; head 3.8; color plain 
brownish, with faint saddle-like blotches on the back; rays of anal fin 
13: Mississippi Valley; often common. 

Order 6. Haplomi.—Pike and pickerel. Soft rayed fish with 
anterior vertebre distinct and without Weberian ossicles; no adipose 
fin; pseudobranchie wanting or glandular; body covered with 
cycloid scales; ventral fins abdominal; head usually more or less scaly; 
air bladder with pneumatic duct: 2 families of mainly fresh water 
fishes. 


FISHES QI 


Key to the Families of Haplomi 


a; No lateral line present; fishes of small size. ........ 2 sndhen eee oe 1. Umbride. 
damuaveraimine present + mshes of large Size:.04 >) 32 .uc etoe eee ne ae ciee, LeSOCId@, 


_ Family 1. Umbride.—Mud minnows. Body elliptical, broad 
anteriorly, compressed posteriorly; teeth well developed and on the 
premaxillaries, mandibles, vomer and palatines; maxillaries toothless; 
no lateral line; no pyloric cca; dorsal fin more or less posterior in posi- 
tion; scales large; branchiostegals 6 or 8; tail fin rounded: 1 genus and 3 
species of small fishes living near the bottom of ponds and sluggish 
streams. 

Umbra Muller. With the characters of the family: 3 species, 2 in 
the United States. 


Fic. 43.—Umbra pygmea (from Jordan & Evermann). 


U. limi (Kirtland). Length 1oo mm.; head 3.75; depth 4.25; color 
olive green, with 14 narrow irregular pale transverse dark bars; rays of 
dorsal fin 14; anal 8; scales 35: Quebec to Minnesota and southward to 
the Ohio river and Iowa; common in the basin of the Great Lakes. 

U. pygmea (Dekay) (Fig. 43). Length too mm.; head 4; depth 4-5; 
color dark greenish, with about 12 narrow longitudinal pale stripes and a 
dark transverse bar at the base of the tail fin; rays of the dorsal fin 13; 
anal 7; scales 35: coastwise streams and swamps from Long Island to the 
Neuse River; locally common. 

Family 2. Esocide.—Body elongate, slender, compressed pos- 
teriorly; head long and flat; mouth very large, with a projecting lower 
jaw; maxillaries with a supplementary bone; teeth strong and on 
the premaxillaries, vomer, palatines, mandibles and tongue; head naked 
above and more or less scaled on the sides; scales small; lateral line 
weak, wanting in the young; tail forked; dorsal fin opposite the anal 
and near the tail; branchiostegals 12 to 20; no pyloric ceca: 1 genus; 
fresh water fish of moderate or large size noted for their fierceness and 
voracity. 


Q2 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


Esox L. Pike: pickerel. With the characters of the family: 
5 species; all important food and game fishes. 


Key to the Species of Esox 


a; Opercle not scaly on the lower half. 


by: Cheeks ‘entirelyescaly = -s2 0974 voret ecu ayers ee ath Sm E. luctus. 
b. Cheeksinot scalyaontthe lower half. <a> atom eee E. masquinongy. 
a2 Opercle and cheek entirely scaly. 
bz*Raysof dorsal fin" rar ver ssa es) hace ene eee ee E. reticulatus. 
by Rays of dorsal fin 11 or 12. 
c: In the Mississippi Valley and Great Lakes basin........ E. vermiculatus. 
co In Atlantic coastwise streams.........................E. americanus. 


E. luctus L. Common Pike (Fig. 44). Length up to 1,200 mm.; 
weight up to 4o lbs.; head 3.4; depth 5; color bluish or greenish gray, 


Fic. 44.—Esox lucius (from Jordan & Evermann). 


with many irregular whitish or yellowish spots arranged in more or less 
longitudinal lines; median fins with irregular black spots; rays of dorsal 
fin 16 or 17; anal 13 or 14; scales 123; branchiostegals 14 to 16: northern 
America, Europe and Asia; southward to New York and the Ohio 
River; northward to Alaska; very common. 

E. masquinongy Mitchill. Muscalonge; muskallunge. Length 
goo mm.; extreme length 2,500 mm.; extreme weight 100 lbs.; head 3.6; 
depth 6; color dark gray; sides with numerous black spots; lower por- 
tion of cheek and opercle without scales; rays of dorsal fin 17; anal 15; 
scales 150; branchiostegals 17 to 19: Great Lakes region and upper 
Mississippi Valley, and northwards; not common; occasionally in the 
Ohio Valley as far south as North Carolina. 


Subspecies of E. masquinongy 


E. m. ohiensis (Kirtland). Sides with narrow dark cross bars which 
split up into diffuse spots: Ohio River basin; Lake Chautauqua. 

E. m.immaculatus Jordan & Evermann. Body unspotted: northern 
Wisconsin; common. 


FISHES 93 


E. niger LeSueur. Common pickerel; chain pickerel. Length 
600 mm.; head 3.5; depth 6; color green; sides marked with numerous 
irregular dark lines forming a network; a dark band below the eye; 
fins plain; rays of dorsal fin 14; anal 13; scales 125; branchiostegals 14 
to 16: Atlantic and Gulf slope, Maine to Florida and Louisiana; very 
numerous in the New York lakes and east and south of the Alleghenies. 

E. vermiculaius LeSueur. Grass pike; little pickerel. Length 
300 mm.; head 3.25; depth 5 to 6; color green or grayish, sometimes 
plain but usually with an irregular network of dark streaks on the sides; 
a dark bar downward from the eye; rays of dorsal and anal fins rx or 12; 
body rather stout; scales 105; branchiostegals 11 to 13: Mississippi 
Valley and the southern tributaries of Lakes Michigan, Erie and 
Ontario; common. 

E. americanus Gmelin. Banded pickerel. Length 300 mm.; head 
3.6; depth 5.5; color dark green; sides with about 20 blackish curved 
bars; rays of dorsal and anal fins 11 or 12; scales 105; opercle fully 
scaled: coastwise streams and ponds from Maine to Florida; common. 

Order 7. Cyprinodontes.—The killifishes. Dorsal fin single, 
posteriorly inserted; ventrals abdominal, when present; head usually 
scaled; upper jaw formed by the premaxillaries; size small: 3 families. 


Key to These Families 


a, Eyes normal. 


Dee analeiin, Oranale MOrmMmal 3 cw Mave e a otis eidigiereiece sacs. 1. Cyprinodontide. 
be Anal fin of male very long and inserted forwards.........2. Peciliide. 
ag Eyes very small or hidden in’ the skin... ....0.......... 3. Amblyopside. 


Family 1. Cyprinodontide.—Killifish. Small fish with moder- 
ately elongate body, flattened head and rather large cycloid scales; head 
more or less scaly; mouth small, terminal, with a projecting lower jaw; 
upper jaw very protractile, its margin formed by the premaxillaries; 
branchiostegals 4 to 6; tail not forked; no pyloric ceca; no lateral line; 
many species Ovoviviparous: about 30 genera and 180 species, occurring 
in fresh and brackish water in all the warmer waters of Europe, Asia, 
Africa and America; about 30 fresh water species in the United States, 
largely in coastwise inlets and swamps of the southern States. 


Key to the Fresh Water Genera of Cyprinodontidez and Peecillide in the 
United States 


a; Lower jaw usually projecting beyond the upper; teeth little 
movable; species mostly carnivorous. 
b, Anal fin of male of normal shape; species oviparous (Cyprinodontide@). 
c, Teeth pointed, and neither bicuspid nor tricuspid. 


Q4 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


d, Teeth in more than one series. 
e; Dorsal fin relatively large, with 12 to 18 rays; 
bottom fishes. 
f; Scales relatively large, with 31 to 50 in the lateral 
line. 
g, Dorsal fin inserted before the anterior border 
of the*aniale.. 73 Sea eee ie 1. Fundulus. 
g2 Dorsal fin inserted over the anterior border 
OF the an alin 3 75 cnn oon, eee ee eg ee 3. NXenisma. 
f2 Scales small, with about 60 in the lateral line.... 2. Plancterus. 
es Dorsal fin small, with 7 to to rays; surface swimmers 4. Zygonectes. 
d. Teeth in a single series; dorsal fin in front of the anal.. 5. Lucania. 
co Teeth not pointed but notched and tricuspid. 


di Dorsalifin swithuto: tone rays yaa cea nisnie aa uatls ae 6. Cyprinodon. 
ds Dorsalminewith’ 15; tO.te AVG nt win. ons veheames ee © 7. Jordanella. 
b. Anal fin of male a long sword-shaped organ; species vivipar- 
OUS AUR werd Oh cee Co are cL Pte wise TAN marae Ni ae 1. Gambusia. 
a2 Lower jaw short; teeth movable; species mostly mud-eating. 
bys feeth in asingle senesi sd. Oi. seoh cid he eae gemma en 2. Heterandria. 
bz) Meeth)in qore: thamone Series: *. 245 onto e e skasts, suet 3. Mollienisia. 


1. Fundulus Lacépéde. Killifish. Body rather elongate, some- 
times chubby; compressed behind; eyes large; teeth in 2 or more series 


Fic. 45.—Fundulus diaphanus (from Jordan & Evermann). 


in each jaw, and pointed; air bladder present: many species, mostly 
American, living in fresh and brackish water and arms of the sea; 
about 8 species in the United States. ; 

F. heteroclitus (L.). Common killifish; mummichog. Length 75 to 
150 mm.; head 3.5; depth 3.6; color of male greenish, sometimes orange 
below; sides with many narrow, silvery bars made up of spots, besides 
many scattered spots; median fins dark with pale spots; females plain; 
dorsal fin 11; anal ro or 11; scales 35 to 38-13: Gulf of St. Lawrence to 
Mexico; very common in shallow water along the sea shore and in the 
mouths of streams. , 

F. parvipinnis Girard. Length too mm.; head 3.5; depth 3.7; 
dorsal fin with 13, anal with 11 rays; color light green, with about 20 


etait die Wis 


FISHES 95 


short dark cross bars: coast of California from Point Conception to 
Lower California; often very common. 

F. similis (Baird and Girard). Length 150 mm.; rays of dorsal fin 
t1 to 13, of anal 13; scales 33-11; color olivaceous, with 10 to 15 dark 
side bars; body slender; snout very long: coastal waters of the Gulf 
States, in brackish water; very common. 

F. diaphanus (LeSueur) (Fig. 45). Length roo mm.; head 4; depth 
4.8; color olivaceous; sides silvery, with about 20 dark vertical bars; 
rays of dorsal fin 13; anal 11; scales 45-15; body rather slender: eastern 
and central States from Maine to Cape Hatteras; westward to Colorado; 
Great Lakes and tributaries; common in streams and ponds; also in the 
mouths of rivers. 


Subspecies of F. diaphanus 


F. d. menona Jordan & Copeland. Rays of dorsal fin 12; anal 10; 
scales 48-12; bars very distinct; back spotted: Ohio River to the 
Mississippi. 

F. rathbuni Jordan & Meek. Length 65 mm.; head 3.8; depth 4.5; 
color pale green, with small irregular oblong dark brown spots scattered 
over head and body; rays of dorsal and anal fins 11; scales 38-12: 
eastern North Carolina; common; not in salt water. 

F. albolineatus Gilbert. Length 85 mm.; head 3.3; depth 3.6; color 
dark brown; sides plumbeous, with whitish streaks in males and narrow 
black lines in females; rays of dorsal and anal fins ro or 11; scales 42: 
Tennessee basin in Alabama. 

F. majalis (Walbaum). Mayfish; killifish. Length 150 mm., 
being the largest of the genus; head long; color olivaceous, with about 
12 dark bars; a black spot on the dorsal fin; dorsal with 12, anal 10 rays; 
scales 36 in the lateral line: Cape Cod to Florida; common in shallow 
bays. 

2. Plancterus Garman. Intestine long and convoluted; pha- 
ryngeals very small: 2 species. 

P. kanse Gar. Length 75; head 3.5; depth 4.5; color greenish 
above; sides silvery, tinged with yellow and with 14 to 18 dark vertical 
bars; rays of dorsal fin 14 to 15; anal 13 or 14; scales 60-21: South Dakota 
to western Iowa, Texas and New Mexico; common in tributaries of the 
upper Arkansas. 

3. Xenisma Jordan. Dorsal fin inserted over anterior part of anal; 
scales small, 50 in the lateral line; colors brilliant: 2 species. 

X. catenatus (Storer). Length 150 mm.; head 4; depth 4.5; color 
bluish or greenish, with an orange spot on each scale forming thus 


96 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


regular lines; rays of dorsal fin 14; anal 15; scales 50: Tennessee and 
Cumberland Rivers and in the Ozark region, in mountain streams; 
abundant. 

X. stellifer Jordan. Length too mm.; head 3.75; depth 5; color 
blue above, silvery below, with large orange spots irregularily placed; 
rays of dorsal and anal fins 13; scales 53: Alabama River basin. 

4. Zygonectes Agassiz. Dorsal fin small, with 7 to 11 rays, 
inserted behind the anterior border of the anal fin; scales large, 29 to 40 
in the lateral line; size small: about to species. 

Z. cingulatus (Cuvier and Valenciennes). Length 75 mm.; head 
3-25; depth 3.75; color dark olivaceous, with a dark orange spot on 
each scale posteriorly; faint narrow orange bars along the lower and 
hinder part of the body; rays of dorsal fin 7 or 8; anal 8 or g; scales 
32-11 or 12: streams and swamps of eastern Florida. 

Z. sciadicus (Cope). Length 65 mm.; head 3.5; depth 3.2; color 
uniform olivaceous; rays of dorsal fin 10; anal 12; scales 39-13: eastern 
Nebraska and South Dakota to Colorado; common in grassy 
streams. 

Z. chrysotus (Holbrook). Length 50 mm.; head 3.5; depth 3.8; 
color light olive brown; sides with about 14 indefinite half-bars; rays of © 
dorsal fin g; anal 11; scales 32 or 33-12: coastwise swamps from South 
Carolina to Florida. 

Z. cingulatus (Cuvier & Valenciennes). Head 3.5; depth 3.75; 
color olivaceous, with fine dots; scales edged with dusky, forming a few 
faint longitudinal stripes; about 15 dark vertical bars; fins red; rays of 
dorsal fin 7; anal 8; scales 34-10: South Carolina to Florida, in coast- 
wise Swamps. 

Z. notiit Agassiz. Length 35 mm.; head 3.6; depth 4.5; color 
silvery, with 6 narrow jet-black lines from head to tail, these being 
crossed by about 12 cross bars; cheeks orange; rays of dorsal fin 7 or 8; 
anal g or 10; scales 36-10: Florida to South Carolina. 

Z. guitatus Ag. Head 3.75; depth 5; color orange brown; each 
scale with a black edge, these forming longitudinal stripes, but not con- 
fluent; cheeks orange; rays of dorsal fin 6 or 7; anal 8 or g; scales 36-12: 
Florida to Texas. 

Z. dispar Ag. (Fig. 46). Length 65 mm.; head 3.75; depth 3.5; 
color bluish or greenish in life, with a blue patch under the eye, female 
with to distinct longitudinal brownish lines; males with about 7 lon- 
gitudinal rows of small brown spots and g dark cross bars; rays of 
dorsal fin 7; anal g; scales 35-10: Michigan to Arkansas; southward to 
Mississippi; common in sluggish streams. 


FISHES 97 


Z. notatus (Rafinesque). Top minnow. Length 75 mm.; head 4; 
depth 4.5; color brownish olive, with a broad dark band running from 
the tip of the snout to the tail; back dotted; rays of dorsal fin 9; anal 11; 
scales 34-11: Michigan to Alabama and Texas; common. 

5. Lucania Girard. Body elliptical, compressed; lower jaw pro- 
jecting and prominent, the mouth being short and oblique; each jaw 
with a single series of teeth; scales very large; dorsal fin above or in 
advance of the anal: 4 species of very small fishes in the coastwise 
swamps of the southern States. 


Fic. 46.—Zygonectes dispar: a, male; b, female (from Fishes of Illinois). 


L. ommata (Jordan). Length 20 mm.; head 3.3; depth 5; straw- 
color, the male with 5 or 6 dark bars, the female with a jet-black spot 
just in front of the anal fin and a larger spot at the upper part of the 
base of the tail; rays of the dorsal fin 6 or 7; anal g or 10; scales 26 to 
28-9; body slender; eyes large: swamps of Florida; scarce; one of the 
smallest known fishes. 

L. goodei Jord. Length 40 mm.; head 4; depth 4.25; color olivace- 
ous, with a distinct black band running from the snout to the tail 
where it ends in a round spot; rays of dorsal and anal fins g; scales 
29 to 32-7: Everglades region; common. 

L. parva (Baird & Girard). Rain-water fish. Length 45 mm.; head 
3.25; depth 3.25; color olive; fins in male orange tipped with black; 
dorsal fin with a large black spot at its base and with 10 to 12 rays; 


98 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


anal with to or 11; scales 26-8: Atlantic coast from Connecticut to 
Key West and Texas, near the shore and in brackish pools; very common 
towards the south. 

6. Cyprinodon Lacépéde. Body short, deep, elliptical, the back 
elevated; mouth small; teeth tricuspid, in a single series; scales very 
large; dorsal fin high and in advance of the anal: 9 species, in brackish 
waters of the southern States and Mexico. 

C. variegatus Lac. Length 75 mm.; head 3.25; depth 2; color of 
male olivaceous, blue above; color of anterior portion of the sides and of 
belly salmon; tail with a black bar at base and tip; female light olive, 
with about 14 cross streaks; rays of dorsal fin 11; anal 10; scales 25-12. 
Cape Cod to the Rio Grande, in brackish waters and the mouth of 
streams; very common. we 

7. Jordanella Goode.& Bean. Body short, deep, compressed; 
back elevated; mouth small; teeth in a single series; dorsal fin long; 
scales large; tail rounded; viviparous: 1 species. 

J. floride G. & B. Length 65 mm.; head 3.5; depth 2 to 2.5; color 
olivaceous, with a blue stripe along each series of scales, and 4 or 5 
vague vertical bars; rays of dorsal fin I, 14 to 16; anal I, rr to Ege 
scales 25 to 27-11 or 12: streams and swamps of Florida; common. 

Family 2. Poecilliide.—Top minnows; mosquito fish. Anal fin 
of male modified to form an intromittant organ; all species vivipar- 
ous: many species, all in tropical and subtropical America. 

1. Gambusia Poey. Top minnow. Body elongate; mouth small; 
scales large, anal fin in male very long and slender and modified to form 
a long intromittant organ; ventral fins near the pectorals; dorsal fin 
behind the anal; viviparous: about 12 species of small fish in fresh waters 
of the southern States, West Indies, Central America, and Mexico; 
2 species in the United States. 

G. patruellis (Baird & Girard) (Fig. 47). Length 50 mm. (female); 
male much smaller; head 3.6; depth 4; color light olive, each scale edged 
with darker; a very narrow, often indefinite, lateral stripe; rays of 
dorsal fin 7; anal 10; scales 30-9: marshes of the South Atlantic and 
Gulf coasts from Delaware to Mexico and northward to Kentucky, 
Tennessee and southern Illinois in the Mississippi Valley; in brackish 
and fresh water; very common in the south; celebrated as mosquito- 
larvee devourers. 

G. holbrooki Girard. Similar to G. patruellis. Length 60 mm.; 
head 4; depth 3.8; rays of dorsal fin 8, of anal ro or 11; scales 30-9: 
swamps and ditches, New Jersey to Florida; useful as a destroyer of 
mosquitoes; introduced for this purpose into many European countries. 


FISHES 99 


2. Heterandria Agassiz. Top minnow. Body rather stout; 
mouth very small; both jaws with a single series of teeth; scales large; 
anal fin in advance of the dorsal, and in the male modified to form an 
intromittant organ; viviparous: 6 species of very small fish in swamps in 
the southern States, West Indies and Mexico; 2 species in the United 
States. ; 

H. formosa Ag. Length 20 to 25 mm.; head 3.5; depth 3.75; color 
brownish olive, with a wide black lateral band crossed by 6 to g vertical 
bars; a black spot on the dorsal and anal fins; rays of dorsal fin 7; 
anal 6 to g; scales 24 to 28: South Carolina to Florida; very common in 
swamps and ditches, often in company with Gambusia patruellis; one of 
the smallest of known fishes. 


Fic. 47.—Gambusia patruellis: a, male; b, female (from Fishes of Illinois). 


H. occidentalis Baird & Girard. Length 65 mm.; head 3.5; depth 4; 
color brownish, dotted with black, with a black lateral stripe; rays of 
dorsal fin 7 or 8; anal 9 or 10; scales 29-8: southern Arizona; common 
in springs and ditches. 

3- Mollienisia LeSueur. Body rather stout; mouth small; both 
jaws with a narrow band of small teeth; scales large; anal fin behind the 
dorsal and modified in the male to form an intromittant organ: 4 
species in the southern States and Mexico; 1 species in the United States. 

M. latipinna LeS. Length 75 mm.; head 3.5 to 4; depth 2.5 to 3; 
color light green, in the male marbled with darker and spotted, with 
longitudinal lateral series of blackish spots; dorsal fin very long and in 
the male very elevated, exceeding the height of the body, translucent 
and with a series of spots; tail fin with round spots;.rays of dorsal 
fin 15 to 16; anal 8; scales 26-9 or 10: South Carolina to Mexico, in 
swamps and streams; very common. 

Family 3. Amblyopside.—The blindfishes. Body elongate, com- 
pressed behind; head long, depressed; mouth large; premaxillaries form- 


igele) VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


ing the entire margin of the upper jaw; head naked; tail fin pointed 
or rounded behind; scales small, cycloid, more or less imbedded so that 
the body appears naked; no lateral line; anus close behind the gills; 
fins spineless; ovary single; viviparous: 3 genera and 5 species; in small 
streams along our southern coast, and also in subterranean streams, 
these being blind and colorless. 


Key to the Genera of Amblyopsidz 


a, Eyes present and functional; ventral fin wanting. 


by. Nottactiletpa pill: present:|...2-27 2295.5.) cere eras eee 1. Chologaster. 

bs: Tactile papillse presents: .ciecn toi sete es een ee ce ee 2. Forbesella. 
aa Eyes concealed; colorless, subterraneous species. 

by Ventral: inrsvpresent.cAycer nd 2s. et paanis temas Sea) one 3. Amblyopsis. 

bat Wemtral firs swan eine’ esc: seen at eg ane eee east ee ..4. Troglichthys. 


5. Typhlichthys. 


1. Chologaster Agassiz. Body very slender; eyes present; no ven- 
tral fins; pyloric ceca 2: 1 species, in swamps and caves. 


Key to the Species of Chologaster and Forbesella 
a; Lateral papillary ridges absent. 


Dik hree namo: Mteralisttipest otcar.c 5 2 cat se hictercs ote oegoe C. cornutus. 
Do Bod yrwithout stripes ts <ouae on becottaote Oe ee eras F. agassizit. 
as Papillary Tages: PreseMbs © a sfijomet sete seh nate ape lor peda ae teecn ae F. papilliferus. 


C. cornutus Ag. Length 60 mm.; head 3.4; depth 4.5; color dark 
brown above; lower half abruptly white; whole body sprinkled with 
black dots; 3 narrow lateral stripes present; rays of dorsal and anal 
fins 8 or g; scales 68: lowland swamps from Dismal to Okefinokee 
Swamps; locally very common. 

2. Forbesella Jordan and Evermann. Tactile papillary ridges on 
sides of body; eyes imperfectly developed; pyloric ceca 2: 2 species; 
cave fishes. 

F. agassizii (Putnam). Length 30 mm.; head 4; color light brown: 
Mammoth Cave and other subterranean streams in Tennessee and 
Kentucky. 

F. papillifera (Forbes). Length 30 mm.; head 4; depth 5 or 6; color 
as in Chologaster cornutus; pectoral reaching half way to the dorsal fin; 
head with rows of tactile papilla: caves in Union and Pope Counties, 
Illinois. 

3. Amblyopsis DeKay. Eyes rudimentary and not functional; 
body and head with many vertical tactile ridges; 1 pyloric caecum: 1 
species. 


——s 


FISHES IOI 


A. speleus DeK. Length 125 mm.; head 3; depth 4.5; body color- 
less, translucent; rays of dorsal fin 9; anal 8: Mammoth Cave, and other 
subterranean streams in Kentucky and Indiana; common. 

4. Troglichthys Eigenmann. Eyes very rudimentary, concealed 
beneath the skin; sides with tactile papilla; scleral cartilages present; 
t pyloric cecum; body colorless: 1 species. 

T. rose Eig. Scleral cartilage large, forming a hook over the eye: 
caves of Missouri. 

5. Typhlichthys Girard. Similar to Amblyopsis, except that it 
has no ventral fins: 1 species. 

T. subterraneus Gir. Length 50 mm.; colorless and translucent; 
rays of dorsal and anal fins 7 or 8: subterranean streams and wells from 
Indiana to Alabama; common. 

Order 8. Salmoperce.—The trout perch. Adipose fin pres- 
ent; ventral fins abdominal; dorsal, anal and ventral fins each with 1 or 2 
spines; maxillary toothless and not forming the margin of the mouth; 
scales ctenoid; head scaleless; pseudobranchiz present: 1 family. 

Family Percopside.—Body elongate; caudal peduncle long and 
slender; mouth small, horizontal; branchiostegals 6; tail forked; stomach 
siphonal with to pyloric ceca: 2 genera. 

1. Percopsis Agassiz. Body slender, pellucid; dorsal fin with 2 
feeble spines; anal with 1: 1 species. 

P. omiscomaycus (Walbaum). Trout perch. Length 150 mm.; 
head 3.75; depth 4.3; color pale olivaceous, with a silvery stripe along 
the lateral line; upper half of body with dark round spots; rays of dorsal 
fin II, 9; anal I, 7; scales 6-50-7: Delaware and Potomac Rivers to 
Kansas, and northward to Hudson Bay; common in the Great Lakes. 

2. Columbia Eigenmann. Body rather robust; dorsal and anal fins 
with 2 strong spines each; posterior margin of preopercle with a few 
_ short spines; lateral line imperfect: 1 species. 

C. transmontana Eig. Length too mm.; head 3; depth 3.5; color 
greenish, upper half of body with large dark spots; rays of dorsal fin II, 
9; anal II, 6; scales 7 to 9-44 to 46-7: lagoons along the Columbia River; 
locally common. 

Order 9. Xenarchi.—Pirate perch. Dorsal fin single, with few 
spines; ventrals thoracic and with 7 rays and without spines; no adipose 
fin: 1 family. 

Family Aphredoderidz.—Body elliptical; caudal peduncle thick; 
scales ctenoid; sides of head scaly; lateral line imperfect or wanting; 
pyloric ceca about 12; anus below the preopercle in the adult but 
behind the ventral fins in the young; tail fin rounded: 1 genus. 


102 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


Aphredoderus LeSueur. With the characters of the family: 
7 species. 

A. sayanus (Gilliams). Pirate perch (Fig. 48). Length 190 mm.; 
head 3; depth 3.3; color dark olive, speckled with dark dots; 2 dark 
bars at the base of the tail fin; rays of dorsal fin III to IV, 10 to 11; 
anal IT, 6; scales 9 to 13-45 to 60-12 to 14: Long Island to Texas; up 
the Mississippi Valley to Minnesota and eastward to Lake Erie; 
common. 

Order 10. Synentognathi.—Garpike. Soft-rayed fishes with 
unmodified anterior vertebre; air bladder without pneumatic duct in the 
adult; no pyloric cca; fins without spines; ventral fins abdominal; no 
adipose fin; lower pharyngeal bones fully united: 4 families of marine 
fishes, one species of which enters the rivers along the Atlantic coast. 


Fic. 48.—A phredoderus sayanus (from Fishes of Illinois). 


Family Belonidze.—Body very elongate and slender, covered with 
small scales; lateral line very low, running along the side of the belly; 
jaws elongated to form a beak, each jaw with a band of sharp teeth; 
about 50 species of voracious, carnivorous fishes. 

Strongylura Van Hasselt. With the characters of the family; 
no vomerine teeth; tail fin unequally forked: many species, mostly 
American. 

S. marina (Walbaum). Garfish; billfish. Length 1,200 mm.; 
head 2.8; depth 5.5; color greenish; sides silvery, with a narrow silvery 
lateral stripe; a dark bar on the front of the opercle; rays of dorsal fin 
15; anal 17; scales 300, 240 before the dorsal fin; body slender, 
cylindrical: marine, along the Atlantic coast from Cape Cod to 
Texas, ascending the rivers and often breeding in fresh water; very 
common. 

Order 11. Thoracostei.—Gills normal (in Gasterosteide@), but 
with the pharyngeals reduced in number; dorsal spines few or wanting; 
ventrals reduced or wanting; body more or less protected by bony 
plates; upper jaw formed by the premaxillaries: 5 families of mostly 
marine fishes, 1 family with fresh water representatives. 


FISHES 103 


Family Gasterosteidz.—Sticklebacks. Body elliptical, rather 
slender, compressed; caudal peduncle slender; tail fin small; no true 
scales present, but body either naked or protected laterally by vertically 
elongate bony plates; 2 to 15 free spines in front of the dorsal fin; a 
patch of naked skin between the pectoral fin and the opercle on each 
side; ventral fins consist of 1 spine and 1 or 2 rays and subabdominal in 
position; middle and sides of belly protected by the pubic bones: 
5 genera and about 12 species in America and Europe, 6 in the United 
States; small fishes living in fresh waters and arms of the sea, most of 
which build elaborate nests in which the eggs are deposited and where 
they and the young are protected by the male; they are savage little 
fish and very destructive to the eggs and young of larger fishes. 


Key to the Fresh Water Genera of Gasterosteide in the United States 


a, Free dorsal spines 3 to 5. 
b; Sides protected by bony plates. 


Gra V CM ebal: SIMerGeMaAlen 2: Ser t ci. adie wie ck oe ahah ele je recor wi wth 1. Gasterosteus. 
CoV Ghita opie NOt SCELALO AAs ah ipire sais cds, oe eek wrattiele 2. Glandiunculus. 
be Sides naked. 
CMLCEICOSANSDINES 5 1m sae Mere seis ere eines ah agen a a 3. Eucalia. 
Pew GECUOES A HGPINES Sitis on aii, Ae eis Choate eh pvistats wth ee et 5. A peltes. 
PemheeraOrcal rs ies 7) CO 1 Ih Wek Snes he uicuteiaie ea ovchchs o, 2 whee 4. Pungitius. 


1. Gasterosteus L. Sides of body usually protected by vertically 
elongated plates; 3 or 4 free dorsal spines; pubic bones broad and little 
divergent, joined on the belly, forming a median ventral plate behind 
and between the ventral fins; gill membranes not joined across the 
isthmus: several species in America and Europe, 1 in fresh water in 
America. 

G. aculeatus L. Common stickleback. Length 60 mm. to 100 mm.; 
head 3.5; depth 4.5 to 5; dorsal fin II-I, 13; anal fin I, 9; ventral fin I, 1; 
color olivaceous, more or less mottled above; lateral plates and also the 
dorsal spines variable, depending in some degree on the salinity of the 
water: arctic and subarctic, on both coasts, in shallow bays and ascend- 
ing the rivers; southwards to New Jersey and Lower California. 

2. Glandiunculus Jordan and Evermann. Similar to Gasterosteus; 
ventral fin rays I, 2; ventral spine not serrate: 1 species. 

G. wheatlandi (Putnam). Length too mm.; head 3.5; depth 4.5; 
color dark greenish above; sides silvery or yellow; ventral membrane 
often red; dorsal spines long and slender; rays of dorsal fin IT, ro or 11; 
anal I, 8; ventral fin I, 2; caudal peduncle very slender: Atlantic coast 
from New Jersey to Labrador, ascending the streams. 


104 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


3. Eucalia Jordan. Body naked; dorsal spines 5; gill membranes 
connected, forming a fold across the isthmus; pubic bones joined, form- 
ing a median ventral plate: 2 species. 

E. inconstans (Kirtland). Brook stickleback (Fig. 49). Length 
65 mm.; head 3.5; depth 4; color of males in spring jet black, tinged 
with red anteriorly; females olivaceous, mottled and dotted with black; 
rays of dorsal fins IV-I, 10; anal I, 10: Maine to Kansas and northward 
to Saskatchewan; in small streams; common. 

E. pygmea (Agassiz). Size small; rays of dorsal fins IV-I, 6; 
anal I, 6: Lake Superior. 


Fic. 49.—Eucalia inconstans (from Fishes of Illinois). 


4. Pungitius Coste. Body naked except for small bony plates 
along the base of the median fins; free dorsal spines 9.to 11, diverging 
right and left; pubic bones weak; gill membranes as in Eucalia: 2 species, 
1 of which, P. sinensis, is in China. 

P. pungitius (L.). Ten-spined stickleback. Length 75 mm.; head 
4; depth 5 or 6; color olivaceous, punctulate, irregularly barred with 
darker; rays of dorsal fin IX-I, 9; anal I, 8: Atlantic coast of America 
and Europe, from Long Island to the Arctic, ascending the rivers; 
also in tributaries of the Great Lakes and northward to Alaska; often 
very common. 

5. Apeltes Dekay. Body naked; back rather elevated; 3 strong 
free dorsal spines; tail very slender; pubic bones weak, not joined in the 
median line; gill membranes joined to isthmus: 1 species. 

A. quadracus (Mitchill). Four-spined stickleback. Length 50 
mm.; head 4; depth 4; rays of dorsal fin III-I, 11; anal I, 8; color brown- 
ish olive above; silvery below; male almost black; body stout: Labrador 
to New Jersey, in salt water, often ascending the streams; very common 
northward. 

Order 12. Anacanthini.—Dorsal and anal fins very long and 
without spines; ventral fins jugular, without spines; no pseudobranchie: 
3 families, all marine, with 1 species in fresh water. 


FISHES 105 


Family Gadidze.—The codfishes. Body elongate; scales cycloid; 
mouth large, terminal; pyloric caeca numerous: 140 species, in northern 
seas; I species in fresh water. 

Lota Cuvier. Body long and low, depressed in front, compressed 
behind; anterior nostrils each with a short barbel; chin with a long 
barbel; 2 dorsal fins, the first short, the second very long; caudal fin 
rounded: 1 species. 

L. maculosa (LeSueur). Burbot; lawyer; ling. Length 250 mm.; 
head 4.5; depth 6; color dark olive marbled with blackish; rays of 
dorsal fins 13-76; anal 68: lakes and sluggish streams, from New England 
to the upper Missouri; northward to the Arctic and Bering Strait; 
southward to the Ohio; common towards the north. 

Order 13. Heterostomata.—The flat-fish. Bones of the head 
unsymmetrical, both eyes being on the same side; anus near the head; 
pseudobranchiz present; dorsal fin extending the length of the body; 
anal fin similar but shorter; body much compressed, the side without an 
eye being usually colorless and kept lowermost; young individuals 
symmetrical: 2 families, all marine, one species in fresh water. 

Family Soleida.—The soles. Body oval in outline; cranium much 
twisted, the mouth very small; teeth rudimentary or wanting: 150 
species. 

Achirus Lacépéde. Eyes and color on right side; scales well devel- 
oped, ctenoid; eyes separated by a bony ridge; pectoral fins minute or 
wanting: numerous species. 

A. fasciatus Lac. Length 200 mm.; head 4; depth 1.8; color dusky 
olive, mottled with 8 dark, narrow, vertical stripes; rays of dorsal fin 
50 to 55; anal 37 to 46; scales 66 to 75; origin of dorsal fin at tip of 
snout: Cape Ann to Texas, ascending rivers; common. 

Order 14. Acanthopteri——The spiny-rayed fishes. Anterior 
vertebre unmodified and without Weberian ossicles; ventral fins usually 
more or less anterior in position. being either thoracic or jugular, and 
possessing normally 1 spine and 5 soft rays; anterior rays of dorsal and 
also of anal fins spinous; scales typically ctenoid; margin of mouth 
formed by the premaxillaries alone; air bladder typically without 
pneumatic duct in the adult: over 40 families, mostly of marine fishes; 
about 7 families (in the United States) include fresh water fishes. 


Key to the Fresh Water Families 


SiVentra Hie OmMmMal IN) POSItION,. of. \..i< = + /.~1rdie le ate RHEE ae 1. Atherinide. 
a2 Ventral fins thoracic or jugular in position. 
ite Leeman “WATCHING... docs eslpueie «bre hye sub\aacateh eens Rita etansyt)s 2ek BOSSOMIAE: 


106 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


be Lateral line present (except in Microperca), more or 
less complete. 
c; Lateral line not extending on to the tail fin. 
d; But one dorsal fin present (the spinous and 
soft-rayed portions being joined); sunfish 
and: black bass vx, <7 on eae eter ee 3. Centrarchide. 
d. Two dorsal fins present (the spinous and soft- 
rayed portions not being joined). 
e; Anal spines 1 or 2. 
f, Pseudobranchie well developed; pre- 
opercle serrate; branchiostegals 7; 
perch*and, pike: Wiss. Pere ere el 4. Percide. 
f. Pseudobranchie imperfect or wanting; 
preopercle not serrate; branchio- 


stegdlsiO: darters . 3. thar aes ote 5. Etheostomide. 
es Anal spines; 325 vtec steht ote ee A 5 Rit ese 6. Moronide 
co Lateral line extending on to the tail fin............ 7. Scienide. 


Family 1. Atherinidz.—Silversides. Body elongate, somewhat 
compressed; pseudobranchie present; 2 dorsal fins, the anterior with 
spinous rays; anal fin long; ventral fins abdominal, with rays I, 5; no 
lateral line; no pyloric ceca; branchiostegals 5 or 6: 15 genera and 
about 60 species, which live along the sea coasts of the warmer con- 
tinents; a few species are found in rivers. 


Fic. 50.—Labidesthes sicculus (from Fishes of Illinois). 


1. Menidia Bonaparte. Body elongate; mouth small, very 
oblique; premaxillaries protractile; teeth in bands, none on the palatines 
or vomer; a silvery band along the sides; tail fin deeply forked: ro 
species, all American, mostly marine, some entering rivers. 

M. beryllina (Cope). Length 65; head 4.3; depth 5 to 5.5; color 
pale olive with a well defined lateral silvery band; rays of dorsal fins 
V-I, 9 to 11; anal I, 15 to 18; scales 38 to 40-8; eyes very large: Massa- 
chusetts to Florida; lower Mississippi; Tennessee, in fresh and brackish 
water; common locally. 

2. Labidesthes Cope. Similar to Menidia but with the jaws pro- 
duced to form a short beak: 1 species. 


FISHES 107 


L. sicculus (Cope). Brook silversides (Fig. 50). Length 85 mm.; 
head 4.5; depth 6 to 8; color pale olive green with a distinct lateral 
silvery band; back dotted with black; rays of dorsal fins IV-I, 9 to 11; 
anal I, 23; scales 14-75; body very slender: western New York and the 
Great Lakes to Iowa; southward to Florida and Texas; locally common 
in ponds and sluggish streams. . 

Family 2. Elassomidz.—Pigmy sunfish. Body elliptical, com- 
pressed, very small in size, with rather large cycloid scales; mouth 
small, with strong teeth; upper jaw protractile; eyes large; checks and 
opercles scaly; no lateral line; 1 dorsal fin: 1 genus. 

Elassoma Jordan. With the characters of the family: 2 species. 

E. zonatum Jord. Length 35 mm.; head 3; depth 3.5; color olive 
green, with fine dots; sides with 11 vertical dark bands; rays of dorsal 
fin IV to V, 9 or 10; anal IEI, 5; scales 18-38 to 42-19: southern Illinois 
to Texas and Louisiana; in sluggish streams; not common. 

E. evergladei Jord. Scales very large, 27 to 30: swamps from Caroli- 
nas to Georgia and Florida; common in the Everglades. 

Family 3. Centrarchidz.—The sunfish and black bass. Body 
compressed and more or less shortened; mouth terminal; teeth in 
villiform bands on the jaws, vomer, and often on the palatines, tongue 
and hyoids; premaxillaries protractile; maxillaries usually with supple- 
mentary bone; pseudobranchie imperfect; lateral line present; but 
1 dorsal fin, with 6 to 13 spines, the spinous and soft-rayed portions 
being confluent; 6 to 10 pyloric ceca: about 16 genera and about 
38 species of fresh water fishes, all but one in the eastern States and all 
among the most familiar food and game fishes. 


Key to the Genera of Centrarchide 


a; Anal fin relatively long, almost as long as the dorsal. 
Ine spines Oledorsal ai 1 tO ms" ae ere e et. i. -»\- “Lo, COMMOPGHUS. 
Mee UENESIOLl GOtsal til S tOvGiy- nce ii wepeile es csnc 2c -8 a's + 2. Pomoxis. 
ay Anal fin relatively short, much shorter than the dorsal. 
b; Spinous and soft-rayed portions of dorsal fin not separated 
by a deep notch; depth of body usually more than two- 
thirds the length; sunfish. 
c, Hinder margin of tail convex. 


Gigho] DLLs OLE ne 1A ae ce APE 3. Acantharchus. 
d. Spines of anal fin 3. 
BrspieseoeaOnsal tim OFF. %.2).2..) os. nate cera 7. Enneacanthus. 
Pee Setnes GE OLSd) GN TOU. .'.05s\si-<)-\e oo sta arayese aera 8. Mesogonistius. 


co Hinder margin of tail mostly concave or forked. 
d, Spines of anal fin 5 to 8. 
e; In the region east of the Rockies.............. 4. Ambloplites. 
eo In the region west of the Rockies.............. 5. Archoplites. 


108 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


d. Spines of anal fin 3. 
e, Teeth present..on.the tongue: .....2.0..s.22-.-. 6. Chenobryttus, 
eo No teeth on the tongue. 
f, Lower pharyngeals narrow with sharp teeth. 
gi Supplementary maxillary well developed. .10. A pomotis. 
go Supplementary maxillary rudimentary or 
wanting. 
he, ateraliamcomplete ms. crac eens eee 11. Lethogrammus. 
h» Lateral line complete. 
i; Palatines with teeth. 
j,1 Opercle extended behind as a long 


iN o Rehan aaeae Minen ee eto ie 2 10.! © 9. Lepomis. 

j2 Opercular flap short and stiff..... 12. Sclerotis. 

io Palestines without teeth............ 13. Xenotes. 
14. Allotis. 


15. Helioperca. 

f. Lower pharyngeals broad and with blunt teeth 16. Eupomolis. 
bs Spinous and soft-rayed portions of dorsal fin separated by 
a deep notch; depth of body about one-third the length; 


black bass. 
c: Maxillary not extending back of the eye (Fig. 54)...... 17. Micropterus. 
co Maxillary extending back of the eye (Fig. 54)........ 18. Huro. 


1. Centrarchus Cuvier & Valenciennes. Body short, deep and 
strongly compressed; mouth large, with a projecting lower jaw; gill 
rakers very long; fins very large; hinder margin of tail concave: 1 species. 

C. macropterus (Lacépéde). Round sunfish. Length 150 mm.; 
head 3.25; depth 2; color yellowish green, with rows of dark spots along 
the sides; rays of dorsal fin XI to XIII, 12 to 14; anal VII or VIII, 15; 
scales 5-44-14: Virginia to Louisiana; northward in the Mississippi 
Valley to southern Illinois, in clear water; locally common. 

2. Pomoxis Rafinesque. Body strongly compressed, elliptical; 
mouth large, oblique; lower jaw projecting; supplementary maxillary 
well developed; scales large, feebly ctenoid; fins large; gill-rakers very 
long; hinder margin of tail concave: 2 species. 

P. annularis Raf. Crappie. Length 300 mm.; head 3; depth 2.3; 
color silvery olive, mottled with dark green and with indistinct vertical 
bars; fins very high; rays of dorsal fin VI, 18; anal VI, 18; scales 36 
to 48; body rather elongate: Great Lakes to Kansas and Texas; 
introduced on Pacific Coast; very common in sluggish streams and 
ponds. 

P. sparoides (Lacépéde). Calico bass. Length 300 mm.; head 3; 
depth 2.2; color silvery olive, mottled with green or black spots; median 
fins with dark and pale spots in rows; rays of dorsal fin VII or VIII, 15; 
anal VI, 17 or 18; scales 40 to 45; body elevated; fins very high: New 


FISHES store) 


York to Texas, in coastwise streams; the basins of the Great Lakes and 
the Mississippi; common in sluggish streams and ponds. 

3. Acantharchus Gill. Body rather elongate, not much com- 
pressed or elevated; mouth rather large, oblique; scales large, cycloid; 
tail fin rounded; supplementary maxillary present: 1 species. 

A. pomotis (Baird). Mud sunfish. Length 150 mm.; head 2.6; 
depth 2; color very dark greenish with several indistinct wide dark 
lateral bands; fins dusky; a black spot on the opercle; rays of dorsal fin 
XI or XII, 10 or 11; anal V, 10; scales 6-43-12: New York to South 
Carolina, in sluggish coastwise streams; common. 

4. Ambloplites Rafinesque. Body elliptical, compressed, moder- 
ately elevated; mouth large, the lower jaw projecting; supplementary 
maxillary large; opercle ending in 2 flat points; scales large, somewhat 
ctenoid, lingual teeth in one patch; gill-rakers less than 10; lateral line 
complete; dorsal fin much longer than anal; caudal margin concave: 1 
species. 

A. rupestris (Raf.). Rock bass (Fig. 9). Length 300 mm.; head 
2.75; depth 2 to 2.5; color olive green, with dark mottlings and a dark 
spot on each scale; a black opercular spot; eye red and very large; rays 
of dorsal fin XI, 10; anal VI, 10; scales 5-39 to 43-12: Vermont to 
Manitoba; southward to Alabama, Louisiana and Texas; very common 
west of the Alleghenies. 

5. Archoplites Gill. Body elliptical, compressed, elevated; mouth 
large, oblique, the lower jaw projecting; opercle emarginate; gill-rakers 
about 20; lingual teeth in 2 patches; scales strongly ctenoid; hinder 
margin of tail emarginate: 1 species. 

A. interruptus (Girard). Sacramento perch. Length 500 mm.; 
head 2.6; epth 2.5; color blackish above, sometimes all over; sides 
silvery, with about 7 vertical blackish bars; a black opercular spot; 
rays of dorsal fin XII or XIII, 10; anal VI or VII, 10; scales 7-40 to 
51-14: basin of the Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers; the only 
percoid fish west of the Rockies. 

6. Chenobryttus Gill. Similar to Ambloplites; opercle convex at 
the angle; hinder margin of tail emarginate; tongue with teeth: 
I species. 

C. gulosus (Cuvier & Valenciennes). Warmouth (Fig. 51). Length 
250 mm.; head 2.5; depth 2.25; color olive green, clouded with red or 
blue, yellow below; sides sometimes with scattered dark spots; rays of 
dorsal fin X, 9 or 10; anal ITI, 8 or g; scales 6 or 7-40 to 46-11 or 12; 
dorsal spines low: Great Lakes to Florida, Georgia and Texas; westward 
to Iowa and Kansas; common in the south. 


IIO VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


7. Enneacanthus Gill. Little sunfish. Body short and deep, 
compressed, ovoid; mouth small; tongue toothless; opercle with 2 
flat points on its margin; lateral line sometimes interrupted; supple- 
mentary maxillary large; tail margin rounded behind: 2 species. 

E. obesus (Baird). Length 125 mm.; head 2.6; depth 2; color 
olivaceous, with 5 to 8 blackish cross bars; purplish or golden spots on 
body and fins; a large black opercular spot; rays of dorsal fin IX, 
ro; anal III, 10; scales 4-28-10: Boston to Florida, coastwise; often 
common in weedy streams. 


Fic. ne Rene gulosus (from Fishes of Illinois). 


E. gloriosus (Holbrook). Length 70 mm.; head 2.75; depth 2.25; 
color dark olive, with numerous small round blue spots which often 
form irregular cross stripes; opercular spot blue; rays of dorsal fin IX, 
10; anal III, 9; scales 3-30-9; body comparatively elongate: New York 
to Florida, in clear sluggish streams. 

8. Mesogonistius Gill. Body short, deep, compressed; mouth 
small; supplementary maxillary small; opercle with 2 flat points; anal 
fin much smaller than the dorsal; tail rounded behind: 1 species. 

M. chetodon (Baird). Black-banded sunfish. Length too mm.; 
head 3; depth 1.6; color clouded straw-color, the sides with 6 to 8 
conspicuous, irregular black vertical bars; a black opercular spot; 
rays of dorsal fin X, 10; anal III, 12; scales 4-28-10; body oval: New 
Jersey to Georgia, in sluggish streams. 

g. Lepomis Rafinesque. Sunfish. Body ovate, compriseae back 
elevated; mouth small or moderate; suplementary maxillary reduced 
to a rudiment or wanting; gill-rakers short; opercle ending behind in a 
long black convex flap; hinder margin of tail concave; lower pharyngeals 
(Fig. 52) narrow, with sharp teeth; palatines with teeth: 2 species. 


FISHES III 


L. auritus (L.). Red belly. Length 200 mm.; head (without 
flap) 3; depth 2 to 2.5; color olive; belly and lower fins orange red; 
opercular flap very long and narrow; rays of dorsal fin X, 11 or 12; 
anal III, 8 to 10; scales 6-43 to 48-15; scales on cheek in 7 rows: Maine 
to Louisana, east of the Alleghenies; common. 

L. solis (Cuvier and Valenciennes). Similar to above; scales on 
cheek in 4 to 6 rows; last rays of dorsal fin with a large dark spot; head 
3.6; depth 2; scales 51 in lateral line: Virginia to Louisiana. 

10. Apomotis Rafinesque. Like Lepomis, but with a well-devel- 
oped supplemental maxillary: 3 species. 


Fic. 52.—Lower left pharyngeal of Helioperca incisor; a, upper aspect; b, lateral aspect 
(from Fishes of Illinois). 


A. cyanellus (Raf.). Green sunfish. Length 175 mm.; head 3; 
depth 2.5; color olivaceous, with a brassy lustre on the sides, yellow 
below; each scale usually with a sky-blue spot; eye red; rays of dorsal 
fin X, 11; anal III. 9; scales 7-45 to 55-16: Great Lakes to Mexico, 
not east of the Alleghenies; very common towards the south. 

A. punctatus (Cuvier & Valenciennes). Length 150 mm.; head 3; 
depth 2; color olivaceous, everywhere with numerous minute brown 
dots; rays of dorsal fin X, 11; anal III, 10; scales 6-40 to 45-13: South 
Carolina to Florida, in lowland streams. 

11. Lethogrammus Hubbs. Like Lepomis, but with an incom- 
plete lateral line: 1 species. 

L. symmetricus (Forbes). Length 75 mm.; head 2.75; depth 2.25; 
color dark green, each scale with a brown spot at its base; a black 
opercular spot present; rays of dorsal fin X, 10; anal III, 9; scales 
6-35-10; mouth moderate, with projecting lower jaw; hinder margin 
of tail convex: Illinois to Texas; not rare southwards. 

12. Sclerotis Hubbs. Similar to Lepomis, but with the opercular 
flap truncate and with a stiff margin: 1 species. 

S. miniatus (Jordan). Length 150 mm.; head 2.75; depth 2.25; 
sides of male with about 14 rows of red spots; middle of the side with 
a few scales with black spots; belly orange with red spots; rays of dorsal 
fin X, 10; anal III, 9; scales 4-40-11: Texas to Indiana River, Florida; 
north to southern Illinois; in lowland streams; common near New 
Orleans. 


ELZ VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


13. Xenotes Jordan. Like Lepomis, but without palatine teeth; 
gill-rakers rudimentary; pectoral fins rounded: 2 species. 

X. megalotis (Raf.). Long-eared sunfish. Length 200 mm.; head 
(without flap) 3; depth 1.6 to 2.5; color blue above, orange below; sides 
with orange spots; head with blue stripes and reticulations; opercular 
flap very long and broad; rays of dorsal fin X, ro to 12; anal III, 
8 to 10; scales 5-36 to 45-14: Great Lakes to Texas and Florida; west- 
ward to Minnesota; eastward to North Carolina; common. 

14. Allotis Hubbs. Like Lepomis, but without palatine teeth and 
with enlarged sensory cavities in the cranial and facial bones: 1 species. 

A. humilis (Girard). Spotted sunfish. Length 75 mm.; head 
2.75; depth 2.25; color bluish with greenisn specks posteriorly; opercle 


Fic. 53.—Lower left pharyngeal of Eupomotis gibbosus: a, upper aspect; 5, lateral aspect 
(from Fishes of Illinois). 

with 4 red bands; sides with many rounds orange spots; belly pink; 

eye red; rays of dorsal fin X, 10 or 11; anal III, 8 or 9; scales 5-34 to 

42-11: Ohio and Kentucky to Dakota; southward to Texas; locally 

common. 

15. Helioperca Jordan. Like Lepomis, but without palatine teeth; 
gill-rakers long; pectoral fins pointed: 2 species. 

H. macrochira (Raf.). Length 125 mm.; head 3; depth 2.3; color 
blue with many orange spots which cover nearly the entire surface, 
so arranged that the ground color forms a series of vertical bars; no 
blue stripes on the cheek; rays of dorsal fin X, 12; anal III, 10; scales 
44: Ohio Valley and southwestward to Arkansas; rare. 

H. incisor (Cuvier and Valenciennes) Bluegill. Length 300 mm.; 
head 3; depth 2; color olive green; belly yellow or brown; sides with 
greenish cross bars; no blue stripes on the cheeks or red on the fins; a 
black on the base of the last rays of the dorsal fin; rays of dorsal fin X, 
rr or 12; anal III, 10 to 12; scales 7-43 to 52-16: Great Lakes and 
Minnesota to Florida and the Rio Grande; east of the Alleghenies 
from New Jersey southward; very common in quiet streams and ponds. 

16. Eupomotis Gill & Jordan. Sunfish. Very similar to Lepomis, 
but with lower pharyngeal bones (Fig. 53) broad and concave and with 
blunt teeth; no supplementary maxillary: 3 species. 


FISHES 113 


Key to the Species of Eupomotis 


a, No scarlet on the opercular flap. 
be Border of opercular flap blood red in male, pale in female; scales 


UI POMAO Gn 3 Escher nr iy aes tO A ache 6 E. heros. 
bs Border of opercular flap orange; scales 42 to 44............ E. holbrookii. 
a2 Lower posterior border of opercular flap scarlet.................. E. gibbosus. 


E. heros (Baird & Girard). Head 3; depth 2.4; color dark greenish 
above, yellowish below; rays of dorsal fin X, 11; anal III, 11; scales 
6-34 to 39-14: Indiana to Florida and the Rio Grande basin; rare. 

E. holbrookii (Cuvier & Valenciennes). Length 250 mm.; head 3 to 
3.5; depth 2 to 2.25; color dusky olive; silvery below; throat yellow; 
rays of dorsal fin X, 10 to 12; anal III, 9 to 11; scales 6-44 or 45-14: 
Virginia to Florida; common in lowland streams. 

E. gibbosus (L.). Common sunfish; pumpkin-seed. Length 200 
mm.; head 3 to 3.25; depth 1.75 to 2; color greenish olive above, shaded 
with bluish; sides spotted with orange; belly orange yellow; rays of 
dorsal fin X, ro to 12; anal III, 10 or 11; scales 6-40 to 47-13; body 
ovate: Maine to Minnesota; southward east of the Alleghenies to 
Florida, but rather rare towards the south; in the northern parts 
only of the Mississippi Valley; very common, especially in ponds; eggs 
deposited in a nest made in shallow water by the male, who scoops out a 
depression in the bottom about a foot in diameter and several inches 
deep, which he guards after the eggs are laid and the young are hatched. 

17. Micropterus Lacépéde. Black bass. Body elongate; mouth 
very large, oblique; lower jaw projecting; supplementary maxillary bone 
broad; scales small, ctenoid; lateral line complete; dorsal fin with a deep 
notch between the spinous and the soft-rayed scaly portions; hinder 
margin of tail concave: 2 species, both important game and good 
fishes. 

M. dolomieu Lac. Small-mouthed black bass. Length 600 mm.; 
weight up to 7 lbs.; scales on the cheek in about 17 rows; head 2.5; 
depth 3.3; color a uniform dull green, with a golden lustre; 3 longitudinal 
bands of the head back of the eye; young with dark spots; rays of 
dorsal fn <x, 13 to 15; anal Til, ro to 12; scales 11-72 to 75-17: St. 
Lawrence River to Dakota; southward to South Carolina and Texas; 
common, especially in clear, cool streams and lakes; introduced into 
New England and many other places. 

M. pseudaplites Hubbs. Similar to the above; scales on the 
cheek larger; side with a black band (fading with age); scales 59 to 66; 
soft rays of fins 11 or 12: Valley of the Ohio River in Kentucky and 
Ohio; south to Kansas and Texas; common. 


IIt4 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


18. Huro Cuvier. Similar to Micropterus, but with the pyloric 
ceca mostly branched; mouth very large; maxillary extending beyond 
the eye; soft portion of the dorsal and anal fins scaleless: 1 species. 

H. salmoides (Lac.). Large-mouthed black bass. Length 750 mm.; 
extreme weight 20 lbs.; head 3 to 3.5; depth 3 to 3.25; color dark green, 
silvery below; adult plain, young with a broad blackish lateral band; 
3 longitudinal bands on the head back of the eye; rays of dorsal fin X, 
12 to 13; anal III, ro or 11; scales 8-68-16: Great Lakes region to 
Dakota; southward to Florida and Mexico; common, especially in 
lakes and sluggish waters. 


Fic. 54.—Black bass heads: a, head of Micropterus dolomieu; b, head of Huro salmoides 
(from Jordan & Evermann). 


4. Family Percidze.—The perch. Body elongate or elliptical; 
scales ctenoid and small; lateral line complete; mouth terminal or 
inferior; opercle ending in a flat spine; branchiostegals 7; 2 dorsal fins, 
anterior with about 13 spines; anal fin with 2 spines; ventral fins 
thoracic, with rays I, 5; air bladder small; pyloric ceca few: over 100 
species, inhabiting the fresh waters of the northern hemisphere; 3 United 
States genera. 

1. Perca L. Body elliptical, compressed; cheek scaly; opercle 
mostly naked and armed with a single spine; preopercle serrated; mouth 
terminal; branchiostegals 7; pseudobranchie small, but well developed; 
pyloric ceca 3; caudal margin concave: 3 species, P. fluviatilis occurring 
in Europe, and P. schrenki in Asia. 

P. flavescens (Mitchill). Yellow perch; common perch. Length 
300 mm.; head 3.25; depth 3.25; back elevated; color dark olive green 
above; sides yellow with 6 to 8 broad dark transverse bars; belly bright 
yellow; lower fins orange; rays of dorsal fins XIII-I, 14; anal II, 7 or 
8; scales 5-55-17: Nova Scotia to South Carolina, in coastwise streams; 
throughout the Great Lakes region and westware to lowa and Dakota; 
not found from central Ohio southwestward; very common; introduced 


FISHES rs 


on the Pacific slope. The perch spawns in the spring, laying its eggs 
in a single mass which stretches out ribbon-like, sometimes 7 feet or more. 

2. Stizostedion Rafinesque. Body elongate; fusiform; head long; 
premaxillaries protractile; top of head scaly; mouth large; jaws equal; 
tail forked; ventral fins well separated; lateral line continuous; branchio- 
stegals 7; pseudobranchize well developed: 2 species, both important 
food and game fishes. 

S. vitreum (Mitchill). Wall-eye pike; pike-perch (Fig. 55). Length 
up to goo mm.; weight up to 25 lbs.; head 3.6; depth 4.5; color dark 
olive green, blotched with darker; belly pinkish; anterior dorsal fin with 


Fic. 55.—Stizostedion vitreum (from Jordan & Evermann). 


a large black spot on its hinder part; rays of dorsal fins XII to XVI- 
21; anal II, 12 to 14; scales 10-110 to 132-25; pyloric ceca 3, of nearly 
equal length; sides of head almost naked: Vermont and Pennsylvania 
to Saskatchewan; southward to Georgia; northward to Hudson Bay; 
very common northward. 

S. glaucum Hubbs. Similar to above, but smaller; color grayish 
blue; length 450 mm.: Lake Erie. 

3. Cynoperca Gill and Jordan. Like Stizostedion; pyloric ceca 
4 to 8, of unequal length: 1 species. 

C. canadensis (Smith). Sauger; sand pike. Length 450 mm.; head 
3.5; depth 4.5 to 6; color olive gray; sides brassy or orange, with dark 
mottlings; spinous dorsal fin with 3 irregular rows of black spots; rays of 
dorsal fins XI to XV-I, 18; anal II, rz or 12; scales 9-100 to 125-27; 
pyloric ceca 4 to 8, of unequal length; sides of head scaly: Great Lakes 
and St. Lawrence regions; westward to Montana; southward to Tennes- 
see and Arkansas. 


Subspecies of C. canadensis 


C. c. grisea (DeKay). Head less completely scaled; head bones 
and opercles smoother: Great Lakes and southward. 


116 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


C. c. borea (Girard). Head slender: upper Missouri. 

Family 5. Etheostomidz.—The darters. Body small, elongate; 
scales ctenoid; air bladder small and often wanting; teeth all sharp, and 
usually present on the vomer and palatines; gills 4; branchiostegals 6; 
pyloric ceeca 2 or 3; 2 dorsal fins, the anterior with many spines; anal 
fin with 2 (rarely 1) spines: about 30 genera and 100 species, all Ameri- 
can; very small, mostly brightly colored fishes living in small clear 
streams, largely in mountdinous regions in the eastern States. 


Key to the Genera Here Included 


a, With a pig-like snout which projects beyond the mouth.... 1. Percina. 
a2 No such snout present. 
b; Top of skull between the eyes rather flattened or depressed, 
not strongly convex. 
c: Body not hyaline and extremely slender. 
d, Premaxillaries not protractile. 
e: Belly with enlarged caducous scales, or (if 
absent), more or less bare. 


fy “Palatine:teéethi present). + 0.-2... oat eee 2. Alvordius; 
4. Serraria. 
fsePalatine teethyabsent.. :4n-en es oo acta 3. Ericosoma. 
eo Belly with ordinary scales which are never shed.. 5. Hadropterus. 
6. Swainia. 
7. Hvpohomus. 
d. Premaxillaries proctractile. 
e; Two anal spines present. 
f, Gill membranes but slightly connected....... 11. Doration. 
f. Gill membranes broadly connected across the 
isthmus. 
gi Belly behind the ventral fins with scales 
like: CheisidGsiy.Gcys se ence ae ae eee 10. Ulocentra. 


12. Etheostoma. 


go Belly behind the ventral fins more or less 
SGAleless... 5 WF, naa ceo Ske oa ae ee 8. Cottogaster. 
9. Imostoma. 


e. But 1 anal spine present. 


iy Lateral line complete .....2. case ee 13. Boleosoma. 
{> Wateral lineincomplete:) si) 2.2... oe eee 14. Vaillantia. 
c2 Body hyaline and extremely slender and elongate. 
d; Premaxillanies not protractile:...... 2.2 .sasceentees 15. Crystallaria. 
dy Premaxillaries protractile. 
e; But tanal spine present... 1-4. eerie eae 17. Vigil. 
é> Two anal’ spies, presénitz vy. ..sneoe ree a 16. Ammocrypta. 
18. Joa. 


be Top of the head between eyes not depressed but more or 
less strongly convex; premaxillaries never protractile; 


FISHES raig) 


belly with ordinary scales; ventral fins inserted close 

together. 
c; Lateral line complete. 

d,; Anal fin large, approaching the soft portion of the 

CHOESUIM SESE ee oes” 5, Jha cscs dee bs oe ee 19. Poecilichthys. 
d, Anal fin small, much smaller than the soft dorsal...20. Nanostoma. 
21. Nothonotus. 

co Lateral line more or less incomplete. 


d, Gill membranes not connected...................22. Oligocephalus. 
d. Gill membranes broadly connected across the 
isthmus. 
OieAnalspimesyors Wn ache Sacer en eae a CL OMIGOLEL, 
24. Catonotus. 
26. Hololepis. 
e> Butz anal spimespresent. 20. .24... 24a). ss 3 125. Lsychromasier, 
28. Alvarius. 
Cgeluatera! lime wamtine ase aeer Aa nA Sama a 25 oes MM vcroperaa. 


1. Percina Haldeman. Body slender, elongate, slightly com- 
pressed; midventral line with enlarged plates, which may fall off leaving 
a naked strip; caudal margin concave; mouth overhung by snout; 
teeth on vomer and palatines; lateral line continuous; air bladder and 
pseudobranchiz rudimentary: 2 species. 

P. caprodes (Rafinesque). Log-perch. Length 200 mm.; head 4 to 
4.7; depth 5 to 6.5; color yellowish green, with about 15 black transverse 
bars extending from the back to the belly and alternating with shorter 
ones; a round spot at the base of the tail fin; rays of dorsal fin XIII to 
XV-12 to 17; anal II, 9 to 12; scales 9-90 to 95-15: Great Lakes region 
to North Carolina, Mississippi and the Rio Grande; in Atlantic coastal 
streams southward to North Carolina; in large, clear streams; generally 
common. 

P. rex Jordan & Evermann. Length 150 mm.; head 4; depth 4.6; 
scales 11-83 to 85-19; anterior dorsal fin with a broad orange band 
towards the margin: Roanoke River; rare. 

2. Alvordius Girard. Black-sided darters. Body very small, 
elongate, cylindrical, brightly colored, but without any red or blue, and 
with a series of large dark more or less confluent blotches along the 
lateral line and rounded blotches on the back; mouth terminal; teeth 
on jaws and vomer and usually the palatines; midventral area with 
enlarged scales, or with large plates which in most species may be shed, 
leaving the belly naked; fins large; ventral fins well separated: about 
Q species. 

A. evermanni (Mcenkhaus). Length too mm.; head 4; depth 5; 
color olive, marbled; sides with 13 or 14 blotches; rays of dorsal fins 


118 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


XITI-14; anal II-12; scales 8-69-8 to 12; cheeks and opercles scaly: 
northern Indiana and Illinois; rare. 

A. phoxocephalus (Nelson). Length too mm.; head 4; depth 5.5 to 
6; color yellowish brown, with the lateral blotches elongate; cheek and 
opercle scaly; rays of dorsal fins XI or XII-12 to 14; anal II, 8 or 9; 
scales 12-68-14; head very long and slender; a strong opercular spine; 
pyloric ceca 2: Ohio to Iowa; southward to Tennessee and Oklahoma; 
in sandy rivers; locally common. 

A. macrocephalus (Cope). Length 75 mm.; head 3.5 to 4; depth 6 
or 7; color light brown, with 9 spots on the side; rays of dorsal fins 
XV-12 to 14; anal II, 9 to 11; scales 11-77-15; cheek naked or with 


PERLE ROP aIN FD) NO 
f 3 +} ase 

y ‘ t 
Nasa Ln 


ONY PO Oo ales 
Rage a Ra ¢ 
\\ \\ my 
\\\ WY Nt 
WAN: 3 ‘ a 


Fic. 56.—Alvordius maculatus (from Jordan & Evermann). 


rudimentary scales; opercle with small cycloid scales; a small spot 
at the base of the tail fin: west slope of the Alleghenies, from Pennsyl- 
vania southwards; in clear rivers; scarce; not in brooks. 

A. maculatus Girard (Fig. 56). Length 100 mm.; head 4; depth 
5 or 6; color yellowish or greenish, with about 7 elongate blotches 
along the sides; rays of dorsal fins XIII to XV-11 to 13; anal II, 8 to 10; 
scales 9-65-17; cheek with small scales, opercle with larger ones; pyloric 
ceca 3: Great Lakes to Manitoba; eastward and southward to the 
James, the Ohio Valley and to Arkansas; common in clear streams; 
common in small brooks. 

A. peltatus (Stauffer). Length too mm.; head 4; depth 5.6; color 
light yellow, with 6 large, squarish lateral blotches and faint bars 
between; cheek naked; opercle scaled above; rays of dorsal fins XII-12; 
anal II, 8; scales 6-52 to 56-9: southeastern Pennsylvania to South 
Carolina, in coastwise streams; locally common. 

A. ouachite (Jordan & Gilbert). Length 60 mm.; head 4; depth 6.5; 
color olivaceous, with about 5 rather black bars extending downward 
from the back to the lateral line and 8 or 9 dusky quadrate lateral 
blotches; rays of dorsal fins XI or XII-13; anal II, 10; scales 6-52 to 
60-10: southern Indiana to Arkansas; not rare. 


FISHES 11g 


A. roanoka (Jordan & Jenkins). Length 60 mm.; head 4; depth - 
4.75; color light yellow, with dark green markings and to or 11 vertical 
green lateral confluent bars; anterior dorsal fin with a median band of 
bright yellow; female pale; rays of dorsal fins X or XI-11; anal II, 8 or 9; 
scales 5-48-9; body robust: southern Virginia and North Carolina; 
common. 

3. Ericosoma Jordan. Similar to Alvordius, but without palatine 
teeth; ventrals not widely separate; males with lower fins tuberculate 
in the spring: 1 species. 

E. evides (Jordan & Copeland). Length 75 mm.; head 4.3; depth 
5.3; color extremely brilliant, olivaceous or yellow above, mottled with 
darker with about 7 broad transverse green (male) or black (female) 
bars extending from the back down the sides, connected by an orange- 
brown lateral line; rays of dorsal fins XI-10; anal II, 8 or 9; scales 9-52 
to 67-9 to 11; cheeks not scaly: Indiana, in the Maumee and Wabash 
basins, to central Iowa; southward to Arkansas and North Carolina; 
often common. . 

4. Serraria Gilbert. Similar to Alvordius, but with serrate 
preopercle: 1 species. 

S. sciera (Swain). Length 75 mm.; head 4 to 4.8; depth 5 or 6; color 
yellowish olive, everywhere vaguely blotched with black; top of head, 
dorsal anal and caudal fins black; preopercle serrate; cheeks and opercles 
scaly; gill membranes united; rays of dorsal fins XIII-13 or 14; anal 
II, 9; scales 7-65 to 70-17; fins very large: northern Indiana to Ten- 
nessee and Texas. 

5. Hadropterus Agassiz. Like Alvordius, belly with a series of 
large persistent scales: 1 species. 

H. nigrofasciatus Agassiz. Length 150 mm.; head 4; depth 5; color 
dark olive; sides with 12 narrow vertical bars, confluent along the 
middle; no red or blue; body stout, compressed; fins large; dorsal fins 
XII-11 or 12; anal II, 9 or 10; scales 7-58-15: South Carolina to Louisi- 
ana, in larger clear streams; often common. 

6. Swainia Jordan and Evermann. Gill membranes united; 
belly with ordinary scales; a conspicuous shoulder spot: 1 species. 

S. sqguamata (Gilbert & Swain). Length 125 mm.; body elongate; 
head 3.7; depth 5.5; color yellowish olive, with to broad dusky bars 
across the back, and an equal number along the lateral line; a conspicu- 
ous black shoulder spot; rays of the dorsal fins XIV-13; anal II, 10; 
scales 10-82-18; cheeks and opercle scaly; gill membranes broadly united 
across the isthmus: upper Tennessee River basin; rare. 


I20 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


7. Hypohomus Cope. Like Swainia, but with gill membranes 
separate and no shoulder spot: 4 species. 

H. aurantiacus (Cope). Length 150 mm.; head 4.25; depth 6; color 
olive, with a row of confluent blotches along the side joined by a dark 
lateral band; chin and throat deep orange; rays of dorsal fins XV-15; 
anal IT, 11; scales 14-85-15: upper Tennessee basin. 

H. cymatotenia (Gilbert & Meek). Length 125 mm.; head 4 to 4.25; 
depth 5; body robust; color greenish, with fine dots and 2 pale streaks 
along the sides; a black spot at the base of the tail fin; rays of dorsal 
fins XII to XIV-12 to 14; anal II, 10; scales 7-64 to 70-12: southern 
Missouri. 

8. Cottogaster Putnam. Body slender; snout blunt; scales 
ctenoid; midventral space naked anteriorly or with enlarged caducous 
scales; lateral line continuous; premaxillaries protractile: 2 species. 
fg: 


Vi Vp P » 
“WN 


* 


oS, ‘4 


Ey, 
Ces 


Cas, 


Fic. 57.—Imostoma shumardi (from Fishes of Illinois). 


C. uranidea (Jordan & Gilbert). Length 50 mm.; head 3.5; depth 
5.6; color greenish olive; back with 4 conspicuous broad black cross 
bands and 11 dark blotches below the lateral line; cheeks mostly naked; 
opercle scaly; rays of dorsal fins X or XI-13; anal II, 10 or 11; scales 
6-48 to 56-10: southern Indiana to Alabama and Arkansas, in lowland 
streams. 

C. copelandi (Jordan). Length 75 mm.; head 3.75; depth 5.5 to 6.5; 
color brownish olive, with a series of small black blotches along the 
lateral line forming an interrupted lateral band; a black spot on the 
anterior dorsal fin; cheek naked; opercle with a few scales; rays of 
dorsal fins X to XII-1o to 12; anal II, 8 or g; scales 6-44 to 56-8: Lake 
Champlain to Lake Huron and southwestward to Tennessee and 
southern Missouri; abundant in central Indiana; in clear brooks. 

9. Imostoma Jordan. Like Collogaster, but with scaly cheeks; 
midventral plates not enlarged: 3 species. 

I. shumardi (Girard) (Fig. 57). Length 75 mm.; head 3.4; depth 5; 
color dark, vaguely blotched with darker, with a large black spo att 


FISHES 1A 


the base of the anterior dorsal fin; caudal and pectoral fins barred; 
rays of dorsal fins IX to XI-13 to 15; anal II, ro to 12; scales 6-48 
to 60-11: Manitoba to Kentucky and Arkansas; the Great Lakes 
region; common. 

to. Ulocentra Jordan. Darters. Body elongate; head short and 
thick; scales on belly like those on the sides; premaxillaries protractile; 
ventral fins close together: 6 species, several rare. 

U. histrio (Jordan & Gilbert). Length 50 mm.; head 4 to 4.25; 
depth 5 to 5.5; color very dark green, with 7 light dorsal cross bars 
usually alternating with bars beneath the lateral line; fins all barred; 
head naked; rays of dorsal fins X-13; anal II, 7; scales 6-52-11: southern 
Indiana and Kentucky to Arkansas; common. 

U. simotera (Cope). Length 75 mm.; head 4 to 4.6; depth 4 to 5; 
color green; sides with dark blotches; belly yellow; dorsal fins varie- 
gated; back spotted with red; rays of dorsal fins X-11; anal II, 7; 
scales 10-52-12; snout very short: western Virginia and eastern Ken- 
tucky to Alabama; very common in clear streams. 

U. longimana (Jordan). Length 60 mm.; head 4.4; depth 5; color 
green, with to small irregular spots on the sides and about 5 cross 
blotches on the back; cheeks and breast naked; opercles scaly; rays of 
dorsal fins X-13; anal II, 8; scales s-44-7: Virginia; abundant in rocky 
streams. 

U. podostemona (Jordan & Jenkins). Length 50 mm.; head 4.4; 
depth 5.6; color yellowish green, with 7 or 8 dark spots along the sides 
and 5 or 6 larger ones along the back; fins barred; cheeks and breast 
naked; opercles scaly; rays of dorsal fins X-12; anal IT, 8; scales 4-35-8: 
Roanoke River; common. 

11. Doration Jordan. Similar to Boleosoma, but with an incom- 
plete lateral line and with 2 anal spines: 1 species. 

D. stigmea (Jord.). Length 60 mm.; head 4.25; depth 5; color 
olivaceous, speckled above; sides with 8 dark green blotches below the 
lateral line; rays of dorsal fins X to XIII-12; anal II, 7; scales 5-46 
to 55-10; opercle and cheek scaly; lateral line incomplete: Tennessee 
and Georgia to Arkansas and Louisiana; rather common in pine woods. 

12. Etheostoma Rafinesque. Body slender; head very blunt; 
mouth very small, inferior; premaxillaries protractile; gill membranes 
joined across the isthmus: 1 species. 

E. blennioides Rafinesque. Green-sided darter (Fig. 58). Length 
125 mm.; head 4.5; depth 4.75-6; color olive green; sides with about 
8 double transverse bars and dotted with orange; second dorsal and 
anal fins bluish green; rays of dorsal fins XII to XIV-12 to 15; anal II, 


E22 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


8 or g; scales 6-58 to 78-14: Michigan to the Alabama basin and Kansas; 
common. 

13. Boleosoma DeKay. Body elongate; head pointed; premaxil- 
laries protractile; vomer teeth present; scales large; belly with ordinary 


Fic. 58.—Etheostoma blennioides (from Fishes of Illinois). 


scales; ventral fins well separated; anal fin with but one spine; no 
red or blue in the coloration; pyloric ceca mostly 6: 5 species. 

B. nigrum (Rafinesque). Johnny darter (Fig. 59). Length 60 
mm.; head 4.2; depth 5 or 6; color pale olivaceous; back speckled 
with brown; sides with numerous small black blotches; males in spring 


PASO Ne Es 
RO eee 
See 


S) 


Pe 


wy, 


\. 


Fic. 59.—Boleosoma nigrum (from Jordan & Evermann). 


black anteriorly; opercles scaly; rays of dorsal fins [X-12; anal I, 7 to 
g; scales 5-44 to 55-9; scales rarely 35 to 4o: eastern and central States; 
western Pennsylvania to Colorado; Oklahoma to Manitoba; very com- 
mon in most streams, especially in small ones among weeds. 


Subspecies of B. nigrum 


B. n. olmstedi (Storer). Length 85 mm.; soft dorsal fin with 13 
to 15 rays; cheek scaly: coastwise streams; south to Virginia. 
B. n. effulgens (Girard). Cheek and breast naked; color metallic 


green: Maryland to North Carolina. 
B. n. vexillare Jord. Cheek naked; rays of dorsal fins VIII or [X-10 
to 12; anal I, 7; scales 4-35 to 47-6: Virginia; common. 


FISHES 123 


B. n. maculaticeps Cope. Head spotted; cheek naked: Catawba 
River, North Carolina; common. 

B. susane Jordan & Swain. Length 50 mm.; head 4; depth 65.; 
color as in B. nigrum; rays of dorsal fins VIII-1o or 11; anal I, 8; scales 
4-45 to 50-6; head naked; body very slender: upper Cumberland River, 
Kentucky; common. 

14. Vaillantia Jordan. Similar to Boleosoma, but with incomplete 
lateral line: 1 species. 

V. camura (Forbes). Length 60 mm.; head 4 to 4.5; depth 5.5 to 
6.5; color as in B. nigrum; rays of dorsal fins IX or X-1o or 11; anal I, 
7 or 8; scales 5 or 6-56 to 65-11; lateral line ending near middle of body; 
cheek and opercle scaly: Indiana to Iowa; southward to Alabama and 
Texas; common towards the south. 


Fic. 60.—Vigil pellucidus (from Fishes of Illinois). 


15. Crystallaria Jordan & Gilbert. Body elongate and very 
slender and hyaline; lateral line complete; cheek and opercle scaly; tail 
forked; but 1 anal spine; premaxillaries not protractile; throat and 
belly naked: 1 species. 

C. asprella (Jordan). Length too mm.; eyes very large; head 4 to 
4.5; depth 7 or 8; color olive, mottled, with 4 or 5 dark cross bands on 
the back and a dark lateral band; rays of dorsal fins XII to XIV-13 to 
15; anal I, 12 to 14; scales 7 to 10-98-10 (83 to 85 in specimens from 
Alabama): southern Indiana and Illinois to Alabama and Arkansas, 
in swift streams. 

16. Ammocrypta Jordan. Similar to Crystallaria, but with very 
- protractile premaxillaries: 1 species, which has the habit of burying 
itself in the sand. 

A. beani Jord. Length 60 mm.; head 3.75; depth 7.5; color trans- 
lucent, without bars or spots; anterior dorsal fin spotted; rays of dorsal 
fins VIII to X-10 or 11; anal I, 9 or 10; scales 65; head and body naked, 
except the caudal peduncle: Alabama to Louisiana; common in pine 
woods. 

17. Vigil Jordan. Body very elongate, slender and_ hyaline; 
belly almost bare; premaxillaries protractile; anal spine single: 3 species, 
which bury themselves in the sand. 


I24 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


V. pellucidus (Baird). Sand darter (Fig. 60). Length 75 mm.; 
head 4 to 4.75; depth 7 to 8.5; body translucent; nose very sharp; a series 
of small spots along the back and another along each side; cheek and 
opercle scaly; rays of dorsal fins X-10; anal I, 8 to 10; scales 67 to 78: 
Lake Erie to Minnesota; southward to Kentucky and Texas; common 
in clear, sandy streams. 

V. vivax (Hay). A dusky bar across the base of the soft dorsal fin: 
Mississippi to Arkansas and Texas. 

18. Ioa Jordan & Brayton. Similar to Vigil, but with 2 spines 
in the anal fin: 2 species. 

I. vitrea (Cope). Length 50 mm.; head 4 to 4.5; depth 7 to 7.5; 
color translucent, with small dark spots on the back and sides; rays of 
dorsal fins VII to [X-11 to 14; anal II, 6 to 9; scales 50 to 62; belly 
partly naked: eastern Virginia and North Carolina; common. 

19. Poecilichthys Agassiz. Body elongate and brightly colored; 
belly with ordinary scales; gill membranes broadly joined across the 
isthmus; premaxillaries not protractile; ventral fins well separated: 
I species. 

P. variatus (Kirtland). Body moderately elongate; head short and 
blunt and very rugose; length roo mm.; head 3.5 to 4.4; depth 4.8 to 5.5; 
color greenish; sides and belly orange, with 5 bands posteriorly; anterior 
dorsal fin with a blue band; female paler; fins very large; rays of dorsal 
fins XIT to XIV-1zr to 13; anal Il, 7 to 9; scales 8-51 to Oz-1230hio 
basin to Arkansas; rare. 

20. Nanostoma Putnam.—Similar to Poecilichthys, but with a 
small anal fin, much smaller than the soft part of the dorsal: 7 species. 

N. swannanoa (Jordan & Evermann). Body robust; length 75 mm.; 
head 4.3; depth 6; head naked, very short and blunt; color green, with 
6 distinct dark cross blotches on the back and 8 or 1o on the sides; 
cheeks, opercles and breast naked; rays of dorsal fins XI or XII-12 to 
14; anal II, 9; scales 6-48 to 57-7 or 8: upper waters of the Tennessee 
River; common. 

N. thalassinum (Jordan & Brayton). Length 60 mm.; head 3.6; 
depth 4.75 to 5; color dark green, blotches above and with 6 to g dark 
vertical bars; dorsal fins reddish; females duller; head and throat naked; 
rays of dorsal fins IX to XI-1o to 12; anal II, 7 or 8; scales 5-40 to 48-7: 
Santee River basin; very abundant. 

N. zonale (Cope) (Fig. 61). Body slender; length 75 mm.; head 4 or 
5; depth 5 or 6; color olivaceous, with large dorsal spots which connect 
with a lateral band from which 8 bands encircle the belly; rays of dorsal 
fins X or XI-1o0 to 12; anal II, 6 to 8; scales 6-48 to 53-9; cheeks, 


FISHES 125 


opercles and throat more or less scaly: Mississippi Valley, from Ohio to 
Iowa; southward to Alabama and Louisiana; abundant; very variable. 

21. Nothonotus Agassiz. Similar to Poecilichthys, but with the 
ventral fins close together at the base and with the gill membranes 
scarcely joined across the isthmus: 7 species. 

N. camurus (Cope). Blue-breasted darter. Body stout; length 
60 mm.; head 4; depth 4.5; color dark olive, sprinkled with crimson 
dots; throat and breast deep blue; posterior dorsal, anal and caudal fins 
crimson, bordered by yellow and blue; rays of dorsal fins XI-13; anal 
II, 8; scales 7-50 to 58-8; cheeks and opercles naked; body stout; head 
blunt: Indiana and Ohio to Tennessee, in swift waters; not common. 


Fic. 61.—Nanostoma zonale (from Fishes of Illinois). 


N. maculatus (Kirt.). Body elongate with a large tail fin; length 60 
mm.; head 4; depth 5.25; color black above, olive below; throat blue; 
back and sides with crimson dots; anterior dorsal fin with a black spot; 
tail fin with 2 crimson spots at the base; cheeks naked; opercles scaly; 
rays of dorsal fins XII-12 or 13; anal II, 8 or 9; scales 9-56 to 63-14: 
northern Ohio and Indiana to northern Alabama and Tennessee: rare. 

N. cinereus (Storer). Body slender; length 100 mm.; head 3.5; 
depth 5.5; color light yellow, with 4 dark cross bars on the back and a 
series of about 12 dark spots along the lateral line; rays of dorsal fins 
XT or XIJ-11 to 13; anal II, 8; scales 8-57 to 60-9; opercles scaly; cheeks, 
breast and nape naked: Tennessee and Cumberland Rivers; rare. 

N. rufilineatus (Cope). Body stout; length 75 mm.; head 4; depth 
4.5 to 5; color green, with narrow longitudinal stripes and quadrate red 
spots on the sides; breast blue; opercles scaly; cheeks, nape and breast 
naked; fins variegated, all bordered with scarlet; rays of dorsal fins X 
to XII-11 to 13; anal II, 8 or 9; scales 6-45 to 48-7: upper tributaries of 
the Tennessee, Cumberland and Green Rivers; very common. 

N. jordani (Gilbert). Similar to NV. rufilineatus; color olivaceous, 
with 8 black cross bars on the back and g or to irregular blotches on the 
side; nape and opercles scaly; cheeks and breast naked; shoulder with 
an enlarged black scale: tributaries of the Coosa River, Alabama; 
common. 


126 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


22. Oligocephalus Girard. Body elongate and brightly colored; 
lateral line more or less incomplete; ventrals close together at the base; 
gill membranes not joined across the isthmus; anal spines 2:7 
species. 

O. exilis (Girard). Length 50 mm.; body slender; head 3.8; depth 
4 to 5.5; color light green, blotches with darker; sides with 1o or 11 
large brown spots alternating with black ones; cheeks, opercles and 
nape scaly; top of head and breast naked; rays of dorsal fins VII 
to X-1o or 11; anal II, 6 to 8; scales 5-55 to 63-11: Michigan, Iowa and 
Nebraska, and northward into Canada; common. 

O. jessie (J. & B.). Length 45 mm.; head 4; depth 4.75; cheeks and 
opercles scaly; color brownish, with a light lateral band, above and 
below which are light spots; rays of dorsal fins X to XII-12 to 14; anal 
II, 7 to 9; scales 6-47 to 55-8: Michigan to Iowa; southward to Missis- 
sippi and Texas; common. 

O. luteovinctus (Gilbert & Swain). Body compressed; length 50 
mm.; head 3.6; depth 4.5 to 5; color light olive, with 7 cross bars; sides 
with 9 greenish blotches alternating with yellowish bands; cheeks and 
opercles scaly; rays of dorsal fins [X or X-13; anal II, 7 or 8; scales 6-49 
to 55-11; tail very slender: Stone River, Tennessee; rare. 

O. ceruleus (Storer). Rainbow darter. Body stout; length 60 mm.; 
head 3.75; depth 4.25; color olivaceous, blotched with darker; sides 
with about 12 oblique blue bars with orange between; cheeks blue; 
breast and throat orange; fins mostly orange and blue; rays of dorsal 
fins X-12 to 14; anal II, 7 or 8; scales 5-37 to 50-10; neck and breast 
naked: valleys of the Mississippi and Great Lakes and southwestward 
to Texas; very common in small streams. 

O. punctulatus (Agassiz). Body slender; length 50 mm.; head 3.3; 
depth 5.75; color dark green, with indistinct darker bars; head punctu- 
late; belly red; a black spot on shoulder; rays of dorsal fins X or XI-14; 
anal IT, 8 or 9; scales 9-63 to 80-16; breast, cheeks and opercles naked: 
Ozark region; not common. 

O. cragini (Gilb.). Length 40 mm.; head 3.3; depth 4.75; color oliva- 
ceous, mottled; lower half of sides specked with black; sides with a 
series of small spots; a conspicuous shoulder spot; cheeks and opercles 
naked; rays of dorsal fins VIII or [X-r1o to 12; anal II, 6 or 7; scales 
6-46 to 55: western portion of Arkansas River basin, in Colorado; 
in small brooks; the only darter reaching the base of the Rockies. 

23. Claricola Jordan and Evermann. Similar to Oligocephalus, 
but with the gill membranes broadly joined across the isthmus (except 
in C. squamiceps), and with a large black shoulder scale: 4 species. 


FISHES 127 


C. whipplii (Girard). Body rather deep, compressed; length 60 
mm.; head 3.5; depth 4.5 to 5; color grayish, mottled with darker and 
about 12 indistinct dusky bars; sides with small scarlet spots and 2 
orange spots at the base of the tail fin; a black shoulder spot; rays of 
dorsal fins XI-11 or 12; anal II, 7 or 8; scales 8-60 to 70; lateral line 
incomplete; opercles with a few large scales: lower Arkansas basin; 
common. 

C. squamiceps (Jordan). Body robust; length 75 mm.; head 3 to 4; 
depth 4.25 to 5; color dusky olive, with about to diffuse blackish cross 
bands; a pinkish streak along the lateral line; no red or blue; cheeks, 
opercles, nape and breast usually scaly; rays of dorsal fins VIII to 
XI-9 to 12; anal II, 7 or 8; scales 6-48 to 60-12: southern Indiana to 
Georgia and western Florida; common southward. 

24. Catonotus Agassiz. Similar to Claricola, but with a projecting 
lower jaw: I species. 

N. flabellaris (Raf.). Fan-tailed darter. Body slender; head long 
and pointed; length 60 mm.; head 3.5 to 4; depth 4.5 to 5.5; color rather 
dark, body covered with fine specks which form dark cross blotches in 
the male; a conspicuous shoulder spot; no red or blue; rays of dorsal 
fins VIII-12 to 14; anal II, 7 to 9; scales 7-50-7; lower jaw strongly pro- 
jecting; head naked; tail fin large: New England to northern Alabama; 
westward to Iowa; abundant in swift waters; variable. 


Subspecies of C. flabellaris 


C. f. lineolatus (Agassiz). Longitudinal lines of dark dots present: 
northern Indiana and Missouri to Minnesota. 

C. f. cumberlandicus (Jordan & Swain). Coloration plain, except 
for the black shoulder spot: Cumberland Mountains. 

25. Psychromaster Jordan & Evermann. Body robust; a single 
anal spine present; the top of the head scaly; lateral line curved and 
incomplete: 1 species. 

P. tuscumbia (Gilbert & Swain). Body heavy and robust, with an 
elevated back; length 50 mm.; head 3.5; depth 4; color grayish or 
greenish, mottled or speckled with black; 6 broad dorsal bars and 8 or 10 
black blotches along the lateral line; fins barred; cheeks and opercles 
scaly; rays of dorsal fins [X or X-11 to 13; anal I, 8; scales 6-48 to 50-10: 
‘northern Alabama; abundant. 

26. Hololepis Agassiz. Lateral line incomplete, being strongly 
curved upward anteriorly; gill membranes not joined; ventral fins close 
together at the base: 2 species. 


128 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


H. barratti (Holbrook). Body compressed, elongate; length 75 
mm.; head 3.6; depth 4.6; color dark brown, with bright red and blackish 
mottlings on the sides and back; a small black shoulder spot; rays of 
dorsal fins IX to XII-9 to 12; anal II, 7; scales 3-48 to 56-10; cheeks, 
top of head, breast, nape and opercles scaly: Virginia to Florida, in 
swamps and lowland streams of the coastal plain; not common. 

H. fusiformis (Girard). Body elongate and compressed; length 50 
mm.; head 4; depth 6; color very variable, olivaceous, blotched with 
dusky; a black spot below and another in front of the eye; rays of 
dorsal fins IX or X-g to 12; anal II, 6; scales 3-43 to 50-12; cheek, 
opercle and nape scaly: entire eastern and central States; westward to 
Minnesota and the Rio Grande, in lowland streams and ponds. 

27. Microperca Putnam. No lateral line: 3 species. 


Key to the Species of Microperca and Alvarius 


ay Checks ama Opercles ‘SCaly.:. cts..2 2) terse ative iz oer one es nee M. prelaris. 
a2 Cheeks naked. 
bgeAnialrspimes 2s hemorkhwestss ac Mio. oh ars ee eee M. punctulata. 
boy Analispiners sinvtlne SOubLh te n-tAa cere ee os ee tee Bee A. fonticola. 


M. prelaris Hay. Length 40 mm.; head 4; depth 4.5; color olive, 
speckled with brown; to spots along the sides; rays of dorsal fins VIII, 
11; anal II, 6; scales 36: Alabama to Arkansas, in lowland streams. 

M. punctulata Putn. Length 30 mm.; head 3.75; depth 4.5 to 5; 
color light olive, with sides speckled and vaguely barred; rays of dorsal 
fins VI or VII-10; anal II, 6; scales 34 to 37-9; cheeks, nape and breast 
naked; opercles with a few scales: Michigan to Minnesota; southward to 
Arkansas; common in clear weedy streams and ponds, especially in the 
Great Lakes basin; the smallest of the darters. 

28. Alvarius Girard. Lateral line present anteriorly; dorsal fins 
short; anal spine single; head naked: 2 species. 

A. fonticola Jordan & Gilbert. Length 30 mm.; head 3.3 to 4; 
depth 4.5 to 5; color light olive, with 8 cross blotches on the back and 
horizontal lines on the sides; rays of dorsal fins VI to VII-8 to 10; 
anal I, 7; scales 34: Arkansas and Texas, in clear rocky streams; scarce. 

Family 6. Moronidz.—River bass. Body elliptical, more or less 
compressed; scales ctenoid; lateral line present; tail forked; branchi- 
ostegals normally 7; pseudobranchiz large; spines of anal fin 3; cheeks 
and opercles always scaly; teeth on vomers and palatines: about 70 
genera and 400 species, mostly marine; 4 genera and species in fresh 
water, which are important food and game fishes. 


FISHES 129 


1. Roccus Mitchill. Body deep and compressed; lower jaw pro- 
jecting; two separate dorsal fins present; teeth on the base of the tongue: 
I species. 

R. saxatilis (Walbaum). Striped bass. Length up to 1,500 mm.; 
weight up to oo lbs.; head 3.25 to 3.5; depth 3.5; color olivaceous, 
silvery, with 7 to 8 narrow longitudinal stripes on the middle and upper 
portions of the body; 2 patches of teeth at the base of the tongue; 
rays of dorsal fins IX-I, 12; anal III, 11; scales 8-67-11: Atlantic 
Ocean from New Brunswick to Louisiana, entering the rivers in the 
spring to spawn; occasionally in Lake Ontario; introduced into Cali- 
fornia; abundant. 

2. Lepibema Rafinesque. Similar to Roccus, but with but one 
patch of teeth at the base of the tongue: 1 species. 

L. chrysops (Rafinesque). White bass. Length 375 mm.; head 3.5; 
depth 2.5; back with a high arch; color silvery, with about 6 narrow 
dark longitudinal stripes on the upper and middle portions of the body; 
1 patch of teeth at the base of the tongue; rays of dorsal fins IX-I, 
14; anal III, rz or 12; scales 10-55 to 65-15: Great Lakes region to 
Manitoba; southward in Mississippi Valley to Arkansas; in deeper 
waters; abundant. 

3. Chrysoperca Fowler. Similar to Roccus; base of tongue tooth- 
less; the spinous and the soft dorsal fins joined, but slightly: 1 species. 

C. interrupta Gill. Yellow bass. Length 300 mm.; head 3; depth 
2.6; color brassy yellow, with 7 distinct black longitudinal lines, those 
below the lateral line interrupted posteriorly; rays of dorsal fins [X-I, 
12; anal III, 9 or 10; scales 7-50 to 54-11: lower Mississippi Valley, 
northward to the Ohio River and to central Indiana and Illinois; 
westward to the Kansas River; common towards the south in large 
rivers and lakes. 

4. Morone Mitchill. Similar to Chrysoperca; dorsal fins well 
connected; longitudinal stripes faint: 1 species. 

M. americana (Gmelin). White perch. Length 250 mm.; head 3; 
depth 3; color dark olivaceous; sides silvery, usually with faint paler 
streaks; rays of dorsal fins IX-I, 12; anal III, 8 or g; scales 8-50 to 
55-12: Atlantic Ocean; abundant in brackish pools and in river mouths, 
also often in fresh water ponds, from Nova Scotia to Florida. 

Family 7. Sciznidz.—The drums. Body compressed, more or 
less elongate; back elevated; scales ctenoid; lateral line continuous 
and extending on to the tail fin; premaxillaries protractile; dorsal fin 
single, deeply notched or separated into two fins; air bladder large and 
often complex, enabling the fish to make drumming sounds; no teeth 


I30 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


on the palatines, vomer, pterygoids or tongue; branchiostegals 7: 
about 30 genera and 150 species, mostly in warm seas; a few in fresh 
water, 1 in the United States. 

Aplodinotus Rafinesque. With the characters of the family: 
I species. 

A. grunniens Raf. Sheephead (Fig. 62). Length up to 1,100 mm.; 
weight up to 50 lbs.; head 3.3; depth 3; color silvery; dusky above; 
rays of dorsal fins IX-I, 25 to 30; anal II, 7; scales 9-55-13; lower 
pharyngeals very large, with blunt teeth; head scaly: Great Lakes 


mais 


ar 


== 


<3, 
"a 


ae 


2S 
=e 20 
Reo 


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Cs om 


Fic. 62.—A plodinotus grunniens (from Jordan & Evermann). 


to Alabama and Texas, between the Alleghenies and the Great Plains; 
common in large streams and lakes; an inferior food fish in the north, 
but not in the south. 

Order 15. MHolconoti.—The surf fishes. Viviparous fishes with 
united pharyngeals, an increased number of vertebrae, cycloid scales 
and many rays in the soft dorsal and anal fins: 1 family. 

Family Embiotocidz.— Body elliptical, compressed cheeks, opercles 
and interopercles scaly; lateral line continuous; branchiostegals 5 or 
6: 17 genera and about 20 species, all marine but one. 

Hysterocarpus Gibbons. Body ovate; back elevated; dorsal fin 
single, the spinous portion very long; anal fin very long: 1 species. 

H. traski Gibbons. Length too mm.; head 3.3; depth 2; color 
brown above; sides yellowish, with fine dots; throat and belly yellow; 
rays of dorsal fin XVI to XVIII, 11; anal III, 22: rivers of central 
California; locally abundant. 

Order 16. Cataphracti—The mailed cheeked fishes. Fishes 
with a bony process of the suborbital ring extending across the cheek 
to or towards the preopercle: 22 families, most of them marine, 1 in 
fresh water. 


FISHES 130 


Family Cottide.—Sculpins. Body elongate, tapering backward 
from the broad head; body not uniformly scaled but either naked or 
armed with scales, bony plates or spines; lateral line present; ventral 
fins thoracic; dorsal fins either separate or connected; anal fins without 
spines; pseudobranchie present; air-bladder usually wanting: about 
30 genera and go species, mostly marine; many species in fresh water. 


Key to the Fresh Water Genera of Cottide 


ET ULa bts Wik MACS OL GgEAVS areas cniyere etnies 4) sib «ae oe sv BRS 1. Cottus. 
Ae Men eraluins Waihimes SOlty DAYS wich artahi a a digcyndcis <6 hye. «vn ss e+ chen aah MORO DISTS. 


1. Cottus L. Fresh-water sculpins. Body smooth, sometimes 
with prickles; preopercle with a spine at its angle and usually 2 or 3 
spines below it; villiform teeth on the vomer, jaws and sometimes 
the palatines; gill openings separated by a wide isthmus; pectoral 
fins large; dorsal fins usually nearly or quite separate: numerous 
species, in the northern hemisphere. 


Key to the Species of Cottus 


a, Palatine bones with teeth; the two dorsal fins usually very 
slightly connected at base, or not at all. 
b; Anal rays 15 to 20. 
c; Vent midway between tip of snout and base of tail....... C. asper. 
C2 Vent nearer the tail than the tip of the snout...........C. gulosus. 
be Anal rays 11 to 13. 
c; In the far-western States. 


dianthe Columbia dRiver basi...) sc co. sas... +... G. rhotheus. 
C. bendirei. 
d; In the Rocky Mountain region.....................C. punctulatus. 
C. semiscaber. 
Coeln phereasten acd Centralsstates, 2... u.aatdh oaks e enc Se C. bairdi. 
C. ricei. 
a» Palatine bones without teeth. 
b,; In the Far-western States. 
ci: In the Klamath Lakes region, Oregon..................C. klamathensis. 
C. tenuis. 
Gmlnethe Golumibia iver Dasitiee se) cer eke res eee eee C. beldingi. 
Gs) In the Golorado: River basim............2: Vi jb td Eonar C. anne. 
Dyeinreastern and central States 525,08 ese sean C. cognotus. 


_C. asper Richardson. Length 300 mm.; head 3.25; depth 4.5; 
color grayish olive, mottled and spotted with blackish; prickles coarse 
and stiff; rays of dorsal fins IX or X, 19 to 21; anal 17 or 18: San 
Francisco Bay to Alaska; Cascade Range; abundant in cold streams. 

C. gulosus (Girard). Rifflefish. Length 150 mm.; head 3; depth 
4.5; color grayish olive, mottled with darker; rays of dorsal fin VIII or 


132 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


IX, 19 to 21; anal 16 to 18: southeastern Oregon; Coast Range, Cali- 
fornia, Sacramento River region; Alaska; very common. 

C. rhotheus Rosa Smith. Length too mm.; head 3; depth 4.5; color 
dark gray, spotted and mottled; rays of dorsal fins VII or VIII, 16 or 17; 
anal 11 or 12: Columbia River basin; common. 

C. punctulatus (Gill). Length 125 mm.; head 3; depth 4.75; color 
olivaceous, spotted with black and with 5 or 6 dark lateral cross bars; 
rays of dorsal fins VII or VIII, 17 or 18; anal 11 or 12: head waters of 
Green River, Wyoming; southeastern Oregon; common. 

C. semiscaber (Cope). Rocky Mountain bullhead. Length 100 
mm.; head 3; depth 4.5; color gray, with inconspicuous cross bars on the 
sides; rays of dorsal fins VIII, 17 or 18; anal 12 or 13: New Mexico and 
Wyoming into Montana and Washington; common. 


Fic. 63.—Cottus bairdi (from Fishes of Illinois). 


C. bairdi Girard. Miller’s thumb (Fig. 63). Length 150 mm.; 
head 3.3; depth 4 to 6; color olivaceous, bared or speckled with darker; 
rays of dorsal fins VI to VIII, 16 or 17; anal about 12: middle or north- 
ern States from New York to the Dakotas; southward along the 
Alleghenies to Alabama; very common in clear brooks and lakes; very 
variable. 

C. ricet (Nelson). Length 60 mm.; head 3.6; depth 5.3; color 
olivaceous; finely speckled; rays of dorsal fin VIII, 17; anal 12: Great 
Lakes; in deep water only. 

C. klamathensis Gilbert. Length 130 mm.; head 3; depth 4 to 4.3; 
color brownish olive, much blotched with darker; rays of dorsal fin VII, 
19; anal 14; the 2 dorsal fins broadly joined; lateral line very incom- 
plete; preopercle with a single short spine: Klamath Lakes, Oregon; 
very common. 

C. beldingii Eigenmann. Length too mm.; head 4; depth 5; color 
mottled black and white, with 6 blackish cross bars on the back, the 
first across the head behind the eyes; rays of dorsal fin VI to VIII, r5 to 
18; anal rr to 13: abundant east of the Cascades, Columbia River basin. 


FISHES 133 


C.anne Jordan and Sparks. Length 75 mm.;head 3.5;depth 5; color 
light gray, somewhat mottled; rays of dorsal fin VIT or VIII, 17 or 18; 
anal 12; mouth very small; preopercle with 1 blunt spine and no others: 
Colorado River basin; common. 

C. bendirei (Bean). Length 75 mm.; color dark brown, lighter on 
the throat and belly; rays of dorsal fins VIII, 16; anal, 12; palatines 
with teeth; preopercle with 4 spines: Columbia basin in Oregon and 
Idaho. 

C. tenuis (Evermann and Meek). Length 75 mm.; head 3.8; depth 7; 
color dark above and pale beneath; under side of head speckled; rays of 
dorsal fins VI-I, 17; anal 15; body very slender: Klamath Lakes, Oregon. 

C. cognatus Richardson. Head 3.5; depth 5; color olivaceous, 
mottled; upper edge of spinous dorsal fin red in life; rays of dorsal fins 
VIII, 16; anal 12: Great Lakes to New England and New York; West 
Virginia; Alaska; common. 

2. Triglopsis Girard. Body and head slender; skin naked; lateral 
line chain-like; teeth on vomer, but not on palatines; a small distinct 
slit behind the last gill; preopercular spines 4: 1 species. 

T. thompsoni Girard. Length 75 mm.; head 3; depth 6 color oliva- 
ceous, with dark blotches; eyes very large; rays of dorsal fins VIII, 18; 
anal 15; dorsal fins separate; the soft dorsal and the anal fins very large: 
deep waters of the Great Lakes; not common. 

Order 17. Gobioidea.—Ventral fins thoracic, I, 4 or I, 5; pseudo- 
branchiz present; dorsal fins separate or united; dorsal spines few and 
weak; soft dorsal and anal long; caudal fin rounded: 2 families of marine 
fishes, with a few fresh water representatives. 

Family Gobiidze.—Gobies. Body mostly elongate, naked or cov- 
ered with ctenoid scales; ventral fins close together, usually united; no 
lateral line; no pyloric ceca: 600 species, a very few in fresh water; 
shore fishes in tropical regions. 

Dormitator Gill. Body scaled, short, robust; head scaled, broad, 
blunt and flat; mouth small, oblique; scales large; fins large: 1 species. 

D. maculatus (Bloch). Length 600 mm.; head 3.2; depth 3; color 
dark gray or brown with lighter spots; dorsal fins separate and with 
parallel black bands; rays of dorsal fins VII-I, 8 or 9; anal I, 9 or 10; 
scales 33: both coasts of America from North Carolina and Cape St. 
Lucas to Brazil, in fresh and brackish water. 


CLASS 2. AMPHIBIANS (AMPHIBIA; BATRACHIA)* 


The amphibians are cold-blooded vertebrates which, so far as the 
American species are concerned, are devoid of scales and other special 
integumental coverings and have no claws or nails on their digits. 
Their eggs are usually deposited in the water or in wet places where the 
young animals live, breathing by means of integumental gills, while 
they undergo a metamorphosis which transforms them into the more 
or less terrestrial adults. 

Amphibians occupy a place in the zoological system intermediate 
between fishes and reptiles, being physiologically like the former when 
young and the latter when adult. They resemble fishes and differ 
from the higher vertebrates chiefly in the possession of gill-slits and 
exclusively aquatic respiration during a part or all of their lives, by the 
absence of allantois and amnion, the possession of a single ventral aorta 
through which the blood leaves the heart, and of ten instead of twelve 
cranial nerves. They differ from fishes and resemble the higher verte- 
brates chiefly in the absence of dermal scales (except in the A poda), in 
the possession of pentadactyle limbs, of lungs, and a more or less 
terrestrial life-habit, and in the reduction of the bones of the 
head. 

History.—It has apparently been a difficult matter to fix the posi- 
tion of the amphibians in the zoological system. Linneus originated 
the term Amphibia, but included in it also reptiles, and many ganoid 
and cyclostomate fishes. This tendency to group amphibians and 
reptiles together existed also among subsequent authors for almost a 
hundred years, although Blainville as early as 1816 clearly indicated 
the proper relations of the two classes; the common group was called 
by some authors the Reptilia and by others the Amphibia, the posses- 
sion of scales being the distinctive feature which marked the former 
group. Milne-Edwards, Cope and Huxley were among the first 
authors to see matters more clearly, and to speak definitely of Amphibia 
and Reptilia as two distinct and equivalent classes. In recent times the 
systematic study of amphibians has attracted relatively few authors. 
G. A. and E. G. Boulenger have been among the most influential. In 
this country the most important have been Spencer F. Baird and 
Edward D. Cope, each of whom devoted a life-time to the study of the 

* Revised by Dr. E. R. Dunn. 

| 134 


AMPHIBIANS 135 


group. Cope’s Batrachia of North America is perhaps the most com- 
prehensive and fundamental single work treating it. 

Number and Distribution.—About 1,800 species of amphibians are 
known, of which 150 species are Caudata, or salamanders, and 1,600 
species are Salientia, or frogs and toads. The burrowing, limbless 
Apoda, which are confined to tropical America, Africa and India, 
number about 50 species. The Caudata occupy principally the temper- 
ate and subtropical portions of Europe, Asia and America, penetrating 
only into the extreme northern parts of Africa, and not occurring at 
all in Australia and the East Indian archipelago. The Salientia inhabit 
the entire world, except the polar regions and the smaller oceanic islands. 

The amphibian fauna of the United States is very rich, a feature in 
which it parallels the distribution of other animal groups with a similar 
habitat, namely, fresh water fish and fresh water mollusks. A com- 
parison of the number of species of amphibians inhabiting New York 
State and Germany or Great Britain will illustrate the statement: in 
Germany the Caudata are represented by 4 species and in New York by 
15; Great Britain possesses 3 species of Salientia, while New York 
has 13. 


Key to the Orders of Amphibia in the United States 


a: Body elongate with a tail which persists throughout life; 

SUE ATSIC ao ee er a eb 1. Caudata (p. 135). 
az Body of adult short and tailless; young with a long tail 

which disappears in the metamorphosis; frogs and toads. 2. Salientia (p. 156). 


Order 1. Caudata (Urodela).—Salamanders. Amphibians with 
an elongate body and usually two pairs of weak limbs. The vertebre 
are numerous and are accompanied by ribs. The skin is without scales 
and is very glandular, the secretion in some species being poisonous. 
The eyes are small and the eye-lids are not present in the lower forms. 
The ear is entirely internal, as in fishes, there being no tympanum or 
tympanic cavity. The body muscles have a conspicuously segmental 
arrangement, like those of fishes, the vertical grooves which separate 
the muscle segments of the trunk being usually easily seen on the 
outside of the body, and called the costal grooves (Fig. 72). Teeth may 
be present on the maxillaries, premaxillaries, vomers, pterygoids, 
parasphenoid and mandibles. The eggs are usually deposited in the 
water and the larve are aquatic, being provided with three pairs of 
external gills, which are expansions of the outer integument and not 
homologous to the gills of fishes. These gills disappear during the 


136 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


metamorphosis, except in Necturus, Typhlomolge, Pseudobranchus and 
Siren. In some of the Plethodontide the greater part of the larval 
stage is spent in the egg and the young are terrestrial from the time of 
birth and without gills. The lower Caudata are aquatic animals 
throughout life, the higher ones are mostly terrestrial as adults, but 
must still live in moist places. 

The 150 species of Caudata are grouped in 2 suborders and are found 
mostly in the temperate parts of the northern hemisphere; about 99 
species occur in North America and 69 species in the United States. 

On the Identification of Caudate Amphibia.—The descriptions 
of salmanders in this book apply to adult animals. The most important 
descriptive features are the shape and appearance of the body and its 


Fic. 64. Fic. 65. 

Fic. 64.—The naso-labial groove of Desmognathus fuscus, f, crescentic fold which closes 
the nostril when the head is submerged; gr, naso-labial groove which drains the nostril 
when the head emerges from the water; grl, labial groove; nl, orifices of glands (from 
Whipple). 

Fic. 65.—The ypsiloid cartilage of Triturus viridescens: l, pubis; y, ypsiloid cartilage; 
the other letters refer to muscles (from Whipple). 


color, the length of the body in millimeters, including the tail, the length 
of the tail, the number of costal grooves between the fore and hind 
limbs, the number of digits, and the position of the teeth, especially 
those of the vomers and parasphenoid. The naso-labial groove, a 
glandular groove passing from the nostril to the lip (Fig. 64), and the 
plantar tubercles, which are elevations on the palms and soles, are also 
often important. Several features of the internal structure are impor- 
tant in a full analysis of the various groups, although a knowledge of 
them is not usually necessary for the identification of species; these are 
the shape of the vertebra, the form and condition of the cranial bones 
and cartilages, the presence or absence of the lungs and of the cartilage 
which may lie in the ventral body wall just anterior to the pubis and is 
called the yvpsiloid cartilage (Fig. 65). 


AMPHIBIANS 137 


Key to the Suborders of the Caudata 


SMa WOMaAlrs Olle me LESEME stiri ate) faye «lee! Sescelg = ohens eee 1. Mutabilia (p. 137). 
Ape DU ONE pal Ot LEGS PLESCUME. cai. -\.6oGfs0t 0lere) <) o/elove cum eieenctels 2. Meantes (p. 155). 


Suborder 1. Mutabilia.—Both pairs of limbs present; both 
jaws with teeth; a single ossification in the shoulder girdle: 7 families, 
grouped in 2 superfamilies. 


Key to the Superfamilies and Families of Mutabilia 
a; Prearticular and angular bones in lower jaw separate; adult 
with second epibranchial; female without spermatheca; 
feritimAbiOneeRLELMalisc eos «isin calmer faa Superfamily A. Cryptobranchidea. 
b, Large flattened, river dwelling forms; teeth on prevomer 
close to and parallel to those on maxilla............ 1. Cryptobranchide. 
ay Prearticular and angular bones fused; adult without second 
epibranchial; female with spermatheca; fertilization 
(UAH TUE hee ag A ae ee Ae Superfamily B. Salamandroidea. 
bs Smaller in size; more or less cylindrical forms; larve, 
if small, with 5 toes. 
c; Ypsiloid cartilage and lungs present; no naso-labial 
groove; no parasphenoid teeth. 
d, Vomerine teeth in 2 longitudinal rows, diverging 


posteriorly; costal grooves not marked........2. Pleurodelide. 
d. Vomerine teeth in transverse series; costal grooves 
TRREUTCU Ore Muertos SENS ete ates, ouclen a eles amhene Heras 3. Ambystomide. 


co Ypsiloid cartilage and lungs absent; naso-labial 
groove present in adults; parasphenoid teeth pres- 


EMU SURES Saye eet et ean eee nies eke A 4. Plethodontide. 
bs Eel-like in form, and of larger size; larve, if large, with 
4 toes. 
Grelers animitte: withes tO.9 tOCS.s. acc s sicko. os ak « 5. Amphiumide. 
Cam liGes nomial eee ter cake Se erote Scum cle ecto ei stats’ 9s « 6. Proteide. 


Family 1. Cryptobranchidz.—Giant salamanders. Body stout 
and of large size; a pair of small gill-slits usually persistent; vertebre 
amphiccelous; carpus and tarsus cartilaginous; no eyelids; vomerine 
teeth form an arched series parallel with the jaws: 2 genera, one of 
which, Megalobactrachus, is found in China and Japan and contains 
but one species, M. japonicus (Hoeven), which grows to a length of 
6 feet and is the largest salamander. 

Cryptobranchus F. S. Leuckart. Fore legs with 4 and hind legs 
with 5 toes each; gill slits always persistent: 1 species. 

C. alleganiensis (Daudin). Hellbender. Body dark brown in 
color; head and trunk depressed, tail compressed; prominent lateral 
fold present; length 480 mm.; tail 160 mm.: western New York and 
central Pennsylvania to Georgia and Louisiana; westward to Iowa; 
Mississippi drainage; Susquehanna; aquatic; often common. 


138 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


Family 2. Pleurodelidze.—Body of medium size; teeth on the 
maxillaries and premaxillaries; vomerine teeth in 2 longitudinal series, 
converging anteriorly; vertebrae opisthoccelous; carpus and tarsus 
ossified; lungs and ypsiloid cartilage present; no naso-labial groove: 
about ro genera, all in the old world, one of which is represented in 
America. 

Triturus Rafinesque (Diemyctylus Raf.). Newts. Tongue at- 
tached by nearly its whole lower surface; digits 4-5: about 12 species in 
Europe. Asia and America, 4 species in the United States. These 
salamanders can float in water without swimming movements, because 
of their lungs. 


Key to the American Species of Triturus 


a; Species east of the Rockies. 
b; Red markings on the side of the body. 


c; Circular, black-edged red spots on the sides............T7. v. viridescens. 
c. A continuous or broken red line edged with black, on the 
SUG. force cae ee ae Ranch ak ae ec Rye Cag Smee T. v. symmetrica. 
by No red markings present; on the Gulf coastal plain........ T. louisianensis. 
Ao SPEClES WES. OF THE WROCKICS: ae aire site Wats thee adeeb aneyc te eee T. torosus. 


T. viridescens Raf. Spotted salamander; newt (Fig. 66). Body of 
adult elongate; tail with a prominent 
keel above and below; color olive 
green above, yellowish beneath, 
sprinkled everywhere with black 
dots except on the belly, and with 
a row of 2 to 6 or more round red 
black-edged spots on the side of the 
trunk; length 90 mm.; tail 44 mm.: 
eastern and central States and 
Canada, from Hudson Bay to Florida 
and Texas; westward to Wisconsin 
and Oklahoma; common. ‘The adult 
-3 animals are aquatic, living in ponds 
and streams containing vegetation. 
The eggs are few in number and are 
attached separately to vegetation. 
There are two larval stages, in the 

Fic. 66.—Inside the mouth of Triturus first of which the animal is aquatic, 
viridescens: I, inner nares; 2, vomerine with gills and the color of the adult, 
ae amemie aac and in the second it is terrestrial, 
without gills and bright red in color and smaller in size, but is spotted 


( 
90 Rogues. , e 
Te i es 


uwore ye 


one, 


AMPHIBIANS 139 


like the. adult and without a keeled tail. The first stage lasts 3 or 4 
months; the second lasts 2 or 3 years, and at the end of it the animal 
again becomes aquatic. 


Subspecies of T. viridescens 


T. v. viridescens Raf. Eastern States and Canada. 

T. v. symmetricus (Harlan). Similar to T. viridescens, but with the 
red spots forming a continuous or a broken line: coastal plain, North 
Carolina to Florida. 

T. louisianensis (Wolterstorff). Similar to 7. viridescens, except 
that the red spots are inconspicuous or absent, and are not ringed with 
black: Gulf Coast to Tennessee and Kansas. 

T. torosus (Eschscholtz). Body rather stout; tail long, with a 
wide keel above and below; color brown above and yellow beneath; 
length 170 mm.; tail 92 mm.: Pacific slope, from Alaska to Lower 
California, in ponds and streams; no terrestrial form present. 

Family 3. Ambystomidz.—Body of medium size; digits 4-5; a 
transverse series of teeth, more or less interrupted, on the hinder margin 
of the vomers; tongue thick, free in front; vertebrae amphiccelous; 
carpus and tarsus ossified; eyelids present; lungs and ypsiloid cartilage 
present; costal grooves prominent: 3 genera in the United States; 
habitat usually terrestrial. 


Key to the United States Genera of Ambystomide 


a, Lungs rudimentary; ypsiloid cartilage aborted; on Pacific slope.1. Rhyacotriton. 
a2 Lungs and ypsiloid cartilage (Fig. 65) well developed. 
beg: Hail dorsally thinjand flattened: 3.5... 25....2¢.25.2.-.+ 2-2. Dicamptoiton: 
pep habidorsallythickramarclandular . cei st cnc o elebee ace Go) 3. Ambystoma. 


1. Rhyacotriton Dunn. Lungs very small; ypsiloid cartilage 
aborted; nasal bones absent: 1 species. 

R. olympicus (Gaige). Color black above; length 125 mm.: Olympic 
Mountains, Washington, in mountain streams. 

2. Dicamptodon Strauch. Lungs and ypsiloid cartilage normal: 
nasal bones present: 1 species. 

D. ensatus (Eschscholtz) (Chondrotus tenebrosus Baird & Girard). 
Body very large and massive; legs stout; color reddish brown, mottled 
above; length 250 mm.; tail 100 mm.; costal grooves 12, obscure; 
parasphenoid narrow: coastal region of Pacific slope, from southern 
California to British Columbia. 

3. Ambystoma Tschudi. Lungs and ypsiloid cartilage well 
developed; premaxillary fontanelle small or wanting; nasals present; 


140 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


parasphenoid broad: about species in the United States. These 
salamanders can float in water without swimming movements, because 
of their lungs. A. mexicanum Shaw, the axylotl, which lives in a lake 
near Mexico City, becomes sexually mature and breeds as a larva, 
never transforming. It retains its gills and never leaves the water. 


Key to the United States Species of Ambystoma 


a, Species east of the Rockies. 
b, Costal grooves 10 to 12; vomerine teeth in 1, 3 or 4 patches, 

running across the mouth behind the nares (Fig. 70). 

c, Two plantar tubercles (Fig. 69) present. 
die Costa i PrOOV ES EE On or. itachi inte eas ee A. talpoideum. 
ds Coastal: prooyesiia) sls enr Wa vase iene ashen: enctaral ae ten: ae A. tigrinum. 

C2 One plantar tubercle present or none. 
d, Costal grooves 11. 


e: Body with black and white bars............... A. opacum. 
e2 Body black with 2 rows of yellow spots.........A. maculatum. 
dz Coastal grooves 12;-toes very Jong: 2.25. 45 ae ee A. jeffersonianum. 


be Costal grooves 14; teeth in 2 patches (Fig. 71). 
c; Definite color markings in form of cross bars. 


d, Body black with narrow white cross lines.......... A. cingulatum. 
dz Body dark brown with broad yellow cross bars..... A. annulatum. 
G2. Black’ with whttishsdotsa-j.52 eee an eee etree A. texanum. 


a2 Species in the Rockies and far-west. 
b; Four phalanges in the fourth toe of hind foot. 
c; Body mottled with black and yellow; no dorsal stripe. . A. tigrinum. 
| ‘cM Avlight dorsalsstripeypresemt.. 72k <1. artoteseit ny ee i eer 4. macrodactylum. 
bo Three phalanges in the fourth toe of hind foot..........2 A. gracile. 


A. talpoideum (Holbrook). Mole salamander. Body short, stout, 
depressed, gray or dark brown in color dotted with gray; head very 
broad; length 90 mm.; tail 37 mm.; costal grooves 10; vomerine teeth 

in 3 patches: southern States from North Carolina 
to Louisiana and up the Mississippi Valley to 
Illinois. 
eS A. opacum (Gravenhorst). Marbled salaman- 
ee ee ae der (Fig. 67). Body thick, cylindrical, black above 
mouth of Ambystoma with about 14 grayish bars which may be confluent; 
opacum, showing vo- = 
merine teeth (from costal grooves 11; length 95 mm; stall 35 mm; 
Covey. plantar tubercles indistinct; vomerine teeth in 3 
patches: eastern States from central Massachusetts and New York to 
Florida; westward to Missouri and Texas; in relatively dry and often 
sandy locations, under stones and logs. 

A. maculatum (Shaw) (A. punctatum L.). Spotted salamander 

(Fig. 68). Body stout; color black above, with a series of round yellow 


AMPHIBIANS I41 


spots on the side, about 3 being on the head, 8 or 9 on the tail and 8 or 
g on the trunk; length 160 mm.; tail 77 mm.; costal grooves 11; skin 


— aie | 
5 2. bee. 


bees & & 


v7 


Fic. 68.—Ambystoma maculatum (from Fowler). 


Fic. 69.—(Above) Ambystoma tigrinum (from Fowler): (below) head, inside of mouth and 
inner surface of feet of same (from Cope). 

pitted with numerous minute pores which exude a milky secretion: 

eastern and central America from Nova Scotia to Florida; westward to 

Wisconsin, Kansas and Texas. 


I42 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


A. tigrinum (Green). Tiger salamander (Fig. 69). Body 
thick and massive, dark brown in color, with many large rounded 
or irregular yellow spots which may be confluent; length 250 mm.; 
tail 125 mm.; costal grooves 12; vomerine teeth in one long transverse 
band: the entire United States, except New England and the Appa- 
lachian region; the Mexican Plateau; common west of the Appalachians. 
The larva was formally supposed 
occasionally to become sexually 
mature and to breed. 

A. jeffersonianum (Green) (Fig. 
70). Bodylong and slender, brown- 
ish or blackish in color, with pale 
dots which may be wanting; digits 
very long; no plantar tubercles, or 


/ 
‘ 
4 


‘AS 


“AN 
EES 
Ses ae YZ 
Z 


Fic. 70.—Roof of mouth of Ambystoma Fic. 71.—Inside the mouth of Amby- 
jeffersonianum: I, inner nares; 2, vomerine sSioma texanum: I, inner nares; 2, vomerine 
teeth (from Cope). teeth; 3, tongue (from Hay). 


a single indistinct one; length 150 mm.; tail 75 mm.; costal grooves 
12: northeastern States and Canada; northward to Hudson Bay; 
southward and westward to Virginia and Illinois; common northward. 

A. cingulatum Cope. Body slender, black in color, speckled, with 
gray underneath, and a series of narrow gray rings encircling it from 
the eyes to the tip of the tail; head elongate; length 85 mm.; costal 
grooves 14: South Carolina to northern Florida and Alabama. 

A. texanum (Matthes) (A. microstomum Cope) (Fig. 71). Body 
elongate, slender, brown or blackish in color, with numerous grayish 
spots on the sides; limbs weak; digits very long; length 150 mm. tail 65 
mm.; costal grooves 14: central States, Ohio to Texas; often common. 

A. gracile (Baird). Body stout and reddish brown or blackish in 
color, with or without spots; length 180 mm.; tail 102 mm.; costal 
grooves 11; no plantar tubercles; eyes very large; vomerine teeth in 
4 small patches, forming a transverse series: California to British 
Columbia. 

A. macrodactylum Baird (A. stejnegeri Ruthven). Body elongate 
and slender, brownish in color, with a broad lighter dorsal stripe; 


AMPHIBIANS 143 


length 100 mm.; tail 50 mm.; costal grooves 12; vomerine teeth in 3 or 4 
transverse patches; digits very long: northern California to British 
Columbia and eastward into Montana and Iowa. 

A. annulatum Cope. Body slender; tail very long; color dark 
brown above, with about r5 light cross bands, very light beneath; length 
186 mm.; tail 94 mm.; costal grooves 13; tail with 31 grooves; vomerine 
teeth in 2 patches: Aces and Missouri; rare. 

Family 4. Plethodontidz.—Body of medium or small size and 
without gills or gill slits in the adult state, except in certain cave 
dwelling species; parasphenoid and vomerine teeth present (Fig. 72); 
costal grooves 11 to 21; vertebre amphiccelous or opisthoccelous; carpus 
and tarsus cartilaginous; lungs absent; ypsiloid cartilage absent; naso- . 
labial groove present (Fig. 64): about 16 genera and 50 species, all 
American but two, which occur in Italy. These salamanders cannot 
float in water without swimming motions, and are, with few exceptions, 
terrestrial animals, living in shaded, moist localities near or in small 
streams. In several genera the larve are also terrestrial, losing their 
gills before they hatch, or very soon after, and never entering the 
water; the larvee of Desmognathus, however, make for the water, in 
which they live about a year. 


Key to the Genera of Plethodontide 


a; Blind, white, cave-dwelling salamanders. 

bee nault without pills:dn, Missourn:: js a-.c2t a n6 eee Sas 9. Typhlotriton. 

Depa ait witmroillss Ine NExas.. SV ies.s. dus Ae aeta be cunts ses 10. Typhlomolge. 
ay Salamanders which are not blind or white in color. 

b, Tongue attached at its anterior margin. 

c; Hind foot with 5 toes. 
d; Teeth not confined to the front of the jaw. 
e; With a light line running from the eye to the angle 


GiciMenaOULLn a. Ramer RI Ees a ate peel cur GE es 1. Desmognathus. 
e. No such line present. 
i Vomerine teeth absent... .:....0........... 2. Leurognathus, 


f. Vomerine teeth present. 
g, Vomerine teeth continuous with the para- 
sphenoid teeth. . ee ... 8. Stereochilus. 
2 Vomerine teeth peonrared from then para- 
sphenoid teeth. 


h, Palm without plantar tubercles....... 3. Plethodon. 
he Palm with 2 plantar tubercles........ 5. Ensatina. 
d. Front teeth alone present and projecting from the 
BSS PO ENOL tints kts, 4 wea eoe id, ait. a 6. Aneides. 
co Hind foot with 4 toes. 
Peper HeeMSterD States). 7... cnld x aevds nantes on eee 4. Hemidactylium. 


oermenGEE ELC SIOPE: 4.25)... orm aa rae ene bs ws 7. Batrachoseps. 


144 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


by Tongue free at its anterior margin, being attached by 
a central pedicle (Fig. 77). 
c; Toes not webbed. 
d, With a light line running from the eye to the 


MOStrily i sch, bce ea eats ne 11. Gyrinophilus. 
d2 No such line present. 


e; Vomerine teeth continuous with parasphenoid 


teeth: color reds. (vie 22 see oe eae 12. Pseudotriton. 
e2 Vomerine teeth separate from the parasphenoid 
teeth. GRigy 8p). 2 ac Sal aon gta ee 13. Eurycea. 
Gs "oes webbedeictes an eet tas Ce! qe Re Serene 14. Hydromantes. 


1. Desmognathus Baird. Body of medium or small size; tongue 
attached, except by its lateral margins; premaxillaries united; vertebre 
opisthoccelous; vomerine teeth wanting in adult males of some species; 
a light line from the eye to the angle of the mouth: 3 species. 


Key to the Species of Desmognathus 


ay ely: MOUS. tear ovae oe ceccenen corer anct yet eae ene D. fuscus. 

a2 Belly uniformily colored. 
pavbellyablack #41 Metnta tens sangeet Ss tee chee Sara ee D. quadramaculatus. 
bs tBellyaligiit ee # oo sees soo oe Oe ie ie, eee a ep ae D. phoca. 


D. fuscus (Rafinesque) (Fig. 72). Body rather stout, brown above, 
mottled below; length 115 mm.; tail 58 mm.; costal grooves 14; vomerine 
teeth not present in mature males; parasphenoid teeth in 2 separated 
patches: southern Canada to the Gulf; westward to Illinois, Tennessee 
and Louisiana; common. 


Key to the Subspecies of D. fuscus 


a; Semiaquatic forms; tail keeled above. 


bi In the northern, central and eastern states.............. D. f. fuscus. 


be In the South Atlantic and coastal plains................ D. f. auriculatus. 

bs West of the Mississippi. 2-72.52 oe oe ee en ee D. f. brimleyorum. 
a2 Terrestrial forms; tail cylindrical; size small. 

by, Back mottled southern Blue Ridge. yy one eee D. f. carolinensis. 


be. Back with a regular pale stripe: mountains of West Virginia 
fo SNe ww Marke wets fois. vis bees eee cn ee D. f. ochrapheus. 


Subspecies of D. fuscus 


D. f. fuscus (Raf.). Belly light; no spots on the sides: New Bruns- 
wick to Gulf Coast and southeastern Virginia, except in the higher 
mountains. 

D. f. auriculatus (Holbrook). Belly dark; a row of light spots on 


the sides: coastal plain of the Atlantic and Gulf from Virginia to 
Florida. 


AMPHIBIANS 145 


D. f. brimleyorum Stejneger. Body slender and similar to D. f. 
auriculatus in color; belly light; size and teeth similar to D. f. fuscus: 
Oklahoma, Texas and Arkansas; rare. 

D. f. carolinensis Dunn. Belly dark; a tubercle at the anterior 
angle of the eye: West Virginia to Georgia; in the mountains. 

D. f. ochropheus Cope. Body small; tail without keel; color 
variable, with a very dark, broad lateral band; length 94 mm.; tail 


Fic. 72.—Desmognathus fuscus: a, dorsal aspect (from Fowler); b, inside of the mouth: 
I, inner nares; 2, vomerine teeth; 3, parasphenoid teeth; 4, tongue (from Hay). 

46 mm.; costal grooves 14; vomerine teeth absent in adult male; 

parasphenoid patches separated: New York to Georgia; habits 

terrestrial. ; 

D. quadramaculatus (Holbrook). Body large, black above and 
below; length 175 mm.; tail 82 mm.; costal grooves 12 to 14; parasphe- 
noid teeth in 2 patches which are confluent anteriorly; vomerine teeth 
always present: southwest Virginia to northern Georgia, in the moun- 
tains; the most aquatic of the genus. 

D. phoca (Matthes) (Fig. 73). Body large, uniformly colored, 
more or less mottled, with a light belly; tail long; length 135 mm.; 
tail 71 mm.; costal grooves 13 or 14; vomerine teeth always present; 
parasphenoid teeth in 2 patches, confluent anteriorly: Pennsylvania to 
Georgia; in the mountains; common. 


146 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


2. Leurognathus Moore. Body of large size; internal nares very 
inconspicuous and twice as far apart as the nostrils; vertebre opis- 
thoccelous; vomerine teeth absent: 1 species. 

L. marmorata Moore. Body 128 mm. long; tail 53 mm.; para- 
sphenoid teeth in 2 patches which touch anteriorly; costal grooves 
13; tail keeled; color brownish above; belly black in old specimens: 
North Carolina mountains; rare; aquatic. 


Fic. 73.—Desmognathus phoca (from Dunn). 


3. Plethodon Tschudi. Body slender and elongate; tongue 
attached except at its lateral margins; vertebre amphiccelous; premaxil- 
laries separate; parasphenoid and vomerine teeth present, the 2 para- 
sphenoid patches in contact throughout; toes 4-5: about 15 species, all 
American. Both adults and larve are largely terrestrial, living in 
damp places, under stones and logs, the larve in some species losing 
their gills while still in the egg, and never entering the water. The 
eggs are sometimes carried in the mouth of the female. 


Key to the Species of Plethodon 


a; Species occurring east of the Pacific slope. 
b, Color not uniformly plumbeous, and with spots or stripes. 
c; With a broad middorsal red stripe. 


dz ‘Costal grooves 19; stripe straight... =.7...2.2.5,.¢ ee oe P. cinereus. 
ds° Costal. grooves 17; stripe zigzag... ...... 00... 2.252» ol a OnSaes. 
co No such stripe present; costal grooves r4. 
dy Back ‘blackish, dotted with’ white:: .:.:)..a.o2. sees P. glutinosus. 
da. Back xed ‘or chestnut...) 00. 3. bbe he ee P. yonahlossee. 


b. Color uniformly plumbeous. 
c; Body without color markings. 


di Belly mottled; costaligrooves 1G... -.). 9 eee P. cinereus. 
dy» Belly plain. 
eq Costal srouves sas 59 ldsh ot tone ae ene ae ase P. metcalfi. 
Ez" Costal STGOVES*OY we KO «4 te 2 ihe ee eee meen i P. wehrlei. 
ce Body with color markings. 
Gy Legs. Hedi ci ce whalers nb «aioli eae ae ns BIE he ets P. shermani. 


d. With a yellow stripe from eye to gular fold........... P. jordani. 


AMPHIBIANS 147 


ae Species occurring on the Pacific slope. 
b, Digits not webbed. 


re OS GRIME TOOVES AIAG uA he oais(s sss! < 5. sds lave ais, epee mere e) os P. vehiculum. 
GrrGostalperOUves FOr a) ivi. . Navy Ses = See ent P. elongatus. 
ba. Digits; webbed; costal grooves 12 Or 13....52: 00.2 es eae P. vandykei. 


P. cinereus (Green). Red-backed salamander; dusky salamander 
(Fig. 74). Body very slender, cylindrical and elongate, and dark brown 
or dark gray in color with a broad, light reddish stripe running down the 
back, which is sometimes wanting, there being thus two distinct color 
phases; under parts mottled; length 90 mm.; tail 45 mm.; costal grooves 
Ig; vomerine teeth not extending laterally beyond the inner nares: 


Fic. 74.—Plethodon cinereus (from Fowler). 


Canada and States east of the Mississippi; Missouri and Arkansas; 
very common towards the north; both larve and adults terrestrial. 

P. dorsalis Cope. Similar to P. cinereus but with 17 costal grooves, 
and a zigzag dorsal stripe: southern portions of Ohio, Indiana and 
Illinois to Alabama. ; 

P. glutinosus (Green) (Fig. 75). Body rather stout, depressed, 
blackish in color with whitish blotches and dots; 
length 138 mm.; tail 67 mm.; costal grooves 14; 
vomerine teeth extending laterally beyond the inter- 
nal nares: eastern and central States and New York; 
westward to Wisconsin and central Texas; south- 
ward to the Gulf States; terrestrial; common in upland ie 
districts. BIG) Wipe Lve 

: roof of the mouth 

P. yonahlossee Dunn. Similar to P. glutinosus, of Plethodon gluti- 
but with a chestnut red dorsal coloration and with ”°S“ \%70™Punm). 
paired red spots: mountains of North Carolina and southwest 
Virginia. 

P. metcalfi Brimley. Similar to P. glutinosus, but slenderer; color 
plain plumbeous, paler beneath; length 108 mm.; tail 53 mm.; costal 
grooves 14; vomerine teeth in 2 short curved transverse rows: moun- 
tains of North Carolina; often very common. 

P. wehrlet Fowler and Dunn. Similar to P. metcalfi; dorsal surface 
with paired spots; costal grooves 17; toes webbed: central and western 
Pennsylvania, West Virginia and southwest New York. 


148 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


P. shermani Stejneger. Similar to P. metcalfi, but with red legs; 
length 104 mm.; tail 56 mm.; costal grooves 14: western North Carolina. 

P. jordani Blatchley. Similar to P. metcalfi; color black, with 
a red or yellow stripe on the side of the head between the eye and the 
gular fold; legs sometimes dotted with red; costal grooves 14: moun- 
tains of Tennessee and North Carolina. 

P. vehiculum (Cooper) (P. intermedius Baird). Similar to P. 
cinereus in color; length 90 mm.; tail 38 mm.; costal grooves 14: Cali- 
fornia to Vancouver Island. 

P. elongatus Van Denburgh. Similar to P. vehiculum, but with 16 
costal grooves; length 117 mm.; tail 58 mm.: northern California. 

P. vandykei Van Denburgh. Similar to P. intermedius, but stouter 
and with 13 or 14 costal grooves; back clay-colored, dotted with black; 
lower surfaces black; length 116 mm.; tail 56 mm.; toes partly webbed: 
western Washington. 

4. Hemidactylium Tschudi. Like Plethodon, but with 4 toes on 
the hind foot: 1 species. 

H. scutatum (Schlegel). Body small, cylindrical, dark chestnut 
above, white beneath with large black spots; tail with a basal constric- 
tion; length 80 mm.; tail 46 mm.; costal grooves 14: eastern and central 
States and Canada; northward into Massachusetts; westward into 
Michigan, Illinois and Arkansas; southward into the Gulf States; 
terrestrial; locally common. 

5. Ensatina Gray. Similar to Plethodon, but with a basal constric- 
tion of the tail and with 2 plantar tubercles on the palm: 4 species, 1 (E. 
platensis) in Uruguay and Argentina. 

E. eschscholtzi Gray. Body depressed, brown or orange in color; 
tail short and slender; limbs long; length 115 mm.; tail 50 mm.; costal 
grooves 11; parasphenoid patches of teeth diverging posteriorly, con- 
fluent anteriorly: Pacific slope from Los Angeles to Puget Sound. 

E. croceater (Cope). Body large, black in color with large yellow 
dorsal spots; bright orange beneath; costal grooves 13; length 145 mm.; 
tail 87 mm.: southern California. 

6. Aneides Baird. Similar to Plethodon, but differs in that there 
is but one premaxillary and the maxillary and mandibular teeth are few 
in number and confined to the anterior portion of the arch; vomerine 
teeth on a ridge between the internal nares: 4 species. 


Key to the Species of Aneides 
a; On the Pacific slope. 
bi Teeth not flattened;/color black?) 5. . nant ee tees eee A. flairpunctatus. 
be Teeth flattened. 


AMPHIBIANS I49 


Cc; Color brown, not mottled; light below............... 1. lugubris. 
c. Color mottled brown and black; dark below........... A. ferreus. 
PgRhITG Ee -sOULMeASTERM OUALES I: cv.0.%. < sv s. va cutty Meena! 1. eneus. 


A. lugubris (Hallowell). Body light yellow above with yellowish 
spots and yellow beneath; length 75 mm.; tail 35 mm.; snout very 
prominent; eyes bulging; anterior teeth projecting from the closed 
mouth; costal grooves 13: California; common; adults and larve 
terrestrial, the latter being without functional gills. 

A. ferreus (Cope). Body slender, black above, with gray on the 
sides and brown beneath; length 90 mm.; tail 37 mm.; costal grooves 14: 
northern California to British Columbia. 

A. flairpunctatus Strauch (A. iecanus Cope). Body robust, black 
in color, with minute light specks; length 53 mm.; costal grooves 13; 
parasphenoid teeth in a single patch: northern California. 

A. eneus (Cope and Packard). Body rather stout; color dark, 
mottled coppery and black; length 118 mm.; tail 66 mm.; costal grooves 
14: Virginia and West Virginia to Georgia. 

7. Batrachoseps Bonaparte. Similar to Plethodon, but with 4 toes 
on the hind foot and but one premaxillary: 2 species; Pacific slope. 


Key to These Species 


ACK maLeinG han ter SIGeSi acute Maciek sak fet false seams B. attenuatus. 
Basa cmenOrmehver than (heGldes 6 ets cy.sse cine Bin Shei. as lee ke ee B. pacificus. 


B. attenuatus (Eschscholtz). Body slender, with very weak legs and 
a long tail; color brown above and below but darker on the belly and the 
sides; length 111 mm.; tail 64 mm.; costal grooves 19; leg spanning 3 
costal folds; parasphenoid and vomerine teeth in 1 patch each: Pacific 
slope west of the Coast Range from Oregon to Lower California; very 
common. 

B. pacificus (Cope). Body elongate, brown above, yellowish 
beneath; length 70 mm.; tail 37 mm.; costal grooves 18; hind leg 
spanning 6 costal folds; inner digits of both pairs of legs rudimentary: 
southern California. 


Subspecies of B. pacificus 


B. p. pacificus (Cope). Islands off the coast. 

B. p. major Camp. Body large, pale in color, light yellowish 
beneath; hind leg spanning 4 costal folds; costal folds 18; length 134 
mm.; tail 74 mm.: southern California. 


I50 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


8. Stereochilus Cope. Tongue attached at its anterior margin; 
vomerine teeth confluent with parasphenoid teeth; 1 premaxillary: 1 
species. 

S. marginatus (Hallowell). Body slender, yellowish brown in color, 
with numerous brown lines along the sides; belly yellow, specked with 
brown; length 79 mm.; tail 35 mm.; costal grooves 17; tail compressed: 
Dismal Swamp to Georgia; aquatic. 

9. Typhlotriton Stejneger. Body of medium size; tongue attached 
anteriorly; eyes concealed under the skin: 1 species. 

T. speleus Stej. Body white, 120 mm. long; costal grooves 16: in 
caves in Missouri and Kansas. 


Fic. 76.—Roof of mouth of Gyrino- Fic. 77.—Head of Pseudotriton, showing 
philus porphyriticus: I, inner nares; 2, the tongue (after Hurter). 
vomerine teeth; 3, parasphenoid teeth 
(from Cope). 

10. Typhlomolge Stejneger. Body elongate, with very long legs 
and persistent gills; eyes concealed under the skin: 1 species. * 

T. rathbuni Stej. Body white, and with the general structure of a 
sexually mature Eurycea larva; length 102 mm.; length of legs 20 mm.: 

in wells in San Marcos, Texas. 
11. Gyrinophilus Cope. Body elongate; tongue free anteriorly; 
premaxillaries distinct; vomerine teeth continuous with the parasphe- 
noid: 2 species. 

G. porphyriticus (Green) (Fig. 76). Body large and purplish brown 
in color, blotched with gray; belly whitish; length 163 mm.; tail 60 mm.; 
costal grooves 15; eye connected with nostril by a conspicuous light 
colored ridge: northeastern States; common; aquatic. 

G. danielsi (Blatchley). Body elongate; color light chocolate brown 
above, with widely scattered dots of black which are wanting on the 
hinder two-thirds of the tail, light brown beneath; length 160 mm.; 
tail 65 mm.; costal grooves 16: North Carolina to Georgia; Tennessee. 


AMPHIBIANS isi 


12. Pseudotriton Baird (Spelerpes Rafinesque). Body elongate, 
red in color; tail short and compressed; tongue free all round, being 
attached by a slender pedicle only (Fig. 77); but 1 premaxillary; 
vomerine teeth continuous with the parasphenoid (Fig. 78): 2 species. 


Key to the Species of Pseudotriton 


am Actew seat cered.plack spots present’... .45. 0.4. aah ce a cle en eae P. montanus. 
Pom Mian ones Spots ClOSe COREtNEr!:.:. 5. Wiss, tesa. oe a c/o une ace P. ruber. 


P. montanus Baird. Body elongate, cylindrical, brownish salmon 
in color, with a few circular spots; under parts pale salmon; length 140 
mm.; tail 62 mm.; the 2 patches of parasphenoid teeth in contact ante- 
riorly: Pennsylvania to the Gulf. 


Subspecies of P. montanus 


P.m. montanus Baird. Costal grooves 17: Pennsylvania, Virginia 
and Kentucky to Georgia. 

P.m. flavissimus Hallowell. . Costal grooves 16 to 18: Gulf States, 
from Georgia to Louisiana. 

P. ruber (Sonnini). Red salamander (Fig. 78). Body 
rather stout and dark salmon red in color, with numerous 
black spots, very large specimens often showing more black 
than red; length 140 mm.; tail 53 mm.; costal grooves 16: 


Fic. 78.—Pseudotriton ruber (from Fowler): a, roof of mouth (from Dunn). 


eastern States from Maine to Florida; westward to Louisiana, Illinois 
and Wisconsin; very common. 


Subspecies of P. ruber 


P.r. ruber (Sonnini). Spots of adult running together; chin black- 
ish: eastern States; New York and Indiana to northern Georgia and 
Mississippi. 

P. r. schencki (Brimley). Spots of adult separate; chin black: 
mountains of North Carolina. 

P.r.nitidus Dunn. Spots of adult separate; no black on the chin or 
on the hinder half of the tail; length 97 mm.; tail 36 mm.: mountains of 
Virginia and North Carolina. 


T52 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


13. Eurycea Rafinesque. (Spelerpes Rafinesque.) Body elongate, 
mostly yellow or orange in color; tail long and compressed; vomerine 
teeth separate from the parasphenoid (Fig. 80); tongue free all round, 
being attached by a slender pedicle only (Fig. 77): 7 species. 


Key to the Species of Eurycea 


a, Digits on hind leg 5. 
b; Color yellow. 
c; Tail with longitudinal stripes. 


d, Tail with 2 lateral and no dorsal stripes............ E. bislineata. 
d. Tail with 2 lateral and 1 dorsal stripe..............E. guttolineata. 
Go3: Waal pared tra eee ie ah eee nh By esa E. longicauda. 
be’ Color orange: tail spotted... og. -aenn td somes as pee E. lucifuga. 
bs Color black or brown. 
cuiCostal grooves 22~coloriblack4-) jo. ee- cou eee E. melanopleura. 
ce Costal grooves 20; color brown...:..................-E. multiplicata. 
dei DIgiis On indy leggy. oot le eee anys ee ead oe E. quadridigitata. 


E. bislineata (Green) (Fig. 79). Body small, yellow above and below, 
with a dark line along each side of the back; length 72 mm.; tail 40 mm.; 


Fic. 79.—Eurycea bislineata wildere (from Dunn). 


costal grooves 14 or 15; digits very long: northern New England to 
Florida; westward to Lake Superior and Louisiana; very common. 


Subspecies of E. bislineata 


E. b. bislineata (Green). Costal grooves 15: northern New England 
to Indiana; southward to Virginia and Tennessee. 

E. b. cirrigera (Green). Sides dusky, with white dots below the 
lateral band; costal grooves 14; upper lip of male with cirri: North 
Carolina to Louisiana. 

E. b. wildere Dunn. Black lateral line broken or absent on the 
hinder half of tail; male with cirri; costal grooves 15: mountains of 
Virginia and North Carolina. 

E. guttolineata (Holbrook). Body similar to E. bislineata, but with 
a mottled belly and 3 dark dorsal longitudinal lines; length 130 mm.; 
tail 75 mm.; costal grooves 13: Virginia to Georgia; westward to 
Louisiana. 


AMPHIBIANS 153 


E. longicauda (Green). Body slender, with a very long tail and 
bright yellow or reddish in color, with small black spots on the back and 
sides which form bars on the tail, and unspotted underneath; length 
130 mm.; tail 80 mm.; costal grooves 13: Pennsylvania to Tennessee; 
westward to Missouri. 

E. lucifuga Rafinesque (E. maculicauda Cope) (Fig. 80). Body 
slender, elongate, orange in color densely spotted with black; legs very 
long; length 152 mm.; tail 90 mm.: West Virginia to Missouri; north- 
ward into Indiana and Illinois; often in 
caves. 

E. quadridigitata (Holbrook). Dwarf 
salamander. Body small, yellowish 
above, with a dark line running along 
each side of the back; length 82 mm.; 
tail 47 mm.; costal grooves 15; 4 toes’ 
on each foot: North Carolina to Florida; 
westward to Texas. 

E. melanopleura (Cope). Body slen- , Fis. 80.—The roof of the mouth 

4 . of Eurycea lucifuga: 1, inner nares; 
der; tail strongly compressed; sides black 2, vomerine teeth; 3, parasphenoid 
in color, with sparse white spots; a ‘eth Yrom Hay). 
middorsal light line; length 148 mm.; tail 83 mm.; costal grooves 13: 
Missouri, Kansas and Arkansas. 

E. multiplicata (Cope). Body small, brown in color, paler below; 
length 80 mm.; tail 170 mm.; costal grooves 20: Arkansas, Missouri and 
Kansas to New Mexico. 

14. Hydromantes Gistel. Toes webbed; tongue free all round; 2 
premaxillaries present; parasphenoid patches separate: 3 species, 2 in 
Italy. 

H. platycephalus (Camp). Body elongate; tail cylindrical, rather 
short; color dark chocolate, mottled with black; length 106 mm.; 
tail 35 mm.; costal folds 12: Yosemite National Park, California. 


oe 


Vevey oe 
r 


ON THE IDENTIFICATION OF THE LARVE OF THE PLETHODONTIDE 


Aquatic larve are known to occur in the genera Desmognathus, 
Leurognathus, Hemidactylum, Typhlotriton, Typhlomolge (a permanent 
larva), Grinophilus, Pseudotriton and Eurycea; these larval forms have 
all been identified in the eastern and middle western States. They may 
be distinguished from the larve Ambystomide and Pleurodelide which 
inhabit the same region by the presence of a dorsal fin on the body of 
the larva in these two families; also in the Plethodont larva the legs 
develop before hatching. This fin is absent in the larvee of the Plethodon- 


154 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 
tide, except in Hemidactyliwm, in which the larva has an extremely short 
larval life. It is also much smaller than the larva of the Ambystomide 
and the Pleurodelide and has 4 digits on the hind feet. 


Key to the Larve of the Plethodontide (except Hemidactylium) 


a; Blind, white larve; costal grooves 12; legs very 
LONG eine ho ee eae ty ace keel n or Typhlomolge. 
a) Eyes functional; body pigmented; legs normal. 
b, Gills short, glistening white; legs very stout. 
c, Definite color-pattern of light dorsal spots. Desmognathus fuscus. 
ce No definite color-pattern. 
d, Chin and throat light; eyes smaller, 


Tauberalis. ek pater lteta satay soateeye ger etecatces Desmognathus quadramaculatus. 
d, Chin and throat pigmented; eyes 
larger, more dorsal(0:5 5 o/h). Leurognathus marmorata, 


be Gills longer, not glistening white; legs slimmer. 
c: Back and sides the same color. 
d, Sides irregularly streaked............ Stereochilus. 
d. Sides not so streaked. 
e, Chin and throat pigmented; head 
LOMBER Seige ee pee ape es nienks dee exer CROP LUT 
e. Chin and throat not pigmented; 
head shorter. 


PeMGOStA LL ATOOVES One eo clans: Pseudotriton ruber. 
fon Gostall OTOOVES hye fon aos ea ears Pseudotriton montanus. 
{mC OStalweTGOVES Gans eo acy. Typhlotriton. 

Co Back lighter than the sides..............Eurycea. 


d, Digits on hind leg 5. 
e, No sharp demarcation between the 
lighter back and the darker sides; 
a gray band on the sides; 
COStAl SEOOVES EA—L Gn e'cinte wie Eurycea lucifuga. 
e. A sharp and uninterrupted demar- 
cation between the lighter back 
and the darker sides; sides black; 
costal grooves 13-14. : 
f, A definite stripe on side......... Eurycea guttolineata. 
f. No definite stripe on side....... Eurycea longicauda, 
Eurycea melanopleura. 
e; A sharp but broken demarcation 
between the lighter back and the 
darker sides. 


fy Costal prooves TAS15 3. nae. c ae Eurycea bislineata. 
fp \Costalieroovesv2o. ids ot. <ic ene Eurycea multiplicata. 
ds, Digits. on, hindileg age. usu sonjaer are Eurycea quadridigitata. 


Family 5. Amphiumidaz.—Body serpentine in form, with about 
roo vertebre; a pair of small gill slits; vertebrae amphiccelous; carpus 


AMPHIBIANS 15 


nn 


and tarsus cartilaginous; no eyelids; vomerine teeth prominent, forming 
an arched series parallel with those of the jaw; 2 pairs of weak legs; tail 
short, compressed: 1 genus. 

Amphiuma Garden. With the characters of the family: 2 species. 

A. means Gard. Congo snake. Body dark brown above, light 
below; length 886 mm.; tail 182 mm.; 2 toes on each foot; costal grooves 
about 60: Virginia to Florida and westward to Louisiana; in 
swamps, sometimes on the land; eggs about 150 in number and witha 
diameter of 9 mm. 

A. tridactylum Cuvier. Similar to A. means but more distinctly 
bicolored and larger and with 3 toes on each foot: northern Florida 
to southern Louisiana, and up the Mississippi Valley to Missouri. 

Family 6. Proteidz.—Body elongate, with 2 pairs of weak legs, 
each leg having 4 toes; 3 pairs of gills and 2 pairs of gill slits persistent 
throughout life, the animals being permanent larve and completely 
aquatic; pubis with an anterior projection: 2 genera, the species of one 
of which, Proteus, are found in caves in southern Europe, and are blind 
and colorless. 

Necturus Rafinesque. Toes 4 on all four feet; eyes very small: 2 
species. 

N. maculosus (Raf.). Mudpuppy; waterdog. Body subcylindrical; 
head flattened, with a fold of skin across the throat; tail compressed; 
color of adult dark brown above, lighter beneath, more or less spotted 
and splotched with darker brown and black; young striped; length 360 
mm.; tail 110 mm:; extreme length 600 mm.: valleys of the Great Lakes 
and the Mississippi north of the Gulf States; Lake Champlain; Susque- 
hanna River and the upper Hudson; Manitoba; southward into northern 
Alabama and Arkansas; often very common in rivers and lakes. 


Subspecies of N. maculosus 


N.m. maculosus (Raf.). Distribution as above. 

N. m. lewisi Brimley. Size very small: in the Atlantic piedmont 
drainage of the Carolinas. 

N. punctatus (Gibbes). Head short, elevated; length 170 mm.; 
tail so mm.; color pale, unspotted: North and South Carolina, in rivers 
of the coastal plain. 

Suborder 2. Meantes.—Three pairs of gills persistent through- 
out life; maxillaries wanting; vertebre amphiccelous; no hind legs; 
no teeth on the jaws; 2 ossifications in the shoulder girdle: 1 family. 

Family Sirenidz.—Body verye longate, eel-shaped; hind legs 
and pelvis wanting; carpus cartilaginous; 3 pairs of external gills which 


156 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


atrophy in the young and grow again in the adult; 1 or 3 pairs of gill 
slits; eyes very small; 2 patches of teeth on prevomer; premaxillaries 
and mandibles toothless and with horny sheaths: 2 genera and species. 


Key to the Genera of Sirenide 


4; Leg with 4: f0es@.35 2 se.cs Ge Boe ae Se ee ee r. Siren. 
ao Leg with: 3hoess; oe. caso a eee ees 5 a hee 2. Pseudobranchus. 


1. Siren L. Four toes on each leg; 3 pairs of gill-slits present: 1 
species. 

S. lacertina L. Mud eel. Body dark gray above, lighter beneath, 
more or less cylindrical in shape; head flattened; snout truncate; tail 
compressed; lateral grooves 31 to 37; length 700 mm.; tail 240 mm.; 
fore leg 38 mm.: south Atlantic and Gulf States, from District of 
Columbia and central North Carolina to the Rio Grande, and north- 
wards in the valley of the Mississippi to Alton, Illinois and Lafayette, 
Indiana; in swamps; often common. 

2. Pseudobranchus Gray. Three toes on each leg; 1 pair of gill 
slits: I species. 

P. striatus (LeConte). Body light with dark stripes; snout pointed; 
mouth very small; length 150 mm.; tail 65 mm.; fore leg 4 mm.; gills 
often covered by a fold of skin: South Carolina to Florida; in swamps; 
not common. ‘ 

Order 2. Salientia (Anura)—Frogs and toads. Amphibians 
with two pairs of well developed legs and without a tail in the adult 
stage, but with a long tail and weak legs during some stage of the larval 
life (American forms). The body is short and compact, there being in 
most cases nine vertebre, and either no ribs or three very short ones; in 
addition to the vertebre is the wrostyle, a bone which is homologous to 
the caudal vertebree and extends backward from the pelvic girdle. The 
hind legs are usually long and muscular. The head is generally very 
large; the eyes are large and protruding, and the eyelids well developed; 
the tympanum is flush with the surface of the skin. Just behind the eye 
and behind and above the tympanum in the toads is a conspicuous 
raised glandular area called the parotoid gland (Fig. 81). The general 
surface of the skin is glandular, and is either smooth or tubercular and 
warty. The color is often bright, and metachrosis is very general. 
The male, in most forms, has a large vocal sack which opens into the 
mouth by one or two slits in its floor, by means of which it can produce 
a call which is often very loud; they can, however, croak without the aid 
of their vocal sacks, and some species do not have them. The tongus 
is absent in the tropical family Pipid@, but in most of the others it ie 


AMPHIBIANS 157 


on 


well developed and attached in front, the hinder end being free so that 
it can be thrown forward; it is in this manner that the animal captures 
the insects and other small animals on which it feeds. The eggs are 
usually laid in the water and the tadpoles which emerge from them have 
external integumental gills and a swimming tail, but no legs. In the 
metamorphosis which follows, the gills and tail are absorbed, the legs 
and lungs develop, the head and mouth change their: form and rela- 
tive size, and the animal becomes adult and fitted for a terrestrial life. 


Fic. 81.—Upper surface of head of Bufo americanus: 1, cranial crests; 2, tympanum; 
3, parotoid glands (after Surface). 


About 1,600 species of Salientia are known, which occur in all the 
geographical regions of the earth, about 60 species being in the United 
States, grouped in 6 families. 

On the Identification of the Salientia.—The descriptions of frogs 
and toads in this book apply to both adults and larve, and inasmuch as 
the animals in these two stages of development differ radically in 
form and appearance, the descriptions of the two stages are given 
separately. 

1. The Adult.—There is a general uniformity in the shape of the 
body of the various species of frogs and toads, and the most important 
descriptive features are the following; the length in millimeters and 
color of the body, the size and shape of the head, the length of the hind 
legs, the character of the digits, the number of which is four in the 
fore foot and five in the hind, the character of the skin, whether it 
is smooth, tubercular or warty, the presence and character of the paro- 
toid gland, the tympanum and the teeth. For a complete analysis of 


158 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


the main group several internal structures are important—the ribs, 
vertebre, sacrum and pectoral girdle. 


Key to the Families of the Salientia 


ay Ribs present. is uvegal isrsrdinis ne Lie eats on tA ee ee 1. Discoglosside. 
a2 Ribs absent; no anal processes. 
b; Pupil of eye vertical; parotoid glands present..............2. Pelobatide. 
be Pupil of eye horizontal or round. 
cy Parotoid glands present (Fig.81) toads... ...2....J:cee 3. Bufonide. 


co Parotoid glands absent. 
d; Expanded adhesive disks at ends of digits; tree toads 
UBigss BS andySa ive. sat ce aatia ae teak ie ere 4. Hylide. 
dz No such disks present. 
e; Upper jaw with teeth; frogs; waist narrow; legs long.5. Ranide. 
e. Upper jaw without teeth; waist wide; legs short.....6. Microhylide. 


Family 1. Discoglossidz.— Ribs present; vertebra opisthoccelous; 
male with tail-like process; female with short anal tube; tongue with 
but little movement; pelvic girdle arciferous (coracoids and precora- 
coids overlapping midventrally); larve with a midventral spiracle: 
5 genera, 1 in New Zealand, 3 in the Palearctic region and 1 in western 
America. 

Ascaphus Stejneger. Tympanum and Eustachian tube wanting; 
tongue free behind; sternum cartilaginous; maxillary and vomerine 
teeth present; parotoid gland well developed: 1 species. 

A. truei Stej. Color reddish brown or slate gray above, with a few 
blackish markings, and whitish beneath; a black streak from the nostril 
through the eye and along the lower border of the parotoid gland; 
length 40 mm.; length of hind leg 59 mm.: Washington, western 
Montana Oregon and northern California. 

Family 2. Pelobatidz.—Spadefoot toads. Body of medium size; 
head broad and short; eyes prominent; maxillary teeth present; pelvic 
girdle arciferous (coracoids and precoracoids overlapping midventrally) ; 
heel with a prominent spur which is used in digging: 5 genera and 70 
species, in the Nearctic and Palearctic regions; 1 genus in the United 
States. 

Scaphiopus Holbrook. Body toad-like; tympanum present; hind 
feet partly webbed; vomerine teeth present: 3 species, in the United 
States. 


Key to the Species of Scaphiopus 


a; In the eastern and Gulf States; parotoid glands and tympanum 
GISEIDCE «ones Si ots she te ee eee eI ere ae S. holbrookii. 


AMPHIBIANS 159 


ae In the western States; parotoid glands and tympanum indistinct. 
b; In the Pacific States and eastward to Texas and Dakota..... S. hammondit. 
Bs tn Leras:and: along the Mexican border... .202 acim «> S. couchit. 


S. holbrookii (Harlan). Common spadefoot (Fig. 82). Body either 
smooth or covered with small tubercles and brown, yellowish or greenish 
in color, sometimes with a curved yellow line extending back from the 
shoulder; belly dirty white; iris 
golden; length 68 mm.; hind leg 
76 mm.: eastern States from 
Massachusetts to Florida; Gulf e 
States and Texas, and northward ae 
into Arkansas; common, but 
rarely seen because it spends the 
day in a hole in the ground which 
it digs with its hind feet, emerg- 
ing in the night-time to feed. 

S. hammondii Baird. Body 
brown or gray in color, often y 

- = Fic. 82.—a, Left side of the head of the 
with several irregular dorsal spadefoot toad. 6, Hind foot of spadefoot: 1, 
stripes of lighter color; tubercles SP¥t (from Surface). 
with red; throat of male black; length 60 mm.; hind leg 70 mm.: west- 
ern America from the Pacific eastward into Texas and Dakota. 

S. couchii Baird. Body greenish or brownish in color, mottled with 
lighter; belly whitish; dorsal surface with black tubercles, which are 
sometimes yellow on the hinder parts of the back and legs; length 
60 mm.; hind leg 60 mm.: Texas to Arizona. 

Family 3. Bufonidze.—Toes 4-5; pectoral girdle arciferous (cora- 
coids and precoracoids overlapping midventrally); presacral vertebra 
8: about 100 species, in all parts of the world; 4 genera in the United 
States. 


Key to the Genera of the Bufonide 


a; Hind toes webbed; no teeth on upper jaw................1. Bufo. 
a. Hind toes not webbed; teeth on upper jaw; no parotoid 
glands. 
b: Toes without disks; vomerine teeth present...........2. Leptodactylus. 
be Toes with small disks. 
Cavamenneteeth Present... yeeemrser ee oes Ce eee wet 3. Eleutherodactylus. 
Gun oiNaEnerine CeCLh. 2. kee mera Wows ee oa 3 4. Syrrhophus. 


1. Bufo Laurenti—Pupil horizontal; a pair of prominent longi- 
tudinal ridges called the cranial crests lie between the eyes, which pass 
back to or along the parotoid glands (Fig. 81); prominent plantar 


160 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


tubercles often present on the digits; eggs laid in a long chord of jelly 
which is usually deposited on the bottom of some shallow pool: nearly 
100 species; 15 in the United States. 


Key to the United States Species of Bufo 


a; In the States east of the Mississippi. 
b; In the northeastern States. 


SPObascis Sax Eee pa sets eval etek cain ae rere B. americanus. 
co Profile of snout abrupt; back with more than one wart to 
I @! COlOM SPObs thse ee kee et Ae, eee Ce Re B. fowleri. 
~b. In the southern States. 
¢, Cranial crests very prominent (Fig. 85)................. B. terrestris. 
eo Cranial crests nniconspicuous: sacs. ease ce ee ae te B. quercicus. 


ao In the States west of the Mississippi. 
b, In the central western States. 
c;: Belly spotted. 


d; Cranial crests divergent, (Hig8n)4).& +222 4s see B. americanus. 
ds Cranial-crests parallels 25. \ican)cnt acne. ok ee B. hemiophrys. 
co Belbunspotted ae at g ee et Ca oe. cent Renee em eRe B. woodhousit. 


bo In the southwestern States. 
c; Cranial crests absent. 
d, Parotoid glands small, and oval or round. 


evelantar tubercles small). Uso shee eee ee oe B. punctatus. 
e. Plantar tubercles large, with cutting edges.........B. compactilis. 
d> Patotoid:clands large and lome:) 0. sachets we es eee B. debilis. 
c. Cranial crests present. 
d; Cranial crests sharp-edged and high. ...2)....7...... B. valliceps. 
d. Cranial crests thick, confluent between the nostrils....B. cognatus. 
d; Cranial crests curved around the eyes................ B. alvarius. 
b; On the Pacific slope. 
6. With ailight middorsal lines skin rough: .- 4.4.) .960nen B. boreas. 
co Without a light middorsal line; skin very smooth........ B. canorus. 


B. americanus Holbrook. Common toad (Figs. 81 and 83). Body 
heavy and squat and variable in color, being usually gray or yellowish 
brown, more or less mottled or spotted; throat of male black; under 
parts white, spotted; parotoids elongate and reniform; cranial crests 
divergent; length 70 mm.; hind leg 85 mm.; female much larger: North 
America east of the Rockies; northward to Hudson Bay and Great Bear 
Lake. 

B. fowleri Hinckley. Common toad (Fig. 84). Body rather 
slender, greenish or yellowish gray in color, spotted or striped with 
brown; under parts white; throat of male black; parotoids narrow and 
not reniform; cranial crests parallel; length 75 mm.: central New 
England to Georgia; westward to Michigan and Texas. 


AMPHIBIANS 161 


B. terrestris Bonnaterre (Fig. 85). Color dusky, with a pale mid- 
dorsal line and an irregular row of yellowish spots on the flank; belly 
yellowish white; length 70 mm.; cranial crests prominent, each ending 
in a knob: North Carolina to Florida and westward to the Mississippi. 

B. quercicus Holb. Body small, brown in color, with a light 
middorsal line on each side of which are 3 or 4 pairs of black blotches; 
underneath white; length 27 mm.; parotoids long and oval: North 
Carolina to Florida; the smallest species. 


Fic. 83.—Under surface of Bufo americanus (from Dickerson). 


B. hemiophrys Cope. Color brown, with a yellowish middorsal line, 
on each side of which are 2 or 3 rows of brown spots; cranial crests 
parallel; belly spotted; length 60 mm.: North Dakota and Manitoba. 

B. woodhousii Girard (Fig. 86). Color brown, with a pale middorsal 
line and 3 pairs of brown spots; belly yellow; length go mm.; head short, 
with thickened cranial crests posteriorly: Texas to Kansas and Mon- 
tana; westward to Nevada and eastern California. 

B. punctatus Baird and Girard. Body small and slender; color light 
brown above and yellowish white beneath; length 52 mm.; parotoid 
gland small and round: western Texas to southern California. 


ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


162 VERTEBRATE 
Color greenish brown; belly greenish or 


B. compactilis Wiegmann. 
yellowish; length 72 mm.: New Mexico and Arizona. 


r 
| 
| 


oy 
ant e8 
o Beer os 
oo 0% 2 ° 
cA ° Voge O. 
2) 7) oo 0 © © 9S 
Fic. 86.—Upper surface of 


Fic. 85.—Upper surface of 
head of Bufo woodhousei (from 


head of Bufo terrestris (from 
Cope). Cope). 
Similar to B. punctatus but with very large parotoid 


- B. debilis Gir. 
glands, which are elongate and not round; legs with black cross bands: 


AMPHIBIANS 163 


Texas to California; northward into Colorado; southward into Mexico; 
rather common. 

B. valliceps Wieg. Color chestnut brown above, with a dark 
cross band behind the orbits and a dark lateral band; legs cross barred; 
length 85 mm.: Louisiana and Texas. 

B. cognatus Say. Body large, dusky brown in color, with a yellowish 
middorsal line from which project irregular lateral lines to the nght 
and left, giving the back a blotchy appearance; white underneath; 
length 85 mm.; parotoid glands short and wide: western plains from 
Kansas, Nebraska and Texas to south- 
ern California. 


Subspecies of B. cognatus 


B. c. cognatus Say. Wyoming to 
Texas; west to the Rockies. 

B. c. californicus Camp. South- 
western California. 

B. alvarius Gir. Color dark green 
or brown; belly whitish; length 165 

: Fic. 87.—Upper surface of head of 
mm.; parotoid gland a long oval: south- Bu reas arom Coney: 
ern Arizona and California; very rare. 

B. boreas B. and G. (Fig. 87). Body very large, either uniformly 
dusky brown in color with a light middorsal line or with numerous spots 
on a yellow or green ground; white underneath, spotted with black; 
length 124 mm.; parotoid round or oval; no cranial crests: Pacific slope 
from Alaska to Lower California; eastward to Utah; common. 


Subspecies of B. boreas 


B. b. boreas B. and G. Colors dark; web extending to tip of toes: 
northern California to Alaska. 

B. b. halophilus B. and G. Body small, slender; color light brown 
above; web deeply notched, 3 phalanges of fourth toe being free: central 
California to Lower California. 

B. canorus Camp. Coloration dimorphic, the female being irregu- 
larly blotched and the male specked with black; length 69 mm.; hind 
leg 82 mm.; parotoids very large and circular; no cranial crests: Yose- 
mite National Park, California, at elevations above 7,000 feet. 

2. Leptodactylus Fitzinger. Toes without discs; vomerine teeth 
present; also a bony sternal style: many tropical American species; 
I in Texas. 


164 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


L. albilebris (Gunther). A white stripe along the upper jaws; 
dorsolateral ridges present; color obscurely mottled above; toes with 
a dermal fringe; length 35 to 49 mm.: extreme southern Texas. 

3. Eleutherodactylus Duméril & Bibron. Vomerine teeth present; 
body relatively slim; skin smooth or tubercular but not warty; digits 
not webbed; terminal phalanges with a transverse limb which supports 
dermal disk; 3 species in the United States. 

E. latrans (Cope). Skin smooth; color brownish gray, with large 
brown spots; grayish white beneath; length 94 mm.; hind leg 115 mm.; 
pupil horizontal: San Antonio, Texas. 


Fic. 88.—Hind and fore foot of Hyla versicolor Fic. 89.—Hind and fore foot of Acris 
(from Surface). crepitans (from Surface). 


E. ricordit (D. and B.). Skin slightly tubercular; length 25 mm.: 
Florida. 

4. Syrrhophus Cope. Like Eleutherodactylus, but without vomer- 
ine teeth: 2 species in the United States. 

S. marnocki Cope. Color purplish brown, spotted; length 38 mm.; 
hind leg 45 mm.: San Antonio, Texas. 

Family 4. Hylidz.—tTree toads; tree frogs. Small Salientia which 
live in trees, bushes or in dense foliage on the ground and return to the 
water only in the spring time to breed; maxillary and vomerine teeth 
present; no parotoid glands; pelvic girdle arciferous (coracoids and 
precoracoids overlapping midventrally); digits expanded at their tips 
to form glandular disks, the sticky secretion of which assists the animal 
in climbing; front toes sometimes slightly webbed, hind toes usually 
fully webbed; eggs of American species laid in small masses in the water: 
about Igo species, most of which are in the Neotropic region; 23 species 
in the United States, which often show a remarkable metachrosis. 


AMPHIBIANS 165 


Key to the United States Genera of Hylide 


a, Finger and toe disks conspicuous (Fig. 88)................... 1. Ayla. 
a. Finger and toe disks very small (Fig. 80). 
pReLMnGctoes ulhyaweD DetatH me fate iiys a scene ieee.) mine we tae 2. Alcras: 
inva al & Bhavaleitorest ol bked ald nigh (1010120 laletya a ne pe nee rece eee 3. Pseudacris. 


1. Hyla Laurenti. Hind toes webbed; skin smooth in most species; 
belly granulated; pupil round or horizontal: about 14 species in the 
United States. 


Key to the United States Species of Hyla 


a; Eastern species. 
b; Fingers webbed at the base. 
CePA wiiiessno MmNnGer the CYC... ....o0oraae ease ie aeons ea H. versicolor. 
erevonwbiterspouunder the eye. s..0.>..0. 5.50% sabia egies ae H. femoralis. 
bo Fingers not webbed. 
c, Color bright green; no dorsal markings. 


GeO carkeclanertiniAarkIngs «0! ore. wo Rupe de inte 8 H. cinerea. 
Clam Weiblae ce Came TUL GEL DAME... ¢ saad a. nSisc ciie-rn teeters iene apa e H. andersonit. 
c2 Brownish, dorsal markings present. 
dgearve circular Uatk, dots :abDOVEe Ms lvoe ...2 cele ene esee « H. gratiosa. 
dy Small, irregular markings above. 
SW this didacke wom therbacks © 3 you cree ey peta, os oe H. crucifer. 


e2 With the spots on the back elongate and in lines. ...H. squirella. 
a2 Western species. 


b, With a large white spot below the eye; fingers webbed........ H. baudinii. 
bs No spot below the eye; fingers free; size medium to small. 
CrP VANE ARS WOLS DOVES fc. b na cise antigen Deve eee nets iene > H. arenicolor. 
Coma MelimennMmALkINes ADOMESn. ccc Stele oe sas oe bore ee H. regilla. 


H. versicolor LeConte. Common tree toad (Fig. 88 and go), 
Body rather stout, with a rough, warty skin and very variable in color, 
varying from white or gray to deep brown or bright green and more or 
less mottled, with usually an oblique dark band above and a light spot 
beneath each eye and a large dark irregularly star-shaped patch on 
the back between the fore legs; length 50 mm.; hind leg 80 mm.: North 
America, west to Minnesota, Kansas and Texas; northward to southern 
Canada; southward into the Gulf States. 

H. crucifer Wied (H. pickeringii Storer). Spring peeper (Fig. 91). 
Body small and delicate and varying in color from deep brown to yellow, 
reddish, green or gray, with an oblique cross-shaped mark on the back 
and usually a V-shaped mark between the eyes; length 28 mm.; hind 
leg 45 mm.: eastern and central America; northward to New Brunswick; 
westward to Manitoba; southward to Georgia, Louisiana and Kansas; 


166 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


the earliest frog to make its appearance in the spring; usually found on 
or near the ground. 

H. squirella Latreille. Body small, green or brown in color with 
or without spots; a dark line runs from the nostril to the eye and 
a light line along the jaw and under the eye to the shoulder; length 
30 mm.: Virginia to Florida; westward 
to Texas and northward to Indiana. 

H.andersonii. Baird. Body small, 
unspotted bright green in color edged 
on the sides of the body by a band of 
white; gray beneath; length 40 mm.: 
New Jersey to South Carolina; rare. 


1s OPE (aca 


Fic. 90.—Hyla_ versicolor (from Fic. 91.—Hyla cructfer (from 
Dickerson). Park Museum Bulletin). 


H. cinerea (Schneider). Body slender, dark brownish green, bright 
green or greenish yellow in color, with or without a conspicuous white 
or yellowish band along each side; length 45 mm.; legs very long: 
Maryland to Florida; the Gulf States and up the valley of the Missis- 
sippi to Illinois; common. 


Subspecies of H. cinerea 


H. c. cinerea (Schneider). With a light stripe along the side: 
Dismal Swamp, south and west. 

H. c. evittata Miller. Without a light stripe: Chesapeake Bay, on 
tidal flats, on aquatic vegetation; abundant. 

H. gratiosa LeC. Body very large; skin of back granulated or 
glandular; color green or brown, entire back generally covered with 
large spots; length 60 mm.: South Carolina to Florida and Louisiana. 

H. baudinii Duméril & Bibron. Body large, very dark brown, 
green or gray in color, without spots when the shade is light or dark, 
but otherwise with a broad mark extending from between the eyes to 
the middle of the back; length 55 mm.: southwestern Texas. 

H. femoralis Lat. Body small, and brown or gray in color, with a 
triangular spot between the eyes and a large irregular blotch on the back 


AMPHIBIANS 167 


and also a dark line on each side of the body; length 35 mm.: southeast 
Virginia to Florida; the Gulf States; in pine trees. 

H. arenicolor Cope. Body robust, gray in color with or without two 
or three rows of round brown spots on the back; length 42 mm.; skin 
rough; fingers not webbed: southwestern States from Texas and Utah 
into southern California. 

H. regilla Baird and Girard. Pacific tree frog. Body small, and 
gray, green, brown or red in color, with a wide black band from the nos- 
tril through the eye to the shoulder; either without markings or with 
elongated black blotches on the back and a V-shaped spot on the head; 
length 53 mm.: Pacific slope from Vancouver Island to Cape St. 
Lucas; Idaho, Nevada, Arizona; ranging from sea level to 10,000 feet 
elevation; in low bushes, trees, moist places on the ground, and in 
burrows of animals. 

2. Acris Duméril and Bibron. Similar to Hyla, 
except that the digital disks are minute; hind toes 
webbed: 7 species. 

A. crepitans Baird (A. gryllus Le Conte). Cricket 
frog (Figs. 89 and 92). Body small, with a warty skin i 
and variable in color, being some shade of brown or py. See 
gray with a black triangular patch between the eyes, the ““ePians (from Park 

i s , i Museum Bulletin). 
apex of which is directed backwards, and usually 2 or 3 
oblique spots on each side of the back; eyes orange; length 25 mm.; hind 
legs 40 mm.; toes webbed; a fold of skin over the tympanum and one 
across the breast: eastern and central America; northward to southern 
New York and Connecticut; westward to Texas and Dakota; a diurnal 
frog which lives in the grass and near marshy places, but not in trees. 

3. Pseudacris Fitzinger (Chrophilus Baird). Swamp cricket frogs. 
Similar to Hyla, but without webs between the toes or very short ones, 
and with very small digital disks: 7 species and subspecies. 


Key to the Species of Pseudacris 


a; Size larger; dorsal markings present. 


by AX median stripe Or row Of SpotsS:........-...--..2-0+++-+ ak. WOSPiE, 
bz No median stripe or row of spots. . 
c; In the Appalachian area. Ste sais dio dy «.ccidl eee e e e BONEG 
co In the southwestern states. aa ao fits alkts ak we OF ONO, 
a2 Size very small; a black stripe Phconehs foo eye; no dorsal 
INES ILS pot pag ns) 5,0, kd ah aie onee ern. hoe oo a bie ae Ra S P. ocularis. 


P. nigrita (LeConte). Body coarsely granulated above and beneath, 
with a narrow, pointed head and long legs; color varying from black to 


168 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


salmon, with 3 dark dorsal stripes or rows of spots; length 30 mm.: 
eastern and central States. 


Subspecies of P. nigrita 


P. n. nigrita (LeConte). Spots outlined with lighter: North 
Carolina to Mississippi. 

P. n. feriarum (Baird). Color greenish brown or gray, creamy 
underneath; legs longer; hind leg 40 mm. long: Virginia to New York, 
east of the mountains. 

P.n. triseriata (Wied). Legs shorter; color light ash, usually with 
5 or 6 brown stripes: central States, from the Alleghenies to Arizona 
and Idaho. 

P. brachyphona (Cope). A black triangle present between the eyes, 
and a black band through each eye; 2 broad curved dorsal stripes; 
length 30 mm.: Pennsylvania to Tennessee, in the mountains. 

P. ornata (Holbrook). Body smooth, gray, green or reddish brown 
in color, with or without elongated dark spots and with a black band on 
each side of the body; several bright yellow spots on the sides pos- 
teriorly; length 35 mm.: Florida and South Carolina to Texas. 

P. ocularis (Holb.). Color chestnut, with a dark stripe through the 
eye; length 17 mm.; upper jaw edged with white: South Carolina and 
Georgia; the smallest American tree toad. 

Family 5. Ranidze.—Frogs. Medium sized or large Salientia; 
skin smooth; maxillary and usually vomerine teeth present; pectoral 
girdle firmisternal (coracoids and precoracoids do not overlap mid- 
ventrally) ; sacral transverse processes cylindrical; toes 4~5; no parotoid 
glands: about 270 species, in all the geographical regions, four-fifths of 
which are in Africa and India; 1 genus and about 15 species in the 
United States. 

Rana L. Toes webbed; fingers not webbed; first finger of male 
swollen, especially in the spring at breeding time; vomerine teeth pres- 
ent; a pair of conspicuous dorso-lateral glandular ridges (Figs. 93, 94 and 
95) run the length of the back in most species: about 120 species, 
widely distributed throughout the world; 15 species in the United States, 
mostly diurnal and more or less terrestrial animals which live in moist 
situations on the ground near the water, to which they return to breed, 
and often also, when alarmed, for protection. The eggs are laid in the 
water in large jelly masses attached usually to sticks or vegetation. 
The tadpoles usually complete their metamorphosis the year in which 
they are born, but the green-frog and the bullfrog do not become adult 
until the following, or in many cases, the second year. The principal 


AMPHIBIANS 169 


food of frogs is insects, worms and snails. Frogs have a considerable 
economic importance in consequence of the demand for the hind legs for 
food, large quantities of which appear in the fish markets of the large 
cities. 


Key to the United States Species of Rana 


a; In the States east of the Sierra Nevadas. 
b; Dorso-lateral ridges present (Fig. 95). 
c; With conspicuous rounded, elongate or squarish spots 
between the dorso-lateral ridges. 
d, Skin smooth, with usually 2 rows of spots between the 
dorso-lateral folds. 
e, Spots rounded or elongate; color tone of body 


POETS sires tein ee ENS hice Reh Td chow aot R. pipiens. 
e. Spots squarish; color tone of body brown....... R. palustris. 
d. Skin warty; numerous spots on the back and sides. 
e, Total length three times the length of head..... R. areolata. 
e> Total length two and a half times the length of 
| SG Ele gar ER tan aes CO rae ede EL ee R. @sopus. 
co Without large spots on the back. 
dmbaree aguatictrogs- head Sreeni ni oct Nive ek R. clamitans. 


d. Small wood-frogs; head brown. 
e; Length of leg to the heel exceeds total length of 


| S10) ONS ce os RRR Ee SY gig Mal Oe Re a ee R. sylvatica. 
eo Length of leg to the heel less than or equal to total 
HenieiwOlaD Ody emus epic erie ie it tet cxaen aa R. cantabrigensis. 
be Dorso-lateral ridges absent. 
c: Very large frogs, upwards of 200 mm. long............R. catesbeiana. 


co Smaller, medium sized frogs, under too mm. long. 
d, In the northern and eastern States. 


CA Cke 0 GEG Steere ee, eM epee R. septentrionalis. 
e, Backsplain; not mottled........:.......2/..2.;.R.. virgatipes. 
pip hisENenCamile SEALES) 835 Aap: Sas Se loieo Soaueyes Hane sts R. gryilo. 


a2 On the Pacific slope and in the Rocky Mountain region. 
b; Dorsolateral ridges distinct the full length of the body. 
c, A dark cheek patch present. 
d,; Cheek patch brown; white stripe from the snout to 


ive: Siakegsi eles STG aces Siete nak ga rr R. pretiosa. 
d,. Cheek patch black; white stripe from the eye to the 
STS hE emer OAS. RUS ee a R. aurora. 
Gre UO ela rie CHECK PACU ey fee eile OIE eine ele ce pe - ooo enc msegele R. onca 
be Dorsolateral ridges absent or indistinct or broken.......... R. boylii. 


R. pipiens Schreber. Leopard frog (Fig. 93). Body green, gray or 
brown above with light-colored dorso-lateral ridges, between which are 
1 to 3 irregular rows of elongate or rounded dark spots, each edged with 
yellow or white; similar spots on the flanks and legs; belly white; length 


170 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


go mm.; hind leg 150 mm.: North America, east of Sierras; absent from 
much of the Appalachian and piedmont regions; southward into Mexico; 
the commonest frog; in ponds, marshes and meadows, often at a con- 
siderable distance from water. 

R. palustris LeConte. Pickerel frog (Fig. 94). Body pale brown 
above, with 2 light dorso-lateral ridges, between which are 2 rows of 


Fic. 93.—Rana pipiens (from Park Fic. 94.—Rana palustris (from Park 
Museum Bulletin). _ Museum Bulletin). 

large squarish or rounded spots; the sides and legs with similar spots; 
beneath white in front and yellowish behind; length 70 mm.; leg 115 
mm.: North America, from the Atlantic to Wisconsin, Kansas and 
Louisiana in small streams and ponds or in adjacent meadows. 

R. clamitans Latreille. Green-frog; spring-frog. Body large, 
usually green on the head and shoulders and brown posteriorly, and 


Fic. 95.—Rana sylvatica (from Dickerson). 


with small irregular spots; dorso-lateral ridges light; sides and legs with 
dark bars and spots; throat of male yellow, of female white; belly 
white; length roo mm.; hind leg 150 mm.: America, from the Atlantic 
to the Great Plains; common in ponds and streams; except the bullfrog, 
the most aquatic and the largest frog; development of tadpole com- 
pleted in the second summer. 


AMPHIBIANS 171 


R. catesbeiana Shaw. Bullfrog. Body very large, green or greenish 
brown in color, being usually greener on the head and shoulders than 
more posteriorly; legs spotted or barred; beneath white; length 200 mm.; 
hind leg 250 mm.: America from the Atlantic to the Rockies, in ponds 
and streams; the largest and most aquatic frog, apparently rarely 
leaving the water; development of tadpole completed in the second or 
third summer; often common. 

R. sylvatica LeC. Wood-frog (Fig. 95). Body small and slender, 
with long hind legs, and brown or faun color, often with a yellowish or 
reddish tone; a wide dark bank on the ear passing forward to the eye, 
and in some cases to the snout, and backward to the shoulder; legs 


Fic. 96.—Rana areolata (from Dickerson). 


often barred; dorso-lateral ridges light; length 48 mm.; hind leg 86 mm.: 
America from the Atlantic to the Great Plains; southward to South 
Carolina; northward to Quebec; common in the east; rare in the west; 
the least aquatic of the frogs, being found usually in damp woods. 

R. areolata Baird & Girard (Fig. 96). Body brown or olive in color, 
mottled or speckled with lighter and covered with rounded dark spots; 
skin rough and warty; length 75 mm:; hind leg 150 mm.: Texas, and 
northward in the Valley of the Mississippi into Ilinois and Indiana. 

R. @sopus Cope. Gopher frog. Body short and squat, with a very 
large head; color gray or brown, with large black spots on the back and 
side; length 62 mm.; hind leg 74 mm.: South Carolina to Florida and 
Louisiana; often hiding in holes in the ground. 

R. cantabrigensis Baird. Body small and similar to R. sylvatica 
in size and coloration, but with shorter legs; length 52 mm.; hind leg 
70 mm.:northern North America from Michigan to Alaska and Hudson 
Bay; habits similar to those of R. sylvatica. 


172 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


R. septentrionalis Baird. Mink frog. Body small, rather stout, 
light olive in color with mottlings of darker; legs blotched or banded; 
belly light yellow; length 56 mm.; hind leg 97 mm.: Canada; northern 
New England to Minnesota. 

R. virgatipes Cope. Body small, with short legs and large ear and 
eye; color brown, with 4 narrow longitudinal stripes; throat yellow; 
sides yellowish brown, with large spots; belly white, spotted with brown; 
length 55 mm.: in pine barrens, New Jersey to Georgia. 

R. grylio Stejneger. Body large, green in color in front and olive 
behind, with many irregular black spots; beneath light, unspotted 
except posteriorly; length 125 mm.; tympanum large: Georgia and 
Florida to Louisiana. ; 

R. aurora B. and G. Body brown, yellowish or olive in color, often 
with numerous small darker spots; sides and hind legs reddish orange; 
belly light, mottled; skin smooth; length 75 mm.; hind leg 125 mm.: 
Pacific slope from Lower California to Vancouver Island; common 
towards the north. 


Subspecies of R. aurora 


R. a. aurora (B. and G.). Skin smooth: northern forms. 

R. a. draytoni (B. and G.). Skin rough: southern forms. 

R. onca Cope. Body rather small, green or brownish in color, with 
several irregular rows of dark spots on the back and sides; belly white; 
length 60 mm.; legs short; skin smooth: Utah and Nevada. 

R. boylii B.andG. Bodysmall, witha warty skin and very long legs; 
color brown, olive or red, with obscure round brown spots; beneath 
white anteriorly, yellow posteriorly; dorso-lateral ridges broad and 
inconspicuous; length 45 mm.; hind leg 75 mm.: California and Oregon; 
terrestrial. 


Subspecies of R. boylir 


R. b. boylii Baird. A light patch on the forehead: southwestern 
Oregon and California. 

R. b. mucosa Camp. Size large; ground color yellow or light brown; 
no light patch on the forehead: in the mountains of southern California. 

R. b. sierre Camp. No light patch on the head; head narrow; hind 
leg short: southern Sierra Nevadas. 

R. pretiosa (B. and G.). Body large, yellowish or reddish brown in 
color with 2 rows of irregular black spots between the dorso-lateral 
ridges; beneath light, marbled with gray; flanks and under surface of 


AMPHIBIANS 173 


legs red; length 75 mm-: Montana and Utah, and westward to the 
Pacific coast; common; entirely aquatic. 

Family 6. Microhylidz.—Narrow-mouthed toads. Head nar- 
row and pointed; mouth small; no maxillary or mandibular teeth; 
pelvic girdle firmisternal (coracoids and precoracoids fused midven- 
trally) tropical toads with 4 species and 2 genera in the United States. 


Key to the United States Genera of Microhylidz 


MOOK mNIUNOme Small tMOerGle. ven ..c.:s sncleier. cers ss: shake.’ Gee ceaenes t. Microhyla. 
do POOL WALA: EWO TARDE CUDERCLES. fc does scccv Shs ns oa nupee ou en ee BO POCHUS. 


1. Microhyla Tschudi (Gastrophyne Fitzinger). Head very narrow 
and pointed, much narrower than the body; skin smooth or glandular, but 
not warty: 3 United States species. 

M. carolinensis (Holbrook) 
(Fig. 97). Size very small; body 
stout; color dark brown to gray, 
with two reddish dorso-lateral 
stripes bordered by dark brown; 
back and sides speckled with 
black; length 25 mm.; hind leg 28 
mm.: Virginia to Florida, and 
westward to Texas; northward in 
the Mississippi Valley to southern 
Indiana. 

M. areolata (Strecker). Color 
light gray above, marbled with 
brown; under surface light gray, 
with closely placed pale spots; skin | | 
of back highly glandular; length Fic. 97.-—Microhyla carolinensis (from 

Dickerson). 
22 mm.: southeastern Texas. 

M. olivacea (Hallowell) (G. texensis Girard). Color gray or brown- 
ish above, speckled or spotted with black spots tending to form longi- 
tudinal rows; skin of back smooth: Texas, New Mexico, Oklahoma, 
Kansas. 

2. Hypopachus Keferstein. Head small; body large; limbs short; 
no vomerine teeth: 6 species. 

H. cuneus Cope. Color light brown or grayish brown, sometimes 
tinged with olive, with a pale median vertebral line; length 41 mm.; 
hind leg 46 mm.: southwestern Texas. 

2. The Eggs and Larve. In the identification of the freshly laid 
egg-masses of frogs and toads the first feature to be examined is the form 


174 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


and condition of the jelly in which the eggs are imbedded and its location 
in the water; the time of the year when the eggs are found is also of 
importance, whether in the early spring, the later spring or the summer. 
The egg is a spherical body ranging from o.g mm. to 2.4 mm. in diam- 
eter, in the different species, which has two distinct surfaces, the dark, 
pigmented upper surface, or animal pole, and the white or yellow under 
surface, or vegital pole; the pigmented portion is much the larger in 
extent. The egg is surrounded immediately by a spherical envelope of 
jelly, inside of which and next to the egg is, in most species, a second or 
inner envelope. 


Key to the Eggs of some of the common Eastern Frogs and Toads 


a, Eggs laid in a single row within a long spiral chord of jelly 
which lies on the bottom or is looped around plants or 
sticks; diameter of chord 3.4 to 4 mm.; number of eggs 
4,000 to 7,000; season of egg laying April, May and June. Bufo americanus. 
a» Eggs laid in a mass or singly. 
b, Eggs laid in a firm consistant mass around sticks, twigs, 
etc., or free, and usually near the surface of the water. 
c, Inner jelly envelope of egg small and distinct. 
d, Vegital pole of egg yellow; animal pole brown; 
egg mass globular; season of egg laying April 
and first half of May; number of eggs 2,000 to 
OA os Pee ate RIS Renee A lune Berke eee ie Pano Rana palustris. 
dy Vegital pole of egg white; animal pole brown; 
egg mass elongate; season of egg laying latter 
part of March to middle of May; number of 
ERPSUs ROO LOM SOO ie wats Jace vey ser aie Rana pipiens. 
co Inner jelly envelope of egg large and indistinct, or 
apparently absent; vegital pole of egg white; ani- 
mal pole black; egg mass globular; season of egg 
laying middle of March to end of April; number 
OPEL ES 2000 TO 1F2000 7.8 Sana abene aie eee Rana sylvatica. 
bs Eggs laid in large loose masses or in small bunches or 
singly. 
c, Eggs laid in large loose masses at or near the surface 
of the water; vegital pole of egg white; animal pole 
black. 
d, Eggs laid usually in one continuous film, one or 
two eggs thick, on the surface of the water, 
among plants; season of egg laying latter part 
of May to middle of August; inner jelly enve- 
lope of egg distinct, elliptical in shape; number 
Of EB 9s 3,510 A,0007 ra ie eee Rana clamitans. 
d. Eggs laid either in a wide film or in an irregular 
mass attached to vegitation or to sticks; season 


AMPHIBIANS 175 


of egg laying middle of June to middle of July; 
no individual jelly envelope to egg; number of 
EG RGni2 OOOMLO 2O;0OO weiss 'y'ss cae oe eee Rana catesbeiana. 
co Eggs laid in small bunches or singly. 
d, Egg with 2 jelly envelopes, the inner one distinct; 
vegital pole of egg yellowish or cream; eggs 
laid in small bunches (4 to 25) on surface of 
water either attached or free; season of egg 
laying middle of May to middle of June; num- 
WEE Gh Eres 1, SOOO 2,000), sensei tiy Hosta atewaes Hyla versicolor. 
d. Egg with but one jelly envelope; vegital pole of 
egg white. 
e; Eggs laid in bunches (20 to 100) attached to 
sticks and grass beneath the surface of the 
water; season of egg laying middle of March 
to middle of April; number of eggs 500 to 
BOGE ee ate Gin Mle Soca ee 8 Pseudacris triseriatus. 
eo Eggs laid singly or in small bunches (4 to 12) 
attached to grass beneath the surface of the 
water; season of egg laying middle of March 
to May; number of eggs 800 to 1,000...... Hyla crucifer. 


In the identification of the well-grown tadpoles the features to be 
first noticed are the relative size and color of the body and the relative 
size and color of the tail. The position of the spiracle, through which 
the respiratory water is discharged, the position of the anus and the 
number of rows of labial teeth, which are situated above and below the 
mouth, are also important. 


Key to the Tadpoles of some of the common Eastern Frogs and Toads 


ai Anus median; spiracle sinistral; tail cloudy, translucent, 
rounded at the end; belly very dark, iridescent; greatest 
IRE one a0 0 a ae eine ie a ey Goa at ea DENN oa A Bufo americanus. 
a2 Anus dextral; spiracle sinistral; greatest length over 30 mm. 
b; Eyes lateral in position, being visible from the ventral as 
well as from the dorsal aspect of the body; upper caudal 
crest extends almost to the eyes. 
c, Tail covered with black blotches and scarlet or ver- 


malonin, Colors belly. whites wer. Meee re ee Hyla versicolor. 
c. Tail heavily pigmented with black blotches on the outer 
Bages; belly cream, IrideSCemin weetne, eat ie). <n e s/ox Hyla crucifer. 


by Eyes dorsal in position; upper caudal crest not extending 
beyond the spiracle. 
c, Labial teeth, 3 or 4 rows above the mouth and 4 rows 
below it; a creamy line along the upper jaw region; 
belly pinkish; greatest length 47 mm............... Rana sylvatica. 
C2 Labial teeth, 2 or 3 rows above the mouth and 3 rows 
below it. 


VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


dj Tail spotted with black; belly straw color, not irides- 


cent; greatest lenieth’ 14/5: names. cee ype ee Rana catesbeiana. 
d, Tail greenish, mottled with brown; belly cream 
color; greatest length'S4) miei, oe eee eee Rana clamitans. 


ds; Caudal crest very dark purplish black, mottled; 

belly conspicuously iridescent; greatest length 

SA HANIA To pee ded eat oe vas ete Re en ee Rana palustris. 
d; Caudal crest very light, translucent, with a few 

scattered dots; belly deep cream with a bronzy 

iridescence; greatest length 84 mm.............. Rana pipiens. 


CLASS 3. REPTILES (Reptilia) * 


The reptiles are cold-blooded vertebrates whose bodies are covered 
with horny scales or plates, and which have claws on their digits. The 
legs are well developed, when present, and are often adapted for rapid 
running, but they do not usually support the body above the ground 
except during locomotion. Respiration is always pulmonary. The 
skeleton, including the skull, is well developed and ossified, the skull 
articulating by a single condyle. The eggs are large and are usually laid 
on or in the ground, even when the animals are aquatic, although many 
species are Ovoviviparous, and the embryo is meroblastic and provided 
with an amnion and allantois; the young animals resemble the parents, 
when born, there being no postnatal metamorphosis. 

History.—The cold-blooded, egg-laying quadrupeds were named 
Amphibia by Linneus, and subdivided into two orders, the Serpentia 
and Re piilia, the latter order including turtles, frogs and lizards. Opin- 
ion fluctuated as to the exact relation existing between amphibians 
and reptiles for almost a century, although Blainville as early as 1816 
correctly defined them, until near the middle of the last century the 
anatomical and embryological studies of Johannes Miiller, Gegenbaur 
and others definitely established the two groups as distinct and equiva- 
lent classes. 

The foundation of our knowledge of American reptiles was laid 
principally by John Edward Holbrook, Spencer F. Baird and Edward 
D. Cope, the work of Cope on The Crocodilians, Lizards and Snakes 
of North America being the most important single one on the subject; 
in more recent times the works of Leonhard Stejneger have been very 
important. 

Number of Species and Distribution.—About 5,500 species of 
reptiles are known at the present time, most of which live in the warmer 
regions of the world. There are no reptiles in Arctic regions, and but 
few in the colder portions of the Temperate zone. About 300 species 
are known in the United States, which are grouped in 4 orders. 


Key to the Orders of Reptiles 
a; Jaws with teeth. 
bi Teeth set in alveoli; anus a longitudinal slit.........1. Crocodilia (p. 178). 


* Revised by Dr. E. R. Dunn. 


177 


178 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


bo Teeth not set in alveoli; anus a transverse slit. 
c, Two pairs of limbs present (rarely absent); eyelids, 
external ear-opening and tympanum usually present; 


lizards .:....234:.N% act ghee ee 2. Lacertilia (p. 179). 
co Limbs absent; eyelids, external ear-opening and tym- 
panum absent; snakes: =<... 2.6 ene 3. Serpentes (p. 196). 
ao Jaws without\teeth: turtles... cae. 2. see ee eee 4. Testudinata (p. 225). 


Order1. Crocodilia.—The crocodiles and alligators are elongated, 
aquatic reptiles of large size, whose bodies are covered with scales and 
plates and which have two pairs of short legs and a laterally compressed 
tail. There are five digits on the fore leg and four on the hind leg, the 
latter being webbed and the former usually so. Only the three inner 
digits of each foot have claws. The scales are arranged in transverse 
rows, the dorsal ones having high keels and being supported beneath by 
corresponding plates of dermal bone. The head is compactly built; 
the quadrate bone is immovable and the palate is bony. The jaws are 
powerful and the teeth are set in alveoli. The tympanum is exposed, 
but is protected by a movable fold of the skin. The nostrils lie close 
together and each can be closed by a valve. The eye has an upper 
and a lower lid and a nictitating membrane. The order contains a 
single family. 

Habits and Distribution—The Crocodilia live in streams and 
ponds in the warmer parts of the earth. The American crocodile and 
the marine crocodile of the East Indies also enter salt water, and may be 
found far from land. All are carnivorous and feed on all kinds of verte- 
brate animals. They are oviparous, the eggs, which have a hard shell 
and somewhat resemble goose eggs, being laid in large nests, where they 
are guarded by the female while the sun incubates them. Most species 
hibernate or estivate in the mud for two or three months or more each 
year. ; 

Family Crocodylidze.—With the characters of the order: about 8 
genera and 25 species, of which 2 genera and species occur in the United 
States. 


Key to the Genera of United States Crocodilia 


a; Snout broad (Fig. 98), the closed mouth not showing the fourth 
mandibular tooth acid ontuteor eee os utes Saree 1. Alligator. 
a2 Snout pointed; fourth mandibular tooth exposed............... 2. Crocodylus. 


1. Alligator Cuvier (Fig. 98). Head broad; snout blunt; fourth 
mandibular tooth fits into a pit in the upper jaw; nasal aperture sepa- 
rated by a bony septum: 2 species, one in the Yang-tse-kiang, China. 


REPTILES 179 


A. mississippiensis (Daudin). Alligator. Body from 2 to 5 m. 
long, of which half is the tail; weight up to 500 lbs.; color dark brown 
or blackish, lighter or blotched on the sides and beneath; 19 to 20 teeth 
on each side of each jaw: North Carolina to the Gulf and westward to 
the Rio Grande; in the Mississippi as far north as Rodney, Miss.; 
20 to 40 eggs in a nest, which hatch in about 2 months. The alligator 
has a loud voice, which can be heard a mile or more. ~ 


Fic. 98.—Heads of American alligator and American crocodile; alligator on left (from Reese 
after Ditmars). 


2. Crocodylus Laurenti (Fig. 98). Head long and pointed; fourth 
mandibular tooth fits into a notch in the upper jaw and is exposed when 
the mouth is closed; nasal aperture not divided: 8 species, in America, 
Africa, Asia and Australia. Of these the Nile crocodile, C. niloticus, 
which may attain a length of 6 m., is the best known; the marine croco- 
dile, C. porosus, which is found from India to Australia, is the largest 
species, attaining a length of 10 m. 

C. acutus Cuvier. Body up to 7 m. long and slender; average 
adult length 3.5 m.; color olive green or gray: southern Florida and the 
greater Antilles, except Porto Rico, to Ecuador; in salt marshes; not 
common. 

Order 2. Lacertilia (Sauria). Lizards. Elongated reptiles 
whose bodies are covered with scales, and with usually two pairs of 


180 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


pentadactyle limbs and a transverse anal opening. The head is of 
firmer structure than in the snakes, the two halves of the lower jaw 
being immovably bound together and the upper jaw being firmly joined 
with the cranium; the quadrate bone is, however, movable as in the 
snakes. The tympanum is not at the surface, and the ear-opening is 
often protected by special scales. The eye has a upper and a lower lid 
and a nictitating membrane. Most lizards possess the vestiges of a 
pineal eye, which often appears on the top of the head just back of the 
paired eyes. Teeth are always present and are either acrodont or 
pleurodont, and are often present on the gums as well as the jaws. 


wiat 
b 


Fic. 99.—Head of a lizard (Eumeces fasciatus): a, dorsal view; 6, lateral view: F, 
frontal; FP, frontoparietal; JaL, infralabial; Ifn, interfrontonasal; JL, lower labial; In, 
internasal; JP, interparietal; L, loreal; N, nasal; Oc, occipital; P, parietal; Pef, prefrontal; 
PL, preloreal; R, rostral; Sc, superciliary; SL, upper labial; Soc, supraocular; T, temporal 


from Cope). 


The tongue is well developed and usually protractile, and may be bifid 
or not. The tail is mostly long and fragile and easily broken off; it 
grows again, but the lost vertebe are not regenerated. Most lizards 
lay eggs; a few are ovoviviparous. 

Habits and Distribution.—Lizards feed mainly on insects and 
worms, and are mostly active, terrestrial animals. The larger species 
feed also on birds, small mammals and eggs. A number of species are 
vegetarians. Metachrosis is common, and in some species, as the 
chameleon, very remarkable. About 2,700 species are known, which 
inhabit the warmer regions of the earth. About too species are known 
in this country, ranging, in one or two cases, as far north as Canada: 
they are grouped in g families. 

On the Identification of Lizards.—The size and general form, 
whether elongate or not, or large or small, are first to be observed, 


REPTILES 181 


together with the length of the head, body and tail in millimeters and 
that of the tail alone. The color markings are also important, but it 
must be remembered that many lizards are extremely variable in color, 
as well as exhibiting metachrosis in a high degree. Young animals 
also often differ totally from the adult in coloration. The character 
of the scales or plates and the differences between those on the back and 
the belly are sometimes important, as well as the number of transverse 
and longitudinal rows. Those immediately in front of the anus are 
often of characteristic form and number. The plates on the head are 
usually characteristic and a description of them often enters into a 
detailed description (Fig. 99), the supraocular scales over the eye, and 
the upper and lower labials, which bound the lips, being especially 
important. The character of the tongue is also usually to be noticed; 
in some families it is thick and little protractile, in others it is similar 
to the tongue of snakes and may be projected from the mouth as an 
important tactile organ.. In most lizards a row, sometimes double, 
of conspicuous pores is present on the inner surface of the thigh; they are 
the femoral pores (Fig. 103). The teeth are usually conical and are 
never set in alveoli, but become ankylosed usually to the bone of the 
jaw, either by their base to the edge of the jaw bone, when they are 
spoken of as acrodont teeth, or by their side just inside the edge of the 
bone, when they are called pleurodont teeth. 


Key to the Families of American Lacertilia 


ai Legs present. 


b, Skin soft, with minute granular scales.................. 1. Gekkonide. 
be Skin usually scaly. 
cy longue thickiand not protractile $ oe. 1.3 -.acrsticud x8 02s, Leuonide. 
co Tongue protractile. 
dy Conspicuous lateral fold present........ “22 >..0¢.. 3. Anguide. 


d2 No such lateral fold. 
e: Body large and thick; no femoral pores........ 
e2 Body very small and slender; femoral pores 
present or not. 
f, Femoral pores present. 
g: No movable eyelids; pupils vertical...... 6. Xantustide. 
go Eyelids movable; pupils round........... 7. Tetide. 
ize eniOral Pores abSentase- ses, .fo2 poe eee . Scincide. 
a2 Legs wanting; body vermiform. 
b; Aconspicuous lateral fold; eye and ear opening present... 3. Anguide. 
bo No lateral fold present. 
c; Scales non-imbricate, in rings; no eye or ear opening.. 9. Amphisbenide. 
C2 Scales imbricate, not in rings; no ear opening; eye 
PaLreley<concealed..::+.,taswed sek 6 le oui ene 4. Anniellide. 


. Helodermatide. 


on 


182 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


Family 1. Gekkonidz.—Geckos. Mostly small lizards with a 
soft skin covered with minute granular scales; digits usually flattened 
with adhesive disks; eyes large: 60 species, all tropical; 5 species in the 
United States, some adventitious, Spherodactylus cinereus Mac Leay, 
a Cuban species, and Hemidactylus turcicus (L.), a Mediterranean 
species, having become established at Key West. 

1. Sphezrodactylus Wagler. Digits expanded at their tips and 
without claws: 20 species in Mexico,- Central America and the West 
Indies. 

S. notatus Baird. Reef gecko. Body very small, 60 mm. long; 
color brownish yellow, with scattered reddish brown spots; scales on 
back strongly keeled: southern Florida, Cuba and Bahamas. 


aT 


Fic. 100.—Coleonyx variegatus (from Ditmars). 


2. Coleonyx Gray. Digits not dilated, with very small claws: 
2 species. 

C. variegatus (Baird). The banded gecko (Fig. 100). Body small, 
130 mm. long, yellow in color, and either with about 13 broad brown 
transverse bands or with brown spots and blotches: Texas to Cali- 
fornia; rather common; not poisonous, although often so thought. 

Family 2. Iguanide.—Iguanas; swifts. Tongue thick and non- 
protactile; scalation fine; teeth pleurodont; femoral pores usually 
present; eyelids well developed; pupil round: 50 genera and over 300 
species, all American except a few East Indian, and tropical and sub- 
tropical; mostly insectivorous; 50 species in the United States. 


Key to the Genera of Inguanide 


a; Femoral pores absent, toes flattened (Fig. 101).............. 1. Anolis. 
a2 Femoral pores present, toes not flattened. 
b; A middorsal crest of enlarged scales present.............. 2. Dipsosaurus. 


b. No middorsal crest of enlarged scales present. 
c, Body lizard-like, head without horns. 
d, Tail blunt, superciliary scales not imbricate......... 3. Sauromalus. 
d, Tail long and attenuate; superciliary scales imbricate. 


REPTILES 183 - 


e; Upper labial scales oblique and imbricate. 
f, Tympanum distinct; ear-opening evident. 


g, A fringe of elongate scales on the toes...... 6. Uma. 
povNo digital tringe presént.:. . os) sss te oss 5. Callisaurus. 
f. Tympanum hidden; ear-opening absent....... . 7. Holbrookia. 
e. Upper labial scales not oblique or imbricate. 
feelteadeplates: siiallli,,:.. 0:75, Roane omens eatin 4. Crotaphytus. 


f. Head plates large. 
g: Acollar of enlarged scales crossing the throat. 8. Uta. 
Pep vo collar across: the throats. 2a. eee nue 9. Sceloporus. 
c2 Body broad and flat, toad-like; head with spines or horns. 10. Phrynosoma. 


1. Anolis Daudin. Body slender and more or less compressed; 
head flattened; throat of male with a large ventral fold of skin which 
when dilated is fan-shaped: 120 species of arboreal, brilliantly colored 
lizards confined to tropical America; 1 species 
in the United States. 

A. carolinensis Voigt. Chameleon (Fig. 
to1). Length 175 mm.; tail 120 mm.; color- t 
changes very remarkable and equal to those Fic. 101.—Foot of Anolis car- 
of the true chameleon of southern Europe, %”@"5# “from Ditmars). 
the color being usually green or brown, yellow, gray or black; 
throat-fan, when dilated, crimson; middle portion of the toes expanded: 
coastal regions of the southern States, from the Neuse River, 
North Carolina, into Mexico; abundant; diurnal and insectivorous; 
easily tamed. 

2. Dipsosaurus Hallowell. Large, thick-bodied lizards with a 
mid-dorsal crest of enlarged scales: 1 species. 

D. dorsalis (Baird & Girard). Keel-backed lizard. Length 380 
mm.; tail 250 mm.; color pale brown, with wavy longitudinal brown or 
black lines on the back: deserts of southwestern States and Mexico; 
herbivorous. 

3. Sauromalus Duméril. Large, blunt-tailed lizards with very 
small imbricated scales; claws very thick and strong; a prominent neck- 
fold: 2 species, 1 in the United States. 

S. obesus (Baird). Chuck-walla. Body thick and broad; length 
300 mm.; tail 215 mm.; color black or dark brown; tail whitish; belly 
reddish: deserts of southwestern States; northward into Nevada and 
Utah; herbivorous; used for food; often abundant. 

4. Crotaphytus Holbrook. Large, brightly-colored lizards with 
a very long, tapering tail and small granular scales and a neck-fold: 
5 species, 4 in the United States. 


184 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


Key to the Species of Crotaphytus 


a; One or 2 rows of enlarged scales between the orbital area. 


b; A ‘double black collar onvthe neck: ae eee ee. C. collaris. 

bs No collar on the-mecks i. Saas. ce a ee C. reticulatus. 
a. Several rows of small scales between the orbital areas. 

bi Snout short; truncate: in: profile. as). ee a eee C. silus. 

be Snout lonpert< 2% 5.<sSish. eee tin ike eeete ho eee C. wislizenit. 


C. collaris (Say). Collared lizard; mountain boomer. Body short; 
head very large; length 300 mm.; tail 200 mm.; color green or gray, with 
numerous white or yellow spots; behind the head are 2 black rings, 
separated by a white or yellowish space; throat usually orange: central 
and southern Missouri to central California and southwards; north- 
ward into Idaho and Oregon; in dry rocky places; omnivorous; often 
abundant; it sometimes runs on the hind legs, like a kangaroo. 

C. reticulatus Baird. Similar to C. collaris 
in form and size; color yellowish brown or gray, 
with a net-work of pale gray or yellow: south- 
western Texas; rare. 

C. wislizenit Baird and Girard. Leopard 
Fic. 102.—Callisaurus ven- lizard. Length 300 mm.; tail 210 mm.; color 

tralis (from Cope). E 

brown, with black blotches and red dots; back 
and tail with yellowish or red transverse bands: the Great Basin from 
Idaho into southern California and Mexico, in desert places; abundant. 

C. silus Stejneger. Similar to C. wislizenit but with a shorter and 
more truncate snout, and sharply defined light cross bands: San 
Joaquin Valley. 

5. Callisaurus Blainville. Body stout; tail rather short; neck- 
fold present: 4 species, 1 in the United States. 

C. ventralis (Hallowell). Gridiron-tailed lizard (Fig. 102). Length 
180 mm.; tail 100 mm.; color gray or greenish, thickly spotted with 
white; 2 rows of large spots on back; under surface of tail of male 
white, with 4 wide black bars: western Texas to California; northward 
into Utah and Nevada; in desert and arid regions; very common; when 
running it curls its tail over its. back. 

6. Uma Baird. Body rather stocky, with 2 rows of subdigital 
scales, and a lateral digital fringe of elongate scales: 1 species. 

U. notata Baird. Length 220 mm.; tail 120 mm.; ground color 
black, with numerous large round, white spots, each with a black 
center; abdomen white, with a black spot on each side: deserts of 
southeastern California. 


REPTILES 185 


7. Holbrookia Girard. Spotted lizards. Small, rather slender, 
flattened lizards with very small scales; color pale, with 2 rows of dark 
blotches on the back, a row of more or less indistinct blotches on 
the side and 2 black bars on the lower portion of each side; upper labials 
imbricate; no external ear-opening: 7 species, 6 in the United States. 


Key to the United States Species of Holbrookia 


a, Tail flat, with broad ‘black bands beneath......2.............. H. texana. 
a2 Tail round. 
b; Tail longer than the body in both sexes. 
c; Dorsal scales very small, convex or keeled; tail very long..H. propinqua. 
2 Dorsal scales larger, flat. 
d, Size large; femoral pores usually more than 12......... H. elegans. 
dy Size smaller; femoral pores usually less than 12........H. pulchra. 
bo Tail shorter than the body in females, and usually also in arales 
c; Black subcaudal spots usually present; dorsal spots sharply 
CLEA cote eo MR Pialearnt 1 ae een esis Beno, 3 face H. lacerata. 
c2 No subcaudal spots; dorsal spots not sharply outlined... ... H. maculata. 


H. texana (Troschel). Length 150 mm.; tail with black cross bars 
on the under surface, almost exactly like C SSP ventralis, and held 
over the body when the animal is running; hind foot half the length of 
head and body: western Texas to eastern Arizona. 

H. propinqua Baird and Girard. Length 120 mm.; tail 70 mm.; 
dorsal spots frequently wanting; tail proportionately long; upper 
labials 7: southern Texas. 

H. elegans Bocourt. <A large, smooth scaled form with sharply 
defined dorsal spots: deserts west of Tucson, Arizona. 

H. pulchra Schmidt. A small, smooth scaled form with sharply 
defined dorsal spots: higher altitudes in mountains of southern Arizona. 

H. lacerata Cope. Under surface of tail with black spots; dorsal 
spots large, sharply defined; length 106 mm.; tail 52 mm.: central 
Texas. 

H. maculata Girard. Length too mm.; tail 50 mm.; coloration 
variable: Nebraska and Wyoming to Arizona, southward into Mexico; 
in dry, rocky places, feeding mainly on insects. 

8. Uta Baird and Girard. Swifts. Small, flattened, active lizards 
with small scales; ear distinct; collar present; tail longer than the body: 
about 24 species in the southwestern United States and Mexico. 


Key to the Species of Uta in the United States 


ai Scales on the back uniform, not abruptly larger than those on 
the sides (Fig. 103). 
bi Scales on the back very small, perfectly smooth........... U. mearnsi. 
be Scales on the back larger and more or less sharply keeled. .U. stansburiana. 


186 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


az Scales on the back enlarged, sharply distinct from the smaller 
lateral scales (Fig. 104). 
b, Tail very long, more than twice the length of the head and 
body; usually without a median dorsal row of small 
SCALES. 65's siesch ss! quer she wich eye) shah >) 7) SR alte ce U. graciosa. 
be Tail shorter; 1 or 2 rows of small scales on the middorsal 
line, between the rows of enlarged scales. 
c; Lateral caudalscales small and:smooth..24549.2 eaeee U. levis. 
co Lateral caudal scales larger and more sharply keeled... . . U. ornata. 


U. mearnsi Stejneger. Size large; length 230 mm.; tail 150 mm.: 
western border of the Colorado desert, in rocky situations. 

U. stansburiana B. & G. (Fig. 103). Length 120 mm; tail 60 mm.; 
color dark green or gray, with rows of small light and dark blotches on 


Fic. 103.—Femoral pores on hind leg and scales of back of Uta stansburiana: 1, femoral 
pores (from Cope). 

the back which are surrounded by scattered bluish dots: western Texas 

to California; northward into Utah, Idaho and Oregon; very common in 

deserts. 


Subspecies of U. stansburiana 


U.s. stansburiana B. and G. In northerly portion of range. 
U. s. stejnegert Schmidt. In the central portion of the range. 


U. s. hesperis Richardson. In the western portion of 
the range. 

U. graciosa (Hallowell). Length 200 mm.; tail 140 

Fic. 104, MM; color gray or reddish, with a series of dark, wavy 
Scales of back cross bars on each side: southern California, Arizona and 
of Uta ornata : 
(from Cope). Nevada; lives in small trees and bushes. 

U. levis Stejneger. Six middorsal rows of enlarged 
scales; color uniform pale with markings: New Mexico, canyons south- 
eastern Utah and western Colorado. 

U. ornata B. and G. (Fig. 104). Length 150 mm.; color gray, with 
wavy black cross bands: western Texas to southern California; north- 
ward into Utah. 


REPTILES 187 


Subspecies of U. ornata 


U. 0. ornata B. and G. In Texas. 

U. o. linearis Baird. In southern Arizona. 

U. 0. symmetrica Baird. In the Colorado desert. 

9g. Sceloporus Wiegmann. Spiny swifts. Small, active lizards 
with large-keeled, sharply pointed and bristling scales; large supraocular 
scales present; ear distinct; no neck fold: about 35 species, mostly in 
desert regions of tropical America, several species, not here mentioned, 
entering the United States from Mexico. 


Key to the more common United States Species of Sceloporus 


a; A single row of large supraocular scales, bordered on each | 
side by a single row of small scales. 
b, Median row of small scales extending around forward 
two-thirds only of cresentic margin of supraocular 


IOPILES MAIR eee as tate Ge Seats ie senate has Salar SOs (ee S. clarkii. 
by. Median row of small scales extending completely 
AL OMHCLCLESCMUIG MArelNies fc. ee fae se cise skis cs SPENOSUS 


a2 A single row of large supraocular scales, bordered by a 
single median and 2 ventral rows of small scales (Fig. 


105). 

b, A broad black color on the sides of the neck.......... S. jarrovii. 

bs. No collar present. 
c: In the Great Basin and Pacific region.............S. occidentalis. 
co In the Great Plains region and west to California. .S. consobrinus. 
c3 In central and east-central Florida................S. woodi. 

a; Supraocular plates similar to a2, but wrinkled and some- 

times with 3 ventral rows of small scales.......... .S. undulatus. 


as Two rows of supraocular scales, bordered ARSE by 1 and 
below by 1 or 2 rows of small scales. 
b, A broad, black collar round the neck................ S. torquatus poinsettt. 
baw Noreollar. presenti... 2) spt sewn diet Sea wees tae Ris same S. graciosus. 


S. undulatus (Latreille). Pine lizard; fence lizard; swift (Fig. 106). 
Length 140 mm.; tail 70 mm.; scales large and rough; color grayish or 
greenish, with a series of black, wavy cross bars on the back and a pale 
band extending backward from the eye on each side: from the Atlantic 
to the Pacific; from New Jersey, Michigan and Oregon southward; 
common; in dry, sandy places, especially in pinelands; tail very brittle. 

S. clarkiit Baird & Girard. Length 220mm.; tail 120 mm.; color gray 
or brown, with dark transverse bands; a green spot in each scale on the 
back; broad black collar interrupted above: New Mexico, Arizona and 
Mexico; common. 


188 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


S. consobrinus B. and G. Similar to S. undulatus, but with 2 pale 
lateral stripes instead of cross bars and smooth head scales: Dakota to 
Texas and westward to California; common. 

S. spinosus Wiegmann. Similar to S. undulatus, but 250 mm. 
long, with coarsely bristling scales, with a broad, 
pale band on each side and an oblong black patch 
on each shoulder: Florida to New Mexico and Mexico. 

S. graciosus B. and G. Color brown or olive, 
pre [ | a with 2 yellow stripes on each side enclosing a dark 

BSNS ye? band and a round black spot in front of each fore 
2 leg: Great Basin region, from Oregon and Idaho to 
Nevada and southern California; common. 

S. torquatus poinsetti B.and G. Length 250mm.; 

Bee A eet aee tail 110 mm.; body stout; tail short and blunt; scales 
of Sceloporus occi- very coarse and pointed; color dull olive with 
dentalis (from Cope). 4 broad, black collar bordered with yellow: Texas 
to Arizona and Mexico. 

S. jarrovii Cope. Length 177 mm.; tail 80 mm.; color bluish black, 
with a light spot on each scale and a broad black spot on each side of the 
neck: southern Arizona. 

S. occidentalis B. and G. (Fig. 105). Length 200 mm.; tail 100 mm.; 
color greenish gray, with 2 rows of wavy cross bars on the back; legs 
very long: the Great Basin and mountain ranges of the Pacific region 


Fic. 106.—Sceloporus undulatus (from Fowler). 


from Oregon and Idaho to Nevada and southern California; common 
in rocky districts. 

S. woodi Stejneger. Length 103 mm.; tail 65 mm.; fourth toe 
extremely long: central and east-central Florida. 


REPTILES 189 


10. Phrynosoma Wiegmann. Horned toads; horned _ lizards. 
Body short, wide and flattened; tail short; hinder border of head armed 
with long, sharp, horn-like spines; long spines also often along the sides 
of the body and tail: about 17 species, in the desert regions of the south- 
west and of Mexico; terrestrial, living largely on insects; viviparous; 
harmless. 


Key to the United States Species of Phrynosoma 


a; Tympanum not covered with scales. 
b; Horns long and large (Fig. 107); 2 rows of enlarged marginal 
spines on the sides of the body. 


Greta neiGreate Plains region, specs) crea Soe cdo cans, sreveme ee P. cornutum. 
(nial (rah ed noha ot: a Meena te ee iit no” Nae fn ek Ben art a MA a an P. blainvillii. 
Cpe TD Ae AO Pree eae eee Mec et essen PAE ava aero Ske P. solare. 


be Horns small or rudimentary (Fig. 108); 1 row of marginal 
spines or none. 


ci Notenlarged marginal spines’ present... .....--52 i224) Ps. . P. modestum. 
Cc. One row of enlarged marginal spines present.............P. douglassit. 
ao Tympanum covered with scales. 
ba tlarns shoris GO tO0"etemoral Pores yo.cn a ee cee Pees P. platyrhinos. 
ba Hors lonp: 6-to/20 femoral pores:). 7... 222. 22 nee 2 a Pm calli, 


P. cornutum (Harlan). Common horned toad (Fig. 107; Fig. 109). 
Length 150 mm.; tail 45 mm.; width of body 60 mm.; color gray, spotted 
with brown and with a median yellow band; head spines very long: 
Kansas and Nebraska to Texas and Colorado; common. 


Q 
ae 


N 
Y as 
(/ 


Fic. 107.—Head of Phrynosoma Fic. 108.—Head of Phrynosoma 
cornutum (from Cope). hernandest (from Cope). 


P. blainvillit Gray. Length 150 mm.; tail 56 mm.; color light brown: 
California, southward and eastward of San Francisco; common. 
Subspecies of P. blainvillit 


P. b. blainvillit Gray. Southern California; Lower California. 
P.b. frontale Van Denburgh. In the northern portion of the range. 


Igo VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


P. solare Gray. Length 140 mm.; tail 51 mm.; 4 equally long occi- 
pital horns form with the lateral horns an uninterrupted series: deserts 
of Arizona; westward to Tucson. 

P. modestum Girard. Length 95 mm.; color yellowish brown, 
sometimes pinkish, with a black patch on each side of the nape: Texas 
to Arizona; common. 


| 

: 4a, . * 
Saat 
Bee 


Fic. 109.—Phrynosoma cornutum (from Ditmars). 


P. douglassii (Bell). Length too mm.; tail 26 mm.; color brown, 
with 2 rows of large dark blotches on the back; horns rudimentary; 
abdominal scales smooth: Oregon and Washington; Rocky Mountains 
and Great Basin; common. 


Subspecies of P. douglassi 


P. d. douglassit (Bell). In Washington and Oregon. 

P. d. ornatum Girard. In the Salt Lake Basin. 

P. d. hernandesi (Girard) (Fig. 108). Length 94 mm.; tail 30 mm.; 
color yellowish or brown, with a row of large, obscure middorsal spots: 
in the Rocky Mountains; common. 

P. d. ornatissimum (Girard). Length 124 mm.; color yellowish, 
sometimes pinkish, with 2 rows of large dark brown spots on the back: 
in the Great Basin and the Grand Canyon region. 


REPTILES IQ! 


P. d. brevirostre (Girard). Length 94 mm.; color similar to P. d. orna- 
tissimum: on the northern Great Plains. 

P. platyrhinos Girard. Length 120 mm.; tail 40 mm.; color pinkish 
gray or brown, with dark cross bands on the back; a large dark patch on 
each side of the nape; scales small and smooth; tympanum covered: 
eastern California and the Great Basin from Idaho to Arizona; common. 

P. m’callii (Hallowell). Length 100 mm.; tail 34 mm.; color gray 
with a narrow middorsal line with 2 rows of round spots on each side: 
deserts of the lower Colorado; rare. 

Family 3. Anguidz.—Elongated, often more or less snake-like 
lizards with weak legs or without any; tongue bifid and extensile; teeth 
pleurodont; body with a conspicuous lateral fold: about 44 species, in 
the New and Old Worlds, many in Mexico and Central America, 7 
in the United States. 


Key to the United States Genera of Anguide 


AU OUS CRS OE PSEM Gy tenuate ee a no Lidice. (abe) ode She She wok the silos. 1. Gerrhonotus. 
Cpe CP a weal tte: enh eee ere Sep h ela ote Hin aes coda sae eae OPNISQUTUS. 


1. Gerrhonotus Wiegmann. Slender lizards with 2 pairs of weak 
legs; ears distinct; no femoral pores; tail long and brittle: 19 species, 6 in 
the United States. 


Key to the United States Species of Gerrhonotus 


ai In the Pacific States. 
b; Dark ventral lines between the longitudinal rows of scales 
present or absent. 
c: Dorsal scales strongly keeled, in 16 longitudinal rows. 


dyenVeimperal -SCAlestSiMOOEM ese opie 28) as, hes elas sods G. ceruleus. 
de Lower temporaliscales keeled?) . Vi.6 759) 38-02 Sos G. palmeri. 
ce Dorsal scales weakly keeled, in 14 rows............... G. principis. 

be Dark ventral lines on the middle of the longitudinal rows 

of scales; dorsals strongly keeled, in 14 rows...........G. multicorinatus. 

a2 In the southwestern States; scales obscurely keeled. 

b, Back with alternating black and white bars..............G. kingii. 
be; Back with afew obscure crossbars...) 21-1 saa kone G. infernalis. 


G. ceruleus Wieg. Length 290 mm.; tail 180 mm.; color brown or 
olive with numerous dark cross bands, spotted with white; dorsal 
scales strongly keeled and in about 16 regular rows: coast region of 
California, chiefly north of San Francisco. 

G. palmeri Stejneger. Similar to P. ceruleus but much less elon- 
gated and with a different coloration, being either uniform dark olive 
brown dotted with black and white on the sides or pale bluish drab 


Ig2 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


clouded with irregular blotches: central California, on the slopes of the 
Sierra Nevada. 

G. principis (Baird & Girard). Length 300 mm.; tail 190 mm.; 
color light brown, with a middorsal series of irregular dark blotches; 
dorsal scales obscurely keeled and in 14 rows: western Washington, 
Oregon and Vancouver Island. 

G. multicorinatus (Blainville). Length 270 mm.; tail 160 mm.; color 
brown or gray with ro to 14 dark rings across the back, and spotted 
with white; dorsal scales strongly keeled and in 14 longitudinal rows: 
California; common. 

G. kingii Gray. Body very small and slender; color light yellowish 
olive; back with to broad black bars, each with a whitish bar behind; 
tail with 30 half rings; sides with narrow black bars: New Mexico and 
Arizona. 

G. infernalis Baird. Body very small, depressed; tail twice the 
length of the head and body; color light olive with 7 or 8 obscure 
dark bars; dorsal scales keeled, lateral scales smooth: southern Texas. 

2. Ophisaurus Daudin. Body snake-like, without legs; eyelids 
well developed; ear distinct, but small; tail longer than the body: 1 
species. 

O. ventralis (L.). Glass snake. Length 670 mm.; tail 400 mm.; 
color brown or greenish with a median and 2 lateral stripes; tail very 
brittle, whence the name of glass snake; to be distinguished from a snake 
by the eyelids, the ears and the scaly belly: southern and central States; 
northward into Virginia, Indiana and Wisconsin; westward to Nebraska 
and Texas and Mexico; common in dry meadows, where it feeds on 
insects and worms. 

Family 4. Anniellide.—Elongate, legless lizards with a cylindri- 
cal body and no external ear-opening; eye a narrow slit: 1 genus and 2 
species. 

Anniella Gray. With the characters of the family: 2 species. 

A. pulchra Gray. Length 180 mm.; tail 6 mm.; color gray or brown 
with 3 dark lines; abdomen yellowish: coastal region of southern 
California. 

Family 5. Helodermatide.—Large, thick-bodied lizards with 
brightly colored bodies, covered with small bead-like tubercles; tail 
short; poison fangs in the lower jaw: 1 genus. 

Heloderma Wiegmann. With the characters of the family: 2 
species. 

H. suspectum Cope. Gila monster. Length 470 mm.; tail 150 
mm.; color black or purplish, with large, more or less transverse pink 


REPTILES 193 


or yellowish blotches: deserts of Arizona and New Mexico; the only 
poisonous lizard in the country or the world. 

Family 6. Xantusiide.—Diminutive, cylindrical lizards with very 
short legs, and granular scales on the sides and back; belly covered 
with plates; 3 folds of skin on the throat; eye usually very large and 
without eyelids; pupil vertical: about 5 species; in desert regions. 

-Xantusia Baird. With the characters of the family: 4 species in 
the United States. 

X. henshawi Stejneger. Length 140 mm.; tail 85 mm.; color 
blackish brown, irregularly marbled with cream-colored lines: southern 
California. 


Fic: 110.—Cnemidophorus sexlineatus (from Ditmars). 


X. riversiana Cope. Length 175 mm.; tail 87 mm.; color gray or 
brown, spotted with brown or black: San Nicholas, San Barbara and 
San Clemente Islands. 

X. vigilis Baird. Length 85 mm.; tail 45 mm.; color gray, yellow or 
brown, speckled with brown: southeastern California; southern Nevada; 
common in and beneath fallen yucca trees. _ 

Family 7. Teiidz.—Elongated lizards with a deeply bifid tongue 
and sometimes rudimentary legs: 1 genus in the United States. 

Cnemidophorus Wagler. Race runners. Body slender; tail long 
and tapering; scales granular above, plated beneath: 4 species in the 
United States. 

C. sexlineatus (L.) (Fig. 110). Swift. Length 250 mm.; tail 175 
mm.; color dark brown, with 6 yellow stripes on the body; belly bluish or 
greenish: Maryland to Florida; westward to Colorado; up the Missis- 
sippi Valley to Lake Michigan and South Dakota; common towards the 
south; remarkable for its swiftness. 

C. sackii Wiegmann (C. gularis Baird & Girard). Similar to C. 
sexlineatus, but with a row of pale dots between each two stripes: 
Oklahoma and Texas to Arizona and Utah. 


Ig4 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


Subspecies of C. sack 


C. s. sackii Wieg. Six stripes present: in Texas and Oklahoma. 

C. s. perplexus Wieg. Seven stripes present: in New Mexico, 
Arizona, Colorado and Utah. 

C. tessellatus (Say). Length 450 mm.; tail 300 mm.; color dark 
olive, with 4 to 7 yellow stripes in the young animal; back marbled 
or blotched: in the adult western Texas to California; northward into 
Colorado and central California; common in dry sandy places. 

C. hyperythrus Cope. Length 200 mm.; only one fronto-parietal 
plate; 4 lateral stripes: southern California. 

Family 8. Scincidge.—Skinks. Small, active lizards with smooth 
scales underlaid with bony plates; head covered with symmetrical 
plates; tongue free, notched in front; eyelids well developed; pupil 
round; legs present or absent: about 200 species; cosmopolitan; ovo- 
viviparous; about 14 species in the United States. 


Key to the Genera of Scincidz 


a; Legs and digits normal. 
b; Paired scales above the nasals (supranasals); lower eyelid 


SRADYA ro Eee PUG torn Sep amd At cite BGs ge cche Senate oaetiore ate ees 1. Eumeces. 
b. No supranasal scales; lower eyelid with transparent disk...... 2. Leiolopisma. 
ao Leas diminutive; toes: reduced! im numbers sess ee 3. Neoseps. 


1. Eumeces Wiegmann. Body small, with glossy, shining scales; 
lower eyelid scaly; palate with teeth: 30 species, in America, Africa and 
Asia; 14 species in the United States; diurnal; terrestrial. 


Key to the Species of Eumeces 


a, In the eastern States. 
b; Scales on body in 28 or more rows; color uniform or with 
Ey MMM EP SETUP ES) ueain artnet poe + sich ae enc ee ate eae E. fasciatus. 
be Scales on body in 22 or 24 rows; not more than 4 white 
stripes. 
c; Scales in 24 rows; legs meeting on sides: in the Appa- 
lachtan IMiountains <i sace st) = necunrsts umn, eta) Aenea E. anthracinus. 
co Scales in 22 rows; legs short, not meeting; in Florida... E. egregius. 
ao In the central States. 
bi Body with 7 or more light stripes; legs short............. E. multivirgatus. 
bo Body with 5 light stripes, or uniform; legs longer. 
c,; Lateral scale rows horizontal; color uniform brown or 
with 5 light stripes; scales in 28 or more rows....... E. fasciatus. 


REPTILES 195 


c. Lateral scale rows oblique; color grayish black or with 


5 faint stripes; scales in 26 to 28 rows...)...........E. obsoletus 
bs Body with 4 light stripes. 
CPS CALEGHIN DOPEG WS ntis Sails creda a cele se alle dene E. pluvialis. 
CrSCTICS IMEC ONLON St Red tetra ties sinks tas 2 0s ote Cee E. septentrionalis. 
as In the far West. 
b; Color blackish without stripes or with 5 faint stripes..... E. obsoletus. 


SN 


Tine VV IDheAeStTIDeSt a: cra cteree icra selec > Aalst oe Xi «+ - o---sie cele BD RD EO TVS), 


E. septentrionalis Baird. Body stout; tail seven-fourths the length 
of the body; color light green with 4 dorsal black stripes and a lateral 
black stripe on each side between 2 white ones: Minnesota, Iowa, 
Oklahoma, Nebraska and Kansas. 

E. fasciatus (L.) (E. quinquelineatus L.). Blue-tailed skink; scorpion 
(Figs. 99, 111). Length 240 mm.; tail 130 mm.; color black in youth 


Fic. 111.—Eumeces fasciatus (from Fowler). 


(roo mm.) with 5 dorsal yellow stripes on body and a blue tail, brown 
or olive in adult males with the stripes faint or absent and the head red: 
Massachusetts to Florida; westward to Arizona; up the Mississippi 
Valley to Canada; rare and small (150 mm.) towards the north; common 
in the south. 

E. obsoletus Baird and Girard. Body large, 300 mm. long; color light 
olive; young black with 5 faint stripes: Kansas to Colorado, Arizona 
and Texas; southward into Mexico. 

E. anthracinus Baird. Length 157 mm.; tail ror mm.; color dark 
olive green, with 2 light lines on each side between which is a black 
band; tail bluish: Appalachian region, New York to North Carolina; 
common. 

E. multivirgatus Hallowell. Body cylindrical; legs far apart; tail 
three-halves the length of the body; color pale olive with 4 or 5 stripes 
on each side: Nebraska to northern Texas, Colorado and New Mexico. 


196 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


E. pluvialis (Cope). Body small and rather stout with 4 green 
stripes; belly green: Alabama, Missouri, Arkansas, Kansas and Texas. 

E. egregius Baird. Body very small and vermiform; legs small and 
weak; length roo mm.; color reddish or greenish, with 4 white stripes 
southern Florida and the Keys. 

E. skiltonianus B. & G. Length 150 mm.; tail 90 mm.; color olive 
green, with a dark band bordered by a white line above and below on 
each side; body with 26 rows of scales: Washington to Lower California; 
Nevada and Utah; common. 

2. Leiolopisma Duméril & Bibron. Body elongate, small, cylin- 
drical ear-opening very large, exposed; legs very small; lower eyelid 
with a transparent disk; palate toothless: 28 species, cosmopolitan, 1 in 
America. 


Fic. 112.—Leiolopisma unicolor (from Ditmars). 


L. unicolor (Harlan) (L. laterale Say) (Fig. 112). Length 80 mm.; 
tail 40 mm.; color olive brown, sometimes irregularly spotted, with a 
black band edged with white on each side; abdomen yellow; tail blue 
below: southern New Jersey to Florida, westward to Kansas and 
Texas; rare in the north, abundant in the south; terrestrial. 

3. Neoseps Stejneger. Body vermiform; fore leg rudimentary, 
with a single digit; hind leg very weak, with 2 digits; ear hidden: 1 
species. 

N. reynoldsi Stej. Length 85 mm.; tail 27 mm.; color drab, each 
scale with a brown spot, these spots forming 4 dark stripes on the back 
and a broad lateral stripe on each side: Lake County, Florida, burrowing 
in the ground. 

Family 9. Amphisbeznide.—Vermiform lizards without legs, 
scales or external ear-opening; teeth pleurodont; eyes concealed; body 
ringed: 60 species, 1 in the United States. 

Rhineura Cope. With the characters of the family: 1 species. 

R. floridana (Baird). Length 220 mm.; tail 170 mm.; color lavender: 
Florida; burrowing in soft soil and with the appearance of a large 
earthworm. 

Order 3. Serpentes.—Snakes. Very elongate reptiles, covered 
with horny imbricate scales, and without limbs, tympanum or external 
ear-opening, or functional eyelids. The bones of the jaws are very 


REPTILES 197 


loosely articulated with one another and with the cranium, so that the 
mouth can be stretched to a remarkable degree. The vertebra are 
proccelous, giving the body great flexibility, those in front of the anus, 
except the atlas, all bearing ribs, those back of the anus being without 
ribs but bearing long transverse processes. Acrodont teeth are always 
present; in poisonous snakes usually a single pair of maxillary teeth are 
much elongated and form the poison fangs, of which 3 types are 
observed in American snakes: 1. Those of the opisthoglyph snakes, 
belonging to the family Colubride@, in which there are one or more 
pairs of elongate and grooved but not perforated fangs at the rear of the 
upper jaw; (2) those of the elapine snakes, belonging to the family 
Elapide, in which there is a pair of short rigid fangs in the front of the 
upper jaw, which are perforated by a poison canal and also grooved on 
the outer surface; and (3) those of the viperine snakes, belonging to 
the family Crotalide, in which there is a pair of very long perforated 
fangs in the front of the upper jaw, which lie against the roof of the 
mouth when not in action. The tongue is long and forked and protrac- 
tile; it can be thrust out of the closed mouth, and is an important 
tactile organ. 

The scales are arranged in a definite number of rows, and are 
either keeled (i.e., with a median longitudinal ridge called the keel) 
or not keeled. The scales on the ventral surface differ in most snakes 
from those on the dorsal and lateral surfaces, forming a single row of 
transverse plates called the ventrals or gastrosteges where they occur in 
front of the anus, and either a single or a double row called the sub- 
caudals or urosteges where they lie back of it. The ventrals bear a 
relation to the ribs and are of assistance in locomotion inasmuch as 
the animal can move them and thus advance the body over a roughened 
surface; the ventral immediately in front of the anus is either divided 
in two or not, and is called the anal plate. 

Habits and Distribution.— Most snakes are oviparous, although 
many species are ovoviviparous. They feed almost exclusively on 
live animals or on animals they have recently killed; a few. tropical 
snakes, however, are herbivorous. The poisonous snakes kill their 
prey with their poison and the constrictor snakes by crushing before 
swallowing it; other snakes do not stop to kill the prey but swallow 
it alive. Snakes live in a great variety of localities, some species 
being terrestrial, others arboreal; a large number are aquatic, some 
living in the open sea. Many species are brightly colored, especially 
in the tropics, but in none has metachrosis, so common among lizards, 
been observed. 


198 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


On the Identification of Snakes.—The length in millimeters of an 
average adult specimen from the tip of the snout to the tip of the tail 


anes seatatane 
ealntet tate atatant 


Satacetasnens woe 
Resencberevone = 
‘evonntate tues 
piacetena tons 
eer 


Fic. 113.—A portion of the skin of Lampropeltis getulus, showing 23 rows of coat (ree 


Blanchard). 


and also the length of the tail alone, are first given, followed by a 


Fic. 114.—A por- 
tion of the ventral 
surface of sea 
erythrogrammus: 
ventrals; 2, anal sites 
(which is here di- 
vided); 3, anus; 4, 
subcaudals (from 
Cope). 


description of its coloration.’ Those scales which 
lack the keel are said to be smooth, and these are 


ea usually much more glistening than keeled scales, 


which are dull in appearance. In some snakes 


-2 only the dorsal scales are keeled, while those of 


the sides are smooth. The number of rows of scales 
(Fig. 113) is always important in the description; 
the number of ventrals is also often important; also 
the number of subcaudals, and whether a single 
or a double row is present. Whether the anal 
plate is single or divided is a very important 
character (Fig. 114). 

In most species both dorsal and ventral sur- 
faces of the head are covered with symmetrical 
plates, which are often important in descriptions 
(Fig. 115). 

About 2,400 species of snakes are known, of 


which 126 species occur in the United States, grouped in 5 families. 


Key to the Families of Serpentes 


ai No ventrals present, the belly covered with scales; eyes 
covered “with*Scales 3. 2% ats m sree kee ee er ncaa ds 1. Leptotyphlopide. 
a2 Ventrals present; eyes not covered with scales. 
b; No elongate poison fangs in front part of mouth. 


REPTILES 199 


c; Subcaudals undivided, forming a single row; scales on 
Shines Wome tates Meester. 5's cal sae cee eee 2 oD OLE 
C2 Subcaudals divided, forming 2 rows (except in Rhino- 
cheilus) ; one or two pairs of enlarged elongate shields 
onthe miadle lineof the Chim) ....4: 5.02 on) bates 3. Colubride. 
be Elongate poison fangs present in front part of mouth. 
c, Head not distinct from neck; no pit between eye and 


MUS LEN rnc aire ceten ete cake metas cifras $16 3 = « wip lanree 4. Elapide. 
co Head very distinct; a pit between eye and nostril (Fig. 
TES NS Sta AR pry cant oer cg Rane et Se 5. Crotalide. 


Fic. 115.—Head of snake (Coluber constrictor) showing the plates: 1, frontal; 2, parietals 
3, supraoculars; 4, prefrontals; 5, internasals; 6, preoculars; 7, loreal; 8, postocular; 9, ros- 
tral; 10, upper labials; 11, temporals; 12, nasals; 13, lower labials (from Hay). 


Family 1. Leptotyphlopidz.—Small, blind, worm-like snakes 
with rudiments (not visible) of hind legs and a pelvic girdle: 1 genus 
and 3 species in the United States. 


200 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


1. Leptotyphlops Fitzinger. Several species; 3 in the United 
States. 

L. dulcis (Baird and Girard). Supraocular plates present; length 
200 mm.; tail ro mm.; color pale brown above; white beneath; scales in 
14 rows: Texas, Oklahoma and New Mexico; burrowing in soft soil, 
often in ant-hills. 

L. humilis (Baird and Girard). Body like preceding; supraocular 
plates absent: Arizona and southern California. 

Family 2. Boidze.—The Boas. Mostly large, arboreal constrictor 
snakes in which rudiments of hind legs and a pelvic girdle are present 
in form of a pair of spurs near the anus; scales smooth: many species, 
cosmopolitan; 2 species in the United States, both small. The family 
includes the boa-constrictors of South America and the pythons of 
Africa, Asia and the East Indias, which are the largest snakes, reach- 
ing a length of 35 feet. 

1. Lichanura Cope. Form stout; tail obtuse; head covered with 
scales: several species. 

L. roseofusca Cope. Length 788 mm.; tail 115 mm.; rows of scales 
33 to 42; ventrals 229; subcaudals 49; color bluish gray or brown; 
abdomen red: southern California and Arizona. 

2. Charina Gray. Small snakes with very small scales; head 
covered with plates: 2 species. 

C. botte (Blainville). Rubber snake; ball snake. Length 600 
mm.; tail 70 mm.; color brown or gray, yellow beneath; tail very blunt; 
rows or scales 42 to 47; upper labials 9 to 11; ventrals 200: California, 
Washington, Nevada, Utah, Wyoming and Montana; common in 
humid regions, feeding on mice, etc. 

Family 3. Colubridz.—Snakes with many conical teeth in both 
jaws; without poison fangs in the front part of the mouth, but certain 
genera, the opisthoglyph snakes,* are poisonous, one or more pairs 
of teeth at the rear of the upper jaw being elongate and grooved and 
forming the poison fangs, (however, no cases of injury to man by these 
snakes in the United States have yet been reported; Tantilla and 
Sonora are so small that they are probably harmless); top of head 
covered with symmetrical plates; a single row of ventrals and usually 
a double row of subcaudals present; no rudimentary hind limbs; eyes 
well developed: 1,300 species, in all the tropical and temperate regions 
of the world; over 100 species in the United States. 


*The opisthoglyph genera in the United States are the following: Oxybelis, Sonora, 
Tantilla, Coniophanes, Leptodeira, Trimorphodon. 


REPTILES 201 


Key to Genera of Colubridae 


(Several genera appear more than once in this key) 
a; Some or all of scales on body keeled. 
b; Anal double. 
Cc: Rostral pointed, upturned, and keeled above........... Heterodon. 
c. Rostral normal. 
d, Loreal, preoculars and two internasals present; head scales normal. 
€: Scale rows 17. 


fy Uniform green ‘above... os.) ...25.05........+.. Opheomrys. 
f. Not uniform green. 
Ce COWIE SCLIP eStart gr mhue Biter AS Stes Seminatrix. 
ge Dark with a light dot on each scale......... Drymobius. 


e€2 Scale rows more than 17. 

f,; Scales heavily keeled; 3 postoculars (if 2, scales 

TG Dai) MA apent orcas yO ASE UA Ma Sh ake WE Natrix. 
fe Scales weakly keeled; 2 postoculars; scales 25-33 Elaphe. 
ds Some of head scales absent. 

enw lsones WabSemb. cee Se eR aes Rea eee Storeria. 
e. Loreal present. 

f, A single internasal. 


( aithgco) CF Echelle Oe alah ace SO RM ORE Ae Potamophis. 

go Scales 19-21. 
| nlrffadla WES oy ese ca ok eae SRR a nee sah A aH A Liodytes. 
Hy wING PREOCUIAP Soh diane dantcea chs gush Farancia. 

fp Two internasals, no preocular. 

Fee asi lho OY ah ga! Cl SLT ISS RRA OP rg id SU ao ae te Abastor. 

Pom Oa Ul PPErel alas oy: earth eae us Ae Be teas Virginia. 

(ET oe G5) of ve ov il SSS an eae fe act a a Potamophis. 

by Anal single. 
RqmSCales 26-36 AMOreIrOMEANS, «A ane.ny poe Obeh Sas Sans ae ences Pituophis. 


C2 Scales less than 209; 2 prefrontals. 
d, Eye in contact with labials; rostral normal. 


e, Upper labials more than 5; striped............... Thamnophis. 
eo, Upperdabialssy not Stapedey 2 eo. . soy oN Potamophis. 
dy Eye cut off from labials by small scales; rostral very 
Pare UMP OMe GEL Ls essary Sadat seats © Saget Phyllorhynchus. 


a2 Scales smooth (not keeled). 
b; Anal single. 
c; Eye cut off from labials by small scales; rostral very large 
SUG [OAR GU = arn arn aah PREIS abatiew «cng tt hs ee Phyllorhynchus. 
co Eye in contact with labials; rostral normal. 
d; Scale rows on body more numerous in the middle. 


€; Subcaudal plates mostly single.................. Rhinocheilus. 
e€2 Subcaudal plates all double. 
f,; Belly immaculate; rostral prominent........... Arizona. 


f. Belly with some markings; rostral not prominent Lampropeltis. 


de Scale rows on body same number throughout. 
Ceo (= er A aN es, 2S ach ea ee eae Drymarchon. 


202 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


eo Scales 19. 
f, Two internasals. 
g, Loreal present; parietal not in contact with 


labials.. 3:26 orate area epee tae See eae Fie a Cemophora. 
g2 Loreal absent; parietal in contact with labials Stilosoma. 
f. One internasal......: tie OS eg ae Liodytes. 


by Anal double. 
c, Scales 19 or more. 
d, Two internasals. 
e; Preocular present. 
fs Pupi-round one preocilars sea.) 5) on eee Coniophanes. 
f. Pupil vertically elliptic; 2-3 preoculars. 
g; One loreal. 


hp Severalsnows: Gi SwOcs. sits. yeu see ree ae H ypsiglena. 
His ROSS DATS Cit hee Gta Pree ie ene ger an Hee Leptodeira. 
ar WOdlOrealsic. 5 (fom ie tieaer cies kee hate eee Trimorphodon. 
Ex INOsPECOCULAT Nea stacy eis RON h on eee ine foi Seely ote Abastor. 
d» One internasal. 
e}. Preocullay presente yi. pct nocecak aeeee ee oe Liodytes. 
Es Onpredcular..o7 in seas es serene eto eeaveas ee Farancia. 
co Scales 17 or less. 
d, Loreal present. 
€; 2-3 preoculars. 
{; dostra) enlarged ;patch-like.. (22.6.5 a4.cs< cic Salvadora. 
f. Rostral normal. 
gi 2-3 anterior temporals; lower preocular very ° 
small, wedged between labials............ Coluber. 
g» One anterior temporal; lower preocular like upper. 
hy Uniform grass ereeiies: .s: 1. asin teen Liopeltis. 
he Black with a yellow neck ring........... Diadophis. 
eo One preocular. 
f,; Scales 17. 
PigU Pper la Dials: 7. bros she ace te at eee eee Rhadinea. 
go) Upper labidlssSicce 4: « bascaetes ce oo eee ican Seminatrix. 
fo Scales less than 17. 
Pi kaTaSs STEEN A sass aes canciatac iat ee ane Liopeltis. 
go Not grass green. 
hy Belly, with black cross lines;).2.. i002. Son Contia. 
hy Belly immaculate or with bands that 
: encircle body..< 22.322. bak Se eee Sonora. 
e; No preocular. 
fp. SCales. Shy say, 2 esac cocky eet eed pee ee Virginia. 
fo) ‘Scales: 135-1 Wert wis's nso a Dae ee a ete Chilomeniscus. 
d. No loreal. 
e; 13 scale rows; southwestern states.............. Chilomeniscus. 
CASTERILASEATES coh: mess Rls ieeers aise vee nA Sem ame oe etnga od Car phophis 
Go ES SCALE TOWS. Nit A hush -oe prs eee ease Stein Tantilla. 


€3 17 scale rows. 


REPTILES 203 


f; Small stout snakes with rostral upturned to a 


|0¥0%6 |S ANS Oar ier ae eee eae ear gM sce Ficimia. 
f. Large, extremely slim snakes, with very pointed 
head and rostral tapered to an acute point... Oxybelis. 


1. Carphophis Gervais. Small, non-poisonous snakes without a 
distinct neck and with a pointed snout; no preocular; colors uniform: 
2 species; terrestrial and burrowing. 

C. amenus (Say). Ground snake (Fig. 116). Length 260 mm.; 
tail 45 mm.; color brown above, pink below; eyes very 


small; ventrals about 128: Connecticut to Florida; west-  @SieGyys 
ward to Illinois; often common, but secretive and rarely 
seen. Fic. 116.— 


2. Abastor Gray. Large, brightly colored snakes IS | deh 
with head not distinct from body; no preocular; ventrals Cope). 
about 180; upper labials 7: 1 species. 

A. erythrogrammus (Daudin). Rainbow snake (Fig. 114). Length 
1,200 mm.; tail 160 mm.; color blue-black, with 3 longitudinal red 
stripes; abdomen red, with 2 rows of black blotches: Virginia to the 
Gulf, in the coastal plain, in swampy, wooded places; burrowing; 
common. 

3. Farancia Gray. Large, brightly colored snakes with indistinct 
head; no preocular; upper labials 7; ventrals about 172: 1 species. 

F. abacura (Holbrook). Horn snake; mud snake. Length 1,250 
mm.; tail r60 mm.; color blue-black, with a series of large red spots on 
each side; abdomen red, blotched with black; a horny spine at the end 
of the tail: Atlantic and Gulf States from Virginia to Louisiana, and 
up the Mississippi Valley into Indiana; in wet woods, burrowing under 
logs and in the sand; common in the south. 

4. Diadophis Baird & Girard. Ring-neck snakes. Small snakes 
with a flattened head and a yellow ring around the neck: 4 species; 
terrestrial, burrowing, feeding on earthworms, etc. 


Key to the Species of Diadophis 


a, Ventral color not covering any of the dorsal scale rows.......... D. punctatus. 
a2 Ventral color encroaching on the lower dorsal scale rows. 
Domb it beet LOVATEZONAS. 7 \oucidvtn ge Wb et kare does ck ho ee D. regalis. 
FULT E CIIIC SIODE)s aes: v.20 arse ase Ae sc aad See ae D. amabilis. 


D. punctatus (L.). Length 330 mm.; tail 70 mm.; color dark gray or 
black, with a yellow collar; belly orange, sometimes with black 
spots; ventrals about 155: United States east of the Great Plains; 
common. 


204 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


D. amabilis B. and G. Length 430 mm.; tail 90 mm.; color bluish or 
greenish-black with a reddish collar; belly reddish: Oregon to Lower 
California; common. 

D. regalis B.and G. Length 600 mm.; color dark bluish-gray above; 
belly yellow or reddish, with many small black spots; coloration some- 
times faint or absent: Texas to Arizona. 

5. Heterodon Latreille. Hog-nosed snakes (Fig. 117). Moderate 
sized snakes with a broad, upturned snout (rostral plate) and an extra 
plate (the azygous) back of the rostral; scales in 23 to 25 rows; ventrals 


Pe ESS 
TOPLESS 
BY = eS 
cca 


\— > 


Ihe 
! ] 
veh 


Fic. 117.—Heterodon contortrix (from Cope). 


about 140; upper labials 8: 4 species, all in the eastern and central 
States; terrestrial, feeding on toads and insects and burrowing with the 
peculiar snout; when alarmed they dilate and flatten the neck and head 
while hissing loudly, and often throwing themselves into contortions 
or feigning death; they are harmless. 


Key to the Species of Heterodon 


a, No accessory scales around the azygous plate; scales in 25 rows. .H. contortrix. 
a2 Accessory scales around the axygous plate. 

br Seales in Os rOWSe a ootenchener s «ae aah Seneca sah eae tee eee H. simus. 

by *SGAles ai 24 OWS sicrs 58) cenes aid Seb Ree i oe ee H. nasicus. 


H. contortrix (L.) (H. platyrhinus Latreille) (Fig. 117). Puffing or 
spreading adder; blowing viper. Length 7oo mm.; color brown or 
reddish, with about 28 dark or black dorsal patches between the head 
and tail, and a series of similar patches on each side alternating irregu- 


REPTILES 205 


larly with them; on the tail the blotches tend to form rings around 
the body; belly yellowish, blotched on the edges with black; a melanistic 
variety occurs which is plain black: Massachusetts to Montana, Florida 
and Texas; common, especially in dry, sandy places. 

H. nasicus Baird & Girard. Length 660 mm.; tail 70 mm.; color 
gray or light brown, with a dorsal and 2 lateral series on each side of 
small darker spots, which on the tail tend to form rings; center of 
abdomen black: western States from Dakota and Montana into Mexico; 
common in Texas and the south. 

H. simus (L.) (Fig. 118). Length 470 mm.; tail 80 mm.; color gray 
or brownish with about 35 dark brown dorsal patches 
alternating with smaller ones on each side; belly yellow- 
ish: southeastern States, from North Carolina to the 
Mississippi, and northward in its valley into Indiana; 
less common than H. contortrix. 

6. Liopeltis Fitzinger. Small, green snakes with 
smooth scales in 15 rows; upper labials 7; ventrals 135: 
several species in eastern Asia, 1 in America. 

i wernalis- (Harlan): “Green “snake; grass’ snake. ~ qe. 33 
Length 400 mm.; tail 130 mm.; color uniform green, isthe Ris 
lighter underneath: eastern, western and central States; 
westward to New Mexico; common towards the north; terrestrial, 
living in the grass and in shrubbery, and feeding on insects. 

7. Opheodrys Fitzinger (Cyclophis Gunther). Small, green snakes 
with keeled scales in 17 rows; upper labials 7; ventrals 155: several 
species in Asia, r in America. 

O. estivus (L.) Green snake. Length 840 mm.; tail 320 mm.; color 
uniform green; belly yellow: southern New Jersey to the Gulf; westward 
to New Mexico and northward in the Mississippi Valley to Illinois and 
Kansas; common; arboreal, feeding on insects. 

8. Salvadora Bairdand Girard. Slender ground snakes witha snout 
surmounted by a triangular rostral shield, giving it a truncated appear- 
ance in front; scales smooth and in 17 rows; upper labials 8: 2 species in 
Mexico, 1 in the United States. 

S. grahamie B. and G. Patch-nose snake. Length 700 mm.; tail 
too mm.; back with a broad yellow middorsal stripe, bordered on each 
side by a dark brown stripe of equal width, beneath which is a light 
brown band; belly yellow; ventrals about 180: western Texas to 
California and Utah; common, especially in rocky places. 

9g. Phyllorhynchus Stejneger. Small slender snakes with a large 
triangular rostral shield giving the snout a truncated appearance; anal 


206 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


plate single; scales in 19 rows and imperfectly keeled; upper labials 6: 
2 species. 

P. browni Stej. Length 325 mm.; tail 42 mm.; color whitish, with 
15 brown blotches on the back; belly white; scales keeled on the hinder 
two-thirds of the body and very faintly keeled on the forward third: 
southern Arizona. 

10. Coluber L. (Zamenis Wagler). Blacksnakes; racers. Large, 
non-venomous snakes with head distinct from the neck; scales smooth, 
in 15 or 17 rows; upper labials 7 or 8: many species in the New and Old 
Worlds, 4 in the United States; active snakes which live on the ground 
but can also climb bushes and trees, feeding on small mammals, reptiles 
and frogs; they do not constrict their prey but may kill it by pressing 
it against the ground. 


Key to the Species of Coluber 


a; Body never striped. 


bio Colerblack-* Diaish Gr ereen. -vacc. pens te Scc cen sta ee C. constrictor. 

bo Color brown, atleast posteriorly. 1a. 2-0 eee om ee C. flagellum. 
a2 Body striped. 

bre yellow stripe.on-eachysid@ es. nn ree ie Meet. Feehs wie eee C. lateralis. 

Bas HOtr orive:stmpes.on each side), snschvin me oor hie weed tates C. tentatus. 


C. constrictor L. Blacksnake; blue racer; hoop snake (Fig. 115). 
Body slender; length 1,700 mm.; tail 449 mm.; greatest length 2,200 
mm.; color slaty or blue-black above, greenish black to yellow beneath; 
chin and throat white; ventrals about 180; young animals (500 mm. long) 
gray in color with dorsal transverse bars and lateral spots: entire country. 


Subspecies of C. constrictor 


C. c. constrictor L. Belly black: eastern forested States; common. 

C. c. flaviventris Say. Belly yellow: in the plains and prairie States, 
north and west of the Ohio and Mississippi to the Rockies; common. 

C. c. mormon (Baird and Girard). Size small; color green: west of 
the Rockies. 

C. flagellum Shaw. Whip snake. Body very slender, 2,000 mm. 
long; tail 500 mm.; color yellowish brown to dark brown, being darker 
anteriorly; abdomen white or yellow, more or less blotched with brown 
_ anteriorly; ventrals about 190; young animals with dorsal blotches: 
southern States from Virginia to California; common. 


Subspecies of C. flagellum 
C. f. flagellum Shaw. Body black anteriorly: North Carolina to 
Oklahoma and Texas. 


REPTILES 207 


C. f. frenatus (Stejneger). In Arizona, Utah, Nevada and 
California. 

C. f. flavi-gularis (Hallowell). In Oklahoma and Texas to New 
Mexico. 

C. lateralis (Hallowell). Length 665 mm.; tail 250 mm.; color 
brown above with a yellow stripe on each side, yellow below; head 
somewhat spotted; ventrals about 200: in western California and 
southern Arizona. 

C. teniatus (Hallowell). Body very slender, 1,280 mm. long; 
tail 400 mm.; color black with many yellow lines on the sides; belly 
white, but pink on the tail; throat spotted with black: Idaho to Texas, 
Arizona and eastern California; often common. 

11. Elaphe Wagler (Coluber Auct.). Large, non-venomous snakes 
with a flat, blunt head; dorsal scales with slight keels; lateral scales 
smooth; scales in 25 to 29 rows: about 20 species in North America 
and Europe and Asia; 9 species in the United States. 


Key to the Species of Elaphe 


a; Few dorsal scale rows keeled; 2 bands from the neck cross the 
parietals and meet on the frontal. 
b; Spots bright red; belly checkered black and white; south 
MESLEEIaIMEMesSOULHEASEs min ncn t-ciriora cists ade lehs-alo eect cua E. guttata. 
ba Spots brown; belly white and gray; western...............E leta. 
ao Most of the scale rows keeled. 
b; Body spotted in color. 


Nee) CiaaeDIOLGOES SQUATISM wo. fe0:2 aeo.< Se ol sy Pls oiklole E. vulpina. 
Pa VOU SHC IGOEe MES =SMaADeG ts x s/c ses ak. cs Se cs cdo tps teed « veald's E. 0. confinis. 
be Body not spotted. 

Cr COlOmblaC Keen ey as eee ee E. o. obsoleta. 

c2 Color yellowish, with 4 dark stripes. 
Cie Need spate mlecticen) icine esr se. ge caw ns E. 0. confints. 
ds Neck spotsmgt oebapede es... 2 otk. ess. . -B UObpImG: 
AgNO EC: SPursrme ernie ernie ona cc ec aed as aes olbca E. quadrivitiata 


E. quadrivittata (Holbrook). Chicken snake. Length 2,000 mm.; 
tail 300 mm.; color yellow or light brown, with 4 dark brown or black 
stripes; scales in 27 rows: southeastern and Gulf States, from North 
Carolina to the Mississippi River; arboreal; often around chicken 
houses, where they feed on rats, young chickens and eggs. 

E. leta (Baird and Girard) (Coluber emoryi B. & G.). Length 800 
mm.; tail 160 mm.; color gray, with a dorsal series of large rectangular 
brown blotches alternating with 2 more or less distinct smaller series on 
each side: Missouri and Kansas to Mexico; common towards the south. 


208 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


E. guitata (L.). Corn-snake. Length 1,000 mm.; tail 160 mm.; 
greatest length 1,750 mm.; color reddish or yellowish brown, with a 
dorsal series of about 54 large red, black-bordered blotches; belly white, 
with black spots: south Atlantic and Gulf States from New Jersey to 
Louisiana; common. 

E. obsoleta (Say) (Fig. 119). Length 1,800 mm.; tail 300 mm.; 
greatest length 2,400 mm.; color 
black to gray, with the edges of 
the scales often yellow, and often 
a series of large dark dorsal 
blotches; throat white; belly dark, 
more or less blotched: Massa- 
chusetts to the Gulf; westward to 
Michigan and Texas; one of the 

UA? d i : 
eaescseres <j largest American snakes 
Subspecies of E. obsoleta 


E. o. obsoleta (Say). Pilot 
blacksnake. Color uniform black: 
northern States. 

E. o. confinis (B. and G.). 
Color gray, with large, irregular 
dark dorsal spots and smaller 
lateral spots: south Atlantic and 
Ss Gulf States; Missouri. 

E. vulpina (B. and G.). Fox- 
snake. Length 1,150mm.; tail 200 
mm.; color brown or yellowish, with a series of dark brown blotches 
which alternate with a lateral series on each side; belly yellow, with 
dark spots; head often reddish: Ohio to Minnesota; southward to the 
Missouri; often common, feeding on rats round barns; they often 
emit a fox-like odor. 

12. Drymobius Fitzinger. Medium sized tropical snakes allied to 
our racers (Coluber) ; scales keeled, in 17 rows; anal plate divided; upper 
labials 9, 3 entering the orbit; a single preocular present: 4 species in 
tropical America, 1 reaching Texas. 

D. margartiferus (Schlegel). Length about 1,000 mm.; color black, 
with a green spot on each scale: Brownsville, Texas. 

13. Drymarchon Fitzinger (Spilotes Wagler). Large tropical, 
non-poisonous snakes with a simple anal plate and smooth scales; 
upper labials 8; color shining black, above and below: 1 species. 


Fic. 119.—Elaphe obsoleta (from Cope). 


REPTILES 209 


D. corais couperi (Holbrook). Indigo snake; gopher snake. Length 
2,300 mm.; tail 330 mm.; scales in 17 rows: Gulf States; northward 
into South Carolina; westward to Texas; the largest American snake; 
often round barns and houses, looking for rats and mice. 

14. Pituophis Holbrook. Bull-snakes. Large, non-poisonous, con- 
strictor snakes with a long pointed head; scales in 25 to 35 rows; dorsal 
scales keeled, lateral scales smooth; ventrals about 215; upper labials 


Fic. 120.—Pituophis sayi: 1, sheath of tongue; 2, epiglottis; 3, glottis (from Cope). 


8 or 9; a peculiar epiglottis-like membrane (Fig. 120) in front of the 
glottis vibrates when the animal is alarmed, producing a loud hiss: 
4 species, all American; the largest American, harmless snakes; terres- 
trial and arboreal, feeding on small mammals, birds and eggs, and 
living usually in dry woods. 


Key to the Species of Pituophis 


Arie bereastenn torested: regions .2-). css ae fae ses eee ae P. melanoleucus. 
Aplin theyprainte Staves. and Great Platnse2. as aes jscas ns eee PSayi. 


a3 On the Pacific slope and in the Great Basin................. P. catenifer. 


P. melanoleucus (Daudin). Pine snake. Length 1,500 mm.; 
tail 220 mm.; greatest length 2,400 mm.; color whitish, with a series 
of from 27 to 33 large, black or brown, irregular dorsal blotches and 
2 series of smaller lateral blotches on each side; belly white: southern 
New York to Florida and Louisiana; often abundant in pine woods. 

P. sayi (Schlegel) (Fig. 120). Length 1,550 mm.; tail 200 mm.; 
greatest length 2,600 mm.; color reddish yellow, with a series of large, 
square brown or black dorsal blotches, and a series of smaller blotches 
on each side; abdomen yellow, with a row of black spots on each side: 
western Indiana and Alberta, Canada, to Arizona and Texas and the 


210 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


Rockies; very common towards the south; one of the largest American 
snakes. 

P. catenifer (Blainville). Length 1,400 mm.; tail 240 mm.; color 
yellowish brown, with a series of about roo small square, reddish brown 
or black dorsal spots and a series of more or less obscure spots on each 
side; belly yellowish white with 2 series of spots: British Columbia to 
California, Idaho, Utah and Nevada; common. 

15. Arizona Kennicott. Large snakes witha rostral plate recurved 
and extending between the internasals; scales smooth; anal plate 
single: 2 species. 

A. elegans Kenn. Length 918 mm.; tail 145 mm.; color grayish 
brown, crossed by 55 to 65 transverse brown spots in front of the anus; 
belly whitish, unspotted; scales in 29 to 31 rows: along the Mexican 
border; northward into Oklahoma and Arkansas. 

16. Rhadinza Fitzinger. Small snakes with smooth scales in 17 
rows; ventrals 125; upper labials 7: many species in Mexico and Central 
America, 1 in the United States. 

R. flavilata (Cope). Length 300 mm.; tail 90 mm.; color golden 
brown; abdomen yellowish white: North Carolina to Florida; terrestrial. 

17. Lampropeltis Fitzinger. King-snakes. Non-poisonous, con- 
strictor snakes with smooth scales in 19 to 27 rows; colors often bright, 
arranged usually in transverse bands: about 12 species, all American, 
9 in the United States; terrestrial, feeding on rodents and other small 
animals, including snakes, being immune to the bites of poisonous ones. 


Key to the Species of Lampropeltis 


a; Ground color black, with usually narrow transverse color 
PXATICES - fee cra a ee che ah cage aie Wt ehh Renae ie Si ge ge ge L. getulus. 
a2 Ground color pale, with large, red or brown blotches. 
b; Blotches wide and long, making up most of the color 


OLN Uc) ee el ea eee PPE RRILA Re R Sean gin mes Se eee A edhe 2 L. triangulum. 
by Blotches small, oblong. 
cr Seales an osirows 32.5. U8. Unie sete a eee a ee L. rhombomaculata. « 
Cy cales tn 25: FOWS i. 3 ids eae ees ee a es ees ie oe L. calligaster. 
a; Color pattern contains color rings encircling body. 
by Ground color xed;:tings black.02% o:2. Ay sa eee L. elapsoides. 
be Ground color xed; ngs whitish. ..<... s+. .7eee eee L. pyrhomelana. 
bs Ground).color white; mmnpstblack. 2: = 22.2. aan eee L. multicincta, 


L. getulus (L.). Chain-snake (Fig. 113). Length 1,500 mm.; tail 
200 mm.; greatest length 1,800 mm.; color black, with usually narrow 
yellow or white dorsal bands which may fork on the sides and join one 
another, giving the effect of a chain; belly black, blotched with white 


REPTILES 211 


or yellow; scales in 21 to 25 rows; superior labials 7: entire country 
south of latitude 40; common. 


Subspecies of L. getulus 


L. g. getulus (L.). Color bands narrow, forking on the sides; 
scales in 21 rows: New Jersey to the Gulf. 

L. g. holbrooki Stejneger. Scales in 21 rows; a yellow spot on each 
dorsal scale; no bands: Louisiana to Texas; northward to Illinois and 
Wyoming. 

L. g. nigra (Yarrow). Scales in 21 rows; scales without light centers 
or with very small ones: eastern Illinois to Ohio; southward into 
Alabama. 

L. g. floridana Blanchard. Scales in 23 rows; cross bands more than 
50. or not distinguishable: Florida. 

L. g. boylii (Baird and Girard). Scales in 23 rows; color bands broad 
and forming rings: western Arizona and Utah to California. 

L. g. california (Blainville). Scales in 23 rows; a dorsal longitudinal 
stripe either complete or interrupted: southern California. 

L. triangulum (Lacépéde) (L. doliata L.). Length 860 mm.; tail 
130 mm.; ground color gray or yellow, with a series of broad, black- 
bordered red or brown bands or saddles occupying the dorsal and lateral 
sides of the body; abdomen yellowish or red, with black spots alter- 
nating irregularly with the bands; scales in 21 rows: eastern and central 
States; westward into Texas, Kansas and Iowa; often common. 


Subspecies of L. triangulum 


L. t. syspila (Cope). Dorsal saddles 23 to 35 in number: Ohio and 
Tennessee to Iowa and Oklahoma. 

L. t. triangulum Lac. Milk-snake. Ground color gray, bands 
much broken and brown or reddish: northern States; southward into 
North Carolina; westward into Iowa. 

L. t. amaura Cope. Scarlet king-snake. Ground color yellow; 
bands bright red, nearly encircling the body and about 20 in number: 
Mississippi to Texas. 

L. t. gentilis (B. and G.). Bands dull red with black borders and 25 
to 40 in number: Texas to Dakota. 

L. rhombomaculata (Holbrook). Length 830 mm.; tail 111 mm.; 
color light brown, with a series of about 55 chestnut lenticular dorsal 
blotches, alternating with a series of smaller blotches on each side; 


22 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


belly yellowish, more or less blotched; scales in 21 rows: Maryland to 
northern Florida. 

L. calligaster (Say). Length 1,150 mm.; tail 160 mm.; color gray or 
light brown, with a series of about 60 squarish, brown black-bordered 
blotches and 2 series of smaller blotches on each side; scales in 25 rows: 
Indiana to Minnesota; southward to Texas. 

L. elapsoides (Holbrook). Scarlet snake. Length 430 mm.; tail 67 
mm.; color bright red, with about 18 pairs of black rings encircling the 
body, each pair enclosing a white ring; scales in 19 rows: southeastern 
and Gulf States, from Maryland to Louisiana. 

L. pyromelana (Cope). Length 725 mm.; tail 1oz2 mm.; color 
yellowish or red, forming about 38 broad bands encircling the body 
which are separated by as many narrow yellowish bands each bordered 
with black; scales in 23 rows; labials 7: southern New Mexico to 
California. 

L. multicincta (Yarrow). Coral king-snake. Length 850 mm.; tail 
147 mm.; color pattern formed of about 45 black rings encircling the 
body, each ring enclosing some red, and separated by narrower whitish 
rings; head black; scales usually in 23 rows: California, except in deserts. 

18. Stilosoma Brown. Slender snakes with smooth scales in 19 
rows; head not distinct from the body; no loreals: 1 species. 

S. extenuatum Brown. Length 532 mm.; tail 50 mm.; color silver- 
gray, with 61 dorsal dark brown spots on the body and 11 on the tail; 
belly gray, blotched with black: north-central Florida. 

19. Contia Baird & Girard. Small snakes with smooth scales in 15 
rows; ventrals about 150; upper labials 7: several species, 1 in the 
United States. 

C. tenuis (B. and G.). Length 290 mm.; tail 60 mm.; color deep 
chestnut brown, with 2 light longitudinal bands; yellow below with 
dark bars: Puget Sound to southern California; rare. 

20. Sonora Baird and Girard. Small poisonous snakes with smooth 
scales in 13 to 15 rows; rear maxillary teeth elongate and grooved; 
ventrals about 160; upper labials 7: 4 species. 


Key to the Species of Sonora 


@y Scales tin G3 TOWS consis oto Sk Seda ees ec S. taylori. 

az Scales in 15 rows 
by. Venttals'r45 to 153;‘subcaudalsia5\t0).5 7 i eaeteeeeneens oe S. semiannulata. 
be. Ventrals 158+. subeaudals aay.%c.j.c lee. <n ee ae S. occipitalis. 


S. taylori (Boulenger). Length 270 mm.; tail 55 mm.; color pale 
brown above, white beneath: southern Texas. 


REPTILES on 


S. semiannulata B. & G. Length 230 mm.; tail 40 mm.; color ashen 
or pink, crossed by about 20 black half rings, or uniform; belly white: 
Idaho to southeastern California, Kansas and Texas. 

S. occipitalis (Hollowell). Length 323 mm.; tail 53 mm.; color 
milk white above, with 34 transverse black bands; belly white: Colorado 
to southeastern California. 

21. Cemophora Cope. Small, harmless snakes with smooth scales 
in 19 rows; ventrals about 170; upper labials 6: 1 species. 

C. coccinea (Blumenbach). Length 410 mm.; tail 60 mm.; color 
scarlet, with about 20 pairs of black cross bands, each pair enclosing a 
yellow band; belly white or yellow; top of head red or orange: southern 
and Gulf States from Maryland to the Mississippi; common in Florida; 
very similar in appearance to the poisonous coral snakes, but differing 
from them in having a plain, unblotched belly; similar also to the 
scarlet king-snake which differs from it in that its rings nearly encircle 
the body. 

22. Rhinocheilus Baird & Girard. Small snakes with smooth 
scales in 23 rows and undivided subcaudals: 1 species, 

R. lecontet B. and G. Length 600 mm.; tail 85 mm.; color black and 
red, there being 33 large square black blotches alternating with red 
bands; belly white: Kansas and Idaho to California. 

23. Hypsiglena Cope. Small snakes with smooth scales in 21 
rows; rear teeth in upper jaw enlarged; pupil vertical: 1 species. 

H. ochrorhynchus Cope. Length 675 mm.; tail 75 mm.; color gray 
with about 48 large brown spots on the body and 2 alternating series on 
the tail; 2 lateral series; ventrals 167; subcaudals 55: western Texas to 
Idaho and southeastern California. 

24. Ficimia Gray. Small, stout snakes with an acute rostral plate, 
the anterior end of which is turned up; no loreal plate; scales smooth, in 
17 rows; anal plate divided; pupil round: 2 species. 

F. cana (Cope). Length 188 mm.; tail 23 mm.; color brownish 
yellow, with 30 cross bands; belly whitish, unspotted; upper labials 7: 
western Texas to Arizona. 

25. Chilomeniscus Cope. Small, stout burrowing snakes with a 
prominent rounded, flattened snout; scales smooth, in 13 rows; anal 
plate divided; no loreal plate: 1 species. 

C. cinctus Cope. Length 120 mm.; tail 16 mm.; color red or 
orange, with 21 black cross bars in front of the anus; belly white: 
southern Arizona and California. 

26. Natrix Laurenti (Tropidonotus Kuhl). Water snakes. Thick- 
bodied non-poisonous snakes with a distinct head and with keeled 


214 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


scales in from 19 to 33 rows; ventrals about 140; colors brown or black: 
many species in North America and Eurasia, all viviparous and semi- 
aquatic, living along the borders of streams or ponds and feeding on 
frogs, fish and other cold blooded animals. 


Key to the United States Species of Natrix 


ai Body striped longitudinally. 
b; Scales in 19 rows; upper labials 7. 
c, Abdomen with 2 broken stripes. 


d, Ventrolateral light stripes; eastern States.........N. septemvittata. 
d. No ventrolateral light stripes; southeastern States. N. rigida. 
co Abdomen plain or with a central black stripe........1 N. grahamit. 
bo- Scales in 2t-rowss Gull States. 2%... ovanc deny ere ea tee ee oe N. clarkit. 
a» Body with transverse bands or spots. 
by Scales“in. sro tows* central Statesi:.. 0. 2. oe ve see Oe N. kirtlandit. 
by-Seales anier rows Velondartg 22k .NS aa ek meee en eee ee N. compressicauda. 


bs Scales in 23 to 25 rows. 
c, A light line from eye to angle of mouth; ventrals 123 
HERD LBRO Net ho fia R08 1 aay DE eee aN eg aed N. fasctata. 
c2 No such light line. 
d, Half-moon shaped spot on belly; ventrals 135 to 
145; pattern of bands anteriorly and alternating 
blotchesspasterianlyso 72 seeks dees user seen, eet N. sipedon. 
d. Belly uniform yellow or red; adults uniform brown 
above; young with alternating blotches above; 
VEN LEAS STAG OCIS Gan vi chatectsaee cies eee Ae beeen N. erythrogaster. 
by Scales in 27 to 33 rows. 
c, Two anterior temporals; dorsal and lateral alternating 
rows of isolated large square spots......... _N. taxispilota. 
c. One anterior temporal; narrow dorsal anal epee ene 
d, Eye in contact with labials; pattern conspicuous, 


forming diamonds on back............ ..N. rhombifera. 
d. Eye separated by subocular ae labials: suttech 
indistinct, not forming diamonds..............1 N. cyclopion. 


N. septemvittata (Say). Moon-snake; queen-snake. Length 600 
mm.; tail 120 mm.; color dark brown, with 3 narrow, black dorsal 
stripes, often indistinct, and a bright yellow lateral band; belly yellow, 
with 2 brown bands: United States east of the Mississippi, except New 
England and New York; common. 

N. rigida (Say). Length 560 mm.; tail 120 mm.; color brown, with 
2 narrow black stripes; belly yellow, with 2 stripes or rows of black 
spots: South Carolina to Louisiana. 

N. grahamii (Baird and Girard). Length 640 mm.; tail 120 mm. 
color brown with a pale middorsal band and a broad ale or aloe 


REPTILES 215 


lateral band bordered beneath with black; belly plain yellowish: 
Mississippi Valley, from the Great Lakes to Texas; common. 

N. clarkii (B. and G.). Length 790 mm.; tail 178 mm.; color brown, 
with 4 bands of deep brown; belly yellow, with 2 brown bands dotted 
with black: coastal regions from Florida to Texas. 

N. kirtlandii (Kennicott). Length 400 mm.; tail 100 mm.; color 
light brown or reddish, with 2 series of rather indistinct round spots on 
the back alternating with a series of large black blotches on each side; 
belly red in the middle portions, with a row of dark spots on each side; 
upper labials 6: north-central States, from Wisconsin to New Jersey; 
common in the west; rare in the east. 


——S 


IN er \\ 
(eXFo: } 
ASG ge 
RK Nya 


oS 


Liste KAKO 
ci) Ge 
WW Na 


Fic. 121.—WNatrix sipedon (from Cope). 


N. compressicauda (Kennicott). Length 560 mm.; tail 130 mm.; 
color gray, with irregular, obscure darker bands; belly gray or brown, 
with a central series of yellow spots; tail flattened at base: southwestern 
Florida. 

N. sipedon (L.) (N. fasciata L.). Common water snake (Fig. 121). 
Length 960 mm.; tail 200 mm.; color brown, with 30 or 4o yellowish or 
reddish, often indistinct transverse bars which may widen on the sides; 
belly yellowish or white, with many brown or red spots; scales in 23 or 
25 rows: eastern and central States; westward into Colorado. 

N. fasciata (L.). A series of cross bands; belly yellowish or reddish, 
more or less spotted: Atlantic coast from North Carolina southward; 
westward to Louisiana and up the Mississippi Valley to Nebraska and 
Indiana. 

N. erythrogaster Foster. Dorsal bands broken into blotches the 
entire length of body; in young individuals belly uniform, unspotted; 
in adult (in the east also save new-born) uniform above: New York to 


216 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


Georgia, Michigan and Texas; very rare and local in northeast; common 
in south and west. 

N. rhombifera (Hallowell). Length 1,000 mm.; tail 240 mm.; color 
brownish, with a series of about 50 dorsal rhomboidal blotches; scales in 
27 rows: southern Indiana and Illinois to Louisiana and Texas. 

N.cyclopion (Duméril & Bibron). Length 1,000 mm.; tail 260 mm.; 
color dark greenish with many dorsal transverse black bands; eye sur- 
rounded by a ring of scales; scales in 29 rows: Florida to Louisiana 
and up the Mississippi Valley to southern Illinois. 

N. taxispilota (Holbrook) Water-pilot. Length 1,300 mm.; tail 
300 mm.; color rusty brown, with a series dark blotches on the back 
alternating with a similar series on each side; scales in 29 to 33 rows: 
Atlantic and Gulf States; northward to North Carolina; the largest 
American water snake. 

27. Seminatrix Cope. Small snakes living in or near the water, 
with smooth scales in 17 rows; scales on the tail 
weakly keeled; upper-labials usually 8: 1 species. 

S. pygea (Cope). Length 420 mm.; tail 70 mm.; 
Fic. 122.—Storeria COlor black, with a faint pale line running along the 
dekayt (from Cope). center of each scale; belly red, crossed on the body 
with narrow black bars; and plate divided: South Carolina to Florida. 

28. Storeria Baird and Girard. Small snakes with head distinct 
from the neck and with scales in 15 to 17 rows; ventrals about 135; 
loreal plate absent: 4 species, all American and viviparous; 3 species 
in the United States. 

S. dekayi (Holbrook). Dekay’s snake; brown snake (Fig. 122). 
Length 300 mm.; tail 60 mm.; color chestnut or grayish brown, with a 
lighter middorsal stripe bordered with black dots; belly whitish; upper 
labials 7; scales in 17 rows: eastern and central States; westward to 
Kansas; southward into Mexico; terrestrial, secretive, living under 
stones and logs, often in towns, feeding on insects, worms, etc.; common. 

S. occipito-maculata (Storer). Red-bellied snake. Length 250mm.; 
tail 60 mm.; color chestnut brown or grayish with a lighter middorsal 
stripe bordered with dark dots; belly red; upper labials 5 or 6; scales 
in I5 rows: eastern and central States; westward to Kansas; south- 
ward into Mexico. 

29. Potamophis Fitzinger (Haldea Baird & Girard). Small snakes 
with keeled scales in 17 rows; head distinct from the neck and very 
narrow and pointed: 1 species. 

P. striatulus (L.) Length 280 mm.; tail 40 mm.; color grayish or 
reddish brown; belly red; ventrals 119 to 130; upper labials 5: southern 


REPTILES org 


and central States; northward into Virginia east of the mountains and 
into Minnesota west of them; southwestward into Texas; common in 
damp woods, under the bark of fallen trees and stones; viviparous. 

30. Virginia Baird & Girard. Small snakes with smooth scales in 
15 to 17 rows; upper labials 6, ventrals 125: 2 species. 

V. valerie B and G. Length 180 mm.; tail 30 mm.; color grayish 
brown or chestnut, with minute black dots; belly yellowish white; 
scales in 15 rows: southern and central States; northward into New 
Jersey; westward to Tennessee; common; secretive. 

V. v. elegans Kennicott. Similar to V. valerie, but differing in 
having scales in 17 rows: Indiana and Illinois to Texas. 

31. Thamnophis Fitzinger. (Eutenia Baird & Girard). Garter 
snakes. Rather small, slender snakes, with a distinct head and keeled 
scales in 17 to 23 rows; upper labials usually 7 or 8; 3 longitudinal, more 
or less yellowish stripes; also several series of spots usually present; 
ventrals 130 to 180: about 24 species, all North American; 11 species in 
the United States, all viviparous; terrestrial and often aquatic, feeding 
on frogs, toads, worms and other cold blooded animals. 


Key to the United States Species of Thamnophis 


a; Lateral stripes anteriorly on third and fourth scale rows. 


b, Tail long; snake slim; stripes narrow and bright.............7. sauritus. 

b. Tail shorter; snake stout; stripes broader and vaguer........ T.. radix. 
aoulateral sEnipes omathird: SCAG TOW ka. \me. sec 6 bts oe Gt ee sre ee T. marcianus. 
a3 Lateral stripes on second and third scale rows. 

HiUipmeretbrels normally iS. a .ace srr 5.6. way ele! sin wf sve Shots ee ol T. ordinoides. 


be Upper labials normally 7. 
c, Eye small; scales usually 17; posterior and anterior chin 


SL ErVEI GG urea a ls yee ee he oy ag i eee ee T. ordinoides. 
Co Eye large; scales 19; posterior chin shield much the larger... 7. sirtalis. 
Deu perLvbIals GOL Use acters ats Ao as @ aee= oe oe ais os ahi T. lineatus. 


T. sirtalis (L.) Common garter snake (Fig. 123). Length 750 mm.; 
tail 130 mm.; color very variable, varying from greenish to blackish, 
with 3 yellowish, longitudinal stripes and 2 or 3 series of black spots on 
each side, both stripes and spots being indistinct in some cases; belly 
greenish: entire country; our commonest snake. 


Subspecies of T. sirtalis 


T. s. sirtalis (L.) Typical form: eastern and central States; west- 
ward to Minnesota and Missouri. 

T. s. concinnus (Hallowell). A series of reddish, vertically elongated 
spots on each side; ground color black; throat and lips red; belly black: 
coast region of Oregon, Washington and British Columbia. 


218 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


’ T. s. infernalis (Blainville). In western Nevada and California. 
T. s. parietalis (Say). Ground color light brown; belly slate color; 
a series of vertical red bars on each side: Missouri to the Sierra Nevadas 
and Cascades. 


Fic. 123.—Thamnophis sirtalis (from Cope). 


T. sauritus (L.) Ribbon snake. Length 660 mm.; tail 230 mm.; 
body very slender; stripes bright yellow: eastern States; westward to 
Texas and Nebraska. 


Subspecies of T. sauritus 


T. s. sauritus (L.). East of the Mississippi and north of Florida. 

T. s. sackenii (Kennicott). Usually without dorsal stripe: Florida. 

T.s. proximus (Say). West of the Mississippi. 

T. radix (B. and G.). Length 800 mm.; tail 170 mm.; stripes yellow; 
lateral stripes on the third and fourth rows of scales: from the Rockies 
to western New York and south to Kansas and Missouri. 


Subspecies of T. radix 


T.r. radix (B and G.). Larger; scales 21: west of Indiana. 

T. r. butleri (Cope). Smaller; scales 19: Indiana to New York. 

T. ordinoides (B. and G.) (T. elegans B. & G.). Length 700 mm.; 
tail 140 mm.; ground color dark brown or black; dorsal stripe bright 
yellow; lateral stripe faint, and on second and third rows of scales, or 
absent; back often with regular rows of large black blotches: coastal 
region of Pacific States; eastward to New Mexico and Wyoming. 

T. lineatus (Hallowell). Small snakes;length 360 mm.; tail 40 mm.; 
lateral stripe on scale rows 2 and 3; 19 scale rows; 5 to 6 upper labials: 
Ohio to Iowa and Tennessee. . 

T.marcianus (B.andG.). Length 510 mm.; tail 160 mm. ; color light 
yellow, with numerous square, black spots arranged like a checker 
board; belly white: Oklahoma and Texas to southeastern California. 


REPTILES 219 


32. Liodytes Cope. Stout snakes with a distinct head and smooth 
scales in 19 rows; caudal scales keeled; body tapering abruptly at both 
ends: 1 species. 

L. allenii (Garman). Length 600 mm.; tail 135 mm.; color of back 
dark brown; sides with a broad olive band and a darker band beneath it; 
belly yellow, unspotted:.Florida and southern Georgia. 

33. Tantilla Baird & Girard. Very small, somewhat poisonous 
snakes with smooth scales in 15 rows; ventrals about 150; upper labials 
6 or 7; one or more pairs of grooved teeth at the rear of the upper jaw 
through which poison is injected; closely resembling Sonora, but without 
a loreal plate: many species in the southern States and Mexico. 

T. coronata B. and G. Length 230 mm.; tail 40 mm.; color reddish 
brown; lighter beneath; head black or dark brown, with a light neck 
band followed by a dark one; upper labials 7: Virginia to Mississippi. 

T. gracilis B. & G. Length 140 mm.; tail 30 mm.; color uniform 
greenish brown; upper labials 6: Missouri to Texas. 

T. nigriceps Kennicott. Body brown; head and nape black; 
upper labials 6: Texas to Arizona. 

34. Coniophanes Cope. Medium sized and poisonous snakes with 
smooth scales and double anal plates, closely resembling Rhadinea, 
but with hinder maxillary teeth grooved: several species in Mexico and 
Central America, 1 reaching Texas. 

C. imperialis (Baird). Length 350 mm.; tail 150 mm.; 19 scale 
rows; color pale brown, with a black band on the back and one on each 
side from snout to temple: near Brownsville, Texas. 

35. Leptodeira Fitzinger. Medium sized poisonous snakes; hinder 
maxillary teeth elongate and grooved; scales smooth; and plate double; 
pupil of eye vertically elliptic; resembling Hypsiglena, but with grooved 
fangs: 7 species in the American tropics, 1 entering Texas. 

L. septentrionalis (Kennicott). Length 750 mm.; tail 150 mm.; 
color light brown, with broad rings of black; head black: near Browns- 
ville, Texas; nocturnal. 

36. Oxybelis Wegler. Extremely slender tree-snakes, with a very 
long, pointed snout; scales smooth, in oblique rows on the sides; enlarged 
fangs on the hinder part of the maxilla which are poisonous: 35 species 
in Central America, 1 in Arizona. 

O. micropthalmus Barbour and Amaral. Length 1350 mm.; tail 
550 mm.; color reddish above and below, with a white line along the sides 
of the belly; 17 scale rows; snout four times as long as the eye: southern 
Arizona. 


220 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


37. Trimorphodon Cope. Medium sized, poisonous snakes with a 
flat broad and very distinct head, resembling Leptodeira; but with 
2 loreals on each side; hinder maxillary teeth elongate and grooved; 
scales smooth; anal plate single or divided: about to species in Mexico; 
3 in the United States. 


Key to the Species of Trimorphodon 


a, Dorsal spots divided by a white line; head dark above, with a 
light lyre-shaped pattern. 

b,; Anal usually single; color darker; body with 30 to 42 spots.T. vandenburghi. 

by Anal usually double; color paler; body with 21 to 33 spots. 7. lyrophanes. 
a2 Dorsal spots solid; head pale above, with 3 round black spots. ..T. vilkinsonit. 

T. vandenburghi Klauber. Similar to T. lyrophanes, differing as in 
key: southwestern California. 

T. vilkinsonii Cope. Similar to T. lyrophanes: El Paso, Texas. 

T.lyrophanes (Cope). Length 1,750 mm.; tail 150 mm.; color gray, 
with 21 to 33 brown blotches on the back in front of the anus; tail and 
sides also blotched; scales in 23 rows: southern Arizona. 

Family 4. Elapidz.—Elapine snakes. Poisonous snakes with 
usually many teeth in both jaws, the front pair of teeth in the upper 
jaw forming a pair of short rigid fangs which are perforated each by a 
poison canal opening at the tip; subcaudals in two rows; head covered 
with plates and not scales: about 140 species in India, Africa, America 
and Australia, including many very poisonous ones; 1 genus in the 
United States. The largest of these snakes is the Indian cobra, which 
may attain a length of 10 or 12 feet and is, perhaps, the most deadly 
serpent known. 

Micrurus Wagler (Flaps Auct., not Schneider). Body slender 
and cylindrical; head small; no loreal; scales smooth and in 15 rows; 
anal plate divided: many species in tropical America; 2 in the United 
States. 

M. fulvius (L.). Coral snake; harlequin snake. Length 930 mm.; 
tail 70 mm.; color red, black and yellow, arranged in bands encircling 
the body, there being about 14 broad red bands separated from as many 
broad black bands by narrow yellow rings; head and tail with only black 
and yellow; upper labials 7:south Atlantic and Gulf States from North 
Carolina to Texas; a burrowing snake which feeds on lizards and snakes, 
with a bite that may be very dangerous; the most deadly American 
snake; three-quarter of those bitten die. 

M. euryxanthus (Kennicott). Similar to M. fulvius, but differing 
from it in that the first broad band back of the head is red instead of 
black: southern New Mexico and Arizona. 


REPTILES 221 


Family 5. Crotalida.—Rattlesnakes and copperheads; viperine 
snakes. Poisonous snakes with a thick body, a slender neck and a flat, 
triangular head; upper jaw without solid maxillary teeth, but with a 
pair of long poison fangs which are perforated each with a canal opening 
at the tip and lie against the roof of the mouth when not in use, but are 
erected or directed forward when the animal strikes; a deep pit present 
between the eye and the nostril; pupil vertical; subcaudals mostly 
undivided; anal plate undivided; the end of the tail in most species com- 
posed of horny rings (the rattle); scales keeled: 3 genera and about 18 
species in the United States; about 6 genera in the Neotropic region and 
4 genera in the old world; viviparous, but few young produced at a 
birth, at most a dozen or fifteen. 


Key to the United States Genera of Crotalide 


SIN OMAR EE MREG EM Ute net pune eT ate cael a 21h SEMEN Mah ty eral 1. Agkistrodon. 
ao Rattle present. 
bi Top of head covered with plates (Fig. 126)................2. Séstrurus. 
be Top of head covered with scales (Fig. 127).................3. Crotalus. 


1. Agkistrodon Beauvois. Head covered with 9 symmetrical 
plates; no rattle present; scales in 23 or 25 rows; upper labials 8; ventrals 
130 ta 150; anterior subcaudals undivided, posterior ones divided: 
IO species, 7 in Asia, 2 in the United States. 


Key to the Species of Agkistrodon 


aj ocales im o2-towssloreal plate presents2/hc..\. 2. ke vo ees ee Se ete ed A. mokasen. 
dU CaesIMuan hows Oreal plake absentia: ...0¢ shiva. seus un ave A. piscivorus: 


A. mokasen Beauvois (A. contortrix L.). Copperhead; moccasin 
(Fig. 124). Length 830 mm.; tail 120 mm.; 
color light brown, with about 15 transverse 
bands of darker brown which are narrow on 
top and very broad at the sides; head copper 
color; belly whitish, with a series of large 1 Ser aE OA a MCRDESE 
dark spots on each side: Massachusetts to 
northern Florida; westward to Illinois and Texas; sometimes abundant 
in swampy or rocky places, feeding on frogs, rodents, birds and snakes; 
bite very dangerous. 


Subspecies of A. mokasen 


A.m. mokasen Beauvois. Cross band narrow: eastern States. 
A. m. laticinctus Gloyd and Conant. Cross bands wider: Texas and 
Oklahoma. 


222 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


A. piscivorus (Lacépéde). Water moccasion; cottonmouth (Fig. 
125). Length 1,000 mm.; tail 190 mm.; color olive brown, crossed by 
20 to 30 obscure darker bands; head purplish black; belly yellow, with 
black blotches: Atlantic and Gulf 
drainage from Virginia to eastern 
Texas; semiaquatic, often common 
along streams, feeding on frogs, fish, 
Fic. 125.—Agkistrodon piscivorus (from rodents and birds, for which the 

en snakes will often lie in wait, perched 
in bushes overhanging the water; bite very dangerous. 

2. Sistrurus Garman. Rather small snakes, with head covered 
with 9 symmetrical plates, and with a small rattle composed of not 
more than 8 rings; scales in 21 to 25 rows; upper labials 10 to 12; ven- 
trals 125 to 145; subcaudals, except a few of the terminal ones, undi- 
vided: 3 species, 1 in Mexico. 

S. catenatus (Rafinesque). Massasauga (Fig. 126). Length 800 
mm.; tail roo mm.; color light brown, with a middorsal series of 30 to 36 
irregular dark brown blotches, each one edged with white, and 3 similar 
laterals series; belly mottled brown; melanistic coloring not uncommon; 
scales in 23 or 25 rows; upper labials 11 or 12: western New York’to 
Nebraska; southward into Texas and Mexico; in wet 
fields and swamps, feeding on frogs and other small 
animals; bite very dangerous. 


Subspecies of S. catenatus 


S. c. catenatus (Raf.). Scales in 25 rows; colors 
darker; blotches larger: eastern and central parts of 
range. 

S. c. edwardstt (Baird and Girard). Scales in'23 re.126.—Sis: 
rows; colors paler; blotches smaller: Oklahoma and Ge il ree ee 
western Texas. 

S. miliarius (L.). Ground rattler. Length 430 mm.; tail 60 mm.; 
color gray, yellowish or brown, with a middorsal series of about 4o 
irregular spots or cross bars and 1 or 2 lateral series of smaller spots on 
each side; belly white, with numerous dark blotches; scales in 21 to 23 
rows; upper labials ro or 11: Atlantic and Gulf drainage from central 
North Carolina to Texas, and up the Mississippi Valley to Arkansas 
and Oklahoma; in wet places; the least dangerous of the rattlesnakes. 

3. Crotalus L. Rattlesnakes. Head covered with scales, most 
species having also small plates between and in front of the eyes; rattle 
large and composed of at most 14 rings; scales in 23 to 31 rows; upper 


REPTILES 223 


labials 12 to 16; ventrals about 175; subcaudals undivided: r5 species, in 
North and South America, 12 in the United States, all very dangerous 
snakes. The young rattler has no rattle, but a soft horny button at 
the end of its tail. During its first season it adds one horny ring to the 
button. In the succeeding seasons it usually adds 3 rings a year, the 
terminal rings usually becoming lost as the snake gets older. 


Key to the United States Species of Crotalus 


Seer PRAMIC UAT NOMECN er Farce ha by ota Saini cig does anche hae by eae C. cerastes. 
a> Supraocular not horned. 
b; Eye separated from labials by 1 row of scales.............. C. triseriatus. 
by Eye separated from labials by 2 to 5 rows of scales. 
c, Upper preocular small, higher than wide................C. lepidus. 
co Upper preocular large, much wider than high 
dqmeatternot short Chossipandsrobewnitce esses ee: C. willardi. 


d. Pattern not of white cross bands. 
e; Dorsal bands enclosing paired light spots; tail black..C. molossus. 
e. Dorsal bands not enclosing paired light spots. 
f; Dorsal pattern of dark chevrons; tail usually 
je'l Ete EPR R ain, AES, ade re Cm iret ere Be OR C. horridus. 
f. Dorsal pattern of more or less squarish spots or 
straight cross bands. 
gi: Large snakes with dorsal diamond markings; 
a light line from back of eye reaches scale 
row above labials at least 2 scales anterior to 
angle of jaw. 


hie NOG Garolina tomuoulstanan. se. eee C. adamanteus. 
ho Texas and Oklahoma to _ southeastern 

Gahikounitay cys eee ek ee C. atrox. 
hee OOuULMWwesterny ©alittornians a. 0s sees C. ruber. 


go A light line from back of eye (if present) 

reaches scale above labials only at angle of 

mouth, or not at all; pattern of squarish 
blotches or cross bands. 

h, Squarish blotches present, at least anter- 


iorly. 
i; Two scales on snout between nasals; 2 
scales between supraoculars..........C. scutulatus. 
iz Four scales on snout between nasals; 4 
to 6 scales between supraoculars..... C. confluentus. 
he Many narrow cross bars present..........C. tigris. 


C. horridus L. Common rattlesnake (Fig. 127). Length 1,000 mm.; 
tail 130 mm.; greatest length 1,750 mm.; color yellowish brown, with 
about 22 wide, dark brown, more or less irregular cross bands, each of 
which is often broken into 3 separate irregular blotches; abdomen 
yellowish, with black spots; melanistic coloring not uncommon; tail 


224 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


of adult black; scales in 23 to 25 rows; upper labials 13 or 14: entire 
country east of the Great Plains; northward to Maine; southward to 
northern Florida; in rocky regions, feeding on rodents and birds; bite 
very dangerous. 

C. adamanteus Beauvois. Diamond-back rattlesnake. Length 
1,800 mm.; tail 220 mm.; diameter of body 100 mm.; greatest length 
2,500 mm.; color olive or brown, with a dorsal series of about 20 more or 
less irregular diamond-shaped markings, each diamond enclosing the 
ground color; tail ringed with black; belly yellow; scales in 27 to 29 
rows; upper labials 15: Atlantic and Gulf coastal regions, from North 
Carolina to Louisiana, in swamps and wet woods; 
the largest American poisonous snake. 

C. atrox Baird & Girard. Length 1,300 mm.; 
tail 150 mm.; color gray with a dorsal series of 
brown, diamond-shaped spots, each bordered with 


2 


Se 


Fic. 127.—Crotalus horridus (from Cope). 


white; scales in 27 rows; upper labials 15 or 16: Arkansas to south- 
eastern California, in arid regions; a feral colony exists in Wood 
County, Wisconsin: common. 

C. molossus B. & G. Length 1,000 mm.; tail 80 mm.; color sulphur 
yellow, with a dorsal series of brown rhombs open at the side; tail black; 
scales in 29 rows: southern Texas to southern Arizona. 

C. ruber Cope. A large rattler very like C. atrox, but reddish, with 
indistinct marking: extreme southwestern California. 

C. cerastes Hollowell. Sidewinder. Length 480 mm.; tail 50 mm.; 
a pair of conspicuous horn-like projections between the eyes; color light 
brown, with a middorsal series of about 40 brown square spots and a 
lateral series of small spots on each side; scales in 21 rows; upper labials 
12: deserts of southern Utah and Nevada, Arizona and eastern Cali- 
fornia; the popular name applies to a curious sidewise method of 
locomotion. 

C. confluentus Say. Prairie rattler. Length 960 mm.; tail 100 mm. ; 
body rather slender; color yellowish brown or green, with a middorsal 
series of about 4o irregularly rounded white-bordered brown blotches; 
a pale band passes from beneath the center of the eye to the angle of 


REPTILES 225 


the mouth; scales in 25 to 27 rows; upper labials 14 or 15: the Great 
Plains from Canada to Texas and the entire country west to the Pacific; 
common, being frequently seen in prairie dog burrows, on the young of 
which they feed. 


Subspecies of C. confluentus 


C. c. confluentus Say. Body brightly marked with blotches: the 
Great Plains. 

C. c. lutosus Klauber. Body brightly marked with small blotches 
anteriorly and with narrow bars posteriorly: the Great Basin region. 

C. c. oregonus Holbrook. Body brightly marked with blotches: the 
Pacific Coast States. 

C. scutulatus (Kennicott). Body marked with diamonds like 
C. atrox; light line back of eye as in C. confluentus; large scales on top 
of snout: desert regions of southern Arizona and California. 

C. willardi Meck. A small rattler, with brightly marked head; 
body dull, with white cross lines: southern Arizona. 

C. lepidus (Kennicott). Length 555 mm.; tail 50 mm.; color green- 
ish with black rings at wide intervals; scales in 23 rows; upper labials 12: 
along the Mexican border of Texas, New Mexico and Arizona. 

C. triseriatus Wagler. Length 525 mm.; tail 60 mm.; color gray- 
ish brown, with 2 series of small brown blotches on the back; scales in 
21 rows: southern Arizona. 

C. tigris Kenn. Length 650 mm; tail 50 mm.; color yellowish gray, 
with indistinct cross bands; scales in 23 or 25 rows; upper labials 13: 
southern Arizona. 

Order 4. Testudinata.—Turtles. Reptiles in which the body is 
wide and short, and is enclosed in a shell composed of a dorsal shield, 
called the carapace, and a ventral shield, the plastron. The shell, in 
most cases, is formed of large external, epidermal, horny plates (tortoise 
shell), which overlie internal bony plates. These latter consist, in the 
carapace, of the flattened ribs and the flattened trunk vertebrz which 
coalesce with overlying dermal bony plates, and are surrounded on 
the circumference of the shell by a series of marginal dermal bony plates; 
in the plastron they consist of exclusively dermal plates, there being 
no sternum. The carapace and the plastron are more or less firmly 
united by a wide bridge on each side. 

The head is a very solid and compact structure, and is often covered 
with scales. The jaws are toothless and are covered by a horny sheath 
which forms a cutting edge. The Trionychide are the only turtles 
which have fleshy lips. The eye has an upper and a lower lid and also a 


226 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


nictitating membrane. The tympanum is-at the surface of the body, 
but in some species is hidden. The neck is long and flexible and has 8 
vertebra, and together with the head can usually be retracted within 
the shell. Two pairs of stout, pentadactyle limbs are generally present, 
the toes of which are more or less webbed in the aquatic turtles. In the 
marine turtles the limbs are flippers, with a reduced number of toes. 
The tail is usually short and thick, and in many species ends with a 
claw. The skin covering the soft portion of the body is usually pro- 
vided with scales. 


Fic. 128.—Carapace (a) and plastron (b) of Chrysemys picta marginata, to show the 
plates: A, abdominal; An, anal; C, costal or lateral; D, dorsal or vertebral; G, gular; H, 
humeral; M, marginal; N, nuchal; P, pectoral; Pr, preanal (from Hurter). 

Habits and Distribution.— Most species of turtles are more or less 
aquatic in their habits. The land turtles, however, live exclusively 
on the land, and will often drown if thrown into the water; and all of 
them, even the giant marine turtles whose limbs are flippers, come on to 
land to lay their eggs. 

Turtles are noted for their tenacity of life. Many species can 
remain submerged in the water several hours without drowning. Some 
species have true water respiration. Species of the Trionychide, for 
instance, take water into the mouth and expel it regularly, when sub- 
merged, and a number of species have rectal respiration. 

Turtles feed on vegital and animal food. The land turtles feed 
principally on the former, but also eat grubs, worms and other small 
animals they can catch. The aquatic turtles usually feed mainly on 
animal food, which they devour under the water. The snappers and 


REPTILES 227 


soft-shells are fierce beasts of prey, which eat large numbers of fish, 
water birds and other animals which frequent the water. 

Turtles usually breed in the late spring or early summer. All are 
oviviparous; the eggs are buried by the female in the sand or earth and 
are incubated by the heat of the sun. 

About 245 species of turtles are known, of which about 50 species 
are found in the United States; these are grouped in 6 families. 

On the Identification of Turtles.—The epidermal, horny plates 
forming the outer covering of the carapace fall into three groups, the 
dorsal or vertebral, the lateral or costal and the marginal plates (Fig. 
128). The dorsal plates, in most turtles, form a median row of 5 plates; 
the lateral plates are paired and consist of a row of 4 or 5 plates on each 
side of the median row; the marginal plates form the margin of the cara- 
pace and number usually 12 pairs. The median anterior marginal is 
called the nuchal plate. The epidermal plates of the plastron are 
usually 11 or 12 in number (Fig. 128). In some turtles the epidermal 
plates are absent, the shell being covered with a leathery skin. 

The measurements used in the identification of turtles are those of 
the carapace, and in certain cases of the plastron also, and are always 
made in a straight line and not to follow the curve of the shell. 


Key to the Families of Testudinata 


a; Limbs not in the form of flippers; land and pond turtles. 
bi Shell covered with horny plates. 
c; Tail short and without dorsal tubercles; plastron large 
and oval. 

d; Plastron with 9 to 11 horny plates; a single anterior 

median plate; margin of carapace not flaring, but 
turned downwards (Fig. 130)....................1. Kimosternide. 

d. Plastron with 12 horny plates; an anterior pair of 

plates; margin of carapace flaring outwards (Fig. 


Bis) IS, fer a epee ets Se pee AU tobe DES Catan cl Me eA OC Re CaE 4 3. Testudinide. 
co Tail very long, with a dorsal row of tubercles (Fig. 129); 
plastron small, cross-shaped; snappers......... .2. Chelydride. 
by Shell not covered with horny plates, but fit a (eather 
aah ee So SR Aes Siar cae eeincs Suane SRE RON tae a ane ta 4. Trionychide. 
a2 Limbs in the form of flippers; size very large; sea turtles. 
Daasneuecovered with horny platess: i.) os an Cee seve es 5. Chelontide. 
b. Shell not covered with horny plates, but with a leathery 
SRG rs ayaa isis 3% brain ae aParmtanearc as” facet Oe ee 6. Dermochelide. 


Family 1. Kinosternide.—Mud and musk turtles. Rather 
small, aquatic turtles with an elongate body; carapace elliptical, with 23 
marginal plates, usually smooth, without a flaring edge (Fig. 130); 


228 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


plastron well developed, with movable anterior and posterior lobes, 
covered with g to 11 plates and joined with the carapace by narrow 
bridges; toes 5-5; claws 5-4; feet webbed; head pointed; jaws strong: 
14 species, all American, 7 in the United States, inhabiting slow streams 


mae 


oetentneeete 


sai patie ae of Chelydra ser pentina (from Surface). 


and muddy ponds, and eating animal food; eggs elliptical; all the 
species emit a musky odor. 


Key to the Genera of the Kinosternidz 


a; Plastron narrow, not capable of closing the shell.............. 1. Sternotherus. 
a2 Plastron broad, capable of closing the shell................... 2. Kinosternon. 


1. Sternotherus Gray. Musk turtles. Plastron reduced, scarcely 
movable: 3 species. 

S. odoratus (Latreille). Musk turtle. Carapace 90 mm. long 
and 60 mm. wide; color brownish, often striped or blotched with a 
darker color; plastron yellowish or brown; head large, with strong 
jaws; plastron 68 mm. long and 31 mm. wide; side of head with 2 narrow 
yellow stripes, one passing above and the other beneath the eye: eastern 
and central States, from Canada to the Gulf; westward into Missouri 
and Texas; common; odor of musk strong. 

S. carinatus (Gray). Similar to S. odoratus but with a prominent 
middorsal keel and with imbricated plates; head spotted with black, 
without stripes: Mississippi, Louisiana and Texas. 

2. Kinosternon Spix. Mud turtles. Plastron with central plate 
and 2 movable lobes, capable of closing the shell: to species, 5 in the 
United States, North and Central America, barely entering South 
America. 


Key to the United States Species 


ai Bridge very short, about a third the length of fore lobe of 
PUASER OR SAAR ea 2 RSE alee sdoye. \ iste ay Se een K. steindachneri. 
ao Bridge longer, about half the length of fore lobe of plastron. 
by Fore lobe shorter than hind; carapace with 3 yellow stripes. .K. bawrii. 
be Fore lobe as long or longer than hind. 
c, Head spotted withryellow-e... aes ee eee K. subrubrum. 
Cs Sidés.‘of head brisht yellow came cee a, ee ee K. flavescens. 
cs No yellow ontheadiot body: ie.> :.. 2/0 sosencct ee eae K. sonoriense. 


REPTILES 229 


K. baurit Garman. Carapace 900 mm. long and 65 mm. wide; color 
brown or olive, with 3 yellow bands extending the length of the cara- 
pace: Florida and Georgia. 

K. steindachneri Siebenrock. Similar to A. subrubrum, but differs 
in having a very short bridge: central Florida. 

K. subrubrum (Lacépéde) (K. pensilvuanicum Gmelin). Common 
mud-turtle (Fig. 130). Carapace 85 mm. long and 60 mm. wide; 
plastron 78 mm. long and 37 mm. wide; color dark brown, with black 


Fic. 130.—Kinosternon subrubrum (from Surface). 


sutures; plastron yellow or brown, with distinct lines of growth; head 
dark, with yellowish spots: eastern and central States from New York 
south, exclusive of peninsular Florida; westward to Texas, Missouri and 
eastern Illinois; common. 


Subspecies of K. subrubrum 


K. s. hippocrepis (Gray). Two orange bands on the side of the 
head: southern Alabama to Texas and northward in the Mississippi 
Valley to Missouri. 

K. flavescens (Agassiz). Carapace 110 mm. long and 80 mm. wide; 
color yellowish brown and yellowish green; plastron yellow; sides of 
head and neck bright yellow: Texas to Arizona; northward to Illinois, 
Kansas and Colorado. 

K. sonoriense LeConte. Carapace 110 mm. long, 67 mm. wide; 
color brown, with faint darker radiating lines on each plate; vertebral 
plates imbricating: western Texas into southeastern California. 

Family 2. Chelydridze.—Snapping turtles. Body large, high in 
front; carapace rough and tuberculate, and with 24 marginal plates; 
plastron small, cruciform and composed of to plates, besides the 2 
narrow bridges; head, neck and tail very large; jaws powerful and 
hooked; toes 5-5, with small webs; claws 5-4: 3 species, 2 in the United 
States; the largest turtles in the country (except the marine turtles), 


230 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


noted for their ferocity and voracity; aquatic, living on fish, water- 
birds and other animals; flesh valued for food. 


Key to the Genera of Cheiydride 


ai Head coveréd: withea soft Skint<. (= aera aoe eer eer 1. Chelydra. 
a2 Head covered with symmetrical plates.............. 5 ch Sanne. 2) Macrochelag: 


1. Chelydra Schweigger. Carapace with 3 blunt keels, more or 
less pronounced, growing less so with age; tail very long, with 2 rows of 
scales beneath; eyes superior in position: 1 species. 

C. serpentina (L.). Common snapper. Length 7oo mm. or more; 
length of carapace 300 mm.; width 260 mm.; weight 30 lbs. or more; 
2 chin barbels; a row of large compressed tubercles on the upper surface 
of the tail (Fig. 129); eggs spherical, 25 mm. in diameter, about 25 in 
number: North America, east of the Rockies, from Canada to the Gulf; 
common. 

2. Macrochelys Gray. Head very large and covered above with 
plates; tail with small scales beneath; eyes lateral in position: carapace 
with 3 very prominent tuberculated ridges: 1 species. 

M. temmincki (Holbrook). Alligator snapper. Length 1,000 mm.; 
length of carapace 620 mm.; width 530 mm.; weight 120 lbs.; eggs 35 
mm. in diameter: Gulf States; northward in the Mississippi Valley 
into northern Missouri. 

Family 3. Testudinide.—Pond and land turtles. Carapace 
ovate and with flaring edges (Fig. 131) and either depressed or more or 
less strongly convex, and covered with 5 dorsals, 4 pairs of costals and 
25 marginals; plastron covered with 12 plates, and of large size and 
firmly joined with the carapace by wide bridges, and in some species 
with a movable anterior lobe enabling the animal to close its shell; 
toes 5-4; egg elliptical: about 80 species in the United States; many 
species are used for food. 


Key to the Genera of Testudinidz 


a, Digits spreading, not closely bound together. 
b; Plastron without hinge, immovably joined to carapace. 
c, Alveolar surfaces of jaws broad; hind feet largest, broadly 
webbed. 
d; Alveolar surfaces of jaws smooth; upper jaws not 
notched in front; carapace keeled. 
e, Lower jaw not spoon-shaped at tip; plates of cara- 
DACETUGOSE hich poses oe ee eioe he eee eee 4. Malaclemys. 
e. Lower jaw spoon-shaped at tip; plates of carapace 
smooth ?s<ictetos HAS. Mas Me he 5. Graptemys. 


REPTILES 231 


d, Alveolar surfaces of jaws with a longitudinal ridge; 
upper jaw notched in front; carapace not keeled.......7. Pseudemys. 
co Alveolar surfaces of jaws narrow. 
d, Hind feet largest, broadly webbed. 


e;: Marginal shields with red markings............... 6. Chrysemys. 
e2 Marginal shields without red markings............ 8. Deirochelys. 
de Hind feet not larger, slightly webbed................ 1. Clemmys. 


bo Plastron with hinge across the middle, enabling the animal to 
close its shell. 
c: Body depressed; plastron notched behind; upper jaw 


MOLG HEC: INU OTE 1 7/0 chat eiaeeee ee ce etc esate ays.’ . a ss Dea 
cs Body arched; plastron rounded or truncate behind; upper 
ifaw nOOketearymronty. f.Mmrititede rs sai clierim ines ose es « 3. Terrapene. 
a2 Digits club-shaped, being closely bound together, only the last 
WOME HelNg trees, SOUtHErMISEALeSabetyy vec yl ietees = asa aie oes 9. Gopherus. 


1. Clemmys Ritgen. Wood-tortoises. Small turtles with usually 
a depressed carapace with a more or less prominent keel; plastron joined 
with the carapace by a wide rigid bridge; feet more or less webbed: 
4 United States species. 


Key to the Species of Clemmys 


a: In the eastern and central States. 
b; Carapace smooth with small yellow spots on a black back- 


LOU CAM rama 2k Reaktor tia tae eRe tte oh Sh C. guttata. 
bo Carapace with deep concentric grooves in each plate and 
serrated behind; color uniform brown............./..... C. insculpta. 
b; Head with a large yellow or orange spot on each side.......C. muhlenbergii. 
ala) CMcies EG HAC eSNG EMEm NN itt Ala teps wie rate ce BeGh aft oda gS. fe) oe a C. marmorata. 


C. guttata (Schneider). Spotted turtle (Fig. 131). Body black 
above, with numerous small round orange or yellow spots; plastron 


Fic. 131.—Clemmys gulttata (from Fowler). 


black, blotched with yellow or orange; carapace smooth, without 
keel, t00 mm. long and 75 mm. wide: eastern States; southward along 


bo 


Ow 
bo 


VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


the coast to northern Florida; westward to southern Michigan; very 
common. 

C. insculpta (LeConte). Wood-turtle. Shell dark gray or brown 
in color and much roughened by deep concentric grooves and ridges 
on each plate; plastron yellow, with a large black blotch on each plate; 
carapace keeled; length 150 mm.; width 120 mm.; soft parts, except the 


Fic. 132.—Clemmys muhlenbergi (from Surface). 


top of the head and the limbs, red: northeastern States; southward to 
Virginia; westward to Wisconsin; terrestrial, in fields and woods; 
valued for food. 

C. marmorata (Baird & Girard). Carapace smooth, dark brown 
or black in color, with numerous yellow dots or dashes; plastron black 
and yellow; length of carapace 150 mm.: entire Pacific slope, in ponds 
and rivers; common. 

C. muhlenbergit (Schcepff) (Fig. 132). Carapace with fine concentric 
lines on the plates in young adults, and dark brown or black in color, 
with yellowish or reddish markings; head black, with a large orange 
or yellow spot on each side; length of carapace 100 mm.; width 65 


REPTILES 206 


mm.: New Jersey and southeastern Pennsylvania to Rhode Island, 
central New York and mountains of western North Carolina; in 
marshes and ponds and small streams; often common. 

2. Emys Duméril. Shell moderately high, with narrow bridges, 
plastron notched behind, movable and joined with the carapace by 
a ligament on each side; a transverse hinge in front of the bridges 
divides the plastron into 2 lobes, both of which are movable, although 
.the shell cannot be completely closed; digits webbed: 1 species. 

E. blandingii (Holbrook) (Fig. 133). Carapace black, with numer- 
ous small yellow spots; plastron yellow in the center, with large irregular 
black blotches along the two sides; length of carapace 200 mm.; width 


Fic. 133.—Emys blandingi (from Fowler). 


120 mm.: north-central States and New England; westward to Minne- 
sota; not common. 

3- Terrapene Merrem (Cistudo Fleming). Box-turtles. Shell high 
and very convex; plastron large, united with the carapace by a ligament 
on each side, rounded at both ends, and with a transverse hinge which 
divides it into two movable lobes so that the shell can be completely 
closed; upper jaw with a beak; digits with a small web or with none: 
6 species. 


Key to the Species of Terrapene 


a, Carapace keeled. 


b; Carapace irregularly marked with yellow..................... T. carolina. 
be Carapace with yellow. radiating Jines n= <i cae Me T. major 
Seeded PCE SMOLMCCEIEM ss. =)... is, od apie eee in Bees oo Sees T. ornata. 


T. carolina (L.). Common box-turtle. Shell more or less globular, 
with a blunt keel; color yellow and blackish, but very variable; male 
usually with red eyes, female usually with yellow; length of carapace 


234 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


130 mm.; width 115 mm.; height 70 mm.: eastern and southern States; 
terrestrial; common. 


Subspecies of T. carolina 


T. c. carolina (L.). Eastern States; southward to Georgia; west- 
ward to Tennessee and western Illinois; northward to central Michigan 
and Maine. 

T. c. triunguis (Agassiz). Hind foot with but 3 claws; yellow 
markings usually obscure: Gulf slope; westward into Texas; north- 
ward into Missouri. 


ioe 
ie anette tinea dacntigieed ae 


Fic. 134.—Malaclemys centrata (from Fowler). 


T. major (Agassiz). Similar to T. carolina; size large; carapace 
180 mm. long, and with yellow radiating lines: Gulf States from Florida 
to Texas. 

T. ornata (Agassiz). Similar to T. carolina, but without a keel; 
fore legs usually red: Indiana to the Rocky Mountains; southward 
to the gulf of Mexico and Arizona; often common. 

4. Malaclemys Gray. Salt marsh turtles. Carapace depressed 
and with a keel; plastron without a hinge and immovably joined 
with the carapace; feet large and webbed; head. covered with a soft 
skin: 2 species. | 


Key to the Species of Malaclemys 


ai On theAtlanticslope:c. <r ct ord ee ere one ee M. centrata. 
a's ‘On the Gulfislome yates Sco Gost ect eee ea ce ee M. pileata. 


M. centrata (Latreille). Diamond-back terrapin (Fig. 134). Shell 
rough, each plate having concentric lines of growth; carapace dark 
olive or grayish in color and 180 mm. long and 130 mm. wide; weight 


REPTILES 235 


2 lbs.; legs and head spotted; plastron yellow; young individuals whit- 
ish, with black concentric lines; head without stripes: salt marshes 
from Massachusetts to Florida, where it feeds on crustaceans and 
mollusks; highly prized for food. 


Subspecies of M. centrata 


M. c. centrata (Lat.). Cape Hatteras to Florida. 

M. c. concentrica (Shaw). Size smaller; concentric lines on each 
plate very distinct: Massachusetts to Cape Hatteras. 

M. pileata (Wied). Similar to M. centrata; carapace with a more 
or less tuberculate keel and black or brown in color, with distinct 
concentric lines on each plate: Gulf coast. 


Subspecies of M. pileata 


M. p. pileata (Wied). Color black or very dark brown; top of head 
dark: Gulf coast, from Florida to the Mississippi River. 


FIG. 135.—Graptemys geographica (from Fowler). 


M. p. littoralis (W. P. Hay). Color light brown; top of head white: 
coast of Texas. 

M. p. macrospilota (W. P. Hay). Each plate of carapace with a 
large central yellow or orange blotch: west coast of Florida. 

5. Graptemys Agassiz. Map turtles. Carapace depressed and 
with a keel; plastron without a hinge and immovably joined with the 
carapace; head covered with a soft skin; lower jaw with a dilatation at 
the tip: 2 species. 

Key to the Species of Graptemys 
a; A triangular yellowish spot back of eye; keel not serrate... .G. geographica. 
a2 A transverse cresent back of eye; keel serrate........... G. pseudogeographica. 

G. geographica (LeSueur) (Fig. 135). Body dark brown and marked 

with a network of greenish and yellowish lines; plastron yellow; length 


236 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


of carapace 240 mm.; width 180 mm.; carapace circular, notched at 
the sutures of the marginal plates: central States; eastward into New 
York and Pennsylvania in the Susquehanna River; westward into 
Missouri and Arkansas; northward to Michigan and Lake Champlain; 
common. 

G. pseudogeographica (Gray). Similar to G. geographica but with 
a more distinct keel; median row of plates imbricated and each with a 
high tubercle; no yellowish net-work on carapace; head, neck and legs 
with bright yellow stripes: Mississippi Valley and Gulf slope. 


Subspecies of G. pseudogeogra phica 


G. p. pseudogeographica (Gray). Each dorsal plate with a large 
dark blotch: eastward to Alabama and Ohio; northward to Wisconsin; 
westward to Kansas and Oklahoma. 

G. p. kohni (Baur). A large yellow spot behind the eye: Pensacola 
to eastern Texas. 

G. p. oculifera (Baur). A yellow spot behind the eye, and 2 yellow 
stripes on the neck: southern Louisiana. 

6. Chrysemys Gray. Painted turtles. Carapace smooth, de- 
pressed, without keel, and with wide bridges which join it immovably 
with the plastron; feet webbed, with long claws; no concentric lines on 
the plates of the carapace: 1 species. 

C. picta (Schneider). Carapace smooth, dark olive or brown in 
color, the plates margined with yellow; throat striped with yellow; 
marginal plates above and beneath blotched with crimson, which 
may disappear on the dorsal marginal plates in old specimens; plastron 
yellow, with a broad blackish patch in the center; length of the 
carapace 125 mm.; width 90 mm.: eastern, central and western States; 
very common. 


Subspecies of C. picta 


C. p. marginata Agassiz (Fig. 128). Vertebral row of plates alternat- 
ing with those of the costal rows: northern New York to Wisconsin; 
southward to Missouri. 

C. p. bellii (Gray). Yellow margins of dorsal plates absent; plastron 
with a pair of wide black bands joined at the ends: Great Plains; west- 
ward to Vancouver Island; northeastward to northern Michigan. 

C. p. dorsalis Agassiz. Carapace with a yellow dorsal stripe: 
lower Mississippi Valley; northward to Missouri. 


REPTILES 237 


C. p. picta (Schneider) (Fig. 136). Plastron yellow; vertebrals 
nearly in same transverse line as costals: eastern States from New 
Brunswick to Georgia; very common. 


Fic. 136.—Chrysemys p. picta (from Fowler). 


7. Pseudemys Gray. Sliders; cooters. Carapace moderately 
depressed, with a serrate hinder margin; plastron notched behind; 
upper jaw notched in front; head covered with a hard skin: 10 species. 


Key to the Species of Pseudemys 


a; Edges of jaws smooth, a black spot on each plastral scute. 


b, A yellow patch back of eye; Atlantic States. . A See ake. “SOVE PEC: 
bo A red line back of eye, or no marking; Misseeiopi ideaineee ala wir COSiIT. 
a2 Edge of lower jaw serrate; no black spot on each plastral plate. 
ie PeMnW SiIMOOEN sas. Aso, Sas ec Gti ec eos he wes bos P. concinna. 
bo Upper jaw serrate, at least with central notch and lateral cusp. 
c; Plastron red; Atlantic coastal plain......... .P. rubriventris. 
co Plastron pallow: Gulf States and ower eee v alley. 
ereleny sco} icd || WN ioe (eile Sain eee ane an P. floridana. 
Cog lan Gra semana ne RAO Aas Se, eet Fn Se yale, os Ws, yas Sex P. mobilensis. 
ds..Prom Witssoumitoaviextco.s f.. 6... Sk lab ee P. texana. 


P. troostii (Holbrook) (P. elegans Wied). Carapace greenish 
black, with darker blotches; under surface of marginals and plastron 
yellow, with black blotches; adult males (P. troostii) without markings; 
females and young (P. elegans) with a red mark back of eye, yellow 
lines on head and neck and yellow marks on carapace; edges of both 
jaws smooth; length of carapace 250 mm.; width 180 mm.: Mississippi 
Valley; northward to Iowa and Ohio; south to Texas; common; used 
for food. 

P. scripta (Schoepff). Carapace dark brown in color, with dull 
yellow transverse stripes; plastron yellow; length of carapace 250 mm.; 


238 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


width 170 mm.; head with a broad yellow spot just back of the eye: 
Georgia to North Carolina. 

P. concinna (LeConte). Shell broad and flat; carapace wrinkled on 
the sides, olive or brownish in color with yellow or brownish markings; 
plastron yellow; head black, striped with yellow; length of carapace 
300 mm.; width 210 mm.: rivers of the southeast, above tide water, 


Maryland to Georgia and west to Mississippi. ~\. >: ; 


% 


Fic. 137.—Pseudemys rubriventris (from Fowler). 


P. rubriventris (LeConte). Red-bellied terrapin (Fig. 137). Cara- 
pace brownish, streaked or blotched with red; plastron red; length of 
carapace 300 mm.; width 180 mm.; height 110 mm.; extreme length of 
carapace 450 mm.: eastern States from Cape Cod to Florida, in coastal 
plain rivers; the largest turtle in this territory except the snapper; 
used for food. 

P. floridana (LeConte). Carapace circular and very high; head 
black, very small; carapace dark brown, with wavy yellow cross bars, 
325 mm. long and 225 mm. wide; plastron yellow; lower jaw nearly 
smooth: Florida and southern Georgia. 

P. mobilensis (Holbrook). Carapace high and 300 mm. long; 
plastron yellow; color similar to P. rubriventris: Gulf coast from Florida 
to Louisiana. 

P. texana Baur. Carapace brown, with yellow concentric lines; 
plastron yellow; head streaked with yellow; length of carapace 230 mm.; 
width 170 mm.: southwestern Missouri to Texas and Mexico. 

8. Deirochelys Agassiz. Similar to Chrysemys; upper jaw notched 
in front; lower jaw arched upwards and terminating in a sharp point; 
neck long: 1 species. 


REPTILES 239 


D. reticularia (Latreille). Chicken turtle. Carapace narrow, 
rather high, and olive or brown in color with a net-work of fine yellow 
lines, each upper marginal with a yellow bar and each under marginal 
with a black blotch on a yellow field; plastron yellow; length of carapace 
125 mm.; width 80 mm.; neck very long: Atlantic and Gulf coastal plain 
from central North Carolina to Texas and Oklahoma; southward to 
central Florida. 

9g. Gopherus Rafinesque. Land tortoises. Shell high and dome- 
like; plastron large and often with a hinged front lobe; feet not webbed: 
3 species in the United States, all herbivorous and strictly terrestrial; 
they are allied to the giant land tortoises of the Galapagos Islands, the 
largest of which has a carapace a meter and a third in length and weighs 
over 225 kilos. 


Key to the United States Species of Gopherus 


Agy eo ehne Southern andisoutu-ceniralestates. coke. oe Aa ek. werace. G. polyphemus. 
ie hed raed Bip <a oh) BRN anaes An Es a G. berlandieri. 
Agr lh the ext Ems OlmWweSbuc > Un eran ete ce eae ole G. agassizti. 


G. polyphemus (Daudin). Gopher turtle. Carapace with concen- — 
tric lines on each scale, brownish in color; plastron dull yellow, notched 
behind, extending beyond the carapace in front; length of carapace 
280 mm.; width 200 mm.; inner surface of fore arm with enlarged scales: 
south Atlantic and Gulf States; northward to South Carolina and 
Arkansas; gregarious, living in dry, sandy regions and burrowing in the 
ground. The burrow runs obliquely in the ground to a depth of 4 or 
more feet, and is enlarged at the end, where a single pair lives. 

G. agassizit (Cooper). Similar to G. polyphemus; no enlarged 
scales on the inner surface of the fore arm: southwestern Arizona and 
southeastern California into Nevada and Utah. 

G. berlandiert (Agassiz). Shell globular, being very broad and 
high; carapace brown and 150 mm. long, 136 mm. wide and 80 mm. 
high; plastron yellow: southwest Texas into Mexico. 

Family 4. Trionychidz.—The soft-shell turtles. Large turtles 
with a flat, circular shell which is covered with a leathery skin and not 
with horny plates or scales; ossification of the carapace not complete; 
neck very long; head pointed, ending in a flexible proboscis-like snout; 
jaws powerful, with fleshy lips; feet webbed; toes 5-5; claws 3-3: about 
30 species, in both hemispheres, 4 in the United States; savage, active 
turtles, aquatic and carnivorous, valued for food; eggs spherical. It 
has been demonstrated that these turtles can remain under water 
several hours at a time, and that they have true water respiration when 


240 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


submerged, taking in water into the mouth and expelling it regularly 
about 16 times a minute. 
Amyda Oken. With the characters of the family: 4 United States 


species. 


Key to the Species of Amyda 


ay. Fote part ol carapace smooth 2.224 aks. oe ee 1. mutica. 
ao Fore part of carapace with conical tubercles. 
bi Light stripes on head unite between the eyes.................A. emoryi. 
be Light stripes on head unite at end of the snout...............A. spinifera. 
bs Light stripes on head unite in front of the orbits..............A. ferox. 


A. mutica (LeSueur). Body brown in color, irregularly blotched, 
being spotted in the young; whitish below; length of carapace 170 


Fic. 138.—Amyda spinifera (from Fowler). 


mm.,; width 160 mm.: central and northern tributaries of the Mississippi, 
Brazos and Colorado rivers; not so common as A. spinifera. 

A. emoryi (Agassiz). Similar to A. spinifera: Texas and into 
southern Oklahoma and Arkansas. 

A. spinifera (LeSueur). Soft-shell turtle (Fig. 138). Body olive 
brown in color, with numerous round dark spots, each margined 
with black in young animals; head and neck olive, with stripes; tuber- 
cles on forward edge of carapace larger in the female than in the male; 
plastron white; length of carapace 350 mm.; width 300 mm.: Mississippi 
and St. Lawrence rivers and Great Lakes and their tributaries; common. 

A. ferox (Schneider). Large turtles similar to A. spinifera, but plain 
brown in color in the adult; young spotted or blotched; length of cara- 
pace 450 mm.; width 370 mm.; weight 13 kilos: southern States from 
South Carolina to Louisiana; common. 


REPTILES 241 


Family 5. Cheloniidz.—Marine turtles of large size, in which 
the shell is covered with large horny plates; carapace depressed, highest 
in front; head large, covered with plates and incompletely retractile; 
limbs in form of flippers, with 1 or 2 claws on each; eggs spherical: 
7 species, which live in the open ocean in the warmer parts of the 
earth, coming to the shore on tropical and subtropical beaches to bury 
their eggs. 


a; Four costal plates on each side. 


Dpbiates onmedrapace ImbriGatedotmer eee oe. on nn sap ees 1. Eretmochelys. 
be Plates of carapace not imbricated............:...........2. Chelonia. 
AEG COStal DLALeS, Ol CACMISIGGmee amas) Sette toc os. aes © 3. Caretta. 


1. Eretmochelys Fitzinger. Head broad, with a large median 
plate surrounded by 7 smaller ones; costal plates 4 on a side; 7 to 10 
plates on each cheek: 2 species. 

E. imbricata (L.). Tortoise shell turtle; hawk-bill. Body brown or 
blackish above and yellow beneath; upper jaw with a hooked tip; each 
foot with 2 claws; length of carapace 750 mm.: tropical seas; the 
Florida and Gulf coasts; occasionally as far north as Massachusetts; 
valued for the tortoise shell of commerce, this turtle being the only one 
which furnishes it. 

2. Chelonia Latreille. Top of head with a large median plate sur- 
rounded by 7 smaller ones; costal plates 4 on a side; 15 to 20 plates on 
each cheek; head narrow: 2 species. 

C. mydas (L.). Green turtle. Body olive or brown above, marked 
with yellow, and yellow beneath; length of carapace 1,200 mm. or less; 
welght up to 500 lbs.; 1 claw on each foot: tropical seas; Atlantic 
Ocean as far north as Massachusetts; valued for food, the fat being 
green; common. ; 

3. Caretta Rafinesque. Top of head with a large median plate 
surrounded by 13 to 20 smaller ones; costal plates 5 on a side; 15 to 20 
plates on each cheek; head broad: 3 species. 

C. caretta (L.). Loggerhead turtle. Body brown above, yellowish 
below; feet with 2 claws each; 3 inframarginal scutes; horny ridges on 
roof of mouth low; length of carapace 1 m. and more; weight 350 lbs. 
and more: tropical seas; northward as far as Massachusetts; common on 
the West India and Florida coasts; flesh and eggs used for food. 

C. kempi (Garman). Bastard turtle. Similar to C. caretta, but 
with ridges on the roof of mouth high anteriorly and separated by a 
notch; 4 in framarginal scutes: south Atlantic; as far north as New 


Jersey. 


242 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


Family 6. Dermochelidz.—Sea turtles with the body covered 
with a smooth leathery skin; carapace with 7 longitudinal ridges; toes 
without claws: I genus. 

Dermochelys Blainville. With the characters of the family: 
I species. 

D. coriacea (L.). Leather-turtle; trunk-back. Color dark brown; 
length of carapace 1,500 mm.; width 900 mm.; weight 700 lbs. and 
more: tropical seas; northward as far as Maine. 


CLASS 5. MAMMALS (Mammalia) 


Warm-blooded, air-breathing vertebrates which have a hairy integu- 
ment. With the exception of the Australian monotremes all mammals 
are viviparous, and all possess mammary glands on the ventral body 
surface with which they suckle their young, in the marsupials these 
glands being located in an integumental pouch. The teeth are adapted 
to the grasping and chewing of food, there being four different forms, 
the incisors or front teeth, the canines, and the premolars and molars 
which are the back teeth or grinders. The heart is composed of four 
chambers, two ventricles and two auricles; there is a single (left) aortic 
arch and the blood contains non-nucleated red blood-corpuscles. The 
head articulates with the neck by two occipital condyles and there are, 
with rare exceptions (the Florida manatee alone of American mammals), 
seven cervical vertebre. The lower jaw consists of a single bone on 
each side and articulates directly with the cranium and not by means of 
the quadrate bones. An external ear in form of a large integumental 
fold is, with the exception of certain aquatic mammals, present. The 
cochlea is spirally coiled, and the tympanum is joined with the inner 
ear by means of the three ear-ossicles. The abdominal cavity is sepa- 
rated from the thoracic by means of a muscular diaphragm. 

On the Identification of Mammals.—The measurements of a 
species of mammals are given in millimeters and include (1) the length 
of the body from the tip of the snout to the hinder end of the vertebra 
of the tail, (2) the length of the tail measured from its base to the hinder 
end of its vertebra and (3) the length of the hind foot measured from 
the bend of the ankle to the tip of the longest toe. An average large 
male specimen is probably generally used in making the measurements, 
but it must be remembered that individual differences always exist 
between individuals of a species, due to differences in age, sex, locality 
and environmental conditions, and that a considerable margin must be 
allowed for these differences. The color of a species is also to a certain 
extent variable, and is much more so in some species of mammals than 
in others. 

The general form of the body and that of its various parts are usu- 
ally noted, and also any peculiarities of form or color which would tend 
to mark a species or larger group. The dentition, or number of teeth, 

243 


244 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS:.OF THE UNITED STATES 


is a constant and very important character, and is given in this book 
in the following manner, the figures referring to the number of incisor, 
canine, premolar and molar teeth on each side of the jaws: ‘‘ dentition 
3/3, 1/1, 4/4, 2/3,” the meaning of which is that on each side of the 
mouth there are 3 upper and 3 lower incisors, 1 upper and 1 lower 
canine, 4 upper and 4 lower premolars and 2 upper and 3 lower molars. 


Fic. 139.—Skull of dog, showing dentition, the formula of which is 3/3, 1/1, 4/4, 2/3: A 
side view; B, upper jaw; c, canines; 7, incisors; m, molars; pm, premolars. 


This is the dentition of the dog (Fig. 139), which has thus ro teeth in 
the upper jaw on each side and 11 teeth in the lower jaw on each side 
or 20 teeth in the upper jaw on both sides and 22 teeth in the lower jaw 
on both sides, and 42 teeth altogether. The dentition of the pocket 
gopher is 1/1, o/o, 1/1, 3/3, the meaning of which is that this animal has 
r upper and r lower incisor on each side or 2 upper and 2 lower incisors 


MAMMALS 245 


altogether, no canines in either jaw, 1 upper and 1 lower premolar on 
each side and 3 upper and 3 lower molars on each side, or ro teeth in 
the upper jaw on both sides and to teeth in the lower jaw on both sides, 
or 20 teeth altogether. 

The friction pads of the feet are called the plantar tubercles (Fig. 
163) and are employed in certain species of rodents for purposes of 
identifications. ; 

In a country as large as the United States, in which the conditions 
of climate, rain-fall, moisture and altitude are so very varied, and 
where forests, plains and deserts, large and small rivers, lakes and 
marshes form an endless succession of localities which harbor mamma- 
lian life, any species which inhabits any considerable area is sure to be 
divided into a number of geographical races or subspecies. Often the 
best means of identifying a mammal is to tell where and under what 
conditions it lives, and the descriptions in this book usually give such 
details. 

History.—The Mammalia as a definite scientific group of animals 
has existed in the literature since the time of Aristotle. Linnezus made 
it one of the six classes into which he divided the Animal Kingdom, 
and Lamarck one of the classes of Vertebrata. 

About 10,000 species and subspecies of mammals are known, 
grouped in about 15 orders, of which 9 are represented in the United 
States. 


Key to the Orders of Mammals in the United States 


a; A marsupial pouch present; opossums.........:...... t. Marsupialia (p. 245). 
a2 No parsupial pouch present. 
br Elindwimbs wanting’ manatees... i.¢ 2... 2) 2.241.280, 07eme (P1247); 
by Hind limbs present. 
c; Body covered with a bony shell; armadillos......2. Edentata (p. 247). 
C2 Body not so covered. 
dyiivine-imaminials: bats. a. ene ete aerate 2 5. Chiroptera (p. 257). 


d, Non-flying mammals. 
e; Feet with claws and not with hoofs. 
f; Canine teeth present. 
gi Limbsused mainly for walking and running. 
h, Canines small; moles and shrews...4. Insectivora (p. 247). 


he, Canines prominent sso) . sian ci 6. Carnivora (p. 264). 

go Limbs used mainly for swimming; seals. 7. Pinnipedia (p. 288). 

SoG AMINES“ ADSENE sau a deve toned ete ers eee 8. Rodentia (p. 289). 
Bae beet “witha HOOES. 75 fs. nee cas 05.0 Vic wena 9. Ungulata (p. 352). 


Order 1. Marsupialia.—Aplacental mammals in which the young 
are born in a very immature condition and are maintained by the 


246 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


mother in an abdominal pouch called the marsupium, in which the 
nipples of the milk-glands are situated. ‘The marsupium is supported 
on each side by the marsupial bone which projects forward from the 
pelvis and is present in both sexes. The uterus and vagina are double 
and paired. 

The marsupials vary much in their general form and in the form of 
their teeth, and the different groups are fitted to maintain themselves 
in very diverse environments. About 150 species are known, grouped 
in 2 suborders, all of which, with the exception of about two dozen 
American species, inhabit Australia and the neighboring islands. 


Key to the Suborders of Marsupialia 


a; Prominent eye-teeth present; carnivorous species...........1. Polyprotodontia. 
ay Eye-teeth small or wanting; herbivorous species (not present 
Wit SATMELICH), Set cane tic eB c hc eee le AS ce cacao tales ie Se pi ee 


Suborder Polyprotodontia.— Carnivorous marsupials with 4 or 5 
upper and 3 or 4 lower incisors, prominent canines and cuspidate 
molars: 4 families, in the American and Australian regions, 1 in America. 

Family Didelphiidze.—Opossums. Body rather slender, tail long 
and prehensile and scaly; legs of about equal length; feet pentadacty- 
lous; first digit of hind foot nailless and opposable; dentition 5/4, 1/1, 
3/3, 4/4: 10 genera, all American, mostly tropical; arboreal or aquatic; 
5 genera and 22 species in North and Central America; 1 genus in the 
United States. 

Didelphis L. Marsupial pouch well developed; fur a mixture of 
soft hairs and bristles: about 4 species, 1 in the United States. 

D. virginiana Kerr. Common opossum. Length 700 mm.; tail 
300 mm.; color dirty white on the sides, gray on the back: eastern and 
central States, from Long Island and the Great Lakes to the Gulf; 
westward to Louisiana, Oklahoma and Nebraska; arboreal animals 
which feed on birds, insects and reptiles, as well as on nuts, corn and 
fruit. The young are often carried on the mother’s back when they 
are big enough to leave her pouch, clinging to her fur or holding on 
by entwining their tails around hers as she holds it over her back. 
The nest is usually in a hollow tree; the young number from 5 to 14 and 
two or three litters are raised in a season. A new-born oppossum is 
about 12 mm. long. 


Subspecies of D. virginiana 


D. v. texensis Allen. Color black or gray: southwestern Texas; 
northward to San Antonio. 


MAMMALS 247 


D.»v. pigra Bangs. Smaller and with a much longer and slenderer 
tail and smaller feet: Florida and the Gulf coast; westward to western 
Louisiana. 

Order 2. Edentataw—Mammals either without teeth or with 
primitive, conical teeth which lack enamel and roots and never form a 
complete series, canines and incisors being generally absent: about 100 
species, which include armadillos, anteaters and sloths, most of which 
live in South and Central America; two genera in Africa and Asia; 1 
species in the United States. 

Family Dasypodidz.—Head narrow; snout long; body almost 
hairless and covered with a bony carapace in which are 6 to 12 movable 
rings in the middle region; tail long; toes 4-5, all with strong, curved 
claws: 2 genera; nocturnal, burrowing animals, feeding mainly on insects 
which they lick up. with the sticky surface of their extensile tongues. 

Dasypus L. With the characters of the family; toes on the fore 
feet nearly symmetrical: 1 species. 

D. novemcinctus L. The nine-banded armadillo. Carapace with 
g transverse rings in the middle and on the sides; tail very long and 
covered with rings; top of head and legs covered with shields and scales; 
color of head pale brown, of back black, of sides yellowish white; length 
800 mm.; tail 375 mm.; hind foot 100 mm.; dentition 0/0, 0/0, o/o, 8/8: 
southern Texas and New Mexico, and southward to Argentina; 4 or 8 
young at a birth in respectively either one or two monozygotic groups 
of quadruplets. The armor is largely a protection against cactus and 
other spiny plants. 

Order 3. Sirenia.—Aquatic, herbivorous mammals of large size 
without hind limbs or external ears; cervical vertebre 6; fore limbs oval 
flippers; tail rounded and flattened; 1 pair of thoracic mammez; body 
naked: 2 families, 1 American. 

Family Trichechidz.—With the characters of the order; dentition 
2/2, 0/0, o/o, 6/6 to 11/11: 1 genus. 

Trichechus L. With the characters of the order: 2 species, one (7. 
inunguis) in the Amazon and Orinoco. 

T. latirostris (Harlan). Manatee. Color uniform grayish black; 
extreme length 4000 mm.; extreme weight 2000 lbs; upper lip divided 
and very broad; eyes very small: east coast of Florida to Yucatan and 
the West Indias, in estuaries of broad rivers and coastal lagoons, w ae 
they feed on water plants; 1 or 2 young at a birth. 

Order 4. Insectivora.—Molesandshrews. Small, mostly noctur- 
nal mammals which live in or on the ground; feet plantigrade and 
usually pentadactylous; canine teeth small; skull elongate; snout often 


248 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


prolonged to form a proboscis: about 9 families, 2 North American; 
widely distributed, one of the largest species being the European 
hedgehog. 


Key to the North American Families of Insectivora 


a; Fore feet very large and modified for digging; moles.............. 1. Talpide. 
as Fore feet not.so. modified; shrews... .. ...4: 5... 22.4sa tole ae DD ORtEHIE 


Family 1. Talpidze.—Moles. Bodystout and cylindrical, covered 
by very soft fur; external ears absent; eyes very small and concealed 
in the fur; fore feet enormously enlarged and held vertically; neck not 
apparent; snout proboscis-like: about 36 species and subspecies; about to 
in the United States. Moles inhabit the Palearctic and Nearctic regions, 
living in burrows underground where they feed principally on earth- 
worms and insect grubs. The nest is from to to 18 inches beneath the 
surface, and from it deep tunnels radiate. A second series of tunnels is 
made just beneath the surface, which appear as the familiar surface 
ridges which often disfigure lawns; they are made in search of food. 
A single litter of about 4 young is born in the spring time. 


Key to the United States Genera of Talpide 


ai In the eastern and central States. 
b; Tail very short. 
c; Tail slender and nearly naked; the common mole (Fig. 


1c) A Ra aS ete PN MORN IAL PS Caen Ros ats a 1. Scalopus. 
c> Tail thick and very hairy (Fig? 140))..2.:<2 0). >. ...02<-2. -enascauggee 
be Tail long; snout with a star-shaped disc.................. 3. Condylura. 
a2 In the Pacific coast States. 
br Wargesmoles-over 150° mm. long:,...0 24 cates her ae 4. Scapanus. 
be -Smallimoles; cunder-.a2semin, long. e.-- wee ce te ee 5. Neurotrichus. 


1. Scalopus Geoffroy. Adult dentition 3/2, r/o, 3/3, 3/3; youthful 
dentition 3/3, 1/1, 3/3, 3/3; nostrils superior in position, being at the 
end of the snout, which is obliquely truncated; digits webbed: 12 species 
and subspecies. 

S. aqguaticus (L.). Common mole (Fig. 140; Fig. 141). Body dark 
slate color, often tinged with brown; length 160 mm.; tail 27 mm.; 
hind foot 20 mm.: eastern and central States from Massachusetts and 
central Minnesota to Texas; westward to northeastern Colorado; 
very common; of considerable importance as a fur-bearing animal. 


Subs pecies of S. aquaticus 


S. a. aquaticus (L.). Atlantic States from southern Massachusetts 
and southeastern New York to North Carolina and eastern Tennessee. 


MAMMALS 249 


S. a. howelli Jackson. Color dark drab; length 152 mm.: eastern 
and central North Carolina and South Carolina southwesterly to the 
Mississippi and the Gulf coast. 

S. a. australis Chapman. Color clove-brown; length (male) 145 
mm.: eastern Georgia and eastern Florida. 

S. a. anastase (Bangs). Color sepia; length (male) 
137 mm.: Anastasia Island, Florida. 

S. a. parvus (Rhoads). Color dark sepia; length (male) 

34 mm.: Tampa Bay, Florida. 

S. a. machrinus (Rafinesque). Color sepia or brown; 
length 200 mm.: eastern Ohio to central Iowa and southern 
Minnesota; central Michigan to Tennessee. 

S. a. machrinoides Jackson. Color brown; 
length 172 mm.: central Minnesota to Arkansas 
and eastern Kansas. 

S. a. pulcher Jack. Color dark fuscous or 
brown; length (male) 155 mm.: central Arkansas 
to southern Louisiana and eastern Texas. 

S. a. caryt Jack. Color light drab; length 
(male) 159 mm.: western Nebraska and north- ENA ae ey 
western Kansas. (a) Scalopus aquaticus 

S. a. intermedius (Elliot). Color light drab; 726, Parescatops 
length 164 mm.: central and western Oklahoma. 

S. a. texanus (Allen). Color brown; length 138 mm.: coast region 
of western Texas; northward to central Texas. 

2. Parascalops True. Dentition 3/3, 1/1, 4/4, 3/3; nostrils lateral, 
on the outer side of the snout; digits not webbed; tail hairy: 1 species. 

P. brewerit (Bachman). Hairy-tailed mole (Fig. 140; Fig. 142), 
Body blackish, often with a brownish gloss; length 150 mm.; tail 


Fic. 141.—Lower jaw and fore foot of Scalopus aquaticus (from Jackson). 


30 mm.; hind foot 19: eastern States from New Brunswick to North 
Carolina, in higher altitudes; westward to Ohio; in dry sandy soil; not 
common. 


250 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


3. Condylura Illiger. Dentition 3/3, 1/1, 4/4, 3/3; snout termi- 
nating with a disc bearing on its margin a fringe of 22 long processes, 11 
on each side; nostrils in the anterior surface of the disc; tail long, covered 
with coarse hair; digits not webbed: 1 species. 


Fic. 142.—Fore foot of Parascalops Fic. 143.—Snout of Condylura cristata 
breweri (from Jackson). (from Jackson). 


C. cristata (L.). Star-nosed mole (Fig. 143). Body blackish; 
length 185 mm.; tail 65 mm.; hind foot 28: southern Labrador to south- 
eastern Manitoba; southward to central Ohio and Indiana west of the 
Alleghenies and to Georgia on the Atlantic slope; in wet meadows and 
marshes, frequently leaving its burrows and running on the surface; not 
common; annual litter of 5 young. 

4. Scapanus Pomel. Dentition 3/3, 1/1, 4/4, 3/3; nostrils 
crescentic in shape, superior in position; tail short, thick, scantily 
haired; digits not webbed: several species, all on the Pacific slope, where 
they take the place of Scalopus in the eastern States and have similar 
habits. 


Key to the Species of Scapanus 


a; Unicuspid teeth evenly spaced and not crowded (Fig. 144); color 


very dark. 
by ength more thami2co*mm- 522 16 orien ot eee ei aera S. townsendi. 
bs oenebhiless;than:200' mines jes) oh 8) te nis, stl wp saaalls eae S. orarius. 
a» Unicuspid teeth unevenly spaced and crowded (Fig. 144); color 
usually brown or/eray./seldom "black .../.. {aie meas ee ome S. latimanus. 


Fic. 144.—Lower jaw of (a) Scapanus townsendi and (b) S. latimanus (from Jackson). 


S. townsendi (Bachman) (Fig. 144). Body of large size and blackish 
in color; length 225 mm.; tail 41 mm.; hind foot 26 mm.: northwestern 


MAMMALS 251 


California, Oregon and Washington, between the Cascades and the 
Coast Range; common; annual litter of 1 to 4 young. 

S. orarius True. Body blackish or grayish in color; length 167 mm.; 
tail 33 mm.; hind foot 20 mm.: Washington, Oregon and northern 
California. 


Subspecies of S. orarius 


S. 0. orarius True. Color fuscous black: coast region of Washing- 
ton, Oregon and northern California. 

S. 0. schefferi Jackson. Color gray: north-central Oregon to 
British Columbia. 

S. latimanus (Bach.) (Fig. 144). Body usually fuscous black, gray 
or drab in color; length 173 mm.; tail 35 mm.; hind foot 23 mm.: south- 
ern Oregon and California; annual litter of 2 or 3 each. 


Subspecies of S. latimanus 


S. 1. latimanus (Bach.). Color black in winter, brown in summer; 
length 170 mm.: western California from Santa Maria River to Oregon. 

S. 1. occultus Grinnell & Swarth. Color lighter: southern California, 
west of the deserts and south of Olancha. 

S. 1. grinnelli Jack. Color black; length 156 mm.: Inyo County, 
California. 

S. 1. sericatus Jack. Color black; length 170 mm.: Yosemite region. 

S. 1. minusculus Bangs. Color in summer, brown; length 160 mm.: 
El Dorado County, California. 

S. 1. dilatus True. Color gray or drab; length 175 mm.: south- 
central Oregon and northeastern California. 

S. 1. alpinus Merriam. Color in summer, gray; length 188 mm.: 
Crater Lake, Oregon. 

5. Neurotrichus Giinther. Size very small; dentition 2/1, 1/1, 3/4, 
3/3; snout terminating in a small disc in which are the laterally situated 
nostrils; digits not webbed: 1 species. 

N. gibbsii (Baird). Body dark gray in color; length 113 mm; tail 
37 mm.; hind foot 15 mm.: British Columbia to Eureka, California, 

“west of the Cascades and Sierra Nevada; in wet woods or meadows, 
often on the surface or under logs. 


Subspecies of N. gibbsit 
N. g. hyacinthinus Bangs. Size larger; color darker: coast region 
of California from Monterey to Eureka. 


252 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


Family 2. Soricide.—Shrews. Body rather slender; neck dis- 
tinct; snout elongate and proboscis-like; eyes and external ears normal, 
but small; feet pentadactylous, the fore feet not modified; fur soft and 
silky; zygomatic arch of skull wanting: many species, which are found 
throughout the world, except in the Australian and South American 
regions; about 36 species and 6 genera in the United States. The 
shrews are among the smallest mammals. They live in shallow tunnels, 
in run-ways in moss and mold and under logs and brush, feeding on 
worms, grubs, snails, mice and other small animals, including one 
another, and are noted for their fierceness and voracity. They raise 
two or more litters of 6 to 10 each during the summer and fall, and do 
not hibernate. 


Key to the United States Genera of Soricidz 
a, Tail long, being much longer than the head (Fig. 146). 


by Body 100mm. to 10mm. Jong) = je sees 1. Sorex. 

bz Body about: rsounm:. long) .22: ba...) 0t See os -s ee en ee ere 

bg Bodyiabout ocummm-clonpest: ee ee. eee eal ee eee 3. Microsorex. 
a2 Tail short, being usually shorter than the head (Fig. 147). 

ba ebeethtsonsine largess ucecoa Settee. ean pas see 4. Blarina. 

De, Meethroo Sine simally te 0 Weak shots eho) src ern Ge ae ene ae 5. Cryptotis. 

ge beetle 20% Sime Smalls. he el SiMe tee par rene alsa boca Pee nee 6. Notiosorex. 


1. Sorex L. Long-tailed shrews. External ears well developed, 
generally appearing above the fur and directed backwards; tail about as 


f 27 ead L 
PVRS ea 
EDS 


a b 
Fic. 145.—Upper jaw of Sorex personatus: a, lateral view; b, lower surface (from Merriam). 


long as the body; dentition 4/2, 1/0, 2/1, 3/3: over 50 species and 
subspecies in the United States and Canada. 

S. personatus Geoffroy. Common shrew (Fig. 145). Body brown 
above, gray beneath; length roo mm.; tail 38 mm.; hind foot 12 mm.: 
New England to Alaska; southward to southern Pennsylvania, Tennessee 
and Northern Nebraska, and in the higher Alleghenies into North 
Carolina; not in the southern Rockies and the Cascade-Sierra systems; 
Boreal and Transition zones; the commonest species. 

S. fontinalis Hollister. Like S. personatus, but with a much shorter 
tail: District of Columbia and its neighborhood. 


MAMMALS 253 


S. dispar Batchelder. Size large; body stout, slate-color; length 
130 mm.; tail 60 mm.; hind foot 15 mm.: Adirondack and Catskill 
Mountains; West Virginia. 

S. richardsoni Bachman. Color blackish, indistinctly tricolor; 
length 112 mm.; tail 40 mm.; hind foot 13 mm.: northern Wisconsin and 
Minnesota to the lower Mackensie Valley. 

S. fumeus Miller. Smoky shrew. Body slate-color; length 115 
mm.; tail 45 mm.; hind foot 14 mm.: northeastern States and Canada; 
westward to the Great Lakes; southward into the mountains of North 
Carolina. 

S. vagrans Baird. Body dark chestnut brown in color; length 103 
mm.; tail 43 mm.; hind foot 12 mm.: Rocky Mountain region from 
British Columbia into Arizona, and the Pacific slope southward to 
Monterey; very common. 


Subspecies of S. vagrans 


S. v. vagrans Baird. Western Washington, Oregon and northern 
California; northern Rockies. 

S. v. dobsont Merriam. Color grayish brown: Idaho, western 
Montana, Wyoming and Utah. 

S.v. monticola Merr. Color sepia brown: Arizona. 

S. amenus Merr. Color sooty brown; length 103 mm.; tail 37 mm.; 
hind foot 12 mm.: Sierra Nevada Mountains, California. 

S. nevadensis Merr. Color slate black, mixed with hoary; length 
96 mm.; tail 39 mm.; hind foot 12 mm.:: interior of the Great Basin. 

S. obscurus Merr. Body dull sepia brown in color; length 108 mm.; 
tail 46 mm.; hind foot 12 mm.; mountain regions from British Columbia 
to Colorado, Utah and central California; common. 

S. longicaudus Merr. Size large; tail long; color dark chestnut- 
brown above; length 131 mm.; tail 62 mm.; hind foot 15 mm.: Puget 
Sound to Alaska. 

S. bairdi Merr. Color dull chestnut; length 129 mm.; tail 57 mm.; 
hind foot 15 mm.: Oregon coast, mouth of the Columbia. 

S. trowbridgii Baird. Color blackish, slate or plumbeous; tail 
sharply bicolor; length 121 mm.; tail 51 mm.; hind foot 13 mm.: 
western Washington and Oregon. 

S. montereyensis Merr. Color slate black; tail sharply bicolor; 
length 120 mm.; tail 52 mm.; hind foot 14 mm.: south-central California. 

S. ornatus Merr. Color ash gray, indistinctly bicolor; length 108 
mm.; tail 43 mm.; hind foot 13 mm.: mountains of southern California. 


VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


nan 
ms 


S. californicus Merr. Color ash gray, with a pepper and salt 
appearance; length 93 mm.; tail 34 mm.; hind foot 11 mm.; brain case 
very flat; central California. 

S. tenellus Merr. Body pale ash gray; white beneath; tail bicolor; 
length 103 mm.; tail 42 mm.; hind foot 12 mm.; skull very narrow: 
central California and southward. 


Subs pecies of S. tenellus 


S. t. tenellus Merr. Southeastern California. 

S.t.lyelli Merr. Browner;tail darker: Tuolumne county, California. 

S. t. myops Merr. Smaller; ears larger; color paler: White Moun- 
tains, California. 

S.t.nanus Merr. Smaller; color darker: Larimer County, Colorado. 

S. longirostris Bach. Body brown above; length 85 mm.; tail 28 
mm.; hind foot 10 mm.: Washington, D. C. to Georgia; westward to 
southern Illinois; in swamps and wet places. 

S. fisheri Merr. Color chestnut brown; length 108 mm.; tail 33 
mm.; hind foot 12 mm.: Dismal Swamp, Virginia. 

S. pacificus Coues. Color cinnamon rufous; length 150 mm.; tail 
63 mm.; hind foot 17 mm.: coastal region of northern California and 
southern Oregon. 

S. leucogenys Osgood. Color brownish drab; length 107 mm.; tail 
38 mm.; hind foot 12 mm.: Beaver County, Utah. 

2. Neosorex Baird. Similar to Sorex; hind feet adapted to swim- 
ming, being very long and broad and fringed with bristles; toes also 
fringed, the third and fourth united at base and slightly webbed: 
ro species, and subspecies in the United States. 


Key to the Species of Neosorex 


a7“. the month-cen bralt Staves si! Rice ee Aer oer 2a as eee N. palustris. 
aeuintthe mort heastent ovatests c<t aia <b so tas eae aes oe NV. albibarbis. 
az In the Rocky Mountain and Pacific States. 
b, Im the Rockies and the Sierra, Nevadas..... ...- 22-22 322--01 N. navigator. 
bs In western Oregon and Washington........................N. bendiris. 


N. palustris (Richardson). Color seal brown; gray beneath; 
length 157 mm.; tail 68 mm.; hind foot 20 mm.: central Minnesota to 
the Rockies; northward to Hudson Bay; in marshy places. 

NV. albibarbis Cope. Marsh shrew (Fig. 146). Body blackish slate 
in color, sparingly mixed with white tipped hairs, and dusky beneath, 
length 154 mm.; tail 70 mm.; hind foot 19 mm.: eastern North America 


MAMMALS 255 


from the Pennsylvania mountains to Labrador; not common; in swamps 
and wet fields and woods; Hudsonian and Canadian zones. 

N. navigator Baird. Body plumbeous above, 
whitish beneath; length 150 mm.; tail 72 mm.; hind 
foot 20 mm.: Rocky Mountains from British 
Columbia to southern Colorado and the Sierra 
Nevadas; southward to Sequoia Park. 

N. bendirii (Merriam). Color blackish brown 
above and below; length 150 mm.; tail 68 mm.; 
hind foot 20 mm.: western Oregon and Washington. 


Subspecies of N. bendirit 


N. b. bendirit (Merr.). Klamath Basin, Oregon, 
to Puget Sound. 

N. b. palmeri (Merr.). Color glossy black; size 
larger: western Oregon. 

N. b. albiventer (Merr.). Size larger; beneath 
whitish: Olympic Mountains. 

3. Microsorex Coues. Similar to Sorex; body 
very small; inner side of canines and second and 
third incisors with a distinct secondary cusp; fourth 
upper incisor very small and nearly hidden: 7 
species and subspecies in the United States. 

M. hoyi (Baird). Body brown in color; length 
9o mm.; tail 32 mm.; hind foot to mm.: northern 
America from New England to British Columbia; 
southward to Wisconsin and northern New York; 
rare. 

M. winnemana Preble. Color grayish brown; 
tail bicolor; length 78 mm.; tail 28 mm.; hind foot 
9 mm.: northern Virginia; the smallest American 
mammal. 

4. Blarina Gray. Short-tailed shrews. Body 
rather stout, somewhat mole-like; ears hidden in the Fic. 146.—Neosorex 
fur; teeth tipped with chestnut; tail about as long as fc Ea sa Fa aaa 
the head; dentition 4/2, 1/0, 2/1, 3/3: 3 species, 2 in the United States. 

B. brevicauda (Say). Mole shrew (Fig. 147). Body dark brown in 
color; length 127 mm.; tail 26 mm.; hind foot 16 mm.: eastern and 
central America; westward to western Nebraska; common in woods 
and fields, bogs and swamps; emits a fetid odor. 


256 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


Subspecies of B. brevicauda 


B. b. brevicauda (Say). Western Nebraska to Manitoba; eastward 
to the Mississippi River. 

B.b. aloga Bangs. Smaller and paler; color brownish drab: Marthas 
Vineyard. 

B. b. compacta Bangs. Color slaty gray; tail 
unicolor: Nantucket. 

B. b. carolinensis (Bachman). Size smaller: 
southern States from Indiana and Maryland to 
Arkansas and Florida. 

B. b. hulophaga Elliot. Smaller, lighter in color 
and with an extremely short tail: Oklahoma. 

B. b. peninsule Merriam. Color more slaty; 
hind feet longer: Florida south of latitude 28. 

B. b. talpoides (Gapper). Northeastern and 
central States; westward to the Mississippi; south- 
ward to Georgia and Tennessee. 

B. telmalestes Merr. Similar to B. brevicauda 
but more plumbeous in color; length 118 mm.; tail 
28 mm.; hind foot 16 mm.: Dismal Swamp, Virginia. 

5. Cryptotis Pomel. Similar to Blarina, but 
much smaller; tail very short; dentition 3/2, 1/o, 
2/1, 3/3: 18 species, all tropical but two. 

C. parva (Say). Body brownish in color; length 
79 mm.; tail 16 mm.; hind foot to mm.: eastern 
and central States, south of New York; westward 
to Nebraska and Texas; in meadows and fields; 
often rare. 

C. floridana (Merriam). Color iron gray; 
length 89 mm.; tail 22 mm.; hind foot 22 mm.; 
A Pee Wee similar to C. parva, but larger: Florida, south of 

latitude 209. 

C. berlandieri(Baird). Colorash brown; length 83 mm.; tail 19 mm.; 
hind foot 12 mm.: coast of southern Texas and valley of the lower Rio 
Grande. 

6. Notiosorex Baird. Body very small; tail short; dentition 
3/2) 1/0, 1/t, (37 atv Species: 

N. crawfordi (Baird). Color olive gray; beneath whitish; length 
82 mm.; tail 26 mm.; hind foot to mm.: eastern Texas to southern 
Caifornia. 


MAMMALS 257 


Order 5. Chiroptera.—Bats. Small, flying mammals in which 
the greatly elongated fore limbs form the supports of the wings. These 
consist of a paired integumental membrane which extends between the 
arms and the four fingers and the body, and includes the hind legs and 
the tail. The knee bends backwards. The portion of the membrane 
between the hind legs which incloses the tail is called the znterfemoral 
membrane. The thumb is not included in the wing membrane. The 
foot has 5 digits; a long spur extends from the heel along the base of 
the interfemoral membrane. The ear 
is large and bears an elongated lobe in 
its concavity called the tragus (Fig. 
148). In many families, at the end 
of the snout and surrounding the nos- 
trils is a series of more or less com- 
plicated membranes called the nose-lea/ 
(Fig. 148). The mamme are thoracic 
in position and number 1 or 2 pairs. 


we A 
Eas wh 


Ht 


(4 


I \\ 
Viet: OO NONE S 


The sternum bears a keel. Fic. 148.—Head of Microtus cali- 
The order contains about goo spe- fornicus: I, tragus; 2, nose-leaf (from 
Allen). 


cies, grouped in 2 suborders, one of 
which, the Megachiroptera, or the frugivorous flying foxes of India 
and Australia, is not represented in this country. 

Suborder Microchiroptera.—Bats with a short snout, large ears 
and multicuspid molar teeth: 16 families and about 600 species, 3 
families and about 30 species occurring in the United States. Bats 
are nocturnal animals, which feed mostly on beetles, mosquitoes and 
other night-flying insects, which they chew before swallowing. Some 
species are, however, frugivorous and some sanguivorous. The female 
of most species bears one or two at a birth, which she may carry about 
with her, clinging to her body until they are old enough to be left in 
some safe place. Bats spend the day in caves and other dark places, 
hanging head downward by the hind feet. In the winter they hibernate 
or migrate. 


Key to the United States Families of the Microchiroptera 


a; Third finger with 3 phalanges; nose-leaf present; only in the 
EZBREERE: SOULE: i... 5 cages. d6 2, ibd startet She gate vp syste 1. Phyllostomide. 
as Third finger with 2 phalanges; nose-leaf absent. 
b, Ear with tragus; all United States bats, with a few excep- 
POTS ee oc 2 ale ca Rae Re oe Oe a eel ae  Mesperiilwniie: 


bs Ear without tragus; in the extreme southwest...........3. Molosside. 


258 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


Family 1. Phyllostomidze.—American leaf-nosed or vampire 
bats. Nose usually with a nose-leaf; tragus present; wing membrane 
reaching to the ankle; tail usually long, extending beyond the inter- 
femoral membrane; lower lip cleft: about 50 genera, all South and 
Central American, 3 species occurring along the southern border of the 
United States. The family includes the large fruit-eating vampire of 
South America (Vampyrus spectrum), whose horrid aspect has given it 
the undeserved reputation of being a blood-sucker. The true blood- 
sucking bats of South America are of small size and belong to the genera 
Desmodus and Diphylla of this family. 

1. Mormoops Leach. Crown of head greatly elevated above face; 
dentition 2/2, 1/1, 2/3, 3/3; nose-leaf absent: 2 species, 1 in the United 
States. 

M. megalophylla senicula Rehn. Body brown in color; length go 
mm.; tail 28 mm.; forearm 56 mm.: southern Texas to Ecuador. 

2. Macrotus Gray. Dentition 2/2, 1/1, 2/3, 3/3; head elongate; 
nose-leaf simple: 4 species, 1 in the United States. 

M. californicus Baird (Fig. 148). Body pale brownish gray in 
color; length 88 mm.; tail 33 mm.; ears very large: arid regions of south- 
western United States and of Mexico. 

3. Artibeus Leach. Dentition 2/2, 1/1, 2/2, 2/3 or 3/3; nose-leaf 
well developed; no external tail: 9 species, 1 in the United States. 

A. jamaicensis parvipes Rehn. Body brown or gray in color; 
length 70 mm.; forearm 52 mm.: West Indies and Central America, 
occasionally in Florida. 

Family 2. Vespertilionide.—Mostly small bats with a large 
tragus and a long tail which is either entirely or mostly enclosed in the 
interfemoral membrane; no nose-leaf; molars with distinct W-shaped 
cusps; bony palate defective: 260 species, of cosmopolitan distribution, 
including, with a few exceptions, all of the bats occurring in the United 
States; 2 subfamilies. 


Key to the United States Subfamilies of Vespertilionide 


ay bower. incisors 6; snout without ridge. -...-2/4...-425-.6e 1. Vespertilionine. 
a2 Lower incisors 4; horseshoe-shaped ridge on snout......... 2. Nyctophiline. 

Subfamily 1. Vespertilionine. Bats with a simple snout and nos- 
trils, with 6 lower incisors and ears usually not joined in front: over 20 
American species. 


Key to the United States Genera of Vespertilionine 


a, Ears not united in front. 
b; Upper incisors 4 (both sides) (Fig. 149). 


MAMMALS 250 


c, Upper premolars 3 (on each side) (Fig. 149)........... 1. Myotis. 
co Upper premolars 2. 
Rg ONVE RE MIO AES 28 ok: ccc. -.27= «vw ise eget lex ae 2. Lasionycteris. 
Gosbower PrEMOlars 2.6.0 0. sf ou a Pema Sere Goss 3. Pipistrellus. 
CREME TOTEM OIAEGS TE crc ¢ cin ie safe a sos Sethe Se OR he = > 4. Eptesicus. 
be Upper incisors 2 (both sides). 
emuUpperpremolars 2 (on each’ side)... 2. 28g. donee es 5. Nycterts. 
co Upper premolars tr. 
d, Mandibular tooth-row more than 8 mm. long....... 6. Dasypterus. 
dy Mandibular tooth-row less than 7 mm. long.........7. Nycticeius. 
ay Ears very large and united at base in front. 
Bere NOStIbSe SING fiestas calc a chee she afece bm eroegecorntata: = 2 bln tua ete 8. Euderma. 
be Nostnils with a-high ridge behind each...) 22...%.2 2.0: 9. Corynorhinus. 


1. Myotis Kaup. Small, slender bats with a long tail, a hairy face 
and narrow ears; dentition 2/3, 1/1, 3/3, 3/3: 80 species, cosmopolitan ; 
about 30 species and subspecies in the 


United States and Canada. A re 7 Woann® 


M.lucifugus (LeConte). Little brown 
a (Fig. 149). Body brown in color; B oy Logic 
ength 87 mm.; tail 38 mm.; fore arm 38 BS en reer OF 
mm.; ears short and broad and when laid fugus: A, left side of upper jaw; B, 
foreward reach about to the nostrils: ' side of lower jaw (from Miller). 
entire United States, except the coastal regions of the Pacific slope 
north of Puget Sound; common, especially towards the south. 


Subspecies of M. lucifugus 
M. 1. lucifugus (LeC.). Entire country, except the Rocky Moun- 
tains and the Pacific coast. 
M. 1. altipetens (Grinnell). Color yellowish; size smaller: the 
central Sierras near Mount Shasta. 
M. longicrus (True). Upper parts bister; under parts buff; length 
too mm.; tail 45 mm.: Pacific Slope; Boreal and Transition Zones. 


Subspecies of M. longicrus 


M. 1. longicrus (True). Body larger: Puget Sound region and east- 
ward to Wyoming and southward to Arizona and southern California. 

M.1. interior Miller. Color tawny olive: Idaho and Wyoming south 
into Arizona and New Mexico. 

M. subulatus (Say). Color light brown; length 85 mm.; tail 38 
mm.; fore arm 35 mm.; ears slender and when laid forward reaching 
considerably beyond tip of nose: North America, east of the Rockies; 
common; number of young at a birth 2. 


260 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


M. velifer (J. A. Allen). Color dull sepia; length 95 mm.; tail 44 
mm.; forearm 41 mm.; ears short, reaching to the nostril when laid 
forward: the Mexican border. 

M. incautus (J. A. A.). Like M. velifer but with a more pallid 
coloration: New Mexico and Texas. 

M. baileyi Hollister. Like M. velifer but smaller: White Mountains, 
New Mexico. 

M. grisescens Howell. Like M. velifer but darker: Indiana, Missouri, 
and Tennessee. 

M. occultus Holl. Color glossy brown; length 96 mm.; tail 40 mm.: 
San Bernardino County, California. 

M.carissima Thomas. Color blackish; length 81 mm.; tail 36 mm.: 
Yellowstone Lake, Wyoming, Montana. 

M. californicus (Audubon & Bachman). Body slender and very 
small, with a long tail and legs; color yellowish gray; wings, ears and 
snout blackish; fur very long; length 78 mm.; tail 38 mm.; forearm 31 
mm.; western United States; eastward to Texas and Kansas: common. 


Subspecies of M. californicus 


M. c. californicus (Aud. and Bach.). Western United States; east- 
ward to Wyoming and Texas. 

M. c. caurinus Miller. Very much darker in color: coast district, 
northern California to British Columbia. 

M.c. ciliolabrum (Merriam). Very much paler in color: Kansas to 
central South Dakota. 

M.c. pallidus Stephens. Smaller and paler: Mohave and Colorado 
deserts, California. ’ 

M. c. quercinus Grinnell. Upper parts cinnamon; under parts light 
buff: southern California and the Channel Islands. 

M. yumanensis (H. Allen). Body small, whitish gray or brown 
in color; length 80 mm.; tail 36 mm.; forearm 34 mm.; feet very large: 
western United States. 


Subspecies of M. yumanensis 


M. y. yumanensis (H. A.). Southwestern States from Utah to 
southern California. 

M. y. saturatus. Miller. Color much darker: central Oregon to 
British Columbia. 

M. evotis (H. Allen). Long-eared bat. Color light yellowish brown; 
length 90 mm.; tail 42 mm.; forearm 37; ears very long, reaching 7 to 10 


MAMMALS 2601 


mm. beyond the tip of the nose when laid forward: western States; 
eastward to the eastern edge of the Rocky Mountains. 

2. Lasionycteris Peters. Medium sized bats with short, broad ears 
and a broad tragus; dentition 2/3, 1/1, 2/3, 3/3: 1 species. 

L. noctivagans (LeConte). Silver-haired bat (Fig. 150). Color 
deep brown-black, the back with a silvery sheen; length 100 mm.; tail 
4r mm.; forearm 42 mm.: North America, north of Mexico; common. 


Mrpancad qt yukQyusin 


Fic. 150.—Teeth of Lasionycteris noctivagans, the upper jaw at the left (from Miller). 


3. Pipistrellus Kaup. Small bats, similar to Myotis; dentition 
2/3, 1/1, 2/2, 3/3: 40 species, 2 in the United States. 


Key to the United States Species of Pipistrellus 


ars raeus, blunt wwithvtip bent. LoRward sc-ice sae eens oes Se eee Ske P. hesperus. 
Ap EAMUSACA EMI G sAMLG SCEAIGINEN ores iacar nats soca sre Uae rene vials tue, 6 Sets aut P. subflavus. 


P. hesperus (H. Allen) (Fig. 151). Color light yellowish gray; 
length 75 mm.; tail 32 mm.; forearm 30 mm.: southern and western 


Texas to the Pacific. 
WA cceeal a POA 
Ava eeee 


Fic. 151.—Teeth of Pipistrellus hesperus (above) and P. subflavus (below), the upper jaw at 
the left (from Miller). 

P. subflavus (F. Cuvier) (Fig. 151). Color light yellowish brown; 

length 85 mm.; tail 40 mm.; forearm 34 mm.: eastern United States; 
westward to Iowa and Texas; Austral zone. 


Subspecies of P. subflavus 


P. s. subflavus (F. Cuv.). Eastern United States. 

P. s. obscurus Miller. Color duller and less yellow: eastern and 
central New York (Lake George). 

4. Eptesicus Rafinesque. Dentition 2/3, 1/1, 1/2, 3/3; inter- 
femoral portion of membrane naked: 5 species, 1 in the United 
States. 

E. fuscus (Beauvois). Big brown bat; house-bat (Fig. 152). Color 
sepia brown; length t10 mm.; tail 45 mm.; forearm 45 mm.: United 
States and Mexico; common. 


bo 
On 
bo 


VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


Subspecies of E. fuscus 


E. f. fuscus (Beauv.). Size large: United States. 
E. f. osceola Rhoads. Color deeper and darker: southern and central 
Florida. 


Fic. 152.—Teeth of Eptesicus fuscus, the upper jaw at the left (from Miller). 


-E. f. bernardinus Rhoads. Size large; wings and ears very dark: 
San Bernardino, California. 
E. f. melanopterus Stone. Color more reddish: Eldorado County, 
California. 
5. Nycteris Borkhausen (Lasiurus Gray). Dentition 1/3, 1/1, 2/2, 
3/3; interfemoral portion of membrane densely furred; ears short and 
z round: 12 species, 2 in the United 
ah STON oh EEE States; these are unusually tolerant of 
sunlight, often roosting in trees dur- 
CAM is Ours ace (ae ing the day in the full glare of the sun 
UL oR OPEL one Rate and beginning to feed in the afternoon; 
a, N.b. teliotis; b, N.b. borealis, the upper number of young 2 to 4° 
pa ce peslete Cane, Maser) N. borealis (Miiller). Red bat 
(Fig. 153). Body varying from rufous red to yellowish gray in color, 
with a white spot on each shoulder, the two spots connected by a white 
chest band; length 110 mm.; tail 50 mm.; forearm 40 mm.: eastern 
and central North America; common. 


Subspecies of N. borealis 


NV. b. borealis (Miiller). West to Oklahoma and Colorado. 

N.b. seminola (Rhoads). Color mahogany brown, slightly grayish: 
South Carolina to south Texas. 

N. b. teliotis (H. Allen). Size smaller; color redder: central and 
southern California. 

N\. cinerea (Beauvois). Hoary bat. Body gray in color; length 135 
mm.; tail 50 mm.; forearm 40 mm.; wings long and pointed: northern 
North America; southward to central New York, migrating in winter 
into the southern States. 

6. Dasypterus Peters. Dentition 1/3, 1/1, 1/2, 3/3; dorsal portion 
of interfemoral membrane furred on basal half only; ears higher than 
broad: 3 species in Mexico and the United States. 


MAMMALS 263 


D. intermedius (H. Allen) (Fig. 154). Color light yellowish brown: 
length 145 mm.,; tail 65 mm.; forearm 55 mm.: Gulf States and northern 
Mexico. 

D. floridanus Miller. Color light yellowish brown; length 129 mm.; 
tail 52 mm.; forearm 49 mm.: Gulf coast from Florida to Louisiana. 

7. Nycticeius Rafinesque. Dentition 1/3, 1/1, 1/2, 3/3; inter- 
femoral portion of membrane furred at the base only; ears short: 2 
species, 1 in Cuba. 


Fic. 154.—Teeth of Dasypterus intermedius, the upper jaw at the left (from Miller). 


N. humeralis (Raf.). Body dull brown in color; length 90 mm.; tail 
36 mm.; forearm 36 mm.; ear small, with a short, blunt tragus: south- 
eastern and central States; northward to Pennsylvania; westward to 
Arkansas; Austral zone. 

8. Euderma H. Allen. Dentition 2/3, 1/1, 2/2, 3/3; ears joined 
across the forehead: 1 species. 

E. maculatum (J. A. Allen). Color dark sepia, almost black above; 
length 110 mm.; tail 50 mm.; forearm 50 mm.: southern California, 
Arizona and New Mexico; rare. 

9. Corynorhinus H. Allen. Dentition 2/3, 1/1, 2/3, 3/3; a pair of 
large glandular masses on the snout, rising high above the nostrils; ears 
very large and united at their anterior base: 4 species and subspecies. 

C. rafinesquii (Lesson). Big-eared bat. Body large, yellowish 
brown in color, distinctly bicolor; length 105 mm.; tail 52 mm.; fore- 
arm 43 mm.; ear 33 mm.: southern United States, from one coast to the 
other; also in the extreme northwest. 


Subspecies of C. rafinesquit 


C.r. rafinesquii (Les.). Eastern central States; Lower Austral zone. 

C. r. pallescens (Miller). Color much paler, nowhere distinctly 
bicolor: southwestern States from southern California to western Texas 
and Colorado. 

C. r. townsendii (Cooper). Color much darker, nowhere distinctly 
bicolor: coast district of Oregon and Washington. 

Subfamily 2. Nyctophilinze.—Bats with a horshoe-shaped ridge 
around the nostrils and with 4 lower incisors: 1 genus. 


264 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


Antrozous H. Allen. Dentition 1/2, 1/1, 1/2, 3/3; mamme 2: 2 
species, 1 in Lower California. 

A. pallidus (LeConte). Body pale drab in color; length 105 mm.; 
tail 45 mm.; forearm 53 mm.; ears very large, extending 20 mm. 
beyond the nose when laid forwards: southwestern States from western 
Texas to the Pacific. 

Family 3. Molossidze.—Wings long and narrow, thick and 
leathery; no tragus; legs short and stout; nostrils usually on a special 
pad: about 80 species, in the warmer parts of 
the earth. 

Tadarida (LeConte). Head and body flat- 
tened; dentition 1/2 or 1/3, 1/1, 2/2, 3/3 eames 
large, rounded, extending beyond the snout when 

Fic. 15s—Head of laid forwards, nearly united on the top of the 
ee cynocephala (from head: 40 species, 16 American, 2 in the United 

States. 

T. cynocephala (LeConte). Mexican bat (Fig. 155). Body plumbe- 
ous or dusky brown in color; length 1co mm.; tail 30 mm.; forearm 
40 mm.; sides of snout with a series of deep wrinkles; half of tail in 
interfemoral membrane: southern States; common. 

Order 6. Carnivora.—The flesh-eaters. Carnivorous, sometimes 
omnivorous mammals with large projecting canine teeth, cutting pre- 
molars and tuberculate molars; the last upper premolar and the first 
lower molar being carnassial (flesh-cutting) teeth (Fig. 139); digits 
unguiculate and never less than 4: 250 species, 120 in the United States, 
grouped in 5 families; predatory mammals distributed throughout the 
world. 


5 a! c 
A SPE ery 
ise SaaS t 


Key to the Families of Carnivora 


a; Claws not retractile. 


br Pail cudimentanydbears >) 2.24% e ae eee oie ee 1. Urside. 
by Tail well developed and long. 
c; Feet digitigrade; hind foot with 4 toes; wolves; foxes....2. Canide. 
co Feet plantigrade; hind foot with 5 toes. 
di “Toessnot webbed: Taccoons (27-5 gen) es ee 3. Procyonide. 
da. Toes webbed: cacomistles: .. 2.) .2 ind oe we ets 4. Bassariscide. 
a2 Claws more or less retractile. 
bi Hind foot with 5 toes; weasels; skunks................... 5. Mustelide. 
be Hind:fieotawithd4s toes eats... Sere Ae ae ee eee Ae 6. Felide. 


Family 1. Urside.—Bears. Body of large size, thick and heavy; 
feet plantigrade; toes 5-5; claws not retractile: in all geographical 


MAMMALS 265 


regions except the Ethiopean and Australian; 3 genera, one of which, 
Thalarctos Gray, includes the Polar bear, 7. maritimus (Phipps). 

1. Euarctos Gray. American black bears. Color black or dark 
brown; facial contour straight; head short and broad; snout depressed; 
dentition 3/3, 1/1, 4/4, 2/3; molars very broad and tuberculate: North 
America; about ro species and subspecies, 6 in the United States, 
omnivorous, mainly nocturnal animals which hibernate in the winter 
in the cold portion of their range, but not in the warmer portions. 
The young, from 1 to 3 in number, are born in midwinter. 

E. amercanus (Pallas). Black bear; cinnamon bear. Body black, 
with a brown muzzle, or entirely brown, there being two color phases, 
the cinnamon bear of the northern Rockies being the brown phase; 
length 1,540 mm.; tail 120 mm.; weight up to 500 lbs.: forest lands of 
North America north of the Gulf States and the Sierra Madre in 
Mexico; Hudsonian, Canadian, Transition and Upper Austral zones; 
climbs trees readily. 


Subspecies of E. americanus 


E. a. americanus (Pal.). North America. 

E. a. amblyceps (Baird). Color brown: southern Texas. New 
Mexico and Arizona. 

E. floridanus (Merriam). Head very long, high and narrow: 
Florida, northwards into Georgia. 

E. luteolus (Griffith). Color yellowish brown, darker on the nape; 
similar to E. americanus, but with a long, flattened skull: Louisiana 
and eastern Texas. 

E. altifrontalis (Elliot). Color black; nose tan: forehead broad, 
high and bulging: Clallam County, Washington. 

2. UrsusL. Grizzlies and Big Brown Bears. Color light brown or 
yellowish brown, often with scattered white-tipped hairs; facial contour 
concave; size large or very large: numerous species in the nearctic and 
palearctic regions; North American species numerous (Merriam lists 
86 species and subspecies), which fall into two general groups which 
grade into each other, (1) the Grizzlies, ranging in the southerly and 
northerly Rockies, the Central Platteau and Great Plains regions, and 
(2) the Big Brown Bears, ranging in Alaska and the Alaskan Islands; of 
the latter U. middendorffi Merriam and U. gigas (Merriam) are the 
largest and heaviest of all the Carnivora. 

U. horribilis Ord. Grizzly bear. Color brownish yellow, being 
darker on the back and legs; fur long and shaggy; length up to 2,500 
mm.; weight up to 1,000 lbs.: western America from Mexico, New 


266 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


Mexico and Arizona to Alaska and Hudson Bay; does not climb trees, 
except when a cub. . 

U. horrieus (Baird). Size smaller; the frontal bones flattened and 
concave between the postorbital process: New Mexico and Arizona to 
Utah and Colorado. 

U. californicus Merr. Size large; ears longer: central and southern 
California. 

Family 2. Canidz.—Dogs, wolves and foxes. Body slender, 
with long legs; feet digitigrade; toes 5-4; claws blunt and non-retractile; 
head elongate; dentition 3/3, 1/1, 4/4, 2/3 (Fig. 139): cosmopolitan; 
about 50 species in North America. 


Key to the United States Genera 


ap. Pupil round “dogs and wolves:2 s.r ccneenas a on ee eee ee ee 1. Canis. 
ao Pupil elliptical; tail bushy; foxes. 
bi» Latlowith softiinderiur si. 2.o.2- ese ea be ee 2. Vulpes. 
be: Eail-with: coarse fur. «3922/00. Hace 3 oes ae te ee 3. Urocyon. 


1 Canis L. Dogs and wolves. Legs long; tail moderately bushy; 
upper incisors distinctly lobed: many species; cosmopolitan; about 24 
in North America, and 15 in the United States. The domestic dog, 
C. familiaris, is descended from a number of wild stocks. The native 
wild dogs and wolves fall into 2 groups or subgenera, one of which is 
Canis L. and has for its characteristic representativethe gray wolf, and 
the other is Lyciscus Hamilton Smith, which is represented by the 
coyote. They are very prolific, wolves having sometimes as many as 
12 young at a birth and coyotes as many as 14. 


Key to the United States Species of Canis 


a; Size large; wolves; length mostly over 1,400 mm. 
b; East of the Mississippi. 
cr In the northeastem: States. <0... eiopine.c1 ee ee ee C. lycaon. 
cs insthe Souther: States: aay epee eae eee C. floridanus. 
b2 West of the Mississippi. 
c,; On the Great Plains and in Rocky Mountains; tail short. .C. nubilus. 
e, in the Puget Sound: repion. 1) .'). 0. 5; 7 Dee C. gigas. 


Gz Tn Texas. 12 s.30% ork oa eae et eet aren ee ce C. frustror. 
C. rufus. 
a» Size smaller; coyotes; length under 1,200 mm.; muzzle sharp. 

bi On the northern: prainess +") 42,5. /: ae ee eee C. latrans. 
be On the Great Plains. 3) oc4 soe yee C. nebracensis. 
bs In the mountains»and the Great Basin: av... -ee 2 ee C. lestes. 
b,; In the southwest. 

ci In the lower Rio Grande Valley.: s2.5- 2... 5-5: a eee ee C. microdon. 


ce In. Arizona. .:..\. kas 9 eee eee eee C. mearnsi. 


MAMMALS 267 


Cubromveasterny Galitornia tosUitaly.. 1. sacs oe ceil etetens sats Stor. 
CpelnaehesanyOAduinn Valley yh... 2s ids hoe ee emtaeeioeen oa C ochropus. 


C. lycaon Schreber (C. occidentalis Richardson). Gray wolf. 
Color gray, mixed with blackish or tawny; length 1,465 mm.; tail 405 
mm.; hind foot 225 mm.: eastern Canada and northeastern United 
States; exterminated, except towards the north. 

C. floridanus Miller. Southern wolf. Similar to C. lycaon, but 
much darker; color black above, buffy gray faintly clouded on the sides 
and beneath; muzzle and legs yellowish: Florida. 

C. nubilus Say. Gray wolf of the plains; lobo; timber wolf. Color 
gray, varying to blackish on the back and tawny on the belly; length 
males 1,600 mm.; tail 400 mm.; weight about roo lbs. or more: the interior 
States and central Canada; southward to Nebraska and Colorado; 
exterminated in well settled districts, but common in many places in 
the Great Plains and Rocky Mountains. 

C. frustror Woodhouse. American jackal. Color gray, clouded 
with black; length 1,143 mm.; tail 355 mm.; hind foot 180 mm.: Texas 
and Oklahoma. 

C. gigas Townsend. Northwest timber wolf. Size large; tail very 
short; color black above, reddish brown on the sides, cinereous below: 
region of Puget Sound. 

C. rufus Audubon and Bachman. ‘Texas red wolf. Color reddish 
brown mixed with irregular patches of black; upper surface and end of 
tail black; length 1,200 mm.; tail 325 mm.; form slender; fur smooth: 
southwestern Texas. 

C. latrans Say. Coyote; prairie wolf. Color fulvous or grayish, 
clouded with black; tail tipped with black; muzzle sharp; length 1,250 
mm.; tail 394 mm.; hind foot 179 mm.; weight up to 35 lbs.: humid 
prairies and woodlands of northern Mississippi Valley, in Iowa and 
Minnesota and westward to the Rockies in Alberta. 

C. nebracensis Merriam. Plains coyote. Similar to C. latrans, but 
a little smaller and paler; upper parts whitish, sparingly mixed with 
black hairs; under parts white: Great Plains from Canada to Texas. 


Subspecies of C. nebracensis 


C.n. nebracensis Merr. Nebraska and eastern Colorado to Montana 
and Canada. 

C. n. texensis Bailey. Color darker and brighter: Texas and 
Oklahoma. 

C. lestes Merr. Mountain coyote. Size large, but somewhat 
smaller than C. atrans; color similar but paler; ears and tail large: high- 


268 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


lands and mountains of the Great Basin and Rockies and the Sierra 
Nevada from British Columbia to Mexico. 

C. microdon Merr. Color cinnamon rufous; length 1,070 mm.; tail 
320 mm.; hind foot 186 mm.; teeth very small; hind foot whitish above: 
lower Rio Grande region. 

C. mearnsi Merr. Similar to C. microdon in size; color fulvous and 
very rich and bright: Arizona. 

C. estor Merr. Similar to C. mearnsi in size and color, but paler, 
being a pale desert form: eastern California, Nevada and Utah. 

C. ochropus Eschscholtz. Similar to C. latrans, but smaller and 
darker; ears large; head small: San Joaquin Valley, California. 

2. Vulpes Oken. Red foxes. Upper incisors not lobed; legs rather 
short; tail bushy, with soft under-fur: about 20 species, all in the 
northern hemisphere, 10 in the United States, all valuable fur-bearing 
animals. Their dens are holes in the ground dug by themselves, and 
they bear 4 to 9 at a birth. 


Key to the United States Species of Vulpes 


a, In the eastern and central States. 


bs. Imi the States‘east of the Mississippi... a: «cn ok eee V. fulva. 
bowin Novarscotianand isa bradorii . af )t. ine oe sis ee eee V. rubricosa. 
OPVMAOVEIN Rev; anay ouaVall-RaYatoee ee Meeeh aby gee een MCUs SAP R Lan Us th Seid open ef V. deletrix. 


a» In the western States. 
b,; On the Great Plains. 


G ithe-norther States and. Caniadar v.55) oar oer V. regalis. 
cs Inthe central Mountaim: States o:,.°o5 6 cores eee V. velox. 
Gs; na the southwesterm deserts, 2. cceeu on eee eo eee V. macrotis. 
bo In the mountains. 
Cc; bn the centraltRiockies< 2. (3 aed. Seo Oe ee eee V. macroura. 
€s In the SierrasvandiCascades «424 oc). .4..2 ei eee V. cascadensis. 
Gs7 ln. Phe Nie SISkras. ohe Ce Me me scree Seo Lach es eee hee V. necator. 
bs inveentralCalitorttaac.>-10r oe pea ee eee Medina V. mutica. 


V. fulua (Desmarest). Red fox; black fox; cross fox; silver gray 
fox. Color reddish gray; feet and ears black; tail darker than body; 
tip of tail and under parts white; melanic individuals sometimes occur, 
the black fox being entirely black, the cross fox having a black band 
along the back crossed by one on the shoulders, and the silver fox being 
silver gray; length 1,034 mm.; tail 394 mm.; hind foot 163 mm.: eastern 
America, southward to Georgia and Tennessee; northward to Maine; 
westward to the Great Plains; introduced into other regions. 

V. rubricosa Bangs. Size slightly larger and color deeper than V. 
fulva; tail very dark, with a basal ring of black: Nova Scotia and 
Labrador. 


MAMMALS 269 


V. deletrix Bangs. Size slightly smaller than V. fulva; hind feet and 
claws very large; color very pale, being light straw: Newfoundland. 
7. regalis Merriam. Size much larger than V. fulva, the length 
being 1,117 mm.; ears very broad and large; tail very long but thin; 
color golden yellow; legs abruptly reddish; feet black: northern plains 
from Minnesota to Montana and Alberta. 

V. macroura Baird. Size and color of V. fulva, but tail much longer 
and hind feet larger: Nebraska to Oklahoma; mountains of Colorado, 
Utah and Wyoming. 

V. necator Merr. Size and color of V. fulva: high Sierras, California. 

V. cascadensis Merr. Color similar to V. fulva; black-cross color 
phase common; length 1,070 mm.; tail 412 mm.; hind foot 178 mm.: 
northern Sierras, Cascades and northward. 

V. velox (Say). Swift fox; kit fox: Size small; length 645 mm.; 
tail 226 mm.; hind foot 95 mm.; color yellowish gray above and white 
underneath; tip of tail black: northern Texas through Nebraska and 
eastern Colorado into Alberta; not common. 

V. mutica Merr. Similar to V. macrotis; top of head and middle of 
back reddish brown; outside of hind foot fulvous; tip of tail black; 
length 950 mm.; tail 350 mm.; hind foot 122 mm.: San Joaquin Valley, 
California. 

V. macrotis Merr. Long eared fox; desert fox. Length 850 mm.; 
tail 290 mm.; hind foot 110 mm.; color grizzled gray above; sides ful- 
vous; under parts white, mixed with buff; terminal quarter of tail black; 
ears well haired, very long and broad; tail long and slender: Mexican 
border from Texas to California. 

3. Urocyon Baird. Gray foxes. Upper incisors not lobed; tail 
with concealed stiff hairs and no soft under-fur: 7 species, 5 in the 
United States and 2 in Central America, being most numerous in the 
semiarid regions of the southwest; they do not dig a den, as do the red 
foxes, but live in hollow logs or in cavities in the rocks; the young num- 
ber from 3 to 9. Gray foxes often climb low trees. 


— 


Key to the Species of Urocyon 


linutheceastern andicentral States... 4.2.5. ves ae oan oe ee U. cimereoargenteus. 
a2 On the Pacific slope. 
SMPE OME RESINAITY LANG re les). ks Cage aires eres whiatela he U. californicus. 
HeaeOuuphensl ands ot the COASEs.. seme ta oe cies ae ce eae U. clemente. 


U. cataline. 
U., littoralis. 


U. cinereoargenteus (Schreber). Gray fox. Color gray, darker on 
the back; sides of neck, collar and a band along belly tawny; feet and 


270 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


tip of tail black; under parts whitish; length 1,000 mm.; tail 300 mm.; 
hind foot 125 mm.: northern America south of southern New York 
and central New England, from the Atlantic to southern California. 


Subspecies of U. cinereoargenteus 


U. c. cinereoargenteus (Schreber). Eastern States; southward to 
Georgia; westward to the Mississippi Valley and Lake Michigan. 

U. c. borealis Merriam. Size larger; fourth lower premolar very 
large: southern New Hampshire. 

U.c. floridanus Rhoads. Size small; fur coarse; no white beneath: 
Florida and southern Georgia. 

U.c. ocythous Bangs. Size large; tail long; color with more yellow: 
upper Mississippi Valley north of Tennessee; westward to the plains. 

U.c. scotti Mearns. ‘Tail and ears very long; color pale: Texas to 
southern California. 

U. californicus Mearns. Similar to U. cinereoargenteus, but smaller 
and paler and with larger ears and a longer tail; length 950 mm.; tail 
375 mm.; hind foot 120 mm.: southern California to Washington. 


Subspecies of U. californicus 


U.c. californicus Mearns. Southern California. 

U.c. sequoiensis Dixon. Length 975 mm.; tail 400 mm.; hind foot 
135 mm.: central California. 

U. c. townsendi Merr. ‘Tawny tints darker; ears smaller; length 
I,100 mm.: northern California. 

U. clemente Merr. Length 688 mm.; tail 250 mm.; hind foot 100 
mm.; under side of thigh and upper side of hind foot whitish: San 
Clemente Island, California. 

U. cataline Merr. Length 795 mm.; tail 298 mm.; hind foot 112 
mm.; white on under side of thigh greatly restricted: Catalina Island, 
California. 

U. littoralis (Baird). Length 708 mm.; tail 260 mm.; hind foot 1og 
mm.: San Miguel and Santa Cruz Islands, California. 

Family 3. Procyonide.—Raccoons. Body ofsmallormediumsize, 
stout and bear-like; feet plantigrade; claws not retractile; toes 5-5; 
tail well developed; teeth 3/3, 1/1, 4/4, 2/2: 1 genus in the United 
States. 

Procyon Storr. Body stout; head rather short; snout pointed; 
tail bushy and ringed with black and white; fur thick and heavy: 8 
species, ranging from northern South America to Canada; 3 species in 
the United States. 


MAMMALS 271 


P.lotor (L.). Raccoon;coon. Color gray, the hairs being yellowish- 
brown tipped with black; tail ringed with white and black; a black- 
patch on cheek; fur rather coarse; length 800 mm.; tail 250 mm.; 
hind foot 120 mm.; weight about 20 lbs.; maximum weight 49 lbs.: 
United States east of the Rockies. Raccoons are nocturnal, forest 
animals, frequenting the vicinity of water-courses. They are omnivor- 
ous in their feeding habits and make their nests mostly in hollow trees, 
in which they have from 4 to 6 young annually; in the north they 
hibernate, but not in the south. 


Subspecies of P. lotor 


P.1. lotor (L.). United States north of Florida and Texas. 

P.1. elucus Bangs. Color distinctly yellow: Gulf coast. 

P. 1. fuscipes Mearns. Size large; color pale; tail long; feet dark 
brown; length 900 mm.: southern Texas; southward into Mexico. 

P. 1. hernandezi Wagler. Size very large; black tail-rings very 
narrow: western Mexico and into Arizona and southern California. 

P. pallidus Merriam. Color pale gray, with no yellowish; length 
855 mm.; tail 295 mm.; hind foot 128 mm.: southern California; a 
desert form. 

P. psora Gray. Size large; length 900 mm.; tail 310 mm.; hind foot 
115 mm.; color dark grizzled gray: Pacific slope. 


Subs pecies of P. psora 


P. p. psora Gray. California. 

P. p. pacifica Merriam. Color much darker; black rings on tail 
continuous below: coastal region and Cascade Mountains of northern 
California, Oregon and Washington. 

Family 4. Bassariscidz#.—Cacomistles. Similar to the Pro- 
cyonide, but differing in dental characters; body slender; digits webbed, 
densely furred; dentition 3/3, 1/1, 4/4, 2/2: 1 genus. 

Bassariscus Coues. Body slender; head short; muzzle pointed; 
ears large; tail very long, bushy and ringed black and white: 4 species 
and subspecies in Mexico and the United States. 

B. astutus (Lichtenstein). Civet cat; ring-tailed cat. Color 
uniform blackish gray, often tinged with fulvous on the sides; under 
parts yellowish gray; length 850 mm.; tail 425 mm.; hind foot 72 mm.: 
Mexico; Texas to California and northward into Oregon; nocturnal, 
omnivorous animals, living mostly among rocks; often common. 


272 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


Subspecies of B. astutus 


B. a. flavus Rhoads. Size smaller; color blackish on the back, 
tawny on the sides: central and southern Texas to California; southern 
Colorado; southern Utah. 

B.a.oregonus Rhoads. Dorsal region intensely black; color beneath 
brownish yellow; western Oregon and northern California. 

Family 5. Mustelidze.—Weasels, otters, skunks, etc. Body usu- 
ally elongate; legs short; feet plantigrade or digitigrade; toes 5-5; 
claws never fully retractile; tail usually long; tongue with rasping 
papillz; anal glands usually present which secrete a fetid liquid; color 
usually uniformly dark brown or black and white: numerous species; 
savage, Carnivorous or omnivorous animals found in all the geographical 
regions except the Australian, and most numerous in the Temperate 
and Boreal zones, many being valuable fur-bearing animals; about 11 
genera and 65 species in North America, about 45 species occurring In 
the United States, grouped in 6 subfamilies. 


Key to the Subfamilies of Mustelide 
a; Claws partly retractile. 


by Feetidigitignadesthody slender. .4)... 3. 2. 72 Le ee eee ee 1. Musteline. 
be: Feet. plantigrade; body stouty... 2.05255...) --0. Seep oe ee 
a> Claws not retractile. — 
bi Toes not fully webbed. 
c, Last upper molar very large and quadrangular; skunks... .3. Mephitine. 
co Last upper molar triangular; badgers................:...4. Tomdumne, 
be Toes fully webbed. 
ci Incisor:- teeth 3=3% otters): 4 eo oe ee ee 5. Lutrine. 
Go dncisor teeth) 3-25 sea ottets..2. i. 5. 45. aie el bones Naess eae cae 6. Enhydrine. 


Subfamily 1. Mustelinz.—Weasels, martens and minks. Body 
slender; toes short and partly retractile: 3 genera. 


Key to the Genera of Musteline 


Ais: Leeth 36 tect dieitignade:, .% 2c <i ten lahek ocktda eee eee 1. Maries. 
ao Teeth 34; body slender and small; weasels (Fig. 158)..............2. Mustela. 


1. Martes Pinel (Mustela L.). Martens. Body elongate and 
slender; tail long and bushy; ears short; dentition 3/3, 1/1, 4/4, 1/2 
(Fig. 156); toes partly webbed; claws small, sharp and partly retractile: 
8 species in North America, about 3 in the United States. 

Key to the United States Species of Martes 
a, Body slender. 
by Light-colored cheek ‘patches present.<.:.-> -.)..-2 «ane eeeoeen M. americana. 


be No light-colored cheek patches present.......... 55-2525 eed M. caurina, 
ap Body stout... 2.5. 255 cele cece cle © oe cee re! M. pennanti. 


MAMMALS 273 

M. americana (Turton). Pine marten; American sable (Fig. 156). 
Color rich brown, darker middorsally; legs black; tail blackish and 
bushy; length 610 mm.; tail 205 mm.; hind foot 90 mm.; ears pointed: 
forests of northern North America from the Atlantic to the Rockies; 
from Hudson Bay and Labrador southward into Pennsylvania; Hud- 
sonian, Canadian and Upper Transition zones; nest in hollow trees or 
holes in the ground, and up to 8 young 
annually raised; 6 subspecies in British 
America. 

M. caurina (Merriam). Pacific 
marten. Color rich dark brown; throat 
orange-buff; length 625 mm.; tail 220 


Fic. 156.—Skull of Martes americana (from Elliot). 


mm.; hind foot 97 mm.: Pacific coast region from northern California 
to Alaska; central and southern Rockies. 


Subspecies of M. caurina 


M.c. caurina (Merr.). Pacific coast region. 

‘M.c. origenes (Rhoads). Colors pale: central and southern Rockies. 

M. c. sierre Grinnell and Storer. Colors pale; breast with a large 
area of ochraceous orange; size small: Boreal zone of the Sierra Nevadas. 

M. pennanti (Erxleben). Fisher; pekan. Body relatively stout; 
color dark brown or blackish, being lighter anteriorly; legs and tip of 
tail black; length 890 mm.; tail 375 mm.; hind foot too mm.: North 
America from the Atlantic to the Pacific; southward into Maine, New 
York and the Pennsylvania mountains; usually rare; Hudsonian, 
Canadian and Transition zones; 1 litter of 1 to 5 young raised. 


274 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


Subspecies of M. pennanti 


M. p. pennanti (Erx.). Forests of northern America. 

M. p. pacifica (Rhoads). Size large; length 1,090 mm. : Pacific slope 
from California to Alaska. . 

2. Mustela L. (Putorius Cuvier). Weasels and minks. Body 
elongate and very slender, the two sexes differing very much in size; 
feet digitigrade; pads of feet separate; dentition 3/3, 1/1, 3/3, 1/2 
(Fig. 158); color in summer sharply bicolor (except the mink, which 
is unicolor), brown above and white beneath, becoming, in many 
species, pure white in the winter: cosmopolitan; 22 species in North 
America, 15 in the United States. Weasels are forest animals which 
feed on all kinds of small mammals and birds, and are noted for their 
ferocity and blood-thirstiness, which often leads them to kill much more 
than they can eat. They are essentially terrestrial animals, but can 
run about in trees with the agility of squirrels. Their dens are in 
hollow logs or in burrows in sheltered places, and they bear usually 
about 6 young a year, although sometimes as many as 12. 


Key to the United States Species of Mustela 


a, Length under 500 mm.; toes without webs; weasels. 
b; In the eastern States. 


c; From New England to North Carolina...............M. noveboracensts. 
co New England, New York and northwards............/ M. cicognanit. 
Cg, dine Miaine see). ek: ak a eo oe A A a ane ee Cece 
Caen SPOT axe cody cc se eos Biers ae ae Oe ee nee M. peninsule. 
Cy Inawestern! Penmsylvaniay sc) oo eee ee M. allegheniensis. 

by In the central plains and the mountains. 
c, From, Minnesota northwards. .......-/..s-:4..- 62 neces 
cs From Kansas northwards... 2.42.4... osc. ae yee ie LO ree 
cs In the Sierras and: Rockies...? <2... .25) 20.5. a. a apeomeee 
Callin the Black. Hillside 52-42) res te oka ee eee M. allent. 

bs On the Pacific slope. 
ey Im: Califomiia/and: Orevon. ..¢ 2.722 a2ie tate to M. xanthogenys. 
es, In Oregonvand Washington. .-2): ja5.06 eee M. saturata, 
Csclt: Washington, cc s.tes ste ha tte pein eee M. washingtont. 
cj In the Puget Sound region’... .: 2s... 502. 0. I sireatones 

a. Length greater than 500 mm. 
bz; Golor brownistminksie: «deren sok ce kos eye ate ene een M. vison. 
be, Color yellowish? ferrets ec) }) clawed is oe eee M. nigripes. 


M. noveboracensis (Emmons). Long-tailed weasel; common weasel 
(Fig. 157). Color in summer brown above and white or yellowish 
beneath; posterior third or half of tail black; color in winter white 
towards the north and drab towards the south, except the end of the tail, 


MAMMALS 275 


which is always black; length 405 mm. (male); tail slender and 140 mm. ; 
hind foot 47 mm.; female about a fifth smaller: eastern and central 
States: southward into North Carolina; westward to Illinois; Canadian, 
Transition and Upper Austral zones. 


Subspecies of M. noveboracensis 


M. n. noveboracensis (Em.). Eastern States from southern Maine 
throughout the Transition zone; westward to Illinois. 

M.n. notia (Bangs). Belly yellow; winter coat drab: Austral zones 
of the eastern States. 

M. cicognanii Bonaparte. Short-tailed weasel (Fig. 157). Color 
in summer brown above and white beneath, except the terminal third 


Fic. 157.—Tail of Mustela noveboracensis (lower figure) and of M. cicognanii (upper figure) 
(from Rhoads). 


of the tail which is black; color in winter white, except the terminal 
third of the tail which remains black; length 285 mm. (male); tail 77 
mm.; hind foot 37 mm.; female about a fifth smaller: Boreal forests of 
North America from New England, New York and Minnesota north- 
ward; westward to Alaska and British Columbia; southward in the 
Rockies to Colorado. 

M. occisor (Bangs). Similar to M. noveboracensis; tail very slender, 
the black tip very short, confined to the terminal tuft of hair; length 
(male) 460 mm.; tail 170 mm.; hind foot 50 mm.: southern Maine and 
northward; rare. 

M. peninsule (Rhoads). Color chocolate brown above, yellow 
beneath; length (female) 375 mm.; tail 127 mm.; hind foot 44 mm.: 
Florida and Alabama. 

M. allegheniensis (Rhoads). Color in summer brown above and 
white beneath and all white in winter; tail without a black tip, or witha 
few scattered blackish hairs; length t99 mm.; tail 19 mm.; hind foot 
20 mm.: western Pennsylvania; rare. 

M. rixosa (Bangs). Least weasel. Similar to M. allegheniensis; 
length 150 mm; tail 31 mm.; hind foot 22 mm.: Boreal America from 


276 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


Hudson Bay to the Alaska coast; southward into Minnesota and 
Montana; the smallest carnivorous mammal. 

M. longicauda Bonap. Long-tailed weasel. Color yellowish brown 
above and yellowish white beneath; extreme tip of tail black; length 
(male) 450 mm.; tail 165 mm.; hind foot 51 mm.: central plains from 
Kansas northwards. 


Subspecies of M. longicauda 


M. 1. longicauda Bonap. Great Plains from Kansas northwards. 

M.1. spadix (Bangs). Color dark: Minnesota at lower boundary of 
the Boreal zone. 

M. arizonensis (Mearns). Similar to M. longicauda but much 
smaller: Rocky Mountains south of British Columbia; Sierra Nevadas; 
in the high mountains. 

M. alleni (Merriam). Simiar to M. arizonensis; upper parts golden 
brown: Black Hills, South Dakota. 

M. xanthogenys Gray. Color umber brown, yellowish beneath; 
length (male) 402 mm.; tail 156 mm.; hind foot 40 mm.: Pacific slope. 


Subspecies of M. xanthogenys 

M. x. xanthogenys Gray. Southern California. 

M. x. munda (Bangs). Smaller; colors darker: coast region of 
northern California. 

M. x. oregonensis (Merr). Size large: eastern Oregon. 

M. saturata (Merr). Similar to M. longicauda, but larger and 
darker: Oregon and Washington; a mountain form. 

M. washingtoni (Merr). Similar to M. noveboracensis, but with a 
longer tail and a shorter black tip: Mount Adams region, Washington. 

M. streatori (Merr). Similar to M. cicognanii, but smaller and 
darker, the white on the belly being reduced to a narrow, irregular 
strip: coast region of Washington and Oregon and the high Rockies. 


Subspecies of M. streatori 


M. s. streatori (Merr). Costal region of Washington and Oregon. 

M. s. lepta (Merr). Size still smaller; black tip of tail very much 
smaller: Colorado, in the high mountains. 

M. vison Scherber. Mink (Fig. 158). Color uniformly dark 
brown; tail darker and bushy; breast and chin usually spotted white; 
length 610 mm.; tail 178 mm.; hind foot 63 mm.: North America from 
the Gulf of Mexico and the Mexican boundary to the Arctic Circle; 
westward to the Rockies and into California, British Columbia and 


MAMMALS 277 


Alaska; along watercourses, where they feed on fish and all kinds of 
small animals. ‘The nest is in a hollow log or a hole in the ground, and 
as many as 12 young may form the litter. 


Fic. 158.—Skull of Mustela vison (from Elliot). 


Subs pecies of M. vison 
M.v. vison Scherber. Boreal forests of northern North America; 


southward to Pennsylvania; Lower Arctic, Hudsonian and Canadian 
zones. 


278 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


M. v. mink (Peale and Beauvois). Common mink. Larger and 
darker; length 640 mm.; tail 212 mm.; hind foot 73 mm.: eastern 
United States from the New England coast to North Carolina and 
central Georgia and Alabama; westwards to Missouri and northeastern 
Pexas. 

M. v. lutensis (Bangs). Colors pale; tail short; size small: coastal 
region from South Carolina to Florida. 

M. 2. letifera Hollister. Color light brown, with white spots on the 
throat and breast; size rather large: northern Illinois and southern 
Kansas. 

M. 2. lacustris (Preble). Color dark brown; white on the breast and 
belly; size rather large: northern Canada to southern North Dakota. 

M. v. vulgivaga (Bangs). Size small; color light brown: Gulf coast 
from Texas to Florida. 

M. 2. energumenos (Bangs). Size small; color dark: New Mexico 
and Colorado, westward and northwestward to the Pacific coast. 

M. nigripes (Audubon and Bachman). Black-footed ferret. Color 
pale yellowish or buff above and beneath, dark middorsally; feet, tip 
of tail and face black; length (male) 570 mm.; tail 133 mm.; hind foot 
60 mm.: Great Plains from western Dakota and Montana to Texas; 
westward to the base of the Rockies; prairie dogs constitute its principal 
food. 

Subfamily 2. Guloninz.—Wolverines. Size large; body robust; 
ears very short: 1 genus. ° . 

Gulo Storr. Body stout; tail rather short and bushy; feet partly 
plantigrade; claws compressed: 3 species, 2 in the United States. 

G. luscus (L.). Wolverine; glutton. Color dark brown or blackish, 
with a pale band on the sides; face brown; feet large; legs short; fur 
shaggy; length 1,025 mm.; tail 215 mm.; hind foot 200 mm.: Boreal 
forests of North America from Michigan, the Pennsylvania mountains 
and Colorado to the Arctic, and from the Atlantic to the Pacific; rare 
or extinct in the eastern States. 

G. luteus Elliot. Color paler; length 950 mm.; tail 200 mm.; 
hind foot 170 mm.: Sierra Nevadas from Tulare County, California, 
northwards. 

Subfamily 3. Mephitine.—Skunks. Body stocky, heavy behind; 
nose slender; ears small; legs short; claws long and non-retractile; tail 
usually long and bushy; fur mostly long, loose and silky; color black 
and white: 3 genera and 30 species, all North American; 20 species in 
the United States. Skunks are nocturnal animals which live on small 
mammals, birds eggs, insects, etc., and are found both in forests and 


MAMMALS 279 


open country. Their anal glands secrete a malodorous pungent fluid 
which is discharged from the rectum and can sometimes be thrown 
ro ori5feet. The northerly species hibernate in the winter. The nest 
is a hole in the ground, a hollow log or a crevice in the rocks, and as 
many as 1o young are born in a litter. 


Key to the Genera of Mephitinze 
a; Snout not proboscis-like. 
b, Skull with a convex upper outline; large skunks (Fig. 159)....1. Mephitis. 
be Skull depressed, the upper outline being nearly straight; small 
Gietilesita eee ata wie, Shere Cee ane eg Re Men) Ment ers ita i lal 2. Spilogale. 
ag snout proboscis-like; on the Mexican border...........7....... 3. Conepatus. 


1. Mephitis Geoffroy and Cuvier. Body stout; claws large and 
curved; a part of the sole applied to the ground in walking; skull 
convex; dentition 3/3, 1/1, 3/3, 1/2: about 9 species, all in the United 
States and Canada, being northerly in distribution. 


Key to the Species of Mephitis 


a, In the eastern and central States. 


b; From New England to Virginia and Indiana......... .1 M. nigra. 
Nome lina Gece Cle eee Me Ueto ae 8 ie come, Ae eae Seed M. mephitis. 
BaaWiesteVirgmia tothe; Gulf rs ho ake tes see es M. elongata. 
a2 In the States west of the Mississippi. 
b; On the Great Plains from Nebraska northwards.......M. hudsonica. 
be From Louisiana and Texas northwards.......:.......1 M. mesomelas. 
DanlneiNew WMiexcorand Ariz0Nd,.. 2. 22... -. anes. os M. estor. 
M. macroura milleri. 
PaO iaCMeRe ACiICrSIOME ane als tw)... eds steele eee eae M. occidentails. 


M. nigra (Peale and Beauvois). Common skunk (Fig. 159). Color 
black, with a white stripe on the nose and forehead and a white patch on 
the back of the neck, from which a broad white stripe extends backward 
a varying distance on each side of the body, often to the tail; tip of tail 
white; length 600 mm.; tail 229 mm.; hind foot 60 mm.: northeastern 
States; southward to Virginia; westward to Indiana. 

M. mephitis (Schreber). Color arrangement like M. nigra, but 
the white stripes are narrow and extend down the sides of the tail, which 
is mixed black and white; length 613 mm.; tail 188 mm.; hind foot 
78 mm.: Nova Scotia and northern Ontario to Lake Winnipeg. 

M. hudsonica (Richardson). Color similar to M. mephitis, but the 
tip of the tail is black; length 726 mm.; tail 260 mm.; hind foot 82 mm.: 


280 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


Manitoba to eastern British Columbia; southward into Colorado, 
Nebraska and Minnesota. 

M. elongata (Bangs). Color similar to M. nigra, but the white 
stripes are very broad, sometimes entirely covering the back and tail; 


Fic. 159.—Skull of Mephitis nigra (from Elliot). 


length 703 mm.; tail 317 mm.; hind foot 74 mm.: West Virginia and 
North Carolina to the Gulf; westward along the Gulf coast to the 
Mississippi. 

M. mesomelas Lichtenstein. Dorsal white stripes narrow and short, 
usually extending to the middle of the back, but sometimes to the tail 
which usually lacks the white tip; length 576 mm.; tail 223 mm.; hind 


MAMMALS 281 


foot 63 mm.: Mississippi Valley from western Indiana into Iowa; 
southwestward of the river to the Gulf coast of Louisiana and 


Texas. 


Subspecies of M. mesomelas 


M. m. mesomelas Lich. From southern Louisiana to Missouri; 
westward to Matagorda Island, Texas; up the Red River Valley to 
Wichita Falls. 

M. m. varians (Gray). Long-tailed skunk. Length 758 mm.; tail 
393 mm.; hind foot 71 mm.: southwestern Texas and eastern New 
Mexico to Nebraska and Colorado. 

M.m.avia (Bangs). ‘Tail very short; length 625 mm.; tail 200 mm.; 
hind foot 65 mm.: prairies from Indiana to Iowa. 

M. estor Merriam. Dorsal stripes very broad, occasionally entirely 
covering the back and tail; length 639 mm.; tail 285 mm.; foot 69 
mm.: Arizona and western New Mexico. 

M. occidentalis Baird. White stripes varying much in extent, fre- 
quently extending on to the tail; length 800 mm.; tail 310 mm.; hind 
foot 78 mm.: Pacific slope from Monterey Bay northwards to the 
Willamette Valley; westwards to the Sierras and Cascades. 


Subspecies of M. occidentalis 


M. o. occidentalis Baird. Central California to the Willamette 
Valley, Oregon. 

M. o. spissigrada (Bangs). White stripes very broad, extending on 
to the sides of the tail; length 650 mm.: region of Puget Sound. 

M. o. notata (Howell). White stripes very narrow, often ending in 
the middle of the back: northern Oregon and southern Washington, 
east of the Cascades. 

M. o. major (Howell). Size large; stripes broad; length 705 mm.: 
eastern Oregon, and California to Utah. 

M. o. holzneri Mearns. Size small: southern California. 

M. macroura millert (Mearns). Back of body and tail nearly all 
white, although in a considerable proportion of individuals the back is 
nearly all black; two color phases present; tail very long; length 
675 mm.; tail 350 mm.; hind foot 65 mm.: southern Arizona into 
Mexico. 

2. Spilogale Gray. Spotted skunks. Body small and slender; | 
skull flattened and with a straight dorsal outline; color pattern in 


282 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


stripes and spots; dentition 3/3, 1/1, 3/3, 1/2: about 13 species, 
generally southerly in range; 10 species in the United States. 


Key to the United States Species of Spilogale 


a; In the States east of the Mississippi. 
b; In the Atlantic and Gulf States, except Florida..............S. putorius. 
bs In Plotida. 22 s6 2 se Oe i eee eee S. ambarvalis. 
ao In the States west of the Mississippi. 
b: In the central States. 


c, From Nebraska and Minnesota southwards............... S. interrupta. 
co In the coast region of Louisiana and Texas............... S. indianola. 
Ce_On:the eastern slopes of the (Rockies: 227.02 > aan eee S. tenuis. 
bs In the southwestern States. 
¢, From western Texas to'central Arizona... 021.565 25 ser S. leucoparia. 
co In the Great Basin from northern Arizona to Idaho....... S. gracilis. 
S. arizone. 
baOn thé Pactic slopes: 2.124 \ Facets eet ae S. phenax. 


S. putorius (L.). Color black, with 4 white narrow longitudinal 
stripes on the forward half of the body and 2 transverse stripes on the 
hinder half on each side; end of tail white; length 516 mm.; tail 206 mm.; 
hind foot 48 mm.: south Atlantic and Gulf States from western Virginia 
to western Georgia, and westward into Mississippi. 

S. ambarvalis Bangs. Size small; tail short; color like S. putorius; 
length 386 mm.; tail 120 mm.; hind foot 40 mm.: eastern Florida. 

S. interrupta (Rafinesque). White stripes much reduced, sometimes 
represented by a few spots; tail wholly black: southern Minnesota and 
eastern Nebraska to central Texas. 

S. indianola Merriam. Color similar to S. interrupta, but the tail 
has a white tip; length 472 mm.; tail 183 mm.; hind foot 48 mm.: Gulf 
coast of Louisiana and Texas. 

S. tenuis Howell. White markings very broad; length 450 mm.; 
tail 165 mm.; hind foot 51 mm.: eastern slopes of the Rockies in New 
Mexico and Colorado. 

S. leucoparia Merr. White markings very broad; no white of legs: 
central Texas to New Mexico. 

S. gracilis Merr. Like S. leucoparia; length 381 mm.; tail 143 mm.; 
hind foot 44 mm.: Great Basin from Arizona and California into Oregon 
and Idaho. 

S. arizone Mearns. Like S. gracilis, but larger: central New 
Mexico and Arizona, southward. 

S. phenax Merr. Dorsal pair of white stripes narrow, lateral pair 
much broader; length 470 mm.; tail 154 mm.; hind foot 52 mm.: Pacific 
slope. 


MAMMALS 28 


Ww 


Subs pecies of S. phenax 

S. p. phenax Merr. California, except the southeastern desert and 
the extreme northern portions. 

S. p. latifrons Merr. White stripes less prominent: Oregon coast 
region. 

S. p. olympica Merr. ‘Tail shorter: Olympic peninsula. 

3. Conepatus Gray. Snout long and proboscis-like, with a large 
bare pad on the upper side for rooting; color black, with a white tail 
and a wide middorsal white band; dentition 3/3, 1/1, 2/3, 1/2: 7 species 
in Mexico and Central and South America. 

C. mesoleucus telmalestes Bailey. Hog-nose skunk. Length 670 
mm.; tail 290 mm.; hind foot 75 mm.: central and southern Texas to 
Arizona. 

Subfamily 4. Taxidiinz.—Badgers. Body stocky; legs short; 
toes not retractile, with long claws; tail short: 1 genus. 

Taxidea Storr. Dentition 3/3, 1/1, 3/3, 1/2; skull attenuate in 
front: 1 species. 

T. taxus (Schreber). American Badger. Color gray, mottled with 
black dorsally and with a white stripe running from the top of the nose 
to the shoulder; belly whitish; length 700 mm.; tail 135 mm.; weight 
about 15 lbs.: western North America from western Texas and Mexico 
to Hudson Bay and Lake Athabaska; eastward into Wisconsin, Michi- 
gan and Kansas; westward to the Pacific coast. The badger lives in 
deep burrows in the ground and feeds on small animals of all kinds, 
especially rodents. Towards the north they hibernate in the winter; 
a single litter of from 2 to 5 young is raised annually. 


Subspecies of T. taxus 


T. i. phippsi Figgins. Larger and darker: southern Colorado. 

T. t. taxus (Schreber). Western America. 

T. t. berlandieri (Baird). A white middorsal stripe from nose to tail: 
western Texas and westward into California. 

T. t. neglecta (Mearns). Size smaller and with less black: California 
Oregon and Washington. 

Subfamily 5. Lutrinz.—Otters. Body elongate; legs short; head 
broad behind, with a sharp snout; ears small and round; toes webbed; 
tail long, broad and flattened; fur short and dense: 1 genus. 

Lutra Brisson. With the characters of the subfamily; toes 5-5; 
dentition 3/3, 1/1, 4/3, 1/2: many species, cosmopolitan; 1 species in 
the United States. 


284 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


L. canadensis (Schreber). American otter. Color seal brown, 
grayish beneath; under surface of webs of toes densely hairy; length 
1,100 mm.; tail 420 mm.; hind foot 120 mm.: North America from the 
Atlantic to the Pacific; northward to the tree line; aquatic animals, 
living along streams and lakes and eating fish. The animal’s den is in 
the side of the bank with its opening often below the water; the number 
of young annually raised is from 1 to 5. 


Subspecies of L. canadensis 


L. c. canadensis (Schreber). Eastern North America north of 
South Carolina. 

L. c. lataxina (F. Cuvier). Upper surface yellowish brown: south- 
eastern and Gulf States from North Carolina to Mississippi. 

L.c.vaga (Bangs). Darker and redder: Florida and eastern Georgia. 

L. c. pacifica (Rhoads). Size large; color lighter: Pacific slope from 
California to Alaska. 

L. c. sonora (Rhoads). Size very large; length 1,300 mm.: Arizona 
and southern California. 

L. degener Bangs. Color blackish; length 995 mm.: Newfoundland. 

Subfamily 6. Enhydrinz.—Sea otters. Body long and robust; 
toes webbed: 1 genus. 

Enhydra Flemming. Body elongate but stout; tail rather short; 
hind feet short and very large; dentition 3/2, 1/1, 3/3, 1/2: 1 species 
almost extinct. 

E. lutris (L.). Sea-otter. Color deep glossy brownish black; length 
1,200 mm.; tail 300; muzzle beset with bristles: shores of the Pacific 
from Lower California to Alaska; almost extinct; the most valuable 
American fur animal. The sea otter feeds principally on shell-fish and 
sea-urchins; but one young is born. 

Family 6. Felidz.—Cats. Body more or less elongate, compact 
and lithe; feet digitigrade; toes 5-4; claws compressed, sharp and 
retractile; head short and round; tongue with rasping papille; pupil 
elliptical: cosmopolitan (except in Australia); many species, which are 
most numerous in the tropics and subtropics; about 29 species in 
North America and 16 in the United States and Canada, grouped in 2 
genera. 

Key to the United States Genera of Felidz 
As ‘Tail long.ay 2. dave oc Satie eves aie tee ore ns x cea ne 1. Felis. 
aa. Tail short. s: veh ciel sind tetas tial AO Pe ORS Gene ee ee a, Lynx: 

1. Felis L. Cats. Body slender; fur soft and compact; dentition 
3/3, 1/1, 3/2, 1/1: about 50 species; g species and subspecies in the 


MAMMALS 285 


United States. Of these species about 6 are different geographical 
races of pumas, which are the only native cats ranging over the whole 
country, while the other 3 species are Central American cats which 
occur along the Mexican border. The pumas are characterized among 
cats by the following features; large size, slender build, a small head, a 
long tail and absence of color markings. They are confined to America, 
ranging from southern Patagonia to southern British America. The 
domestic cat, F. domestica, is a descendant of the Egyptian wild cat, 
F. maniculata, but with a considerable admixture of the European wild 
cat, F. catus. The yellow tabby cat is probably the result of such a 
cross. The domestic cat usually bears from 3 to 6 at a birth. The 
puma bears from 2 to 5 young, which are often spotted and have ringed 
tails. 


Key to the United States Species of Felis 


a; Color uniform, without spots or stripes. 
b, Size large; legs long; pumas. 


Gr uli Ghe NOWMeAStELDs SEALS A SUS wee iene F.. concolor 

Cammlnim Rd O Gita Mend falas ee bee ean inast ka eo Tap oh omen et paesits F. coryt. 

py LG OUT NGC oa ee cr gn eS or need eB F.. arundivaga. 

Gre lneines al Wwestoe nin Me fess SO re nt ence Ms Stievsckt ye F.. oregonensis. 
Reesive sindller gers Shorbscns.o vee lsh vs a. ietspheees tis kin ues cna F., cacomitli. 

a2 Color not uniform; body spotted or striped. 
bi Size large; body spotted and without stripes; jaguar..... F.. hernandesii. 
be Size smaller; body with both spots and stripes.......... F., pardalis. 


F. concolor L. Puma; cougar; mountain lion; panther; painter; 
catamount. Color uniform yellowish brown or fulvous, darker mid- 
dorsally; under parts reddish or whitish; tail tipped with black or 
brown; length 2,400 mm.; tail 750 mm.; hind foot 250 mm.; weight 
about 150 lbs.: eastern and central America; northward into southern 
Canada; extinct in all well settled regions, but may still exist in the 
Adirondacks and the higher Alleghanies of Pennsylvania and West 
Virginia. 

F. coryi Bangs. Florida cougar. Size large; head large and 
massive; feet small; color of back very dark: central Florida. 

F. arundivaga Hollister. Size large; color grayish fawn above; 
tail darker, with a dark brown median line; throat and breast white; face 
blackish, with a white streak over each eye: cane-brakes of Louisiana. 

F. oregonensis Rafinesque. Western puma; mountain lion. Size 
large; color dull fulvous; head large and massive: Rocky Mountain and 
Pacific coast regions. 


286 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


Subspecies of F. oregonensis 


F. 0. oregonensis Raf. Color very dark; belly whitish: coastal region 
from California to British Columbia. 

F. o. hippolestes (Merriam). Largest of the pumas; length 2,550 
mm.; tail goo mm.; weight 220 lbs.; color dull yellowish brown; head 
with a high median crest: Rocky Mountains and Great Basin. 

F. 0. azteca (Merr). Size moderate; color dull fulvous; tail much 
darker and with a longer black tip; no white underneath; ears black: 
western Texas and Mexico. 

F. 0. californica (May). Color pale; length 1,950 mm.; tail 750 mm.: 
throughout California. . 

F. cacomitli Berlandier. Jaguarundi cat; eyra. Color (in red color 
phase) uniformly either gray or rusty rufous, there being 2 distinct 
color phases; length 1,060 mm.; tail 480 mm.; hind foot 140 mm.: 
South and Central America; southern Texas. 

F. pardalis L. Ocelot; tiger cat. Color tawny or brown, with large 
blackish spots and stripes, each one enclosing a lighter one; length 1,200 
mm.; tail 375 mm.: southern Texas to Patagonia. 

F. hernandesii (Gray). Jaguar. Color tawny yellow, spotted with 
black rings; length 2,100 mm.; tail 600 mm.: southern United States to 
Patagonia; formerly numerous, still found from central Texas to 
northern Arizona; number of young at a birth 2. 

2. Lynx. Kerr. Body short and thick; tail short; legs long; denti- 
tion 3/3, 1/1, 2/2, 1/1; ears with a tuft of long hairs at the tip: many 
species, all in the northern hemisphere, about 6 in North America; 
woodland animals, preying largely on rodents; number of young, 2 to 5. 


Key to the United State Species of Lynx 


ai Feet moderate in size; tail moderately short; skull narrow; fur 
short and dense. 
b; In the eastern States. 


c: Color dull, with little black on upper parts............... L. ruffus. 
cz Color rich, with much black on upper parts; size large; in 
INOGY a SeOb aR NON iy cesta ss crete cater ae ee eae eek L. gigas. 
bs In the: Rocky.Mountain' States: 0 6 i. sey aie ee eee L. uinta. 
L. baileyi. 
bs ‘On the Pacific: slopes .Uitackeass fontecn tues aN nariae Seen ena L. fasciatus. 
ay Feet very large; tail very short; fur long and loose; skull broad. 
by Color praiyc etic Gi di8% Sencrnies duties: aire be ees ek ee L. canadensis, 
bs. Color very dark:’in’ Newioundland.....<.../s.3.. 2. L. subsolanus, 


L. ruffus (Schreber). Wildcat; bobcat. Color reddish brown 
in winter and ash brown in summer, spotted and streaked with black; 


MAMMALS 287 


tail ringed with black; length goo mm.; tail 170 mm. ; hind foot 180 mm. ; 
weight up to 20 lbs.: Nova Scotia to the Gulf of Mexico and into 
Mexico, and from the Atlantic to the Pacific; in wooded regions. 


Subspecies of L. ruffus 


L. r. ruffus (Schr.). Eastern States; southward into Georgia. 

L. r. floridanus (Rafinesque). Color darker: Florida and Georgia 
west to Louisiana. 

L. r. texensis (Allen). Belly and inner surface of legs white, with 
brown spots: southern Texas. 

L. r. californicus Mearns. Size large; color dark: coast region of 
southern California. : 

L. r. eremicus Mearns. Color pale: deserts of the Mexican border; 
southern California. 

L. uinta Merriam. Mountain wildcat. Color buff, grizzled with 
gray and black, with black spots; white beneath; tail with 2 or 3 black 
bands: Wyoming; Colorado; Utah; New Mexico. 

L. gigas Bangs. Color cinnamon rufus above, much spotted and 
streaked with black; length 1,000 mm.; tail 180 mm.; hind foot 200 mm. : 
Nova Scotia. 

L. fasciatus Raf. Pacific wildcat. Color chestnut brown above, 
pale on the sides and white, spotted with black beneath; terminal 
third of tail black; length 890 mm.; tail 170 mm.: coastal California 
to British Columbia. 


Subspecies of L. fasciatus 


L. f. fasciatus Raf. Washington and Oregon. 

L. f. pallescens Merr. Color hoary gray: northern California and 
northward; eastwards to Wyoming and Colorado. 

L. f. oculeus Bangs. Back darker, without stripes or spots; sides 
gray; tip of tail white; length 770 mm.; tail 139 mm.; hind foot 158 mm.: 
coast region of California north of San Francisco. 

L. baileyi Merr. Plateau wildcat. Similar to L. ruffus, but paler 
and with a shorter tail: Arizona to Texas; southern Colorado. 

L. canadensis Kerr. Canada lynx. Color gray, mottled with 
brown; tail-tip black; length 1,000 mm.; tail 100 mm.; hind foot 225 
mm.; weight up to 30 lbs.; legs thick; feet very large: northern America, 
in forested regions from Pennsylvania and northern Michigan to 
Hudson Bay and Alaska; southward in the Rockies as far as Colorado, 
and in the Sierras as far as Mount Whitney; extinct in the eastern 
States. 


288 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


L. subsolanus Bangs. Color black and hazel, much darker than 
L. canadensis; length 920 mm.; tail 110 mm; hind foot 220 mm: 
Newfoundland. 

Order 7. Pinnipedia.—Seals. Aquatic mammals of large size 
and carnivorous habits, and closely related to the Order Carnivora; 
feet transformed to flippers; toes 5-5, joined by a thick membrane; 
hinder limbs directed backwards and used for swimming; usually no 
external ears present: about 50 species, in temperate and Arctic seas; 
in Lake Baikal (fresh water); about 11 species on the coasts of the 
United States and Canada, grouped in 2 families. 


Key to the Families of Pinnipedia 


aye Externalsears present. iba. ty eee cles © oc oe Eas ee A aes 1. Otariide. 
aig Eat enna eats abSemiycus-\n cen ito eae aa ee ne cee eee 2. Phocide. 


Family 1. Otariidze.—Hind limbs capable of being turned forward 
and used for walking; ears present; forelegs long; claws small and rudi- 
mentary, except those on digit 3 of the foot: 3 genera and species on 
the Pacific coast. 

1. Zalophus Gill. Ears short; dentition 3/2, 1/1, 4/4, 1/1; head 
rounded; nose narrow, pointed: 1 species. 

Z. californianus (Lesson). Sea-lion. Color reddish brown in 
summer, lighter in winter; length 2,542 mm.; tail 110 mm.; hind foot 
380 mm.; weight 500 lbs.; body slender; snout long: southern Mexico 
to northern California. 

2. Eumetopias Gill. Ears rather long; dentition 3/2, 1/1, 4/4, 
1/1; upper molar separated by a wide space from the premolars: 1 
species. 

E. jubata (Schreber). Steller’s sea-lion. Color reddish brown, 
length 3,000 mm.; weight 1,500 lb.: Bering Strait to Farollon Islands, 
California. 

3. Callorhinus Gray. “Dentition 3/2, 1/1, 4/4, 2/1; facial portion 
of skull short: 1 species. . 

C. alascanus Jordan and Clark. Fur seal. Color chestnut brown; 
length 1,887 mm.; tail 51 mm.; hind foot 548 mm.: Bering Strait to 
California. The animals breed on the Pribilof Islands in June, spending 
the summer and fall there; in the winter and spring they migrate 
southward, ranging as far south as southern California. 

Family 2. Phocidz.—Hind limbs directed permanently backwards, 
and of no use in walking; ears absent; fore legs short; claws well devel- 
oped: about 5 species on the American coasts. 


MAMMALS 289 


Key to the American Genera of Phocide 


ai Teeth 34. 
hpeVEO ans: With 2. tOi4ueCUSDS LEAK. :\5 s )c 2 vs cara te tepeizia, oe )e) siete sap so 1. Phoca. 
BoeViGl ars witli taCtispmedGhyt...% 4... 1 dsm ewer ems Apa aici) Se On EE OLLGHOEr es. 
Boe LeRia sos SHOU PEOPOSCIS=IKE. ety 2):!) sina eae te fete ns oat 3. Cystophora. 


1. Phoca L. Snout narrow and pointed; dentition 3/2, 1/1, 4/4, 
1/1; forehead convex; incisors conical: cosmopolitan. 

P. vitulina L. Harbor seal. Color yellowish gray, spotted with 
black; length 1,500 mm.: circumpolar; southward to Lower California 
and the Carolinas; common on the New England coast; ascending 
rivers; occasionally in Lake Champlain and Lake Ontario. 

P. hispida Schreber. Ringed seal. Color blackish above, with 
large whitish spots; length 1,500 mm.; body slender; limbs long: circum- 
polar; southward to Newfoundland. 

P. grenlandica Erxleben. WHarpseal. Color gray, with a black face 
and a black band across the shoulder and extending along the sides; 
length 1,500 mm.; body slender; weight 600 to 800 Ibs.; circumpolar; 
southward to Newfoundland and the Magdalen Islands; the basis of 
the sealing industry in Newfoundland. 

2. Halicherus Nilsson. Snout broad and short; teeth 34; molars 
conical, with a single cusp; incisors conical; claws well developed: 1 
species. 

H. grypus (Fabricius). Gray seal. Color gray, with irregular dark 
spots; length 2,500 mm.; weight up to 3,600 lbs.; flippers hairy only along 
the toes: North Atlantic; southward to Nova Scotia. 

3. Cystophora Nilsson. Snout elongated, forming a short proboscis 
and capable of inflation in the male; dentition 2/1, 1/1, 4/4, 1/1; 
incisors conical; molars and premolars small and separated from one 
another: 1 species. 

C. cristata (Erxleben). Hooded seal. Color bluish black, with 
whitish spots; length 2,400 mm.: North Atlantic; southward occasion- 
ally to Long Island. 

Order 8. Rodentia.—Rodents. Small or medium-sized mammals 
with long chisel-like incisor teeth, no canines, and grinders (premolars 
and molars) which are separated from the incisors by a wide space, the 
incisors having persistent papillae and growing continuously (Fig. 168); 
feet mostly pentadactylous and plantigrade; placenta discoidal: 
about 1,400 species grouped in about 21 families, constituting a third 
of all species of mammals and occurring on all the continents; about 
400 species in the United States. 


290 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


Key to the United States Families of Rodentia 


a; Tail present. 
b, Two upper incisors present. 
c, Tail cylindrical or compressed laterally (except flying-squirrels). 
d; No quills in the fur. 
e, Body stout; fore feet with digging claws; pocket 
BOPDELS i: H.'s. Scat aeue eid, ke Se Se tae eet GLO IDI 
eo Fore feet not with digging claws. ' 
f; Not more than 3 well-developed grinders in 
each jaw. 
gi No cheek-pouches present. 
h; Hind legs not greatly elongated; rats and 


(VIN Kes Sager ee Ed PORE Ns ee CePA Set S Fee S 1. Muride. 
h. Hind legs greatly elongated; jumping 
HN CO Ss 45. Meccan ie eae Ee 4. Zapodide. 


go Large cheek-pouches present; pocket mice. 3. Heteromyide. 
f. At least 4 well developed grinders in each jaw. 


g: Tail very short; mountain beavers........ 6. A poldontiide. 
go Tail long or moderate; squirrels; marmots.. 7. Sciuride. 
d. Long quills present in the fur; porcupines.......... 5. Erethizontide. 
co Tail large and flattened; beavers. . We eh 8. Castoride. 
b. Four upper incisors present; rabbits a ates Batre Cts". 9. Leporide. 
apy external) tall wvancunp > pik ass ace ty: e ace ecb eke tas eases 10. Ochotonide. 


Family 1. Muridz.—Ratsand mice. Small, slender rodents with 
a long tail, with feet not specially modified and with naked soles; snout 
elongated; nostrils separated by a furrow; eyes and ears large; upper lip 
usually divided; dentition 1/1, 0/0, 0/o, 3/3: over 700 species and 100 
genera, comprising half of all rodents and being the largest family of 
mammals; distribution cosmopolitan; 150 species in the United States, 
grouped in 4 subfamilies. 


Key to the Subfamilies of Muride 


a; Molars of upper jaw with a more or less tuberculate biting surface 


(Fig. 160). 
bi Tubercles arranged in 3 longitudinal rows.................. 1. Murine. 
be Tubercles either arranged in 2 rows (Fig. 160) or flattened. ...2. Cricetine. 
a2 Molars with a flattened surface and not tuberculate (Fig. 167). 
bi, Tail lone-sbody.slendersc2 8 a.4.< <.0, oan ee rae ee 3. Neotomine. 
be Dailtshort;: body: Stout .--oiy2. so. cae a ie ae ene 4. Microtine. 


Subfamily 1. Murinz.—Old world rats and mice. Form slender; 
molars of upper jaw with 3 longitudinal rows of tubercles on their 
crowns; tail long and scaly or scantily haired; thumb rudimentary: 
130 species, in all parts of the old world except Madagascar; a few 
species have followed man to the new world. 


MAMMALS 291 


1. Mus L. With the characters of the subfamily; tail scantily 
haired; size small: 4 semidomesticated species in the United States. 

M. musculus L. WHouse-mouse. Body brownish gray in color; 
under parts ashen; length 170 mm.; tail 85 mm.; hind foot 17 mm.: 
everywhere in houses; often in fields ‘ind woods; ie ee litters anaiwally 
of 4 to g each. 

2. Rattus Fischer (Mus L.). With the characters of the subfamily; 
tail scaly; size large: 3 American species. 

R. norvegicus (Erxleben). (M. decumanus Pallas.) Common rat; 
brown rat. Body brown above and gray beneath; length 4oo mm.; 
tail 200 mm.; hind foot 43 mm.: very common. This rat made its 
appearance in Europe in eastern Russia in 1727, and rapidly spread 
westward, driving out and replacing the black rat, which up to that 
time had been the common house-rat. It appeared in America about 
the time of the Revolutionary War. 

R. rattus (L.). Black rat. Body slenderer, black in color; length 
400 mm.; tail 215 mm.; hind foot 37 mm.: during colonial times the 
common Pace rat in Aernerice? but now almost exterminated by the 
larger, fiercer brown rat. 

R. alexandrinus (Geoffroy). Roof-rat. Body brown above, white 
beneath; length 425 mm.; tail 237 mm.; hind foot 4o mm.: southern 
United States; common in some places. 

Subfamily 2. Cricetine.—American rats and mice. Body 
slender; ears and eyes large; legs and tail long; tail well haired; upper 
molars usually with tubercles arranged in 2 longitudinal rows (Fig. 160): 
about 50 species in the United States; and very many subspecies. 


Key to the Genera of Cricetine 


a; Tubercles on surface of upper molars in 2 distinct longi- 
tudinal rows (Fig. 160). 


b; Upper incisors longitudinally grooved (Fig. 161)........2. Reithrodontomys. 
by Upper incisors not thus grooved. 
ey, Soles otfeet with azplantar tubercles. 3. 0240s. coe: t. Onychomys. 


co Soles of feet with 5 or 6 plantar tubercles (Fig. 163). 
d; Belly pure white; fur fine. . 
d. Belly not pure white; fur coarse. hd Sa oy es 
a2 Tubercles of molars form aafeeeed S- cined sone! 


.3. Peromyscus. 
. Oryzomys. 
. Sigmodon. 


on w 


1. Onychomys Baird. Grasshopper mice; scorpion mice. Body 
stout; fur dense and velvety; tail short; fore feet strong; ears hairy: 
2 species, in western America; nocturnal burrowing animals which 
feed largely on insects, scorpions and other small animals; several litters 
of from 2 to 6 young each raised each year; the animals do not hibernate. 


202 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 

Key to the Species of Onychomys 
ai Tail usually less than half the length of the head and trunk. ... .O. leucogaster. 
ao Tail usually more than half the length of the head and trunk... .O. torridus. 


O. leucogaster (Weid) (Fig. 160). Body light mouse-brown above, 
being darker middorsally, and snow-white beneath; a melanistic color 
phase also occurs; length 150 mm.; tail 40 mm.; hind foot 20 mm.: 
western America, from eastern Dakota and Kansas to eastern Califor- 
nia; Mexico; 11 subspecies. 


Fic. 160.—Skull and tuberculate molars of Onychomys leucogaster (from Elliot). 


Subspecies of O. leucogaster 


O. 1. leucogaster (Wied). Size large; length 164 mm.; color dark: 
eastern and central North Dakota into Manitoba. 

O. l. missouriensis (Audubon and Bachman). Size smaller; color 
pale: western North Dakota and Montana and northwards. 

O. l. articeps (Rhoads). Like O. 1. missouriensis, but still paler, 
buff in color: Wyoming and South Dakota; southward to southwestern 
Texas. 

O. l. brevicaudus Merriam. Size small; length 141 mm.; color 
darker than O. J. articeps: southern Idaho, northern Utah and Nevada. 

O. l. fuscogriseus Anthony. Color darker; size small: eastern and 
central Washington, Oregon and northern California. 

O. Ll. melanophrys Merr. Color dark, being pinkish-cinnamon: 
southern Utah and Colorado and northern New Mexico and Arizona. 


MAMMALS 203 


O. 1. ruidose (Stone and Rehn). Color dark: southern New Mexico 
and southeastern Arizona. 

O. 1. longipes (Merr.). Size large; length 190 mm.,; tail 48 mm.; 
hind foot 25 mm.; color dull: central and southern Texas. 

O. 1. breviauritus Hollister. Like O. 1. longipes, but darker and 
with a shorter tail, are and hind foot: eastern Nebraska and central 
Kansas and Oklhaoma. 

O. torridus (Coues). Body fulvous brown above and white beneath; 
length 150 mm.; tail 50 mm.; hind foot 20 mm.: southwestern United 
States; Mexico. 


Subspecies of O. torridus 


O. t. torridus (Coues). Southwestern Texas, southern New Mexico, 
southeastern Arizona and northern Mexico. 

O. t. perpallidus Mearns. Size larger: western Arizona. 

O. t. pulcher (Elliot). Size small; length 136 mm.; color very pale: 
deserts of southern California. 

O. t. longicaudus (Merriam). Size large; color pale:  \ 
southwestern Utah; northwestern Arizona, Nevada and @ Wij 
Inyo and Mono counties, California. 

O. t. tularensis Merr. Color grayish drab above: upper 4 /4/! 
San Joaquin Valley, California. } | 

O. t. ramona (Rhoads). Color very dark: southwestern 
California. is 

2. Reithrodontomys Giglioli. American harvest mice. iNet ere 
Body small and slender; tail long, being a third or a half barese Ni Soh 
the body length; ears prominent; anterior face of upper lotis (from 
incisor with a deep longitudinal groove (Fig. 161); sole of Meares) 
hind foot with 6 plantar tubercles: 50 species, in tropical and sub- 
tropical America; 6 species and 17 subspecies in the United States; 
mainly nocturnal animals which live in open, grassy places, often 
near water, and feed upon grains, fruits and vegetables. Most 
species build a globular nest of grass often elevated above the 
ground in weeds or bushes and raise from 3 to 7 young in a litter and 
several litters a year. They resemble the house-mouse in appearance, 
but may be distinguished by the browner colors, more hairy tail and 
grooved upper incisors. 

R. humulis (Audubon and Bachman) (Fig. 162). Eastern harvest 
mouse. Color dark brown above mixed with pinkish cinnamon, darker 
on the head and middorsally; whitish beneath; length 120 mm.; tail 
57 mm.; hind foot 16 mm.: southern States. 


204 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


R. h. humulis (Aud. and Bach.). Ear 9 to 10 mm. long: coastal 
plain from Virginia to central Florida. 

R. h. impiger (Bangs). Ears smaller: mountains of northern 
Virginia and West Virginia. 

R. h. merriami (Allen). Ears smaller; under parts darker: central 
Kentucky to central Alabama and westward to the east Texas coast. 

R. albescens Cary. Color very pale; length 125 mm.: 
South Dakota to central Texas. 

R. megalotis (Baird) (Fig. 161). Western harvest 
mouse. Color brownish buff on the back and buff on the 
sides; white beneath and on the feet; length 140 mm. ; tail 
65 mm.; hind foot 17 mm.; ear 12 mm.: western States to 
the Pacific; southward into Mexico. 


Subspecies of R. megalotis 


R. m. megalotis (Baird). Southern Idaho southward 
to eastern California and the Mexican border, then east- 
ward to southwestern Texas. 

R. m. aztecus (Allen). Ears and skull larger: northern 
New Mexico, northeastern Arizona, southeastern Utah 
and western Colorado. 

ees R. m. dychei (Allen). More black on the upper parts; 
ae ie h hs ne tail shorter: eastern Iowa and Missouri to central Colorado 
(after Stone and Wyoming; northward to North Dakota and Montana. 
eee R. m. nigrescens Howell. More blackish: eastern 
Washington, Oregon and northern California and western Idaho. 

R. m. longicaudus (Baird). Colors darker; length 145 mm.; tail 
75 mm.; hind foot 17 mm.: western California, west of the Sierras. 

R. cataline Elliot. Similar to R. m. longicaudus, but larger; length 
169 mm.; tail 94 mm.: Santa Catalina Island. 

R. raviventris Dixon. Upper parts very dark; under parts pinkish; 
length 130 mm.; tail 64 mm.; hind foot 16 mm.: salt marches of San 
Francisco Bay. 


Subspecies of R. raviventris 


R. r. raviventris Dix. Southern part of San Francisco Bay. 

R. r. halicetes Dix. Size larger; length 156 mm.; under parts white: 
salt marshes of San Pablo, Suisun Bay and the lower San Joaquin and 
Sacramento Rivers. 


MAMMALS 295 


R. fulvescens (Allen). Color buff above, white beneath; length 183 
mm.; tail 102 mm.; hind foot 19 mm.: Mexico and southern States. 


Subspecies of R. fulvescens 


R. f. intermedius (Allen). Color pale: southern Texas. 

R. f. aurantius (Allen). Color darker: eastern Texas and Oklahoma, 
southern Arkansas and Louisiana west of the Mississippi. 

3. Peromyscus Gloger. Wood mice; deer mice; vesper mice; 
white-footed mice. Body small and slender; tail long, being a third or 
a half the total length; eyes and ears large; internal cheek pouches 
present; hind feet and legs long, the former (except in P. floridanus) 
with 6 plantar tubercles (Fig. 163): about roo species, all North Ameri- 
can; about 15 species in the United States, with many subspecies; 
nocturnal animals which live on the ground in a great variety of situa- 
tions, feeding principally on grains and seeds. They do not form per- 
manent runways, although they may “ 
use those of other animals. They g 
breed throughout the year, raising 
from 4 to 6 in a litter, and do not 

: Fic. 163.—Hind foot of Peromyscus 
hibernate, and may exceed in leucopus, showing the plantar tubercles 
numbers all the other mammals in a (/70” Howell). 
region. They frequently enter and live in dwellings, and may be 
distinguished from the house-mouse by their snow-white feet and 
under parts. 

P. maniculatus (Wagner). Color brown or brownish gray above, 
the middorsal region being darker; under parts and feet white; length 
160 to 200 mm.; tail 70 to 120 mm.; hind foot 19 to 21 mm.; mamme 6; 
tail and body sharply bicolor: North America from Hudson Bay and 
Alaska to southern Mexico, which is the widest range of perhaps any 
North American mammal; mostly in woodlands; 27 subspecies. 


Subspecies of P. maniculatus 


P.m. maniculatus (Wag.). Tail short, averaging less than 90 mm. 
in length: Hudsonian zone of northeastern Canada. 

P. m. gracilis (LeConte). Tail very long; length 200 mm.; tail 112 
mm.: northern and central New York, northern Vermont, Michigan, 
Wisconsin and Minnesota into Canada; Canadian zone. 

P. m. abietorum (Bangs). Similar to P. m. gracilis but paler and 
grayer: central Maine to Nova Scotia. 

P. m. nubiterre Rhoads. Like P. m. gracilis, but smaller: Alle- 
ghenies from western Pennsylvania to Georgia, Canadian zone. 


296 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


P.m. oreas (Bangs). Size large; color very dark; length 215 mm.; 
tail 120 mm.; hind foot 23 mm.: western Washington from the Columbia 
River into British Columbia. 

P. m. artemisia (Rhoads). Color brownish fawn: northwestern 
Wyoming to western Washington and British Columbia. 

P. m. austerus (Baird). Color very dark: coast region of Puget 
Sound. 

P.m.rubidus Osgood. Like P. m. oreas, but paler and tail and hind 
foot shorter: coast region from San Francisco Bay to the Columbia. 

P.m. gambeli (Baird). Like P. m. rubidus, but smaller and paler: 
central Washington to Lower California; coast region south of San 
Francisco Bay. 

P.m. sonoriensis (LeC.). Size small; color ochraceous buff: Great 
Basin region. 

P. m. rufinus (Merriam). Like P. m. sonoriensis, but darker: 
southern Rocky Mountain region. 

P.m. nebrascensis (Coues). Like P. m. sonoriensis: eastern base of 
the Rockies from Canada through western Nebraska to western Texas. 

P. m. bairdi (Hoy and Kennicott). Color very dark; back black: 
prairie region of the upper Mississippi Valley; south to Oklahoma; 
east to eastern Ohio; north to Manitoba. 

P. m. pallescens (Allen). Like P. m. bairdi, but smaller (length 
126 mm.) and somewhat paler: central Texas. 

P. polionotus (Wagner). Size very small; length 130 mm.; tail 
47 mm.; hind foot 16 mm.; color uniformly brownish fawn; under parts 
creamy white; feet and forelegs white; tail mostly bicolor; mamme 6: 
southeastern States. 


Subspecies of P. polionotus 


P. p. polionotus (Wag.). Open fields of northern Florida and 
southern Georgia. 

P. p. niveiventris (Chapman). Size larger and color paler: sandy 
beach region of eastern Florida. 

P. p. rhoadsi (Bangs). Length 124 mm.; color darker than P. 
niveiventris: west-central Florida. 

P. p. albifrons Osg. Like P. p. rhoadsi: coast of western Florida and 
Alabama. 

P. leucopus (Rafinesque). Common white-footed or deer mouse 
(Fig. 164). Color brownish gray above; under parts and feet pure 
white; length 166 mm.; tail 77 mm.; hind foot 20 mm.; mamme 6: 
eastern and central States; very common. 


MAMMALS 207 


Subspecies of P. leucopus 


P. 1. leucopus (Raf.). Western Kentucky southward to southern 
Louisiana; westward to Oklahoma; eastward through 
Mississippi and Alabama to eastern Virginia. 

P. 1. noveboracensis (Fischer). Larger and paler: 
north-central and eastern States; westward to 
Kansas and South Dakota; southward to southern 
Missouri and North Carolina; northward to central 
Minnesota, Ontario and Maine. 

P.1. fusus Bangs. Size larger; length 194 mm.: 
Martha’s Vineyard. 

P. 1. aridulus Osg. Like P.1. noveboracensis, but 
paler and larger; length 184 mm.: South Dakota 
and Montana to Oklahoma. 

P. 1. texanus (Woodhouse). Color darker; 
molar teeth small: southern Texas and eastern 
Mexico. 

P. 1. tornillo (Mearns). Like P. 1. texanus, but 
larger and paler: western Texas and eastern New 
Mexico to Colorado. 

P. 1. arizone (Allen). Like P. 1. tornillo, but 
darker: southeastern Arizona and southwestern 
New Mexico. 

P. 1. ochraceus Osg. Color ochraceous buff: 
eastern and central Arizona. : 

P. gossypinus (LeC.). Cotton mouse. Color 
rufescent cinnamon above; under parts tinged with 
cream; tail not distinctly bicolor; feet white; length 
181 mm.; tail 81 mm.; hind foot 23 mm.; mamme 
6: southeastern and south-central States. 


Subspecies of P. gossypinus 


P. g. gossypinus (LeC.). Coast region and 
peneplain of southern States from Virginia to 
central Louisiana, except peninsular Florida. 

P. g. megacephalus (Rhoads). Larger and paler: 
northern Alabama and western Tennessee to eastern Fic. 164.—Peromyscus 
Oklahoma and Texas and western Louisiana. eee ch nous) 

P. g. palmarius Bangs. Small and paler: peninsular Florida. 

P. g. anastase (Bangs). Color pale ochraceous buff; size small: 
Anastasia Island, Florida and Cumberland Island, Georgia. 


298 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


P. boylii (Baird). Color light brown above; feet white; tail long, 
equal to or longer than the head and body; length 197 mm.; 
tail 103 mm.; hind foot 22 mm.; mamme 6: southwestern States 
and Mexico. 


Subspecies of P. boylii 


P. b. boylit (Baird). West slopes of the Sierras from Yosemite to 
Mount Shasta, thence along the east slope of the Coast Range south- 
ward to San Francisco Bay. 

P. b. rowleyi (Allen). Like P. 0. boylii, but paler: mountains of 
southern California to western Texas; southern Nevada, Utah and 
Colorado. 

P. b. attwateri Allen. Like P. b. boylii; hind foot larger: central 
Texas to Arkansas and Kansas. 

P. pectoralis laceianus Bailey. Color pinkish buff above mixed 
with dusky; under parts pure white; length 187 mm.; tail 96 mm.; hind 
foot 23 mm.: west-central Texas into Mexico. 

P. truei (Shufeldt). Rock mouse. Color ochraceous buff above, 
mixed with fine dusky lines; under parts creamy white; feet white; tail 
slightly bicolor; length 186 mm.; tail g2 mm.; hind foot 23 mm.; ears 
very large, equal in length to hind foot; mamme 6: Pacific and south- 
western States and Mexico. 


Subspecies of P. truet 


P. t. truei (Schuf.). Eastern California to eastern New Mexico and 
southeastern Colorado. 

P. t. gilberti (Allen). Size larger and color darker: mountains. of 
interior California and the coast south of San Francisco Bay; north- 
ward to central Oregon. 

P. t. martirensis (Allen). Size large; tail long: mountains of south- 
western California. 

P. nasutus (Allen). Not quite as large as P. truez; tail finely annu- 
lated; color grayish brown; mamme 6: mountains of Colorado, eastern 
Arizona and western Texas. 

P. nuttalli (Harlan). Golden mouse. Color ochraceous above, 
creamy white suffused with ochraceous below; ears ochraceous; 
length 18:1 mm.; tail 85 mm.; hind foot 20 mm.; mammez 6: 
southeastern Virginia and northern North Carolina; westwards to 
central Kentucky. 


MAMMALS 299 


Subspecies of P. nuttalli 


P.n. nuttalli (Harl.). Distribution as given above. 

P.n. aureolus (Audubon and Bachman). Size smaller: southeastern 
States, from North Carolina, east of the mountains, to northern 
Florida; Gulf slope to eastern Texas and north into Missouri. 

P. floridanus (Chap.). Size large; color pale ochraceous buff; 
under parts white; length 200 mm.; tail 86 mm.; hind foot 26 mm.; 
mamme 6; plantar tubercles 5: central Florida, from coast to coast. 

P. crinitus (Merr.). Color buff above, white beneath; mamme 4; 
length 190 mm., tail 95 mm.; hind foot 21 mm.: Great Basin, from 
eastern Oregon and southern Idaho to Lower California. 

P. californicus (Gambel). Size very large, being the largest in the 
country; length 243 mm.; tail 133 mm.; hind foot 27 mm.; color russet 
above, mixed with black; under parts creamy white; ears very large; 
mamme 4: coast region of California from San Francisco into Lower 
California. 

P. eremicus (Baird). Color ochraceous buff above; white beneath; 
tail long; length 183 mm.; tail ror mm.; hind foot 20 mm.; mamme 4: 
deserts of southern California to western Texas. 

P. taylori (Thomas). Size very small, being the smallest of the 
genus, and one of the smallest of rodents; length 97 mm.; tail 38 mm.; 
hind foot 14 mm.; color pale drab; under parts smoky gray: coastal 
region of Texas. 

4. Oryzomys Baird. Body rat-like, long and slender; tail long; 
belly not pure white; fur coarse: 50 species, mostly in Mexico and 
Central America; 1 species in the United States; the litter numbers 
30%]. 

O. palustris (Harlan). Rice or marsh rat (Fig. 165). Body dark 
brown above, paler beneath; length 240 mm.; tail 115 mm.; hind foot 
30 mm.: southeastern States; in coastal marches and wet lands. 


Subspecies of O. palusiris 


O. p. palustris (Har.). Southern New Jersey to the Gulf States and 
northwards to southern Illinois. 

O. p. natator Chapman. Color tawny; body larger: South Carolina 
to Florida and southern Texas. 

O. p. coloratus Bangs. Color rich reddish brown; size large; length 
301 mm.: central Florida. 

O. p. texensis Allen. Color paler, grayish: coast of Mississippi, 
Louisiana and Texas; Mississippi Valley into Missouri. 


300 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


5. Sigmodon Say and Ord. Body large and rat-like; ears large; tail 
long; molars with crowns flattened and showing S-shaped loops: 
It species, mostly in Mexico; 1 species in the United States. 

S. hispidusS.andO. Cotton rat (Fig. 166). Color yellowish brown 
above sprinkled with black, whitish beneath; fur long and coarse; 


hy AN A 
fy (ny ly NY, W 


nt \ 
\ 


lig! 
| 
y / 


Fic. 165 rena Saale palustris (after Fic. 166. ape eiadan hispidus (after 
Stone & Cram). Stone & Cram). 


length 252 mm.; tail 102 mm.; hind foot 32 mm.: south Atlantic and 
Gulf States; westward to Kansas, Texas and into Mexico; 11 subspecies. 
Subspecies of S. hispidus 


S. h. hispidus S. andO. North Carolina to Florida and Louisiana. 
S. h. littoralis Chapman. Color darker: southeastern Florida. 


MAMMALS 301 


S. h. spadicipygus Bangs. Size smaller; rump rufous: extreme 
southern Florida. 

S.h. texianus (Audubon and Bachman). Size smaller;rump reddish: 
Texas, Oklahoma and Kansas. 

S. h. berlandieri (Baird). Color pale: western Texas and eastern 
New Mexico. 

S.h. eremicus Mearns. Color yellowish; size larger: along the lower 
Colorado. 

S. h. arizone Mearns. Size large; length 320 mm.; colors pale: 
Arizona. 

S. minimus Mearns. Size small; fur not hispid; color grizzled gray; 
length 185 mm.; tail 95 mm.; hind foot 31 mm.: 
southern New Mexico and Arizona. 

Subfamily 3. Neotomine.—Wood rats; 
mountain rats. Body large, but slender; eyes and 
ears large; tail long; crowns of molar teeth flattened 
(Fig. 167): 5 genera, all in North America, 1 in 
the United States; mostly in the west. . 

Neotoma Say and Ord. With the characters Fic. 167—Non-tubercu- 
of the subfamily: 28 species, about roin the United '*° teeth of Neotoma. 
States, mostly in the western States; most species live in rocky or 
mountainous regions, building large conical nests of sticks, often in 
trees above the ground, to which well-defined runways lead. Their 
food consists of grass, bark, seeds, fruit, etc. Wood rats have 
several litters a year of from 2 to 5 young each. They sometimes 
enter houses and resemble the common rat, but may be distinguished 
by usually greater size, larger ears and eyes, a shorter and fully furred, 
bicolor tail and white feet and under parts. 


Key to the United States Species of Neotoma 


a; Tail cylindrical and not bushy. 
b; Size large; length more than 320 mm. 
c; In the eastern and central States. 
dy From, Pennsylvania ‘to: Alabamac:.. 0s Sie ocek ere N. pennsylvanica, 
dy In the Gulf States; Texas to South Dakota.........N. floridana. 
co In the far-western States. 
d, Hind feet white. 
e, Not on the Pacific coast; in the States on the 
Mexican border. 
f, Throat and breast pure white................N. micropus. 
N. albigula. 
f. Throat and breast plumbeous................N. mexicana. 


302 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


ey ‘In the Pacthe coast regions. ao ae ee oe N. intermedia. 
ds Hind feet dusky >. Sneran ere mae ee teen N. fuscipes. 
be Size small; length under 320 mm. 
Cie roms CalitonniantonU tah nee eee ane NV. desertorum. 
GoolneArizona and: News Viexiconm eee ae ee eee ee N. lepida. 
dy. Tail flattened: andebushiy% 2 act". se tes 0 scree, ke oe N. cinerea. 


N. pennsylvanica Stone. Wood or cave rat. Color grayish buff 
above and white beneath, darkest middorsally; feet white; length 
430 mm.; tail 198 mm.; hind foot 43 mm.: Appalachian Mountain 
region from the Hudson River in southern New York to Alabama; 
Transition zone; nocturnal animals nesting in caves and rocky crevices, 
where they heap together a great mass of sticks and leaves, in which is 
the nest; probably omnivorous. 

N. floridana (Ord.). Color pale cinnamon above; underneath parts 
and feet white; length 409 mm.; tail 189 mm.; hind foot 38 mm.; tail 
slightly bicolor and scantily haired: southern and central States. 


Subspecies of N. floridana 


N. f. floridana (Ord.). Atlantic coast region from South Carolina 
to Sebastian, Florida. 

N. f. rubtda. Bangs. Color redder: lower Mississippi Valey, 
northward to Arkansas, and the Gulf coast from Alabama to Texas. 

N. f. illinoensis Howell. Color grayer; tail bicolor: southern 
Illinois to northern Arkansas. 

N. f. attwateri (Mearns). Color darker and teeth smaller; tail 
white beneath, sharply bicolor: central Texas to Missouri. 

M. f. baileyi (Merriam). Color grayer; fur longer; tail shorter, 
bicolor: South Dakota to Oklahoma. 

N. micropus Baird. Color pale drab; under parts white; tail 
blackish above, grayish beneath; length 351 mm.; tail 163 mm.; hind 
foot 41 mm.: central and western Texas and New Mexico into Mexico; 
northward into Kansas and Colorado. 

N. albigula Hartley. Color pinkish buff above; under parts and 
feet white; tail sharply bicolor; length 328 mm.; tail 152 mm.; hind foot 
33 mm.: southwestern States. 


Subspecies of N. albigula 


N. a. albigula Hart. Southwestern Texas to western Arizona and 
into Mexico. 


MAMMALS 303 


N. a. venusta (True). Size larger: western Arizona and south- 
eastern California. 

N. a. warreni Merr. Color decidedly grayer: northeastern New 
Mexico and southeastern Colorado. 

N. mexicana Baird. Color grayish buff; under parts dull white; 
feet white; tail brownish above, white below; length 327 mm.; tail 149 
mm.; hind foot 34 mm.; fur on throat and breast plumbeous: deserts of 
the southwest. 


Subspecies of N. mexicana 


N.m. mexicana Baird. Western Texas, southern New Mexico and 
Arizona. 

N. m. fallax (Merr.). Size larger; color grayer: mountains of 
Colorado and New Mexico. 

N. m. pinetorum (Merr.). Size larger; color less gray: central and 
eastern Arizona. 

N. desertorum Merr. Size small; ears large; fur long; color pinkish 
buff; belly and feet white; tail bicolor; length 293 mm.; tail 131 mm.; 
hind foot 30 mm.: deserts of Nevada, Utah and southern California. 

N.lepida Thomas. Color yellowish buff above; under parts creamy 
or pinkish white; feet white; length 286 mm.; tail 136 mm.; hind foot 
29 mm.: New Mexico and Arizona. 


Subspecies of N. lepida 


N.1l. lepida Thom. Northern New Mexico and Arizona. 

N. 1. stephensi (Goldman). Size larger; color darker and grayish 
instead of yellowish: central Arizona and western New Mexico. 

N. fuscipes Baird. Size large; length 438 mm.; tail 209 mm.; hind 
foot 42 mm.; color ochraceous buff, very dark middorsally; throat and 
chest pure white; belly creamy or pinkish buff; forefeet and toes of hind 
feet white; hind feet dusky: Pacific slope. 


Subspecies of N. fuscipes 


N. f. mohavensis Elliot. Color grayer: Mohave Desert, California. 

N. f. fuscipes Baird. Pacific coast region from San Francisco Bay 
to Salem, Oregon. 

N. f. streatori Merr. Smaller; color paler; tail sharply bicolor: 
west slopes of the Sierra Nevadas. 


304 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


N. f. annectens Elliott. Like N. f. fuscipes, but with distinctive 
cranial characters: from San Francisco Bay to Monterey Bay, and 
inland southward. 

N. f. macrotis (Thomas). Size small; color grayish brown; tail 
bicolor: coastal region south of Monterey Bay. 

N. cinerea (Ord). Color grayish buff above, white beneath; 
length 390 mm.; tail 160 mm.; hind foot 43 mm.; tail flattened and 
bushy: hind foot densely furred on sole: northwestern States and British 
Columbia; 9 subspecies. 


Subspecies of N. cinerea 


N. c. cinerea (Ord). Rocky Mountains from northern Montana 
and the Dakotas to Arizona; central Nevada and western California. 

N. c. occidentalis (Baird). Color darker: British Columbia to 
northern California; eastward into Idaho and northern Nevada. 

N. c. fusca (True). Color very dark: coastal region west of the 
Cascades in Oregon. 

N.c. arizone (Merr.). Size very small: northern Arizona and New 
Mexico and southern Utah and Colorado. } 

N.c. orolestes (Merr.). Color ochraceous: Rocky Mountain region 
from New Mexico to Montana. 

N. c. rupicola (Allen). Color paler; size smaller: southwestern 
South Dakota; western Nebraska; eastern Colorado. 

N. intermedia Rhoads. Color grayish brown; under parts white; 
feet white; tail black above, dull white below; length 325 mm.; tail 
160 mm.; hind foot 31 mm.: coastal region of California from Monterey 
Bay southward to Cape San Lucas. 

Subfamily 4. Microtine.—Meadow or field mice; voles; lem- 
mings. Body stout, with a thick head and short ears and a short tail; 
crowns of molars flattened and showing triangular loops of enamel: 
distribution circumpolar; over 70 species in the United States; very 
common animals, living in a great variety of locations, but most abun- 
dant in well-watered grass lands, all remarkable for their great fecundity, 
breeding usually throughout the year; their food consists mainly of 
green vegetation, roots and bark and they are often a plague to the 
agriculturist. This subfamily includes the Scandinavian lemmings, 
which at irregular intervals migrate across the country in great armies, 
eventually reaching the sea and all drowning, and also the Alpine 
marmot, which lives in the high mountains and hibernates 8 or 10 
months of the year. 


MAMMALS 305 


Key to the United States Genera of Microtine 


a, Tail round. 
b; Molars without roots (prongs) (Fig. 168). 
c; Lower incisors long; their roots extending under the 
posterior molars. 
d,; Plantar tubercles mostly 6. 


Sa Met eeMOSCLYS. Oo sc: Pe ane Set 3 tite he ia 1. Microtus. 
ace Aes, Ac, sash: ot -td DP TE ER Reese hee eke 3. Pitymys. 
d. Plantar tubercles 5. 

Gl Vat 18s 61 oho ceg ins te ee a ee ree Meet hs nce teh Dee UO LULUSS 

Gar Vianna ty 29 Ocoee vie et ee EO eT Re ee a aes 4. Neofiber. 
c» Lower incisors short, their roots ending on the inner side 

OmLNEINOMIES, Sf, ch cits eink ee desi seen erry eae oir © 5. Synaptomys. 

bo Molars with roots (prongs) (Fig. 169). 
c, Back not red or chestnut in color; molars large..........6. Phenacomys. 
Ce Back red in color; molars small and weak...............7. Evotomys. 
a2 Tail flattened laterally; size large; muskrats.................. 8. Ondatra. 


1. Microtus Schrank. Meadow or field mice; voles. Cranium 
slender; lower incisors very long, with roots ending on the outer side 


Fic. 168.—Lower jaw of Microtus pennsylvanicus, showing the molars without roots but 
open below so that they grow continuously (from Miller). 


of the molars, which are rootless (Fig. 168); tail very short but longer 
than the hind foot; plantar tubercles 5 or 6; thumb with nail: over 


Fic. 169.—Lower jaw of Phenacomys orophilus, showing the molars possessing roots (from 
Miller). 


150 Species, ranging northward to Arctic regions and southward to the 
tropics; 30 species and very many subspecies in the United States, 


306 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


mostly northerly in range; both diurnal and nocturnal animals which 
build nests under bush heaps or stones, to which runways, often more or 
less subterraneous, lead; they feed on grasses, roots and bark, and also 
at times on grain, and they do not hibernate. Field mice at times 
become excessively numerous in a district, when they may destroy 
forage crops, and also fruit trees and shrubbery by gnawing off the 
bark at the base of the trunk. Several litters, numbering from 4 to 11 
each, are born annually. 


Key to the United States Species of Microtus 


a; Plantar tubercles 6. 
b; Mamme 8. 
c; In the eastern and central States. 
d, In the States east of the Mississippi. 
e; Nose not yellow. 


f; Present from the Atlantic to the Rockies. ...M. pennsylvanicus. 
f. On Muskeget Island Massachusetts......... M. breweri. 
e2 Nose conspicuously yellow.......... ..M. chrotorrhinus. 
d. In the States between the NMissigsippt ha the 
Rockies. 
e, Present from the Atlantic to the Rockies......./ M. pennsylvanicus. 
é€2 In the Black Hills, South Dakota..-.2.:...:-- M. longicaudus. 
enim. the Rocky Motuntaitisy ete ae ee M. mordax. 
co In the Pacific States. 
di) Throughout Califormia...2 0.0.0...) +222: 22 edd. Gol orneeis 
dein the southern Sierrasas: So Anca e eee ees M. dutchert. 
d; simsldaho andiNievadaastoeriait ease eee eee M. nanus. 
d, In Oregon and Washington. 
e, From Puget Sound to Yaquina Bay........... M. townsendti. 
e: Imvthe WillamettesVialley: so. pestis ac hoene M. canicaudus. 
e; In northern California and southern Oregon... .M. angusticeps. 
e, In eastern Oregon in Utah....................M. montanus. 
be» Mamime 4c inwArizonay. 250. ees ae ee eee M. mogollonensis. 


a2 Plantar tubercles 5 
b; Mamme 8. 
c; In the Boreal zone of the Rockies and Cascades......M. richardsoni. 
In the Puget Sound repion.3e* 2 ee ya ee ee M. oregont. 
M. serpens. 


bs Mamme 6. 


cy In) the ‘central Mississippi Valleyii es ots ohne eee M. ochrogaster. 
c» From South Dakota and Kansas to the Rockies...... M. haydent. 

Ca LH WGOUISIA Ta one Sst eek, otk i eee ae aes ee erro M. ludovicianus. 
cy In Minnesota and south Dakotaiws ce eee eee M. minor. 


M. pennsylvanicus (Ord). Common field or meadow mouse (Fig. 
170). Color chestnut brown above, darker middorsally, grayish 


MAMMALS 307 


beneath; feet brownish; length 180 mm.; tail 50 mm.; hind foot 21 mm.; 
namme 8: eastern and central States; southward to North Carolina; 
westward to the Rockies; northward to Hudson Bay; common in 
meadows. 


Subspecies of M. pennsylvanicus 


M. p. pennsylvanicus (Ord). Transition zone from the Atlantic 
coast to the Great Plains. 

M. p. nigrans Rhoads. Larger, with notably 
larger hind feet and darker coloration: coast region 
of northern North Carolina and southern Virginia. 

M. p. fontigenus (Bangs). Size smaller: eastern 
Canada, Hudsonian zone. 

M. p. acadicus Bangs. Smaller and paler: Nova 
Scotia and Prince Edwards Island. 

M. p. modestus (Baird). Color paler, more 
yellowish: Rocky Mountains and western plains from 
New Mexico to British Columbia; Transition zone. 

M. breweri (Baird). Color pale grayish; fur long 
and coarse; length 182 mm.; tail 54 mm.; hind foot 22 
mm.: Muskeget Island, Massachusetts. 

M. ochrogaster (Wagner). Prairie meadow mouse. 
Color grizzly gray; belly fulvous; fur coarse; length 
150 mm.; tail 32 mm.; hind foot 20 mm.; mamme 6: 
southern Wisconsin to Oklahoma and eastern Kansas 
and Nebraska; eastward to Indiana; common in dry 
prairie land. 

M. chrotorrhinus (Miller). Color glossy brown; 

Fic. 170.— Micro- 
nose, ears and rump conspicuously yellowish; length tus — pennsylvanicus 
165 mm.; tail 45 mm.; hind foot r9 mm.: Mount (/" Stone & Cram). 
Washington, the Catskills and into Canada; Hudsonian zone. 

M. haydeni (Baird). Color light gray; belly silvery white; length 
180 mm.; tail 47 mm.; hind foot 22 mm.: western South Dakota to 
Kansas; westward into southern Montana, Wyoming and eastern 
Colorado; in dry prairies. 

M. longicaudus (Merriam). Color dark brown above, whitish 
below; length 180 mm.; tail 65 mm.; hind foot 21 mm.: Boreal cap of 
Black Hills. 

M. ludovicianus Bailey. Color dark gray above, dark bufi below: 
length 164 mm.; tail 33 mm.; hind foot 19 mm.: coast prairies of 
Louisiana. 


308 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


M. minor (Merr.). Size very small; length 120 mm.; tail 30 mm.; 
hind foot 16 mm.; color peppery gray above, buff below: northern 
border of the Great Plains from Minneapolis to eastern North Dakota 
and Alberta. 

M. californicus (Peale). Color dull buff or brownish; belly whitish; 
tail bicolor, dark brown and gray; length 171 mm.; tail 49 mm.; hind 
foot 21 mm.; mamme 8; fur coarse: Pacific slope; in dry meadows. 


Subspecies of M. californicus 


M. c. californicus (Peale). Coastal region of central California. 

M. c. constrictus Bailey. Smaller and grayer: northwest coast of 
California, near Cape Mendocino. 

M. c. eximius Kellogg. Tail black: coastal region of northern 
California and southern Oregon. 

M.c. estuarinus Kellogg. Size large; color dark: San Joaquin and 
Sacramento valleys. 

M. c. vallicola Bailey. Larger and darker: Owens Valley region, 
California. 

M. c. sanctidiegi Kellogg. Color brown or buff; size large: San 
Diego region; north to the San Bernardino Mountains. 

M. c. kernensis Kellogg. Color lighter; size large: Kern River 
basin; west to Bakersfield, California. 

M. townsendii (Bachman). Color dark brown; belly grayish; tail 
black; length 226 mm.; tail 66 mm.; hind foot 26 mm.; ears conspicuous: 
region west of the Cascades from British Columbia to Yaquina Bay, 
Oregon; Transition zone. 

M. mordax (Merr.). Color dark gray; belly whitish; tail long; 
feet small; length 185 mm.; tail 70 mm.; hind foot 22 mm.: Rocky 
Mountains from latitude 60 to New Mexico and the eastern slopes of 
the Cascades and Sierras; common on the banks of mountain streams; 
Hudsonian and Canadian zones. 


Subspecies of M. mordax 


M.m. mordax (Merr.). Eastern Oregon and northern and central 
Nevada. 

M.m.sierre Kellogg. Color darker: northern and eastern California 
and Oregon. 

M.m. bernardinus Merr. San Bernardino Mountains. 

M.m. abditus Howell. Size very large; color darker: coastal region 
of Oregon. 


MAMMALS 309 


M. m. macrurus (Merr.). Larger and darker: coastal region of 
Washington, and northwards to Alaska. 

M. angusticeps Bailey. Color dark brownish gray, darkest on the 
face; tail distinctly bicolor; length 170 mm.; tail 56 mm.; hind foot 22; 
skull very narrow: coastal region of northwestern California and 
southern Oregon. 

M. montanus (Peale). Color dark gray; belly whitish; length 175 
mm.; tail 52 mm.; hind foot 21 mm.: eastern Oregon; northern Cali- 
fornia to Nevada. 


Subspecies of M. montanus 


M. m. arizonensis Bailey. Color more ferrugineous: eastern 
Arizona; Transition zone. 

M. m. rivularis (Bailey). Larger and lighter colored: Washington 
County, Utah; Lower Sonoran zone. 

M. nanus (Merr.). Color grizzled gray; length 151 mm.; tail 41 
mm.; hind foot 18 mm.: Rocky Mountains from central Idaho to 
central Nevada and southern Colorado; Canadian zone. 

M. n. canescens Bailey. Color lighter and clearer: northern Wash- 
ington and British Columbia, east of the Cascades. 

M. canicaudus Miller. Color bright yellowish brown; belly whitish 
gray; tail uniform grayish; length 135 mm.; tail 33 mm.; hind foot 20 
mm.: Wiliamette Valley and southern Washington; Transition zone. 

M. dutcheri Bailey. Color dark brown; belly buffy brown; tail 
bicolor; length 167 mm.; tail 35 mm.; hind foot 20 mm.: Hudsonian 
zone of the southern Sierras; in wet alpine meadows. 

M. richardsoni (DeKay). Color grayish sepia; belly whitish; tail 
long; feet large; fur long and heavy; length 234 mm.; tail 81 mm.; 
hind foot 29 mm.: Boreal zones of the Rockies and the Cascades. 


Subspecies of M. richardsoni 


M. r. macropus (Merr.). Color dark sepia; size smaller: Rockies 
from the Wasatch into Canada. 

M. r. arvicoloides (Rhoads). Color dark sepia: Boreal zone of the 
Cascades. 

M. mogollonensis (Mearns). Color dull rusty brown; belly cinna- 
mon or gray; mamme 4; length 131 mm.; tail 28 mm.; hind foot 18 
mm.: plateau country of central Arizona. 

M. oregoni (Bachman). Color dark brown and grizzled; belly 
dusky; length 140 mm.; tail 42 mm.; hind foot 17 mm.: Pacific 


310 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


coast region from northern California to Puget Sound; in dry open 
forests. 

M. serpens Merr. Color sooty gray; belly dusky; length 130 mm.; 
tail 31 mm.; hind foot 18 mm.: northern Washington and southern 
British Columbia between the Cascades and Puget Sound. 

2. Lagurus Gloger. Similar to Microtus; cranium low and wide; 
plantar tubercles 5; mamme 8; colors pale; fur lax; tail very short; 
size small: 4 species. 

L. curtatus (Cope). Color buffy gray; whitish beneath; length 141 
mm.; tail 27 mm.; hind foot 17 mm.: eastern California and western 
Nevada; Transition zone. 

L. pallidus (Merriman). Color very pale buffy gray; length 121 
mm.; tail 25 mm.; hind foot 18 mm.: western Dakota and Montana, in 
high prairies. 

L. pauperrimus (Cooper). Color buffy gray; length 115 mm.; tail 
20 mm.; hind foot 16 mm.: eastern Washington and Oregon; Transition 
zone. 

3. Pitymys McMurtrie. Like Microtus; cranium flat and wide; 
plantar tubercles 5; mamme 4; fur short and dense; ears very. small; 
tail very short: 3 species, 1 in Mexico. 

P. pinetorum (LeConte). Pine mouse. Color bright russet brown; 
belly dusky; ears concealed in the fur; length 113 mm.; tail 18 mm.; 
hind foot 15 mm.: Georgia and Mississippi to Indiana and New York; 
common in fields and open woods. ‘The pine mouse has an underground 
nest and raises several litters of from 1 to 4 young a year; the runways 
are also underground, and often resemble mole’s tunnels; the food 
consists of grasses, roots and bark, and great damage is often done to 
orchards and gardens. 


Subspecies of P. pinetorum 


Fic. 171.—Lower jaw of Synaptomys ins p. pinetorum (LeConte). Georgia 
cooperi (from Miller). and the Carolinas. 

P. p.scalopsoides (Audubonand Bachman). Size larger; color darker: 
North Carolina to New York; westward to Illinois. 

P. p. auricularis (Bailey). Colors dark and rich, ears large: Missis- 
sippi to Indiana, between the Alleghany Mountains and the Mississippi 
River. 

P. nemoralis (Bailey). Color full chestnut; belly washed with bright 
cinnamon; length 130 mm.; tail 24 mm.; hind foot 18 mm.: westward of 
the Mississippi River from Arkansas to Iowa. 


MAMMALS eure 


4. Neofiber True. Size very large; tail long; plantar tubercles 5; 
mamme 6; skull massive: I species. 

N.allent True. Color dark brown; belly pale buff; length 320 mm.; 
tail 121 mm.; hind foot 40 mm.: Florida; in marshes and bogs. 

5. Synaptomys Baird. Lemmings. Each upper incisor with a 
longitudinal groove in its outer surface; lower incisors extend back along 
the inner side of the molars (Fig. 171), which are without roots; tail very 
short, covered with short hairs: about 4 species in the United States. 

S. coopert Baird (Fig. 172). Body small and mouse-like, but with 
a very much shorter tail than the house-mouse, grizzled 
gray in color; length 120 mm.; tail 18 mm.; hind foot 
18 mm.; plantar tubercles 6; head very large: northern 
and central States and Canada; in woody marshes and 
swamps; Boreal and Transition zones. 


\S} 
Ay, \\\ 


Subspecies of S. cooperi 


S. c. coopert Baird. Minnesota to the Atlantic; 
south through New York and Michigan. 

S.c. helaletes Merriam. With larger head and feet, 
and longer tail: length 130 mm.; tail 21 mm.; hind foot 
20 mm.: Dismal Swamp in Virginia and North 
Carolina. 

S.c. stonei Rhoads. Like the above, but smaller: 
central Wisconsin and Illinois to the Atlantic; Massa- 
chusetts to North Carolina. 

S. ¢. gossii (Coues). Like S. c. helaletes, but 
redder: northeastern Arkansas and southern Illinois 
into Iowa and Dakota. 

S. sphagnicola Preble. Color sepia brown mixed 
with black; under parts grayish white; length 132 mm.; ane spa 
tail 17 mm.; hind foot 17 mm.: Mount Washington, Sa EIN. 
New Hampshire. 

6. Phenacomys Merriam. Similar to Microtus; molars with 2 roots 
(Fig. 169) and large and strong; front teeth without grooves; body 
short and thick; tail short; ears just appearing above the fur: 14 species 
and subspecies, in Canada and the western mountains of the United 
States. 

P. intermedius Merriam. Color yellowish brown, whitish below; 
length 142 mm.; tail 30 mm.; hind foot 17 mm.: western States and 
Canada, in the mountains. 


312 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


Subspecies of P. intermedius 


P. i. intermedius Merr. British Columbia to northern California 
and Utah; central Montana to New Mexico. 

P.i. levis Howells. Similar to the above; color brownish drab; feet 
white: central Alberta into Montana. 

P. i. olympicus (Elliot). Color dark drab; length 155 mm.; tail 42 
mm.: Olympic and Cascade Mountains. 

P. 1. celsus Howells. Color light brown: Sierra 
Nevadas. 

P. albipes Merr. Color grizzled brown; grayish 
beneath; feet white; length 168 mm.; tail 62 mm.; hind 
foot 19 mm.: coastal region from Humboldt County, 
California, north to the Columbia River. 

P. longicaudus True. Color bright rusty brown; 
feet brown, length 148 mm.: coniferous forests in the 
coastal region of western Oregon and northwestern 
California. The mouse is arboreal in habits, building 
a large nest of twigs from 30 to 100 feet from the ground 
in which it raises several litters of young a year, 
numbering from 1 to 4 each. 

7. Evotomys Coues. Red-back mice. Body 
small and reddish in color, with a short tail; molars 
rooted, and small and weak, the lower incisors extend- 
ing along the outer side of them; incisors without 

grooves: circumpolar; about 24 species and subspecies 
te Seen in the United States and Canada, which nest in under- 
Stone & Cram). ground burrows in which they raise several broods a 
year, each numbering from 3 to 8 young; they feed on seeds, roots, 
etc., and lay up stores for winter use. 

+ E. gapperi (Vigors) (Fig. 173). Color bright chestnut above; sides 
buff, sharply defined from the color of the back; length 140 mm.; tail 
40 mm.; hind foot 18 mm.: Canada and northern United States; 
southward into the Pennsylvania mountains; westward to eastern 
Oregon; in cool forests and swamps. 


ee 


Subspecies of E. gapperi 


E. g. gapperi (Vigors). Pennsylvania to Canada; westward to the 
Rockies. 

E. g. ochraceus Miller. Color pale rusty rufous: Upper Boreal zone 
of White Mountains, New Hampshire and eastward. 


MAMMALS 313 


E. g. rhoadsi Stone. Ears large, projecting conspicuously above the 
fur; color dark chestnut; skull and teeth heavy: southern New Jersey to 
New York. 

E. g. loringit Bailey. Size very small; colors bright: Minnesota and 
eastern Dakotas, along the edge of timbered valleys. 

E. g. galei (Merriam). Size larger; colors lighter: Boreal zone of 
Colorado to northern Montana. . 

E. g. saturatus Rhoads. Size larger; colors lighter: Blue Mountains, 
Oregon; northern Idaho. 

E. carolinensis Merr. Color dark chestnut, fading into lighter; 
length 150 mm.; tail 45 mm.; hind foot 21 mm.: mountain forests of the 
southern Alleghenies. 

E. brevicaudus (Merr.). Color pale reddish, mixed with black; 
belly cream; length 125 mm.; tail 31 mm.; hind foot 19 mm.: Black 
Hills; Boreal zone. 

E. idahoensis Merr. Color pale hazel, lined with black; length 
153 mm.; tail 48 mm.; hind foot 20 mm.: mountains of south-central 
Idaho. 

E. mazama Merr. Color cinnamon rufous; length 157 mm.; tail 
52 mm.; hind foot 18 mm.: crest of the Cascades in Oregon. 

E. obscurus Merr. Color olive gray above; length 155 mm.; tail 47 
mm.; hind foot 17 mm.: eastern Oregon and northeastern California. 

E. californicus Merr. Color sepia above, dark chestnut on the 
back; length 161 mm.; tail 50 mm.; hind foot 21 mm.: coast of Oregon 
and northern California. 

E. occidentalis Merr. Color dark chestnut above; sides gray; under 
parts salmon buff; length 145 mm.; tail 45 mm.; hind foot 18 mm.: 
Puget Sound and coast region of Washington. 

E. nivarius Bailey. Color light chestnut above; sides gray; length 
150 mm.; tail 50 mm.; hind foot 18 mm.: high peaks of the Olympic 

.Mountains, Washington. 

8. Ondatra Link (Fiber Cuvier). Muskrats. Body large and 
stout; legs short; feet large, the feet and toes being fringed with short, 
stiff hairs; hind toes partly webbed; tail flattened laterally, with few 
hairs; fur thick, with longer hairs projecting from it; anal musk glands 
present: 3 species, with many subspecies, all in North America; the most 
important fur-bearing animals in the country. 

O. zibethica (L.).. Common muskrat. Color brown, variable, 
darker dorsally, whitish beneath; length 560 mm.; tail 250 mm.; hind 
foot 8r mm.: North America, from the Arctic barrens and Hudson Bay 
to the Mexican boundary; very common. The animals live in swamps 


314 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


and ponds and streams, in the banks of which they may burrow to form 
the nest where the young are born. They also form large dome-shaped 
houses two or three feet high and five or six feet in diameter by heaping 
up sticks and reeds, the upper portion of which contains a chamber 
above the level of the water where they spend much of the winter. 
Their food consists of roots and water-plants, and also shell-fish and 
other small animals; they raise several litters annually of from 3 to 13 
each, and do not hibernate, 14 subspecies. 


Subspecies of O. zibethicus 


O. z. zibethica (L.). Northeastern and central States; westward to 
Minnesota and the Great Plains; southward to Georgia and Arkansas, 
except along the Atlantic seaboard south 
of Delaware Bay. 

O. z. macrodon Merriam. Colors rich 
and bright; black phase often common; in 
size the largest of the genus; length 620 
mm.; tail 274 mm.; hind foot 88: Atlantic 
coast region from Delaware Bay to 
Pamlico Sound. 

O. z. osoyoosensis Lord. Color glossy 
brown to black: Puget Sound region and 
Rocky Mountains. 

O. z. occipitalis Elliot. Paler and more 
reddish than F. z. osoyoosensis: northern 
Willamette Valley and coast of Oregon. 

O. s. mergens Hollister. Color pale; 
size large: northern part of Great Basin. 

O. z. pallida Mearns. Color uniform 

fel Retro are EE Gere. PO red; size small: Colorado River 
mys bursarius and (2) Thomomys Valley; eastward to Rio Grande. 

See Segre ee O. 3. ripensis Bailey. Color light 
brown; size small: Pecos Valley, Texas. 

QO. z. cinnamomina Holl. Color pale, with much red: Great Plains 
from Manitoba to northern Texas; east to central Iowa. 

O. rivalicia Bangs. Color dark brownish black; length 547 mm.; 
tail 233 mm.; hind foot 78 mm.: coast region of Louisiana; moults twice 
annually. 

Family 2. Geomyide#.—Pocket gophers. Thick-bodied rodents 
with short legs, fore feet fitted for digging, small ears and eyes, and a 
pair of large fur-lined cheek-pouches which are not connected with the 


MAMMALS 385 


mouth but open on the cheeks at the sides of the mouth; dentition 
1/1, 0/0, 1/1, 3/3: 9 genera and about 100 species, all American, half of 
which occur in the southern United States, the rest in Mexico and 
Central America. The animals live in burrows in the ground, in which 
they dig with great facility, using both the strong, clawed fore feet and 
the incisors. Their food consists chiefly of roots, tubers and grasses, 
and they frequently do great damage to potato and vegetable fields. 
The cheek-pouches are useful in carrying food to their winter store 
houses, substances being put into them with their fore feet. They are 
mostly nocturnal and live in. communities and do not hibernate; the 
young number from 1 to 7 in a litter. 


Key to the Genera of Geomyidze of the United States 


a; Outer surface of the upper incisors grooved (Fig. 174). 


br Upperincisors with. 2 groovesieach)24/25.4 146... adel. de 1. Geomys. 
b2 Upper incisor with a single deep groove...................2. Cratogeomys. 
a2 Outer surface of the upper incisors not grooved or with a single 
LTTOLEW TAROT ON A Sa ferent aL ae aA or ae dere ane eae 3. Thomomys. 


1. Geomys Rafinesque. Upper incisors with a large groove near 
the middle and one near the median margin; ears rudimentary; fore 
claws very large: 16 species and subspecies, all in the United States. 


FIG. 175.—Geomys tuza (from Merriam). 


G. tuza (Barton) (Fig. 175). Color brown above, yellowish beneath; 
tail almost naked; length 270 mm.; tail 89 mm.; hind foot 33 mm.: 
Georga, Florida and Alabama; common. 

G. t. tuza (Bart.). Pine barrens of Georgia; Austroriparian zone. 

G. t. mobilensis Merriam. Color very dark: Alabama and Florida. 

G. t. foridanus (Audubon and Bachman). Size larger; color darker: 
peninsular Florida. 

G. bursarius (Shaw) (Fig. 174). Color dark reddish brown; feet 
white; length 270 mm.; tail 80 mm.; hind foot 35 mm.; upper incisors 


316 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


with 2 grooves; very common; 1 litter annually of 1 to 7 young: upper 
Mississippi Valley; southward to eastern Kansas and southeastern 
Missouri; westward into the Dakotas; eastward to Lake Michigan. 

G. breviceps Baird. Color dark russet brown; length 230 mm.; tail 
70 mm.; hind foot 28 mm.; size small: lower Mississippi Valley and Gulf 
coast of Louisiana and Texas; northward into Kansas. 


Subspecies of G. breviceps 


G. b. sagittalis Merr. Size smaller: Gulf coast about Galveston Bay. 

G. b. attwateri Merr. Size larger: coastal plain and islands from 
Nueces Bay to Matagorda Bay. 

G. texensis Merr. Color dark brown mixed with black; feet and 
under parts white; length 203 mm.; tail 60 mm.; hind foot 28 mm.: 
central and southern Texas. 

G. arenarius Merr. Colors pale; length 258 mm.; tail 88 mm.; hind 
foot 33 mm.: valley of the upper Rio Grande. 

G. lutescens (Merr.). Colors pale drab or fulvous; beneath whitish; 
length 270 mm.; tail 85 mm.; hind foot 32 mm.: Great Plains from 
South Dakota to Texas; eastern Wyoming and Colorado; Upper Sonoran 
zone. 

2. Cratogeomys Merriam. Upper incisors with a single groove: 
I species in the United States. 

C. castanops Baird. Color yellowish brown; buff beneath; length 
262 mm.; tail 65 mm.; hind foot 37 mm.: Great Plains from the Arkansas 
River into Mexico. 

3. Thomomys Wied. Outer surface of upper incisors not grooved 
or with one faint groove near the median margin (Fig. 174); ears distinct 
but very small; claws moderate: many species, all in the Rocky Moun- 
tain or Pacific States or along the Mexican border. 

T. botte (Eydoux and Gervais). Color yellowish brown, darker 
towards the head; lips and lining of the pockets white; length 260 mm; 
tail 89 mm.; hind foot 33 mm.; mamme 4 pairs: California; 13 
subspecies. 


Subspecies of T. botte 


T. b. botte (E. and G.). Coast region from Freestone to San Diego. 

T. b. laticeps (Baird). Color warmer and brighter: coast region 
north of Eel River, northern California. 

T. b. minor Bailey. Size smaller; color darker: coast region from 
Cape Mendocino to Cazadero. 


MAMMALS 317 


T. b. leucodon (Merriam). Smaller, lighter: from Fairfield and 
Placerville to Grants Pass, Oregon. 

T. b. navus (Merr.). Much smaller; color lighter: Sacramento 
Valley. 

T. b. mewa Merr. Size smaller; color darker: east side of San 
Joaquin Valley. 

T. b. angularis (Merr.). Size large; color light: west side of San 
Joaquin Valley; also Santa Clara and San Juan Valleys. — 

T. bulbivorus (Richardson). Color dark brown, above and below; 
length 300 mm.; tail 90 mm.; hind foot 42 mm.; mamme 4 pairs: 
Willamette Valley. 

T. townsendit (Bachman). Color dark gray above, buff below; 
length 305 mm.; tail roo mm.; hind foot 38 mm.; mamme 4 pairs; in 
dark color phase black all over: southern Idaho and Oregon and 
northern Nevada. 

T. alpinus Merr. Color yellowish brown, being darker along the 
back and lighter on the belly; mamme 4 pairs; length 222 mm.; tail 61 
mm.; hind foot 30 mm.: upper levels of the southern Sierras. 

T. perpallidus (Merr.). Color buff or cream above, whitish beneath; 
length 241 mm.; tail 84 mm.; hind foot 31 mm.; mamme 4 pairs: 
deserts of southern California to New Mexico and Colorado: 14 
subspecies. 


Subspecies of T. per pallidus 


T. p. perpallidus (Merr.). Colorado desert, southern California. 

T. p. perpes (Merr.). Size small; color gray: eastern California from 
Owens Valley to Hesperia. 

T. p. canus (Bailey). Color grayish buff; size rather large: western 
and central Nevada. 

T. p. aureus (Allen). Color golden buff; size rather large: southern 
Nevada and Utah, western Colorado, New Mexico and Arizona. 

T. fulvus (Woodhouse). Color dark tawny or light chestnut; length 
219 mm.; tail 70 mm.; hind foot 30 mm.; mamme 4 pairs: Arizona to 
Texas; 8 subspecies. 


Subspecies of T. fulvus 


T. f. fulous (Woodh.). Central Arizona and western and central 
New Mexico. 

T. f. toltecus (Allen). Color paler and grayer: southeastern Arizona 
and southwestern New Mexico. 


318 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


T. talpoides (Richardson) (Fig. 174). Color dark gray or grayish 
brown; under parts whitish or pure white; tail white tipped or all white; 
length 214 mm.; tail 60 mm.; hind foot 28 mm.; mammez 6 pairs: 
South Dakota, Colorado and Wyoming northward into Canada; 
8 subspecies. 


Subs pecies of T. talpoides 


T. t. talpoides (Rich.). Western Montana into Canada. 

T. t. rufescens (Wied). Size large; length 240 mm.; color dark gray: 
North and South Dakota and Manitoba. 

T. t. clusius (Coues). Size small; color hazel gray: eastern Colorado 
and Wyoming. 

T. t. bullatus Bailey. Color pale and bright: eastern Montana and 
Wyoming and western South Dakota. 

T. ocius (Merr.). Color very pale buffy gray, whitish underneath; 
length 204 mm.; tail 60 mm.; hind foot 26 mm.; mamme 7 pairs: 
Green River basin in Wyoming, Colorado and Utah. 

T. pygmeus Merr. Color hazel-brown; length 177 mm.; tail 46 
mm.; hind foot 22 mm.; the smallest species; mamme 6 pairs: south- 
western Wyoming and southeastern Idaho; Transition zone. 

T. fossor Allen. Color dark brown; length 221 mm.; tail 63 mm.; 
hind foot 29 mm.; mamme 5 pairs: mountains of Colorado and Utah; 
Boreal zone. 

T. quadratus Merr. Color light russet; length 210 mm.; tail 64 
mm.; hind foot 27 mm.; mamme 5 pairs: northern California, eastern 
Oregon and Nevada. 


Subspecies of T. quadratus 


T. q. quadratus Merr. Eastern Oregon and northern California. 

T. q. fisheri Merr. Color paler; size smaller: northern Nevada. 

T. douglasii (Richardson). Color uniform dull hazel; length 215 
mm.; tail 64 mm.; hind foot 30 mm.; mamme 4 pairs: western Wash- 
ington; 7 subspecies. 

T. monticola Allen. Color dull hazel above, buff beneath; length 
212 mm.; tail 70 mm.; hind foot 27 mm.; mamme 4 pairs: California and 
Oregon; 5 subspecies. 


Subspecies of T. monticola 


T. m. monticola Allen. Sierra Nevada of California and Nevada; 
southward to Mammouth Pass. 


MAMMALS 319 


T. m. mazama (Merr.). Color darker and richer: Cascade and Sis- 
kiyou Mountains; southward to the Trinity Mountains; northward 
to the Columbia. 

T. m. pinetorum Merr. Nose and cheeks conspicuously gray: 
mountains on the west side of Sacramento Valley. 

T. fuscus (Merr.). Color light brown; length 203 mm.; tail 70 mm.; 
hind foot 27 mm.; mammez 4 pairs: Wyoming to Washington and 
northward into Canada; 5 subspecies. 


Subspecies of T. fuscus 


T. f. fuscus (Merr.). Western Montana and Wyoming, northern 
and central Idaho, eastern Oregon and Washington, British Columbia. 

T. f. saturatus Bailey. Size larger; color darker: higher parts of the 
Coeur d’Alene Mountains. 

T. hesperus Merr. Color dark rich auburn; length 210 mm.; tail 60 
mm.; hind foot 24 mm.: coast region of northwestern Oregon. 

Family 3. Heteromyidz.—Small, slender rodents with a long 
tail and with a pair of cheek-pouches, which are lined with fur on the 
inside and open at the side of the mouth on each cheek; eyes and ears 
usually large; fur harsh in many species, with numerous bristles or 
spines: 6 genera and about too species, all in America, mostly in more or 
less arid regions of the western States and Mexico. 


Key to the United States Genera of Heteromyide 


ar EOMGESSIOMS I Vay UES com cytes vt ok Keke yma mass el ee a 1. Perognathus. 
ag Progression by leaping. 
by Lailowith aiterminal pencil. ;.2....%...0..224...+.-00.022. Dipodomys: 
byosbaal without terminal pencil. .4, 32% 362 6a. tage a a a wes 3. Microdipodops. 


1. Perognathus Wied. Pocket mice (Fig. 176). Body slender and 
murine; tail at least as long or nearly as long as the rest of the body; 
ears small; legs and feet long; dentition 1/1, 0/0, 1/1, 3/3; molars rooted 
and tuberculate; upper incisors strongly sulcate; hair harsh in some 
species and soft in others: many species, all in North America; about 25 
species and very many subspecies in the United States, all west of the 
Mississippi; nocturnal, burrowing animals, dwelling on plains and 
deserts and feeding on seeds; several litters of young raised annually, 
numbering from 2 to 8 each. 

P. fasciatus Wied. Color olivaceous; pure white below; fur soft; 
soles of feet hairy; length 134 mm.; tail 64 mm.; hind foot 17 mm.: 
eastern Montana and Wyoming and western Dakota; Upper Sonoran 
and Transition zones. 


320 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


P. flavescens (Merriam). Color buff; white below; feet and legs 
white; length 129 mm.; tail 61 mm.; hind foot 17 mm.: South Dakota 
to northern Texas; westward to the Rockies. 

' P. merriami Allen. Color ochraceous buff; belly, feet and fore 
legs white; length 116 mm.; tail 57 mm.; hind foot 16 mm.: central and 
southern Texas to southeastern New Mexico. 

P. flavus Baird. Color pinkish buff; pure white below; 
fur very soft; length 112 mm.; tail 50 mm.; hind foot 15 mm.: 
eastern Utah and Wyoming and western South Dakota; south 
to Mexico. 

P. apache Merr. Color rich buff; length 139 mm.; tail 67 
mm.; hind foot 18 mm.: eastern Arizona, western New Mexico 
and southern Utah and Colorado. 

P. panamintinus Merr. Color grayish buff; underparts 
white; fur long and silky; length 143 mm.; tail 78 mm.; hind 
foot 20 mm.: southern California and Nevada. 

P. longimembris (Coues). Color uniform, being buff 
above and white below; length 145 mm.; tail 74 mm.; hind 
foot 18 mm.: southern California; Sonoran zone. 

P. parvus (Peale). Color gray or buff, having two color 
phases; length 171 mm.; tail 91 mm.; hind foot 22 mm.: 
central and eastern California, Oregon, Washington, and the 
Great Basin; Upper Sonoran zone. 


Wane 
is HANS A y 


Dat t's 


Subspecies of P. parvus 


ByC ane. P. p. parvus (Peale). Yakima River, Washington to 
Pao southeastern Oregon. 
(after Stone P. p. mollipilosus (Coues). Size smaller, color darker: 
& Cram). northeastern California to Klamath Basin. 

P. p. olivaceus (Merr). Color lighter: Great Basin from southern 
Idaho and Oregon to Owens Valley, California. 

P. p. magruderensis Osgood. Size larger; length 198 mm.: south- 
eastern California and Nevada. 

P. lordi (Gray). Color pale buff; length 183 mm.; tail 97 mm.; 
hind foot 23 mm.: plains of the Columbia; Upper Sonoran and Transi- 
tion zones. 

P. formosus Merr. Color grizzled sepia; white below; length 189 
mm.; tail 106 mm.; hind foot 24 mm.; tail very long, heavily crested: 
southern Nevada, Utah and California; Lower Sonoran zone. 

P. hispidus Baird. Color ochraceous; under parts white; fur harsh 
but without bristles; soles of hind feet naked; length 222 mm.; tail 


MAMMALS 227 


108 mm.; hind foot 26 mm.: Great Plains from the Dakotas to Mexico; 
westward to the base of the Rockies. 

P. penicillatus Woodhouse (Fig. 176). Color buff; length 205 mm.; 
tail 110 mm.; hind foot 25 mm.; tail long and crested: 
southern California, Arizona and Nevada. 

P. intermedius Merr. Color drab; fur harsh, with 
spines on the rump; length 179 mm.; tail 102 mm.; 
hind foot 22 mm.: southern Arizona and New Mexico. 

P. fallax Merr. Color dark drab; length 192 mm.; 
tail 104 mm.; hind foot 23 mm.: southern California. 

P. femoralis Allen. Size very large; tail and ears 
very long; color dark drab; under parts dirty white; 
length 223 mm.; tail 126 mm.; hind foot 27 mm.: 
extreme southern California. 

P. californicus Merr. Color dark drab; under 
parts yellowish white; rump and flanks supplied with 
bristles; length 192 mm.; tail 103 mm.; hind foot 24 
mm.: central and southern California. 


Subspecies of P. californicus 


P.c.californicus Merr. Vicinity of San Francisco 
Bay. 

P. c. dispar Osgood. Size larger; color paler: 
coast valleys of California; southward to San 
Bernardino. 

P. c. ochrus Osgood. Color paler; length 200 
mm.: Kern County, California. 

2. Dipodomys Gray. Kangaroo rats (Fig. 177). 
Body slender; hind legs and tail very long, the tail 
black dorsally and ventrally and white on the sides 
and ending with a penicillate tuft; hind foot with 
either 4 or 5 toes; fur soft; soles of feet hairy; fore legs 
weme short; dentition 1/1, 6/0,’ 1/2, 3/3; color 
brownish or yellowish, with a conspicuous white spate Ea et 
stripe across the thigh; eyes large: about 50 species mys agilis (after Stone 
and subspecies, mostly in western America; burrow- ° ©”: 
ing, nocturnal animals with remarkable jumping powers, making jumps 
4 to 6 feet long. They inhabit deserts and dry plains, feeding on seeds 
and leaves, and raise from 2 to 6 young in a litter. 


322 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


D. agilis Gambel (Fig. 177). Color yellowish brown, mixed with 
dusky; hind foot with 5 toes; length 300 mm.; tail 180 mm.; hind foot 
42 mm.: southern and western California; Transition and Sonoran zones. 


Subspecies of D. agilis 


D. a. agilis Gamb. Southwestern California; north to Santa 
Barbara. 

D. a. simulans (Merriam). Color darker; length 285 mm.; tail 
172 mm.: San Diego County. 

D. a. cabezone (Merr.). Color buffy ochraceous; length 282 mm.; 
tail 171 mm.: southern California deserts. 

D. a. perplexus (Merr.). Color yellowish brown; length 320 mm.; 
tail 195 mm.: southern Sierras and Tejon Mountains. 

D. a. venustus (Merr.). Color cinnamon brown; length 316 mm.; 
tail t91 mm.: Santa Lucia Mountains. 

D. microps (Merr.). Color pale buff; length 270 mm.; tail 150 mm.; 
hind foot 40 mm.: Mohave Desert, California. 

D. deserti Stephens. Color pale yellowish brown; hind foot with 
4 toes; length 342 mm.; tail 200 mm.; hind foot 52 mm.: Colorado and 
Mohave Deserts, California. 

D. heermanni LeConte. Color cinnamon buff; length 293 mm.; 
tail rt80 mm.; hind foot 45 mm.: northern California. 


Subspecies of D. heermannti 


D.h. heermanni LeConte. Hind foot with 5 toes: west base of the 
central Sierra Nevadas; Upper Sonoran zone. 

D.h. californicus (Merr.). Hind foot with 4 toes; length 312 mm.; 
tail 195 mm.: central California coastal region north of San Francisco. 

D. h. dixoni (Grinnell). Hind foot with 5 toes; length 282 mm.; 
tail 170 mm.: northern portion of the San Joaquin Valley. 

D. h. goldmani (Merr.). Color drab brown; length 312 mm.; tail 
185 mm.: Salinas River Valley. 

D. morroensis (Merr.). Color dark buff; length 292 mm.; tail 
177 mm.: San Luis Obispo County, California. 

D. panamintinus (Merr.). Color buffy clay; length 301 mm.; tail 
180 mm.: Panamint Mountains, California. 

D. stephensi (Merr.). Hind foot with 5 toes; dark clay in color; 
length 295 mm.; tail 180 mm.; hind foot 43 mm.: San Jacinto Valley, 
California. 


MAMMALS 323 


D. ingens (Merr.). Hind foot with 5 toes; size very large; color 
ochraceous buff; length 330 mm.; tail 185 mm.: Fresno, San Luis 
Obispo and Santa Barbara Counties, California. 

D. spectabilis Merr. Color ochraceous buff; length 350 mm.; tail 
211 mm.; hind foot with 4 toes: western Texas, to Arizona. 

D. elator Merr. Hind foot with 4 toes; color clay; length 290 mm.; 
tail 170 mm.: northern Texas and southern Oklahoma. 

D. merriami Mearns. Hind foot with 4 toes; color clay; length 
240 mm.; tail 143 mm.: California to Texas. 


Subspecies of D. merriami 


D.m. merriami Mearns: Mohave Desert, southeastern Nevada and 
southwestern Arizona. 

D. m. exilis Merr. Color darker: San Joaquin Valley, California. 

D. m. parvus Rhoads. Color buffy gray; length 248 mm.; tail 
154 mm.: southern California. 

D. m. nitratoides Merr. Color darker; dusky crescent over nose; 
size smaller: Tulare County, California. 


Subspecies of D. ordit 


D. ordiit Woodhouse. Hind foot with 5 toes; color clay; length 
244 mm.; tail 140 mm.; hind foot 39 mm.: western States. 

D. 0. ordit Wood. Southern Texas to Arizona. 

D. 0. columbianus (Merr.). Color darker; length 232 mm.; tail 

130 mm.: northern portion of the Great Basin. 

D. 0. utahensis (Merr.). Color clay; length 260 mm.; tail 147 mm.; 
hind foot 40 mm.: northern Utah. 

D. o. richardsoni (Allen). Color paler; length 267 mm.; tail 144 
mm.; hind foot 40 mm.: western Texas, north into Utah and Wyoming. 

D. 0. montanus (Baird). Color yellowish brown; length 245 mm.; 
tail 137 mm.: Castilla County, Colorado. 

D. o. longipes (Merr.). Color bright ocracheous buff; length 
275 mm.; tail 165 mm.; hind foot 42 mm.: Painted Desert, Arizona. 

3. Microdipodops Merriam. Kangaroo mice. Size very small; 
penicillate, four-striped tail lacking; mastoid region very much inflated; 
dentition 1/1, 0/o, 1/1, 3/3; hind foot with 5 toes: 4 species. 

M. californicus Merr. Color olivaceous; under parts snow white; 
length 160 mm.; tail 92 mm., terminal third blackish; hind foot 25 mm.: 
southern California. 

M. pallidus Merr. Color pale buff; tail without a dark tip; length 
171 mm.; tail 102 mm.; hind foot 25 mm.: Churchill County, Nevada. 


24 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


Oo 


M. megacephalus Merr. Color yellowish brown; under parts white; 
tail bicolor, terminal third blackish; length 150 mm.; tail 80 mm.; hind 
foot 24 mm.: northern California and Nevada and southeastern Oregon. 
Family 4. Zapodidze.—Jumping mice. Small mouse-like rodents 
with very long hind legs and tail and short fore legs, which 
progress by leaping; ears and eyes large; upper incisors much curved, 
compressed and deeply sulcate: 2 genera and about 15 species, in the 
northern United States and Canada; 1 species in China. 


Key to the Genera of Zapodide 


ai One ‘very: small premolar present: 3... 9yi-5. 2 Saeco 2 ee 
as No. premolars#present’ 5). £45 6.2.2 0S te te = 2 


1. Zapus Coues. Tail longer than the rest of the body; hind foot 
nearly half as long as the head and body; dentition 1/1, 0/0, 1/0, 3/3; 
premolars very small: about 10 species, which live in meadows and make 
nests in burrows in the ground or in tufts of grass or hollow logs; . 
progress is made by leaps, which may be to feet in length; they hiber- 
nate in the winter; 1 or 2 litters annually of 5 or 6 young each. 

Z. hudsonius (Zimmermann). Meadow jumping-mouse. Body 
about the size of a house-mouse; color yellowish brown above, with a 
broad dark dorsal band; white beneath; tail tipped with brown and 
bicolor; feet white; length 217 mm.; tail 132 mm.; hind foot 30 mm.: 
eastern and central States; westward to the Rockies and Alaska. 


Subspecies of Z. hudsonius 


Z.h. hudsonius (Zimm.). Hudson Bay to New Jersey, and in the 
mountains to North Carolina; west to lowa and Missouri and Alaska. 

Z. h. americanus (Barton). Size small; length 191 mm.: from 
Raleigh, N. C. along the coastal plain to Connecticut. 

Z. h. campestris Preble. Size large; length 222 mm.: Great Plains - 
from Manitoba to Nebraska; westward to Colorado and Wyoming. 

Z. princeps Allen. Color yellowish brown, with a broad dark dorsal 
band; length 245 mm.; tail 147 mm.; hind foot 32 mm.: Rocky Moun- 
tain region from New Mexico to Alberta. 


Subspecies of Z. princeps 


Z. p. oregonus Preble. Color lighter; length 250 mm.: Blue Moun- 
tains, Oregon. 


MAMMALS : 325 


Z. trinotatus: Rhoads. Color dark ochraceous buff on the sides; 
dorsal band very distinct; length 248 mm.; tail 153 mm.; 
hind foot 33 mm.: coastal region, British Columbia to 
Humboldt Bay. 


Subspecies of Z. trinotatus 


Z. t. alleni (Elliot). Tip of tail often white: Sierras [WY 
from Mount Shasta to Kern River. 

Z. luteus Miller. Color brighter; length 225 mm.; 
tail 136 mm.; hind foot 32 mm.: northern New Mexico. 

Z. montanus Merriam. Color dark ochraceous buff; 
dorsal area sharply defined; tail sharply bicolor; length 
228 mm.;.tail 135 mm.; hind foot 31 mm.: Cascade 
Range in Oregon. 

Z. orarius Preble. Color dark ochraceous, dorsal 
area and lower parts strongly suffused with the color 
of the sides; length 220 mm.; tail 127 mm.; hind foot 
30 mm.: coast from San Francisco to Humboldt Bay 
California. 

Z. pacificus Merr. Color similar to Z. orarius; 
length 225 mm.; tail 141 mm.: hind foot 31 mm.: south- 
western Oregon and northern California. 

2. Napzozapus Preble. Similar to Zapus, but 
without premolars: 1 species and several subspecies. 

N. insignis (Miller) (Fig. 178). Color of sides 
yellowish buff; back dark; belly white; tip of tail white; 
length 238 mm.; tail 146 mm.; hind foot 31 mm.: Nova 
Scotia to Maryland; westward to Lake Superior; in 
meadows and forests, near streams. 

Family 5. Erethizontidze.—Porcupines. Large, 
short-legged rodents with long, stiff spines or quills 
mingling with the coarse hair; feet plantigrade; denti- 
tion 1/1, o/o, 1/1, 3/3; molars with long roots: 3 genera, 
of which 2 are tropical; habits arboreal and nocturnal. 

Erethizon F. Cuvier. Tail short and thick and not 
prehensile; toes 4 in front, 5 behind: 2 species. 

E. dorsatum (L.). Common porcupine; hedgehog. _ Fis. — 178.— 

3 : F : ; Nape@ozapus insig- 
Color uniform blackish; quills tipped with black; length nis (after Stone > 
goo mm.; tail r50 mm.; hind foot 90 mm.; quills 50 to “4”: 
roo mm. long and mostly concealed by the fur; average weight 18 lbs.; 
maximum weight 40 lbs. : northern America; Lower Hudsonian, Canadian 


326 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


and Upper Transition zones; westward to the Great Plains. Porcupines 
climb trees for bark and twigs, which they feed on, but they are clumsy 
climbers and live largely on the ground, nesting in holes among the 
rocks; from 1 to 4 young raised annually; they do not hibernate. 

E. epixanthum Brandt. Western porcupine. Similar to E. dor- 
satum; tips of long hairs greenish yellow; midventral line brownish; 
length 825 mm.; tail 165 mm.: from the upper Missouri into New 
Mexico; westward to the Pacific; northward from California to Alaska. 


Subspecies of E. epixanthum 


E. e. couesi Mearns. Smaller and paler: Arizona. 

Family 6. Aplodontiidz.—Mountain beavers; boomers. Form 
stout, heavy; limbs short; head broad, flat, triangular; tail very short; 
eyes very small; feet plantigrade, 5-toed; dentition 1/1, o/o, 2/1, 3/3: 
I genus. 

Aplodontia Richardson. With the characters of the family: about 
I species; burrowing, mainly nocturnal, animals which live in colonies 
in dense wet forests, in which they construct numerous runways and 
tunnels, and feed on bark, leaves and twigs, laying up large stores for 
winter use; they raise 2 or 3 young annually and do not hibernate. 

A. rufa (Rafinseque). Color umber; belly gray; whiskers white; 
length 350 mm.; hind foot 53 mm.: Pacific Coast States. 


Subspecies of A. rufa 


A. r. rufa (Raf.). Western slope of the Cascade Mountains from 
British Columbia into northern California. 

A.r. olympica Merriam. Color darker: Olympic Mountains. 

A. r. ranieri (Merr.). Color grayer; length 373 mm.; hind foot 
63 mm.: on Mount Ranier. 

A.r. pacifica Merr. Color fulvous brown; belly plumbeous; length 
325 mm.; hind foot 52 mm.: Pacific coast of Oregon. 

A. r. humboldtiana (Taylor). Color ochraceous to pinkish buff; 
length 345 mm.; hind foot 54 mm.: coastal region of northwestern 
California. 

A. r. californica (Peters). Color grayer: the Sierra Nevada, 
California. 

Family 7. Sciuridz.—Squirrels, marmots, etc. Arboreal or ter- 
restrial rodents, with mostly long, bushy tails; skull with postorbital 
processes; molars rooted and with tubercular biting surfaces: 15 or 20 
genera and about 250 species, grouped in 2 subfamilies; cosmopolitan, 


MAMMALS 327 


except in the Australian region; about g genera and 90 species in the 
United States and Canada. 


Key to These Subfamilies 


Se OL yan eon ern eae PEESEM Ga enn e ah tasayl- (eis oss kage ove ee: 1. Sciurine. 
ao Flying membrane present; flying squirrels.....................2. Pleromyine. 


Subfamily 1. Sciurinz.—Squirrels; chipmunks; ground squirrels; 
prairie dogs; woodchucks: 9 genera. ~ 


Key to These Genera 
a; Tail long; body slender. 
b, Cheek-pouches absent; tail very long...............1. Sciurus. 
by Cheek-pouches present; tail moderate. 
c, Thumb with well developed nail; chipmunks. 
d, Premolars 1/1; eastern chipmunks............2. Tamas. 
d. Premolars 2/1; western chipmunks (Fig. 181)..3. Eutamias. 
co Thumb with rudimentary nail (Fig. 182); ground 
squirrels. 
d, Back and sides broadly striped. 
é; Laiknot curved over the: backs. j...e¢.. >... 4. Callospermophilus. 
e. Tail curved over the back.................5. Ammospermophilus. 
d». Back and sides not broadly striped, either finely 
striped or spotted or uniform in color. 


e: ize lave length oversoo mmr seer us 6. Otospermophilus. 
e. Size small; length under 300 mm...........7. Citellus. 
ap Tail short; body stout and heavy. 
b; Length 400 mm. or less; prairie dogs..............8. Cynomys. 
be Length over 600 mm.; woodchucks.................9. Marmota. 


1. Sciurus L. Squirrels. Body slender; tail long and bushy, the 
hairs being longest on the sides; ears and eyes large; thumb rudimen- 
tary; dentition 1/1, o/o, 2/1, 3/3: over 100 species; cosmopolitan, 
excepting the Australian region; 10 species and numerous subspecies in 
the United States; about 30 species in Mexico and Central America; 
arboreal and mostly diurnal rodents which feed on seeds, nuts and buds, 
and often on young birds, bird-eggs and insects, and which build their 
nests in trees; they probably do not usually hibernate, and usually 
lay up stores of food. 


Key to the Species of Sciurus in the United States 


a, Upper premolars 2 in number, making 5 grinders on each side in 
upper jaw (Fig. 179). 
b,; Size small; color red. 
c; In the eastern, central and Rocky Mountain States. 
d, In the northeastern, north-central and Rocky Moun- 
tain States; common red squitrel.................0s S. hudsonicus. 


328 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


d. In the central Rockies and southwestern States....... S. fremonti. 
6;/On the: Pacific slope, .. aes See ere i tre eee S. douglasit. 
be Size large; color gray, sometimes black. 
c, Ears not tufted. 
d; In the eastern and central States; common gray squirrel.S. carolinensis. 


dy. On the ‘Pacihe:slope 22a eee, ce ae ee S. griseus. 

co Ears tufted with long black hairs. 
di Belly white; ears, blacks.-.2.,> ty ee S. aberti. 
d3-Bellydark; earsiweddish <3. 2.1) anh ee S. kaibabensis. 


a2 Upper premolar 1 in number, making 4 grinders on each side in 
upper jaw (Fig. 180). 
bi In the eastern and central States; common fox squirrel...... S. niger. 
Dawns Arizond es ie cs fs Bcd re ee ee nee ae ee S. apache. 
S. arizonensis. 


S. Iudsonicus (Erxleben). Red squirrel. Color reddish brown 
above and whitish beneath; tail relatively narrow and short; ears 
tufted in winter; length 315 mm.; tail 115 mm.; hind foot 47 mm.; 
several litters of young raised a year, from 4 to 6 each: northern 
America from Labrador to Alaska and British Columbia; southward 
to Virginia and Tennessee; westward to Utah, eastern Oregon and 
Washington. 


“Subs pecies of S. hudsonicus 


S. h. hudsonicus (Erx.). Colors pale; fringe of tail yellowish: east- 
ward of Rocky Mountains in Canadian and Hudsonian zones. 

S.h. gymnicus Bangs. Size small; length 290 mm.; outer fringe of 
tail red; colors deep; belly gray in winter: northeastern States, Canadian 
zone; southward into New York State, Michigan and Minnesota. 

S. h. loquax Bangs. Outer fringe of tail yellowish; colors pale; 
belly pure white at all seasons: eastern States, Transition and Upper 
Austral zones. : 

S. h. minnesota Allen. Size large; colors pale; under side of tail 
gray; length 345 mm.: Minnesota to Iowa, eastward to Indiana. 

S. h. dakotensis Allen. Size large; colors very pale; center of tail 
yellowish red: Black Hills and Wyoming. 

S. h. baileyi Allen. Fringe of tail black; dorsal band pale; size 
large: central Wyoming and eastern Montana. 

S. h. ventorum Allen. End of tail black; size large: Yellowstone 
Park region into the Wasatch Mountains. 

S. h. vichardsoni Bachman. Upper surface of tail mostly black; 
size large: western Montana into eastern Washington and Oregon. 

S.h. streatori Allen. Terminal third of tail black: Columbia River, 
northward into British Columbia. 


MAMMALS 320 


S. fremonti Audubon and Bachman. Similar to S. hudsonicus, but 
large; dorsal band pale yellowish rufous; length 335 mm.; tail 140 mm.; 
hind foot 55 mm.: Colorado, Utah, New Mexico and Arizona; Canadian 
zone. 


Subspecies of S. fremonti 


S.f. fremonti Aud. and Bach. Color grayish; white beneath: moun- 
tains of Colorado and northeastern Utah. 

S. f. lychnuchus Stone and Rehn. Color dull ferruginous; fringe of 
tail black: White Mountains, New Mexico. 

S. f. neomexicanus Allen. Size smaller: Taos Range, New Mexico. 

S. f. mogollenensis (Mearns). Dorsal band brighter: higher moun- 
tains of central Arizona; Canadian and Boreal zones. 

S. f. grahamensis (Allen). Like S. f. mogollonesis, but paler: fir 
zone, Graham Mountains, Arizona. 

S. douglasti Bachman. Pine squirrel; redwood squirrel. Similar 
to the red squirrel; color brown or brownish gray above and buff or 
gray beneath; fur soft and dense; tail short, fringed with hellow; length 
315 mm.; tail 125 mm.; hind foot 50 mm.: Pacific slope from British 
Columbia to Lower California; in coniferous forests. 


Subspecies of S. douglasii 


S. d. douglasii Bach. Washington and Oregon, along the coast. 

S.d. mollipilosus (Audubon and Bachman). Color dark brown; belly 
gray; white tail fringe: coast region of northern California and southern 
Oregon. 

S. d. cascadensis Allen. Size large; tail fringe white: Cascade 
Mountains. 

S. d. albolimbatus Allen. ‘Tail fringe white; belly buff; size large: 
Sierras of northern California; southeastern Oregon. 

S. carolinensis Gmelin. Gray squirrel (Fig. 179). Color gray 
above with a rusty middorsal region and white beneath; two color 
phases may occur, the black color phase not uncommon in many locali- 
ties; tail very long and bushy, edged with white; length 500 mm.; tail 
220 mm.; hind foot 70 mm.: eastern and central States; westward into 
Oklahoma and Nebraska; 2 litters of from 4 to 6 young each are raised. 


Subspecies of S. carolinensis 


S. c. carolinensis Gmelin. Size smaller; length 455 mm.: Austral 
zone; southward to northern Florida; westward into Oklahoma and 
Nebraska. 


VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


On 
o>) 
O 


S. c. leucotis (Gapper). Larger and grayer; the black color phase 
often common: Transition and lower edge of Canadian zones; southward 
into the Pennsylvanian mountains; westward to Minnesota. 

S.c. hypopheus Merriam. Size large; color dark; only a small white 
streak on the belly: Minnesota forest belt. 

S. c. extimus Bangs. Size small; length 438 mm.; color light: 


southern Florida. 


Fic. 179.—Skull of Sciturus carolinensis (from Elliot), 


S.c. fuliginosus (Bachman). Color blackish, grizzled with brown; 
brown beneath: the bayou region of Louisiana. 

S. griseus Ord. Western gray squirrel. Size large; color gray above 
white beneath; length 550 mm.; tail 250 mm.; hind foot 80 mm.: 
Pacific slope. 

Subs pecies of S. griseus 

S. g. griseus Ord. Southwestern Washington to Lower California; 

Transition zone and upper border of Austral, except the coast belt south 


of San Francisco. 


MAMMALS 331 


S.g.anthonyi (Mearns). Color gray, suffused with yellowish-brown: 
Laguna Mountains, southern California. 

S. g. nigripes (Bryant). Color much darker; upper surface of feet 
blackish: coast region south of San Francisco. 

S. aberti Woodhouse. Tufted ear squirrel. Color gray with a 
broad reddish dorsal band; white beneath, with a black or reddish line 
separating the gray from the white; ear long and pointed, terminating 
with a long black tuft; length 525 mm.; tail 220 mm.; hind foot 73 mm.: 
northern Arizona and New Mexico and Colorado; in coniferous forests; 
Transition zone. 


Subs pecies of S. aberti 


S. a. aberti Wood. “Mountains of northeastern Arizona and western 
New Mexico. 

S. a. ferreus True. Size smaller; no reddish dorsal band: northern 
Colorado. 

S. a. mimus Merr. Reddish dorsal band absent; size smaller: 
southwestern Colorado; northern New Mexico. 

S. kaibabensis Merr. Similar to S. aberti; belly black; 2 annual 
litters of 3 or 4 each: north of the Grand Canyon, Arizona. 

S. nigerL. Foxsquirrel (Fig. 180). Color reddish brown above and 
rusty or rusty white beneath; rarely (in the south) black; tail long and 
bushy; length 675 mm.; tail 300 mm.; hind foot 87 mm.; weight 2 or 
3 Ibs.; usually 1 litter a year of 2 to 4 young: eastern and central States; 
westward to the eastern border of the Great Plains. 


Subspecies of S. niger 


S. n. niger L. Color more grayish varying to black; nose and ears 
white: southeastern States, east of the Alleghenies; north to Virginia. 

S. n. neglectus (Gray). Color more reddish: southern New York 
and New England to central Virginia. 

S. n. rufiventer (Geoffrey). Size smaller; length 540 mm.; color 
deeper ferruginous: Mississippi Valley from the Alleghanies to the 
Great Plains; southward to northern Louisiana. 

S. n. texianus (Bachman). Length 625 mm.; colors pale: coast 
region of Mississippi and Louisiana. 

S. apache Allen. Color of the fox squirrel; upper surface with a 
broad dorsal band, which may be obscured in the summer; length 554 
mm.; tail 279 mm.; hind foot 77 mm.: southern Arizona and Mexico; 
Transition zone. 


VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


ies) 
On 
No 


S. arizonensis Coues. Color grizzled gray; belly white; tail black 
above, edged with white, brown beneath; length 540 mm.; tail 300 mm.; 
hind foot 71 mm.: Arizona and New Mexico. 

2. Tamias Illiger. Chipmunks. Body small; tail short and not 


bushy; large internal cheek pouches present; dentition 1/1, 0/o, 1/1, 


Fic. 180.—Skull of Sciurus niger (from Elliot). 


3/3: 1 species; terrestrial squirrels which make their nests in deep bur- 
rows in the ground, in which they hibernate a longer or shorter time 
in winter; stores of food layed up. 

T. striatus (L.).. Common chipmunk. Color reddish brown, with 
a middorsal black stripe and with a lateral whitish, longitudinal stripe 
bordered above and below on each side by a black stripe; end of tail 
blackish; rump ferruginous; length 250 mm.; tail 90 mm.; hind foot 
33 mm.: eastern and central States; Upper Austral and Transition 


MAMMALS 333 


zones; westward into Nebraska and Oklahoma; several litters of young 
a year, of 4 to 6 each; the food consists mainly of seeds and fruits, but 
also of insects, snails, young birds and birds eggs, and other small 
animals. 


Subspecies of T. striatus 


T. s. striatus (L.). Southeastern States. 

T. s. griseus Mearns. Size larger; color less reddish: upper Missis- 
sippi Valley, westward of the Great Lakes; southward to eastern 
Kansas and Missouri. 


Fic. 181.—Skull of Eutamias dorsalis (premolars and molars below, those of the upper jaw 
being at the left) (from Elliot). 


T. s. lysteri (Richardson). Color pale and dull; rump yellowish 
brown: New England to Lake Huron; Upper Transition and Lower 
Canadian zones. 

T.s.venustus Bangs. Upper surface dark gray; size large: Oklahoma. 

T. s. fisheri Howell. Colors pale and gray: middle Atlantic States to 
southern Virginia; westward to Ohio. 

3. Eutamias Trouessart. Western chipmunks. Similar to Tamias 
in coloration; dentition 1/1, 0/0, 2/1, 3/3; nail of thumb well developed: 
about 57 species and subspecies; in western America. 

E. dorsalis (Baird) (Fig. 181). Color rusty gray with a dark brown 
dorsal stripe; other stripes faint; under parts grayish white; length 237 
mm.; tail 105 mm.; hind foot 35 mm.: Utah to the Sierras; southward 
into New Mexico and Arizona. 


334 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


E. townsendii (Bachman). Color dark yellowish brown with 5 
black dorsal stripes; light stripes almost obsolete; tail black, fringed 
with white; belly white; length 257 mm.; tail 107 mm.; hind foot 35 
mm.; 1 annual litter, possibly more, of 2 to 6 each: British Columbia 
to central California. 


Subspecies of E. townsendit 


E. t. townsendii (Bach.). British Columbia to the Columbia River; 
coastal region. 

E. t. senex (Allen). Color uniform gray: Boreal zone of the Sierra 
Nevada and Cascade Ranges from Mariposa County, California to 
Cook County, Oregon. 

E. t. cooperi (Baird). Color grizzled gray; 3 dorsal stripes distinct, 
the others not: Cascade Mountains near Mount Ranier; Boreal zone. 

E. t. ochrogenys Merr. Colors dull; stripes inconspicuous: humid 
coastal region of northwestern California and southern Oregon. 

E. merriami (Allen). Color pale yellowish gray; ears high, pointed; 
length 250 mm.; tail 117 mm.; hind foot 34 mm.: mountains of southern 
California. 


Subspecies of E. merriami 


E. m. merriami (Allen). Mountains of San Diego County and 
northwards to San Luis Obispo. 

E. m. pricei (Allen). Color grayish brown; with 5 black dorsal 
stripes: coastal region from San Francisco to Monterey, California. 

E. quadrimaculatus (Gray). Color of head and rump gray, rest of 
back ferruginous; ears very large; black markings on the side of the 
face conspicuous; length 262 mm.; tail 120 mm.; hind foot 35 mm.: 
central California from Yosemite Park to Quincy. 

E. speciosus (Allen). Color with much white and gray; tip of tail 
black; length 234 mm.; tail 120 mm.; hind foot 32 mm.: San Bernardino 
and San Jacinto Mountains to central California, Boreal zone. 


Subspecies of E. speciosus 


E. s. speciosus (Allen). San Bernardino and San Jacinto Counties, 
California. 

E. s. frater (Allen). Dark colors more distinct; size smaller: western 
Nevada to central California; Lake Tahoe. 

E. s. callipeplus (Merr.). Shoulders ochraceous; flanks fulvous; 
size small: Yosemite Valley to Mount Pinos. 


MAMMALS 335 


E. panamintinus (Merr.). Color pale gray; facial stripes indistinct; 
length 208 mm.; tail 96 mm.; hind foot 31 mm.: west side of Great 
Basin in California and Nevada. 

E. amenus (Allen). Color gray; stripes conspicuous; flanks 
ochraceous brown; belly white; length 207 mm.; tail 70 mm.; hind 
foot 30 mm.: central California into Canada; eastwards into Montana; 
Transition and Boreal zones. 


Subspecies of E. amenus 


E. a. amenus (Allen). Northwestern California, central and 
eastern Oregon and Washington. 

E. a. monesis Grinnell and Storer. Colors paler: eastern portion of 
central Sierra Nevadas; Canadian zone. 

E. a. luteiventris (Allen). Wyoming and Montana, northwards into 
Alberta. 

E. a. caurinus (Merr.). Olympic Mountains, Washington. 

E. cinereicollis (Allen). Color gray; flanks yellowish brown; length 
247 mm.; tail 102 mm.; hind foot 35 mm.: San Francisco and Mogollon 
Mountains, Arizona. 

E. umbrinus (Allen). Color yellowish brown; outer dark stripes 
obsolete; length 249 mm.; tail 100 mm.; hind foot 32 mm.: Wasatch 
and Uinta Ranges, Utah. 

E. quadrivittatus (Say). Color gray, yellowish on the sides; stripes 
conspicuous: length 237 mm.; tail 100 mm.; hind foot 31 mm.: Colorado 
and northern New Mexico and Arizona. 

E. minimus (Bachman). Size small; color pale, being gray, rusty 
yellow on the flank; tail black above, yellowish below; length 200 mm. ; 
tail 85 mm.; hind foot 29 mm.: eastern Washington to the Dakotas; 
south into Arizona and New Mexico. 


Subspecies of E. minimus 


E. m. minimus Bachman. Wyoming, northeastern Utah and 
western Colorado. 

E. m. borealis (Allen). Size small; colors darker: North Dakota to 
Idaho; north to Alaska; in forests. 

E.m.caryiMerr. Color paler and grayer: San Luis Valley, Colorado, 

E. m. consobrinus (Allen). Size larger; colors darker: eastern border 
of the Great Basin in Utah, Colorado and New Mexico. 

E. m. pictus (Allen). Colors pallid: Great Basin from western 
Utah westward; northward to eastern Washington. 


336 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


E. m. pallidus (Allen). Color ochraceous buff; length 220 mm.; tail 
120 mm.; hind foot 35 mm.: South Dakota, Montana, Wyoming and 
western Nebraska, in the Great Plains. 

E. alpinus (Merr.). Like E. m. pictus, but paler; tip of tail black; 
length 189 mm.: high Sierras, California. 

4. Callospermophilus Merriam. Golden chipmunks; rock squirrels. 
Body heavy, with 1 white and 2 black stripes on each side; head, fore 
limbs and neck uniform reddish or yellowish brown; dentition 1/1, 0/o, 
2/1, 3/3: about 12 species and subspecies, in mountain States of the 
far-west, in forests of pine and fir; in feeding habits similar to chip- 
munks; they hibernate often from 5 to 7 months; a single litter of 4 to 7 
young raised. 

C. lateralis (Say). Color of back reddish brown; lateral stripe broad 
and bordered above and below by a black stripe; under parts pale 
brownish gray; length 275 mm.; tail too mm.; hind foot 43 mm.: 
California, Arizona and New Mexico north into Canada; Transition 
and Lower Boreal zones. 


Subspecies of C. lateralis 


C. 1. saturatus (Rhoads). Size larger; length 317 mm.; colors 
darker: central Washington, Cascade Mountains. 

C. Ll. castanurus (Merr.). Head and shoulders chestnut; length 284 
mm.; tail 92 mm.; hind foot 43 mm.: Wasatch Mountains, Utah. 

C. 1. cinerascens (Merr.). Head and shoulders chestnut; color of back 
grizzled gray: from Yellowstone Park, north through Idaho, Montana 
and northwards. 

C. 1. wortmani (Allen). Color yellowish gray, mixed with black; 
neck and shoulders deep ochraceous; length 280 mm.; tail 95 mm.; hind 
foot 42 mm.: Wyoming and northwestern Colorado. 

C. chrysodeirus (Merr.). Head, neck and shoulders ochraceous; 
black stripes more distinct: eastern Oregon and northern California. 

‘C. bernardinus (Merr.). Similar to the above; length 275 mm.; 
tail 90 mm.; hind foot 42 mm.: southern California. 

5. Ammospermophilus Merriam. Antelope chipmunks; ground 
squirrels. Size small; one whitish lateral stripe; tail very short and 
carried curved over the back; skull very broad; dentition 1/1, o/o, 2/1, 
3/3: 7 species and subspecies, in arid plains; several litters of young 
raised a year, of from 4 to 12 each. 

A. leucurus (Merr.). Color grizzled yellowish brown above and 
yellowish white beneath; tail grizzled blackish above and white below; 


MAMMALS 337 


length 209 mm.; tail 69 mm.; hind foot 38 mm.: Oregon to Mexico; 
Sonoran zone; in deserts. 


Subspecies of A. leucurus 


A. 1. cinnamomeus (Merr.). Upper parts uniform pale cinnamon, 
lined with black: northern Arizona, southern California, Utah and 
Colorado. 

A. 1. interpres (Merr.). Similar to A. leucurus, but darker; tail 
bushy, with 2 free black bands; length 226 mm.; tail 80 mm.; hind foot 
37 mm.: western Texas and eastern New Mexico. 

A. harrisii (Audubon and Bachman). Similar to A. 1. leucurus; tail 
iron gray above and below; length 230 mm.; tail 80 mm.; hind foot 40 
mm.: southern Utah and Nevada into Arizona and northwestern New 
Mexico. 

A. nelsoni (Merr.). Color yellowish brown; under parts white; 
length 228 mm.; tail 68 mm.; hind foot 40 mm.: San Joaquin Valley, 
California, south to Bakersfield. 

6. Otospermophilus Brandt. Rock squirrels. Size large; colors 
grayish or brownish, without stripes, mottled or faintly spotted; ears 
small; tail long, flat and moderately bushy; dentition 1/1, 0/0, 2/1, 3/3: 
1 species and several subspecies; terrestrial squirrels inhabiting the 
western States from the Columbia River and Colorado south into 
Mexico. 

O. grammurus (Say). Color mottled gray; length 500 mm.; tail 
200 mm.; hind foot 60 mm.: central and southern Rockies and Great 
Basin. 


Subspecies of O. grammurus 


O. g. grammurus (Say). Eastern Colorado and south into Arizona, 
southeastern California, New Mexico and western Texas. 

O. g. utah (Merriam). Size small; back reddish: Wasatch Moun- 
tains, Utah and western Colorado. 

O. g. buckleyi (Slack). Back and shoulders with much more black; 
flanks grayish; size large: southern and western Texas. 

O. g. beecheyi (Richardsoni). Color mottled gray and brown, 
indistinctly spotted; size smaller: western central California in Sacra- 
mento and San Joaquin Valleys. 

O. g. douglasii (Rich.). Like O. g. beecheyi, but with darker shoulders; 
length 375 mm.: Columbia River south to San Francisco. 

O. g. nesioticus (Elliot). Like O. g. beecheyi, but darker: Santa 
Catalina and Santa Barbara Islands, California. 


338 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


O. g. juglans (Bailey). Color brownish gray; length 500 mm.; tail 
225 mm.: Mogollon Mountains, New Mexico. . 

7. Citellus Oken. (Spermophilus Cuvier). Ground squirrels; 
gophers. Small body and slender; cheek-pouches large; thumb rudi- 
mentary (Fig. 182); dentition 1/1, 0/o, 2/1, 3/3: about 80 species, 
mostly in the more or less arid regions of northern and western America, 
northern Asia and Europe: over 50 species and subspecies in the United 
States and Canada. Ground squirrels feed on grains, seeds, fruits, 
plants, etc. and are very destructive to crops; they also often eat insects 
and other small animals. They breed in deep burrows, 
in which they raise from 5 to 13 young in a litter, 
and usually one litter a year. In the more northerly 
latitudes they hibernate in the winter, often 6 or 
more months, but in warmer regions may remain 
active throughout the year. 

C. tridecemlineatus  (Mitchill). Gopher. Color 
yellowish-brown, with about 6 yellowish longitudinal 
stripes alternating with rows of yellow spots, making 
about 13 stripes in all; belly yellowish; ears small; 
length 275 mm.; tail 107 mm.; hind foot 32 mm.: 
central States, from eastern Michigan to the Rockies; 

Fic. 182.—Fore southward to northern Missouri and central Texas; 
foot of Citellus Z : . 
spilosoma (from northward into Saskatchewan; a single litter of young 
eras): raised a year. 


Subs pecies of C. tridecemlineatus 


C. t. tridecemlineatus (Mitch.). Southern Michigan to Dakota. 

C.t. alleni (Merriam). Size small; colors dark: Bighorn Mountains, 
Wyoming. 

C. t. parvus (Allen). Size small; length 204 mm.: southeastern 
Montana to western Colorado, Wyoming and Utah; Upper Sonoran zone. 

C. t. pallidus (Allen). Size small; colors, pale: Great Plains from 
eastern Montana and western Dakota into northeastern Utah and 
northern Colorado. 

C. t. olivaceus (Allen). Color dusky brown above: Black Hills. 

C. t. badius (Bangs). Size large; length 276 mm.; colors dark: 
Missouri and Oklahoma. 

C. t. texensis (Merr.). Size large; color deep ferruginous: eastern 
Texas and Oklahoma. 

C. franklini (Sabine). Body yellowish brown, speckled with 
black but not striped; tail with 3 black lines; length 375 mm.; tail 137 


MAMMALS 339 


mm.; hind foot 50 mm.: central prairie region from Saskatchewan into 
Oklahoma; eastward to Indiana; 1 litter annually of 4 to 8 each. 

C. spilosoma (Bennett) (Fig. 182). Color reddish brown with 
ill-defined spots arranged in longitudinal series; under parts yellowish 
white; ears very short; length 255 mm.; tail 75 mm.; hind foot 32 mm.: 
southern California to Texas. 


Subspecies of C. spilosoma 


C. s. macrospilotus (Merr.). Color dark; spots large and far apart; 
also with a drab-gray color phase: southern Arizona and New Mexico. 

C. s. major (Merr.). Dorsal spots indistinct: eastern New Mexico 
and western Texas to Colorado. 

C. s. pratensis (Merr.). Size small; length 197 mm.; colors dark: 
northwestern Arizona. 

C. s. arens (Bailey). In 2 color phases, a reddish and a gray; spots 
small: southwestern Texas. 

C. s. annectans (Merr.). Color grayish brown; spots buff: southern 
coast region of Texas and New Mexico. 

C. tereticaudus (Baird). Color grizzled grayish brown, without 
spots; tail very long; length 248 mm.; tail 112 mm.; hind foot 35 mm.: 
southern California to southern Arizona. 

C. neglectus (Merr.). Like C. tereticaudus but with a much shorter 
tail; length 200 mm.; tail 74 mm.; hind foot 32 mm.: western Arizona. 

C. cryptospilotus (Merr.). Color pale buff, without spots; length 
190 mm.; tail 60 mm.; hind foot 32 mm.: Painted Desert, Arizona. 

C. obsoletus (Kennicott). Color light gray, spotted indistinctly; 
length 212 mm.; tail 62 mm.: Black Hills and western Nebraska; west- 
ward to Utah. 

C. elegans (Kenn.). Color uniform dusky yellowish brown, with- 
out spots; length 275 mm.; tail 67 mm.; hind foot 46 mm.: Wyoming, 
northern Utah and northwestern Colorado; Transition and Upper 
Sonoran zones. 

C. armatus (Kenn.). Color uniform dark gray, without spots; 
length 275 mm.; tail 62 mm.: Utah, Wyoming, Idaho and Montana. 

C. richardsonit (Sab.). Similar to C. elegans, but paler: North 
Dakota and Montana; Canada. 

C. columbianus (Ord). Color yellowish brown, with many white 
blotches; length 370 mm.; tail 102 mm.; hind foot 55 mm.: western 
Montana to Washington. 

C. mollis (Kenn.). Color dusky yellowish brown, without spots; 
ears rudimentary; length 208 mm.; tail 45 mm.: Utah and Nevada. 


340 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


Subspecies of C. mollis 


C. m. stephensi (Merr.). Head and shoulders pinkish buff: Nevada. 

C. m. canus (Merr.). Color dusky grizzled gray: northern Oregon. 

C. m. yakimensis (Merr.). Color buffy gray: eastern Washington. 

C. townsendi (Bachman). Color dark reddish brown, speckled 
with white; ears very small; length 305 mm.; tail 90 mm.; hind foot 37 
mm.: plains of the Columbia River to Montana. 

C. beldingi (Merr.). Sides and under parts yellowish gray; dorsal 
band bright rufous; length 260 mm.; tail 70 mm.; hind foot 40 mm.: 
central Sierras, California. 

C. chlorus Elliot. Color olive gray above and grayish white below; 
ears very small, blackish; length 255 mm.; tail 100 mm.; hind foot 37 
mm.: southern California. 

C. mohavensis (Merr.). Color grizzled gray above, whitish beneath; 
length 250 mm.; tail 75 mm.; hind foot 38 mm.: Mojave Desert, 
California. 

C. mexicanus parvidens (Mearns). Color olivaceous gray with about 
9g rows of white spots; belly white; length 325 mm.; tail 130 mm.; 
hind foot 44 mm.: valley of the lower Rio Grande and the Gulf coast 
northward to Corpus Christi. 

8. Cynomys Rafinesque. Prairie dogs. Body stout; tail very 
short and flat; ears small; cheek-pouches shallow; skull strongly 
convex; dentition 1/1, o/o, 2/1, 3/3; 5 toes on each foot, all with claws: 
about 5 species, inhabiting the more or less arid plains of the western 
States and Mexico. They are burrowing animals which live in colonies 
and feed on grasses and other plants, including grains, often to the great 
detriment of crops. They are not strictly hibernating animals, except 
during severe cold; a single litter of from 4 to 6 young is raised. ‘The 
rattlesnake and burrow-owl are often found in their burrows, and feed 
on their young. 

C. ludovicianus (Ord). Color dark pinkish cinnamon above and 
whitish beneath; tail tipped with black; length 388 mm.; tail 86 mm.; 
hind foot 62 mm.: Great Plains from central Texas to central North 
Dakota; westward to the eastern base of the Rockies. 


Subspecies of C. ludovicianus 


C. Ll. ludovicianus (Ord). Eastward to about the 97th meridian; 
westward to central Montana, Wyoming and Colorado; introduced into 
Iowa, Louisiana, South Carolina and Nantucket Island; chiefly Upper 
Sonoran, but also Transition and Lower Sonoran zones. 


MAMMALS 341 


C. l. arizonensis Mearns. Colors brighter: southwestern Texas to 
southeastern Arizona. 

C. leucurus Merriam. Color yellowish buff or grayish; terminal 
two-thirds of tail white; length 358 mm.; tail 57 mm.; hind foot 62 
mm.: Wyoming and into northern Colorado and northeastern Utah; 
Transition zone. 

C. parvidens Allen. Like C. leucurus, but smaller and reddish in 
color and less grayish; length 338 mm.; tail 43 mm.; hind foot 59 mm.: 
central Utah. 

C. gunnisoni (Baird). Color as in C. leucurus; terminal half of 
tail with a gray center, bordered and tipped with white; length 340 
mm.; tail 53 mm.; hind foot 56 mm.: central Colorado and north- 
central New Mexico; Transition zone, also Upper Sonoran and Canadian 
zones. 


Subspecies of C. gunnisont 


C. g. zuniensis Hollister. Color more cinnamon and less buff; size 
larger: western Colorado, northern New Mexico and Arizona. 

9. Marmota Blumenbach (Arctomys Schreber). Woodchucks; 
ground-hogs. Body large and heavy; tail short; legs short and stout; 
cheek pouches small; dentition 1/1, 0/0, 2/1, 3/3; skull nearly flat on 
top: about ro species in northern America, Europe and Asia; 4 species 
in the United States. A woodchuck digs a deep burrow, usually in a 
field, which may extend 25 feet or more into the ground, in which it has 
its nest and hibernates in the winter. Its food consists of grasses, 
clover, etc.; a single litter of from 3 to g young is raised. 


Key to the American Species of Marmota 
a, Upper parts grizzled brownish, yellowish, drab or buff. 


b; Sides of neck without conspicuous buffy patches............/ M. monax. 
be Sides of neck with conspicuous buffy patches.............../ M. flaviventris. 
aeeUipen Parts mainly black and white. 2 iain eis cease od M. caligata. 


M. monax (L.). Common woodchuck. Color grizzly gray, varied 
with chestnut, yellowish and black; under parts chestnut, length 675 
mm.; tail 145 mm.; hind foot 83 mm.; weight about g lbs.: eastern and 
northern America from Hudson Bay to Georgia; westward in the 
United States to eastern Kansas and in Canada to Alaska. 


Subspecies of M. monax 


M. m. monax (L.). Middle eastern States from New Jersey to 
western Iowa and eastern Oklahoma; southward to western North 
Carolina and northern Georgia and Alabama. 


342 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


M. m. preblorum Howell. Colors paler; length 515 mm.: New 
England; northward to southern Maine and central Vermont. 

M. m. rufescens How. Colors redder; length 548 mm.: New York 
State westward through Michigan to eastern North Dakota; western 
Massachusetts. 

M.m. canadensis (Erxleben). Size small; colors strongly reddish; 
length 513 mm.: northern Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota and New 
England, and Canada; northwestward to Alaska. 

M. m. petrensis How. Like M. m. canadensis, but with a larger 
skull: northern Idaho and Montana; British Columbia. 

M. flaviventris (Audubon and Bachman). Yellow-bellied wood- 
chuck. Color yellowish brown above, yellowish beneath; sides of neck 
with large buffy patches; length 700 mm.; tail 170 mm.; hind foot 85 
mm.: Rocky Mountain and Pacific States. 


Subspecies of M. flaviventris 


M. f. flaviventris (Aud. and Bach.). The Cascade Range in Oregon 
and northern Sierras in California. 

M. f. sierre How. Colors redder: higher Sierras from Kern River 
to Mono Lake. 

M.f. avara (Bangs). Colors paler; size smaller: eastern Oregon and 
Washington. 

M. f. parvula How. Size smaller; colors like M. f. sterre but paler: 
central Nevada. 

M. f. engelhardti (Allen). Size smaller; under parts darker: Utah 
and southern Idaho. 

M. f. nosophora How. Colors more ochraceous above and redder 
below that M. f. engelhardti: mountain regions of Montana, Idaho and 
Wyoming. 

M. f. dacota (Merriam). Color like M. f. nosophora, buffy above; 
size large; length 643 mm: Black Hills to Bridger Pass, Wyoming. 

M. f. luteola How. Size large; under parts yellowish: mountains of 
northern Colorado and southern Wyoming. 

M. f. warreni How. Size large; colors deep red with buff: western 
Colorado. 

M./f. obscura How. Size large; color dark brown, mixed with white: 
northern New Mexico and southern Colorado. 

M. caligata (Eschscholtz). Whistler. Color of fore part of back 
white, hinder and sides of body part cinnamon, mixed with black; under 
parts white; feet and top of head black; length 755 mm.; tail 250 mm.; 
hind foot 110 mm.: Alaska to Washington and Montana. 


MAMMALS 343 


Subspecies of M. caligata 


M.c. nivaria How. High mountains of northwestern Montana and 
northern Idaho. 

M. c. cascadensis How. Head and feet browner and under parts 
darker: Cascade Range, Washington; southward to Mount Rainier. 

M. c. olympus (Merr.). Color brownish drab; feet brown: upper 
slopes of Olympic Mountains. 

Subfamily 2. Pteromyinz.—Flying squirrels: 1 genus. 

Glaucomys Rafinesque. Flying squirrels. Small rodents with 
a broad furry membrane stretching between the front and hind legs and 
extending out from the sides; tail flattened; ears large; dentition 1/1, 
o/o, 2/1, 3/3: about 15 species; in the northern hemisphere; 2 species 
and many subspecies in the United States, nocturnal animals which 
make their nests in holes in trees; from 2 to 6 young form a litter, of 
which there probably are several a year. 


Key to the Species of Glaucomys 


PUES APInCRWIILG-Be katte eh ies. weer. ake ye Ree Oa eta su Ne anoke G. volens. 
PBEM Veni YR WAMU Gren ts clorta st claws ts, fay. ANS Demet  ege le So dn nao G. sabrinus. 


G. volans (L.). Color drab above ringed with reddish; beneath 
creamy white; underside of flying membrane pinkish; length 230 mm.; 
tail too mm.; hind foot 30 mm.; fur soft and dense: eastern and central 
States from southern Maine to Florida; westward to the plains. 


Subspecies of G. volans 


G. v. volens (L.). Eastern and central States from Maine to North 
Carolina; west to Kansas and Nebraska. 

G. v. saturatus Howell. Darker in color: from North Carolina and 
Tennessee to the Gulf coast of Alabama to Lousiana. 

G. v. texensis How. Color yellowish: eastern Texas. 

‘G. v. querceti Bangs. Color more uniform russet: coastal region, 
Georgia and Florida. 

G. sabrinus (Shaw). Color drab above and dirty white beneath; 
length 312 mm.; tail 137 mm.; hind foot 42 mm.: northeastern and 
central States and Canada; southward into Massachusetts and northern 
New York; north to Alaska and Hudson Bay; Pacific Slope. 


Subspecies of G. sabrinus 


G. s. sabrinus (Shaw). Extreme northwestern Wisconsin; Canada, 
north to Hudson Bay. 


344 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


G. s. macrotis Mearns. Color reddish: New England, New York, 
Michigan, Wisconsin. 

G. s. bangsi (Rhoads). Color grayer: Idaho, western Wyoming and 
Montana. 

G. s. olympicus Elliot. Color very dark; size large: coastal region 
of Washington and Oregon. 

G. s. oregonensis (Bachman). Color dark and reddish: coastal 
region of Oregon and Washington. 

G. s. fuliginosus (Rhoads). Color browner; length 317 mm.: 
Cascade Range from British Columbia into California. 

G. s. klamathensis (Merriam). Color brown, tinged with fulvous: 
region of the Klamath Lakes, Oregon. 

G. s. californicus (Rhoads). Colors pale; length 286 mm.: southern 
California. 

G. s. lascivus (Bangs). Color dark; size small: northern California; 
Sierra Nevada Range. 

G. s. stephensi (Merr.). Color redder: coastal region, northern 
California. 

Family 8. Castoride.—Beavers. Large, stout rodents with a 
large flattened and scaly tail; all feet with 5 toes; hind feet webbed 
and with a double-clawed second toe; dentition 1/1, 0/o, 1/1, 3/3: 
I genus. 

Castor L. With the characters of the family: 3 American species 
and 14 subspecies. 

C. canadensis Kuhl. Body covered with a dense, soft fur and dark 
brown in color; length 1,100 mm.; tail 410 mm.; hind foot 175 mm.; 
average weight 35 lbs.: North America from Hudson Bay and Alaska 
into the southern Alleghanies in the east and into Mexico in the west; 
exterminated in well-settled regions. Beavers are aquatic and noc- 
turnal, and feed on bark and twigs. The nest is usually in a conical 
lodge built of sticks and mud in a pond formed by throwing a dam of 
sticks and earth across a stream. Along streams with high banks the 
nest is often a chamber in the bank above the water level, and con- 
nected with the stream by a tunnel whose entrance is under the water. 
From 2 to 5 young are raised annually. 


Subs pecies of C. canadensis 


C.c. canadensis Kuhl. Northeastern and central America; Hudson- 
ian, Canadian and Transition zones. 

C. c. carolinensis Rhoads. Size larger; color lighter; tail broader: 
North Carolina to Louisiana and Texas. 


MAMMALS 345 


C. c. frondator Mearns. Color lighter; russet brown above: Mon- 
tana to Mexico. 

C.c. pacificus Rhoads. Size large; length 1143 mm.; color reddish 
chestnut: Pacific slope from California to Alaska. 

C. c. michiganensis Bailey. Colors very dark; ears and feet black; 
length 1, 175 mm.; tail 475 mm.; hind 
foot 185 mm.; weight about 58 lbs: 
Upper Peninsula, Michigan. 

C. c. missouriensis Bailey. Col- 
ors paler; size smaller: Missouri River 
drainage from Nebraska to Montana. 

C. subauratus Taylor. Size very 
large; length 1171 mm.; color hazel 
and gray with a golden sheen: San 
Joaquin County, California. 

Family 9. Leporidz.— Rabbits 
and hares. Large rodents with 4 
upper incisors (Fig. 183), a large pair 
in front and a small pair immediately 
behind them; upper lip divided; 
front legs short, with 5 toes; hind 
legs very long and with 4 toes; tail 
rudimentary; ears very long; denti- 
tion 2/1, 0/o, 3/2, 3/3: 5. genera 
and about 70 species, found through- 
out the world; 3 genera and 16 
species and many subspecies in the 
United States. The American rab- 
bits and hares (with the exception 
of Brachylagus idahoensis) do not FiG. 183.—Skull of Lepus (from Elliot). 
burrow as do their European relatives, but frequently make their nests 
in holes in the ground. 


Key to the Genera of Leporide 


tioise large: ning foot over rey mim lonp. c+. il. opie: 1. Lepus. 
a2 Size smal]; hind foot about 90 mm. long............... , 2: 20 Syloilagus: 
a3 Size very small; hind foot about 70 mm. long.................3. Brachylagus. 


1. Lepus L. Size large; ears and hind legs very long; no inter- 
parietal bone in the adult; third to fifth ribs broad and flattened: 
circumpolar; 32 species and subspecies in America, and 20 in the 


346 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


United States; the young, when born, are well furred and have their 
eyes open. 


Key to the Species of Lepus 


a, In the eastern and central States; varying hares............... L. americanus. 
ao In the far-western States. 
bi Under 500 mm. in length. 


c:Golor- brown stmimerand wanter. 2.2. +: 752 aeee ate on L. washingtont. 


co. Color brown in summer and white in winter ........... L. bairdi. 
be Over 550 mm. in length; jack-rabbits. 
Cr White-tailed qack—rab bibsre pty, feta ton: Aalse iy ee Sees L. townsendit. 


co Black-tailed jack-rabbits. 
d, Color of flanks whitish and different from that of back.L. allent. 
do Color ontanksuikerthatombacke. =e ae eee L. californicus. 


L. americanus Erxleben. White rabbit; varying hare; snowshoe 
rabbit. Color grayish or reddish brown in summer and white in winter; 
length 470 mm.; tail 43 mm.; hind foot 133 mm.: northern America 
from Bering Strait to the Atlantic; southward to British Columbia, 
central Minnesota. and Michigan; throughout New England and New 
York and in the mountains into Virginia; mainly the Canadian zone, in 
swamps and wet thickets; from 2 to 7 young in a litter; 12 subspecies. 


Subspecies of L. americanus 


L. a. americanus Erx. Color in summer pale tawny brown; borders 
of ears conspicuously white: Hudson Bay to northern Quebec and 
Ontario, and in Michigan to Saganaw Bay; westward to the Canadian 
Rockies; in the Bighorn Mountains, Wyoming. 

L. a. virginianus (Harlan). Color in summer bright rusty brown; 
borders of ears whitish; length 518 mm.: New England south of the 
Penobscot; New York and southward into Virginia and West Virginia. 

L. a. struthopus Bangs. Color in summer dull tawny brown; length 
474 mm.: Maine east of the Penobscot and eastward into Newfound- 
land; Canadian zone. 

L. a. pheonotus Allen. Color in summer dull yellowish buff; length 
464 mm.: northern Minnesota and Wisconsin and western half of the 
northern peninsula of Michigan; Canadian zone. 

L. washingtoni Baird. Color in summer dull dark rusty brown; in 
winter similar, but slightly paler; length 450 mm.; tail 41 mm.; hind 
foot 125 mm.: Washington from the Cascades to the sea; Canadian and 
Transition zones. 

L. w. klamathensis Merriam. Colors paler: Klamath Lake region 
to central eastern California; Canadian zone. 


—- 


MAMMALS 347 


L. bairdi Hayden. Color in summer dusky grayish or rusty brown; 
in winter pure white; length 459 mm.; tail 39 mm.; hind foot 146 mm.: 
Rocky Mountains from Washington, Idaho and Montana to New 
Mexico; Canadian and Hudsonian zones. 

L. allent Mearns. Antelope jack rabbit. Size large; ears and legs 
very long; color of top of back yellowish brown; sides, rump and 
shoulders gray; under parts pure white; base of tail black; length 606 
mm.; tail 63 mm.; hind foot 131: deserts of southern Arizona and 
Mexico. 

L. townsendii Bachman. White-tailed jack rabbit. Color in 
summer pale yellowish gray; entire tail white; tip of ear black; in 
winter pure white in the northern portion of its range, in the south little 
changed; length 605 mm.; tail 92 mm.; hind foot 149 mm.: northern 
and western States west of the Mississippi River to eastern California. 
The jack rabbits weigh about 6 pounds and are remarkable for their 
speed, clearing 20 feet at a leap. They feed on bark, leaves and 
herbage and as they often do very great damage to crops are much 
hunted for purpose of extermination, and also for the fur and meat. 


Subspecies of L. townsendu 


L. t. townsendu Bach. Color uniform gray, without any yellowish: 
Great Basin; eastward to the summit of the Rockies. 

L.t. sierre (Merr.). Size large; color uniform gray; length 635 mm.: 
high Sierras from Mount Shasta to Mount Whitney. 

L. t. campanius Hollister. Color buffy yellowish gray: Great Plains 
east of the Rockies in Canada and the United States. 

L. californicus Gray. Black-tailed jack rabbit. Color dark 
ochraceous brown or dark buffy brown in winter and paler in summer; 
under parts dull dark buff; top of tail black; length 604 mm.; tail 95 
mm.; hind foot 131 mm.: Nebraska and Texas to the Pacific; northward 
to Washington; southward into Mexico; 1 to 6 young in a litter. 


Subspecies of L. californicus 


L. c. californicus Gray. Coast region of California from Cape 
Mendocino to Gaviota Pass; eastward to the Sierras; northward to the 
Willamette. , 

L. c. deserticola (Mearns). Colors very pale, being ashy gray above; 
length 542 mm.: Great Basin from southeastern California and Nevada 
to central Arizona and Utah; northward into Idaho. 


348 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


L. c. wallawalla (Merr.). Like L. c. deserticola but darker, more 
pinkish: northeastern California and northwestern Nevada and north- 
ward to Washington. 

L. c. richardsoni (Bach.). Color light yellowish buff: San Joaquin 
Valley, California. 

L. c. bennetti (Gray). Color paler, more grayish; length 556 mm.: 
coast of California from Gaviota Pass into Lower California. 

L. c. eremicus (Allen). Color much paler, dull grayish: southern 
Arizona, east of Phoenix; Mexico. 

L. c. texianus (Waterhouse). Color pale gray: central and western 
Texas, New Mexico, northeastern Arizona and southwestern Colorado. 

L. c. merriami (Mearns). Color dark buffy brown: southern Texas 
from the Trinity River to the Rio Grande; Mexico. 

L. c. melanotis (Mearns). Color bright ochraceous buff: Great 
Plains from eastern South Dakota to Oklahoma and northern Texas and 
westward to the Rockies. 

2. Sylvilagus Gray. Thecottontails. Size moderate;interparietal 
bone district; anterior ribs narrow and rod-like; ears and legs relatively 
short: about 15 species, about 9 in the United States, the others in 
Mexico; the young, when born, are blind and naked. 


Key to the United States Species of Sylvilagus 


ai Tail comparatively large and loosely haired and cottony-white 
beneath; feet well haired. 
b; In States east of the Mississippi. 
Ca GOlon Cray. ih Fon Aut. ei, ene: Mee cata ae ee S. floridanus. 
¢. Color pinkish buff; black patch between the ears........ S. transitionalis. 
be In States west of the Mississippi. 
c; Ear between 50 mm. and 60 mm. long. 


dy} Golorigraye ohn 2 ts ens Fe NE eee S. floridanus. 
dz Color buff, in the Rockies and Great Basin.......... S. nuttalli. 
G7 har more than 65 mini. longs. 5s en a ae ee S. auduboni. 
a2 Tail comparatively short, densely haired; white or gray beneath. 
by in: the-coastal belt of the Pacitie’coast,.-.-. saan ee eee S. bachmani. 
be In the coastal belt of the south Atlantic coast..*.......... S. palustris. 
by Inthe‘south=ceutraliStatess..0) Sct... - oka cae en seas S. aquaticus. 


S. floridanus (Allen) (Lepus sylvaticus Bachman). Common 
rabbit; gray rabbit; cottontail. Color dark gray or rusty brown; tail 
white beneath; length 375 mm.; tail 45 mm.; hind foot 90 mm.: eastern 
and central States and southern Canada; several litters of from 2 to 
6 each are raised annually. 


MAMMALS 349 


Subspecies of S. floridanus 


S. f. floridanus (Allen). Peninsular Florida. 

S. f. mallurus (Thomas). Size larger; upper parts darker, more 
reddish: Atlantic States from Long Island and the lower Hudson Valley 
into Florida east of the Alleghanies. 

S. f. mearnsi (Allen). Length 446 mm.; upper parts paler, more 
pinkish-buff; ears shorter: central States from the Alleghanies to eastern 
Nebraska; southward from Kentucky to eastern Kansas; northward 
from southern New York to southern Minnesota. 

S.f. similis Nelson. Color pale buffy gray; length 408 mm.: eastern 
North and South Dakota, Nebraska, northern Kansas and Colorado. 

S. f. alacer (Bangs). Color dark pinkish buff; length 418 mm.: 
southern and Gulf States from Georgia to Oklahoma; northward to 
central Missouri and Kansas; westward to central Texas. 

S. f. chapmani (Allen). Color grayish brown without any rusty; 
length 403 mm.: middle and southern Texas; Mexico. 

S. f. holzneri (Mearns). Color pale buffy gray: southern Arizona. 

S. cognatus Nel. Size Large; length 458 mm.; color light buffy 
gray: high mountains of central New Mexico. 

S. transitionalis (Bangs). Common rabbit. Color uniform rich 
pinkish buff or yellowish brown with a distinct black spot between 
the ears; length 388 mm.; tail 39 mm.; hind foot 95 mm.: New England 
States; northward to Rutland, Vermont, and southwestern Maine; 
eastern New York south of Lake George, and along the Alleghanies into 
Georgia; mainly Transition zone. 

S. nuttalli (Bach.). Color dark buffy brown; length 352 mm.; tail 
44 mm.; hind foot 89 mm.: Rocky Mountain and Great Basin region. 


Subspecies of S. nuttalli 


S. n. nuttalli (Bach.). Eastern Washington and Oregon and 
western Idaho, northeastern California and northwestern Nevada. 

S. n. grangeri (Allen). Size larger; color buffy gray: Nevada and 
Utah, except the southern portions, southern Idaho and Wyoming 
and Montana. 

S.n. pinetis (Allen). Darker than S. c. grangeri; length 386 mm.: 
pine forests from central Arizona through northern New Mexico and 
Colorado. 

S. auduboni (Baird). Color dark buffy brown; white beneath; 
length 418 mm.; 72 mm;. hind foot 86 mm.: western, southwestern 
and Rocky Mountain States; 2 to 7 young in a litter; 10 subspecies. 


VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


eS) 
on 
@) 


Subspecies of S. auduboni 


S. a. auduboni (Baird). Interior of north-central California, 
including the region of San Francisco Bay. 

S. a. vallicola Nel. Color pale yellowish brown; length 402 mm.; 
tail 55 mm.; hind foot 91 mm.: central-interior California; Lower 
Sonoran zone. 

S. a. sanctidiegi (Miller). Size small; colors pale: coast region of 
southwestern California. 

S. a. arizone (Allen). Color very pale; ears very large: deserts of 
southern California and Nevada and southwestern Arizona. 

S.a. minor (Mearns). Size small; color pale grayish: southern New 
Mexico and western Texas. 

S. a. cedrophilus Nel. Color dark buff: central New Mexico and 
Arizona. 

S. a. warrent Nel. Color buffy brown: southwestern Colorado, 
northwestern New Mexico, northeastern Arizona and southeastern 
Utah. 

S. a. baileyi (Merr.). Color uniform pale creamy buff; length 411 
mm.: plains of eastern Montana, Wyoming and Colorado and western 
North Dakota into western Kansas. 

S. a. neomexicanus Nel. Color dark buffy gray, slightly rusty: 
southern Kansas into central Texas and eastern New Mexico. 

S. a. parvulus (Allen). Color yellowish gray: southern Texas and 
Mexico. 

S. bachmani (Waterhouse). Brush rabbit. Size small; ears, tail 
and legs short; color dark grayish brown with a tinge of reddish; length 
328 mm.; tail 31 mm.; hind foot 74 mm.: a narrow belt along the coast 
or near it from the Columbia River to Cape St. Lucas; Transition and 
Upper and Lower Sonoran zones. 


Subs pecies of S. bachmani 


S. b. bachmani (Water.). Coastal region from Monterey to Santa 
Monica; also western foothills of the Sierras. 

S. b. ubericolor (Miller). Color darker and more reddish: coastal 
region from Monterey Bay to the Columbia River; also the head of the 
Sacramento Valley. 

S. b. cinerascens (Allen). Color lighter grayish brown: coastal 
region from Lower California to Santa Monica, also western side of the 


San Joaquin Valley. 


MAMMALS 351 


S. palustris (Bach.). Marsh rabbit; pontoon. Body rather large 
and yellowish or reddish brown in color; beneath gray; legs short; 
length 436 mm.; tail 33 mm.; hind foot 91 mm.: under side of tail gray, 
sometimes brownish: coastal portions of the southern States from 
Dismal Swamp to Mobile Bay; in swampy woods; habits aquatic, the 
animals taking very readily to water and swimming well. 


Subspecies of S. palustris 


S. p. paludicola (Miller and Bangs). Color dark reddish brown: 
peninsular Florida. 

S. aquaticus (Bach.). Swamp rabbit; cane-cutter. Color grayish 
brown; under side of tail pure white; length 550 mm.; tail 60 mm.; 
hind foot 106: river bottoms from western Georgia to central Texas and 
Oklahoma; northward to Tennessee and central Arkansas and in the 
Mississippi and Ohio River bottoms to Illinois. 


Subspecies of S. aquaticus 


S. a. littoralis Nel. Color much darker and reddish: narrow coast 
belt from Mississippi to Matagorda Bay, Texas. 

3. Brachylagus Miller. Size small; ears short; tail very small and 
nearly unicolor: 1 species. 

B. idahoensis (Merriam). Color drab or pinkish drab in winter and 
hair very long and soft; color in summer brownish gray; length 291 
mm.; tail 18 mm.; hind foot 71 mm.: sagebrush plains of southern 
Idaho and Oregon and northern and central Nevada; makes its own 
burrows in the ground, being the only American rabbit or hare to do so. 

Family 10. Ochotonidz.—Pikas. Small compact rodents with 
short legs and without external tail; skull depressed; molars rootless; 
clavicles well developed: about 26 species, in Europe, Asia and 
America. 

Ochotona Link. Dentition 2/1, 0/o, 2/2, 3/3: about 26 species 
and subspecies in the United States, which live in the high western 
mountains from Alaska to New Mexico, mainly above timber line, 
feeding upon herbage, of which they collect large winter stores; they 
do not hibernate; a single litter of from 2 to 4 young raised annually. 

O. princeps Richardson. Body stout, with short fore and hind legs; 
toes 5-4; palms and soles densely haired; color gray or buff and variable; 
under parts whitish; length 190 mm.; hind foot 30 mm.: Rocky Moun- 
tains; Cascades; Sierra Nevadas; 16 subspecies. 


VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


Subspecies of O. princeps 


O. p. princeps (Richardson). Western Montana and northern 
Idaho; north into Canada. 

O. p. brunnescens (Howell). Color brownish: Cascade Range from 
British Columbia south to central Oregon. 

O. p. saxatilis (Bangs). Size large; length 200 mm.; color pale 
vellowish brown: mountains of Colorado, north into Wyoming; west into 
Utah. 

O. p. ventorum (Howell). Color lighter: northwestern Wyoming 
into Montana and Idaho. 

O. p. figginsi (Allen). Color pale; size small: central Idaho. 

O. schisticeps (Merriam). Color gray suffused with fulvous; top of 
head slate-gray; length 188 mm.; hind foot 29 mm.; tail vertebre g 
mm.: Cascade and Sierra Nevada Mountains; 9 subspecies. 

O. s. cinnamomea Allen. Color pale cinnamon rufous, darker in the 
middorsal region; top of head gray; similar to O. schisticeps, but smaller 
and lacking the slate-gray area on the head: Beaver Range, Utah, above 
10,000 feet elevation. 

Order 9. Ungulata.—Hoofed animals. Mammals of large size 
with 1 to 4 hoofs on each foot; molar teeth with broad crowns and 
adapted to the mastication of grasses and grains: about a dozen families, 
grouped in 2 suborders, and distributed throughout the world except 
in the Australian region, of which 4 occur in North America and 2 
in the United States and Canada. The order contains the most 
important domestic animals. 


Key to the Suborders of Ungulata 


a; Number of hoofs on each foot either 2 or 4; even-toed ungulates.1. Artiodactyla. 
ao Number of hoofs on each foot 1 or 3; odd-toed ungulates; no 


native species in the United States; horses; tapirs; rhinoc- 
GEOSES ee eater aL vk ats eeh cade eats age ate cutee Ree eee 2. Perissodactyla, 


Suborder Artiodactyla—Even-toed ungulates. Third and fourth 
digits prolonged beyond the others and support the animal’s body; 
premolar and molar teeth usually not alike; stomach complex: about 
300 species grouped in 2 divisions; about 4o species in the United 
States and Canada. 


Key to the Divisions of Artiodactyla 


a; Upper incisors and canines presents.........-...-+.+++.-+00- I. Suina. 
ao Upper incisors and canines absent...........-..-++- see eeeeee 2. Ruminantia, 


MAMMALS 53 


iS) 


Division 1. Suina.—Pigs. Non-ruminant Artiodactyla with inci- 
sor, canine, premolar and molar teeth in both jaws; no horns present; 
metacarpals and metatarsals not fused; body large and robust; hairs 
bristle-like; skin very thick: 3 families, 1 of which only has native 
representatives in the United States, the other two families being the 
Hippopotamide and the Suda. 

Family Tayassuidez.—Peccaries. Small pigs with 3 toes on the 
hind feet and 4 toes on the fore feet; large musk gland in the middle of 
the rump; dentition 2/3, 1/1, 3/3, 3/3: 2 American genera. 

Pecari Reichenbach. With the characters of the family: about 4 
species, in Mexico, Central and South America. 

P. angulatus (Cope). Collared peccary; muskhog. Color mixed 
black and white above, black predominating on the face and mane and 
back; white band over the shoulders to the middle of the back; under 
parts, nose and hoofs black; length 960 mm.; weight 50 lbs.: south- 
western Texas and into New Mexico and Arizona; gregarious animals, 
omnivorous in feeding habits, which are found in dense forests and also 
among scattered thickets on sandy plains; number of young 2. 

Division 2. Ruminantia.—Ruminant Artiodactyla with, in most 
species, no incisors or canines in the upper jaw; metacarpals and 
metatarsals, in most species (all American), fused to form the single 
‘““cannonbone’’; horns present in very many species; stomach complex, 
being divided into 4 compartments, the ruminating habit of the animals 
consisting in the swallowing of the food first into the capacious first 
compartment or paunch; its return to the mouth for further mastica- 
tion (the chewing of the cud), and the second swallowing of it into the 
other three compartments, where it is digested: 2 subdivisions and 3 
families in this country. 


Key to the Subdivisions of Ruminantia 


ai Horns of solid bone which are shed periodically; deer........... 1. Cervina. 
a2 Horns hollow and composed of horn and usually not shed; cattle; 
aNLCLOD CS! . 5: Serer ee ren fei Ai. aks evil aid oe 2 De MODTCOTIIEE: 


Subdivision 1. Cervina. Deer. The males, and in the reindeers 
the females also, possess solid bone antlers which are shed every spring: 
t family. 

Family Cervidz.—With the characters of the subdivision: about 60 
species, which are found in all the geographical regions except the 
Australian and African. The animals occur chiefly in forest regions and 
on grassy plains where they live on herbs, leaves, buds and young bark; 
about 25 species in the United States and Canada, grouped in 4 genera. 


VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


ies) 
on 
Te 


Key to the Genera of Cervide 


a, Antlers cylindrical and not palmate. 
b; Antlers directed backwards, the prongs forwards............. 1. Cervus. 
bs Antlers directed forwards, the prongs upwards...............2. Odocoileus. 
a2 Antlers more or less palmate. 
b; Males only with horns; lowest prongs not extending over the 
FACEd oa 3) Ae ie Rewer oad seme ok o<acnle SC er tes he 3. Alces. 
by Both sexes with horns; lowest prongs extending over the face..4. Rangifer. 


1. Cervus L. Antlers present only in the male, cylindrical, the 
first prong being just above the base and projecting over the brow; 
dentition 0/4, 1/0, 3/3, 3/3; tail very short; hoofs broad and rounded; 
nose naked; fawns spotted: 3 species in the United States. 

C. canadensis Erxleben. Wapiti; elk. Color dark chestnut brown 
on the head, neck and under parts; back and sides yellowish gray; a 
large whitish patch on the rump; length 2,800 mm.; tail 200 mm.; 
hind foot 650 mm.; height at shoulders 1,220 mm.; weight 700 to 1,000 
Ibs.; length of antlers along outside curve 1,655 mm.; Rocky Mountain 
region from New Mexico and Arizona to British Columbia; formerly 
eastward in the Canadian, Transitional and Upper Austral zones to the 
Atlantic; related to the red deer of Europe, C. elephus L. 


Subspecies of C. canadensis 


C.c. occidentalis (Hamilton Smith). Size larger; head, legs and neck 
black: coastal forests from British Columbia south into northwestern 
California. 

C. merriami Nelson. Color yellowish brown: White Mountains, 
Arizona and Mogollon Mountains, New Mexico; nearly extinct. 

C. nannodes Merriam. Color pale buffy gray; length 2030 mm.; 
tail 140 mm.; hind foot 620 mm.; legs short: Kern County, California. 

2. Odocoileus Rafinesque. Antlers present in the male alone, the 
first prong being directed upwards and not over the brow; dentition 
0/4, 0/o, 3/3, 3/3; tail rather long, thickly haired beneath; hoofs 
narrow; young spotted: about 20 species, 7 in America. 


Key to the United States Species of Odocoileus 


a; East of the Great Plains. 


bi Eastern States, north of the Gulf States....................O. virginianus. 
be: Gull States... veg tee de ats yee tins Gk wate ee O. osceola. 

a2 Great Plains to the Pacific. 
bi In the Rio Grande:repions! 5.5%. £on.0e. oe ee O. texanus. 


be In northwestern Minnesota and Canada................. O. vigultus. 


MAMMALS 355 
DawlneNewavlexcorandnArtzonasemci risetitc siacici eet sits O. crookt. 
O. couest. 
Di exastonDakota and westwards ie 62 68ers ol. oe nine bea O. hemionus. 
benOmtherbachte Slopes hic... sae. tlcdabistacs she see O. leucurus; O. columbianus. 


O. virginianus (Boddert). Virginia deer; white-tailed deer (Fig. 
184). Color reddish chestnut in summer and grayish in winter; tail 
white beneath; length 1,800 mm.; tail 280 mm.; hind-foot 520 mm.; 
height at shoulder 925 mm.; length of antlers, outer curve, 600 mm.; 
average weight of buck 200 lbs.; extreme weight 4oo lbs.: eastern and 
central States; common in many forest regions, where it feeds on grasses, 
leaves, buds, small shrubs, acorns, 
etc.; pairing time in the fall; fawns, 
usually 2 in number, born in May. 


Subspecies of O. virginianus 

O. v. virginianus (Bod.). 
Eastern States from Ontario to 
Florida and Louisiana; westward 
to the Missouri River; Austral 
zone. 

O. v. borealis (Miller). Size 
larger; color. gray in winter: 
eastern States and Canada; 


Canadian zone. Fics y= Typieal Tails, 
O. v. macrourus (Rafinesque). x. Whitetail. 
2. Mule-deer. 


Size smaller; color paler: the Great ne hace oe 
A G Fic. 184.—The tail (upper surface) of I, 


Plains; westward to the Rockies, Odocoileus virginianus; 2, O. hemionus; 3, O. 
and to Oregon and Washington. columbianus (from Seton). 

O. v. louisiane (G. M. Allen). Size large; length 2,000 mm.; color 
pale; antlers high and heavy: lowlands of Louisiana. 

O. osceola (Bangs). Florida white-tail. Color dark brown above; 
flanks cinnamon; under parts white; length 1,600 mm.; tail 280 mm. 
Florida. 

O.texanus (Mearns). Texaswhite-tail. Color pale yellowish white; 
black line from crown to tail; under parts white; ear with black edge; 
length 1,585 mm.; tail 265 mm.; height at shoulder 880 mm.: south- 
western Texas and Mexico. 

O. leucurus (Douglas). Size small; colors pale: lower Columbia 
River basin. 

O. crooki (Mearns). Crook’s black-tail deer. Color reddish fawn; 
tail long, flattened, black above and white beneath; length 1,440 mm.; 


356 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


tail 195 mm.; height at shoulder 650 mm.: mountains of western New 
Mexico and of Arizona; only 2 specimens ever taken. 

O. couesi (Coues and Yarrow). Arizonawhite-tail. Color pale fawn 
or gray above; sides tawny or brownish; tail white beneath; size small; 
height at shoulder 812 mm.; ear without black edge: southwestern 
New Mexico and southern Arizona. 

O. hemionus (Raf.). Mule deer (Fig. 184). Color dull yellowish or 
tawny in the summer and gray in the winter, with a dark brown patch 
on the forehead; rump and tail white, the latter with a black tip; body 
heavy; ears very long; lengh 1,760 mm.; tail 205 mm.; height at 
shoulder 1,000 mm.; average weight 200 lbs.; length of antler along 
the curve 600 mm.; number of young at a birth 2 or 3: mountains and 
high plateaus of the west from North Dakota to Texas and into Mexico; 
westward into Washington, Oregon and California. 


Subs pecies of O. hemionus 


O. h. californicus (Caton). Size smaller; a dark middorsal stripe 
present: Coast Range south of San Francisco. 

O. h. canus Merriam. Smaller and paler: southwestern Texas, New 
Mexico and Arizona. 

O. h. eremicus (Mearns). Size large; color very pale: deserts at 
head of the Gulf of California. 

O. virgultus (Hallock). Smaller, darker underneath: northwestern 
Minnesota and Canada. 

_O. columbianus (Richardson). Black-tail deer (Fig. 184). Color 
brownish gray, darkest on the back; tail black above, white beneath; 
body stocky; ears large; length 1,650 mm.; tail 225 mm.; height at 
shoulders 863 mm.: Sierra Nevada and Cascade Mountains and the 
coastal forests from Alaska to central California. 

O. c. scaphiotus Merriam. Color paler; ears much larger: coastal 
region from San Francisco southwards. 

3. Alces Gray. Moose. Size very large; antlers borne by the male 
alone and broadly palmate with numerous prongs projecting upwards; 
muzzle very broad, with a very convex contour; upper lip long and 
prehensile; legs very long; shoulders higher than the hips; tail very 
small; dentition 0/4, 0/o, 3/3, 3/3: 3 species, circumpolar; 2 species in 
America, 1 in the United States. 

A. americana (Clinton). Color black above, dark reddish brown on 
the sides; gray beneath; legs below the knees gray; a mane of stiff hairs 
on the neck; a pendent brush of hair called the “‘bell”’ on the throat; 
length 2,600 mm.; tail 65 mm.; height at shoulders 1,800 mm.; weight 


MAMMALS OEY) 


800-1,400 lbs., and more: forests of North America from northern 
Maine and New Brunswick to northern Michigan and North Dakota; 
northward to Hudson Bay and Alaska; in the Rockies into Montana 
and Idaho; a near relative of the European elk, A. alces. 

A. a. shirasi Nelson. Smaller, with small hoofs; color pale brown 
along the back; ears pale: Yellowstone Park region. 

4. Rangifer H. Smith. Antlers large and borne by both sexes, 
palmate near the tips; one or both brow-prongs palmate and extending 
over the face; dentition 0/4, 1/0, 3/3, 3/3; legs and tail short: 12 species, 
t in Asia and Europe, the reindeer R. tarandus (L.), and 11 in northern 
America which range throughout the Canadian, Hudsonian and Arctic 
zones; 2 species in the United States. 

R. caribou (Gmelin). Woodland caribou. Color dark brown, 
sometimes reddish, on the back, head, sides and outsides of legs; under 
parts, rump and a band around each foot pure white; in winter, neck 
white, body gray; length 1,800 mm.; tail 100 mm.; weight 280 lbs.; 
height at shoulders 1,200 mm.: forests of northern Maine and New 
Brunswick; northward to Great Slave Lake and Hudson Bay; much 
less gregareous than the Barren-ground caribou (R. arcticus Richard- 
son), which ranges over the Arctic barrens to beyond the Arctic Circle. 

R. montanus Seton. Color dark brown; under parts grayish white; 
length 2,413 mm.; tail 177 mm.; height at shoulders 1,397 mm.; weight 
500 lbs.: Rocky Mountain region from Alaska into Idaho, Washington 
and Montana. 

Subdivision 2. Cavicornia. Ruminants with hollow horns, com- 
posed of horn, in both sexes, which are never shed, except in Antilo- 
capra: 2 families. 


Key to the Families of Cavicornia 


THM RUA eS ISL ZHITELIT Sah G.c Gate Goll eee ge anne ann, eae ee aa eA a 1. Antilocapride. 
Ape OLS NOONAN GH CCU ar Gate se ah ite he et eee otters 2. Bovide. 


Family 1. Antilocapridze.—Antelopes with erect horns, each with 
a short branch in front, which are shed each summer; ears long and 
pointed; lateral hoofs absent, digits 3 and 4 only present; dentition 
0/4, 0/0, 3/3, 3/3: 1 genus. 

Antilocapra Ord. With the characters of the family: 1 species. 

A. americana (Ord). Prong-horn antelope. Color light yellowish 
brown; under parts, rump, sides of head and spot behind ears white; 
length 1,350 mm.; tail 138 mm.; height at shoulder 850 mm.; weight 125 
lbs.; length of horns 250 mm.; number of young at a birth usually 2: 
Great Plains and deserts from the Saskatchewan into Mexico; west- 
ward to the Rockies and into eastern Oregon and California. 


358 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


Family 2. Bovidze.—Cattle; sheep; goats: antelopes. Ruminants 
with unbranched horns, in most cases in both sexes, which are not shed; 
lateral hoofs usually present: numerous species, mostly in Asia and 
Africa; about 10 species in America, including the buffalo, mountain 
sheep, mountain goats and muskox. 


Key to the United States Genera of Bovide 


ai Body very large and stout; nose not hairy; buffalo.............. 1. Bison. 
a2 Body smaller; nose hairy; sheep and goats. 
bi Horns compressed anteroposteriorly; sheep............ Swen 
bs: Llorns compressedvaterally scons. 5, ec ee ee 3. Oreamnos. 


1. Bison H. Smith. Head large; shoulders high; hind quarters 
low and weak; fore quarters covered to the knees with a shaggy mane; 
horns thick at the base and curved; hoofs broad; tail long; dentition 
0/4, o/o, 3/3, 3/3: 1 species. 

B. bison (L.). Buffalo. Color dark brown, lighter on the rump; 
hoofs, nose and horns black; length 3,300 mm.; tail 500 mm.; height 
at shoulder 1,700 mm.; weight 1,800 lbs.: North America, formerly 
between the Alleghanies and the Rockies north of the Mexican 
Boundary, now extinct, except a few preserved herds in the Yellowstone 
Park and elsewhere, and a few wild herds in northern Canada. 


Subspecies of B. bison 


B. b. bison (L.). Plains buffalo. From the Rio Grande into Alberta 
and Saskatchewan; eastwards from the Rockies, formerly to western 
New York. 

B.b. athabasce Rhoads. Wood buffalo. Larger and darkerin color: 
the Mackenzie region, Canada. 

2. Ovis L. Sheep. Body stout; legs short; nose narrow and hairy, 
except a small naked space between the nostrils; horns very large and 
heavy, curving backward and then downward; dentition 0/4, 0/0, 3/3, 
3/3: numerous species in all continents except Australia and South 
America; about 11 species and subspecies in northern America. 

O. canadensis Shaw. Mountain sheep; bighorn. Color grayish 
brown, lighter in winter; large white rump patch; length 1,600 mm.; 
tail 125 mm.; height at shoulders 1,000 mm.; length of horn up to 
1,250 mm. in the male, curving outwards and forming often a circle; 
horns in female short and straight; number of young at a birth 1 or 2: 
high mountains from the Mexican boundary into Canada and Alaska: 
7 subspecies. 


MAMMALS 3 


wat 
‘Oo 


Subspecies of O. canadensis 


O. c. canadensis Shaw. Arizona and New Mexico north into 
Canada, and eastern Oregon and Washington. 

O. c. californiana (Douglas). Color darker: Cascade Mountains. 

O. c. audubonit Merriam. Size large; skull and horn massive: Bad 
Lands district of the upper Missouri. 

O. c. gaillardi Mearns. Size small; color ecru drab; feet very small: 
low desert ranges in the Austral zone south of the Gila River, Arizona. 

O. c. sierre (Grinnell). Much paler; length 1,450 mm.; tail 120 
mm.; hind foot 375 mm.: southern California. 

O. c. texiana Bailey. Color dull buffy brown; rump patch pure 
white; length 1,530 mm.: Guadalupe Mountains, Texas and New 
Mexico. 

O. c. nelsoni (Merr.). Color pale brown; rump patch white; length 
1,280 mm.; tail too mm.; hind foot 360 mm.; height at shoulder 830 
mm.: desert mountain ranges of southern California, Nevada and 
Mexico. 

3. Oreamnos Rafinesque. Body stout; legs short; horns small, 
curving slightly backwards; chin with a beard; nose hairy; hair long: 
2 species in northern America, 1 in Alaska. 

O. americanus (Blainville). Mountain goat. Color yellowish 
white; horns and hoofs black; length 1,650 mm.; tail 160 mm.; height 
at shoulder 1,000 mm.; length of horns 250 mm.; dentition 0/4, 0/0, 3/3, 
3/3; number of young at a birth 1 or 2: high Rockies and Cascades 
to Alaska. 


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BIBLIOGRAPHY 


ALLEN, Harrison. A Monograph of the Bats of North America. Bull. U. S. Nat. 
Mus., No. 43, 1893. 

ALLEN, J. A. A Revision of the Genus Didelphis. Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. His., Vol. 
I4, Pp. 149, IgOT. 

Antuony, H. E. Field Book of North American Mammals. New York, 1928. 

AvuDUBON, J. J. AND BACHMAN, J. The Quadrupeds of North America, 1852. 

BAILEY, VERNON. The Prairie Ground Squirrels or Spermophiles. Bull. No. 4, U.S. 
Dep. Agric., 1893. 

BaiLey, VERNON. A Revision of the Genus Microtus. North Am. Fauna, No. 17, 
1Q0o. 

BAILEY, VERNON. Biological Survey of Texas. North Am. Fauna, No. 25, 1905. 

BAILEY, VERNON. Life Zones and Crop Zones of New Mexico. North Am. Fauna, 
No. 35, 1914. 

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361 


362 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


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LIST OF AUTHORS 


This list includes the authors of specific and generic names and also those of the mono- 
graphs and treatises herein referred to. 

ABBOTT, CHARLES C. (1843-1919). American naturalist and archeologist; Trenton, 
INGE: 

Acassiz, Louts (1807-1873). Swiss-American zoologist and naturalist; professor in 
Harvard. 

ALLEN, Harrison (1841-1897). American anatomist; professor in the University of 
Pennsylvania. 

ALLEN, JoEL A. (1838-1921). American zoologist; American Museum of Natural 
History, New York. 

ANTHONY, H. E. (1890- ). American zoologist; American Museum of Natural 
History, New York, 1928. 

ARISTOTLE (384-322 B.C.). Greek naturalist and philosopher. 

ARTEDI, PETER (1705-1735). Swedish ichthyologist. 

AUDUBON, JOHN JAMES (1780-1851). American ornithologist and mammalogist, and 
painter of animals. 

BACHMAN, JOHN (1790-1874). American naturalist and clergyman in Charleston, S. C. 

BAILEY, VERNON (1864- ). American mammalogist; United States Department of 
Agriculture, Washington. 

Batty, JR., JosHua L., Jr. (1889- ). American zoologist, San Diego, California. 

BatrD, SPENCER FULLERTON (1823-1887). American zoologist; Director of National 
Museum; Secretary of Smithsonian Institution. 

BANGs, OuTRAM (1863-1932). American zoologist; Museum of Comparative Zool- 
ogy, Harvard. 

Baur, GEORGE (1859-1898). German-American herpetologist and zoologist; professor 
in Clark and Chicago. 

BEAN, TARLETON H. (1846-1916). American ichthyologist; State Fish culturist, New 
York. 

BEARDSLEE, LESTER A. (1836-1903). American naval officer and naturalist. 

BEAvvotls, PALIsAT (1755-1820). French naturalist who traveled in America. 

BELL, THOMAS (1792-1880). English zoologist; professor in London. 

BENDIRE, CHARLES E. (1836-1897). American ornithologist and army officer. 

BENNETT, Epwarp T. (1797-1866). American educator and scientist; professor in 
Cincinnati. 

Breron, G. French zoologist; professor in Paris. 

BLAINVILLE, MARTE HENRI (1778-1850). French zoologist; professor in Paris. 


BLANCHARD, FRANK N. (1888- ). American herpetologist; instructor in University 
of Michigan. 

BLATCHLEY, WILLIS S. (1859- ). American naturalist; former State geologist 
of Indiana. 


Biocu, Marcus (1723-1799). German ichthylogist and physician in. Karlsbad. 
BLUMENBACH JOHANNES (1752-1840). German zoologist and naturalist; professor in 
Gottingen. 
BorrarpD, PIERRE (1787-1859). French naturalist. 
BONAPARTE, CHARLES LUCIEN (1803-1857). French zoologist, nephew of Napoleon; 
lived in Philadelphia from 1822 to 1828. 
367 


368 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


BORKHAUSEN, MATTHIES (1760-1806). German entomologist and naturalist in 
Darmstadt. 

BoULENGER, GEORGE ALBERT (b. 1858). Belgian-English herpetologist; British 
Museum. 

BRANDT, JOHANN (1802-1879). Russian zoologist; professor in Leningrad. 

BrRAvER, AuGust. German zoologist; professor in Berlin. 

Brayton, A. W. (1848-1926). American naturalist and physician in Indianapolis. 

BREVOORT, JAMES C. (1818-1887). American naturalist. 

BRIMLEY, CLEMENT S. (1863- ). British-American naturalist; Raleigh, N. C. 

BrissON, MATHURIN (1723-1806). French ornithologist; professor in Paris. 

BROWN, ARTHUR E. (1850-1910). American herpetologist and mammalogist; Academy 
of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia. 

BRYANT, EpWIN (1805-1869). American traveller and Californian pioneer. 

Camp, CHARLES L. (1893- ). American herpetologist; American Museum of 
Natural History, New York. 

Caton, JoHN D. (1812-1895). American naturalist and lawyer in Chicago. 

CHAPMAN, FRANK M. (1864— ). American ornithologist; American Museum of 
Natural History, New York. 

CiLark, H. WALTON (1870- ). American zoologist; Biological Station, Fairport, 
Towa. 

CLarkK, HuBEeRT LyMAN (1870- ). American zoologist; Museum of Comparative 
Zoology, Harvard. 

CLINTON, DE Witt (1769-1828). Governor of New York; builder of the Erie Canal. 

Corr, EpwArD DRINKER (1840-1897). American zoologist and paleontologist; profes- 
sor in Haverford College and the University of Pennsylvania. 


COPELAND, EpwIn B. (1873- ). American botanist; professor in Manila. 
Covues, ELxrotr (1842-1899). American ornithologist and army surgeon. 
CREASER, CHARLES W. (1897- ). American zoologist; Museum of Zoology, 


University of Michigan. 
CuvIER, FERDINAND (1773-1838). French zoologist; professor in Paris; brother of 


Georges Cuvier. 

Cuvier, GEORGES (1769-1832). French zoologist, paleontologist and comparative 
anatomist; professor in Paris. 

Davpin, FRAncots (1774-1804). French zoologist. 

Dekay, JAmes E. (1782-1851). American naturalist and physician; Oyster Bay, 
Long Island. 

DESMAREST, ANSELM (1784-1838). French zoologist; professor in Aalfort. 

DickKeRsON, Mary C. (1866-1923). American herpetologist; New York. 

Ditmars, RAymonp L. (1876- ). American herpetologist; New York Zoological 


Park, New York. 


Drxon, JoserH S. (1884- ). American mammalogist; University of California 
Museum. 

DumeERIL, ANDRE (1774-1860). French physician and naturalist; professor in Paris. 

Dunn, Emmett REID (1894- ). American herpetologist; professor in Haverford 
College. 

DyBowsKI, BENEDICT (1834— ). Polish zoologist; professor in Lemberg. 


EIGENMANN, CarL H. (1863-1927). German-American ichthyologist; professor in 
Indiana State University. 

Exuiot, DANIEL G. (1835-1915). American mammalogist; Field Columbian Museum, 
Chicago. 

Evtis, Max M. (1887- ). American zoologist; professor in University of 


Missouri. 
ERXLEBEN, JOHANN (1744-1777). German naturalist; professor in Gottingen. 


LIST of AUTHORS 369 


ESCHSCHOLTZ, JOHANN FRIEDRICH (1793-1831). Esthonian zoologist and physician; pro- 
fessor in Dorpat. 

EVERMANN, BARTON WARREN (1853-1928). American ichthyologist; director of the 
Museum of the California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco. 

FABRICIUS, JOHANN CHRISTIAN (1745-1808). Danish zoologist; professor in Kiel. 

FISCHER, GOTTHELF (1771-1853). German zoologist; professor in Moscow. 

FITzINGER, LEOPOLD (1802-1884). Austrian zoologist; Vienna. 

FLEMMING, JOHN (1785-1857). Scotch zoologist; professor in Edinburg. 

ForRBES, STEPHEN A. (1844-1930). American zoologist; professor in the University of 
Tllinois. 


Fow.er, HENRY W. (1878- ). American zoologist and naturalist; Academy of 
Natural Sciences, Philadelphia. 

GaGE, Simon HENRY (1851- ). American anatomist and naturalist; professor in 
Cornell. 

GaIcGE, HELEN THOMPSON (1889- ). American herpetologist; University of 
Michigan. 

GAIRDNER, WILLIAM T. (1824-1907). English physician and naturalist; professor in 
Glasgow. 


GAMBEL, WILLIAM. American physician and naturalist in Philadelphia. 

GARDEN, ALEXANDER (1730-1791). American naturalist and physician in Charleston, 
Sy (Ce 

GARMAN, SAMUEL (1846-1927). American zoologist and ichthyologist; Museum of 
Comparative Zoology, Harvard. 

GEOFFROY SAINT-HILAIRE, ETIENNE (1772-1844). French zoologist; professor in 
Paris. . 
GERVAIS, PAuL (1816-1879). French zoologist and paleontologist; professor in Paris. 

GrpBEs, Ropert W. (1809-1866). American naturalist and physician in Charleston, 
Suc. : 

GIBBONS, JAMES S. (1810-1892). American naturalist and banker in San Francisco. 

GIGLIOLI, HENRI (1844-1909). Italian naturalist. 

GILBERT, CHARLES H. (1859-1928). American ichthyologist; professor in Stanford. 

GitL, THEODORE N. (1837-1914). American zoologist and ichthyologist; professor in 
Washington. 

GILLIAMs, JAcoB (1784-1868). American physician in Philadelphia. 

GIRARD, CHARLES (1822-1895). French-American zoologist; Smithsonian Institution. 

GMELIN, JOHANN (1748-1804). German naturalist; professor in G6ttingen; editor of 
13th edition of Systema Nature. 

GoLpMAN, Epwarp A. (1873- ). American zoologist and naturalist; United States 
Biological Survey. 

GoovE, GEORGE Brown (1851-1896). American ichthyologist; United States National 
Museum, Washington. 

GRAVENHORST, JOHANN (1777-1857). German zoologist; professor in Breslau. 

Gray, GEORGE ROBERT (1808-1872). English naturalist; British Museum. 

Gray, JOHN Epwarp (1800-1881). English naturalist; British Museum; brother of 
George. 

GREEN, WyMAN R. (1881- ). American zoologist; professor in Drew University. 

GREENE, CHARLES W. (1866-— ). American physiologist; professor in the University 
of Missouri. 

GRIFFITH, ROBERT E. (1798-1850). American naturalist and physician in Philadelphia. 

GRINNELL, JOSEPH (1877- ). American zoologist; professor in California. 

GULDENSTZDT, ANTON (1745-1781). Russian naturalist; professor in Petrograd. 

. GunTHer, A. K. (1830-1914). German-English ichthyologist and zoologist; British 

Museum. 


37° VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


H2CKEL, Ernst (1834-1918). German zoologist; professor in Jena. 

HALDEMAN, SAMUEL S. (1812-1880). American naturalist; professor in the University 
of Pennsylvania. 

HarLANn, RICHARD (1796-1843). American naturalist and physician in Philadelphia. 

Hay, OLtver P. (1846-1930). American naturalist and paleontologist; Carnegie 
Institution of Washington. 

HAYDEN, FERDINAND V. (1829-1887). American geologist and naturalist; United 
States Geological Survey. 

HECKEL, JOHANN (1790-1857). Austrian ichthyologist. 

HENDERSON, JuNIUS B. (1865- ). American jurist and naturalist, professor in 
University of Colorado. 

HENSHAW, SAMUEL (1850-1930). American zoologist; Museum of Comparative 
Zoology, Harvard. 

HERRICK, CLARENCE L. (1858-1904). American zoologist; president of the University 
of New Mexico. 

HoLprook, JOHN E. (1794-1871). American ichthyologist and herpetologist; professor 
in South Carolina College. 

Ho.uisTer, NED (1876-1924). American mammalogist; Zoological Park, Washington. 

Hornapay, WILLIAM T. (1854- ). American*naturalist; director of the New York 
Zoological Park. 

Howe Lt, ARTHUR H. (1872- ). American mammalogist and ornithologist; United 
States Biological Survey, Washington. : 

Husss, Cart L. (1894- ). American ichthyologist; Zoological Museum, University 
of Michigan. 

Hux ey, THomas Henry (1825-1895). English zoologist and naturalist; professor in 
London. 

ILLIGER, JOHANNES (1775-1815). German zoologist; director Zoological Garden, 
Berlin. 

Jackson, Harttey H. T. (1881- ). American naturalist; United States Biological 
Survey, Washington. 

JARDINE, WILLIAM (1800-1874). Scotch zoologist. 

JENKINS, OLIVER P. (1850- ). American ichthyologist; Stanford University. 

JorDAN, Davip StTarR (1851-1931). American ichthyologist and naturalist; Stanford 


University. 

Kaup, JOHANN JAcosB (1803-1873). German naturalist in Darmstadt. 

KENDALL, WILLIAM C. (1861- ). American ichthyologist; United States Fish 
Commission. 


Kerr, RoBERT (1750-1814). Scotch surgeon and naturalist in Edinburg. 

KIRTLAND, JARED P. (1793-1877). American naturalist and physician; professor in 
Cleveland. 

Kuxt, HErnricH (1797-1821). German naturalist. 

Lac&PmDE, ETIENNE (1756-1825). French zoologist; professor in Paris. 

LAMARCK, JEAN BapTisTE PIERRE ANTOINE DE Monet DE (1744-1829). French 
zoologist, botanist and evolutionary philosopher. 

LATREILLE, PIERRE (1762-1833). French zoologist and entomologist; professor in 
Paris. 

LATROBE, BENJAMIN H. (1764-1820). American naturalist in Philadelphia. 

LaAuRENTI, JosepH. Austrian herpetologist and physician in Vienna; latter half of 
18th century. 

Leacu, WILLIAM E. (1790-1836). English zoologist; British Museum. 

LeConte, JoHn Eaton (1784-1860). American naturalist and army engineer; brother 
to Lewis. 


LIST OF AUTHORS 371 


LEContTE, JoHN LAWRENCE (1825-1883). American entomologist and physician in 
Philadelphia; a son of John E. 

LEConTE, JOSEPH (1823-1901). American geologist; professor in the University of 
California; a son of Lewis. 

LEContTE, Lewis (1782-1838). American naturalist and physician; brother to John 
Eaton. 

LESuEuR, CHARLES ALEXANDER (1794-1857). French zoologist who lived in Phila- 
delphia from 1817 to 1825. 

LEUCKART, FRIEDRICH SIGISMUND (1794-1843). German zoologist; professor in 
Freiburg; uncle of Rudolf. 

Leuckart, Rupotr (1822-1898). German zoologist; professor in Leipzig; nephew of 
Friedrich. 

LEUNIS, JOHANNES (1802-1873). German zoologist; professor in Hildesheim. 

LICHTENSTEIN, MARTIN (1780-1857). German zoologist; professor in Berlin. 

Linck, JOHANNES (1674-1734). German zoologist; professor in Leipzig. 

Link, HetnricH FRIEDRICH (1767-1851). German biologist; professor in Breslau. 

LinNz&zuvs, CAROLUS (1707-1778). Swedish naturalist; professor in Upsala. 

Lorp, JoHn K. (1818-1872). English zoologist. 

MatrTHes, FrANcors E. (1874- ). Dutch-American geologist and naturalist; 
United States Geological Survey. 

McMortrier, Henry (1793-1865). American educator and physician in Philadelphia. 

Mearns, Epear A. (1856-1916). American naturalist and army surgeon. 

MEEK, SETH E. (1859-1914). American ichthyologist and herpetologist; Field Colum- 
bian Museum, Chicago. 

MeErRR_EM, Brasius (1761-1824). German naturalist; professor in Marburg. 


MeErrIAM, C. Hart (1855- ). American naturalist, formerly chief of the Biological 
Survey; Smithsonian Institution. 

MILter, GERRIT S., JR. (1869- ). American mammalogist; United States National 
Museum. 


Mircuitt, SAMUEL L. (1764-1831). American ichthyologist and naturalist, and 
physician in Philadelphia. 


Monxuats, WIriAM J. (1871- ). American physiologist and naturalist; professor 
in Indiana State University. 

Moores, J. Percy (1869- ). American zoologist; professor in the University of 
Pennsylvania. 


Morse, Max W. (1880- ). American physiologist; professor in the University of 
West Virginia. 

MiLier, JOHANNES (1801-1858). German anatomist and physiologist; professor in 
Berlin. 

Murpuy, Ropert CusHmMan (1887- ). American ornithologist and naturalist; 
American Museum of Natural History, New York. 

NELSON, Epwarp W. (1855-1934). American naturalist; chief of the United States 
Biological Survey. 

Nitsson, SVEN (1787-1883). Swedish zoologist; professor in Lund. 

OKEN, LorRENz (1779-1851). German zoologist; professor in Munich. 

Orp, Epwarp O. C. (1818-1883). American soldier and naturalist. 

ORTENBURGER, A.I. American herpetologist; professor in the University of Oklahoma. 

Oscoop, WILFRED H. (1875- ). American mammalogist; Field Columbian 
Museum, Chicago. 

PALLas, PETER SIMON (1741-1811). German zoologist who lived long in Russia. 

PALMER, T. CHALKLEY (1860-1934). American naturalist and manufacturer in 
Philadelphia, president of the Academy of Natural Sciences. 

PALMER, THEODORE S. (1868- ). American zoologist; United States Department 
of Agriculture. 


By VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


PAULMEIER, FREDERIC P. (1873-1906). American zoologist; State Museum, Albany. 

PEALE, REMBRANDT (1778-1860). American naturalist and portrait painter in Phila- 
delphia and Baltimore. 

PEARSE, ARTHUR S. (1877- ). American zoologist; professor in Duke University. 

PETERS, WILHELM (1815-1883). German traveller and zoologist; professor in Berlin. 

PICKERING, CHARLES (1805-1878). American naturalist on the Wilkes Exploring 
Expedition. 

Pory, FELIPE (1799-1891). Cuban naturalist and ichthyologist; professor in Havana. 

POWERS, JOSEPH H. (1866- ). American zoologist; University of Nebraska. 

PRATT, HENRY S. (1859- ). American zoologist; professor in Haverford College, Pa. 

PREBLE, Epwarp A. (1871- ). American mammalogist and ornithologist; United 
States Department of Agriculture, Washington. 

PUTMAN, FREDERIC W. (1839-1915). American naturalist and anthropologist; pro- 
fessor in Harvard. 

RAFINESQUE, CONSTANTINE (1784-1842). French-American naturalist; Lexington, 
Kentucky, and Philadelphia. 


REESE, ALBERT M. (1872- ). American zoologist; professor in the University of 
West Virginia. 
ReuN, James A. G. (1881- ). American mammalogist; Academy of Natural 


Sciences, Philadelphia. 
REICHENBACH, HEINRICH (1793-1879). German zoologist and botanist; professor in 
Dresden. 


REIGHARD, JACOB (1861— ). American zoologist; professor in the University of 
Michigan. 

RHOADS, SAMUEL N. (1862- ). American naturalist, Philadelphia. 

RICHARDSON, JOHN (1787-1865). Scotch naturalist and traveller in Arctic America. 

RITTER, WILLIAM E. (1856- ). American zoologist; professor in the University of 
California. 

RUTHVEN, ALEXANDER G. (1882- ). American herpetologist; professor in the 


University of Michigan. 
SABINE, EpWARD (1788-1883). English naturalist and Arctic traveller. 
Say, THomas (1787-1834). American zoologist; Academy of Natural Sciences, 
Philadelphia. 
SCHLEGEL, HERMANN (1804-1884). German zoologist. 
SCHNEIDER, JOHANN (1750-1822). German zoologist; professor in Breslau. 
SCH@PFF, JOHANN (1752-1800). German zoologist and physician in Ansbach. 
SCHRANCK, FRANZ (1747-1835). German botanist and zoologist; professor in Munich. 
SCHREBER, JOHANN (1739-1810). German zoologist; professor in Erlangen. 
SCHWEIGGER, AUGUST (1783-1821). German naturalist; professor in Kénigsberg. 


SEALE, ALVIN (1873- ). American ichthyologist; Steinhart Aquarium, San 
Francisco, California. 

SETON, ERNEST THOMPSON (1860- ). Canadian naturalist; Greenwich, Conn. 

SHAW, WILLIAM T. (1873- ). American zoologist; professor in Washington State 
College, Pullman. 

SHUFELDT, ROBERT W. (1850- ). American ornithologist and army surgeon. 

SHULL, A. FRANKLIN (1881— ). American zoologist; professor in the University of 
Michigan. 


SLACK, JAMES. American naturalist and physician in Philadelphia. 
SmitH, Hamitton. English army officer and zoologist. 


SmitH, HucH M. (1865- ). American ichthyologist; United States Commissioner 
of Fisheries. 
SNYDER, JOHN O. (1867- ). American ichthyologist; professor in Stanford 


University. 


LIST OF AUTHORS S/S 


Sprx, JOHANN (1781-1826). German naturalist and traveller. 

STEJNEGER, LEONHARD (1851— ). Norwegian-American herpetologist and natural- 
st; United States National Museum, Washington. 

STONE, WITMER (1866- ). American zoologist; Academy of Natural Sciences, 
Philadelphia. 

SToRER, Tracy I. (1889- ). American zoologist and naturalist; Museum of the 
University of California. 

Storr, GOTTLIEB (1749-1821). German zoologist; professor in Tiibingen. 

SuCKLEY, GEORGE (1830-1869). American traveller, naturalist and physician in 
New York. 

SuRFACE, Harvey A. (1867- ). American zoologist; Selinsgrove, Pa. 

SWAIN, JOSEPH (1857-1927). American ichthyologist; emeritus president of Swarth- 
more College. 


Swart, Harry S. (1878- ). American ornithologist and mammalogist; Museum 
of the University of California. 

SWENK, Myron H. (1883- ). American zoologist; professor in Nebraska. 

TayLor, WALTER P. (1888- ). American zoologist and mammalogist; United 


States Biological Survey. 

THomAs, Cyrus (1825-1910). American naturalist and ethnologist. 

THompPson, Zapoc (1796-1856). American naturalist; professor in the University of 
Vermont. 

TROSCHEL, FRANZ (1810-1882). German zoologist; professor in Bonn. 

TrovussarRtT, Epouarp Louts (b. 1842). French zoologist; professor in Paris. 

TrRuE, FREDERIC W. (1858-1914). American zoologist; United States National 
Museum, Washington. 

TscHup!I, JOHANN JACOB (1818-1889). Swiss zoologist and traveller. 

TuRTON, WILLIAM (1762-1835). English naturalist and physician in Swansea. 

VALENCIENNES, ACHILLE (1794-1863). French zoologist; professor in Paris. 

VAN DENBRUGH, JOHN (1872- ). American herpetologist; California Academy of 
Sciences, San Francisco. 

Vicors, NicHoLas (1783-1840). Irish ornithologist and naturalist; British Museum. 

VoicT, JOHANN (1725-1810). German physician and naturalist. 

WAGLER, JOHANN (1800-1832). German herpetologist; professor in Munich. 

WAGNER, JOHANN (1797-1861). German zoologist; professor in Munich. 

WALBAUM, JOHANN. German zoologist; latter part of 18th century. 

WARREN, Epwarp R. (1860- ). American zoologist; Colorado Springs, Colorado. 

WATERHOUSE, GEORGE R. (1810-1888). English naturalist. 

Wuiprte, Inez L. (Mrs. H. H. Wilder) (1871-1929). American zoologist; professor in 
Smith College. 

Wiep, MaAxmMILIAN (1782-1867). German naturalist and traveller in North and 
South America. 

WIEGMANN, AREND (1802-1841). German zoologist; professor in Berlin. 

WILpeR, Harris H. (1864-1928). American zoologist and anthropologist; professor in 
Smith College. 

WILSON, ALEXANDER (1866-1813). Scotch-American ornithologist and naturalist; 
Philadelphia. 

WoopDHOUSE, SAMUEL W. American naturalist and army surgeon. 

WRIGHT, ALBERT HazEN (1879- ). American herpetologist; professor in Cornell. 

Yarrow, Harry C. (b. 1840). American herpetologist and physician in Washington. 

ZIMMERMAN, EBERHARD (1743-1815). German zoologist and geographer. 


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GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL WORDS AND 
TERMS 


Abdomen. The belly; the ventral portion of the posterior region of the trunk. 

Abdominal. Pertaining to the abdomen; applied to the ventral fins of a fish when they are 
posterior in position. 

Abortive. Incomplete; undeveloped. 

Acrodont teeth. Teeth which are situated along the edge of the jaw bone. 

Acuminate. Tapering to a point. 

Acute. Sharp-pointed. 

Adipose. Fatty; thick. : 

Adipose fin. A fleshy, spineless fin back of the dorsal fin in certain fishes. 

Adnate. Grown together; a fin which is attached along its lower edge as well as by its base. 

Adult. A mature, sexual animal. 

Adventitious. Coming from without; foreign. 

#Estivate. To pass the summer in a torpid condition. 

Air bladder. A large sac filled with air or some other gas lying beneath the backbone in the 
body cavity of most fishes. 

Albinism. A more or less complete lack of pigment in the integument and eyes of an ani- 
mal; opposed to melanism. 

Allantois. The embryonic respiratory organ of the higher vertebrates. 

Alveoli. Deep pits in a bone; the sockets of the teeth. 

Amnion. The protective envelope of the embryo of the higher vertebrates. 

Amniota. Those vertebrates possessing an amnion. 

Amniotic. Pertaining to the Amniota. 

Amphiceelous. Biconcave vertebre. 

Amphioxus. One of the most primitive chordate animals. 

Anadromous. Marine fishes which run up rivers to spawn. 

Anal. Occupying a position near the anus. 

Anal fin. The median fin just behind the anus. 

Anal glands. Glands in connection with the anus which secrete an odoriferous fluid. 

Anal plate. The plate immediately in front of the anus in snakes. 

Analogous. Having a similar function. 

Anamnia. Those vertebrates which do not possess an amnion. 

Anchylosed. Grown firmly together. 

Anteorbital plate. The plate in front of the eye in snakes. 

Anterior. Toward the front end of an animal. 

Anus. The hinder opening of the digestive tract. 

Aorta. The main artery which carries blood away from the heart. 

Aplacental. Not having a placenta. 

Apodous. Without feet. 

Appendage. A projection from some part of the body, usually applied to the locomotory 
appendages, the legs. 

Appendicular. Pertaining to the locomotory appendages. 

Aquatic. Living in the water. 

Arboreal. Living in trees. 

Arciferous. Referring to the pectoral girdle of toads, the cartilaginous elements of which 
overlap midventrally. 


375 


376 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


Articulate. Jointed. 

Artiodactyle. Even-toed, of ungulates. 

Ascidians. Very primitive chordate animals. 

Atrophy. The state of being undeveloped. 

Attenuate. Long and slender and drawn to a point. 

Auburn. Dark reddish brown. 

Auricle. One of the chambers of the heart. 

Azygos plate. <A plate just back of the rostral plate on the head of some snakes. 

Balanoglossus. A very primitive chordate animal. 

Barbel. A long, slender projection on the head of certain fishes and turtles. 

Basal. At or near the base. 

Bicolor. Two-colored. 

Bicuspid. Having two terminal points. 

Bifid. Forked. 

Bilateral symmetry. Having the right and left sides alike. 

Bister. A dark brown color. 

Branchial. Pertaining to the gills. 

Branchiostegals. The bony rays which support the branchiostegal membrane on the 
under side of the head of a fish. 

Buccal. Pertaining to the mouth. 

Buccal funnel. The depressed plate with the mouth in its center at the front end of a 
lamprey. 

Caducous. Shedding or falling off early. 

Czecum. A sac-like appendage of the digestive tract; a blind-gut. 

Canine teeth. Elongate, conical teeth; in mammals those next to the incisors. 

Carapace. The upper shell of a turtle; the shell of an armadillo. 

Carinate. Keeled; with a median ridge. 

Carnassial teeth. The flesh-cutting teeth of a carnivorous mammal. 

Carnivorous. Flesh-eating. 

Carpal bones. The wrist bones. 

Carpus. The wrist. 

Caudal. Pertaining to the tail. 

Caudal fin. The tail fin of fishes. 

Caudal peduncle. The slender body region just in front of the caudal fin in fishes. 

Cavernous. Containing cavities. 

Cervical. Pertaining to the neck. 

Cheek. The part of a fish’s head beneath and behind the eye. 

Chordate. Pertaining to animals belonging to the Phylum Chordata, being those animals 
possessing a notochord, such as vertebrates, ascidians, etc. 

Cinereous. Ashen; light gray. 

Cinnamon. Intense dark brown. 

Cirri. Filamentous, sensory appendages. 

Clavicle. The collar bone, the ventral, anterior portion of the shoulder girdle. 

Cloaca. The tubular organ receiving the discharges of the digestive, urinary and repro- 
ductive systems, in certain vertebrates. 

Cochlea. A portion of the inner ear in mammals which is spiral in shape. 

Compressed. Flattened laterally. 

Condyle. A bony projection which is an articulating surface. 

Coracoid. The ventral, posterior portion of the shoulder girdle in the land vertebrates; 
the principal bone of the shoulder girdle in fishes. 

Costal folds. Vertical folds of the skin in salamanders which show the number of the 
muscle segments. 

Costal grooves. The vertical grooves between the costal folds. 


GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL WORDS “AND TERMS 3 


~I 
~I 


Costals. The lateral plates of a turtle’s carapace. 

Cranial crests. A pair of longitudinal ridges between the eyes on the head of toads. 

Cranium. The portion of the skull which encloses the brain. 

Cruciform. Cross-shaped. 

Ctenoid. Fish scales which have a pectinated or roughened posterior margin. 

Cusp. A sharp projection. 

Cuspidate. Ending in one or more sharp points. 

Cycloid. Fish scales which have a smooth posterior margin. 

Cyclostomate. Round-mouthed; a group of primitive fish-like vertebrates. 

Deciduous. Temporary; characterized by falling off at a certain time. 

Decurved. Curved downwards. 

Dentate. Notched. 

Dentine. The very hard, inner substance of a tooth; ivory. 

Dentition. The number of each of the four kinds of teeth of a mammal. 

Depressed. Flattened dorso-ventrally. 

Depth. The dorso-ventral height of a fish’s body at the widest place. 

Dermal. Arising in the dermis of the skin. 

Dermis. The inner layer of the vertebrate skin or integument. 

Dextral. Pertaining to or situated on or towards the right hand. 

Diaphragm. The muscular septum between the thoracic and abdominal cavities in 
mammals. 

Dicromatic. Two-colored; applied to animals having two color phases. 

Digit. A finger or toe. 

Digitigrade. Walking on the toes instead of on the flat of the foot. 

Dimorphic. Characterized by dimorphism. 

Dimorphism. Existing in two distinct forms. 

Distal. Away from the point of attachment; opposed to proximal. 

Diurnal. Appearing or active during the day. 

Diverticulum. A sac-like projection of a tubular organ. 

Dorsal. Pertaining to the back. 

Dorsal fin. The median fin on the back of a fish or amphibian. 

Dorsals. The median plates of a turtle’s carapace. : 

Dorso-lateral ridges. A pair of glandular ridges on the back of most frogs. 

Ear-ossicles. The three minute bones in the middle:ear of mammals. 

Ecru. Coffee-color. 

Ectoderm. The outermost layer of cells in the body of an embryo. 

Elapine snakes. Snakes which have a pair of short rigid poison fangs in the front of the 
upper jaw. 

Elasmobranch fishes. Sharks and skates. 

Emarginate. Slightly forked or notched. 

Embryo. A young animal] which is passing through its developmental stages, usually 
within the egg-membranes or in the maternal uterus. 

Enamel. The very hard outer covering of a tooth. 

Endoskeleton. The inner bony or cartilaginous framework of the body. 

Entire. Not divided or split. 

Entoderm. The embryonic cell layer which forms the mucous membrane of the digestive 
tract. 

Epidermal. Arising in the epidermis of the skin. 

Epidermis. The outer layer of the vertebrate skin or integument. 

Eustachian tube. A canal joining the middle ear with the pharynx. 

Exoskeleton. The hard parts, as the nails, scales, feathers, hair, etc., on the outer surface 
of the body. 

Extremities. The paired locomotory appendages of the body, as the legs, wings, etc. 


378 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


Falcate. Scythe-shaped; elongate, slender and curved. 

Falciform. Scythe-shaped. 

Fauna. The animals inhabiting a region. 

Femoral. Pertaining to the thigh. 

Femoral pores. A row of pores on the thigh of many lizards. 

Ferruginous. Reddish brown. 

Filament. A thread-like structure. 

Filiform. Thread-like in form. 

Fin-rays. The small bony or cartilaginous projections of the gill arches. 

Firmisternal. Referring to the pectoral girdle of frogs, the cartilaginous elements of which 
are fused midventrally. 

Flipper. The fin-shaped legs of certain aquatic turtles and mammals. 

Fontanelle. An unossified space in a bone. 

Foramen. An opening. 

Forficulate. Deeply forked. 

Frontal bones. The bones forming the top of the head in front. 

Frugivorous. Fruit-eating. 

Fulcra. Spine-like projections of the fin-rays in certain fishes. 

Fulvous. Reddish-yellow; tawny. 

Furcate. Forked. 

Fuscous. Dusky. 

Fusiform. Spindle-shaped; tapering towards ends. 

Ganoid. A representative of the Ganoidea. 

Ganoid scales. Rhombic scales of many ganoid fishes. 

Gastrosteges. The transverse plates which cover a snake’s belly; the ventral plates. 

Gills. The organs of respiration of a fish and of many amphibians. 

Gill-arches. The bony or cartilaginous arches which support the gills. 

Gill-clefts. The openings between the pharynx and the outside in which the gills are 
located. 

Gill-rakers. A series of projections along the inner margin of certain of the gill-arches. 

Gill-slits. The gill-clefts. 

Glottis. The opening from the pharynx into the trachea. 

Granulate. Roughened; with granular prominences. : 

Grinders. The molar and premolar teeth of rodents and some other mammals, the sur- 
faces of which grind the food. 

Gular. Pertaining to the upper part of the throat. 

Hazel. Dark brown. 

Height. The vertical dimension of an animal. 

Heterocercal fin. An unsymmetrical caudal fin of a fish, the upper lobe being usually 
longer than the lower and containing the backbone. 

Hibernate. To pass the winter in a torpid condition. 

Hirsute. Shaggy. 

Homocercal fin. A symmetrical caudal fin of a fish, the backbone ending at the base of 
the fin and not entering it. 

Homologous. Having a common origin. 

Hyoid. The bones which support the tongue. 

Ichthyopsida. Fish-like vertebrates, those that breathe in the water at some time of their 
lives. 

Imbricate. Overlapping, like the shingles on a roof. 

Incised. Cut into; deeply notched. 

Incisors. The front teeth. 

Inferior. In a lower position. 

Infraoral lamina. The toothed plate or ridge posterior to the mouth of a lamprey. 


GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL WORDS AND TERMS 379 


Integument. The skin. 

Interfemoral membrane. The portion of the flying membrane of bats which connects the 
hind legs and includes a part of the tail. 

Intermaxillaries. The premaxillaries; the middle portion of the upper jaw, except in 
mammals. 

Internasals. The plates on a snake’s head which connect the two nostrils. 

Interopercle. The opercular bone between the preopercle and the branchiostegals. 

Interorbital. The space between the eyes. 

Interparietal. A median bone sometimes present between the posterior portion of the 
parietals. 

Interspinals. Spine-like bones inserted between the neural spines in fishes, often for the 
support of the fins. 

Isthmus. The midventral space lying between the right and the left gill-clefts of a fish. 

Jugular. Applied to the ventral fins of a fish when they are anterior to the pectorals. 

Keel. A longitudinal ridge along the middle of a scale or other organ. 

Keeled. Having a ridge along the middle. 

Labials. The scales lying along the lips of a snake or lizard. 

Lamella. A leaf- or plate-like structure. 

Lamellate. Composed of or provided with lamellz. 

Lamina. A plate-like process. 

Larva. A young, immature animal which has not yet acquired the form and appearance 
of the adult. 

Lateral. Toward either the right or the left side. 

Lateral line. A sensory line on the lateral surface of most fish, extending usually between 
the head and the tail-fin. 

Lenticular. Doubly convex. 

Longitudinal. Lengthwise. 

Loreal plate. The plate between the eye and the nostril on the head of a snake or a lizard, 
just in front of the preocular when it is present. 

Lumbar. Pertaining to the region of the body between the thorax and the sacrum. 

Lunate. Crescent-shaped; with the form of the new moon. 

Mamme. The nipples on the ventral surface of a mammalian female. 

Mammary glands. The milk-secreting glands of the mammalian female. 

Mandible. The lower jaw. 

Marginals. The marginal plates of a turtle’s carapace. 

Marsupial pouch. The pouch on the belly of the marsupial female in which the young are 
kept. 

Marsupium. The marsupial pouch. 

Mastoid region. The region just behind the ear. 

Maxilla. The upper jaw. 

Maxillaries. The lateral bones of the upper jaw. 

Median fins. The unpaired fins. 

Melanic. The tendency to develop melanism. 

Melanism. An unusual or abnormal accumulation of black pigment in the integument and 
eyes of an animal; opposed to albinism. 

Membrane bone. A bone which forms in a superficial membrane and not in cartilage. 

Meroblastic. Eggs the germinal disc of which alone undergoes segmentation. 

Metabolism. The sum of all the vital processes of an animal’s body. 

Metachrosis. The attribute of changing the body color under the influence of some 
sensory stimulus. 

Metameric. Pertaining to the body segments; segmental. 

Metamorphosis. The developmental changes which go on in a young animal’s body up to 
the time when it becomes adult. 


380 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


Molars. The hindermost teeth in the mammalian jaw; crushing teeth of certain fishes. 

Monozygotic. The several offspring which may develop from a single fertilized egg, such as 
identical twins. 

Murine. Mouse-like. 

Naked. Without external coverings, such as hair, scales, etc. 

Nape. The back of the neck. 

Nares. The nostrils, both those opening on the outer surface of the head and the inner 
ones opening into the mouth cavity. 

Nasal. Pertaining to the nose or the nostrils. 

Nasal plate. The plate in which the nostril is located in snakes and lizards. 

Naso-labial groove. <A glandular groove connecting the nostril and the lip in certain 
salamanders. 

Nictitating membrane. The eye-lid at the inner corner of the eye of certain vertebrates, 
which moves across the surface of it. 

Nocturnal. Being active in the night-time. 

Nose-leaf. A complicated membrane at the end of the snout in certain bats. 

Notochord. A cylindrical rod which extends the length of the body in chordate embryos 
and forms the basis of the backbone. 

Nuchal plate. The median anterior marginal plate in the carapace of turtles. 

Obscure. Indefinite in appearance. 

Obsolescent. Gradually disappearing. 

Obsolete. Scarcely visible. 

Obtuse. Blunt. 

Occipital. Pertaining to the hinder part of the head. 

Occipital condyle. The bony prominence by which the skull articulates with the backbone. 

Ochraceous. Light brownish yellow in color. 

Esophagus. The portion of the digestive tract between the pharynx and the stomach. 

Olivaceous. Yellowish green. 

Omnivorous. Eating all kinds of food. 

Opercle. The gill cover; the movable flap on the side of a fish’s head which covers the 
gill clefts. 

Opercular bones. Membrane bones which support the opercle. 

Opercular flap. The posterior prolongation of the opercle in certain fishes. 

Operculum. The opercle. 

Opisthoccelous vertebrze. Those which are concave behind and convex in front. 

Opisthoglyph snakes. Snakes which have poison fangs in the rear of the mouth. 

Orbicular. Circular or nearly so. 

Orbit. The socket of the eyes. 

Orientation, Organs of. The special sense organs. 

Oviparous. Egg-laying. 

Ovoviviparous. Animals producing large eggs which hatch while still in the mother’s 
body. 

Paired fins. The pectoral and ventral fins of a fish. 

Palate. The roof of the mouth. 

Palatines. Membrane bones supporting the rear portion of the roof of the mouth. 

Palmate. Spreading; broad and flat, with finger-like projections. 

Papilla. A minute, fleshy projection. 

Papillose. Covered with papille. 

Parasphenoid. . The membrane bone supporting the roof of the mouth in amphibians. 

Parotoid. A glandular organ just back of the ear in toads. 

Parietal bones. <A pair of membrane bones forming a portion of the top of the skull. 

Pectinate. Having teeth like a comb. 


GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL WORDS AND TERMS 381 


Pectoral. Pertaining to the breast. 

Pectoral fins. The anterior paired fins in fishes. 

Pedicle. A stalk. 

Pelagic. Living in the surface waters of the sea or a lake. 

Pelvis. The bony girdle by which the skeleton of the hind legs is joined with the vertebral 
column; the pelvic girdle. 

Pencil. A tuft of hair or feathers. 

Penicillate. Tipped with a tuft of hairs. 

Pentadactylous. Five-fingered or five-toed; pentadactyle. 

Perforate. Pierced. 

Peritoneum. The lining of the abdominal cavity. 

Phalanges. The bones of the finger and toes. , 

Pharyngeal bones. Bones behind the gill arches in fishes which usually bear teeth. 

Pharynx. The anterior portion of the digestive tract, that just back of the mouth. 

Phylum. One of the main subdivisions of the Animal Kingdom; a Sub-kingdom. 

Pigment. Coloring matter. 

Pineal eye. A rudimentary median eye on the top of the head of certain lizards. 

Placenta. The organ by which the fetus of the higher mammals is nourished. 

Placoid scales. The scales of sharks and skates. 

Plantar. Referring to the under surface of the foot or hand. 

Plantigrade. Walking on the sole of the foot. 

Plastron. The lower portion of the turtle’s shell. 

Pleurodont teeth. Teeth which are situated along the inner margin of the jaw bone. 

Plicate. Folded; wrinkled. 

Plumbeous. Lead-colored. 

Pneumatic duct. A duct joining the air bladder with the pharynx in fish. 

Postanal. Back of the anus. 

Posterior. Toward the hinder end of the animal. 

Postnatal. Occurring after birth. 

Postorbital plate. The plate behind the eye in snakes and lizards. 

Postorbital processes. The bony processes which form the hinder part of the orbit. 

Precoracoid. The anterior, ventral portion of the shoulder girdle in amphibians. 

Prefrontal plate. The plate on the head of snakes and lizards in front of the frontal. 

Prehensile. Adapted for grasping and holding. 

Prehension, Organs of. Organs fitted for seizing. 

Premaxillaries. The bones which support the front portion of the upper jaw; in fishes they 
extend also along the side. 

Premolar teeth. The teeth in the mammalian jaw between the canines and the molars. 

Preocular plate. The plate on the head of snakes and lizards just in front of the eye. 

Preopercle. The membrane bone forming the anterior portion of the opercle in fishes. 

Presacral vertebre. Those anterior to the sacrum. 

Proboscis. An elongation of the snout or lips for purposes of prehension. 

Proccelous vertebrze. Those which are concave in front and convex behind. 

Protractile. Capable of being thrust forward. 

Proximal. Toward the point of attachment; opposed to distal. 

Pseudobrachiz. Small gills on the inner surface of the opercle. 

Pterygoid bones. Bones in the roof of the mouth. 

Pubic bones. Plate-like bones on the belly of sticklebacks just in front of the anus. 

Pubis. The ventral, anterior portion of the pelvis. 

Pulmonary. Pertaining to the lungs. 

Punctate. Dotted with minute points. 

Punctulations. Dots. 


382 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 


Pustulate. Having minute pimple-like elevations. 

Pyloric ceca or appendages. Elongated, blind sacs opening into the intestine at the 
point where it joins the stomach in fishes. 

Quadrate bone. The bone which joins the lower jaw, on each side, with the cranium, in 
the lower vertebrates. 

Recurved. Curved upwards. 

Reticulate. Marked with a net-work of lines. 

Retractile. Capable of being drawn in. 

Rhombic. Diamond-shape. 

Rostral. Pertaining to the end of the snout. 

Rostral plate. A plate on the head of snakes and lizards at the tip of the snout. 

Rudimentary. Undeveloped. 

Rufous. Reddish; yellowish red. 

Rugose. Roughened or wrinkled. 

Ruminant. Chewing the cud. 

Russet. Reddish or yellowish brown. 

Sacral. Pertaining to the sacrum or the sacral region. 

Sacrum. The dorsal portion of the pelvis. 

Sanguivorous. Blood-sucking. 

Sauropsida. Reptilian-like vertebrates. 

Scalation. Pertaining to the scales. 

Scapula. The shoulder-blade. 

Segmental. Arranged in definite segments. 

Selachian fish. Sharks and skates. 

Sepia. Light brown. 

Septum. A partition separating two spaces. 

Serre. Notches; serrations. 

Serrate. Notched; jagged, like the teeth of a saw. 

Sessile. Attached by the base and not stalked. 

Setaceous. Bristly. 

Shoulder girdle. The bony girdle by which the skeleton of the fore legs is joined with the 
trunk. 

Sinistral. Pertaining to or situated on or towards the left hand. 

Soft rays. Fin rays which are jointed and not stiff and sharp. 

Spatulate. Shaped like a spatula; more or less spoon or trowel-shaped. 

Sphenoid. One of the basal skull bones. 

Spine. A sharp projecting point. 

Spinous. Composed of spines. 

Spiracles. Openings of the head in certain fish and amphibians for the passage of respira- 
tory water. 

Spiral valve. A spiral fold in the intestine of certain fish. 

Sternum. The breast-bone. 

Striate. Striped or streaked. 

Subcaudal plates. The ventral plates of a snake’s tail; the urosteges. 

Subconical. Imperfectly conical. 

Subcylindrical. Imperfectly cylindrical. 

Subfusiform. Imperfectly fusiform. 

Subopercle. The membrane bone just beneath the opercle in fishes. 

Suborbital plate. The plate beneath the eye in snakes and lizards. 

Subrhombic. Imperfectly rhombic. 

Subspecies. A geographic race, which differs from the typical form of the species but 
which cannot be completely separated from it. 

Sulcate. Grooved. 


GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL WORDS AND TERMS 383 


Superciliary plates. The plates just above the eye in certain snakes and lizards. 

Superior. In a higher or more elevated position. 

Supplementary maxillary bone. A small bone just above the maxillary in certain fish. 

Supraoccipital process. A dorsally situated bony crest at the hinder end of the skull in fish. 

Supraoral lamina. The toothed plate or ridge anterior to the mouth of a lamprey: 

Supraorbital. Above the eye. 

Symphysis. The firm union of two bones. 

Tail. The postanal portion of the body. 

Teleost. A representative of the Teleostei; a bony fish. 

Temporal. Pertaining to the temples or the side of the head. 

Terminal. At or toward the end. 

Terrestrial. Living on or near the surface of the ground. 

Tessellated. Marked with a checkered, mosaic-like arrangement. 

Tetrapodous. Four-footed. 

Thoracic. Pertaining to the thorax, or the anterior portion of the trunk; applied to the 
ventral fins of a fish when they are just beneath the pectorals. 

Thorax. The anterior portion of the trunk. 

Trachea. The wind-pipe. 

Tragus. A projection in the external ear of bats. 

Transverse. In a plane at right-angles to the longitudinal plane. 

Tricuspid. With three terminal points. 

Truncate. Ending abruptly, as if cut squarely across. 

Tubercle. A small elevation. 

Tympanum. The ear-drum. 

Typical. Of a character usual to a particular group. 

Ultimate. The last or terminal member of a number of structures. 

Unguiculate. Having claws. 

Ungulate. Hoofed. 

Unicolor. Of a single color. 

Unicuspid. With a single terminal point. 

Urosteges. The ventral plates of a snake’s tail; the subcaudals. 

Urostyle. A bone extending back from the pelvis in frogs and toads. 

Ventral. Pertaining to the under side. 

Ventral fins. The posterior paired fins of a fish. 

Ventral plates. The tranverse plates on the belly of a snake; the gastrosteges. 

Ventricle. The posterior portion of the heart. 

Vermiform. Shaped like a worm. 

Vertebrze. The bones which form the spinal column. 

Vertical. A dorso-ventral position. 

Vertical fins. The median fins. 

Vertical plate. The central plate on the snake’s head. 

Vesicle. A small or minute cavity. 

Vesicular. Composed of vesicles. 

Villiform teeth. Teeth of certain fishes which are small, slender and crowded together. 

Villose. More or less covered with short, finger-shaped projections. 

Viperine snakes. Snakes which have a pair of long movable fangs in the front of the 
upper jaw. 

Viscera. The internal organs of an animal. 

Visceral arches, The bony or cartilaginous arches which support the mouth and gills of 
fishes. 

Visceral skeleton. The portion of the skull which forms the frame-work of the jaws, 
tongue and gill arches. 

Viscous. Slimy. 


384 VERTEBRATE ANIMALS OF THE UNITED STATES 

Viviparous. Bringing forth the young alive. 

Vomer bones. The membrane bones forming the roof of the anterior portion of the mouth 

Weberian ossicles. A series of small bones connecting the air-bladder with the ear in 
certain fishes. 

Ypsiloid cartilage. A Y-shaped cartilage which projects forward from the pubis in certain 


salamanders. 


Zygomatic bone. The cheek bone. 


INDEX 


Specific names begin with small letters and are accompanied each by the name of its 


genus in parentheses; all other names begin with capital letters. 


abacura (Farancia), 203 
Abastor, 203 
abditus (Microtus mordax), 308 
aberti (Sciurus), 331 
(Sciurus aberti), 331 
abietorum (Peromyscus maniculatus), 295 
abyssicola (Prosopium), 39 
acadicus (Microtus pennsylvanicus), 307 
Acantharchus, 10g 
Acanthopteri, 105 
Achirus, 105 
Acipenser, 29 
Acipenseridz, 29 
Acris, 167 
Acrocheilus, 65 
aculeatus (Gasterosteus), 103 
acutirostris (Acipenser), 30 
acutus (Crocodylus), 179 
adamanteus (Crotalus), 224 
adobe (Apocope), 82 
zeneus (Aneides), 149 
epyptera (Lampetra), 27 
zsopus (Rana), 171 
zstivalis (Extrarius), 83 
zstivus (Opheodrys), 205 
zstuarius (Microtus californicus), 308 
aggassizii (Forbesella), 100 
(Gopherus), 239 
agilis (Dipodomys), 322 
Agkistrodon, 221 
agua-bonita (Trutta), 46 
alabame (Alosa), 37 
alacer (Sylvilagus floridanus), 349 
alascanus (Callorhinus), 288 
albeolus (Luxilus), 77 
albescens (Reithrodontomys), 294 
albibarbis (Neosorex), 254 
albifrons (Peromyscus polionotus), 296 
albigula (Neotoma), 302 
(Neotoma albigula), 302 
albilebris (Leptodactylus), 164 
albipes (Phenacomys), 312 


Synonyms are in italics. 


albiventer (Neosorex bendiri), 255 
albolimbatus (Sciurus douglasii), 320 
albolineatus (Fundulus), 95 
albus (Parascaphirhynchus), 31 
Alces, 356 
Alewife, 36 
alexandrinus (Rattus), 291 
alleganiensis (Cryptobranchus), 137 
allegheniensis (Mustela), 275 
alleni (Citellus tridecemlineatus), 338 
(Lepus), 347 
(Liodytes), 219 
(Mustela), 276 
(Neofiber), 311 
(Zapus trinotatus), 325 
Alligator, 178, 179 
gar, 32 
snapper, 230 
Allotis, 112 
aloga (Blarina brevicauda), 256 
Alosa, 37 
alosoides (Amphiodon), 35 
alpenz (Leucichthys), 40 
alpinus (Eutamias), 336 
(Salvelinus), 48 
(Scapanus latimanus), 251 
(Thomomys), 317 
altifrontalis (Euarctos), 265 
altipetens (Myotis lucifugus), 250 
altipinnis (Hydrophlox), 77 
alutaceus (Acrocheilus), 65 
Alvarius, 128 
alvarius (Bufo), 163 
Alvordius, 117 
amabilis (Diadophis), 204 
amaura (Lampropeltis triangulum), 211 
ambarvalis (Spilogale), 282 
Ambloplites, 109 
amblyceps (Euarctos americanus), 265 
Amblyopside, 99 
Amblyopsis, 100 
Ambystoma, 139 


386 


Ambystomide, 139 
Ameliuride, 85 
Ameiurus, 87 
American badger, 283 
harvest mice, 293 
jackal, 267 
otter, 284 
rats and mice, 291 
sable, 273 
saibling, 48 
smelt, 50 
americana (Antilocapra), 357 
(Morone), 129 
(Martes), 273 
americanus (Alces), 356 
(Bufo), 160 
(Esox), 93 
(Euarctos), 265 
(Euarctos amercanus), 265 
(Lepus), 346 
(Lepus americanus), 346 
(Oreamnos), 359 
(Zapus hudsonius), 324 
Amia, 32 
Amiatus, 32 
Amiide, 32 
Ammoceetes, 25 
Ammocrypta, 123 
Ammospermophilus, 336 
Amniota, 13 
amcenus (Carphophis), 203 
(Eutamias), 335 
(Sorex), 253 
Amphibians, 134 
Distribution, 135 
History, 134 
Key to the orders, 135 
Number, 135 
Amphiodon, 35 
Amphisbenide, 196 
Amphiuma, 155 
Amphiumide, 154 
Amyda, 240 
Anacanthini, 104 
Anamnia, 13 
anastase (Peromyscus gossypinus), 297 
(Scalopus aquaticus), 249 
andersonii (Hyla), 166 
Aneides, 148 
Anguide, 191 
Anguilla, 50 
anguilla (Ictalurus), 87 


INDEX 


Anguillide, 50 
angularis (Thomomys bottz), 317 
angulatus (Pecari), 353 
angusticeps (Microtus), 3009 
anisurum (Moxostoma), 59 
anne (Cottus), 133 
annectans (Citellus spilosoma), 339 
annectens (Neotoma fuscipes), 304 
Anniella, 192 
Anniellide, 192 
annularis (Pomoxis), 108 
annulatum (Ambystoma), 143 
anogenus (Hybopsis), 73 
Anolis, 183 
anomalum (Campostoma), 65 
Antelope chipmunks, 336 
jack rabbit, 347 
Antelopes, 357, 358 
anthonyi (Sciurus griseus), 331 
anthracinus (Eumeces), 195 
Antilocapra, 357 
Antilocapride, 357 
Antrozous, 264 
Anura, 156 
apache (Perognathus), 320 
(Sciurus), 331 
Apeltes, 104 
Aphredoderide, ro1 
Aphredoderus, 102 
Aplodinotus, 130 
Aplodontia, 326 
Aplodontiide, 326 
Apocope, 81 
Apoda, 135 
Apomotis, I11 
appendix (Lethenteron), 26 
aquaticus (Scalopus), 248 
(Scalopus aquaticus), 248 
(Sylvilagus), 351 
aquilarum (Trutta), 47 
Archoplites, to9 
Arctomys, 341 
ardens (Catostomus), 56 
arenarius (Geomys), 316 
arenicolor (Hyla), 167 
arens (Citellus spilosoma), 339 - 
areolata (Microhyla), 173 
(Rana), 171 


aridulus (Peromyscus leucopus), 297 


ariommus (Notropis), 78 
Arizona, 210 
white-tail, 356 


ee 


INDEX | 387 


arizone (Neotoma cinerea), 304 australis (Scalopus aquaticus), 249 
(Peromyscus leucopus), 297 avara (Marmota flaviventris), 342 
(Sigmodon hispidus), 301 avia (Mephitis mesomelas), 281 
(Spilogale), 282 Axylotl, 140 
(Sylvilagus auduboni), 350 ayresii (Lampetra), 27 

arizonensis (Cynomys ludovicianus), 341 azteca (Felis oregonensis), 286 
(Microtus montanus), 309 aztecus (Reithrodontomys megalotis), 294 
(Mustela), 276 
(Sciurus), 332 bachmani (Sylvilagus), 350 

armatus (Citellus), 339 (Sylvilagus bachmani), 350 

artedi (Leucichthys), 40 Badgers, 283 

artemisia (Peromyscus maniculatus), 296 badius (Citellus tridecemlineatus), 338 

Artibeus, 258 baileyi (Lynx), 287° 

articeps (Onychomys leucogaster), 292 (Myotis), 260 

Artiodactyla, 352 (Neotoma floridana), 302 

arundivaga (Felis), 285 (Sciurus hudsonicus), 328 

arvicoloides (Microtus richardsoni), 309 (Sylvilagus auduboni), 350 

Ascaphus, 158 bairdi (Cottus), 132 

asper (Cottus), 131 (Lepus), 347 

asprella (Crystallaria), 123 (Peromyscus maniculacus), 296 

astutus (Bassariscus), 271 (Sorex), 253 

Astyanax, 85 Ball snake, 200 

athabasce (Bison bison), 358 balteatus (Richardsonius), 70 

Atherinide, 106 Banded-gecko, 182 

atherinoides (Notropis), 79 pickerel, 93 

Atlantic salmon, 43 bangsi (Glaucomys sabrinus), 344 

Atractosteus, 32 barratti (Hololepis), 128 

atraria (Tigoma), 69 Barren-grounds caribou, 357 

atripes (Lythrurus), 80 Bass, 113, 128 

atrocaudalis (Hybopsis), 73 Bassariscide, 271 

atromaculatus (Semotilus), 68 Bassariscus, 271 

atronasus (Rhinichthys), 81 Bastard turtle, 241 

atrox (Crotalus), 224 - bathcecetor (Trutta), 46 

attenuatus (Batrachoseps), 149 Bathrachia, 134 

attwateri (Geomys breviceps), 316 Batrachoseps, 149 
(Neotoma floridana), 302 Bats, 257 
(Peromyscus boylei), 298 baudinii (Hyla), 166 

auduboni (Ovis canadensis), 359 bauri (Kinosternon), 229 
(Sylvilagus), 349 beani (Ammocrypta), 123 
(Sylvilagus auduboni), 350 beardslei (Trutta), 45 

aurantiacus (Hypohomus), 120 Bears, 264 

aurantius (Reithrodontomys fulvescens), Beavers, 344 

295 beecheyi (Otospermophilus grammurus), 

auratus (Carassius), 64 337 

aureolum (Moxostoma), 59 beldingi (Citellus), 340 

aureolus (Peromyscus nuttalli), 299 (Cottus), 132 
(Salvelinus), 48 Belonide, 102 

aureus (Thomomys perpallidus), 317 bellii (Chrysemys picta), 236 

auricularis (Pitymys pinetorum), 310 bendirei (Cottus), 133 

auriculatus (Desmognathus fuscus), 144 bendiri (Neosorex), 255 

auritus (Lepomis), 111 (Neosorex bendiri), 255 

aurora (Rana), 172 bennetti (Lepus californicus), 348 


austerus (Peromyscus maniculatus), 296 bergei (Leucichthys), 40 


388 


berlandieri (Cryptotis), 256 
(Gopherus), 239 
(Sigmodon hispidus), 3o0r 
(Taxidea taxus), 283 

bernardinus (Callospermophilus), 336 
(Eptesicus fuscus), 262 
(Microtus mordax), 308 

beryllina (Menidia), 106 

bicolor (Tigoma), 69 
(Siphateles), 71 

bifrenatus (Hybopsis), 73 

Big brown bat, 261 

Big brown bears, 265 

Big-eared bat, 263 

Big-jawed sucker, 60 

Bighorn, 358 

biguttatus (Nocomis), 84 

Billfish, 102 

bislineata (Eurycea), 152 

bislineata (Eurycea bislineata), 152 

Bison, 358 

bison (Bison), 358 

Black-banded sunfish, 110 

Black bass, 107, 113 
bear, 265 
buffalo, 52 
bullhead, 88 

Black-footed ferret, 278 

Black fox, 268 

Black-nosed dace, 81 

Black rat, 291 

Black-sided darters, 117 

Blacksnakes, 206 

Black-spotted trout, 44 

Black-tailed jack rabbit, 347 

Black-tail deer, 356 

Blackfin, 80 

Blackhorse, 54 

blainvillii (Phrynosoma), 189 
(Phrynosoma blainvillii), 189 

blandingii (Emys), 233 

Blarina, 255 

blennioides (Etheostoma), 121 

blennius (Hybopsis), 74 

Blind catfish, 89 

Blind fishes, 99 

Blue racer, 206 

Blue-back, 45 

Blue-breasted darter, 125 

Blueback, 43 
trout, 48 

Bluefin, 40 

Bluegill, 112 


INDEX 


Blunt nose, 67 

Boas, 200 

Bobcat, 286 

Boidae, 200 

Boleosoma, 122 

bollmani (Opsopcea), 72 

Bony fishes, 33 

Bony ganoids, 31 

Bony-tail, 69 

Boomers, 326 

borea (Cynoperca canadensis), 116 

borealis (Eutamias minimus), 335 
(Nycteris), 262 
(Nycteris borealis), 262 
(Odocoileus virginianus), 355 
(Urocyon cinereoargenteus), 270 

boreas (Bufo), 163 
(Bufo boreas), 163 

bosci (Notemigonus), 73 

botte (Charina), 200 
(Thomomys), 316 
(Thomomys bottz), 316 

bouvieri (Trutta), 45 

Bovide, 358 

Bowfins, 32 

Box-turtles, 233 

boylei (Peromyscus), 298 
(Peromyscus boylei), 298 

boylii (Lampropeltis getulus), 211 
(Rana), 172 
(Rana boylii), 172 

Brachylagus, 351 

brachyphona (Pseudacris), 168 

Breams, 72 


breviauritus (Onychomys leucogaster), 293 


brevicauda (Blarina), 255 
(Blarina brevicauda), 256 

brevicaudus (Evotomys), 313 
(Onychomys leucogaster), 292 

breviceps (Geomys), 316 


brevirostre (Phrynosoma douglassii), 191 


brevirostris (Chasmistes), 57 
brevirostrum (Acipenser), 30 
Brevoortia tyrannus, 36 
breweri (Microtus), 307 
(Parascalops), 249 


brimleyorum (Desmognathus fuscus), 145 


Brook silversides, 107 
stickleback, 104 
trout, 48 

Brown cat, 88 
rat, 201 


INDEX 


Brown snake, 216 
browni (Phyllorhynchus), 206 
brunnescens (Ochotona princeps), 352 
Brush rabbit, 350 
bubalus (Ictiobus), 52 
buccata (Ericymba), 80 
buckleyi (Otospermophilus 
337 

Buffalo, 358 

fish, 52 
Bufo, 159 
Bufonide, 159 
bulbivorus (Thomomys), 317 
Bull-snake, 209 
bullatus (Thomomys talpoides), 318 
Bullfrog, 171 
Bullhead minnow, 73 
Bullheads, 87 
Burbot, 105 
bursarius (Geomys), 315 
butleri (Thamnophis radix), 218 


grammurus), 


cabezonez (Dipodomys), 322 
Cacomistles, 271 
cacomitli (Felis), 286 
Calico bass, 108 
california (Lampropeltis getulus), 211 
californiana (Ovis canadensis), 359 
californianus (Zalophus), 288 
californica (Aplodontia rufa), 326 
(Felis oregonensis), 286 
californicus (Bufo cognatus), 163 
(Dipodomys heermanni), 322 
(Evotomys), 313 
(Glaucomys sabrinus), 344 
(Lepus), 347 
(Lepus californicus), 347 
(Lynx ruffus), 287 
(Macrotus), 258 
(Microdipodops), 323 
(Microtus), 308 
(Microtus californicus), 308 
(Myotis), 260 
(Myotis californicus), 260 
(Odocoileus hemionus), 356 
(Perognathus), 321 
(Perognathus californicus), 321 
(Peromyscus), 299 
(Sorex), 254 
(Urocyon), 270 
(Urocyon californicus), 270 
(Ursus), 266 
caligata (Marmota), 342 


389 


calligaster (Lampropeltis), 212 

callipeplus (Eutamias spesiosus), 334 

Callisaurus, 184 

callistia (Cyprinella), 75 

Callorhinus, 288 

Callospermophilus, 336 

calva (Amia), 32 

campanius (Lepus townsendii), 347 

campestris (Zapus hudsonius), 324 

Campostoma, 64 

camura (Cyprinella), 76 
(Vaillantia), 123 

camurus (Nothonotus), 125 

cana (Ficimia), 213 

Canada lynx, 287 

canadensis (Cynoperca), 115 

canadensis (Castor), 344 
(Castor canadensis), 344 
(Cervus), 354 
(Lutra), 284 
(Lutra canadensis), 284 
(Lynx), 287 
(Marmota monax), 342 
(Ovis), 358 

Candlefish, 49 

Cane-cutter, 351 

canescens (Microtus nanus), 309 

canicaudus (Microtus), 309 

Canidae, 266 

Canis, 266 

Canis familiaris, 266 

canorus (Bufo), 163 

cantabrigensis (Rana), 171 

canus (Citellus mollis), 340 
(Odocoileus hemionus), 356 
(Thomomys perpallidus), 317 

caprodes (Percina), 117 

Carassius, 64 

Caretta, 241 

caretta (Caretta), 241 

caribou (Rangifer), 357 

carinatus (Placopharynx), 60 
(Sternotherus), 228 

carissima (Myotis), 260 

Carnivora, 264 

carolina (Terrapene), 233 
(Terrapene carolina), 234 

carolinensis (Anolis), 183 
(Blarina brevicauda), 256 
(Castor canadensis), 344 
(Desmognathus fuscus), 145 
(Evotomys), 313 


39° 


carolinensis (Microhyla), 173 
(Sciurus), 329 
(Sciurus carolinensis), 320 

Carp, 64 
suckers, 53, 54 

Carphophis, 203 

carpio (Carpiodes), 53 
(Cyprinus), 64 

Carpiodes, 53 

Cartilaginous ganoids 

caryi (Eutamias minimus), 335 
(Scalopus aquaticus), 249 

cascadensis (Marmota caligata), 343 
(Sciurus douglasii), 320 
(Vulpes), 260 

castanops (Cratogeomys), 316 

castanurus (Callospermophilus lateralis), 

336 

Castor, 344 

Castoride, 344 

cataline (Reithrodontomys), 294 
(Urocyon), 270 

Catamount, 285 

Cataphracti 

cataracte (Rhinichthys), 81 

catenatus (Sistrurus), 222 
(Sistrurus catenatus), 222 
(Xenisma), 95 

catenifer (Pituophis), 210 

catesbeiana (Rana), 171 

Catfish, 85 

Catonotus, 127 

Catostomide, 51 

Catostomus, 54 

catostomus (Catostomus), 55 
(Phenacobius), 81 

Catostomus rostratus, 55 

Cats, 284 

Cattle, 358 

catulus (Ameiurus nebulosus), 88 

catus (Villarius), 87 

Caudata, 135 

caurina (Martes), 273 
(Martes caurina), 273 

caurinus (Eutamias amoenus), 335 
(Myotis californicus), 260 

Cave rat, 302 

Cavicornia, 357 

cedrophilus (Sylvilagus aududoni), 350 

Cemophora, 213 

Cenophora, 223 

Centrarchidz, 107 

Centrarchus, 108 


INDEX 


centrata (Malaclemys), 234 
(Malaclemys centrata), 235 
cepedianum (Dorosoma), 36 
cerasinus (Luxilus), 77 
cerastes (Crotalus), 224 
Ceratichthys, 73 
cercostigma (Cyprinella), 75 
Cervide, 353 
Cervina, 353 
cervinum (Scartomyzon), 60 
Cervus, 354 
elephus, 354 
Chenobryttus, 109 
chetodon (Mesogonistius), r1o 
Chain pickerel, 93 
Chain-snake, 210 
chalybeus (Hydrophlox), 78 
Chameleon, 183 
Channel cats, 86 
chapmani (Sylvilagus floridanus), 340 
Characinide, 85 
Charina, 200 
Chasmistes, 57 
Chelonia, 241 
Cheloniide, 241 
Chelydra, 230 
Chelydride, 229 
Cheonda, 69 
Chicken snake, 207 
turtle, 239 
chiliticus (Hydrophlox),.77 
Chilomeniscus, 213 
Chinook, 43 
Chipmunks, 332 _ 
Chiroptera, 257 
Chisel-mouth, 65 
jack, 39 
chlorocephalus (Hydrophlox), 77 
chlorus (Citellus), 340 
Chologaster, 100 
Chondrostei, 28 
Chondrotus tenebrosus, 139 
Chorophilus, 167 
Chrosomus, 65 
chrosomus (Hydrophlox), 78 
chrotorrhinus (Microtus), 307 
Chrysemys, 236 
chrysochloris (Pomolobus), 36 
chrysodeirus (Callospermophilus), 336 
chrysogaster (Apocope), 82 
Chrysoperca, 129 
chrysops (Lepibema), 129 
chrysotus (Zygonectes), 96 


INDEX 


Chub, 68, 69 
sucker, 58 
Chuck-walla, 183 
cicognani (Mustela), 275 
ciliatus (Entosphenus), 26 
ciliolabrum (Myotis californicus), 260 
cinctus (Chilomeniscus), 213 
cinerea (Hyla), 166 
(Neotoma), 304 
(Neotoma cinerea), 304 
(Nycteris), 262 
cinerascens (Callospermophilus lateralis), 
336 
(Sylvilagus bachmani), 350 
cinereicollis (Eutamias), 335 
cinereoargenteus (Urocyon), 269 
(Urocyon cinereoargenteus), 269 
cinereus (Nothonotus), 125 
(Plethodon), 147 
cingulatum (Ambystoma), 142 
cingulatus (Zygonectes), 96 
cinnamomea (Ochotona schisticeps), 352 
cinnamomeus (Ammospermophilus leucu- 
rus), 337 
cinnamomina (Ondatra zibethica), 314 
Cinnamon bear, 265 
cirrigera (Eurycea bislineata), 152 
Ciscoes, 39 
Cistudo, 233 
Citellus, 338 
Civet cat, 271 
clamitans (Rana), 170 
Claricola, 126 
clarkii (Natrix), 215 
(Sceloporus), 187 
Trutta, 44 
clemente (Urocyon), 270 
Clemmys, 231 
Clinostomus, 70 
Clupanodon pilchardus, 36 
Clupea harengus, 36 
clupeaformis (Coregonus), 38 
Clupeide, 36 
Clupeoidei, 34 
clusius (Thomomys talpoides), 318 
Cnemidophorus, 193 
Cobra, 220 
coccinea (Cemophora), 213 
coccogenis (Hydrophlox), 77 
Codfishes, 105 
ccerulea (Cyprinella), 76 
coeruleus (Gerrhonotus), 191 


coeruleus (Oligocephalus), 126 
cognatus (Bufo), 163 
(Bufo cognatus), 163 
(Cottus), 133 
(Sylvilagus), 349 
Coleonyx, 182 
collapsum (Moxostoma), 59 
Collared lizard, 184 
Collared peccary, 353 
collaris (Crotaphytus), 184 
coloratus (Oryzomys palustris), 
Coluber, 206 
Coluber, 207 
Coluber emoryi, 207 
Colubridz, 200 
Columbia, tot 
columbianus (Citellus), 330 
(Dipodomys ordii), 323 
(Odocoileus), 356 
(Siphateles), 71 
commersonii (Catostomus), 56 
Common box-turtle, 233 
buffalo, 53 
bullhead, 88 
chipmunk, 332 
chub, 68 
deer mouse, 296 
eel, 50 
field mouse, 306 
garpike, 32 
garter snake, 217 
horned toad, 189 
killifish, 94 
lake herring, 40 
meadow mouse, 306 
mink, 278 ; 
mole, 248 
muskrat, 313 
opossum, 246 
perch, 114 
pickerel, 93 
pike, 92 
porcupine, 325 
rabbit, 348, 349 
rat, 291 
rattlesnake, 223 
redhorse, 59 
shiner, 76 
shrew, 252 
skunk, 279 
snapper, 230 
spadefoot, 159 
stickleback, 103 


2 


99 


392 


Common sturgeon, 30 
sucker, 56 
sunfish, 113 
toad, 160 
tree toad, 165 
water snake, 215 
weasel, 274 
whitefish, 38 
white-footed mouse, 306 
woodchuck, 341 
compacta (Blarina brevicauda), 256 
compactilis (Bufo), 162 
compressicauda (Natrix), 215 
concentrica (Malaclemys centrata), 235 
concinna (Pseudemys), 238 
concinnus (Thamnophis sirtalis), 217 
concolor (Felis), 285 
(Ichthyomyzon), 25 
Condylura, 250 
Conepatus, 283 
confinis (Elaphe obsoleta), 208 
confluentes (Crotalus), 224 
Congo snake, 155 
Coniophanes, 219 
conocephalus (Mylopharodon), 67 
consobrinus (Eutamias minimus), 335 
(Sceloporus), 188 
constrictor (Coluber), 206 
(Coluber constrictor), 206 
constrictus (Microtus californicus), 308 
Contia, 212 
contortrix (A gkistrodon), 221 
contortrix (Heterodon), 204 
Coon, 271 
cooperi (Eutamias townsendii), 334 
(Synaptomys), 311 
Cooters, 237 
copei (Chasmistes), 57 
(Cheonda), 69 
copelandi (Cottogaster), 120 
Copperhead, 221 
corais couperi (Drymarchon), 209 
Coral king-snake, 212 
snake, 220 
Coregonide, 37 
Coregonus, 38 
coriacea (Dermochelys), 242 
carinatus (Stenotherus), 228 
Corn-snake, 208 
cornutum (Phrynosoma), 189 
cornutus (Chologaster), 100 
(Luxilus), 76 
coronata (Tantilla), 219 


INDEX 


corporalis (Leucosomus), 68 

coryi (Felis), 285 

Corynorhinus, 263 

Cottide, 131 

Cottogaster, 120 

Cotton rat, 300 

Cottonmouth, 222 

Cottontails, 348 

Cottus, 131 

couchii (Scaphiopus), 159 

couesi (Apocope), 82 
(Erethizon epixanthum), 326 
(Odocoileus), 356 

Couesius, 84 

Cougar, 285 

coulteri (Prosopium), 39 

Coyote, 267 

cragini (Oligocephalus), 126 

Crappie, 108 

crassicauda (Siboma), 69 

crassilabre (Moxostoma), 59 

Cratogeomys, 316 

crawfordi (Notiosorex), 256 

crepitans (Acris), 167 

crescentis (Trutta), 46 

Cricetine, 291 

Cricket frog, 167 

crinitus (Peromyscus), 299 

cristata (Condylura), 250 
(Cystophora), 289 

Cristivomer, 47 

croceater (Ensatina), 148 

Crocodilia, 178 

Crocodylide, 178 

Crocodylus, 179 

crooki (Odocoileus), 355 

Crook’s black-tailed deer, 355 

Cross fox, 268 

Crotalide, 221 

Crotalus, 222 

Crotaphytus, 183 

crucifer (Hyla), 165 

Cryptobranchide, 137 

Cryptobranchidea, 137 

Cryptobranchus, 137 

Cryptotis, 256 

cryptospilotus (Citellus), 339 

crysoleucas (Notemigonus), 72 

Crystallaria, 123 

cujus (Chasmistes), 57 

cumberlandicus (Catonotus flabellaris), 127 

cuneus (Hypopachus), 173 

curtatus (Lagurus), 310 


Cut-lip, 85 

Cutthroat trout, 44 

cyanellus (Apomotis), rr1 
cyanocephalus (Lythrurus), 80 
cyanopterus (Leucichthys), 41 
Cycleptus, 54 

Cyclo phis, 205 

cyclopion (Natrix), 216 
Cyclostomata, 24 
Cyclostomes, 24 
Cylindrosteus, 32 
cymatotcenia (Hypohomus), 120 
cynocephala (Tadarida), 264 
Cynomys, 340 

Cynoperca, 115 

Cyprinella, 75 

cyprinella (Megastomatobus), 53 
Cyprinidz, 60 

Cyprinodon, 98 
Cyprinodontes, 93 
Cyprinodontide, 93 

Cyprinus, 64 

cyprinus (Carpiodes), 54 
Cystophora, 289 


Dace, 60, 76 
dacota (Marmota flaviventris), 342 
dakotensis (Chrosomus), 66 
(Sciurus hudsonicus), 328 
danielsi (Gyrinophilus), 150 
Darters, 116, 121 
Dasypodide, 247 
Dasypterus, 262 
Dasypus, 247 
debilis (Bufo), 162 
declivifrons (Trutta), 45 
decumanus (Mus), 291 
Deer, 353 
mice, 295 
degener (Lutra), 284 
Deirochelys, 238 
dekayi (Storeria), 216 
Dekay’s snake, 216 
deletrix (Vulpes), 269 
deliciosus (Hybopsis), 74 
delphinus (Pantosteus), 54 
Deltistes, 57 
Dermochelide, 242 
Dermochelys, 242 
Desert fox, 269 
deserti (Dipodomys), 322 
deserticola (Lepus californicus), 347 


INDEX 393 


desertorum (Neotoma), 303 

Desmodus, 258 

Desmognathus, 144 

Diadophis, 203 

Diamond-back rattlesnake, 22 
terrapin, 234 

diaphanus (Fundulus), 95 

Dicamptodon, 139 

Didelphis, 246 

Didelphide, 246 

Diemyctylus, 138 

difformis (Carpiodes), 53 

dilatus (Scapanus latimanus), 251 

dilectus (Notropis), 79 

Dionda, 66 

Diphylla, 258 

Dipnoi, 28 

Dipodomys, 321 

Dipsosaurus, 183 

discobolus (Catostomus), 55 

Discoglosside, 158 

dispar (Zygonectes), 96 
(Perognathus californicus), 321 
(Sorex), 253 

dissimilis (Couesius), 84 
(Erimystax), 83 

dixoni (Dipodomys heermanni), 322 

dobsoni (Sorex vagrans), 253 

Dog salmon, 43 

Dogfish, 32 

Dogs, 266 

doliata (Lampropeltis), 211 

dolomieu (Macropterus), 113 

Doration, 121 

Dormitator, 133 

Dorosoma, 36 

Dorosomide, 35 

dorsalis (Chrysemys picta), 236 
(Dipsosaurus), 183 
(Eutamias), 333 
(Hybopsis), 74 
(Plethodon), 147 

dorsatum (Erethizon), 325 

douglasii (Otospermophilus grammurus 

337 

(Sciurus), 329 
(Sciurus douglasii), 320 
(Thomomys), 318 

douglassii (Phrynosoma), 190 
(Phrynosoma douglassii), 190 

draytoni (Rana aurora), 172 

Drums, 129 


394 


Drymarchon, 208 
Drymobius, 208 

dulcis (Leptotyphlops), 200 
duquesnei (Moxostoma), 59 
Dusky salamander, 147 
dutcheri (Microtus), 309 
Dwari salamander, 153 


dychei (Reithrodontomys megalotis), 294 


Eastern harvest mouse, 293 
Edentata, 247 


edwardsii (Sistrurus catenatus), 222 


Eel cat, 87 

Eels, 50 

effulgens (Boleosoma nigrum), 122 

egregia (Cheonda), 69 

egregius (Eumeces), 196 

Elaphe, 207 

Elapide, 220 

Elapine snakes, 197, 220 

Elaps, 220 

elapsoides (Lampropeltis), 212 

Elassoma, 107 

Elassomide, 107 

elator (Dipodomys), 323 

elegans (Arizona), 210 
(Citellus), 339 
(Gila), 60 
(Holbrookia), 185 
(Pseudemys), 237 
(Thamnophis), 218 
(Virginia valerie), 217 

eleuthera (Rabida),.go 

Eleutherodactylus, 164 

Elk, 354 

elongata (Mephitis), 280 

elongatus (Clinostomus), 70 
(Cycleptus), 54 
(Plethodon), 148 

elucus (Procyon lotor), 271 

Embiotocide, 130 

emilie (Opsopceodus), 72 

emoryi (Amyda), 240 
(Coluber), 207 

Emys, 233 

Enchelycephali, 50 

energumenos (Mustela vison), 278 


engelhardti (Marmota flaviventris), 342 


Enhydra, 284 
Enhydrine, 284 
Enneacanthus, 110 
Ensatina, 148 


INDEX 


ensatus (Dicamptodon), 139 
Entosphenus, 26 
eos (Chrosomus), 66 
episcopa (Dionda), 67 
epixanthum (Erethizon), 326 
Eptesicus, 261 
erebennus (Ameiurus), 88 
eremicus (Lepus californicus), 348 
(Lynx ruffus), 287 
(Odocoileus hemionus), 356 
(Peromyscus), 299 
(Sigmodon hispidus), 301 
Erethizon, 325 
Erethizontide, 325 
Eretmochelys, 241 
Ericosoma, 119 
Ericymba, 80 
eriensis (Leucichthys), 40 
Erimystax, 83 
Erimyzon, 58 
Erinemus, 83 
erythrogaster (Chrosomus), 65 
(Natrix), 215 
erythrogrammus (Abastor), 203 
eschscholtzi (Ensatina), 148 
Esocidae, 91 
Esox, 92 
estor (Canis), 268 
(Mephitis), 281 
Etheostoma, 121 
Etheostomide, 116 
Euarctos, 265 
Eucalia, 104 
Euderma, 263 
Eumeces, 194 
Eumetopias, 288 
Eupomotis, 112 
European carp, 64 
elk, 357 
hedgehog, 248 
red deer, 354 
reindeer, 357 
trout, 48 
Eurycea, 152 
eurystoma (Cyprinella,) 75 
euryxanthus (Micrurus), 220 
Eutenia, 217 
Eutamias, 333 
Even-toed ungulates, 352 
Eventognathi, 50 
evergladei (Elassoma), 107 
evermanni (Alvordius), 117 
evides (Ericosoma), 119 


INDEX 395 


evittata (Hyla cinerea), 166 Fishes, History, 22 
evotis (Myotis), 260 Identification, 15 
Evotomys, 312 Key to the subclasses of fishes, 23 
exilicauda (Lavinia), 65 Lateral line, 18 
exilis (Dipodomys merriami), 323 Measurements, 15 
(Rabida), 90 Number of species, 23 
(Oligocephalus), 126 Scales, 18 
eximius (Microtus californicus), 308 Teeth, 21 
Exoglossum, 85 flabellaris (Catonotus), 127 
Extrarius, 82 flagellum (Coluber), 206 
extenuatum (Stilosoma), 212 flairpunctatus (Aneides), 149 
extimus (Sciurus carolinensis), 33° Flat-fish, 105 
Eyra, 286 Flatheaded chub, 85 
flavescens (Kinosternon), 229 
falcata (Apocope), 82 (Perca), 114 
fallax (Neotoma mexicana), 303 (Perognathus), 320 
(Perognathus), 321 flavigularis (Coluber flagellum), 207 
Fallfish, 68 flavilata (Rhadinza), 210 
Fan-tailed darter, 127 flavissimus (Pseudotriton montanus), 151 
Farancia, 203 flaviventris (Coluber constrictor), 206 
fasciata (Natrix), 215 (Marmota), 342 
fasciatus (Achirus), 105 (Marmota flaviventris), 342 
(Eumeces), 195 flavus (Bassariscus astutus), 272 
(Lynx), 287 (Noturus), 89 
(Lynx fasciatus), 287 (Perognathus), 320 
(Perognathus), 319 Flesh-eaters, 264 
Fathead, 67 Florida cougar, 285 
Felide, 284 white tail, 355 
Felis, 284 florida (Jordanella), 98 
Felis catus, 285 floridana (Cryptotis), 256 
domestica, 285 (Lampropeltis getulus), 211 
maniculata, 285 (Neotoma), 302 
femoralis (Hyla), 166 (Neotoma floridana), 302 
(Perognathus), 321 (Pseudemys), 238 
Fence lizard, 187 (Rhineura), 196 
feriarum (Pseudacris nigrita), 168 floridanus (Canis), 267 
ferox (Amyda), 240 (Dasypterus), 263 
ferreus (Aneides), 149 (Euarctos), 265 
(Sciurus aberti), 331 (Geomys tuza), 315 
Fiber, 313 (Lynx ruffus), 287 
Ficimia, 213 (Peromyscus), 299 
Field mice, 304, 305 (Sylvilagus), 349 
figginsi (Ochotona princeps), 352 (Sylvilagus floridanus), 348 
Fine-scaled suckers, 54 floridanus (Urocyon cinereoargenteus), 270 
Fisher, 273 Flying squirrels, 343 
fisheri (Sorex), 254 fonticola (Alvarius), 128 
(Tamias striatus), 333 fontigenus (Microtus pennsylvanicus), 307 
(Thomomys quadratus), 318 fontinalis (Salvelinus), 48 
Fishes, 15 (Sorex), 252 
Color, 19 Forbesella, 100 
Distribution, 23 formosa (Heterandria), 99 
Fins, 15 formosus (Perognathus), 320 


Head, 20 formulosum (Compostoma), 65 


396 INDEX 


fossor (Thomomys), 318 

Four-spined stickleback, 104 

fowleri (Bufo), 160 

Fox-snake, 208 

Fox squirrel, 331 

Foxes, 266, 268 

franklini (Citellus), 338 

frater (Eutamias speciosus), 334 

fremonti (Sciurus), 329 
(Sciurus fremonti), 329 

frenatus (Coluber flagellum), 207 

Fresh-water sculpins, 131 

Frogs, 156, 168 

frondator (Castor canadensis), 345 

frontale (Phrynosoma blainvilli), 189 

Frostfish, 39 

frustror (Canis), 267 

fuliginosus (Glaucomys sabrinus), 344 
(Scuirus carolinensis), 330 

fulva (Vulpes), 268 

fulvescens (Acipenser), 30 
(Reithrodontomys), 205 

fulvius (Micrurus), 220 

fulvus (Thomomys), 317 
(Thomomys fulvus), 317 

fumeus (Sorex), 253 

Fundulus, 94 

Fur seal, 288 

furcatus (Ictalurus), 86 

fusca (Neotoma cinerea), 304 

fuscipes (Neotoma), 303 
(Neotoma fuscipes), 303 
(Procyon lotor), 271 

fuscogriseus (Onychomys leucogaster), 292 

fuscus (Desmognathus), 144 
(Desmognathus fuscus), 144 
(Eptesicus), 261 
(Eptesicus fuscus), 262 
(Thomomys), 319 
(Thomomys fuscus), 319 

fusiforms (Hololepis), 128 

fusus (Peromyscus leucopus), 297 


Gadide, 105 

gaillardi (Ovis canadensis), 359 
gairdneri (Trutta), 45 

galactura (Cyprinella), 76 

galei (Evotomys gapperi), 313 

gambeli (Peromyscus maniculatus), 296 
Gambusia, 98 

Ganoid fishes, 28 

Ganoidei, 28 


gapperi (Evotomys), 312 
(Evotomys gapperi), 312 
Garfish, 102 
Garpikes, 31, 102 
Garter snakes, 217 
Gasterosteidce, 103 
Gasterosteus, 103 
Geckos, 182 
Gekkonide, 182 
gelidus (Macrhybopsis), 83 
generosus (Pantosteus), 54 
gentilis (Lampropeltis triangulum), 211 
geographica (Graptemys), 235 
Geomyide, 314 
Geomys, 315 
Gerrhonotus, I91 
getulus (Lampropeltis), 210 
(Lampropeltis getulus), 211 
Giant salamanders, 137 
gibbosus (Eupomotis), 113 
gibbsii (Neurotrichus), 251 
(Trutta), 44 
gigas (Canis), 267 
(Lynx), 287 
Gila, 69 
Gila monster, 192 
gilberti (Peromyscus truei), 298 
(Rabida), 90 
(Trutta), 46 
Ginglymodi, 31 
Gizzard shad, 36 
Glandiunculus, 103 
Glaniostomi, 29 
Glass snake, 192 
Glaucomys, 343 
glaucum (Stizostedion), 115 
gloriosus (Enneacanthus), 110 
glutinosa (Myxine), 24 
glutinosus (Plethodon), 147 
Glutton, 278 
Goats, 358 
Gobies, 133 
Gobiide, 133 
Gobioidea, 133 
Golden chipmunks, 336 
mouse, 298 
shiner, 72 
trout, 46, 47 
Goldfish, 64 
goldmani (Dipodomys heemanni), 322 
goodei (Lucania), 97 


INDEX 397 


Gopher snake 209 griseus (Castostomus), 55 
frog, 171 (Sciurus), 330 
turtle, 239 (Sciurus griseus), 330 
Gophers, 338 (Tamias striatus), 333 
Gopherus, 239 Grizzly bear, 265 
gorbuscha (Oncorhynchus), 42 groenlandica (Phoca), 289 
gossi (Synaptomys cooperi), 311 Gronias, 89 
gossypinus (Peromyscus), 2097 Ground-hogs, 341 
(Peromyscus gossypinus), 297 Ground rattler, 222 
Goujon, 89 snake, 203 
gracile (Ambystoma), 142 squirrels, 336, 338 
gracilis (Peromyscus maniculatus), 295 grunniens (Aplodinotus), 130 
(Platygobio), 85 grylio (Rana), 172 
(Spilogale), 282 gryllus (Acris), 167 
(Tantilla), 219 grypus (Halicherus), 289 
graciosa (Uta), 186 gularis (Cnemidophorus), 193 
graciosus (Sceloporus), 188 Gulo, 278 
grahamensis (Sciurus fremonti), 329 Gulonine, 278 
grahami (Natrix), 214 gulosus (Chenobryttus), 109 
grahamiz (Salvadora), 205 (Cottus), 131 
grammurus (Otospermophilus), 337 gunnisoni (Cynomys), 341 
grandis (Ptychocheilus), 69 guttata (Clemmys), 231 
grangeri (Sylvilagus nuttalli), 349 (Elaphe), 208 
Graptemys, 235 guttatus (Zygonectes), 96 
Grass pike, 93 guttolineata (Eurycea), 152 
snake, 205 gymnicus (Sciurus hudsonicus), 328 
Grasshopper mice, 291 Gyrinophilus, 150 
gratiosa (Hyla), 166 gyrinus (Schilbeodes), 89 
Gray foxes, 269 
rabbit, 348 Hadropterus, 119 
seal, 289 Hagfish, 24 


Hairlip sucker, 60 
Hairy-tailed mole, 249 
Haldea, 216 
Halecomorphi, 32 
Halicheerus, 289 


squirrel, 329 

wolf, 267 
Graylings, 48 
Great forked-tail cat, 86 


Great Lakes catfish, 87 haliccetes (Reithrodontomys raviventris), 
trout, 47 204 

Great sea lamprey, 26 halophilus (Bufo boreas), 163 

Green-back, 45 hammondi (Scaphiopus), 159 

Green-frog, 170 hankinsoni (Hybognathus), 66 
snake, 205 Haplomi, 90 
sturgeon, 30 Harbor seal, 289 


Harelip sucker, 60 
harengus (Leucichthys), 39 
Hares, 345 

Harlequin snake, 220 
Harp seal, 289 


aie (Couesius), 84 harrisii (Ammospermophilus), 337 
Gridiron-tailed lizard, 184 Harvest mice, 293 


grinnelli (Scapanus latimanus), 251 Hawk bill, 241 
grisea (Cynoperca canadensis), 115 haydeni (Microtus), 307 
grisescens (Myotis), 260 hayi (Hybognathus), 66 


sunfish, 111 

turtle, 241 
Green-sided darter, 121 
Greenback, 47 


398 


Hedgehog, 248, 325 

heermanni (Dipodomys), 322 

helaletes (Synaptomys cooperi), 311 

Helioperca, 112 

Hellbender, 137 

Heloderma, 192 

Helodermatide, 192 

Hemidactylium, 148 

Hemidactylus turcicus, 182 

hemionus (Odocoileus), 356 

hemiophrys (Bufo), 161 

Hemitremia, 70 

henshawi (Trutta), 44 
(Xantusia), 193 

hernandesi (Felis), 286 
(Phrynosoma douglassii), 190 

hernandezi (Procyon lotor), 271 

heros (Eupomotis), 113 

Herring, 36 

hesperis (Uta stansburiana), 186 

Hesperoleucus, 71 

hesperus (Pipistrellus), 261 
(Thomomys), 319 

Heterandria, 99 

heteroclitus (Fundulus), 94 

Heterodon, 204 

heterodon (Hybopsis), 74 

Heterognathi, 85 

Heteromyide, 319 

Heterostomata, 105 

Hiodon, 35 

Hiodontide, 35 

hippocrepis (Kinosternon subrubrum), 220 

hippolestes (Felis oregonensis), 286 

Hippopotamide, 353 

hispida (Phoca), 289 

hispidus (Perognathus), 320 
(Sigmodon), 300 
(Sigmodon hispidus), 300 

histrio (Ulocentra), 121 

Hitch, 65 

Hoary bat, 262 

Hog-nosed skunk, 283 
snakes, 204 

Hog sucker, 57 

holbrooki (Eupomotis), 113 
(Gambusia), 98 
(Lampropeltis getulus), 211 
(Scaphiopus), 150 

Holbrookia, 185 

Holconoti, 130 

Hololepis, 127 

Holostei, 31 


INDEX 


holzneri (Mephitis occidentalis), 281 

(Sylvilagus floridanus), 349 
Hooded seal, 289 
Hoofed animals, 352 
Hoop snake, 206 
Horn snake, 203 
Horned dace, 68 

lizards, 189 

pout, 88 

toads, 189 
Horny-head, 84 
horrizus (Ursus), 266 
horribilis (Ursus), 265 
horridus (Crotalus), 223 
House-bat, 261 
House-mouse, 291 
howelli (Scalopus aquaticus), 249 
hoyi (Leucichthys), 41 

(Microsorex), 255 
hudsonica (Mephitis), 279 
hudsonicus (Sciurus), 328 

(Sciurus hudsonicus), 328 
hudsonius (Hybopsis), 75 

(Zapus), 324 _ 

(Zapus hudsonius), 324 
hulophaga (Blarina brevicauda), 256 
humboldtiana (Aplodontia rufa), 326 
humeralis (Nycticeius), 263 
humilis (Allotis), 112 

(Leptotyphlops), 200 
Humpback salmon, 42 
humulis (Reithrodontomys), 293 

(Reithrodontomys humulis), 294 
Huro, 114 
hyacinthinus (Neurotrichus gibbsi), 251 
hyalinus (Erinemus), 84 
Hybognathus, 66 
Hybopsis, 73 
Hyborhynchus, 67 
Hydromantes, 153 
Hydrophlox, 77 
hydrophlox (Cheonda), 70 
Hyla, 165 
Hylide, 164 
hyostomus (Extrarius), 83 
Hypentelium, 57 
Hyperoartia, 24 
Hyperotreta, 24 
hyperythrus (Cnemidophorus), 194 
Hypohomus, 120 
Hypopachus, 173 
hypopheus (Sciurus carolinensis), 330 
Hypsiglena, 213 


hypsinotus (Erinemus), 83 
Hysterocarpus, 130 


Ichthyomyzon, 25 

Ichthyopsida, 13 

Ictalurus, 86 

Ictiobus, 52 

idahoensis (Brachylagus), 345, 351 
(Evotomys), 313 

zecanus (Aneides), 149 

Iguanas, 182 

Iguanide, 182 

illinoensis (Neotoma floridana), 302 

imbricata (Eretmochelys), 241 

immaculatus (Esox masquinongy), 92 

Imostoma, 120 

imperialis (Coniophanes), 219 

impiger (Reithrodontomys humulis), 204 

incautus (Myotis), 260 

incisor (Helioperca), 112 

inconstans (Eucalia), 104 

indianola (Spilogale), 282 

Indigo snake, 209 

infernalis (Gerrhonotus), 192 
(Thamnophis sirtalis), 218 

ingens (Dipodomys), 323 

insculpta (Clemmys), 232 

Insectivora, 247 

insignis (Napzozapus), 325 
(Rabida), 90 

interior (Myotis longicrus), 250 

intermedia (Neotoma), 304 

intermedius (Dasypterus), 263 
(Perognathus), 321 
(Phenacomys), 311 
(Reithrodontomys fulvescens), 295 
(Scalopus aquaticus), 249 


INDEX 3909 


jamaicensis parvipes (Artibeus), 258 
jarrovi (Sceloporus), 188 
jeffersonianum (Ambystoma), 142 
jejunus (Notropis), 78 
Jerker, 84 
jessie (Oligocephalus), 126 
Johnny darter, 122 
Jordanella, 98 
jordani (Nothonotus), 125 
(Pantosteus), 54 
(Plethodon), 148 
(Trutta), 45 
jubata (Eumetopias), 288 
juglans (Otospermophilus grammurus), 338 
Jumbo herring, 40 
Jumping mice, 324 


kaibabensis (Sciurus), 331 
kanawha (Hybopsis), 74 
Kangaroo mice, 323 

rats, 321 
kansz (Plancterus), 95 
Keel-backed lizard, 183 
kempi (Caretta), 241 
kennerlyi (Oncorhynchus), 43 
kernensis (Microtus californicus), 308 
keta (Oncorhynchus), 43 
Killifish, 93, 94 
King salmon, 43 
kingii (Gerrhonotus), 192 
King-snakes, 210 
Kinosternidz, 227 
Kinosternon, 228 
kirtlandii (Natrix), 215 
kisutch (Oncorhynchus), 43 
Kit fox, 269 
kiyi (Leucichthys), 40 


interpres (Ammospermophilus leucurus), klamathensis (Cottus), 132 


337 
interrupta (Chrysoperca), 129 
(Spilogale), 282 
interruptus (Archoplites), 109 
Ioa, 124 
Iotichthys, 71 
irideus (Trutta), 46 
Trillion, 39 
Isospondyli, 34 


Jack rabbit, 347 
Jackal, 267 

Jaguar, 286 
Jaguarundi cat, 286 


(Glaucomys sabrinus), 344 
(Lepus washingtoni), 346 
kohni (Graptemys pseudogeographicus), 
236 


Labidesthes, 106 

labrosus (Erinemus), 83 

lacera (Logochila), 60 

lacerata (Holbrookia), 185 

Lacertilia, 179 

lacertina (Siren), 156 

lacustris (Mustela vison), 278 
(Villarius), 87 

leta (Elaphe), 207 


400 


Lagurus, 310 
Lake herring, 39 
sturgeon, 30 
trout, 47 
lamotteni (Okkelbergia), 27 
Lampetra, 27 
Lamprey eel, 26 
Lampreys, 24 
Lampropeltis, 210 
Land tortoises, 239 
turtles, 230 
Large-mouthed black bass, 114 
Larve of Plethodontidae, 153 
lascivus (Glaucomys sabrinus), 344 
Lasionycteris, 261 
Lasiurus, 262 
lataxina (Lutra canadensis), 284 
laterale (Leiolopisma), 196 
lateralis (Callospermophilus), 336 
(Coluber), 207 
(Mylocheilus), 68 
laticeps (Thomomys bottz), 316 


laticinetus (Agkistrodon mokasen), 221 


latifrons (Spilogale phenax), 283 
latimanus (Scapanus), 251 
(Scapanus latimanus), 251 
latipinna (Mollienisia), 99 
latipinnis (Catostomus), 55 
latirostris (Trichechus), 247 
latrans (Canis), 267 
(Eleutherodactylus), 164 
Lavinia, 65 
Lawyer, 105 
Leaf-nosed bats, 258 
Least weasel, 275 
Leather-turtle, 242 
lecontei (Rhinocheilus), 213 
Leiolopisma, 196 
Leopard frog, 169 
lizard, 184 
Lemmings, 304, 311 
Lepibema, 129 
lepida (Neotoma), 303 
(Neotoma lepida), 303 
Lepidosteus, 32 
lepidus (Crotalus), 225 
Lepisosteide, 31 
Lepisosteus, °32 
Lepomis, 110 
Leporide, 345 
lepta (Mustela streatori), 276 
leptacantha (Rabida), 90 


INDEX 


Leptocephali, 50 

Leptodactylus, 163 

Leptodeira, 200, 219 

Leptotyphlopide, 199 

Leptotyphlops, 200 

Lepus, 345 

Lepus sylvaticus, 348 

lestes (Canis), 267 

lesueri (Moxostoma), 59 

Lethenteron, 26 

Lethogrammus, III 

letifera (Mustela vison), 278 

Leucichthys, 39 

leuciodus (Notropis), 78 

leucodon (Thomomys bottz), 317 

leucogaster (Onychomys), 292 
(Onychomys leucogaster), 292 

leucogenys (Sorex), 254 

leucoparia (Spilogale), 282 

leucopus (Peromyscus), 296 
(Peromyscus leucopus), 297 

Leucosomus, 68 

leucotis (Sciurus carolinensis), 330 

leucurus (Ammospermophilus), 336 
(Cynomys), 341 
(Odocoileus), 355 

Leurognathus, 146 

levis (Phenacomys intermedius), 312 
(Uta), 186 

lewisi (Necturus), 155 
(Trutta), 44 

Lichanura, 200 

limi (Umbra), 91 

linearis (Uta ornata), 187 

lineatus (Thamnophis), 218 

lineolatus (Catonotus flabellaris), 127 

Ling, 105 

Liodytes, 219 

Liopeltis, 205 

liorus (Chasmistes), 57 

lirus (Lithrurus), 80 

Little brown bat, 259 
pickerel, 93 
sunfish, 110 

littoralis (Malaclemys pileata), 235 
(Sigmodon hispidus), 300 
(Sylvilagus aquaticus), 351 
(Urocyon), 270 

Lizards, 179 

Lobo, 267 

Log-perch, 117 

Loggerhead turtle, 241 


Logochila, 60 
Long nosed dace, 81 
Long-eared bat, 260 
fox, 269 
sunfish, 112 
Long-jaw, 40, 41 
Long-nose sucker, 55 
Long-tailed shrews, 252 
skunk, 281 
weasel, 274, 276 
longicauda (Eurycea), 153 
(Mustela), 276 
(Mustela longicauda), 276 
longicaudus (Microtus), 307 
(Onychomys torridus), 293 
(Phenocomys), 312 
(Reithrodontomys megalotis), 204 
(Sorex), 253 
longicrus (Myotis), 250 
longimana (Ulocentra), 121 
longimembris (Perognathus), 320 
longipes (Dipodomys ordii), 323 
(Onychomys leucogaster), 293 
longirostris (Sorex), 254 
lordi (Perognathus), 320 
loringi (Evotomys gapperi), 313 
loquax (Sciurus hudsonicus), 328 
Lota, 105 
lotor (Procyon), 271 
(Procyon lotor), 271 
louisianz (Odocoileus virginianus), 355 
louisianensis (Triturus), 139 
Lucania, 97 
lucifuga (Eurycea), 153 
lucifugus (Myotis), 259 
(Myotis lucifugus), 259 
lucius (Esox), 92 
(Ptychocheilus), 69 
ludovicianus (Cynomys), 340 
(Cynomys ludovicianus), 340 
(Microtus), 307 
lugubris (Aneides), 149 
luscus (Gulo), 278 
luteiventris (Eutamias amoenus), 335 
lutensis (Mustela vison), 278 
luteola (Marmota flaviventris), 342 
luteolus (Euarctos), 265 
‘luteovinctus (Oligocephalus), 126 
lutescens (Geomys), 316 
luteus (Gulo), 278 
(Zapus), 325 
lutosus (Crotalus confluentus), 225 


INDEX 


Lutra, 283 

lutrensis (Cyprinella), 75 
Lutrine, 283 

lutris (Enhydra), 284 

luxatus (Chasmistes), 57 
Luxilus, 76 

lycaon (Canis), 267 

lychnuchus (Sciurus fremonti), 329 
Lyciscus, 266 

lyelli (Sorex tenellus), 254 

Lynx, 286 

Lyodytes, 219 

lyrophanes (Trimorphodon), 220 
lysteri (Tamias striatus), 333 
Lythrurus, 79 


macdonaldi (Hydrophlox), 77 
(Trutta), 45 
machrinoides (Scalopus aquaticus), 249 
machrinus (Scalopus aquaticus), 249 
Mackinaw trout, 47 
Macrhybopsis, 83 
macrocephalus (Alvordius), 118 
macrocheilus (Catostomus), 56 
Macrochelys, 230 
macrochira (Helioperca), 112 
macrodactylum (Ambystoma), 142 
macrodon (Ondatra zibethica), 314 
macrolepidotum (Moxostoma), 59 
macrolepidotus (Pogonichthys), 68 
macropterus (Centrarchus), 108 
macropus (Microtus richardsoni), 309 
macrospilota (Malaclemys pileata), 235 
macrospilotus (Citellus spilosoma), 339 
macrostoma (Cyprinella), 75 
macrotis (Glaucomys sabrinus), 344 
(Neotoma fuscipes), 304 
(Vulpes), 260 
Macrotus, 258 
macroura milleri (Mephitis), 281 
(Vulpes), 269 
macrourus (Odocoileus virginianus), 355 
macrurus (Microtus mordax), 309 
maculata (Holbrookia), 185 
maculaticeps (Boleosoma nigrum), 123 
maculatum (Ambystoma), 140 
(Euderma), 263 
maculatus (Alvordius), 118 
(Dormitator), 133 
(Nothonotus), 125 
maculicauda (Eurycea), 153 
maculosa (Lota), 105 
maculosus (Necturus), 155 


401 


402 


Mad-toms, 89, 90 


magruderensis (Perognathus parvus), 320 


Mailed-cheek fishes, r30 

majalis (Fundulus), 95 

major (Batracohoseps pacificus), 149 
(Citellus spilosoma), 339 
(Mephitis occidentalis), 281 
(Terrapene), 234 

Malaclemys, 234 

mallurus (Sylvilagus floridanus), 349 

Mammalia, 14, 243 

Mammals, 243 ‘ 
History, 245 


INDEX 


means (Amphiuma), 155 
mearnsi (Canis), 268 
(Sylvilagus floridanus), 349 
(Uta), 186 
Meantes, 155 
megacephalus (Microdipodops), 324 
(Peromyscus gossypinus), 297 
Megachiroptera, 257 
Megalobactracus japonicus, 137 
megalophylla senicula,(Mormoops), 258 
megalotis (Xenotes), 112 
(Reithrodontomys), 294 
(Reithrodontomys megalotis), 294 


— 


Key to the orders of mammals, 245 Megastomatobus, 52 
On the identification of mammals, 243 melanoleucus (Pituophis), 209 
maniculatus (Peromyscus), 295 melanophrys (Onychomys leucogaster), 292 


(Peromyscus maniculatus), 295 
Manitee, 247 
Map turtles, 235 
Marbled slamander, 140 
marcianus (Thamnophis), 218 
Margariscus, 70 
margarita (Margariscus), 70 
margartiferus (Drymobius), 208 
marginata (Chrysemys picta), 236 
marginatus (Stereochilus), 150 
marina (Strongylura), 102 
Marine turtles, 241, 242 
marinus (Petromyzon), 26 
marmorata (Clemmys), 232 
(Leurognathus), 146 
marmoratus (Ameiurus nebulosus), 88 
Marmota, 341 
Marmots, 326 
marnocki (Syrrhophus), 164 
Marsh rabbit, 351 
rat, 299 
shrew, 254 
marstoni (Salvelinus), 48 
Marsupialia, 245 
Martens, 272 
Martes, 272 
martirensis (Peromyscus truei), 298 
masquinongy (Esox), 92 
Massasauga, 222 
matutinus (Lythrurus), 80 
maxillingua (Exoglossum), 85 
Maryfish, 95 
mazama (Evotomys), 313 
(Thomomys monticola), 319 
m’calli (Phrynosoma), 191 
Meadow jumping-mouse, 324 
Mice, 304, 305 


melanopleura (Eurycea), 153 
melanops (Minytrema), 58 
melanopterus (Eptesicus fuscus), 262 
melanotis (Lepus californicus), 348 
melas (Ameiurus), 88 
Menhaden, 36 
Menidia, 106 
Menominee whitefish, 39 
menona (Fundulus diaphanus), 95 
Mephitine, 278 
Mephitis, 279 
mephitis (Mephitis), 279 
mergens (Ondatra zibethica), 314 
merriami (Cervus), 354 
(Dipodomys), 323 
(Dipodomys merriami), 323 
(Eutamias), 334 
(Lepus californicus), 348 
(Perognathus), 320 : 
(Reithrodontomys humulis), 294 
Mesogonistius, 110 


mesoleucus telmalestes (Conepatus), 283 


mesomelas (Mephitis), 280 
(Mephitis mesomelas), 281 
metallicus (Notropis), 79 
metcalfi (Plethodon), 147 
mewa (Thomomys bottz), 317 
Mexican bat, 264 
mexicana (Neotoma), 303 
(Neotoma mexicana), 303 
mexicanum (Ambystoma), 140 
mexicanus (Astyanax), 85 
parvidens (Citellus), 340 
Mice, 290 
Michigan grayling, 49 
michiganensis (Castor canadensis), 345 
Microchiroptera, 257 


INDEX 403 


' Microdipodops, 323 

microdon (Canis), 268 

Microhyla, 173 

Microhylide, 173 

microlepidotus (Orthodon), 65 

Microperca, 128 

microps (Catostomus), 57 
(Dipodomys), 322 

Micropterus, 113 

micropteryx (Notropis), 79 

micropthalmus (Oxybelis), 219 

micropus (Neotoma), 302 

Microsorex, 255 

microstomum (Ambystoma), 142 

Microtine, 304 

Microtus, 305 

Micrurus, 220 

miliarius (Sistrurus), 222 

Milk-snake, 211 

Miller’s thumb, 132 

mimus (Sciurus aberti), 331 

miniatus (Sclerotis), 111 

minimus (Eutamias), 335 
(Eutamias minimus), 335 
(Sigmodon), 301 

Mink, 272, 274, 276 
frog, 172 

mink (Mustela vison), 278 

minnesota (Sciurus hudsonicus), 328 

Minnows, 60, 73 

minor (Microtus), 308 
(Sylvilagus auduboni), 350 
(Thomomys bottz), 316 

minusculus (Scapanus latimanus), 251 

Minytrema, 58 

mirabilis (Phenocobius), 80 

mississippiensis (Alligator), 179 

Missouri sucker, 54 

missouriensis (Castor canadensis), 345 
(Onychomys leucogaster), 292 

miura (Rabida), 90 

mniotiltus (Catostomus), 56 

mobilensis (Geomys tuza), 315 
(Pseudemys), 238 

Moccasin, 221 

modestum (Phrynosoma), 190 

modestus (Microtus pennsylvanicus), 307 

mogollonensis (Microtus), 309 
(Sciurus fremonti), 329 

mohavensis (Citellus), 340 
(Neotoma fuscipes), 303 


mokasen (Agkistrodon), 221 
Mole salamander, 140 
shrew, 255 
Moles, 247, 248 
Mollienisia, 99 
mollipilosus (Perognathus parvus), 320 
(Sciurus douglasii), 329 
mollis (Citellus), 339 
Molosside, 264 
molossus (Crotalus), 224 
monax (Marmota), 341 
(Marmota monax), 341 
moneesis (Eutamias amcenus), 335 
Montana grayling, 49 
montanus (Dipodomys ordii), 323 
(Microtus), 309 
(Pseudotriton), 151 
(Pseudotriton montanus), 151 
(Rangifer), 357 
(Thymallus), 49 
(Zapus), 325 
montereyensis (Sorex), 253 
monticola (Sorex vagrans), 253 
(Thomomys), 318 
(Thomomys monticola), 318 
Mooneyes, 35 
Moon-snake, 214 
Moose, 356 
mordax (Microtus), 308 
(Osmerus), 50 
mormon (Coluber constrictor), 206 
Mormoops, 258 
Morone, 129 
Moronide, 128 
morroensis (Dipodomys), 322 
Mosquito fish, 98 
Mountain beavers, 326 
boomer, 184 
coyote, 267 
goat, 359 
lion, 285 
Tat, 301 
sheep, 358 
suckers, 54 
rats, 301 
wildcat, 287 
Moxostoma, 58 
mucosa (Rana boyli), 172 
Mud cat, 89 
eel, 156 
minnows, oI 


404 


Mud shad, 36 

snake, 203 

sunfish, 109 

turtles, 227, 228 
Mudpuppy, 155 
muhlenbergi (Clemmys), 232 
Mule-deer, 356 
Mullets, 51 
multicincta (Lampropeltis), 212 
multicoronatus (Gerrhonotus), 192 
multiplicata (Eurycea), 153 
multivirgatus (Eumeces), 195 
Mummichog, 94 
munda (Mustela xanthogenys), 276 
Muride, 290 
Murine, 290 
Mus, 291 
Muscalonge, 92 
musculus (Mus), 201 
Musk turtles, 227, 228 
Muskallunge, 92 
Muskhog, 353 
Muskox, 358 
Muskrats, 313 
Mustela, 274 
Mustela, 272 
Mustelide, 272 
Musteline, 272 
Mutabilia, 137 
mutica (Amyda), 240 

(Vulpes), 269 
multicincta (Lampropeltis), 212 
mydas (Chelonia), 241 
Mylocheilus, 68 
Mylopharodon, 67 
myops (Sorex tenellus), 254 
Myotis, 259 
Myxine glutinosa, 24 


namaycush (Cristivomer), 47 
nannodes (Cervus), 354 
Nanostoma, 124 
nanus (Microtus), 309 

(Sorex tenellus), 254 
Napzozapus, 325 
Narrow-mouthed toads, 173 
nascius (Heterodon), 205 
nasutus (Peromyscus), 298 
natalis (Ameiurus), 88 
natator (Oryzomys palustris), 299 - 
Natrix, 213 
navarroensis (Hesperoleucus), 71 
navigator (Neosorex), 255 


INDEX 


navus (Thomomys bottz), 317 
nebracensis (Canis), 267 
(Canis nebracensis), 267 
nebrascensis (Peromyscus maniculatus), 
206 
nebulosus (Ameiurus), 88 
necator (Vulpes), 269 
Necturus, 155 
neglecta (Taxidea taxus), 283 
neglectus (Citellus), 330 
(Sciurus niger), 331 
nelsoni (Ammospermophilus), 337 
(Ovis canadensis), 350 
Nematognathi, 85 
nemoralis (Pitymys), 310 
Neofiber, 311 
neogzus (Pfrille), 70 
neomexicanus (Sciurus fremonti), 320 
(Sylvilagus auduboni), 350 
Neoseps, 196 
Neosorex, 254 
Neotoma, 301 
Neotomine, 301 
nerka (Oncorhynchus), 43 
nesioticus (Otospermophilus grammurus), 
337 
Neurotrichus, 251 
nevadensis (Apocope), 82 
(Sorex), 253 
Newts, 138 
niger (Esox), 93 
(Sciurus), 331 
(Sciurus niger), 331 
Nigger chub, 85 
nigra (Lampropeltis getulus), 211 
(Mephitis), 279 
nigrans (Microtus pennsylvanicus), 307 
nigrescens (Reithrodontomys megalotis), 
204 
nigricans (Hypentelium), 57 
nigriceps (Tantilla), 219 
nigrilabris (Gronias), 89 
nigripes (Mustela), 278 
(Sciurus griseus), 331 
nigripinnis (Leucichthys), 40 
nigrita (Pseudacris), 167 
nigrofasciatus (Hadropterus), 119 
nigrum (Boleosoma), 122 
niloticus (Crocodylus), 179 
Nine-banded armadillo, 247 
nitidus (Pseudotriton ruber), 151 
nitratoides (Dipodomys merriami), 323 
nivaria (Marmota caligata), 343 


INDEX 


nivarius (Evotomys), 313 

niveiventris (Peromyscus polionotus), 296 

Nocomis, 84 

nocomis (Hybopsis), 74 

noctivagans (Lasionycteris), 261 

nocturnus (Schilbeodes), 89 

Northwest timber wolf, 267 

norvegicus (Rattus), 201 

nosophora (Marmota flaviventris), 342 

notata (Mephitis occidentalis), 281 
(Uma), 184 

notatus (Hyborhynchus), 67 
(Spherodactylus), 182 
(Zygonectes), 97 

Notemigonus, 72 

Nothonotus, 125 

notia (Mustela noveboracensis), 275 

Notiosorex, 256 

Notropis, 78 

notti (Zygonectes), 96 

Noturus, 89 

noveboracensis (Peromyscus leucopus), 297 
(Mustela), 274 
(Mustela noveboracensis), 275 

novemcinctus (Dasypus), 247 

nubila (Apocope), 82 
(Dionda), 67 

nubilus (Canis), 267 

nubiterree (Peromyscus maniculatus), 295 

nuchalis (Hybognathus), 66 

nuttalli (Peromyscus), 298 
(Peromyscus nuttalli), 209 
(Sylvilagus), 349 
(Sylvilagus nuttalli), 340 

Nycteris, 262 

Nycticeius, 263 

Nyctophiline, 263 


obesus (Enneacanthus), 110 
(Sauromalus), 183 

obscura (Marmota flaviventris), 342 

obscurus (Evotomys), 313 
(Pipistrellus subflavus), 261 
(Sorex), 253 

obsoleta (Elaphe), 208 
(Elaphe obsoleta), 208 

obsoletus (Citellus), 339 
(Eumeces), 195 

occidentalis (Canis), 267 

occidentalis (Catostomus), 56 
(Cervus canadensis), 354 
(Evotomys), 313 
(Heterandria), 99 


405 


occidentalis (Mephitis), 28r 
(Mephitis occidentalis), 281 
(Neotoma cinerea), 304 
(Sceloporus), 188 

occipitalis (Ondatra zibethica), 314 
(Sonora), 213 

occipitomaculata (Storeria), 216 

occisor (Mustela), 275 

occultus (Myotis), 260 
(Scapanus latimanus), 251 

Ocelot, 286 

Ochotona, 351 

Ochotonide, 351 

ochraceus (Evotomys gapperi), 312 
(Peromyscus leucopus), 297 

ochrogaster (Microtus), 307 

ochrogenys (Eutamias townsendi), 334 

ochropheus (Desmognathus fuscus), 145 

ochropus (Canis), 268 

ochrorhynchus (Hypsiglena), 213 

ochrus (Perognathus californicus), 321 

ocius (Thomomys), 318 

ocularis (Pseudacris), 168 

oculeus (Lynx fasciatus), 287 

oculifera (Graptemys pseudogeographica), 

236 

ocythous (Urocyon cinereoargenteus), 270 

Odocoileus, 354 

odoratus (Sternotherus), 228 

ohiensis (Alosa), 37 
(Esox masquinongy), 92 

Okkelbergia, 27 

Old world rats and mice, 290 

Oligocephalus, 126 

olivacea (Microhyla), 173 

olivaceus (Citellus tridecemlineatus), 338 
(Perognathus parvus), 320 
(Siphateles), 71 

olivaris (Opladelus), 89 

olmstedi (Boleosoma nigrum), 122 

olympica (Aplodontia rufa), 326 
(Spilogale phenax), 283 

olympicus (Glaucomys sabrinus), 344 
(Phenacomys intermedius), 312 
(Ryacotriton, 139 

olympus (Marmota caligata), 343 

omiscomaycus (Percopsis), 101 

ommata (Lucania), 97 

onca (Rana), 172 

Oncorhynchus, 42 

Ondatra, 313 

ontariensis (Leucichthys), 40 

Onychomys, 291 


406 INDEX 


opacum (Ambystoma), 140 

Opheodrys, 205 

Ophisaurus, 192 

Opisthoglyph snakes, 197, 200 

Opladelus, 89 

Opossums, 246 

Opsopcea, 72 

Opsopceodus, 72 

oquassa (Salvelinus), 48 

orarius (Scapanus), 251 
(Scapanus orarius), 251 
(Zapus), 325 

ordii (Dipodomys), 323 

ordinoides (Thamnophis), 218 

Oreamnos, 359 

oreas (Chrosomus), 66 
(Peromyscus maniculatus), 296 

oregonensis (Felis), 285 
(Felis oregonensis), 286 
(Glaucomys sabrinus), 344 
(Mustela xanthogenys), 276 
(Ptychocheilus), 68 
(Siphateles), 71 

oregoni (Microtus), 309 

oregonius (Trillion), 39 

oregonus (Bassariscus astutus), 272 
(Crotalus confluentus), 225 
(Zapus princeps), 324 

origenes (Martes caurina), 273 

ornata (Pseudacris), 168 } 
(Terrapene), 234 
(Uta), 186 
(Uta ornata), 187 

ornatissimum (Phrynosoma douglassii), 190 

ornatum (Phrynosoma douglassii), 190 

ornatus (Sorex), 253 

orolestes (Neotoma cinerea), 304 

Orthodon, 65 

Oryzomys, 299 

osceola (Eptesicus fuscus), 262 
(Odocoileus), 355 

oscula (Apocope), 82 

Osmeride, 49 

Osmerus, 49 

osoyoosensis (Ondatra zibethica), 314 

osseus (Lepisosteus), 32 

Otariide, 288 

Otospermophilus, 337 

Otters, 272, 283 

ouachite (Alvordius), 118 

ouananiche (Salmo salar), 44 

Ovis, 358 


Oxybelis, 200, 219 
oxyrhynchus (Acipenser), 30 


Pacific marten, 273 
salmon, 42 
tree frog, 167 
wildcat, 287 
pacifica (Aplodontia rufa), 326 
(Lutra canadensis), 284 
(Martes pennanti), 274 
(Procyon psora), 271 
pacificus (Batrachoseps), 140 
(Castor canadensis), 345 
(Sorex), 254 
(Thaleichthys), 49 
(Zapus), 325 
Paddle-fishes, 29 
Painted turtles, 236 
Painter, 285 
pallescens (Corynorhinus rafinesquii), 263 
(Lynx fasciatus), 287 
(Peromyscus maniculatus), 296 
pallida (Ondatra zibethica), 314 
pallidus (Antrozous), 264 
(Citellus tridecemlineatus), 338 
(Eutamias minimus), 336 
(Lagurus), 310 
(Microdipodops), 323 
(Myotis californicus), 260 
(Procyon), 271 
palmarius (Peromyscus gossypinus), 297 
palmeri (Gerrhonotus), 191 
(Neosorex bendiri), 255 
paludicola (Sylvilagus palustris), 351 
palustris (Neosorex), 254 
(Oryzomys), 299 
(Oryzomys palustris), 290 
(Rana), 170 
(Sylvilagus), 351 
panamintinus (Eutamias), 335 
(Perognathus), 320 
(Dipodomys), 322 
Panther, 285 
Pantosteus, 54 
papillifera (Forbesella), 100 
papillosum (Moxostoma), 50 
Parascalops, 249 
Parascaphirhynchus, 31 
pardalis (Felis), 286 
parietalis (Thamnophis sirtalis), 218 
parva (Cryptotis), 256 
(Lucania), 97 
parvidens (Cynomys), 341 


pes 


parvipinnis (Fundulus), 94 
(Hesperoleucus), 72 
parvula (Marmota flaviventris), 342 
parvulus (Sylvilagus auduboni), 350 
parvus (Citellus tridecemlineatus), 338 
(Dipodomys merriami), 323 
(Perognathus), 320 
(Perognathus parvus), 320 
(Scalopus aquaticus), 249 
Patch-nose snake, 205 
patruellis (Gambusia), 98 
pauperrimus (Lagurus), 310 
Pecari, 353 
Peccaries, 353 
pectoralis laceianus (Peromyscus), 298 
Pekan, 273 
pellucidus (Vigil), 124 
Pelobatide, 158 
peltatus (Alvordius), 118 
penicillatus (Perognathus), 321 
peninsule (Blarina brevicauda), 256 
(Mustela), 275 
pennanti (Martes), 273 
(Martes pennanti), 274 
pennsylvanica (Neotoma), 302 
pennsylvanicus (Microtus), 306 
(Microtus pennsylvanicus), 307 
pensilvanicum (Kinonsternon), 229 
Perca, 114 
fluviatilis, 114 
schrenki, 114 
Perch, 114 
Percide, 114 
Percina, 117 
Percopside, 101 
Percopsis, 101 
Perognathus, 319 
Peromyscus, 295 
perpallidus (Onychomys torridus), 293 
(Thomomys), 317 
(Thomomys perpallidus), 317 
perpes (Thomomys perpallidus), 317 
perplexus (Cnemidophorus sackii), 194 
(Dipodomys agilis), 322 
personatus (Sorex), 252 
petrensis (Marmota monax), 342 
Petromyzon, 26 
Petromyzonide, 25 
Pfrille, 70 
phzonotus (Lepus americanus), 346 
Phenacobius, 80 
Phenacomys, 311 


INDEX 407 


phenax (Spilogale), 282 
(Spilogale phenax), 283 
phippsi (Taxidea taxus), 283 
phlegethontis (Iotichthys), 71 
Phoca, 289 
phoca (Desmognathus), 145 
Phocide, 288 
photogenis (Notropis), 79 
phoxocephalus (Alvordius), 118 
Phrynosoma, 189 
Phyllorhynchus, 205 
Phyllostomide, 258 
physignathus (Platygobio), 85 
Pickerel, 90, 92 
frog, 170 
pickeringii (Hyla), 165 
picta (Chrysemys), 236 
(Chrysemys picta), 237 
pictus (Eutamias minimus), 335 
Pigmy sunfish, 107 
pigra (Didelphis virginiana), 247 
Pigs, 353 
Pikas, 351 
Pike, 90, 92 
Pike-perch, 115 
pileata (Malaclemys), 235 
(Malaclemys pileata), 235 
Pimephales, 67 
Pine lizard, 187 
marten, 273 
mouse, 310 
snake, 209 
squirrel,. 329 
pinetis (Sylvilagus nuttalli), 349 
pinetorum (Neotoma mexicana), 303 
(Pitymys), 310 
(Pitymys pinetorum), 310 
(Thomomys monticola), 319 
Pinnipedia, 288 
Pipide, 156 
pipiens (Rana), 169 
Pipistrellus, 261 
Pirate perch, 101, 102 
Pisces, 28 
piscivorus (Agkistrodon), 222 
Pituophis, 209 
Pitymys, 310 
Placopharynx, 60 
Plains buffalo, 358 
Plains coyote, 267 
Plancterus, 95 
platorhynchus (Scaphirhynchus), 31 
platostomus (Cylindrosteus), 32 


408 INDEX 
platycephalus (Ameiurus), 88 promelas (Pimephales), 67 
(Hydromantes), 153 Prong-horn antelope, 357 
Platygobio, 85 propinqua (Holbrookia), 185 
platyrhinos*(Phrynosoma), 191 Prosopium, 38 
platyrhinus (Heterodon), 204 Proteide, 155 
plebeius (Pantosteus), 54 Proteus, 155 
Plethodon, 146 proximus (Thamnophis sirtalis), 218 
Plethodontide, 143 Pseudacris, 167 
pleuriticus (Trutta), 45 pseudaplites (Micropterus), 113 
Pleurodelide, 138 Pseudemys, 237 
plumbea (Dionda), 67 Pseudobranchus, 156 
plumbeus (Couesius), 84 pseudogeographica (Graptemys), 236 
pluvialis (Eumeces), 196 (Graptemys pseudogeographica), 236 
Pocket gophers, 314 pseudoharengus (Pomolobus), 36 
mice, 319 Pseudotriton, 151 
podostemona (Ulocentra), 121 psora (Procyon), 271 
Peecilichthys, 124 (Procyon psora), 271 
Peeciliide, 98 Psychromaster, 127 
Pogonichthys, 68 Pteromyine, 343 
Polar bear, 265 Ptychocheilus, 68 
polionotus (Peromyscus), 296 pulcher (Onychomys torridus), 293 
(Peromyscus polionotus), 296 (Scalopus aquaticus), 249 
Polistotrema stouti, 2 pulchra (Anniella), 192 
Polyodon, 2 (Holbrookia), 185 
Polyodontidz, 29 Puma, 285 
polyphemus (Gopherus), 239 Pumpkin-seed, 113 
Polyprotodontia, 246 punctatum (Ambystoma), 140 
Pomolobus, 36 punctatus (Apomotis), 111 
pomotis (Acantharchus), 109 (Bufo), 161 
Pomoxis, 108 (Diadophis), 203 
Pond turtles, 230 (Ictalurus), 86 
Pontoon, 351 (Necturus), 155 
Porcupines, 325 punctulata (Microperca), 128 
porosus (Crocodylus), 179 punctulatus (Cottus), 132 
porphyriticus (Gyrinophilus), 150 (Oligocephalus), 126 
Potamophis, 216 Pungitius, 104 
prelaris (Microperca), 128 pungitius (Pungitius), 104 
Prairie dogs, 340 Putorius, 274 
meadow mouse, 307 putorius (Spilogale), 282 
rattler, 224 pygea (Seminatrix), 216 
wolf, 267 pygmea (Eucalia), 104 
pratensis (Citellus spilosoma), 339 pygmza (Umbra), 91 
preblorum (Marmota monax), 342 pygmeus (Thomomys), 318 
pretiosa (Rana), 172 pyromelana (Lampropeltis), 212 
pricei (Eutamias merriami), 334 pyrrhomelas (Cyprinella), 76 
princeps (Ochotona), 351 
(Ochotona princeps), 352 quadracus (Apeltes), 104 
(Zapus), 324 quadramaculatus (Desmognathus), 145 
principis (Gerrhonotus), 192 quadratus (Thomomys), 318 
procne (Hybopsis), 74 (Thomomys quadratus), 318 
Procyon, 270 quadridigitata (Eurycea), 153 
Procyonide, 270 - quadrilateralis (Prosopium), 39 


prognathus (Leucichthys), 40 quadrimaculatus (Eutamias), 334 


= 7. = 


quadrivittata (Elaphe), 207 
quadrivittatus (Eutamias), 335 
Queen-snake, 214 

querceti (Glaucomys volans), 343 
quercicus (Bufo), 161 

quercinus (Myotis californicus), 260 
Quillback, 54 

Quinnat salmon, 43 

quinquelineatus (Eumeces), 195 


Rabbits, 345 
Rabida, 90 
Race runners, 193 
Racers, 206 
Racoons, 270, 271 
radix (Thamnophis), 218 
rafinesquii (Corynorhinus), 263 
(Corynorhinus rafinesquii), 263 
Rainbow darter, 126 
snake, 203 
trout, 46 
rainieri (Aplodontia rufa), 326 
Rain-water fish, 97 
ramona (Onychomys torridus), 293 
Rana, 168 
Rangifer, 357 
arcticus, 357 
tarandus, 357 
Ranidez, 168 
rathbuni (Fundulus), 95 
(Typhlomolge), 150 
Rats, 290 
Rattlesnakes, 221, 222 
Rattus, 291 
rattus (Rattus), 201 
raviventris (Reithrodontomys), 294 
(Reithrodontomys raviventris), 294 
Razor-back, 58 
Red belly, 111 
Red-back mice, 312 
Red-backed salamander, 147 
Red bat, 262 
Red-bellied dace, 65 
snake, 216 
terrapin, 238 
Red deer, 354 
fallfish, 77 
foxes, 268 
mullet, 59 
salamander, 151 
squirrel, 328 
sucker, 56 
Redfin, 76, 80 


INDEX 409 


Redfish, 44 
Redhorse, 58 
Redwood squirrel, 329 
Reef gecko, 182 
regalis (Diadophis), 204 
(Vulpes), 269 
regia (Hybognathus), 66 
regilla (Hyla), 167 
reighardi (Leucichthys), 40 
Reighardina, 25 
Reindeer, 357 
Reithrodontomys, 293 
Reptiles, 177 
Distribution, 177 
History, 177 
Key to the orders of Reptiles, 177 
Number of species, 177 
reticularia (Deirochelys), 239 
reticulatus (Crotaphytus), 184 
rex (Percina), 117 
reynoldsi (Neoseps), 196 
Rhadinza, 210 
Rhineura, 196 
Rhinichthys, 81 
Rhinocheilus, 213 
rhoadsi (Evotomys gapperi), 313 
(Peromyscus polionatus), 296 
rhombifera (Natrix), 216 
rhombomaculata (Lampropeltis), 211 
rhotheus (Cottus), 132 
rhothceca (Thoburnia), 58 
Rhyacotriton, 139 
Ribbon snake, 218 
Rice rat, 299 
ricei (Cottus), 132 
richardsoni (Citellus), 339 
(Dipodomys ordii), 323 
(Lepus californicus), 348 
(Microtus), 309 
(Sciurus hudsonicus), 328 
(Sorex), 253 
Richardsonius, 70 
ricordii (Eleutherodactylus), 164 
Rifflefish, 131 
rigida (Natrix), 214 
Ring-neck snakes, 203 
Ring-tailed cat, 271 
Ringed seal, 289 
ripensis (Ondatra zibethica), 314 
rivalicia (Ondatra), 314 
River chub, 84 
riversiana (Xantusia), 193 
rivularis (Microtus montanus), 309 


410 


rixosa (Mustela), 275 
Roaches, 71 
roanoka (Alvordius), 119 
robusta (Gila), 69 
Roccus, 129 
Rock bass, 109 
mouse, 298 
squirrels, 336, 337 
Rocky Mountain bullhead, 132 
whitefish, 39 
Rodentia, 289 
Rodents, 289 
Roof-rat, 291 
roosevelti (Lythrurus), 46 
rose (Troglichthys), ror 
roseipinnis (Lythrurus), 80 
roseofusca (Lichanura), 200 
roseus (Hydrophlox), 78 
rostrata (Anguilla), 50 
Round sunfish, 108 
Roundtail, 69 
rowleyi (Peromyscus boylei), 298 
Rubber snake, 200 
ruber (Crotalus), 224 
(Pseudotriton), 151 
(Pseudotriton ruber), 151 
rubida (Neotoma floridana), 302 
rubidus (Peromyscus maniculatus), 296 
rubricosa (Vulpes), 268 
rubricroceus (Hydrophlox), 77 
rubrifrons (Erinemus), 83 
(Notropis), 79 
rubriventris (Pseudemys), 238 
rufa (Aplodontia), 326 
rufescens (Marmota monax), 342 
(Thomomys talpoides), 318 
ruffus (Lynx), 286 
(Lynx ruffus), 287 
rufilineatus (Nothonotus), 125 
rafinus (Peromyscus maniculatus), 206 
rufiventer (Sciurus niger), 331 
rufus (Canis), 267 
ruidosze (Onychomys leucogaster), 293 
Ruminantia, 353 
rupestris (Ambloplites), 109 
rupicola (Neotoma cinerea), 304 
rupiscartes (Scartomyzon), 59 


Sable, 273 

sabrinus (Glaucomys), 343 

sackenii (Thamnophis sirtalis), 218 

sackii (Cnemidophorus), 193 
(Cnemidophorus sackii), 194 


INDEX 


Sacramento perch, 109 

sagittalis (Geomys breviceps), 316 

Saibling, 48 

Salamanders, 135 

salar (Salmo), 43 

Salientia, 156 
Identification of 

1. The adult, 157 
2. The eggs and larva, 173 

Salmo, 43 

salmoides (Huro), 114 

Salmon, 43 

Salmonide, 41 

Salmonoidei, 37 

Salmoperce, ror 

Salt marsh turtles, 234 

Salvadora, 205 

Salvelinus, 47 

sanctidiegi (Microtus californicus), 308 
(Sylvilagus auduboni), 350 

Sand-darter, 124 

Sand pike, 115 

sapidissima (Alosa), 37 

Sardine, 36 

saturata (Mustela), 276 

saturatus (Callospermophilus lateralis), 336 
(Evotomys gapperi), 313 
(Glaucomys volens), 343 
(Myotis yumanensis), 260 
(Thomomys fuscus), 319 

Sauger, 115 

Sauria, 179 

sauritus (Thamnophis), 218 

Sauromalus, 183 

Sauropsida, 14 

saxatilis (Ochotona princeps), 352 
(Roccus), 129 

sayanus (Aphredoderus), 102 

sayi (Pituophis), 209 

scalopsoides (Pitymys pinetorum), 310 

Scalopus, 248 

Scapanus, 250 

Scaphiopus, 158 

scaphiotus (Odocoileus columbianus), 356 

Scaphirhynchus, 31 

Scarlet snake, 212 

Scarlet king-snake, 211 

Scartomyzon, 59 

Sceloporus, 187 

scepticus (Notropis), 79 

schefferi (Scapanus orarius), 251 

schencki (Pseudotriton ruber), 151 

Schilbeodes, 89 


schisticeps (Ochotona), 352 
sciadicus (Zygonectes), 96 
Scienide, 129 

sciera (Serraria), 119 
Scincidz, 194 

Sciuride, 326 

Sciurine, 327 

Sciurus, 327 

Sclerotis, 111 

Scorpion mice, 291 


scotti (Urocyon cinereoargenteus), 270 


scripta (Pseudemys), 237 
Sculpins, 131 
scutatum (Hemidactylium), 148 
scutulatus (Crotalus), 225 
Sea-lion, 288 
Sea-otter, 284 
Seals, 288 
sebago (Salmo salar), 44 
Selachii, 28 
Selachostomi, 29 
selenops (Hiodon), 35 
semiannulata (Sonora), 213 
Seminatrix, 216 
seminola (Nycteris borealis), 262 
semiscaber (Cottus), 132 
Semotilus, 68 
senex (Eutamias townsendii), 334 
sennetti (Dipodomys), 323 
septemvittata (Natrix), 214 
septentrionalis (Eumeces), 195 

(Leptodeira), 219 

(Rana), 172 


sequoiensis (Urocyon californicus), 270 


serena (Dionda), 66 


sericatus (Scepanus latimanus), 251 


serpens (Microtus), 310 
Serpentes, 196 
serpentina (Chelydra), 230 
Serraria, 119 
sexlineatus (Cnemidophorus), 193 
Shad, 37 
shasta (Trutta), 46 
Sheep, 358 
Sheephead, 130 
shermani (Plethodon), 148 
Shiner, 70, 75, 76, 77, 78 
shirasi (Alces americanus), 357 
Short-nosed gar, 32 
sturgeon, 29 
Short-tailed shrew, 255 
weasel, 275 
Shovel-nosed sturgeon, 31 


INDEX 


Shrews, 247, 252 
shumardi (Imostoma), 120 
(Hybopsis), 74 
Siboma, 69 
sicculus (Labidesthes), 107 
Sidewinder, 224 
sierre (Lepus townsendii), 347 
(Marmota flaviventris), 342 
(Martes caurina), 273 
(Microtus mordax), 308 
(Ovis canadensis), 350 
(Rana boylii), 172 
Sigmodon, 300 
silus (Crotaphytus), 184 
Silver bass, 35 
chub, 84 
lamprey, 25 
salmon, 43 
trout, 44 
Silver-fin, 76 
Silver gray fox, 268 
Silver-haired bat, 261 
Silversides, 106 
similis (Fundulus), 95 
(Sylvilagus floridanus), 349 
simotera (Ulocentra), 121 
simulans (Dipodomys agilis), 322 
simus (Heterodon), 205 
sipedon (Natrix), 215 
Siphateles, 71 


Siren, 156 


Sirenia, 247 

Sirenidz, 155 

sirtalis (Thamnophis), 217 
(Thamnophis sirtalis), 217 

siscowet (Cristivomer), 47 

Sistrurus, 222 

skiltonianus (Eumeces), 196 

Skinks, 194 

Skipjack, 36 

Skunks, 272, 278 

Sliders, 237 

Small catfish, 87 

Small mouth, 59 

Small-mouthed black bass, 113 
buffalo, 52 

smaragda (Trutta), 47 

Smelt, 40 

Smoky shrews, 253 

Snakes, 196 

Snapping turtles, 229 

Snowshoe rabbit, 346 

snyderi (Catostomus), 56 


411 


412 


Soft-shell turtles, 239, 240 
solare (Phrynosoma), 190 
Soleide, 105 
Soles, 105 
solis (Lepomis), 111 
Sonora, 200, 212 
sonora (Lutra canadensis), 284 
sonoriense (Kinosternon), 229 
sonoriensis (Peromyscus maniculatus), 296 
Sorex, 252 
Soricide, 252 
Southern wolf, 267 
Spadefoot toads, 158 
spadicipygus (Sigmodon hispidus), 301 
spadix (Mustela longicauda), 276 
sparoides (Pomoxis), 108 
spathula (Polyodon), 29 
speciosus (Eutamias), 334 
Speckled trout, 48 
spectabilis (Dipodomys), 323 

(Salvelinus), 48 
spectrunculus (Hybopsis), 74 
speleus (Typhlotriton), 150 
Spelerpes, 151, 152 
speleus (Amblyopsis), ror 
Spermophilus, 338 
Spherodactylus, 182 

cinereus, 182 
sphagnicola (Synaptomys), 311 
Spilogale, 281 
spilonotus (Prosopium), 39 
spilosoma (Citellus), 339 
Spilotes, 208 
spinifera (Amyda), 240 
spinosus (Sceloporus), 188 
Spiny swifts, 187 
Spiny-rayed fishes, 105 
spissigrada (Mephitis occidentalis), 281 
Split-tail, 68 
Spoonbill, 29 
Spot-tail, 75 
Spotted cat, 86 

lizards, 185 

salamander, 138, 140 

skunks, 281 

sucker, 58 

sunfish, 112 

tail, 75 

turtle, 231 
Spring peeper, 165 
Spring-frog, 170 
squamata (Swainia), 119 
squamiceps (Claricola), 127 


INDEX 


Squawfish, 68 
squirella (Hyla), 166 
Squirrels, 326, 327 
stanleyi (Prosopium), 39 
stansburiana (Uta), 186 
(Uta stansburiana), 186 
Star-nosed mole, 250 
Steelhead trout, 45 
steindachneri (Kinosternon), 229 
stejnegeri (Ambystoma), 142 
stejnegeri (Uta stansburiana), 186 
Steller’s sea-lion, 288 
stellifer (Xenisma), 96 
stephensi (Citellus mollis), 340 
(Dipodomys), 322 
(Glaucomys sabrinus), 344 
(Neotoma lepida), 303 
Stereochilus, 150 
Sternotherus, 228 
Sticklebacks, 103 
stigmea (Doration), 121 
stigmatura (Cyprinella), 75 
stilbius (Notropis), 79 
Stilosoma, 212 
Stizostedion, 115 
stomias (Chasmistes), 57 
(Trutta), 45 
Stone cat, 89 
roller, 65. 
stonei (Synaptomys cooperi), 311 
(Trutta), 46 
Storeria, 216 
storerianus (Erinemus), 84 
stouti (Polistotrema), 24 
streatori (Mustela), 276 
(Mustela streatori), 276 
(Neotoma fuscipes), 303 
(Sciurus hudsonicus), 328 
striatulus (Potamophis), 216 
striatus (Pseudobranchus), 156 
(Tamias), 332 
(Tamias striatus), 333 
Striped bass, 129 
Strongylura, 102 
struthopus (Lepus americanus), 346 
Sturgeons, 29 
subauratus (Castor), 345 
subflavus (Pipistrellus), 261 
(Pipistrellus subflavus), 261 
subrubrum (Kinosternon), 229 
subsolanus (Lynx), 288 
subterraneus (Typhlichthys), ror 
subulatus (Myotis), 259 VW 


sucetta (Erimyzon), 58 
Sucker-mouths, 80 
Suckers, 51 
Suide, 353 
Suina, 353 
Sunfish, 107, 110, 112 
supernas (Leucichthys), 40 
Surf fishes, 130 
susane (Boleosoma), 123 
suspectum (Heloderma), 192 
Swainia, 119 
Swamp rabbit, 351 
swannanoa (Nanostoma), 124 
Swift, 182, 185, 187 
fox, 269 
sylvatica (Rana), 171 
sylvaticus (Lepus), 348 
Sylvilagus, 348 
symmetrica (Uta ornata), 187 
symmetricus (Hesperoleucus), 71 
(Lethogrammus), 111 
(Triturus viridescens), 139 
Synaptomys, 311 
Synentognathi, 102 
Syrrhophus, 164 
syspila (Lampropeltis triangulum), 211 


Tadarida, 264 

teniatus (Coluber), 207 

Tahoe trout, 44 

tahoensis (Catostomus), 56 
(Trutta), 44 

Talpide, 248 

talpoides (Blarina brevicauda), 256 
(Thomomys), 318 
(Thomomys talpoides), 318 

talpoideum (Ambystoma), 140 

Tamias, 332 

Tantilla, 200, 219 

Taxidea, 283 

Taxidiine, 283 

taxispilota (Natrix), 216 

taxus (Taxidea), 283 
(Taxidea taxus), 283 

Tayassuide, 353 

taylori (Peromyscus), 299 
(Sonora), 212 

Teiide, 193 

Teleostei, 33 

Teleostomi, 28 

telescopus (Notropis), 78 

teliotis (Nycteris borealis), 262 

telmalestes (Blarina), 256 


INDEX 413 


temmincki (Macrochelys), 230 
tenellus (Sorex), 254 
(Sorex tenellus), 254 
Ten-spined stickleback, 104 
tenuis (Contia), 212 
(Cottus), 133 
(Spilogale), 282 
tereticaudus (Citellus), 339 
teretulus (Phenocobius), 80 
tergisus (Hiodon), 35 
Terrapene, 233 
Terrapin, 234 
terrestris (Bufo), 161 
tessellatus (Cnemidophorus), 194 
Testudinata, 225 
Testudinide, 230 
tetranemus (Extrarius), 82 
texana (Holbrookia), 185 
(Pseudemys), 238 
texanum (Ambystoma), 142 
texanus (Odocoileus), 355 
(Peromyscus leucopus), 297 
(Scalopus aquaticus), 249 
(Xyrauchen), 58 
Texas red wolf, 267 
white-tail, 355 
texensis (Canis nebracensis), 267 
(Citellus tridecemlineatus), 338 
(Didelphis virginiana), 246 
(Geomys), 316 
(Glaucomys volens), 343 
(Lynx ruffus), 287 ° 
(Microhyla), 173 
(Oryzomys palustris), 299 
texiana (Ovis canadensis), 359 
texianus (Lepus californicus), 348 
(Sciurus niger), 331 
(Sigmodon hispidus), 301 
Thalarctos maritimus, 265 
thalassinum (Nanostoma), 124 
Thaleichthys, 49 
thaleichthys (Osmerus), 50 
Thamnophis, 217 
Thoburnia, 57 
Thomomys, 316 


(Triglopsis), 133 
Thoracostei, 102 
Thymallide, 48 
Thymallus, 40 
Tiger cat, 286 


salamander, 142 


414 


Tigoma, 69 
tigrinum (Ambystoma), 142 
tigris (Crotalus), 225 
timagamiensis (Salvelinus), 48 
Timber wolf, 267 
Toads, 156 
toltecus (Thomomys fulvus), 317 
Top minnow, 97, 98, 99 
topeka (Hybopsis), 74 
tornillo (Peromyscus leucopus), 297 
torosus (Triturus), 139 
torquatus poinsetti (Sceloporus), 188 
torridus (Onychomys), 293 
(Onychomys torridus), 293 
Tortoise shell turtle, 241 
townsendi (Citellus), 340 
(Corynorhinus rafinesquii), 263 
(Eutamias), 334 
(Lepus), 347 
(Microtus), 308 
(Scapanus), 250 
(Thomomys), 317 
(Urocyon californicus), 270 
transitionalis (Sylvilagus), 340 
transmontana (Columbia), 101 
transmontanus (Acipenser), 30 
traski (Hysterocarpus), 130 
Tree frogs, 164 
toads, 164 
triangulum (Lampropeltis), 211 
(Lampropeltis triangulum), 211 
Trichechide, 247 
Trichechus, 247 
trichroistia (Cyprinella), 75 
tricolor (Thymallus), 49 
tridactylum (Amphiuma), 155 
tridecemlineatus (Citellus), 338 
(Citellus tridecemlineatus), 338 
tridentatus (Entosphenus), 26 
Triglopsis, 133 
Trimorphodon, 200, 220 
trinotatus (Zapus), 325 
Trionychide, 225, 226, 239 
triseriata (Pseudacris nigrita), 168 
triseriatus (Crotalus), 225 
tristcechus (Atractosteus), 32 
Triturus, 138 
triunguis (Terrapene carolina), 234 
Troglichthys, ror 
troostii (Pseudemys), 237 
tropicus (Lepisosteus), 32 
Tropidonotus, 213 


INDEX 


Trout, 44 
perch, 101 
trowbridgei (Sorex), 253 
truei (Ascaphus), 158 
(Peromyscus), 298 
(Peromyscus truei), 298 
Trunk-back, 242 
Trutta, 44 
tschawytscha (Oncorhynchus), 43 
tsiltcoosensis (Catostomus), 57 
Tufted-ear squirrel, 331 
tularensis (Onychomys torridus), 293 
Tullibee, 41 
tullibee (Leucichthys), 41 
Turtles, 225 
tuscumbia (Psychromaster), 127 
tuza (Geomys), 315 
(Geomys tuza), 315 
Typhlichthys, ror 
Typhlomolge, 150 
Typhlotriton, 150 


ubericolor (Sylvilagus bachmani), 350 
uinta (Lynx), 287 
Ulocentra, 121 
Uma, 184 
umatilla (Apocope), 82 
Umbra, 91 
umbratilis (Lythrurus), 80 
Umbride, 91 
umbrinus (Eutamias), 335 
umpque (Ptychocheilus), 68 
undulatus (Sceloporus), 187 
Ungulata, 352 
unicolor (Reighardina), 25 
(Leiolopisma), 196 
uranidea (Cottogaster), 120 
uranops (Phenacobius), 81 
Urocyon, 269 
Urodela, 135 
Urside, 264 
Ursus, 265 
gigas, 265 
middendorffi, 265 
urus (Ictiobus), 52 
Uta, 185 


utah (Otospermophilus grammurus), 337 


(Trutta), 45 
utahensis (Dipodomys ordii), 323 
vaga (Lutra canadensis), 284 
vagrans (Sorex), 253 

(Sorex vagrans), 253 


Vaillantia, 123 
valeriz (Virginia), 217 
valliceps (Bufo), 163 
vallicola (Microtus californicus), 308 
(Sylvilagus auduboni), 350 
Vampire bats, 258 
Vampyrus spectrum, 258 
vandenburgi (Trimorphodon), 220 
vandoisulus (Clinostomus), 70 
vandykei (Plethodon), 148 
varians (Mephitis mesomelas), 281 
variatus (Peecilichthys), 124 
variegatus (Coleonyx), 182 
(Cyprinodon), 98 
Varying hare, 346 
vehiculum (Plethodon), 148 
velifer (Carpiodes), 54 
(Myotis), 260 
velox (Vulpes), 269 
ventorum (Ochotona princeps), 352 
(Sciurus hudsonicus), 328 
ventralis (Callisaurus), 184 
(Ophisaurus), 192 
venusta (Neotoma albigula), 303 
venustus (Dipodomys agilis), 322 
(Hesperoleucus), 71 
(Tamias striatus), 333 
vermiculatus (Esox), 93 
vernalis (Liopeltis), 205 
versicolor (Hyla), 165 
Vertebrata, 1 
Classification, 13 
Distribution, to 
External characters, 1 
History, 12 
Internal characters, 4 
Key to the classes of vertebrates, 14 
Vesper mice, 295 
Vespertilionide, 258 
Vespertilionine, 258 
vexillare (Boleosoma nigrum), 122 
Vigil, 123 
vigilax (Ceratichthys), 73 
vigilis (Xantusia), 193 
vilkinsonii (Trimorphodon), 220 
Villarius, 87 
Viperine snakes, 197, 
virgatipes (Rana), 172 
virginalis (Trutta), 45 
Virginia, 217 
deer, 355 
virginiana (Didelphis), 246 
virginianus (Lepus americanus), 346 


22T 


INDEX 


virginianus (Odocoileus), 355 

virgultus (Odocoileus), 356 

viridescens (Triturus), 138 

vison (Mustela), 276 
(Mustela vison), 277 

vitrea (Ioa), 124 

vitreum (Stizostedion), 115 

vittata (Hemitremia), 70 

vitulina (Phoca), 289 

vivax (Vigil), 124 

volans (Glaucomys), 343 

Voles, 305 

vulgivaga (Mustela vison), 278 

Vulpes, 268 

vulpina (Elaphe), 208 


Wall-eye pike, 115 
wallawalla (Lepus californicus), 348 
Wapiti, 354 
Warmouth, 1og 
warreni (Marmota flaviventris), 342 
(Neotoma albigula), 303 
(Sylvilagus auduboni), 350 
washingtoni (Lepus), 346 
(Mustela), 276 
watauga (Erimystax), 83 
Water moccasin, 222 
pilot, 216 
snakes, 213 
Waterdog, 155 
Weasels, 272, 274 
wehrlei (Plethodon), 147 
Western chipmunks, 333 
gray squirrel, 330 
harvest mouse, 204 
porcupine, 326 
puma, 285 
wheatlandi (Glandiunculus), 103 
Whip snake, 206 
whipplii (Claricola), 127 
(Cyprinella), 76 
Whistler, 342 
White bass, 128, 129 
cat, 87 
mullet, 59 
perch, 129 
rabbit, 346 
salmon, 69 
sturgeon, 30 
White-footed mice, 295 
mouse, 290 
White-tailed deer, 355 
jack rabbit, 347 


415 


416 INDEX 


Whitefish, 38, 68 Xenarchi, 101 

whitei (Trutta), 47 Xenisma, 95 

Whitenose, 50 Xenotes, 112 

Wildcat, 286 Xyrauchen, 58 

wilderz (Eurycea bislineata), 152 

wilderi (Entosphenus), 26 yakimensis (Citellus mollis), 340 

willardi (Crotolus), 225 yarrowi (Apocope), 82 

williamsoni (Prosopium), 39 Yellow bass, 129 

winnemana (Microsorex), 255 cat, 88 

wislizenii (Crotaphytus), 184 perch, 114 

Wolverine, 278 Yellow-bellied woodchuck, 342 

Wolves, 266 Yellow-fin, 45 

Wood buffalo, 358 Yellowstone trout, 44 

Wood-frog, 171 yonahlossee (Plethodon), 147 

Wood mice, 295 yumanensis (Myotis), 260 
rats, 301, 302 (Myotis yumanensis), 260 

Wood-tortoises, 231 

Wood-turtle, 232 Zalophus, 288 

Woodchucks, 341 Zaments, 206 

woodhousii (Bufo), 161 Zapodide, 324 

woodi (Sceloporus), 188 Zapus, 324 

Woodland caribou, 357 zenithicus (Leucichthys), 41 


wortmani (Callospermophitus lateralis), 336  zibethica (Ondatra), 313 
(zibethica Ondatra), 314 


xenocephalus (Hydrophlox), 78 zonale (Nanostoma), 124 
xanthogenys (Mustela), 276 zonatum (Elassoma), 107 

(Mustela xanthogenys), 276 zonatus (Hydrophlox), 77 
Xantusia, 193 zuniensis (Cynomys gunnisonl), 341 


Xantusiide, 193 Zygonectes, 96 


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