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^^' LIBRA RYU;;

^' ^. J. Q i,i
A MANUAL

OF

MARINE ZOOLOGY

FOR

iJJe §«tislj |sb.

BY

PHILIP HENRY GOSSE, F.E.S.

"This great and wide sea, wherein are things creeping innumerable, both

small and great beasts There is that Leviathan, whom Thou

hast made to play therein." — Ps. civ. 25, 26.

PART II.

LONDON :
JOHN VAN VOORST, PATERNOSTER ROW.

M DCCC LVI.

LONDON :

PRINTED BY RICHARD CLAY,

BREAD STREET HILL.

PREFACE

TO PART II.

The publication of the First Volume of this
Work has elicited so many testimonies to its
usefulness, as to satisfy me that I had not erred in
supposing that such a book was needed. I now
introduce the Second (and final) Volume^ hoping
that it may be received with as much favour as its
predecessor.

By a most singular coincidence, the number of
figures in this volume is exactly the same as in
the former, viz. three hundred and thirty-nine;
and as each genus is illustrated, we see that so far
as our present knowledge goes, those genera of our
Marine Fauna, which belong to the Radiate and
Annulose forms, exactly equal in number those of
the Mollusca and Vertebrata.

IV PREFACE.

Of these three hundi'ed and thirty-nine figures,
two hundred and thirty-two are original, one
hundred being drawn from living (or, in the case
of Fishes, from firesh) specimens, and one hundred
and thirty-two from such as are preserved, either
dry or in spirits. The list at the end of the
volume will show the authorities from which I
have copied the remaining one hundred and seven.

I have added a Supplement to the first volume,
supplying some omissions, and bringing it up to
the present state of our knowledge.

P. H. G.

London, August, 1856.

MAKIM ZOOLOGY.

Sub-Kingdom IV. MOLLUSCA.
Class I. POLYZOA.

It lias "been usual, in our systematic books on
Zoology, to include the Polyzoa (or Bryozoa, as
tliey are sometimes termed) in tlie Class Zoophyta.
And truly, if we considered only their general ex-
ternal appearance, this would seem their most natural
alliance. Universally of microscopic minuteness,
growing parasitically on submerged foreign bodies,
as shells, rocks, and sea-weeds, springing (most of
them at least) from a creeping root-thread, in the
form of a tiny shrub, composed of successive series
of pellucid cells, from which protrude animals, each
surmounted by a coronet of radiating tentacles, all
connected organically in a compound life, — these
creatures do present, it must be confessed, very
many characters in common with the Sertulariadce
and other Hydroid Polypes.

Yet when we examine the animals themselves,
we find them organized on a much higher type
than the Polypes, viz., on that which exists in the
Mussel and the Oyster, though in its most simple
condition of development. If we take one of
the calcareous-celled species, Scii]paria cJielata, for

B

29127

2 POLYZOA.

example,* wliicli is a fair type of the Class, we find
an animal living freely in its cell, with whose
walls t it is connected only by means of muscle-
bands and threads, at certain points, and by the
covering of the mouth of the cell. This covering
is membranous, and is capable of great protrusion ;
the animal, in the process of expansion, pushing
out a doubling of the membrane, like the turning
inside-out of a stocking. The animal has a receiv-
ing orifice or mouth, surrounded by a crown of
tentacles, and leading into a sensitive and con-
tractile gullet, into which the food is gorged ;
thence it passes into a capacious crop, and after-
wards into a muscular gizzard ; to this succeeds a
duct leading into a digesting stomach, whence a
long intestine passes upward, emerging by a dis-
charging orifice close to the receiving one.

This highly developed digestive system is cha-
racteristic of the Class, as well as this course which
it follows — a line bent upon itself; the only de-
viation of importance being that, in some genera,
the muscular gizzard is either wanting or indis-
tinctly developed.

The tentacles differ importantly from those of
the Polypes. Instead of being soft, fleshy, highly
contractile, and studded with knots of nettling-
capsules, they are straight, somewhat stifi*, slender
threads, incapable of contraction, and set, on their
two opposing sides, (viz., on those sides which
face the next tentacles,) with long cilia_, the action
of which is to produce a strong current up one side

* Figured and described in detail in my " Devonshire Coast,"
p. 132, by the name of Eiicratea ckelata.

+ Perhaps it would be more correct to say, with a vascular
coat which lines the walls of the cell.

POLYZOA. 3

and down the other of each tentacle. The united
effect of these currents as a whole is a powerful
vortex, the centre of which is the mouth at the
bottom of the belt of tentacles ; and thus floating
particles of food, or living animalcules, are drawn
into the whirlpool, and presently engulphed in the
yawning gullet below.

When alarmed, the animal contracts its muscular
threads and retires within its cell, the protrusile
membrane being drawn inwards, and the tentacles
closing into a compact bundle as they descend.

Though there is little diversity in the form or
structure of the animals themselves in this Class,
there is much difference in the form, arrangement,
and composition of the cells. In general the
form is ovate or oblong ; but this general shape
is variously modified, being tubular, club-shaped,
horn-shaped, cradle-shaped, square, three-sided,
rhomboidal, &c., &c. The arrangement is often
shrub-like ; but when so, the branches may be
formed by a single series of cells, or of two or
more set side by side, or back to back, or both.
At other times the branches are creeping and
adherent, as well as the root-thread ; or the cells
may be arranged in close series without branch or
root-thread, either adhering in irregular patches,
as the LejjraltcB, or rising into broad flexible
leaves, as the Flustrce, or in solid stony walls as
the Eschar (B. The cells may be horny or mem-
branous, with the calcareous element not deposited,
as the Vesiculariadce ; or they may be sunk in a
common fleshy or cartilaginous mass, as the Alcyo-
nidiaclxB. Finally, the cell may be wanting, or, at
least, inseparable from the skin, as in the genus
Pedicellina,

b2

4 POLYZOA.

Many of the genera are furnished with acces-
sory organs, which appear to be analogous in
office to the pedicellarice of the Starfishes and
Urchins. From the remarkable resemblance which
(in many species) these appendages bear to the
head of a vnlture, they have been commonly called
" Bird's-head processes" (avicularia). They are
usually jointed to some part of the cell, the head
moving on the joint freely as on a hinge, nodding
to and fro, occasionally opening widely the man-
dibles, and closing them with a powerful snap,
apparently with great exercise of will and dis-
crimination. Ingenuity has been exercised in vain
to divine the use of these singular processes, which
seem to be so little connected organically with the
animal within the cell, that the latter may be quite
dead and even decayed away, while the bird's-head
maintains its vivacity unimpaired.

It has long been suspected that these organs

are in some way or other useful in the procuring

of food, and several observers have noticed the

seizure of small roving animals by the pincer-like

beaks ; hence it has been too hastily concluded that

such victims become the food of the Polyzoan.

But it seems to have been forgotten, not only that

these organs have no power of passing the prey

thus seized to the mouth, but also that this latter

is situated at the bottom of a funnel of ciliated

tentacles, and is calculated to receive only such

minute prey as is drawn within the ciliary vortex.

I have ventured to suggest a new explanation.

The seizure of a passing animal, and the holding

of it in the tenacious grasp until it dies, may

be a means of attracting the proper prey to the

vicinity of the mouth. The presence of decom-

K

POLYZOA. 5

posing animal substance in water invariably at-
tracts crowds of infusory animalcules, which then
breed with amazing rapidity so as to form a cloud
of living atoms around the decaying body, quite
visible in the aggregate to the unassisted eye, and
these remain in the vicinity, playing round and
round until the organic matter is quite consumed.
Now, a tiny Annelid or other animal, caught by
the bird's-head of a Polyzoan and tightly held,
would presently die ; and though in its own sub-
stance it would not yield any nutriment to the
capturer, yet by becoming the centre of a crowd of
busy Infusoria, multitudes of which would con-
stantly be drawn into the tentacular vortex and
swallowed, it would be ancillary to its support,
and the organ in question would thus play no
unimportant part in the economy of the animal.

Besides the birds'-heads [avicularia) , some spe-
cies are furnished with long slender ^/J7^^p-like
spines {vibracula), likewise moving freely on a
hinge-joint, and apparently serving to rid the
animal of intruding vagrants, and to cleanse away
accidental defilement, by sweeping across the ori-
fice of the cell. Both these kinds of organs, by
their presence or absence, their form, position, &c.,
furnish aids to the determination of genera.

The entire assemblage of cells springing from
one root-thread, or originating from a single cell,
is called the i^olyzoay^y.

The reproduction of the species, so far as it has
been yet observed, is by means of ovules, or soft
eggs, generated within special cells, which are
ordinarily situated on the summit of a dwelling-
cell. The Q^g when discharged resembles an
infusory animalcule, being a minute opaque body,

6 POLYZOA.

covered witli vibratile cilia, loj whose action it is
rapidly rowed to a resting-place. Here it adheres,
and quickly develops a cell, with its indwelling
animal, whence others grow in the order of ar-
rangement proper to its kind.

Localities, d&c— Some few of the encrusting kinds,
as Tuhulipora patina, and the MemlraniporcB, and
some of the fleshy kinds, as Sarcochiton, &c.,
spread on the surface of living sea-weeds. The
more ordinary support for the former is some old
shell or loose stone in deep water ; but not a few
select indifferently these or the surface of the solid
rock. The branched sorts, whether creeping or
erect, are found on the stems of growing sea-weeds,
within tide-marks and in deep water, as well as on
inorganic substances. The tiny whitish shrubs of
many species are among the most interesting as
well as the most familiar objects with which the
searcher for marine animals is conversant.

Identification. — The principal points to be ob-
served are the following: — The form of the ten-
tacle-bell; the presence of a lip to the cell; the
connexion of the cells, whether by joints or ad-
hesion ; the arrangement of the cells, in one or more
rows ; the texture of the cells ; the presence and
number of hirds -heads or lohips ; the form of the
egg-cells and their position ; the shape of the cell ;
the shape of its aperture ; the presence of spines.

Authorities. — Mr. Busk's admirable " Catalogue
of Marine Polyzoa in the British Museum," super-
sedes every other so far as it has yet been pub-
lished, viz., to the end of the Cheilostomata.
For the rest, I am indebted to the second part of
the " History of British Zoophytes," by the late
Dr. Johnston^ and to my own observations.

TUBULIPOEAD^. 7

POLYZOA.

Molluscous animals enclosed in cells, organically
associated, and originating from a single cell ;
digestive system provided with a receiving and a
discharging orifice, placed near together; mouth
sm-rounded by ciliated tentacles ; reproduction by
ciliated free-swimming ovules.

Order L INFUNDIBULATA.

Tentacles forming an uninterrupted funnel-
shaped crown around the mouth. Exclusively
marine.* (Order II. Hip2)ocrep{a, consists exclu-
sively of fresh- water species.)

Cell with a round simple orifice .... Ci/clostomata.

Cell-orifice filled with a thin, membranous,
or calcareous plate, with a curved mouth,
furnished with a moveable lip Cheilostomata.

Cell-orifice surrounded by a fringe of
bristles (more or less developed) when the
animal is protruded Ctenostomata,

Siib- Order I. GYCLOSTOMATA.

Polyzoary calcareous, massive, circular,
lobed, or di^dded dichotomously ; cells long
and tubular, with a round, prominent, un-
constricted orifice Tuhulijiorada.

Polyzoary plant-like, jointed, branched ;
cells tubular, disposed in one or two series,
with round orifices looking to opposite sides Crisiadcs.

Family I. TuBULiPORADiE.

TuhuUpora (Lamk.). Wart-like, with a defined
base ; cells sub-erect, aggregated, or in imperfect
rows, more or less free at the tip.

* With the exception of PalucUcella aHiculata, a species found
in the loughs of Ireland, Avhich appears to belong to this Order.

8

POLYZOA.

§ 1. With a thin sessile cup-like base.

T. patina. Fig. 1 ; n.s.
hispida.

§ 2. Witli a lengthened or thickened base.

T. penicillata.
truncata.

§ 3. Lobed, with an unmargined base.

T. lobulata.
phalangea.
flabellaris.

T. serpens,
hyalina.

^&

^^

Diastopora (Lamx.). Encrusting, undefined; cells
alternating, tubular, horizontal, immersed, with a
raised circular orifice.

D. obelia. Fig. 2 ; n. s. and mag.

Idmonea (Lamx.). Divided dichotomously, erect ;
cells only on one side, tubular, in transverse rows,
divided into two sets by a medial longitudinal line.

I. atlantica. Fig. 3 ; n.s. and mag.

Pustulipora (De Blainv.). Erect, cylindrical;
cells semi-immersed, opening all round, with a
prominent orifice.

P. proboscidea. Fig. 4 ; n.s. and mag.
deflexa.

CRISIAD^.

9

Alecto (Lamx.). Creeping, adherent, irregularly
branching ; cells horizontal, in one or more linear
series, with their extremities free.

A. granulata.
major,
dilatans. Fig. 5 ; n. s. and nm^.

\ •>, v/t?AS^

Family II. Crisiad^.

Grisia (Lamx.). Cells in two rows, sub-alternate;
the orifice entire and terminal.

C. eburnea.

denticulata. Fig. 6 ; n.s. and mag.

aculeata.

geniculata.

Crisidia (M.-Edw.). Cells in a single row;
the extremities free, diverging.

C. cornuta. Fig. 7 ; n. s. and mag.
setacea.

Suh- Order 11. CHEILOSTOMATA.

Polyzoary divided into distinct portions
or joints by flexible articulations . . . Articidata.
Polyzoary continuous and unjointed . . luarticulata.

10

POLYZOA.

Teibe I. Aeticulata.

Polyzoaiy branched, erect ; branches
cylindrical, with the cells arranged on all
sides Salicornariada'.,

Polyzoary branched, erect ; branches
flat, linear, with the cells on the same
plane Cellulariadm.

Family I. Salicornaeiad^.

8alicornaria (Cuv.). Surface divided into lo-
zenge-sliaped spaces, by ridges surrounding tlie
cells.

S. farciminoides. Fig. 8 ; n.s. and mag.

Family II. Cellulaeiad^.

GeUularia (Pall.). Cells in two or three rows;
more than four between two joints^ contiguous,
perforated behind ; no bird's-head nor whip.
C. Peachii. Fig, 9 ; n.s. and mag.

Menipea (Lamx.). Cell oblong, tapering down-
wards, not perforate behind; one or two birds'-
heads in front below the aperture.

M. ternata. Fig. 10 ; ?i. s. and mag.

CELLULARIAD^.

11

Scrupocellaria (Van Beneden). Cell witli a wMp
beliind, and a sessile bird's-liead at the upper and
outer angle ; aperture spinous.

S. scriipea.

scru]30sa. Fig. 11 ; n.s. and mag.

9 A^

10

Cauda (Lamx.). Cell with a whip in a notch in
the outer side ; no bird's-head on the angle.

C. reptans. Fig. 12 ; n.s. and mag.

12

POLYZOA.

Teibe II. Inaeticulata.

Cells in one series Scrupariad^B.

Cells in more tlian one series : —

Cells opposite, in pairs .... Gemellariada .
Branches narrow ; cells in two
series or more —

Whips or birds' -heads at the

back Caheread^.

No whips ; birds'-heads j ointed Bicellariada.
Expanded, foliaceous, flexible,

erect Flustradce.

Expanded, encrusting, stony ; cells

horizontal, in quincunx Membmniporadce .

Massive, globose, encrusting, or
erect, stony ; cells vertical to the
common plane, irregularly heaped

together Celleporadis.

Expanded and leafy, or branch-
ing, stony ; cells in the same plane,
in quincunx . Hscharadce.

Family I. Scrupariad^.

Scrwparia (Oken). Erect, branching; cell liorn-
shaped, simple ; aperture obliquely terminal.
S. chelata. Fig. 13 ; n.s. and mag.

SCRUPARIAD^.

13

Salpingia (Coppin). Erect, branching ; cell
elongated, its base furnished with spines and
trumpet-shaped processes ; aperture lateral.
S. Hassallii. Fig. 14 ; mag,
IIi2J2Jothoa{h?c[Q.-K.). Creeping, adhering; branches
springing from the sides of the cells.
H. catenularia.

divaricata. Fig. 15 ; n. s. and mag.

19 20

^tea (Lamx.). Base a creeping, adhering thread;
cells tubular, erect, scattered.

M. anguina. Fig. 16 ; n. s. and mag.
truncata.

14

POLYZOA.

Beania (Jolmst.). Base a creeping, adiiering,
branching thread ; cells sessile, erect, scattered,
with a double spinous keel on one side.
B. mirabilis. Fig. 17; n.s. and mag.

Family II. G-emellariad^.

Gemellaria (Sav.). Cells joined back to back,
all the pairs facing the same way ; aperture oval,
oblique ; no birds' -heads.

G. loricata. Fig. 18 ; n, s. and mag,

Notamia (Flern.). Each pair of cells arising from
the next pair but one below it, by tubular pro-
longations ; tobacco-pipe-shaped birds'-heads above
each pair.

N. bursaria. Fig, 19 ; 7t. s. and mag.

^M'M/,

21 22

Family III. Caberead^.

Caber ea (Lamx.). Cells (in the Brit, sp.) two
or three rowed ; branches furnished behind with
many large whips, placed obliquely in two rows.
C. Hookeri. Fig. 20 ; n. s. and mag.

FLUSTRAD^.

15

Family IY. Bicellariad^.

Bicellaria (De BL). Cells top-shaped, distinct,
armed with spines ; aperture looking upwards.
B. ciliata. Fig. 21 ; n.s. and mag.

Bugiila (Oken). Cells elliptical, closely con-
tiguous, in two or more rows ; aperture very-
large ; margin simple, not thickened ; birds'-heads
(generally present) stalked and jointed.

B. neritina. B. plumosa.

flabellata. Murrayana.

avicularia. Fig. 22 ; n.s. and mag.

23

Family V. Flustrad^.

Flustra (Linn.). Cells contiguous, on both sides

of the expansion.

F. foliacea, F. truncata.

papyracea. Fig. 23 ; n. s. and mag.

Carhasea (Gray). Cells contiguous, on one side
only.

C. papyrea. Fig. 24 ; n. s. and mag.

16

POLYZOA.

Family VI. Membeanipoead^.

Memhranipora (Jolinst.). Cells open in front,
with raised margins ; usually encrusting sea- weeds,
more rarely shells and stones.

M. membranacea. M. riemiiigii.
pilosa. Fig. 25 ; n. s. and mag. Rosselii.

coriacea. Lacroixii.

lineata. monostachys.

25

26

Lepralia (Johnst.). Cells closed in front, spread-
ing from the centre outwards.

N.B. The British species of this genus, which
are very numerous, are thus subdivided \>j Mr.
Busk : —

* Furnished with birds'-heads.

a. Bii-d's-head medial and single,

a. Above the mouth.

L. Brongniartii.

b. Below the mouth.

L. Landsborovii. L. concinna.
reticulata. verrucosa,

auriculata. violacea.

/3. Birds'-heads double ; or if single, on one side.
L. spinifera. L. coccinea.

trispinosa. linearis.

CELLEPOEAD^.

17

** Furnished with whips.
L. ciliata,
Gattyae.
Hyndmanni.

*** With neither birds'-heads nor whips.

a. The mouth armed with sj)ines.
L. variolosa. L. ventricosa.

nitida. melolontha.

annulata. innominata.

bispinosa. punctata.

Peachii.

^. The mouth unarmed.
L. figularis. L. simplex.

IDertusa. [and mag. Malusii.

Pallasiana. Fig. 26 ; n. s. granifera.
labrosa. hyalina.

27

Family VII. Cellepoead^.

CeUepora (Fabr.). Cells vase-like, with a beak
on one or both sides, furnished with a bird's-head.

* Compact.

C. pumicosa. Fig. 27 ; n. s. and mag.
Hassallii.
vitrina.

C

18

POLYZOA.

** Branching.

C. ramulosa,
Skenei.

Family YIII. Eschaead^.

Eschar a (Ray). Cells on both surfaces of the
expansion, immersed, and coalescent.

E. foliacea. Fig. 28 ; n. s. and mag.
cervicornis.

Retepora (hdimk.). Leafy, reticulated ; cells im-
mersed, on one surface only.

K. cellulosa. Fig. 29 ; n. s. and mag.
Beaniana.

■^A:fCi

29

30

Sub- Order III. CTENOSTOMATA.

Polyzoary sponge-like, flesliy, irregular in
sharpe; cells immersed, with a contractile
orifice Alcyonidiadae.

Polyzoary plant-like, horny, tubular ; cells
free, deciduous ; the extremity flexible and
invertile .... Vesiculariadcs

VESICULAEIAD^.

19

Polyzoary plant-like, creeping, adherent,
sending up at iiTegular intervals free, erect,
stalked polypes, without distinct cells . . PediceUinad(B.

Family I. Alcyonidiad^.

Alcyonidium (Lamx.). Erect, lobed, or simple ;
cells immersed, five-angled.

A. gelatinosum. A. parasiticum.

hirsutum. Fig. 30 ; n. s. and ma^.

Cycloum (Hassall). Encrusting, covered with
imperforate warts ; eggs in circular clusters.

C. papillosum. Fig. 31 ; n.s. and mag.

I' ; >

32

33

Zi

Sarcocliitum (Hass.). Encrusting, covered with
perforate prominences, in which the cells are im-
mersed ; eggs scattered singly throughout.

S. polyoum. Fig. 32 ; n. s. and mag.

Family II. Yesiculariad^.

AmatJiia (Lamx.). Shoot slender, thread-like,
erect, branched ; cells tubular, mutually adherent,

c2

20

POLYZOA.

set on one side only, in a single row, the rows
separated by blank intervals ; animals with eight
tentacles.

A. lendigera. Fig. 33 ; n. s. and mag.

Vesicularia (Thomps.). Shoot branched, jointed ;
cells oval, separated, on one side, in one row ;
animals with eight tentacles and a gizzard.

V. spinosa. Fig. 34 ; 7i. s. and mag.

Valkeria (Flem.). Yariously branched: cells
oval, clustered iiTCgularly ; animals with eight
tentacles, no gizzard.

V. cuscuta. Fig. 35 ; n. s. and mag.
uva.
pustiilosa.

35

36

Mimosella (Hincks) . Variously branched ; cells
ovate, set in two rows, opposite, with a joint at the
base, on which they can move to and fro, and fold

VESICULAEIAD^.

21

together on the branches ; animals with eight ten-
tacles and a gizzard.

M. gracilis. Fig. 36 ; n. s. and ma^.

Avenella (Daljell). Slender, thread-like, creep-
ing, nearly simple ; cells large, solitary, irregularly
scattered, set in a single row, slightly contracted at
the top, curved ; animals with from twenty to
twenty-fom- tentacles, and a small gizzard.

A. Dalyellii. Fig. 37 ; mag.

Nolella (Gosse). Cells erect, sub -cylindrical,
crowded on tubes which form an undefined encrust-

37

38

ing mat ; animals with eighteen tentacles, forming
a bell.

N. stipata. Fig. 38 ; n. s. and mag.

Boioerbanhia (Farre). Matted and creeping,
or erect and irregularly branched ; cells tubular,
densely clustered ; animals with eight to ten ten-
tacles, and a strong gizzard.

B. imbricata. Fig. 39 ; ji.s. and mag.

22

POLYZOA.

Farrella (Elir.) . As Bowerhanhia^ but the animals
with twelve to thirty tentacles, and no gizzard.

F. repens. .
elongata.
gigantea. Fig. 40 ; n. s. and ma^.

39

Anguinella (Van Ben.). Branched in a palmate
manner, one tube springing out of another, largely-
composed of mud ; animals with twelve tentacles
and no gizzard.

A. palmata. Fig. 41 ; mag.

PEDICELLINAD^.

23

Family III. Pedicellinad^.

PedicelUna (Sars). Animal globose, with a
circle of short tentacles, which are curled up in-
wardly, and are not retractile ; placed at the sum-
mit of an erect slender stalk, which springs from
a creeping, adherent thread.

P. echinata.

Belgica. Fig. 42 ; n. s. and maff.
gracilis.

iv

24

Class II. TUNICATA.

(ASCIDIANS.)

The relationship between the animals of the
Class just dismissed and those of the present is
close and obvious. The cell of the Polyzoan is
represented in the Ascidian by the test or tunic, an
envelope of cartilaginous, leathery, fleshy, or mem-
branous consistence, having two orifices. Within
the test is another envelope, distinguished as the
mantle, having two orifices corresponding to those
of the test. The true digestive stomach is situated
at a great distance from the receiving orifice, and
near the bottom of the cavity of the body, whence
(in the majority of cases) the intestine, bending
abruptly upwards, terminates in the secondary ori-
fice, a little on one side of the primary (or receiv-
ing) one.

Thus far the parallelism is very close with the
POLYZOA. There are, however, important devia-
tions from the structure proper to that Class. The
crown of radiating tentacles, richly ciliated, is here
represented by minute rudiments, the slight impor-
tance of which is indicated by their being common
to both apertures in some species, and absent from
both in others ; while the elaborate array of cilia,
which performs so essential a part in the function
of respiration, appears under quite another form.
The lengthened gullet and crop leading to the
stomach in the Polyzoa, is here dilated so as to
form a sac of still more enormous dimensions, the

TUNICATA. 25

whole internal surface of which is covered with
\'ibrating cilia, while the sac itself is composed of
a tissue of blood-vessels, crossing each other at
right angles, bo as to form a muslin-like fabric of
exquisite fineness.

In order to understand the relation of this respi-
ratory sac with the breathing apparatus of the
PoLYZOA, it seems to me that we have only to
suppose the tentacles (which are, doubtless, the
blood-vessels of the latter) turned into the gullet,
and spread over its interior surface, giving off
a number of cross branches, uniting the whole into
a network ; — and we have essentially the sac of the
Ascidia.

Few microscopic spectacles are more interesting
than the sight of the circulation of the blood along
the network of this exquisite tissue, and that of the
ciliary waves by which the circulating fluid is
revivified. In the transparent species, such as
Clavelina, Pei^ophora, &c., both phenomena are
seen to great advantage. The effect of the reticu-
lation is to divide the whole surface of the sac into
oblong or oval spaces, set in regular rows ; which
spaces, being formed by the modified tentacles with
their ramifications, bear the cilia on their circum-
ferences. The optical effect of vibrating cilia is,
as is well known, an appearance of dark teeth
chasing each other ; and in this case we seem to
see a vast number of oblong or oval rings, set in
orderly arrangement, each composed of a circular
series of these running teeth, like the cogs on the
crown-wheel of a watch, chasing each other round
and round, with an even, moderately rapid, inces-
sant pursuit.

At the same time, between the oval spaces — that

26 TUNICATA.

is, within the vessels,"^ which by their reticulation
make the spaces — the blood-globules wind along,
moving by jerks as impelled by the pulsations of
a heart set in a distinct cavity below the lower
extremity of the breathing sac. This blood-circu-
lation is intermittent in duration, and reversible in
its course. For instance, in Perophora, after about
a hundred regular pulsations, during which the
blood-globules have been uniformly driven from
left to rights suddenly the heart ceases to beat, the
globules rest in their course, and all is still. In
a few seconds the pulsations begin again, and pro-
ceed with as much regularity as before ; but the
course of the circulation is reversed, — it is now from
right to left.

The stomach in this Class is a dilatation or
chamber of the alimentary canal, the surface of
which is surrounded by a glandular mass, perform-
ing the functions of a liver : the bile secreted by
the latter finds its way into the stomach through
perforations in its walls. The intestine does not
reach to the exterior of the animal, but terminates
loosely in a cavity which opens by the secondary
orifice. Not only the remains of the digested food,
but also the eggs, find their way out through this
aperture. I have seen the globular crimson eggs
of the little Cynthia grossularia shot out from this
orifice to the number of a dozen or more in suc-
cession, and with a propellent force that carried
them up perpendicularly to a height equal to ten
times that of the animal.

So far as is known, the sexes are united in the
same individual.

* Rather grooves, or open canals, and not true tubular

vessels.

TUNICATA. 27

The young animal in this Class passes through
a metamorphosis. At first it has a tadpole-like
form, with a long flattened tail, which is an efficient
swimming organ. Button-like warts bud out from
the fore part, by which the infant Tunicate pre-
sently cements itself to some fixed body; soon
after which the tail is absorbed, and the adult form
is assumed.

The nervous system is represented by a single
ganglion, situated beneath the mantle between the
two orifices. Nerves pass from this centre to various
parts of the body, and to the organs of sense. The
most distinct of these latter are the eyes and the
tentacles. In many species we see eight red specks
placed around the margin of the receiving orifice,
and six around the discharging one. These are
eyes, which possess (according to Krohn and other
anatomists) all the parts necessary for distinct
vision, viz., the sclerotic coat, cornea, pigment,
iris, tapetum, vitreous humour, crystalline lens,
retina, and optic nerve.

Fixed and almost motionless as most of the
TuNiCATA are, during life, the muscular system
is little developed in them. In general it consists
of a few circular and longitudinal bands, the chief
operation of which is the spasmodic enlargement
or contraction of the body-cavity at certain inter-
vals, by which the surrounding water is emitted or
ejected. The opening and closing of the orifices
are, in most cases, the only voluntary movements
that can be detected in these sluggish animals.

Some modifications under which the TuNiCATA
present themselves to us require to be noticed.
Many of the forms are compound, such as the
Botrylli; those little patches of firm jelly which we

28 TUNICATA.

find between tide-marks, adhering to sea-weeds or
to stones, of various gaj colours, set with minute
stars of brighter hues. These stars, or systems, of
which there may be many in a single patch, are
composed of minute Tunicata, set in a radiating
circle, and marked by this peculiarity ; that instead
of the two orifices being placed close together, as
usual, the receiving one alone is directed outwards,
the discharging one opening at the opposite extre-
mity into a common circular reservoir, which is
the outlet of that particular system.

In other cases the animals are united into com-
pound systems, enveloped in a common mass ; but
the form of each animal is that already described,
each having its own discharging orifice placed near
the receiving one. These compound encrusting
forms show a relation to the Alcyonidiadce among
the POLYZOA.

There are other genera, again, which consist of
animals individually distinct, and of the ordinary
structure, but which spring singly from a common
creeping root-thread. These [Clavelinadoi) present
the most close analogy with the condition of the
Vesicidainadce^ and particularly of Pedicellina.

Though the general habit of this Class is to be
permanently fixed to foreign bodies, yet there are
some members of it which are free. The genus
PeloncRa appears to have a form, structure, and
habits, which bring it into proximity with some
of the worm-like Echinodermata. " They pre-
sent the remarkable positive anatomical character
of an union of mantle with test^ *

In this latter character they are paralleled by
the still more free Salpadce, creatures which difi'er

* Forbes and Hanley ; Br. Moll. i. 42.

TUNICATA. 29

very widely from the ordinary conditions of their
relatives. They are chiefly tropical and oceanic
animals, swimmers in the wide and open sea,
visiting our coast so rarely that we can scarcely
reckon them as properly British animals. Hence
I shall but briefly notice their more obvious pecu-
liarities.

These creatures are found sometimes solitary,
at others united in long chains composed of nume-
rous individuals alike in form and structure, each
an independent being, though constantly associated,
and linearly aggregated with its companions. These
long chains swim through the water with regular
serpentine movements, the result of the combined
reception and discharge of water by the whole
group. When lifted from the water, the links of
the chain fall asunder, the several animals of which
it is composed losing their power of adhesion.

The solitary Salpse are very dissimilar from
these in form and structure, and are never found
united in chains. They were, therefore, supposed
to be distinct species ; but the discovery was made
by Chamisso, that both the one and the other
formed but parts of the perfect type of a single
species. The progeny of the Chain- Salpa is a
solitary Salpa, and that of the solitary Salpa is
a Chain-Salpa, according to the law of " Alter-
nation of Generations," which has already been
mentioned as prevailing among the Zoophyta and
the ACALEPHA.*

* Professor Huxley contends that the true expression of the
phenomena is as follows : — The Chain-Salpa alone produces a
true embryo by proper generation, which becomes a solitary
Salpa; this, by a process of gemmation, produces a "bud," or
" stolon," which, under the form of a Chain-Salpa, is " nothing
more, homologically, than a highly individualized generative

30 TUNICATA.

Localities, c&c. — The Botrylli and some other
of the encrusting genera are found on stones, and
on the surface of the rocks, but more commonly
on the broad fronds of Fuci, and other sea-weeds,
and more abundantly near low-water mark than
in deep water. Others of the compound races, as
Amoercecium, chiefly affect the sides of perpen-
dicular or overhanging ledges, the sides of caverns,
and similar dark situations. The Clavelinadce
generally occur in little pools. T}iq Ascidice usually
adhere to stones and old shells, as do the CynthicB,
&c. ; but some of the smaller kinds adhere to sea-
weeds. When the Ascidice are found within tide-
marks, they generally adhere to the under-side of
stones. The Saljjce occur only at the surface of
the sea in summer, and when the weather is
tranquil.

Identification. — The condition of existence, whe-
ther solitary, social (budding in groups from one
root) , or compound (many individuals being orga-
nically united into one or more systems) ; the con-
nexion of the mantle with the test, whether they
are united throughout, or only at the orifices ; the
texture of the test; the freedom or fixity of the
individual ; if fixed, the point and extent of its
attachment ; the relative situation of the orifices ;
the number of their rays when expanded; the
presence and number of eyes ; are important points
to be noticed in the discrimination of species in
this Class. The relative value of the characters
may be in some measure inferred from the order
in which they are here mentioned.

organ.^' "The whole process differs from that common to
animals in general in nothing but the independence and appa-
rent individuality of the generative organ." (Phil. Trans. 1851,
Part II. p. 578.)

BOTRYLLID^. 31

Authorities. — I have been chiefly indebted to
M. Savigny's "Memoires sur les Animaux sans Ver-
tfebres;" Dr. Mihie-Edwards^s " Observations sur
les Ascidies Composees ;" Messrs. Forbes and Han-
ley's " British Mollusca ;" Siebold and Kolliker's
"Anatomy of the Invertebrata " (Burnett^s edi-
tion) ; and Professor Huxley's " Memoir on Salpa
and Pyrosoma."

TUNICATA.

Molluscous animals enveloped in a test composed
of cellulose, furnished Avith two orifices, a receiving
[branchial) and a discharging [anal) one ; mantle
forming an interior tunic, also furnished with two
orifices corresponding with those of the test, and
adhering to them; gills occupying the interior
surface of a membranous sac, hanging between the
branchial orifice and the entrance of the stomach,
and leading to the latter.

Animal attached ; mantle united to the
test only at the orifices.

Individuals organically united in
systems . Botryllid(B.

Individuals distinct, but associated by
a common root-thread Clavelinadce.

Individuals isolated Ascidiadce.

Animal free ; test and mantle united
throughout.

Orifices near together PelotKEadie.

Orifices placed at opposite extremities Salpada.

Family I. Botryllid^.

Aplidimn (Sav.). Mass sessile, varying in form,
gelatinous, or cartilaginous, composed of numei'ous
systems, with no central cavity. Animals com-

32

TUNICATA.

posed of thorax, fore-abdomen, and hind-abdomen ;
branching orifice six-rayed ; anal orifice simple,
indistinct.

A. ficus. A. nutans,

fallax. Fig. 43 ; n. s. and ma^ verrucosum.

Si'dnyum (Sav.). Mass a nimiber of cones
truncated and starred at the summit, rising from a
common encrusting base, each including one sys-
tem with a depressed centre. Animals composed
of thorax and abdomen; branchial orifice eight-
rayed.

S. turbinatum. Fig. 44 ; n. s.

44

0r^^

/

^#'"1

43

45

Folydinum (Sav.). Mass sessile, varying in
form, gelatinous or cartilaginous, composed of nu-
merous systems, which are convex and radiating,
with a central cavity. Animals composed of
thorax, fore-abdomen, and a long-stalked hind-
abdomen ; branchial orifice six-rayed ; anal orifice
projecting horizontally.

P. aurantium. Fig. 45 ; n. s.

BOTEYLLID.E.

33

Amceroecium (M.-Edw.). Mass lobed or encrust-
ing, sessile or stalked ; systems numerous, having
a central cavity. Animals as in AjMclium ; anal
orifices opening into a common discharging vent.

A. proliferum.
Nordmanni,
Argus,
albicans.

Fig. 46

n. s. and inag.

LeptocUmim (M.-Edw.). Mass thin, sessile, en-
crusting, varying in form ; systems numerous.
Animals composed of thorax and abdomen ;
branchial orifice six-rayed ; anal orifice opening
into a common vent, more or less ramified.

L. maculosiim.
asjjerum.
aureum.

L, gelatinosum. Fig. 47 ; n. s.
Listerianum,
pimctatum.

46

47

Distoma (Gaertn.). Mass sessile, cartilaginous,
varying in form ; systems numerous, circular.
Animals placed irregularly in one or two ranks,
composed of thorax and a stalked abdomen;
branchial and anal orifices six-rayed.

D. rubrum. Fig. 48; n.s.
variolosum.

D

34

TUNICATA.

Botryllus (Gaertn.). Mass sessile, encrusting,
gelatinous, composed of numerous systems, in
which the animals are ranged horizontally in star-
like circles around a common vent. Animals with
no division of the body into parts ; branchial orifice
simple, remote from the vent,

B. Sclilosseri. B. violaceus.

polycycliis. Fig. 49 ; 71. s. smaragdus.

gemmeus. bivittatus.

48

49

50

Botryllo'ides (M.-Edw.). Eesembling Botrylhis,
but the systems forming irregularly-branched or
winding lines. Animals placed vertically ; the two
orifices near together.

B. Leachii.
albicans.

B. rotifera.

rubra. Fig. 50 ; n. s.

Syntetliys (Forbes). Mass sessile, gelatinous,
forming a single system. Animals sessile, having
simple orifices without rays.

S. Hebridicus, Fig. 51 ; \n.s.

Family II. Clayelinad^.

Clavelina (Sav.). Animals oblong, erect ; thorax
marked with coloured lines.

C. lepadiformis. Fig. 52 ; 71. s.
producta.
pumilio ?

ASCIDIADiE.

35

Perophora (Wiegm.). Animals roundishj com-
pressed ; thorax not marked with lines.

P. Listen. Fig. 53 ; n. s, and mag.

51

52

53

Family III- Ascidiad^e.

Ascidia (Bast.). Body sessile ; test more or less
leathery ; branchial sac not folded, sm^mounted by
a circle of simple tentacles ; branchial orifice eight-
lobed ; anal six-lobed ; both circular.

A. intestinalis.
canina.
venosa,
mentula.
arachno'idea.
scabra.
virginea. Fig. 54 ; n.

A. parallelogramma.
prunum.
aspersa.
vitrea.
conchilega.
orbicularis,
echinata.

Molgula (Forbes). Body globose, attached or
free ; test membranous, usually invested with
foreign matters ; branchial orifice six-lobed ; anal
four-lobed ; both on very contractile, naked tubes.

M. oculata.

tubulosa. Fig. 55 ; n. s.

d2

36

TUNICATA.

Cynthia (Sav.). Body sessile; test leathery;
branchial sac folded lengtliwise : both orifices
four-sided.

C. microcosmus. C. morus.

claudicans. rustica.

tuberosa. grossiilaria.
quadrangiilaris. Fig. bQ ; n. s. ampulla,

informis. mammillaris.

tesselata. aggregata.
limacina.

55

56

Family IY. Pelon^ad^.

Feloncea (Forbes). Test cylindrical, unattached ;
orifices without rays, on two equal approximate
warty eminences at the fore extremity.

P. corrugata. Fig. 57.
glabra.

Family Y. Salpad^.

Sal'pa (Gmel.). Test and mantle cylindrical or
oval, open at both extremities ; anal orifice wide,
transverse, and furnished with a valve; swims
freely in the ocean.

S. runcinata. Fig. 58 ; n. s.

SALPADJ^.

37

Appendicidaria (Cliamisso). Test and mantle
flask - shaped, gelatinous, transparent, with a
branchial orifice at the smaller end ; vent opening
on the back ; a broad, ribbon-like, erect tail.

A. flagellum 1 Fig. 59 ; J.

57

58

59

38

Class III. CONCHIFEEA.
(Bivalves.)

A Bivalve may be considered as a Tunicate
more or less opened down one side (the ventral
side), and enveloped in a shell instead of a test.
Hence the shell (representing the test), the mantle,
and the breathing organ, instead of being so many
sacs, are all composed of leaves facing each other,
opening in front, and united at the back, exactly
like the covers and leaves of a book.

The shell is the outermost envelope. It consists
of a pair of valves, more or less exactly corre-
sponding to each other in size and shape. Its
substance is carbonate of lime deposited in mem-
branous cells, or in membranous folds. By means
of acids the lime may be wholly dissolved away,
and the membranous base remains, retaining the
form without the consistence of the original shell.

Considered as to its structure, shell consists of
two very distinct portions. The outer layer is
formed of close prisms of lime, or rather cells filled
with lime, standing perpendicularly or obliquely
to the plane of the valve. They are deposited
at certain definite periods by the mantle-borders,
in a manner to be described presently. The inner
layer is more or less pearly, and is composed of
thin coats of lime, not contained in cells, but
deposited in folds of the membranous base. The
origin of this layer is the whole outer surface of
the mantle-leaves.

The shell-valves are not united to the contained
animal, except at certain points by the insertion of

CONCHIFERA. 39

the ends of certain muscles, and by a horny skin
[epidermis] belonging to the mantle, and stretch-
ing over the edges of the valves and upon their
exterior. Sometimes the epidermis encloses even
the siphons, but in many cases it is not to be
detected at all.

At the back the valves are connected together
partly by an elastic dense substance, somewhat
resembling india-rubber (the ligament)^ and partly
by a hinge, usually made of teeth and cavities
fitting into each other. The use of the ligament is
to force open the valves, in opposition to the con-
tractile power of the muscles within, which draw
them together. The ligament may be placed within
or without the hinge, or partly the one and partly
the other. In the former case the fibres are com-
pressed, and in the latter they are stretched when
the valves are closed ; in either case it is their
elasticity which opens the valves.

On separating the valves, we see next the two
leaves of the mantle. These are delicately thin,
except at their external edges, where they are
somewhat thickened. These margins, also, are fre-
quently fui'nished with sensitive tentacles and
other organs of sense, as well as with glands,
which are often highly colom-ed. One prominent
function of the mantle is the formation and peri-
odical increase of the shell, the process of which
has been so graphically described by Professor
Jones that I shall cite his words : —

" When the animal is engaged in increasing the
dimensions of its abode, the margin of the mantle
is protruded, and firmly adherent all round to the
circumference of the valve with which it corre-
sponds. Thus circumstanced, it secretes calcareous

40 CONCHIFERA.

matter, and deposits it in a soft state upon the
extreme edge of the shell, where the secretion
hardens and becomes converted into a layer of solid
testaceous substance. At intervals this process is
repeated, and every newly-formed layer enlarges
the diameter of the valve. The concentric strata
thus deposited remain distinguishable externally,
and thus the lines of growth marking the progres-
sive increase of size may easily be traced.

" It appears that at certain times the deposition
of calcareous substance from the fringed circum-
ference of the mantle is much more abundant than
at others : in this case ridges are formed at distinct
intervals ; or, if the border of the mantle at such
periods shoots out beyond its usual position, broad
plates of shell, or spines of different lengths, are
secreted, which, remaining permanent, indicate, by
the interspaces separating successively deposited
growths of this description, the periodical stimulus
to increased action that caused their formation.

" Whatever thickness the shell may subsequently
attain, the external surface is thus exclusively
composed of layers deposited in succession by the
margin of the mantle ; and, seeing that this is the
case, nothing is more easy than to understand how
the colours seen upon the exterior of the shell are
deposited, and assume that definite arrangement
characteristic of the species. We have already
said that the border of the mantle contains, in its
substance, coloured spots : these, when minutely
examined, are found to be of a glandular character,
and to owe their peculiar colours to a pigment
secreted by themselves ; the pigment so furnished
being therefore mixed up with the calcareous mat-
ter at "the time of its deposition, coloured lines are

CONCHIFERA. 41

found upon the exterior of the shell wherever
these glandular organs exist. If the deposition of
colour from the glands be kept up without remis-
sion during the enlargement of the shell, the lines
upon its surface are continuous and unbroken ; but
if the pigment be furnished only at intervals, spots
or coloured patches of regular form, and gradually
increasing in size with the growth of the mantle,
recur in a longitudinal series wherever the paint-
secreting glands are met with

" While the margin of the mantle is thus the
sole agent in enlarging the circumference of the
shell, its growth in thickness is accomplished by a
secretion of a kind of calcareous varnish, derived
from the external surface of the mantle generally ;
which, being deposited layer by layer over the
whole interior of the previously existing shell, pro-
gressively adds to its weight and solidity. There
is, moreover, a remarkable difference between the
character of the material secreted by the marginal
fringe, and that furnished by the general surface
of the [mantle-membrane] : the former we have
found to be more or less covered by glands ap-
pointed for the purpose, situated in the circum-
ference of the mantle ; but as these glands do not
exist elsewhere, no colouring matter is ever mixed
with the layers that increase the thickness of the
shell, so that the latter always remain of a delicate
white hue, and form the well-known iridescent
material usually distinguished by the name of
nacre, or mother of 'pearl.^^ *

When we have removed the mantle-leaves, we
find beneath them the gill-leaves, two on each side.
These, like the mantle-leaves and the shell-valves,

* Gen. Outline, 385.

42 CONCHIFERA.

are open in front, and united at the back. Each,
leaf consists of a series of close-set transverse
tubes, which open into channels leading into a
cavity behind the united leaves. These tubes are
clothed with cilia, which maintain a constant cur-
rent in the water that bathes them.

In most of the members of this Class there are
two openings, exactly as in the Tunicata: the
one for the admission of water, the other for its
rejection. These often take the form of tubes
[siphons), more or less lengthened and projected at
will from the shell. The receiving siphon com-
municates with the cavity included between the
gill-leaves, the discharging one with another cavity
behind the leaves. In some species, however, the
discharging siphon alone is present, the receiving
one merging into the wider opening of the mantle-
leaves ; while in the Oyster family there are no
siphons, the mantle being entirely open.

Within the innermost pair of gill-leaves are
placed the various viscera, and in particular those
of the digestive system. As in the Tunicata, the
entrance to the stomach is placed at the bottom of
the breathing organ, receiving the minute atoms
of food that has been collected from the water-
currents. The mouth, thus placed, is guarded by
tumid lips, and by one or two pairs of broad mem-
branous palps, or organs of a delicate sense. The
food of all bivalves is microscopically minute ; it
consists very largely of those dubious objects,
abounding in both fresh and sea water, which
occupy a debatable position between the animal
and vegetable kingdoms, — the Diatomacece, &c.*

* The membranous palps, in many species, form so many
grooves leading to the mouth, and the particles of food travel
along them by means of the cilia with which they are bordered.

CONCHIFERA. 43

The notion that Oysters can be fattened on oat-
meal is a vulgar eiTor.

The stomach and intestine are very simple, and
the latter opens into the chamber of the dis-
charging siphon.

The nervous system now becomes well de-
veloped. It consists of three pairs of principal
ganglions with their branches.

Organs of sense are likewise possessed by this
Class in an advanced condition of development.
Besides the palps just noticed, many of the spe-
cies which have the mantle open carry sensitive
lengthened tentacles along its borders, set some-
times in a single, sometimes in double rows. In
the Scallops (Pecteii), these are seen to great ad-
vantage. The openings of the siphons are also
generally protected by tentacles, which close down
and form a sort of network across the orifice. In
Pholas dactylus, these are cmiously branched, like
the tentacles which surround the mouth of the
HolothurmJ^

The organs of hearing consist of a pair of trans-
parent capsules filled with a clear fluid. Each
contains a glassy globule, which constantly main-
tains a very singular swinging and rotatory motion,
that instantly ceases when the capsule is ruptui'ed.
These capsules are situated in the foot.

Organs of vision are much more obvious, at
least in many species, being often highly coloured,

" The important part which this apparatus serves in the taking
of food, may be seen by covering the palps of Anodonta, &c.,
with any coloured powder. This powder is carried by the cilia
from the surface to the borders of the palps, thence upon their
transversely grooved internal surfaces into the angle fonned by
these latter, thence into currents of the grooves, and so direct
into the mouth." — Siebold's Anat. of the Invertehrata, § 189.
* See my "Devonshire Coast," p. QQ, and pi. ii.

44 CONCHIFERA.

very numerous, and prominently situated. They
may be well studied in the common Scallop {Pecten
opercularis), where they occur in great numbers,
placed among the tentacles on the borders of the
mantle. They are beautiful objects, as they gleam
with the radiance of precious stones. In other
genera the eyes are differently placed ; as near one
or the other extremity of the mantle (the fore part
in Pinna, the hind in Tellina), or around the
siphon -orifices, as in Pholas, Venus, and Solen.
In the Cockle {Cardiimi) the short siphons are
surrounded with an extraordinary number of tenta-
cles, capable of elongation and protrusion, each of
which bears an eye of diamond-like brilliancy."^

There is in many Conchifera a curious organ,
known, from some of its functions, as the foot. It
is a muscular mass, frequently of great size, and
capable of being pushed out from between the
mantle and valves to a long distance. It some-
times acts as a pushing pole, and at others as an
anchor. In the boring kinds, which live in sand
or mud, it is the organ by which they form
their perforations, and descend into them. Being
stretched to its utmost, the extremity, which is
generally pointed, is inserted into the soil ; then
being bent up in the form of a hook, the whole
organ is suddenly and forcibly contracted; the
hook maintains its hold of the mud, and the result
is that the whole animal with its shell is dragged
into the hole. The Cockles are able to perform
vigorous leaps by means of this well-developed
and versatile foot.

In other species the foot is grooved ; and being
associated with a gland which has the power of

* Siebold, Anat. Invert. § 187.

CONCHIFERA. 45

secreting a glutinous substance, the latter is drawn
out by means of the groove into slender threads,
which are attached by their tips to the rocks and
other foreign bodies. The grooved foot is then
withdrawn, and the thread presently hardens into
a very strong, highly elastic sort of silk, called
hyssus. It is by the aggregation of many such
threads that the common Mussel [Mytilus) moors
itself to the rocks and to its fellows.

It is not only soft mud or sand that yields to
the burrowing efforts of the Conchifera. Not a
few among them bore tunnels into clay, wood,
chalk, shale, sandstone, and even the most com-
pact marble. The mode in which this is performed
is not yet ascertained. It cannot be by a chemical
solvent secreted by the animal, since there is no
menstruum known which will act on substances so
varied. The constant rotation of the rough shell-
valves, the application of the end of the foot, which
in some cases is said to be studded with flinty
points, and the incessant projection of ciliary cur-
rents, wearing away the substance atom by atom,
have all been suggested, and are each maintained,
as the effective modus operandi^ by names of re-
putation. Perhaps all of these may be in turn
employed ; for no one of them seems to afford a
satisfactory solution of all the difficulties.

With one or two doubtful exceptions, the Con-
chifera have the sexes distinct, though, for the
most part, the distinction can be recognised only
by anatomical examination. The eggs are re-
ceived into one or other of the pairs of gill-leaves,
which become much swollen with their presence.

The young are hatched before they leave the
parent, but present a form and structure totally

46 CONCHIFEEA.

unlike those of the adult. They, therefore, pass
through a metamorphosis. The embryo form ap-
pears to differ in different genera. In some, as
the UmomdcB, or Freshwater Mussels, there is a
pair of three-sided valves, partly enveloping a
round mass covered with cilia, which, while in the
^gg, continually rotated. The rotatory movement
soon ceases, and the embryo divides into halves,
each covered by a valve. Each portion of this
double animal has a ciliated mouth near the hinge,
and a proper intestine of its own. In the middle
of the angle formed by these halves is raised a
short hollow cylinder, — the hyssus-ioYmhig organ,
out of which projects a very long transparent
hyssus.

'' Near the hinge a large muscle passes from
one valve to the other ; this, fi'om the convulsive
contractions which occur from time to time, gra-
dually approximates the valves, which are wide
open when the young individual escapes from the
Qgg. These valves are trigonal and slightly con-
vex. One of their sides goes to form the hinge,
while the two remaining, which are a little arched,
unite at an angle opposite. With this angle is
articulated a prolongation curved downwards and
inwards, and whose convex side has several spines.
After their escape from the eggs, these embryos
are held together by their entangled hyssuses.
Subsequently, when the adductor-muscle has de-
finitely closed the valves, the embryonic halves
are blended together, probably by a new meta-
morphosis." *

The young of Modiola and Kellia are formed on
an entirely different type. Their two valves, which
* Siebold, Anat. Invert. § 200.

CONCHIFERA. 47

are only sliglitly separated, are overlapped by two
lobes, which are everted and provided with very
active vibratile cilia : the young swim by means
of these lobes.* The embryos of Teredo have been
also observed swimming freely about by means
of a foot-like organ, which protrudes between
the valves, and presents an active ciliary move-
ment.f

In order to apprehend aright the technical de-
scriptions of families and genera in this Class, it
may be needful to explain the principal terms used.
The valves are hollow cones, the points of which
are bent over towards one side. In some cases the
conical form can scarcely be recognised, except by
comparison with others, such as Isocardia^ in
which the points are much developed and curled
in a spiral manner. The point is termed the heak
{umho) of the valve.

The side towards which the beaks twist is the
front side, and on this side, beneath the beaks, is
often a depressed space termed the lunule, while on
the hinder side is placed the ligament. The lunide,
umho, and ligament, constitute the dorsal or back
border; the opposite side to this, or that which
gapes, is of course the ventral border. The length
of a shell measures a line drawn from the dorsal to
the ventral border ; the width, therefore, is a line
at right angles to this ; and the thickness is mea-
sured from the centre of one valve to that of the
other, through the body of the animal.

The siphons, when present, project from the
hinder side ; the more ventral one is the receiving
or branchial siphon, the more dorsal the discharg-
ing or anal. The foot usually points towards the
* Loven, Arch. Skand. i. 155. + Siebold, Op. cit. § 200.

48 CONCHIFERA.

front. When once we know tlie back and tlie
bellj, the front and the hind ends, it is of course
easy to know the right and the left valve. Make
the two valves to stand on their open edges, with
the beaks uppermost, the ligament and the siphons
next your body; then the right and left valves
will answer to your right and left hands.

The interior of the valves is marked by one or
two muscular impressions^ — depressed spaces, where
the great muscles for drawing the valves together
were inserted. Connecting these there is a mark,
more or less . bent in a sinuous manner, where the
mantle was attached to the valve. This line is
called the j^a/ZiaZ impression, or the scar of the
mantle {pallium).

When one valve is the counterpart of its fellow,
the shell is said to be equal-valved ; when the fore
half and the hind half of the same valve are nearly
equal, it is said to be equal-sided. In general the
CoNCHiFERA are unequal-sided, the front half
being the shorter.

The hinge is formed of variously shaped teeth
and depressions. Those teeth that are placed
directly under the beak are called cardinal teeth ;
those on either side are lateral teeth.

Localities^ cf-c. — The Oysters, the Scallops, and
some other kinds dwell in deep water, associated in
what are called beds. The Anomice are always
attached by one valve to stones, or, in the case of
the smaller species, to sea-weeds. The Scallops
and the Limce can swim with a spasmodic flitting
motion, by forcing jets of water through the com-
pressed edges of the mantle.* The great Wing-
shells [Pinna) stand upright on the sea-bottom,
* See my " Devonshire Coast," p. 51.

CONCHIFEEA. 49

the pointed end sunk deeply into tlie mnd. The
Mussel associates in dense beds on rocks between
tide-marks. The little Crenellce crawl about bushy
sea-weeds, by means of their long foot. The Mo-
dioli and the Atccb hide in crevices of rocks, and
under stones. The Cockles, the Veneridcs, the
Mactradce, the Doyiamdce, the Tellinadce, the Razors
(Solem'dce), and the Gapers {Myadce), all burrow
into mud or sand, from the level of the tide to
great depths. The Gastrocli(Bnad(B and the Fho-
ladid(B bore into stone and other substances, and
the dreaded Ship-worm {Teredo) into submerged
timber.

Identification. — Mr. S. P. Woodward enume-
rates, as '' characters which have been most relied
on for distinguishing" the families and genera of
Conchifera, the following, stated nearly in the order
of their value : —

" The extent to which the mantle-lobes are
united ; the number and position of muscular im-
pressions ; the presence or absence of a pallial
sinus; the form of the foot ; the structure of the
gills ; the microscopic structure of the shell ; the
position of the ligament, internal or external ; the
dentition [toothing] of the hinge ; equality or
inequality of the valves ; regularity or irregularity
of form ; the habit, whether free, burrowing, or
fixed ; the medium of respiration, whether fresh
or salt water. "*

Authorities. — For structure, I have been much
indebted to Siebold^s " Comparative Anatomy of
the Invertebrata ; '' for systematic arrangement,
I have consulted Forbes and Hanley's elaborate

* Manual of the Mollusca, 253,
E

50 CONCHIFERA.

^' British Moll-usca ; " but have mainly followed
Mr. S. P. Woodward^s valuable " Manual of the
Mollusca."

CONCHIFERA.

Molluscous animals enveloped in a shell com-
posed of carbonate of lime, forming two valves,
connected by a joint, and applied the one to the
right, the other to the left side ; mantle two-
leaved, more or less open ventrally, generally with
two orifices behind ; gills four-leaved ; no head ;
mouth placed at the angle of the gills, furnished
with lips and palps ; sexes distinct ; young under-
going a metamorphosis.

Pallial line sinuous SimipaUiaUa.

Pallial line simple IntegropalUalia.

Order I. SINUPALLIALIA.

M antle closed :

Foot short, truncate; shell gaping

at both ends Pholadidts.

Foot small, finger-shaped; shell

gaining in front GastrochcBnada.

Foot small, tongue- shaped; shell
closed, or gaping behind.

Shell thin, pearly within . . . Anatinada.
Shell thick, opaque, dull . . . Mj/ada.

Mantle open in front :

Foot cylindrical; shell very broad,

gaping at both ends Solenida.

Foot compressed, tongue-shaped;
shell closed, or nearly so.

Siphons separate Tell'madce.

Siphons united.

Ligament internal .... Madradce.
Ligament external . . . Veneridce.

PHOLADID^.

51

Family I. Pholadid^.

bneii gaping at botli ends, tliln, white,
roughened \[^q ^i rasp, without hinge or liga-
ment ; strengthened by accessory valves,
n Animal club-shaped; foot short, trun-

' ' cate ; mantle open only for the protrii-

sion of the foot ; siphons large and
long, united nearly to their tips, their
orifices fringed. Borers into various
substances.

Teredo (Adanson). SMi^-worm. Shell
of two curved equal valves, gaping at
both ends. Animal worm-like, not co-
vered by the shell ; mantle tubular ;
siphons long, forked at the tips. Bores
into wood, which it lines with a shelly
tube.

T. Norvegica. Fig. 60 ; n. s.
navalis.
megotara.
bipennata.

XyJophaga (Turton). Shell as in
Teredo, but gaping only in front. Ani-
mal covered by the shell ; makes a ca-
vity in wood, which is not lined with

shell.

X. dorsalis. Fig. 61 ; n. s.

Pholas (Linn.). Piddock. Shell oval
or oblong, equal- valved, unequal-sided,
gaping, chiefly in front ; exterior beset
with transverse ridges, and longitudi-
nal furrows ; beaks covered with cal-
losities ; accessory pieces to the valves.
Animal thick ; siphons very long, united except at

E 2

60

6:i

CONCHIFEEA.

the tips, wliicli are fringed, but not disked ; foot
large, short, truncate. Bores into various sub-
stances.

P, dactylus.

j)arva. Fig. 63 ; ?i. s.

crisj)ata.

Candida.

61

63

62

64

Pholadidea (Leach). Nearly as PJwIas, but the
shell has no callosities, and tliere is a cup-like
appendage surrounding the base of the siphons ;
the siphons terminate in a fringed disk.

P. papyracea. Fig. 62 -, n. s.

Family II. Gastroch^nad^.

Shell equal-valved, very unequal-sided, gaping
in front ; pallial line sinuated. Animal oblong or
club-shaped ; siphons capable of being greatly
lengthened, wholly united ; mantle closed, except
to give exit in front to a minute foot. Bores into
stone.

ANATINAD^.

53

Gastrochcena (Spengler). Shell -wedge-shaped,
widely gaping; hinge toothless. Animal — siphons
separate only at the tips; orifices simply fringed;
the whole enclosed in a flask-like calcareous tube.

G. modiolina. Fig. 64 ; n. s.

Saxicava (De Bellevue). Shell oblong ; hinge
with cardinal teeth. No tube.

S. arctica.

rugosa. Fig. 65 ; n. s.

66

65

67

Family III. Anatinad^.

Shell usually unequal-sided, thin, granular on the
outside, pearly within ; ligament external, thin; car-
tilage internal, placed in corresponding pits,andoften
furnished with a free shelly piece [ossicle) ; muscu-
lar impressions faint, the front one lengthened ;
pallial line usually sinuated. Animal with a closed
mantle; siphons usually long, more or less united,
fringed; gills single on each side; foot small,
tone'ue-shaped.

Pandora (Lamk.). Shell pearly, the left valve
convex, the other flat ; hinge teeth J with pits.

54

CONCHIFERA.

Animal compressed ; foot tongue-sliaped ; siphons
short, separate, and diverging at the tips.

P. rostrata.

obtusa. Fig. 66 ; ;^. s.

69

T. convexa.
distorta.

Lyonsia (Turton). Shell convex on both sides :
hinge toothless, but furnished with a moveable
shelly piece, connected with each valve.

L. Norvegica. Fig. 67 ; ^ n. s.

Thracia (Leach). Shell transversely ovate,
thin, unequal- valved, nearly equal-sided ; hinge a
thickened shelly fulcrum in each valve ; ligament
partly internal ; beaks entire. Animal — siphons
long, entirely separated.

T. phaseolina.
villosiiiscula.
pubescens. Fig. 68; ^

Coclilodesma (Couthouy). As Thracia^ but the
hinge a spoon-shaped horizontal process in each
valve ; ligament external, slight ; beaks fissured.

C. prsetenue. Fig. 69 ; n. s.

Family IY. Myad^.

Shell thick, strong, opaque, gaping behind,
covered with a wrinkled skin {epidermis). Animal
with the mantle closed, giving issue to a smaii
foot ; siphons united, wholly or partly retractile ;

' • TT" / ' • t> •

MYAD^.

55

gills two on each side. Burrowers in mud, sand,
and rarely in stone.

Panojicea (Menard). Shell equal- valved, oblong,
gaping at both ends; hinge-teeth t prominent;
ligament external on ridges. Animal with long
united siphons, and a short, thick foot.

P. Norvegica. Fig. 70 ; |- n. s.

70

71

O

72

Poromya (Forbes). Shell ovate or roundish,
equal-valved, unequal-sided; surface punctated,
covered with a rough epidermis ; hinge a minute
erect cardinal tooth in one valve, and a pit in the
other. Animal with short siphons, surrounded by
tentacles at their base ; foot long, slender.
P. granulata. Fig. 7] ; n. s.

Necera (Gray). Shell pear-shaped, globose, un-
equal-valved, smooth ; hinge an oblique spoon-like
piece in each valve, with sometimes a minute
tooth beside it, and a lateral tooth. Animal w '
short siphons, and a lanceolate foot.

N, cuspidata. Fig. 72 ; n.s.
costellata.
abbreviata.

V

>b

\CAi

'o

C

-?

X

vc

56

CONCHIFEEA.

Corhula (Brugiiiere) . Shell roundish, nearly
equal-sided, very unequal- valved ; hinge a tooth in
one or both valves, with socket and ligamental pit
beside it. Animal with very short united siphons ;
fringed orifices ; mantle opening for the passage of
a narrow thick foot ; anal siphon with a projecting
tubular membrane.

C. nucleus,
rosea.

Fig. 73 ; n.s.

74

75

76

Sphcenia (Turton). l^early as Corhula. Shell
oblong ; hinge an erect dilated tooth in one valve,
and a socket in the other.

S. Binghami. Fig. 74 ; n. s.

My a (Linn.). Gaper. Shell rhomboidal, equal-
valved ; hinge a spoon-shaped process in the left
valve, and a socket in the right. Animal with
united retractile siphons, and a small conical foot.

M. truncata. Fig. 75 ; J n. s.
arenaria.

Family V. Solenid^.

Shell greatly dilated, parallel-sided, gaping at
both ends ; ligament external ; hinge with com-

TELLINAD^. 57

pressed teetli, the liincl one cleft. Animal witli a
large, powerful, cylindrical foot ; gills narrow, pro-
longed into the receiving siphon. Burrowers in
sand.

Solecurtus ("De Blainv.). Shell swollen, with
the beaks nearly central ; hinge-teeth | ; ligament
prominent. Animal large, not wholly contained
in the shell ; siphons united, and bulging at the
bases ; the receiving orifice fringed.

S. coarctatus,

canclidus. Fig. 76 ; ^ n.s.

Ceratisolen (Forbes). Shell compressed ; hinge
complex ; teeth |. Animal compressed ; siphons
separate, diverging, fringed.

; C, legumen. Fig. 77 ; ^ n. s.

Solen (Linn.). Razor-shell. Shell excessively
broad, sub-cylindrical, straight, or slightly curved,
unequal-sided ; surface divided diagonally ; hinge-
teeth I ; ligament long, external. Animal with the
mantle open in front, for the passage of a long,
thick, truncate foot ; siphons short, united, fringed.

S. marginatus.

siliqua. Fig. 78 ; -!^ n. s.

ensis.

pellucidus.

^'rimrrrfT^g:

^

78

Family VI. Tellixad^.

Shell free, flattened, usually closed, and equal-
valved ; muscular impressions rounded, polished ;

58

CONCHIFERA.

pallial sinus very large ; ligament on shorter side
of shell, sometimes internal. Animal with the
mantle widely open in front, its margins fringed ;
foot compressed, tongne-shaped ; siphons separate,
generally very long and slender ; palps large, trian-
gular. Burrowers in sand.

Donax (Lmn.). Wedge-shell. Shell three-sided,
wedge-shaped, closed ; the front produced, rounded ;
hinder side short, straight ; the edges notched ;
teeth tj f ' 1 • Animal with short siphons ; foot very
large, pointed ; palps small.

D. anatinus. Fig. 79 ; |- n. s.
politiis,
trunculiis.

79

80

81

82

Ervilia (Turton). Shell minute, oval; right
valve with one prominent tooth in front, and an
obscure one behind ; left with two obscure teeth ;
no laterals.

E. castanea. Fig. 80 ; n. s.

Scrobicularia (Schumacher). Shell oval, nearly
equal-sided ; hinge-teeth small, i or I ; no laterals.

TELLINAD^.

59

Animal with very long siphons; palps large,
triangular.

S. piperata. Fig. 81 ; l- n. s.

Syndosmya (Recluz). Shell small, oval, white,
shining ; hinder side the shorter ; beaks directed
backward ; hinge-teeth wanting or minute, laterals
distinct ; pallial sinus wide, shallow.

S. alba. Fig. 82 ; 71. s., and hinge ma^.
intermedia,
prismatica.
tenuis.

Psammohia (Lamk.). Shell oblong, smooth, or
striated radiately ; covered with a thin epidermis ;
hinge-teeth f ; pallial sinus deep, reducing the
front to a line.

P. vespertina.

Ferroensis. Fig. 83 ; | «. 5.

tellinella.

costulata.

^^^

83

84

Diodonta (Deshajes). Shell convex, with scale-
like lines of growth ; no epidermis ; hinge-teeth f?
the single tooth cleft. Animal with a small foot ;
siphons long, fringed.

D, fragilis. Fig. 84 ; n. s.

TelUna (Linn.). Shell rounded in front, angu-
lar, and slightly folded behind ; teeth hh\', the

60

COXCHIFERA.

laterals Indistinct in the left valve ; pallial sinus
very Avide and deep. Animal with broad, pointed
foot ; siphons slender, rather long, not fringed.

T. crassa.
balaiistina.
donacina.
pygm?ea.
incarnata.

Fig. 85 ; ti. s.

T. tenuis,
fabiila.
solidula.
proxima.
bimaculata.

S5

86

Family VII. Mactkad^.

Shell more or less three-sided, equal-valved,
closed, or slightly gaping ; surface nearly smooth,
covered with a thick epidermis ; ligament internal,
set in a triangular pit ; hinge with two divergent
teeth, and usually with laterals on each side ; pal-
lial sinus short, rounded. Animal with united
siphons, and a compressed foot.

Lutraria (Lamk.). Shell oblong, gaping at each
end ; cartilage-plate prominent, with one or two
small teeth in front in each valve. Animal with
mantle closed, except a moderate foot-orifice.

L. elliptica. Fig. 86 ; \ n. s.
oblonga.

VENEEID^.

61

Mactra (Linn.). Shell nearly equal-sided, trian-
gular ; hinge composed of a V-shaped cardinal
tooth in one valve, locking into a margined pit
in the other, and of a long lateral tooth on each
side, which fits into a deep groove with tooth-like
edges. Animal with the mantle open to the
siphons, fringed at the edges ; foot heeled.

M. elliptica.
helvacea.
solida.

M. stultorum. Fig. 87 ; |- 71. s,
siibtruncata.
tnmcata.

87

88

Family VIII. Venerid.e.

Shell regular, closed, round or oblong ; ligament
external ; hinge usually three diverging teeth in
each valve ; muscular impressions oval, polished ;
pallial line sinuated. Animal free, creeping by
means of a tongue-shaped, flattened foot; mantle
generally with a large opening in front ; siphons
unequal, more or less united.

Fetricola (Lamk.). Shell oblong, thin, swollen ;
front side short. Animal with the mantle closed
in front ; foot small, pointed. Bores into lime-
stone.

P. lithopliaga. Fig. 88 ; n. s.

62

CONCHIFEEA.

Venerupis (Lamk.). Sliell oblong, slightly

gaping behind, marked with radiating lines, and

concentric elevated plates ; hinge-teeth small, one

of them cleft; pallial sinus angular. Bores into

rocks.

V. irus.

Fig. 89

71. S.

89

91

90

92

Tapes (Miihlfeldt). Shell oblong; beaks in
front ; margins smooth ; hinge-teeth more or less
cleft ; pallial sinus rounded.

T. aiirea. T. perforans.

decussata. virginea.

* pullastra. Fig. 90 ; n. s.

Lucinopsis (Forbes). Shell compressed; teeth in
right valve two, laminar, diverging ; in left three,
the middle one cleft ; pallial sinus very deep, as-
cending. Animal with a small foot-opening ; foot
pointed ; mantle-edges plain ; siphons rather long,
separate^ diverging, with fringed orifices.

L. undata. Fig. 91 ; |- «. s.

VENERID^.

63

Artemis (Poli). Sliell round, compressed, marked
witli concentric lines ; ligament smik, margins
smooth ; hinge with three cardinal teeth, and one
front tooth beneath the lunule. Animal with a
large, hatchet-shaped foot; edges of the mantle
slightly plaited ; siphons entirely miited, plain.

A, exoleta. Fig. 92 ; ^ n. s.
lincta.

Cytherea (Lamk.). Shell thick, ovate or round;
margins single ; hinge as in AiHemis. Animal
with the mantle-edges plain; siphons united
half-way.

C. Chione. Fig. 93 \ -J n. s.

93

Venus (Linn.) Shell thick, ovate or round,
often marked with crossed furrows ; margins
minutely notched ; hinge-teeth | ; ligament promi-
nent ; lunule distinct ; pallial sinus small, angular.
Animal with mantle-edges fringed ; siphons sepa-
rate.

V. casina.
fasciata.
gallina.

v. ovata.
striatula.
verrucosa. Fig. 94 ; n. s.

64

CONCHIFEEA.

Order 11. INTEGROPALLIALIA,

Furnished with sij)hons .... Siphonida.
Without siphons Asiphonida.

Tribe I. Siphonida.

Shell without ribs.

Ligament external, conspicuous ; foot

thick, tongue-shaped Cyprhiadce.

Ligament internal or obsolete ; foot

long, cylindrical, or strap-shaped . Lucinada.

Shell marked with radiating ribs Cardiadce.

95

96

Family I. Cyprinad^.

Shell regular, thick, solid, smooth, or marked
with concentric lines, usually covered with a thick
epidermis ; ligament external, conspicuous ; pallial
line simple. Animal with the mantle-leaves united
behind by a curtain, pierced with two siphonal
orifices ; foot thick, tongue-shaped.

Isocardia (Lamk.). Heart-sJiell. Shell heart-
shaped, inflated ; beaks distant, spirally rolled ;
teeth i, t, }. Animal with siphons close together,
short, fringed ; foot pointed.

I. cor. Fig. 95 ; ^ n. s.

LUCINAD^.

65

Astarte (SowerLy). Shell roundish, flattened,
thick; Imiule distinct; hinge-teeth |.; the front
tooth in the right valve large and thick. Animal
with the siphojis not fringed.

A. arctica.

compressa.
crebricostata,
elliptica. Fig. 96 ; n. s.

A. Scotica.
sulcata,
triangularis.

98

^Jd

100

Circe (Schum.). Shell nearly as Astm-te.hvii the
hinge-teeth |. Animal with fringed siphonal ori-
fices, scarcely projecting ; foot large, heeled.

C. minima. Fig. 97 ; n.s.

Cyprina (Lamk.). Shell oval, large, strong;
ligament prominent ; no Imiule ; teeth y, f' o • Ani-
mal with fringed siphons, short, but projecting.

C. Islandica. Y\g.^'^\ \u.s.

Family II. Lucinad^.

Shell roundish, closed ; interior dull, obliquely
furrowed ; ligament inconspicuous or sub-internal;
muscular impressions lengthened, rough ; pallial
line simple. Animal with the mantle-leaAX-s

F

66

CONCHIFERA.

open "below ; slphonal orifices one or two ; foot
lengthened, cylindrical or strap-shaped, protruded
at the base of the shell.

Galeomma (Tarton). Shell thin, oval, equal-
sided, gaping widely below, covered with a thick
fibrous epidermis ; ligament internal ; teeth ^.
Animal with one siphonal orifice.
G. Turtoni. Fig. 99 ;

n.s.

Lepton (Turton). Shell roundish, flattened ;
hinge-teeth 5. or i, in front of an angular cartilage
notch ; laterals |, \. Animal with one siphon ;
mantle edges fringed ; foot thick, heeled and
grooved, forming a creeping disk.

L, Clarkiee.
convexum.
nitidum.
squamosum. Fig. 100 ; n. s.

i%i

102

103

Montacufa (Turton). Shell minute, oblong,

hinge-line notched ; ligament internal, between

two diverging teeth. Animal with the mantle-
edges simple, open in front.

M. bidentata.
ferruginosa.
substriata. Fig. 101 ; mag.

Kellia (Turton). Shell small, roundish; beaks

CARDIAD^. 67

small ; margins smootli ; ligament internal ; teeth
h h 1, or r, t» i- Animal with one siphon.

K. suborbicularis. Fig. 102 ; n.s.
rubra.

Turt07iia (Hanley). Shell oblong, unequal-
sided ; ligament concealed between the valves ;
hinge-teeth %. Animal with one siphon, lengthened.
T. miniita. Fig. 103 ; mag,

Bijplodonta (Bronn.). Shell roundish, smooth ;
ligament double, rather long, sub-marginal ; hinge-
teeth f , the front tooth in the left valve, and the
hind one in the right, cleft ; muscular impressions
polished. Animal with the mantle-edges plain,
united ; siphons two, unfringed.

D. rotundata. Fig. 104 ; n. s.

104 105

Lucina (Bruguiere) . Shell round, white ; beaks
depressed; lunule distinct ; ligament oblique^ semi-
internal ; teeth +' h h the laterals sometimes want-
ing ; muscular impressions rough. Animal with
the mantle open ; siphons two, simple ; foot cylin-
drical, pointed, slightly heeled.

L. borealis. L. flexuosa.

divaricata. leucoma.

ferruginosa. sx^inifera. Fig. 105 ; ^ n. s.

Family III. Cardiad^.

Shell regular, heart-shaped, marked with alter-
nate ribs and furrows, radiating from the beaks ;

f2

68

CONCHIFERA.

ligament external, prominent ; pallial line slightly
sinuated ; muscular impressions square. Animal
with mantle open in front ; siphons two, very
short, thick, fringed ; foot large, hooked.

Cardium (Linn.). Cockle. Sliell swollen ; beaks
nearly central, prominent, margins indented ; teeth

1^1

T 2? 1*

C. aculeatum.

echinatiim. Fig 106 ; |

rusticum.

eclule.

fasciatum.

C nodosum.
n. s. Norvegicum.

jDygmseum.
Suecicum.

107

106

Teibe II. Asiphonida.

Hinge composed of many teeth . Arcade.
Hinge nearly or quite toothless.
Two miiscularimpressions :

Covered w^th dense epidermis .
Without epidermis ....

One muscular impression

MytilidiT..
Aviculadcp.

Ostreadce,

ARCAD^E.

69

Family I. Aecad^.

Shell equal- valved, covered with a dense epider-
mis ; hinge forming a large portion of the margin,
composed of a great number of similar comb-like
teeth, placed side by side ; muscular impressions
nearly equal ; pallial line distinct. Animal with
the mantle freely open; generally without siphonal
tubes ; foot large, deeply grooved, and capable of
expanding into a disk.

Leda (Schum.). Shell oblong, rounded in front,
drawn out to a point behind ; margins smooth ;
pallial line slightly sinuated.

L, caudata. Fig. 107 ; n. s.
pygmsea.

Nucula (Lamk.). Shell three-sided, covered
with an olive epidermis, pearly within ; margins
notched ; pallial line simple ; hinge with prominent
internal cartilage pit, and a row of teeth on each
side.

N. decussata.
nitida.
nucleus. Fig. 108 ; n. s.

N. radiata.
tenuis.

110

Pectunculus (Lamk.). Shell round, equal-sided,
nearly smooth ; teeth arranged in a semicircle.

P. glycimeris.

Fig. 109

J n. s.

70

CONCHIFERA,

Area (Linn.). Ark. Shell solid, somewhat

four-sided, marked with strong ribs, often crossed

by furrows, commonly covered with a dense fibrous

epidermis ; teeth arranged in a straight line, very

numerous.

A. barbata.

lac tea. Fig. 110 ; n. s.

raridentata.

tetragona.

Ill

Family II. Mytilid^.

Shell equal-valved, very unequal-sided, the
beaks placed far in front, clothed with a dense
epidermis ; ligament internal, linear ; hinge tooth-
less ; interior surface pearly ; the fore muscular
impression small, narrow ; the hind one large.
Animal attached at will by a byssus ; mantle-edges
united between the orifices, which do not form
siphons ; foot cylindrical, grooved.

Modiola (Lamk.). Horse-Mussel. Shell oblong,
inflated in front ; beaks blunt ; epidermis often
fringed.

M. modiolus. Fig. \1\ ', % n. s. M. pliaseolina.
barbata. tulipa.

nigra.

Crenella (Brown). Shell short and swollen,
partly smooth, partly marked with radiating lines ;

AVICULAD^. 71

hinge-margin notched behind the ligament ; interior
brilliantly pearly. Animal crawls freely about
sea-weeds by means of its long foot.

C. costulata. C. faba.

discors. Fig. 112 ; n. s. marmorata.

decussata. rhombea.

discrepans.

Mytilus (Linn.). Mussel. Shell wedge-shaped,
round behind, the beaks forming a sharp point in
front.

M. edulis. Fig. 113; ^n.s.

113

Family III. Aviculad^.

Shell unequal- valved, very unequal-sided ; the
beaks near the front ; epidermis wanting, or indis-
tinct ; interior generally pearly ; hind muscular
impression large, nearly central ; fore one small,
within the beak ; pallial line reduced to a series of
dots ; hinge line straight, lengthened, wholly or
nearly toothless. Animal with the mantle not
adhering to the valves, entirely open, prolonged
into irregular lobes without siphons, the edges
fringed ; foot small, grooved, spinning a strong
byssus.

72

CONCHIFEEA.

Pinna (Linn.). Shell wedge-sliaped, liorny, fra-
gile ; truncate beliind ; the beaks forming a point
in front ; hinge toothless. Animal with the man-
tle-edge doubly fringed ; foot long, grooved, spin-
ning a powerful silky bissus.

P. pectinata. Fig. 114 ; |- n. s.

114

Avicula (Brug.). Wing-shell. Shell wedge-
shaped ; the hinge-line straight, prolonged at the
sides into wing-like processes ; hinge-teeth one or
two, minute.

A. tarentina. Fig. 115 ; ^ n. s.

115

Family IV. Osteead^e.

Shell unequal- valved, nearly equal-sided, often
adhering to other bodies by one valve ; epidermis
inconspicuous ; beaks central ; ligament internal ;

OSTEEAD.E.

73

hinge usually toothless ; one muscular impres-
sion only, placed behind the centre ; pallial line
obsolete. Animal with the mouth widely open,
scarcely adherent to the shell ; no siphons ; foot
often wanting ; where present, minute, and capable
of spinning a byssus in early age.

Lima (Brug.). Shell oblique ; front side straight,
gaping ; hind side rounded, closed ; beaks separate,
produced into ear-like lobes ; hinge toothless ; car-
tilage internal, in a central pit. Animal with the
mantle-edges double, the inner one hanging like a
curtain, fringed with long tentacles; foot finger-
like, grooved.

L. hians. Fig. 116 ; ^n.s. L. subauriculata.

Loscombii.

116

117

Pecten (Miiller). Scallop. Shell round, nearly
equal-sided, resting on the right valve, which is
the more convex, marked with radiating ribs ;
beaks central, close together, produced into ears.
Animal as Lima, but with conspicuous gem-like
eyes along the outer edges of the mantle.

P. Danicus. P. similis.

striatus.

maximus.

74

CONCHIFERA.

P. niveus. P. tigi-inus.

opercularis. Yig. 117 ; ^ ti. s. varius.
pusio.

118

119

Anomia (Linn.). Perforate Oyster, Shell round-
isli, thin, transparent, pearly ; left valve convex ;
right flat, perforated or notched close to the hinge,
the muscle passing through this hole to be in-
serted into a plate, which is cemented to foreign
"bodies.

A. aculeata.

ephippium. Fig. 118 ; ^ n.s.
patelliformis.

Ostrea (Linn.). Oyster. Shell very unequal-
valved, the left being convex, the right flat ; the
left valve is usually cemented to rocks, or to other
shells ; surface irregularly plaited, with free edges j
hinge toothless.

0. e dulls. Fig. 119 ; -J- ti. s.

:^CAQ

75 /-V^o^^ ''V'iP

^ ■" . r n A. H "^ i -

Class IV. BKACHIOPODA.\c>>^ ^— ^ . ..
(Lamp-shells.)

The most prominent characteristics of tliis Class
are indicated by the two appellations by which we
have designated them above. The name of Lamp-
shell refers to the close resemblance to an antique
terra-cotta lamp, presented by the upper or ven-
tral valve of one of these shells, — a Terehratula,
for example. Here we have a bivalve, which is
equal-sided, but very unequal-valved, one valve
only having what would be called a beak in the
Conch IFERA ; this projects beyond the extremity
of the other valve, and curves upward (if we con-
sider it as a lamp) or downward (if we regard the
natural position of the shell). This beak is per-
forated with a hole corresponding to that which
supports the wick in the lamp, but here subserving
the purpose of a passage for a muscular stem that
passes through it from the interior, and is affixed
to the rock or other supporting body.

The smaller (or dorsal) valve has no beak nor
perforation; it is articulated to its fellow by an
apparatus of teeth and sockets, allowing of a mar-
ginal separation to a very small extent. Gene-
rally both valves are convex, but sometimes the
dorsal valve is flat, or even very concave, as in the
fossil family Productadce.

In outline the Brachiopoda most commonly
assume a form nearly circular, with the exception
of the projecting beak; but in many cases the

76 BEACHIOPODA.

liinge-line is produced in a straight line to sucli
an extent as to make tlie valves more or less semi-
circular ; occasionally the outline is somewhat tri-
angular, and not rarely two-lobed.

The shell in most of the genera is perforated by
tubular canals passing directly from one surface to
the other, and opening internally by minute orifices,
externally by trumpet-shaped, or sometimes, as in
Crania, by many-branched mouths. As to its
structure, it is composed of flattened prisms, ar-
ranged obliquely to the thickness of the valve.
A few genera are composed almost wholly of a
horny animal substance ; but in general the earthy
element predominates even to a greater degree
than in the Conchifera.

The term BrachiopodA, signifying " arm-
footed," is now too generally adopted to be con-
veniently changed, but tlie notion conveyed by it
is only partially true. It was intended to express
the most remarkable character of these animals,
the presence of a pair of arms, often of great
length, rolled up in a spiral form, which were
believed by Cuvier to replace the foot in other
bivalves. They are, however, now understood to
be the palps immensely prolonged. Professor
Owen has shown* that these organs are tubes
closed at each end, and contain a fluid, which, by
the contraction of the circular muscular fibres of
which the walls of the tube are composed, is pro-
pelled from the base to the extremity, thereby
unrolling, as he believes, the spiral coils. Whether
this process of expansion and protrusion is the
means by which the animal secures its food, or
whether it really takes place at all in the natural

* Trans. Zool. Soc. vol. i. (1835).

BEACHIOPODA. 77

and liealtliy condition of the animal, remains, we
believe, still to be proved by actual observation of
its manners.

One side of eacli arm is fringed with a vast
nmnber of long filaments, which are probably cili-
ated. In some fossil species, as the SpiriferadcB,
the arms were permeated by an internal spire of
shell, of very numerous whorls ; while in some
recent species, they are supported by a shelly pro-
cess, which, springing from each side of the dorsal
valve, proceeds towards the margin of the shell,
then bending upward towards the opposite valve,
turns back upon itself, and forms a loojj in the
centre of the cavity. This loop, being elastic, is
supposed to aid in the opening of the valves ; for,
being slightly compressed when they are closed,
they exert a pressure against the roof of the ven-
tral valve, and thus supply the place, in some
degree, of the tough and elastic ligament of the
CONCHIFEEA, which is here entirely wanting.

It appears, however, that the opening and clos
ing of the valves are more effectively provided for,
in the action of certain proper muscles, which are
antagonistic to each other. Four pairs of muscles
are inserted into the hollow of the ventral valve,
two pairs of which go across to the other valve,
and are inserted in front of the line which unites
the hinge-teeth. These answer to the adductor
muscles of the Conchifera, as their contraction
draws the valves towards each other. Two other
pairs pass to that part of the dorsal valve which
lies behind the hinge-line ; and these by their con-
traction separate the margin of the valves.

The Brachiopoda are never free, but invariably
attached to other bodies, occasionally, as in Crania,

78 BRACHIOPODA.

hj the whole breadth of the ventral valve, but com-
monly by a muscular foot-stalk passing through
the perforated beak. In general this stalk is only-
long enough to allow the dorsal valve room to lie
upon or hang against the supporting body ; but in
some species, as in the genus Lingula, it is six or
seven times as long as the shell.

Between the bases of the arms is concealed the
mouth, which leads to a digestive canal more or
less complex, and of varying length. The dis-
charging orifice is usually near the perforation.

The valves, like those of the Conchifera, are
lined with the leaves of a fleshy mantle, the mar-
gins of which carry, in lieu of flexible tentacles,
a fringe of stiff brittle bristles, which project be-
yond the edges of the valves, and are probably
organs of touch. Besides the office of secreting
the shell, the mantle in this Class performs the
function of respiration by its internal surface. The
mantle-leaves are also permeated by ample blood-
vessels, which ramify through them.

Little is known, as yet, of the nervous system
in these animals ; and scarcely more of the phe-
nomena of their reproduction. The ovaries in some
cases surround the ramifications of the blood-
vessels within the mantle, and in others occupy
large cavities on each side of the body. Some
facts seem to indicate that the young fry are
hatched within the valves of the parent; but what
is their first form, and what the extent of their
metamorphoses, we are ignorant.

All the known species of the Class are marine,
but comparatively few exist now, the great ma-
jority being fossil. Its British representatives are
very few, extending only to five species.

BRACHIOPODA. 79

Localities^ c&c. — Some species are occasionally
found in rock-pools, and at the verge of low water ;
but the depths of the sea are the proper home of
the Brachiopoda. A hundred fathoms^ depth is
no uncommon residence for these animals ; and one
species, Crania jpersonata^ has been dredged up
from a depth of 255 fathoms !

Identification. — The chief particulars to be at-
tended to in the identification of our recent species,
are — the general form of the valves ; the mode of
their attachment ; the sculpture or markings of
the exterior ; the nature of the hinge ; the form of
the shelly frame-work of the arms ; the muscular
impressions, or those produced by the insertions
of the muscles ; the vascular impressions, or those
which correspond on the interior of the valves to
the blood-vessels of the mantle ; the form of the
fringed arms, and the manner in which they are
folded.

Authorities. — For structure, I have depended
chiefly on Professor Owen's " Memoir on the Ana-
tomy of the Brachiopoda," and on Mr. S. P. Wood-
ward's " Manual of the Mollusca ;" for the British
species, Messrs. Forbes and Hanley are my au-
thority.

Brachiopoda.

Molluscous animals enveloped in a shell of two
valves, of which one is commonly perforated, attached
to extraneous substances by a stalk passing through
the perforation ; valves applied, the one to the
back, the other to the belly; mantle two-leaved,
performing respiration, permeated by blood-vessels,
and fringed with stiff, straight, horny bristles ; no
siphons ; no head ; mouth seated between two long,

80 BRACHIOPODA.

spirally coiled, fringed arms, wliich are supported
by a calcareous frame-work.

Attached by tlie lower valve . Craniadce.

Attached bv a footstalk:

«/

Vascular impressions branched;
arms supported by two minute
plates Rhi/nchonelladdB.

No vascular impressions; arms
supported by a shelly loop . . . Terehratuladm.

Family I. Craniad^.

Shell roundish, hingeless, attached by the whole
breadth of the ventral valve ; dorsal valve limpet-
shaped ; interior of each valve with a broad gTanu-
lated border ; vascular impressions like the teeth
of a comb. Animal with free spiral arms, sup-
ported by a nose-like prominence in the middle of
the lower valve ; mantle plain.

Crania (Retzius) . Point of dorsal valve nearly
central ; arms thick, fringed, arranged in a hori-
zontal coil of two or three turns.

C. anomala. Fig. 120 ; mag.

120

Family II. Ehyxchonellad^e.

Shell somewhat three-sided, attached by a foot-
stalk ; ventral valve beaked ; valves convex, arti-
culated ; hinge-line curved ; vascular impressions

TEREBRATULAD^.

81

branched dicliotomouslj. Animal with long arms
coiled in conical spires of many turns, directed
towards the dorsal valve, not supported by a shelly
framework ; mantle fringed with a few short
bristles.

Hijpothyris (Phillips). Shell sharply beaked,
plaited; dorsal valve elevated in front, depressed
at the sides ; ventral flattened ; hinge-plates sup-
porting two slender curved pieces.

H. psittacea. Fig. 121', n. s.

122

123

Family III. Terebratulad^.

Shell rounded or ovate, attached by a footstalk ;
ventral valve with a prominent beak, and two curved
hinge-teeth ; dorsal valve with a prominent pro-
cess between the hinge-sockets. Animal with
arms united to each other by a membrane, sup-
ported by a shelly loop.

Terehratula (Brug. ). Lamp. Shell round;
perforation small, circular ; loop short, simple,
attached by its branches to the hinge-plate. Animal

82 BRACHIOPODA.

with the arms folded on themselves, spiral at the
tips.

T. caput-serpentis. Fig. 122 ; n, s.
cranium.

Argiope (Deslongch.). Shell broad, semi-oval ;
hinge-line wide and straight ; perforation large ;
interior of dorsal valve with several partitions ;
loop two or four lobed, adhering to the partitions.
Animal with the arms folded into two or four
lobes, united bj a membrane, not spiral.

A. cistellula. Fig. 123; mag.

83 ^^'^'^^ /^

"^.LIBRARY Ir.

Class V. PTEEOPODAVi^V fs? ■ -«■•'' "^y

Considered numerically, tliis Class is peflraps^
the least important in the animal kingdom, as it
comprises but a very few species, either recent or
fossil, and those of small size. Of these the British
seas have hitlierto yielded but five, neither of which
can be considered other than as an accidental strag-
gler to our shores. They are all, in fact, oceanic ;
unlike the Brachiopoda, which are always fixed,
these are invariably found swimming at large in
the open sea, being unprovided with any means
of attaching themselves even for a moment, or of
crawling on a solid support.

The most prominent character in this Class is
the possession of two broad muscular fins, one on
each side of the neck, somewhat resembling the
expanded wings of a butterfly, whence Cuvier gave
them the name of Pteropoda, or " wing-footed."

An advance in structure above the molluscous
animals already considered is shown in the pre-
sence of a distinct head, with tentacles, and jaws,
and various organs of sense. In Clio, whose ana-
tomy has been most investigated, there is an extra-
ordinary apparatus developed for seizing its minute
prey. On each side of the mouth are three fleshy
warts, covered with minute red specks. Under a
powerful microscope these specks, which number
about three thousand on each tentacle, are seen to
be transparent cylinders, each containing in its
cavity twenty stalked disks, which may be pro-

u2

84 PTEROPODA.

truded from tlieir common slieatli, and form so
many adhesive suckers adapted to seize and hold
the minute objects with which they come into con-
tact. As there are six tentacles, and each tentacle
"bears 3,000 sheaths, and each sheath contains 20
suckers, it follows that there must be an array of
360,000 distinct organs capable of being brought
into play by a Clio in the act of seizing its prey.

In the same animal there are a pair of jaws and
a tongue. Each of the former is a straight stem,
from one side of which project a series of arched
spines, so graduated in length that their points
reach the same level. The prey seized by these
many-toothed jaws is then taken hold of by the
tongue, which is a band covered with rows of
minute spines hooked backwards.

Some of the species have the head and its organs
less distinct.

Below the swimming-fins depends an oblong
body, which in some genera is enclosed in a deli-
cate shell of glassy transparency, varying in shape
in different species. Sometimes, as in Hyalea, it
resembles the two valves of a bivalve united at the
hinge, but narrowly open at the sides and front.
At other times, as in Cleodor^a, the sides are united,
and there is only a front opening. In Limacina
and Spirialis, again, it is a cone spirally twisted,
like that of a Snail, but in a reverse direction. In
those species which have a two-valved shell, the
valves are placed against the back and belly, as
in the Beachiopoda, and not on the right and
left sides, as in the Conchifera.

AutIio7^ities, (&c. — To Cuvier's '^Memoires sur
mistoire et I'Anatomie des Mollusques;" to Van
Beneden's " Exercices Zootomiques " (Brussels,

LIMACINAD^. 85

1839) ; to Escliriclit^s " Anatomisclie Untersiicli-
ungen liber die Clione borealis" (Copenli., 1838) ;
and to Rang and Soiileyet's " Histoire Naturelle
des Pteropodes" (Paris, 1852) ; we are indebted
for nearly all our knowledge of tlie structure and
affinities of these little animals.

Pteeopoda.

Molluscous animals provided witli a head, and
witli two muscular fins, by which they swim at
large in the sea ; sometimes partly enclosed in a
glassy shell.

Animal furnished with a shell :

Shell symmetrical, two-valved . . Hyaleadrp..
Shell spiral, with an operculum. . Limacinada.

Animal destitute of a shell . . . Clionidce.

Family I. Hyalead^.

Animal furnished with an external shell ; head
indistinct ; foot and tentacles rudimentary ; shell
symmetrical, globose, formed of two plates.

Eyalea (Lamk.). Glass-shell. Shell slit at the
sides and front, three-pointed behind.

H. trispinosa. Fig. 124 ; n.s.

Family II. Limacixad^.

Animal with a spiral, snail-like, but sinistral
shell ; head indistinct ; fins attached to the sides
of the mouth, united ventrally by a lobe.

Spinalis (Souleyet). Shell minute, furnished
with a thin, glassy, crescent-shaped operculum,

86

PTEEOPODA.

seated on the ventral lobe. Animal witli narrow
fins, plain at their edges.

S. Flemingii. Fig. 125 ; ma^.
Jeffrey sii.
Macandrei.

j^

124

I

125

126

Family III. Clionid^.

Animal without shell or mantle ; head distinct,
armed with tentacles ; body tapering ; foot small,
two-lobed.

Clio (Linn.). Head furnished with two eyes

and two tentacles ; mouth armed on each side

with three conical warts, bearing numerous minute

suckers.

C. borealis. Fig. 126 ; n.s.

87

Class VI. GASTROPODA.

(Snails and Slugs.)

The under side of tlie body in tliis extensive
Class forms a fiat, usually broad, fleshy disk, which
is the organ of locomotion. Every one is familiar
with the mode in which a Snail or a Periwinkle
glides along on this broad "belly-foot;" and, by
watching the motion on the opposite side of a
plate of glass, we readily discern the minute
wrinkles produced by the contraction of numerous
muscular fibres in succession^ which proceed from
the hind parts forward in waves_, by which means
the foot slides uniformly along over solid bodies.

The upper parts, in the majority of species, are
covered with a fleshy cloak or mantle, the edges
of which are free, in a gi-eater or less degree, and in
some cases are expanded into great lateral wings.
In the Sea-hare {A2)lysia), these expansions serve,
by their waving motion, as swimming-fins. The
proper function of the mantle-edge is, however,
the formation and increase of the shell ; and hence
it is always found, in shell-covered species, on that
\ art of the body which is near the orifice. In a few
species, the shell is included within the substance
of the mantle.

A distinct head is always present, more or less
conspicuous according to the degree in which it
projects from beneath the front of the mantle. It
is furnished with various organs of sense.

88 GASTROPODA.

The organs of touch are one or two pairs of con-
tractile tentacles, placed commonly on the back of
the head. In some cases these can be inverted
and everted ; but more generally they are solid.
The hinder pair, where there are two, are often
more complex in structure than the others, and
are, perhaps, the seat of the sense of smell.

Well-developed eyes are almost invariably present
in this Class. They never exceed a single pair,
and are generally placed on some part of the ten-
tacles,— the hinder ones, when there are two pairs.
The most common position for these organs is at
the extremity of a short fleshy column, springing
from the base of the tentacle. In many species
the eyes present an elaborate structure ; the great
Stroinh{cl(B of the tropical seas, for example, have
eyes with '^ a distinct pupil and a double iris,
equalling, in beauty and correctness of outline,
those of birds and reptiles;"* and many of our
native genera, as Buccinum, Fusiis, and Murex, are
scarcely inferior, in this respect, to the Strombidce.

The organs of hearing are as rudimentary as in
the CONCHIFERA. They are variously placed in
different genera, but most commonly on the upper
side of the great brain-ganglion, near the eyes (as
in the Nudihranchia) ^ or on the lower side of the
neck, and consist of a pair of transparent capsules,
filled with a clear fluid, in which are suspended
one or more glassy bodies, called otolithes (ear-
stones). The number of these bodies sometimes
reaches to eighty in each capsule. Their move-
ments '' are even more marked than in the CoN-
CHIFERA ; and the balancing and rotating of each,

* Guilding.

GASTROPODA. 89

producing a kind of trembling of the whole mass
which occupies the centre of the capsule, is a won-
derful spectacle. It has been recently discovered
that these motions are due to very small cilia upon
the internal surface of the capsule." *

The nervous system varies in its development in
the genera of GfASTROPODA. The central portion
consists of a group of ganglions, set near together,
surrounding, like a ring, the gullet. In many
genera, the ganglions which form the upper part
of the ring are blended together, and constitute a
brain ; while on the opposite (or lower) side of the
ring, there is also another large mass of grouped
or blended ganglions. From this ring nervous
threads pass in various directions to the organs of
sense, along the foot, &c., in some cases connect-
ing themselves with other ganglions, which form
centres of communication to the stomach and other
organs.

There is always in these animals a distinct
mouth, placed at the front of the head, furnished
with swollen, contractile lips, often prolonged into
a cylindrical proboscis. In many species, as in
Eolis, Tritonia, &c., there are two horny, sharp-
edged plates, which act asjau's, playing over each
other, like the blades of shears. Sometimes there
is only a single jaw-plate inserted in the palate.

There is, beside the jaws, a fleshy band, longer
or shorter according to the genus, which performs
the function of a tongue. It is sometimes grooved
along its surface, and is always armed with horny
teeth or spines, which are arranged in regular rows,
both longitudinally and transversely. The form,

* Siebold's Comp. Anat. ; § 211.

90 GASTROPODA.

num'ber, and pattern of these teeth vary greatly,
though always constant in the same species. They
*' are amber-coloured, glassy, and translucent ; and
being siliceous (they are insoluble in acid), they
can be used like a file for the abrasion of very
hard substances. With them the Limpet rasps the
stony nullipore, the Whelk bores holes in other
shells, and the Cuttlefish doubtless uses its tongue
in the same manner as the cat." * In each trans-
verse row, there is generally a variously-toothed
plate, pointing backwards, and overlapping the base
of its predecessor ; while on each side of this there
are several lateral teeth in the form of curved
spines, which arch inwards. The tongue of the
Limpet is longer, when extended, than the whole
animal ; that of the Whelk has a hundred rows of
teeth ; while the great Slug has one hundred and
sixty rows, with one hundred and eighty teeth in
each row.j"

The stomach is sometimes armed with horny
plates and teeth, as in the Sea-hare {A])lys{a\
which feeds on leathery Fuci. The intestine usually
opens by an orifice on the right side of the animal,
not far from the head. Li the Doris, the orifice is
in the middle of the back, and in the Chiton it is
at the hinder extremity of the body.

A colourless blood, very deficient in the disks
which form in general so conspicuous a portion of
this fluid, circulates in the Gasteopoda. A heart
is always present, divided into two chambers, — a
very muscular ventricle, and a thin-walled auricle.
It is generally situated at the base of the breathing
organs, on the right side. The blood passes from

* Woodward's. Manual of the Moll. 27. f Ibid. 28.

GASTROPODA. 91

the gills into the auricle, and thence into the ven-
tricle, whence it is forced to all parts of the body.
The circulation is not, however, always through a
series of vessels, the arteries being frequently want-
ing, and also the veins to a certain extent. The
blood finds its way into cavities without walls,
excavated out of the flesh of the body.

With all the species of the Class that are in-
cluded in the plan of this work, the respiration is
aquatic, and performed by means of gills. These
are composed of parallel plates, or of threads
arranged in rows, or in bundles, or more generally
in the form of a comb or of a feather. Whatever
the form, the surface is densely clothed with
vibrating cilia, by whose motions the water is
passed in incessant currents over the breathing
organ. The gills are generally situated on the
right side, in a special cavity, but sometimes, as
in Phurohranchus^ they lie in the angle formed by
the mantle and the foot, or, as in the Dorididce,
&c., they are quite exposed, on the surface of the
body.

Although some of the GASTROPODA are quite
naked, the majority are protected by a calcareous
shell, which is invariably, except in one family,
formed of a single piece, and hence is often called,
though somewhat incorrectly, univalve. The ex-
ception is that of the Ghitonidce, or Coat-of-mail
Shells, in which the shell consists of eight trans-
verse plates, imbedded in the mantle. The or-
dinary form is that of a cone, which is sometimes
low and nearly symmetrical, as in the Limpets,
but more ordinarily drawn out to a great length,
and rolled on itself, so as to form a spire. The
spire is almost always rolled dextrally, — that is,

92 GASTROPODA.

from east to south. Accidental specimens are
occasionally found, which turn in the opposite
direction, termed sinistral, or reversed, and in a
few instances this is the natural figure of the
species. The axis around which the spire is
rolled may be hollow, when the shell is umhili-
cate ; or solid, when it is pillared. That edge of
the orifice which is formed by the margin of the
shell is the outer lip ; that which is formed by the
pillar is the inner lip.

In the carnivorous GASTROPODA, the base of the
shell is grooved to form a canal, through which
the proboscis is protruded ; but the canal may be
merely a notch, or lengthened into a long gutter.

The shell is formed in the same manner as in
the CONCHIFERA, by the folding back of the edge
of the mantle. This edge in some species has
projections which secrete shelly matter, producing
spinous processes, ribs, knobs, or other irregu-
larities on the surface or on the margin of the
shell. Occasionally the two sides of the mantle
are bent upwards, embracing more or less com-
pletely the shell, in which case the exterior is
covered with a glassy, porcelain-like coat ; this is
the case with the well-known and beautiful Cowries
[Cyprceadce).

Very many species carry on the hinder part of
the body a horny or shelly plate [pperculiini), which
accurately closes the aperture of the shell, when
the animal has withdrawn into its recesses. The
form of this appendage is ordinarily that of a very
flat cone, made by successive layers, each a little
larger than its predecessor, or a flattened spire.
The common Top- shells [Troclius) aff'ord good
examples of the spiral operculum.

GASTROPODA. 93

The shells of this Class of animals are among
the most beautiful of natural objects ; and when
we consider that they are prepared for the cabinet
without difficulty, preserved without expense, and
free from any liability to decay, we cannot wonder
at the ardour with which they have been collected,
or the miser-like avidity with which they have
been guarded.

For the gorgeously coloured treasures of the In-
dian Seas prices almost fabulous have been given.
The sacrifices that wealthy collectors in former
days " have made to procure a fine and perfect
Many-ribbed Harp, a Gloria maris, or Cedo nulli
among the Cones, an Aurora, or Orange Cowry, a
Yoluta aulica, or Voluta Junonia, &c., are only
comparable to the extravagances of those visited
by the tulip-mania, when it was at its height." *
The shells of our coasts are mostly small and in-
conspicuous, compared with those tropical glories ;
and yet there are not wanting with us, in the
genera Acmea^ Trochis, PJmsianeUa, Bissoa, Eu-
lima, Ghemnitzia, Cuprcea^ &c., specimens worthy
of high admiration for beauty of colour, delicacy
of sculpture, brilliance of surface, or elegance of
contour.

The sexes in some species are united in one
individual ; in others they are distinct. In either
case the eggs of the marine kinds are deposited
in numbers together, enveloped in a common mass
of jelly. Those of the Nudibranchs are arranged
either in broad frilled ribbons attached by one
edge, and coiled spire within spire, as in the
Dorididce, or in long threads variously twisted, as

* Perm. Cyclop. ; art. Malacology.

94 GASTROPODA.

in the Eolididcs. As an example of the number
deposited, I may mention that a specimen of Eolis
l)aj)illosa has this spring laid, in one of my tanks,
nine strings of spawn, between the 20th of March
and the 24th of May, all as nearly as possible of
the same length. Each string contains about
100 convolutions, each convolution about 200 ova,
and each ovum including on an average two
embryos, making a total progeny of 360,000,
produced from one parent in little more than two
months.

The young, when hatched, have a minute trans-
parent nautilus-shaped shell, from which protrudes
a head furnished with a pair of large swimming-
fins, so that they may be compared with the
Pteeopoda. The fins are richly ciliated, and by
their vibration the little animal is capable of
swimming with great swiftness.

With a slight exception, this is the infant stage
of all the marine Gastropoda, however diverse
the form of tlie adult. They all, therefore, undergo
a metamorphosis. The exception alluded to is that
of the Chitons, whose early stage, as recently shown
by the observations of Mr. Clark and Professor
Loven,^ is peculiar, and more resembling that of an
Annelid than of a MoUusk. In this case, the animal
can scarcely be said to undergo a metamorphosis ;
for the embryo, even within the Qg^, has nearly
the form of the parent, and the appearance of the
shell-plates is a matter of development.

Localities, &c. — Almost every variety of shore,
and every range, from high-water mark to the
deep sea-bottom, is tenanted by some members of

* See Ann. and Mag. of Nat. Hist, for Dec. 1855, and May 1856.

GASTROPODA. 95

this Class. The pretty, many-coloured Kidged
Winkle [Littorina ruclis), congregates in hollows
of the rock, scarcely within reach of the spray,
except at spring- tides ; the Limpet adheres by
thousands but a little lower ; on the boulders,
about half-tide level, the Purple {Purpura) and
one or two species of Trochus may be seen ;
lower still, to the verge of extreme low-tide, we
find the purple-spotted Trochus [T. zizijyliinus) ,
the ridged and furrowed Kock-shell (Ifurex), the
Dog-Winkle [Nassa), the Chitons, looking like the
Millepedes of our gardens, and the lovely little
Cowry, enveloped in its variegated mantle. If we
torn over stones at the water's edge, especially in
spring, we may find the Sea-lemon {Boris), the
lovely Eolis coronata, and other species of Nudi-
branchs, which resort thither to lay their coils of
spawn, the PleurohrancJius, and the great purple
Sea-hare, which stains the stones with its rich
crimson dye.

Many species may be found among the sea-
weeds. On the tangled masses of the Bladder-weed,
the Yellow Winkle and several of the Tops occur
by thousands ; the common Periwinkle haunts the
conferva-clad mud, as well as weedy rocks ; and
by gathering tufts of Coirdlina, Ceramium, and
other small but bushy Algce, and shaking them
into a basin of water, we may obtain crowds of
tiny Rissoce and their allies, together with the
beautiful Phasianella, and such-like small beauties.
The lustrous little Blue-lined Limpet {Pat. pellu-
cida) is found in cavities, which it has eaten out
of the massive stems and roots of the Tangle.

The lantlima, with its curious apparatus of
swimming-bladders, floats on the surface of the

96 GASTEOPODA.

wide ocean, and Is a mere visitor to us. But
from the sea-bottom the dredge gathers many
species. On a sandy ground the tusk-like Denta-
Hum, the polished Nat{c(B, the Wentletraps, and
the different sorts of Bulla are found, as most of
these have burrowing habits. If the bottom be
rough and stony, the great Whelks and Spindles,
the Pelican's-foot (Ajjorrhais) , the TurriteUa, and
many others, come up in the dredge. But the
richest ground of all is an old Oyster or Scallop
bed, where we may obtain the curious Cup-and-
saucer [Calyptrcea), the Keyhole Limpet [Fis-
surella), the Notched Limpet (Emargmula) , the
Torbay Bonnet [Pileojysis) , and many others of
interest, adhering to the old shells, among the
zoophytes, stars, and worms, which throng such
prolific localities.

Identification. — The most prominent points for
discriminating the genera are these. The presence
or absence of a shell ; its form ; the direction of
its spire ; the presence of an operculam ; its sub-
stance ; its mode of formation ; the presence or
absence of a proboscis ; the extent of the mantle ;
the number and shape of the tentacles ; the form
and position of the gills ; the extent and form of
the foot ; the nature of the shell-axis ; the position
of the eyes ; and finally the tongue, its compara-
tive length and breadth, and the form and ar-
rangement of its teeth.

AutJiointies. — These are the same as those cited

for the CONCHIFERA.

Gastropoda.

Molluscous animals furnished with a distinct
head, and a fleshy crawling foot ; either naked or

NUDIBRANCHIATA. 97

protected by a shell, for tlie most part formed of a
single piece, and generally spirally turned ; mouth
provided with lips, and a ribbon-like tongue,
armed with rows of teeth ; eyes two ; tentacles two
or four. Young subject to metamorphosis.

Gills exposed ; shell nidimentaiy
or wanting ; sexes united .... OpistJio-branchiafa.

Gills enclosed in a vaulted cavity ;
shell capacious ; sexes distinct . . Proso-branchiata.^

Order L OPISTHO-BRANCHIATA.

Shell rudimentary or w^anting ; gills disposed
in tufts [fasciculated)^ or branching [arhorescent)^
not contained in a spiral cavity, but more or less
completely exposed on the back and sides, towards
the hinder part of the body ; sexual functions
united in the same individual. Feeding principally
on zoophytes.

No shell, except in the infant state ;
gills external, on the back or sides . Nudibranchiata.

Shell usually present throughout
life ; giUs covered by the shell or
mantle Tectibranchiaia.

TeIBE I. NUDIBRANCHIATA.

No gills Elysiad<s.

Gills conspicuous.

Arranged along the sides.

Tentacles not retractile . . . Eolididce.
Tentacles retractile into sheaths Tritoniadce.

Arranged in a circle on the back . Borididce.

* The Order Pulmonifera contains no marine species.

H

98

GASTROPODA.

Family I. ELYsiADiE.

Without mantle or breatHng organs ; body
covered witli cilia ; a single row of tongiie-teetli ;
eyes sessile, on the sides of the head ; tentacles
simple or wanting.

Elysia (Risso). Slug-like, flattened, with lateral
expansions ; tentacles simple, in front of the eyes ;
foot narrow.

E. viridis. Fig. 127 ; n.s.

e

\J

127

128

129

130

Actceoma (Quatref.). Head large, distinct, crested
at the sides, the crests prolonged behind into two
short tentacles, behind which are the eyes ; vent in
the middle of the back.

A. corrugata. Fig, 128 ; rna^.

Cenia (Alder and Hancock). Head slightly
angled, carrying two slender tentacles on its back ;
eyes behind and outside them ; back elevated.

C. Cocksii. Fig. 129 ; mag.

Lima])ontia ( Johnst.) . Leech-like, low in front,
rounded and elevated behind ; head distinct, with

EOLIDID^.

99

two lateral crests, on whicli are tlie eyes; foot
very narrow.

L. nigra. Fig. 130 ; mag.

Family II. Eolidid^.

With gills in the form of lengthened warts
[papillce)^ arranged along the sides of the back ;
tentacles not retractile, without sheaths ; tongue-
teeth central, without laterals ; skin smooth, with-
out sjncula; no mantle.

Eoh's (Cuv.). Tentacles four, slender, the dorsal
pair sometimes ringed ; gills simple, cylindrical ;
tongue-teeth comb-like.

* Gills numerous, depressed, overlapping :

E. papillosa.
Alderi.
glauca.

** Gills clustered :

E. coronata. Fig. 131 ; n.s.
Drummondi.
rufibranchialis.
pellucida.
gracilis,
alba,
punctata.

*** Gills in transverse, rather distant, rows :

E. smaragdina.
elegans.
carnea.
glaucoides.
lineata.
Lands burgii.

E. angulata.
nana,
concinna.
aurantiaca.
olivacea.
cingiilata.
vittata.

Northumbrica.
viridis.
arenicola.
purpurescens.
caerulea.

H 2

E. picta.
tricolor.
Farrani.
amoena.
pustulata.
Peachii.
stipata.
inornata.
Couchii.
Glottensis.
amethystina.
exigiia.

100 GASTROPODA.

**** Gills in a single row on each side :

E. despecta.

'4^i^

^T-

131 132

•

Fio7ia (Alder and Hancoclv). Lengthened; ten-
tacles four, all linear ; gills clothing irregularly an
expansion on the sides, and meeting behind ; each
papilla with a fringe along its inner side.

F. nobilis. Fig. 132 ; In.s.

Embletonia (Alder and Hancock). Tentacles
two, simple ; gills cylindrical, arranged in a single
row on each side ; head produced into a flat rounded
lobe on each side.

E. pulchra. Fig. 133 ; f .
minuta.
pallida.

Frocto7iotus (Alder and Hancock). Oblong, flat-
tened, pointed behind; head covered with a crescent-
shaped veil ; gills ovate, placed along a ridge on
each side, and round the head in front ; vent on
the back.

P. mucroniferus. Fig. 134 ; f.

EOLIDID^.

101

Antiopa (Alder and Hancock). Oblong, pointed
behind ; dorsal tentacles ringed, and connected by
an arched crest ; gills and vent as in Proctonotus.

A. cristata. Fig. 135 ; n. s.
hyalina.

133

134

135

HermcEa (Loven). Lengthened; tentacles two,
ear-like, folded ; gills lengthened, along the sides ;
vent near the fore part of the back ; no jaws.

H. dendritioa.

bifida. Fig. 136 ; n. s.

Alderia (Allman). Oblong, convex ; head lobed ;
no tentacles ; no jaws ; gills in transverse rows
along the sides of the back ; vent on the hind part
of the back.

A. modesta. Fig. 137 ; f.

102

GASTROPODA.

Family III. Tritoniad^.

Gills simple or arborescent, arranged along the
sides of the back ; tentacles retractile into sheaths ;
tongue with one central, and numerous lateral
teeth in each row.

Tritonia (Cuv.). Body lengthened, thick ; ten-
tacles two, branching; head with a warted or
fringed veil ; gills branching in a single row, on a
ridge on each side.

T. Hombergi.

lineata. Fig. 138 ; f .

T. alba,
plebeia.

136

137

138

Scyllma (Linn.). Body compressed; foot long,
narrow, grooved ; back with two pairs of lateral,
wing-like lobes, bearing small tufted gills on their
inner surfaces ; tentacles two, with fringed tips ;
oceanic.

S. pelagica. Fig. 139 ; f .

Dendronotus (Alder and Hancock). Tentacles
fringed with membranous expansions {lamince) ;

TRITONIAD^.

103

head-veil with branched appendages; gills branched,
in a single row on each side.

D. arborescens. Fig. 140 ; n. s.

Doto (Oken). Tentacles slender, simple ; sheaths
trumpet-shaped ; veil simple ; gills club-shaped
or ovate, rough with warts, arranged in one row on
each side ; foot very narrow.

D. coronata. Fig. 141 ; p
fragilis.
pinnatifida.

C-J

f

139

140

141

Lomanotus (Verany). Lengthened, slender,
smooth ; head veiled ; tentacles club-shaped, la-
minated ; gills slender, arranged along the waved
edge of the mantle ; foot slender, produced at the
front into long lateral processes.

L. marmoratus. Fig. 142 ; f .
flavidus.

104 GASTROPODA.

Family IY. Doeidid^.

Gills featlier-sliaped, placed in a circle around
the vent on the middle of the back ; tentacles two ;
tongue armed with lateral teeth, often very nume-
rous, central tooth often wanting ; skin strength-
ened with calcareous spicula, imbedded in its
substance.

142

,^Bi^.

143

Doris (Linn.). Oval, depressed, or convex ;
mantle large, covering the head and foot ; tentacles
two, club-shaped, laminated, retractile within
cavities ; gills usually retractile into one or more
cavities. Feed on sponges.

* Gill-plumes retractile within a single cavity :

D. tuberculata. Fig. 143 ; 7i. s. D. repanda.
flammea. planata.

Johnstoni. Zetlandica.

coccinea. millegrana.

DOEIDID^.

105

** Gill-plumes retractile within separate cavities :

D. Ulidiana. D. sparsa. _
muricata. inconspicua.

aspera. proxima.

bilamellata. diaphana.

depressa. oblonga.

pusilla.

■^^* Gill-plumes not retractile :

D. pilosa. D. subquadrata

i"^

#•
■^

-'^(Swy-

144

145

146

Goniodoris (Foxho^^). Oblong; mantle small,
not covering tlie head and foot, simple ; tentacles
club-shaped, laminated, not retractile.

G. nodosa.

castanea. Fig. 144 ; f .

Triopa (Johnst.). Oblong ; mantle margined
with filaments ; tentacles club-shaped, retractile
within sheaths.

T. clavigera. Fig. 145 ; n. s.

jEgirus (Loven). Oblong, covered with large
warts ; no mantle ; tentacles slender, retractile

106 GASTROPODA.

within prominent \6hed sheaths ; gills branched,
tree-like.

M. punctilucens. Fig. 146 j k. s.

Thecacera (Fleming). Oblong, smooth ; ten-
tacles club-shaped ; retractile within sheaths ; head
with a simple veil ; gills feather-shaped, surrounded
by a ring of warts.

T. pennigerum. Fig. 147 ; f.
virescens.
capitatum.

Polycera (Cuv.) . Lengthened, smooth or warted ;
tentacles club-shaped, laminated, not retractile, not
sheathed ; veil edged with processes ; gills feather-
shaped, accompanied by club-shaped appendages.

P. quadrilineata.
Lessonii.
ocellata. Fig. 148 ; n. s.

St^^^^--~

147 HS

Idalla (Leuckart). Oblong, broad, nearly smooth;
mantle small, margined with filaments ; tentacles
with filaments at their bases ; head slightly lobed.

I. aspersa. Fig. 149 ; f . I. quadricomis.

insequalis, elegans.

Leachii. pulchella.

PLEUROBRANCHID^.

107

Ancula (Loven). Slender, lengtliened ; mantle
entirely adhering, its margin adorned witli club-
shaped filaments ; tentacles club-shaped, laminated,
with filaments on their stems.

A. cristata. Fig. 150 ; n. s.

Tribe II. Tectibeanchiata.

Shell (where present) enclosed within the flesh.

Shell a thin convex shield :

Gill between the edge of the
mantle and the foot .... Fleurobranchida.
GiU in the back, beneath the

shell Aplt/siada.

SheU globose or cylindrical, rolled BuUadae.
Shell external Tornatellad<B.

149

cM-.

150

151

Family I. Pleurobranchid^.

Shell wanting, or concealed within the substance
of the mantle, protecting the intestines ; gills
feather-shaped, situated in the angle formed by the
mantle and the foot. Food vegetable.

108

GASTROPODA.

Runcma (Forbes). Minute, slug-like; mantle
distinct ; eyes sessile ; no tentacles ; gills three
plumes beneath the mantle, on the right side of its
hinder edge ; shell wanting.

R. Hancocki. Fig. 151

• 3
' 1*

DiphyJUdia (Cuv.). Oblong, fleshy; mantle
ample ; gills placed beneath the hind edge of the
mantle, on both sides ; head mth a veil, and
minute tentacles ; shell wanting.

D. lineata. Fig, 152 ; 'k n.s.

152

153

PleiiToh^anchus (Cuv.). Oval or roundish, fleshy ;
mantle covering the back and sides, and over-
lapping the foot ; gill a single plume, beneath its
right edge ; tentacles two, grooved ; a broad lobed
veil ; shell flexible, convex.

P. plumiila. Fig. 153 ; n.s.
membranaceus.

BULLAD^. 109

Family II. Aplysiadje.

Shell rudimentaiy, internal, thin, oblong, convex,
slightly rolled at one end ; head distinct, with
tentacles and eyes ; foot long, extending behind ;
sides expanded into wing-like lobes, tui'ned up
over the back ; gill-plume concealed beneath the
shell, in the middle of the back.

Aplysia (Gmelin). Sea-hare. Lengthened, ele-
vated in the middle ; head distinct, with four
rolled, ear-like tentacles ; mouth armed with horny
jaws; tongue-teeth 13 — 1 — 13. Dischar2:e a purple
fluid.

A. punctata,* Fig. 154 ; | n. s.

154 155

Family III. Bullad^.

Shell globose or cylindrical, rolled like a scroll,
with a minute spire, and a large aperture ; outer
lip sharp ; no operculum ; animal more or less
investing the shell ; head broad, flat, without dis-
tinct tentacles ; foot furnished with two side-lobes
and a hind-lobe ; gill single, covered by the shell ;
food animal.

* The name " hyhrida " of Sowerby, adopted by Forbes and
Hanley, involves an absurdity, and should be rejected.

no

GASTROPODA.

Pkiline (Ascan.). Shell fragile, translucent,
white when dry, oval ; aperture very wide ;
animal investing the shell ; slug-like ; head oblong,
four-sided ; no eyes ; foot broad, with large side-
lobes.

P. aperta. Fig. 155 ; n.s.
quadrata.
scabra.
catena,
punctata,
pruinosa.

156

157

Scaphander (Montfort). Shell oblong, or ovate,
rolled ; spirally striated ; spire concealed ; aperture
wide in front ; covered by a thick epidermis. Ani-
mal with a large head ; eyeless ; foot short and
broad; side-lobes turned up, but not enveloping

the shelL

S. lignarius. Fig. 156 ; \n.s.

AmpMsphyra (Loven). Shell small, thin, ovate,
truncate, with a long aperture, and a minute spire.
Animal wholly retractile within the shell ; head
wide, with triangular tentacles ; two minute sunken
eyes.

A. hyalina. Fig. 157 ; n. s.

BULLAD^.

Ill

Cylichna ( Loven ). Shell solid, cylindrical,
rolled ; truncate. Animal short and broad, not
investing the shell ; tentacle-lobes united.

C. cylinclracea. Fig. 158 ; n, s.
conulus.
mammillata.
nitidula.

C. obtusa.
strigella.
truncata.
■umbilicata.

158

CZ9

159

160

161

Acera (Muller). Shell thin, flexible, swollen;
aperture long, expanded, and deeply notched in
front ; pillar open, exposing the whorls. Animal
with a short, truncate head ; no eyes ; side-lobes
nearly concealing the shell.

A. bullata. Fig. 159 ; n. s.

Bulla (Lamk.). Bubble. Shell swollen, rolled,
partly or entirely external, perforated at the sum-
mit ; lip sharp. Animal with a large head, two-
lobed behind; side-lobes very large, turned up
on the shell ; hind-lobe covering the spire ; foot
four -sided.

B. CrancbiL

bjdatis. Fig. 160; «. 5.

112 GASTROPODA.

Family IV. Toenatellad^.

Shell external, solid, distinctly spiral, with a
narrow aperture, and a plaited pillar. Animal
with a broad flattened head, and broad tentacles ;
foot large, carrying an operculum.

Tornatella (Lamk.). Shell ovate, with a conical
spire of many whorls ; aperture rounded in front.
Animal white ; head notched.

T. fasciata. Fig. 161 ; n.s.

Order 11. PR 080-BRANGHIA TA.

Shell ample, usually capable of concealing the

whole animal ; mantle forming a vaulted chamber

over the back, in which the gills are lodged ;

gills comb-shaped or feather-shaped, in front of

the heart. Sexes distinct.

Shell with the front margin entire Holostomata.
Shell with front margin notched or
produced into a canal .... Siphonostomata.

Tribe I. Holostomata.

Shell variously shaped ; margin of the aperture
entire ; operculum usually spiral. Animal with
a short muzzle, not retractile ; breathing-siphon
wanting, or formed by a lobe of the neck ; neck
and sides frequently adorned with appendages.*

Shell composed of eight plates . CUtonida.

Shell tubular Bentaliadce.

Shell a low cone.
Shell entire:

Summit turned forwards . . Tatelladrc.
Summit backwards .... Calyptra'adde.
Shell slit or perforated .... Fissurellad(2.

* AporrJiais, which by the preponderance of its characters
belongs to this tribe, has a canal. Natica and Scalaria have a
retractile proboscis. (Woodward)

CHITONID^. 113

Shell spiral."^

Shell snail-shajDed,
Aperture very wide :
Outer lip slit or perforated . Haliotida.

Outer lip entire Naticadfje,

Aperture moderate :

Interior pearly Trodiidm.

Interior not pearly .... Littorinada.
Shell lengthened :
Aperture channelled .... Cerithiadce.
Aperture simple :

Operculum spiral TiirritelladcB.

Oj)erculum of successively en-
larging j)lates Tymmidellad(B.

163

Family I. Chitonid^.

Shell formed of eight transverse plates, lodged
in a leathery mantle, which overlaps the body on
all sides. Animal with a broad, oval foot ; no
eyes or tentacles ; tongue long, narrow, with three
series of teeth.

Chiton (Linn.) . Coat-of-mail Shell. Shell-plates
wider than long, overlapping.

C. albus. C. fascicularis.

asellus. Hanleyi.

cancellatus. laevis.

cinereus. Fig. 1 62 ; n. s. marmoreus.

discrepans. ruber.

* Ccecum {fig. 184) in the Turritelladce is tubular, resembling
Dentalium.

114 GASTROPODA.

Family II. Dentaliad^.

Shell tubular, curved, open at eacli end, taper-
ing ; aperture circular. Animal attached to the
shell near the hinder end ; head indistinct, with-
out eyes or tentacles ; foot conical, with side-lobes ;
gills two, symmetrical ; blood red.

Dentallum (Linn.). Tush-shell. [Characters

those of the Family.]

D. entalis. Fig, 163 ; 7i.s.
tarentinum.

165

Family III. Patellad^.

Shell conical, with the summit turned forwards.
Animal with a distinct head, eyes, and tentacles ;
foot as wide as the shell ; gill-plume one, comb-
like ; tongue long, narrow, with numerous teeth.

Patella (Linn.). Limpet. Shell oval, with the
summit more or less central. Animal with the
gill-plume very long, surrounding the body, and
attached throughout.

P. vulgata. Fig. 164 ; n. s.
pellucida.
athletica.

Acmcea (Esch.). Shell like that of Patella,
Animal with the gill-plume lodged in a cavity on
the neck, projecting from the right side.

A. testudinalis. Fig. 165 ; n. s.
virginea.

CALYPTE-^AD^.

115

Family IV. Calypte^ad^.

Shell limpet-shaped, the summit sometimes
slightly spiral, directed backwards. Animal with
a distinct head, eyes, and tentacles ; muzzle
lengthened ; gill-plume single.

Gcdyptrcea (Lamk.). Cup-and- Saucer. Shell
round, conical ; interior with a projecting plate on
the hinder side, resembling half a cup. Animal
with the mantle plain.

C. Sinensis. Fig. 166 ; n. s.

166 167

TT,,,^ .,.r..w'""""

Nfs«r

168

Iv

^7/ ivs

169

170

Pileojpsis (Lamk.). Bonnet. Shell round, conical,
with the summit recurved ; interior simple. Ani-
mal with the mantle fringed.

P. Hungaricus. Fig. 167 ; ^n.s.

I 2

116 GASTEOPODA.

Family V. Fissurellad^.

Shell limpet-sliaped, summit turned backwards ;
a slit in the front margin, or a perforation at the
summit. Animal with a distinct head, eyes, and
tentacles ; gill-plumes two.

Fissurella (Lamk.). Key-liole Limjpet. Shell oval,
conical, low, with the summit perforated.

F. reticulata. Fig. 168 ; \n.s.

Functurdla (Lowe). Shell conical, high, with
the summit turned back ; perforation in front of
the summit.

P. Noachina. Fig. 169 ; n.s.

Emarginula (Lamk.). Shell high, with the sum-
mit turned back ; front margin slit.

E. crassa. ,i

reticulata. Fig. 170; i^

rosea. ^

Family VI. Haliotid^.

Shell spiral, ear-shaped, or snail-shaped, with
a wide aperture, the outer lip either perforated or
slit. Animal with a short muzzle, tentacles, and
eyes ; gill-plumes two.

Haliotis (lAm\.) . Ear-shell; Ormer. Shell ear-
shaped ; spire minute, flat ; aperture very wide, in-
terior pearly ; margin perforated with many holes.
Animal with fringed lobes to the head and sides ;
no operculum.

H, tuberculata. Fig. 171 ; ^n.s.

TROCHID^. 117

Smssurella (D'Orb.). Shell thin, not pearly,
globose ; aperture rounded ; outer margin slit.
Animal furnished with an operculum.
S. crispata. Fig. 172 ; f.

lanthina (Lamk.). Ocean-snail. Shell thin,
snail-shaped ; aperture four-sided ; pillar twisted ;
lip thin, notched at the outer angle ; violet-blue.
Animal with a large head and tentacles ; no eyes ;
foot small, secreting a float of numerous air-
bladders.

I. communis. Fig. 173 ; n. s.
exigua.
pallida.

171 172 173

Family VII. TEocHiDiE.

Shell spiral, snail-shaped, or pyramidal ; interior
generally pearly. Animal with a short muzzle,
eyes, and slender tentacles ; head and sides fur-
nished with fringed lobes and filaments ; gill-
plume single ; tongue long, naiTow, armed with
numerous teeth and hooks. Vegetable feeders.

Phasianella (Lamk.). Shell polished ; whorls
convex ; aperture oval, not pearly ; outer lip thin ;
operculum shelly. Animal with long fringed

118

GASTEOPODA.

tentacles ; foot rounded in front, its sides moving
alternately.

P. puUus. Fig. 174 ; f .

174

175

176

TrocJms (Lmn.). Top. Shell pyramidal, nearly
flat at the base ; aperture oblique, somewhat four-
sided ; pearly ; operculum horny, many-whorled.
Animal with two minute head-lobes, large neck-
lappets, side-lobes, and filaments.

T, alabastrum.

T

. millegranus.

cinerarius.

Montagui.

conulus.

pusillus.

exiguus.

striatus.

granulatus.

tumidus.

heliciniis.

umbilicatus.

crassus.

undulatus.

magus.

ziziphinus. Fig. 175;;2.5

Adeorhis (Wood). Shell minute, depressed,
few-whorled, deeply umbilicated ; operculum shelly,
many-whorled.

A. sub-carinata. Fig. 176 ; f .

LITTORINAD.E.

119

Family VIII. Littorinad^.

Sliell spiral, snail-like, never pearly; aperture
rounded ; entire ; operculum horny, few-wliorled.
Animal witli a tliick muzzle, eyes, and tentacles ;
gill-plume single ; tongue long, with a central
series of broad, hooked teeth, and three oblong,
hooked spines on each side; sides plain; foot
grooved at the sides.

Liitorina (Ferussac). Winkle. Shell thick,
pointed, few-whorled ; outer lip sharp ; pillar flat-
tened, not perforated.

1. fabalis.

L. palliata.

littoralis.

patula.

littorea. Fig. 177 ; n,s.

rudis.

neritoides.

saxatilis,

tenebrosa.

177

178

179

180

181

182

Lacuna (Turton). Shell thin ; aperture crescent-
shaped ; an umbilical fissure.

L. crassior.
pallidula.

L. puteolus.

vincta. Fig. 178 ; n. s.

120 GASTROPODA.

Bissoa (Fremenville). Shell minute, coni-
cal, pointed, lengthened, many-wliorled ; aperture
rounded; outer lip expanded and slightly thickened.
Animal with long slender tentacles ; foot pointed
behind ; operculum spiral.

K. abyssicola. E. parva. Fig. 179 ; f-.

anatina. proxima.

Beanii. pulcherrima.

calathus. punctura.

cingillus. rubra,

costata. rufilabris.

costiilata. sciilpta.

creniilata. semistriata.

disjunct us. soluta.

fulgida. striata.

inconspicua. striatula.

interrupta. ulvee.

labiosa. ventrosa.

lactea. vitrea.

littorea. Zetlandica.

Jeffrey sia (Alder). As Rissoa, hut more trans-
parent ; operculum semicircular, plaited, with a
projection from the straight edge.

J. diapbana.
globularis.
opalina. Fig. 180 ; ^.

Shenea (Fleming). Shell minute, round, flat,
few-whorled. Animal like Btssoa, but the foot
rounded behind.

S. costulata. S. nitidissima.

Cutleriana. planorbis. Fig. 181 ; |-.

divisa. rota.

laevis.

Truncatella (Eisso). Shell minute, cylindrical,
truncated ; whorls striated transversely ; aperture

TURRITELLAD^. 121

oval, entire. Animal witli short, triangular ten-
tacles ; foot rounded at each end.

T. Montagui. Fig. 182 ; n. s.

Family IX. Turritellad^.

Shell spiral (sometimes tubular) , lengthened ;
upper part partitioned off ; aperture simple ; oper-
culum horny, manj-whorled. Animal with a short
muzzle, eyes, and tentacles ; mantle fringed ; foot
very short ; gill-plume single.

Scalaria (Lamk.). Wentletrap. Shell white,
polished, many-whorled ; whorls rounded, sepa-
rated, ornamented with transverse ridges ; aperture
round.

S. clathratula. S. Trevelyana.

communis. Fig. 183 ; n. s. Turtonis.

GrcBnlandica.

Coecum (Fleming). Shell tubular, cylindrical,
curved ; aperture round ; summit closed by a
plate ; operculum horny, many-whorled.

C. trachea.

glabrum. Fig. 184 ; ^.

AcUs (Loven). Shell minute, lengthened,
spiral ; aperture oval ; lip prominent. Animal with
a long retractile proboscis; tentacles close to-
gether ; foot truncated in front.

A. ascaris. Fig. 185 ; f. /<r\ C A /"^

nitidissima. y^Sj * b n i_ y

sui)ramtida. /v/ qS '^o 'v*

umca.

16^^^

!.^-

122

GASTEOPODA.

Turritella (Lamk.). Shell lengthened, manj-
whorled, spirally ridged ; aperture rounded ; lip
thin ; operculum horny, many-whorled, fringed.

T. communis. Fig. 186; n,s.

183

184

1S5

186

Family X. Cekithiad^.

Shell spiral, lengthened, many-whorled ; aper-
ture channelled in front, and indistinctly behind ;
lip generally expanded; operculum horny, gene-
rally spiral. Animal with a short muzzle ; tentacles
distant, slender ; eyes on short stalks ; manJe
with a rudimentary siphon or fold.

Ajporrliais (Aldrov.). Shell lengthened, pointed ;
whorls knobbed; aperture narrow; outer lip be-
coming expanded and fingered with age ; oper-
culum plaited, pointed.

A. pes-pelicani. Fig. 187 ; n. s.
pes-carbonis.

PYRAMIDELLAD^.

123

Cerithmm (Bmg.). Shell very long, tapering,
pointed ; aperture small, witli a tortuous canal ;
outer lip expanded ; inner lip thickened ; oper-
culum spiral, few-whorled.

C. adversum.
reticulatum.
metula.

Fig. 188 ; f .

187

189

188

Cerithiopsis (Forbes). Shell as Cerithium;
operculum pointed.

C. tubercularis. Fig. 189 ; f.

Family XI. Pyramidellad^.

Shell spiral, generally lengthened, pointed; aper-
ture small ; pillar often plaited ; operculum formed
of overlapping plates ; animal with broad, ear-
like tentacles, and eyes behind them; proboscis
retractile; foot truncated in front; tongue un-
armed.

124

GASTROPODA.

Stylina (Fleming). Shell glossy, globose, with
a suddenly tapered, slender summit. Lives attached
to the spines of Sea-Urchins.

S. Turtoni. Fig. 190

Eulima (Risso). Shell small, white, polished,
slender, many-whorled, " obscurely marked on
one side by a series of periodic mouths, which form
prominent ribs internally ;" aperture oval, pointed
above ; outer lip thickened ; inner lip turned back
upon the pillar. Animal with slender tentacles.

E. bilineata.
distorta.

polita. Fig. 191 ; n.s.
subulata.

190

191

192

193

194

Chemnitzia (D'Orb.). Nearly as Euliina, but
with the whorls plaited ; without orifices ; aperture
simple. Animal with triangular tentacles.

C. Barleei.
clathrata.

elegantissima. Fig. 192 ; f .
fenestrata.
formosa.

C. fiilvocincta.
indistincta.
rufa.

rufescens.
scalaris.

NATICAD^. 125

Eulimella (Forbes). As Chemnitzia, but tlie
shell smooth and polished ; pillar simple.

E. aciciila. Fig. 193 ; f .
affinis.
claviila.
Scillae.

Odostomia (Flem.). Shell minute, ovate, or
tapering, smooth ; aperture ovate ; pillar with a
single fold ; lip thin; operculum indented. Animal
like Chemnitzia.

'. acuta.

0. insculpta.

alba.

interstincta.

conoidea. Fig. 194 ;

f. nitida.

conspicua.
cylindiica.
decussata.
dolioformis.

obliqua.
pallida,
plicata.
rissoides.

dubia.
eulimoides.

spiralis,
striolata.

excavata.

truncatula.

glabrata.

unidentata.

Gulsonee.

Warrenii.

Family XII. Naticad.^.

Shell globose, few-whorled ; spire small, obtuse ;
apertui-e very large, semicircular ; lip sharp.
Animal with a long retractile proboscis ; foot very
large ; mantle with large side-lobes, turned up so
as to conceal, more or less perfectly, the shell.

Velutina (Flem.). Shell thin, with a velvety
epidermis ; no operculum. Animal with a broad
head ; tentacles blunt, far apart ; gills two.

V. flexilis.

laevigata. Fig. 195 ; ti. s.

126

GASTEOPODA.

Otina (Gray). Sliell minute, ear-shaped. Animal
with the mantle simple, and short tentacles.

0. Otis. Fig. 196 ; f

Lamellaria (Montagu). Shell thin, pellucid;
aperture very wide ; no operculum. Animal with
a very large mantle, quite concealing the shell,
notched in front.

L. perspicua. Fig. 197 ; n. s.
tentaculata.

193

197

19G

198

Natica (Lamk.). Shell thick, solid, polished;
umbilicus large ; operculum sub-spiral. Animal
without eyes ; a large veil, uniting the tentacles ;
foot very large, with a fold in front, turned back
over the head, and a great lobe behind, partly
covering the shell ; tongue short ; gill single.

N. helicoides.

N. nitida.

Kingii.

pusilla.

monilifera. Fig. 198 ; f n. s.

sordida

Montagui.

CYPEiEAD^. 127

Tribe II. Siphonostomata.

Sliell spiral ; aperture notched or produced into
a canal in front ; operculum horny, plaited. Animal
furnished with a retractile proboscis ; eye-stalks
united to the tentacles ; margin of the mantle pro-
duced into a breathing-siphon ; gills comb-like,
placed obliquely across the back.

Spire concealed Ci/prcead<s.

Spire manifest :

Outer lip notched behind . . Conidce.
Outer lip entire behind :

Lip notched in front . . Bucciyiidce.

Lip produced into a canal . Mzcricidce.

Family I. Cype^ad^.

Shell rolled as a scroll, covered with a porcelain-
like enamel ; spire concealed ; aperture narrow,
long, channelled before and behind ; outer lip (in
adult age) thickened, and turned in. Animal with
a broad foot ; mantle with wide side-lobes, which
turn up over the shell.

Cyprcea (Linn.). Coiory, Shell swollen ; outer
and inner lip wrinkled transversely.

C. Europsea. Fig. 200 ; n. s.
moneta.*

Ovulum (Lamk.) . Poached Egg. Inner lip smooth.

O. acuminatum.

patulum. Fig. 199 ; n. s.

Taken alive in Cornwall by Mr. Peach. (See Eejy. Brit.
Assoc; 1844.)

128 GASTROPODA.

Marginella (Lamk.). Outer lip smooth; inner
lip obliquely plaited.

M. Isevis. Fig. 201 ; n. .?-

201

199 200

Family II. Conid^.

Shell with the body conical, often longer than
the spire ; aperture usually long and narrow ;
outer lip notched near its hinder end ; operculum
minute or wanting. Animal with an oblong foot,
truncated in front, with a conspicuous pore in the
centre ; head lengthened, tentacles remote, carrying
the eyes.

Fleurotoma (Lamk.). Shell spindle-shaped;
spire lengthened; canal short (in the British
species) ; outer lip with a deep slit at its hinder
part.

P. attenuata. P. purpurea.

braclijstoma. rufa. Fig. 202; n,s.

costata. septangularis.

gracilis. striolata.

Leufroyi, teres,

linearis. Trevelyana.

nana. turricula.

nebula. minima.

BUCCINID^.

129

Family III. Buccinid^.

Shell swollen, notched in front ; hinder part of
the lip entire. Animal with a broad foot ; eyes
seated on the tentacles, without stalks ; tongue

203

204

205

long, narrow ; central teeth single, comb-like ;
lateral hooks single, notched.

Purpura (Lamk.). Purple, or Dog-winhle. Shell
thick; spire short; aperture large, slightly notched ;
inner lip flattened ; operculum plaited.

P. lapillus. Fig. 203 ; n. s.

Nassa (Lamk.). Dog-iDlielh. Shell solid, few-
whorled ; spire rather long ; whorls swelling ; inner
lip expanded, forming a projecting tooth near the
canal. Animal with the foot cleft behind, and
forming two diverging horns in front.

N. reticulata. Fig. 204 ; n. s.
^ incrassata.
pygmsea.

130 GASTROPODA.

Buccinum (Linn.). Whelk. Shell few-whorled,
swelling ; spire moderate ; aperture large ; canal
short, turned outwards ; operculum plaited. Animal
with a broad foot, obtusely pointed behind.

B. undatum. Fig. 205 ; ^n.s.
Dalei,

Humphreysianum.
fiisiforme.

206 207 20S

Family IV. Muricid^.

Shell spiral ; outer lip entire behind ; front pro-
longed into a straight canal. Animal with a broad
foot ; eyes seated on the tentacles, without stalks ;
tongue as in the last Family.

Fusus (Lamk.). SpindU-sJiell. Shell spindle-
shaped ; spire many-whorled ; canal long ; oper-
culum ovate, curved.

F. antiquus.
Berniciensis.
Islandicus. Fig. 206

; in

F. Norvegicus.
propinquus.
;. s. Tui'toni.

Trophon (Montfort).
short and oblique.

As Fusus, but the canal

T. Barvicensis.
clathratus.
muricatiis.

Fig.

207 ; n. s.

MURICID^. 131

Trichotrojpis (Broderip). Shell tliin, spirally
furrowed, umbilicated ; pillar obliquely truncated.

T. acuminata.

borealis. Fig. 208 ; n. s.

209

Murex (Linn.). Bock-sJiell. Shell roughened
with periodical expansions of its lip [varices] , which
are permanent after the lip has advanced ; canal
partly closed.

M. erinaceus. Fig. 209; n. s.
corallinus.

K 2

132

Class VII. CEPHALOPODA.
(Cuttles.)

The Cuttles and Squids, of whicli we have but
a few species on our shores, are Mollusca, which
make the nearest approach of all Invertebrate
animals to the Vertebrate forms. Their most
characteristic peculiarity is, that the front of the
body, which forms a large, well-marked head,
carries numerous fleshy arms^ which are effective
instruments for the seizing and holding of the
living prey on which the animals feed, and are
also used for the purpose of crawling.

Each arm is furnished along its inner side with
a single or double series of sucMng-cujps^ each of
which, on being affixed by the animal to any
surface, adheres with a force so great, that it is
easier to tear apart the limb than to cause the
sucker to let go its hold. The suckers are short
cylindrical or conical warts, with a central hollow,
filled by a moveable fleshy piston, which can be
withdrawn at the animal's pleasure, forming a
vacuum, when the edges of the cavity, pressed by
the whole weight of the overlying water, and
with that of the atmosphere above it, adhere to
the body of the victim, with a force dependent on
the muscular power employed to retract the piston.

In one Family there is, in addition to the ordinary
arms^ a pair of long and slender tentacles, which
are dilated at their extremities, where they carry
groups of suckers, similar to those of the arms.

In the midst of the area surrounded by the bases

CEPHALOPODA. 133

of the arms is placed tlie mouth, furnished with
two h.oxnj jaws, fitting the one into the other, and
closely resembling, in form and action, the hooked
beak of a parrot, except that the upper mandible
works in the lower. The lower jaw contains a
fleshy tongue, the structure of which indicates a high
development of the sense of taste.

The intestine, after making one or two turns,
proceeds forwards to the under side of the neck,
where it terminates in a projecting tube, called
ih-Q funnel.

All the senses appear to be present in these
creatures in a high degree. That of taste has
been already noticed. The eyes consist of a single
pair on the side of the head ; they are of large
size, very brilliant, and in many respects resemble
those of the Vertebrata, but yet presenting some
peculiarities of great interest to the anatomist.

The ears are two round cavities in the sides
of the head, behind the eyes, in each of which is
suspended a membranous sac containing a clear
fluid, and a single otolithe (ear-stone), composed of
carbonate of lime.

A pair of organs, which appear to subserve the
sense of smell, are also found close beneath or
behind the eyes. Each is a minute cavity with
swollen borders, containing a soft, wart-like pro-
minence [joaj^illa), supplied with special nerves.

The sense of touch resides in the whole sensitive
and naked skin, in the lijps, and especially in the
arms and tentacles.

In animals so highly endowed we may naturally
expect a correspondent development of the ner-
vous system. Here for the first time we see a
distinct hrain, enclosed in a box or chamber of

134 CEPHALOPODA.

cartilage, answering to the skull of the Vertebrate
animals. From this centre nerves pass to the
organs of sense, to the arms, the mantle, and the
various internal organs.

Besides the rudimentary skull, there are found
other pieces of cartilage in different parts of the
body, as among the muscles at the base of the
funnelj and (in the Squids) two narrow plates for
the support of the side-fins. Thus we have the first
approach to the internal bony skeleton, which is so
characteristic of the Vertebrata.

Many species, however, possess also a calcareous
shell. In the Nautilus and the Argonaut, this is
external and ample : but in our native species
which possess one, the shell is internal, being
enclosed within the substance of the mantle, fall-
ing out when the latter is slit open. In the
Squids, its form is that of a clear, flexible, horny
pen or feather ; but in the Cuttle it is an oval,
shelly plate, carrying on one of its surfaces a mul-
titude of very thin plates, arranged in layers, kept
apart by microscopically minute pillars. Thus,
though formed of stony substance, it is so light as
to float in water, imparting buoyancy to the animal.

The form of the body in general is more or less
that of an oval sac (the mantle), from which the
head, with its staring eyes and its array of arms,
protrudes in front, as does also the funnel ; while
its sides are in some species dilated into broad
swimming-fins.

One of the most curious circumstances in the
economy of the Cuttles, is the constantly changing
play of various colours which is observed on their
suxface. During life there are seen coloured spots,
which are continually altering their position, size,

CEPHALOPODA. 135

and figure, running into one another, and separat-
ing, playing to and fro, contracting, and dilating,
appearing and disappearing with great rapidity,
in the most unaccountable manner. These pheno-
mena depend on the structure of the skin, which
contains elastic cavities filled with variously
coloured fluids, under the influence of the nervous
system, and therefore subject to the ever- varying
emotions of the animal.

At certain times, as when alarmed, these crea-
tures suddenly discharge from the funnel a volume
of fluid, of intense blackness, which is secreted in
the ink-bag, a sac lying along the inferior part
of the body, and opening at the bottom of the
funnel. This fluid was used by the ancients for
waiting, and by the moderns in the preparation of
Indian-ink and sepia.

The circulation does not differ importantly from
that of the Gastropoda. So far as is known,
there is no system of completely closed blood-
vessels. The blood is sometimes green or violet,
but sometimes colourless. Breathing is performed
by means of gills situated in the cavity of the
mantle. These organs are long pyramids, formed
of a central stem, beset with numerous trans-
verse plates or arches. It is a singular circum-
stance that the gills are not ciliated ; the water
which bathes them enters the cavity beneath the
borders of the mantle, and is discharged periodi-
cally through the funnel.

The sexes are always distinct. In many species
the males are unknown ; in others, they resemble
the females ; but in others, they present the most
extraordinary peculiarities. On certain female
Cephalopoda there have been observed from time

136 CEPHALOPODA.

to time worm-like creatures, called Hectocotyli,
wliicli have been supposed to be parasitic worms.
They resemble single detached arms of the species,
being armed with rows of suckers, and adhere to
the interior of the gill-cavity of the female. Dr.
Kolliker first suggested that these supposed worms
were the males ; but, from the researches of H.
Miiller and others, it appears that the Hectoco-
tylus is not an independent animal, but " an arm
metamorphosed in a very irregular manner," and
detached, in order to play an apparently inde-
pendent part in impregnating the female.*

The eggs are laid in masses, enclosed in en-
velopes, by which they are bound together, and
often attached to rocks or sea- weeds, or else are
united into chaplets which float in the open sea.
The young are hatched in the form of the parent,
so that they undergo no metamorphosis.

Localities, &c, — All our species are residents of
the deep water. Sometimes they may be found
in pools at low water, left by the retiring tide, and
occasionally specimens are washed up on a sandy
beach ; but generally they are free swimmers and
rovers, often congregating in shoals. Their period
of activity is chiefly nocturnal. The little Sejpiola
burrows in sand, which it excavates in a curious
manner by blowing repeated gusts of water out of
its funnel. t All the species are carnivorous and
ferocious, preying on any marine animals which
they can master.

Identification. — The number of the arms ; the
presence of accessory tentacles ; the eyes, whether

* See Siebold's Comp. Anat. § 261. (Burnet's Transl. and note.)
f See my " Aquarium," p. 69.

DIBEANCHIATA. 137

moveable or fixed ; the form of the body ; the pre-
sence or absence of fins at the sides ; the presence,
texture, and form of the shell ; the existence of a
web uniting the bases of the arms ; the arrange-
ment of the suckers ; the comparative length of
the arms ; the number of the suckers on each arm ;
the form, size, and hue of the colour spots, — con-
stitute the points to be chiefly attended to in
distinguishing the species in this Class.

Authorities. — Siebold's " Comparative Ana-
tomy," with Dr. Burnet's Notes ; Woodward's
" Manual of the Mollusca ; " and Gray's " Cata-
logue of the Cephalopoda in the British Museum."

Cephalopoda.

Molluscous animals without a foot, with a dis-
tinct head, crowned with numerous fleshy arms,
bearing sucking-disks ; enveloped in a sac-like
mantle, open in front, and sometimes enclosing in
its substance a rudimentary shell (the shell exter-
nal only in foreign species) ; having a rudimentary
brain, and a rudimentary skeleton of cartilage ;
breathing by gills, which are bathed by water
passing in beneath the mantle, and discharged
through a tube.

Order I. DIBEANCHIATA.

Animal with a naked body, a distinct head,
sessile eyes, horny jaws, eight arms ; a round or
oblong body formed for swimming ; two gills, and a
shell (when present), either horny or shelly, always
(in British species) concealed in the mantle.

With two tentacles ; eyes moveable . Decapoda.
Without tentacles ; eyes fixed . . . Octopoda.

138

CEPHALOPODA.

Teibe I. Decapoda.

Arms eight ; tentacles two, long, slender, witli
expanded ends ; suckers stalked ; eyes moveable
in their sockets ; body lengthened, with a pair of
side-fins : shell loose in the mantle.

Fins long ; shell calcareous . .
Fins short and broad ; shell horny

Sepiadae.
Teuthidae.

210

212

Family I. Sepiad^.

Animal with the body broadly ovate ; tentacles
lengthened, broadly expanded at their tips ; side-
fins narrow, bordering the whole length of the
sides ; funnel large and short, closed with an in-
ternal valve. Shell ("cuttle-bone") calcareous,
flat, composed of a broad plate of stony substance,
with a horny edge, and a sharp tip ; its concavity

TEUTHIDiE.

139

filled with layers of spongy substance, supported
by pillars.

Sepia (Linn.). Cuttle-fish. Arms with four
rows of suckers ; mantle supported by warts, fitting
into sockets on the neck and funnel.

S. officinalis. Fig. 210 ; -^n.s.
Rupellaria.
biserialis.

213

214

Family II. Teuthid^.

Animal with the body lengthened ; fins short,
broad, mostly at the hinder end ; shell a horny,
flexible pen.

Loligo iJuSixnk.). Squid. Body smooth, lengthened,

taper behind ; fins united, rhombic ; arms with two

oblique rows of suckers; tips of tentacles with four

rows ; eyes covered with skin. Shell pen-like, with

the shaft produced in front.

L. vulgaris.

media. Fig. 211 ; '^n.s.
marmorse.

140

CEPHALOPODA.

Ommastrephes (D'Orb.). Flying Squid. Nearly
as Loligo, but the tentacles are short and stout,
and the eyes are naked. Pen formed of a three-
ribbed shaft, and a hollow conical appendage.

0. sagittatus. Fig. 212 ; ^ n.s.
todarus.
Eblanse.

Sepiola (Leach). Body short, purse-like; mantle
supported by a broad neck-band, and a ridge
fitting a groove in the funnel; fins rounded, con-
tracted at their base, placed on the sides of the
back ; suckers of arms set on long stalks.

S. Rondeletii. Fig. 213 ; n. s.
atlantica.

215

Rossia (Owen). Body nearly as Sepiola; no
neck-band ; mantle supported by a small knob,
fitting a groove in the funnel ; fins oval, broad at
their union with the back ; suckers of arms sessile ;
those of tentacles stalked.

R. Owenii. Fig. 214 ; ^ n.s,
macrosoma.

OCTOPODA.

141

Tribe II. Octopoda.

Arms eiglit ; tentacles none ; suckers sessile ;
eyes fixed, incapable of rotation ; body united to
the head by a broad neck-band ; no lateral fins ;
shell (in the British species) internal and rudi-
mentary.

Octopus. (Cuv.). Foul'pe. Body oval, warty,
without fins ; arms long, unequal, united at the
base by a web ; suckers in two rows ; shell two
short styles, enclosed in the mantle.
0. vulgaris. Fig. 215 ; \n.s.

216

Eledone (Leach). Body small, oblong ; arms
long, tapering, webbed ; suckers in a single row.
E. octopodia. Fig. 216 ; \ n. s.

142

Sub-Kingdom V. VEETEBEATA.
Class I. PISCES.

(Fishes.)

Of that large division of animate beings wliicli
are distinguished by an internal skeleton of bone,
and of which the most marked character is the
possession of a prolongation of the brain (known
as the spinal cord) , enclosed in a series of tubular
bones (the vertehrce)^ which unitedly constitute the
spine, the Class of Fishes is almost the only one
which falls within the province of the British
Marine Zoologist. It is the most populous in
species of all, and the marine kinds greatly exceed
in number (and in importance also) those which in-
habit fresh waters.

The skeleton^ of which a rudimentary sketch, if
I may so call it, appears first in the Cephalopoda,
is, in the lowest forms of the present Class, scarcely
advanced in structure. In the Myxine and Am-
pliioxus, it is a simple tube of cartilage, of which
the divisions into joints are only indicated ; and it
is not until we arrive at the higher Orders that we
obtain true bone.

The elements which enter into the vertebrce, or
joints of the spine, are the same in all Fishes.
They are as follows: — 1, The central cylinder ;
2, the superior arch, formed by two sloping side
pieces, between which the spinal marrow passes ;

PISCES. 143

3, tlie superior spinous process, projecting upward
from the union of these pieces ; 4, the two lateral
processes ; 5, the inferior arch, formed as the
superior is, protecting great blood-vessels ; 6, the
inferior spinous process, pointing downward.

The skull is considered to be but a number of
vertehrcB excessively altered in form, to serve a
special pm^pose, that of forming a box to enclose
the hrain, cavities to protect the organs of sense,
and jaws to seize and masticate the food.

As accessory to the spinal column, we find three
sets of bones developed from its sides. 1, The
hyoid arches, which spring from the skull, and
form the firm framework on which the gills are
hung ; 2, the rihs, another numerous series of
arches, which protect the internal organs, and
serve as the support of muscles ; 3, the liiyihs, of
which there are two pairs, each limb consisting of
several pieces jointed to each other, of which the
first is jointed to the spine, while the last is free.
In Fishes, the last joint of the limb carries a
number of slender spines or rays, united by a thin
membrane in most cases, and forming a fin, to be
used in swimming. It may be considered as a
hand of many fingers.

Both pairs of limbs are, in the present Class,
suspended from the vertehrce that enter into the
composition of the skull. The upper pair are termed
pectoral fins, and correspond to the human arms
and hands ; the lower pair, termed ventral fins,
represent the feet. The latter may be before,
beneath, or behind the former (but always nearer
to the line of the belly), and are sometimes
wanting.

In addition to this internal skeleton^ Fishes

144 PISCES.

present an extensive external one. The body is in
general covered with scales, which are pieces of
bone developed from the skin, and overlapping
each other. But more essential to the Fish are
certain series of sword-like bones, which penetrate
the flesh along the line of the back, along the line
of the belly, and around the extremity of the spine,
to which are jointed bony or flexible rays, re-
sembling those of the true limbs, and, like them,
united by membrane. These series are important
instruments of locomotion, and are designated
respectively, the back-fin {dorsal)^ the vent-fin
{anal), and the tail-fin [caudal).

The teeth of Fishes vary exceedingly in form,
arrangement, and position. " The most common
shape is that of an elongated cone, either straight
or curved. When the conical teeth are small and
numerous, they are compared to the points of the
cards used for carding wool or cotton ; and they
are sometimes so slender, yet so dense from their
numbers, as to resemble the pile of velvet or
plush ; and often, from their very minute size, their
presence is more readily ascertained by the finger
than by the eye. Some fishes have in the front
of the jaws flat teeth Avith a cutting edge, like a
true incisor ; others have them rounded or oval ;
they are then most frequently planted in rows, and
adapted to bruise or crush the various substances
with which they are brought in contact."*

Unlike the Mammalia, in which the teeth are
confined to the jaws, Fishes may have every bone
that assists to form the cavity of the mouth and
throat furnished with these organs. As they con-
stitute important characters for identification, it
* Yarrell's "Britisli Fishes," i. 113.

PISCES. 145

may be as well to name the chief positions in
which they occur. In some members of the great
Salmon family, for instance, we find a row of
teeth on the bone that forms the middle ridge of
the palate, which is called the vomer ; on each side
of this is another row on the palatine bones ;
and outside these is another pair of rows on the
upper jaw-hones. In the lower half of the mouth
the tongue carries a row of teeth along each edge,
which, when the mouth is closed, lock in between
the vomerine and the palatine teeth ; wliile the
loiver jaw-hones are also armed, each with a row
which locks in between the ptalatine and the upper
jaw {inaxillary) teeth. In other families we find
teeth on the bony arches of the gills^ on the bones
of the throat {p)harynx)^ or on the bones called the
inter-maxillaries, that lie partly before and partly
between the upper jaws.

Fishes have cold blood ; that is to say, the blood
does not, in general, rise appreciably above the
temperature of the element in which they swim.
It is invariably red. The heart consists of one
auricle and one ventricle, wliich receive the blood
from the veins, and send it to the gills for re-
newal by the absorption of oxygen ; whence it is
circulated through the body in arteries. Both
the arteries and the veins are perfectly closed
vessels.

The breathing-organs {gills) consist ordinarily
of many rows of thin membranous plates hung on
slender arches of bone. These organs are placed
on each side of the head, and are usually protected
by a great bony plate (the gill-cover) , made up of
several pieces. The water to be breathed is taken
in at the mouth, passes over the gill-membranes,

L

146 PISCES.

and is ejected througli an orifice at the hind margin
of the gill-cover.

In many Fishes there is a large bladder situated
within the body, between the spine and the bowels.
It assumes various forms, and is always filled with
air, which, in Marine Fishes, is principally com-
posed of oxygen. It is supposed to be connected
with the buoyancy of the animal, and hence is
often called the swimming -Ijladder ; but there are
structural reasons for considering it to be the first
rudimentary form of an air-breathing lung.

Fishes, like all other Vertebrata, have the
sexes separate. Among the Sharks and Skates, the
male may be known by a long cylindrical appen-
dage at the inner edge of each ventral fin, which is
entirely wanting in females. In general, however,
the females are distinguishable from the males only
by the body being deeper and fuller, while the males
have the head and gills more developed.

With a few exceptions, more apparent than real,
the young are produced from eggs^ which, being
deposited at regular periods, and usually in vast
numbers, are commonly called spawn. The mass
of immature eggs in the body of the female fish is
well known under the name of hard roe. The roe
of a Cod has been computed to contain six millions
of eggs.

For the most part, the spawn is committed to
the* waters with but little precaution for its pre-
servation : sometimes it is twined around a sea-
weed, sometimes laid like beads within the valves
of a dead shell, sometimes dropped into a furrow,
ploughed in the bottom-gravel. But a few ex-
amples have recently come under the observation
of naturalists, in which an elaborate nest is con-

PISCES. 147

stnicted for the reception of the eggs, whicli are
watched with zealous care by the parent fish until
they are hatched, and, in some instances, until the
young are able to shift for themselves. Among
the Pipefishes [Syngnathidce), the male acts as
nurse to the infant progeny, receiving the spawn
from the mother into a sort of pouch, with which
he is provided, and in which he carries the eggs
till the birth of his offspring relieves him from his
duties.

Localities, c&c. — From the roving habits of
Fishes, little can be said on this score. Many
species, as the Mackerel and Herring tribes, ap-
proach the shores from deep water at certain
seasons, for the purpose of spawning in the shal-
lows. The Blennies and Gobies are generally to
be found in the shallows ; the Smooth Blenny, the
Sea Scorpion, and some other small species haunt
the clear rock-pools, which the receding tide leaves
on many of our coasts. The AVeevers, the Launces,
and many of the Flatfishes, burrow in the sand of
the sea-bottom ; the Wrasses play around sub-
merged rocks ; and the Pipefishes haunt the waving
beds of green sea-grass (Zostera) that grow on
muddy shores. Some, as several species of the
Salmon family, the little Sticklebacks, the Eels,
and others, inhabit both the sea and rivers indif-
ferently, or periodically exchange the one for the
other. Others, as the Bonito, are truly ocean-
rovers, and approach our coasts rarely and acci-
dentally.

Identification. — The following points, set down,
approximately, in the order of their relative im-
portance, are needful to be observed in determin-
ing the zoological place and relations of a Fish.

l2

148 PISCES.

The texture of the skeleton, whether bone or carti-
lage ; the form of the jaws, whether moveable
or soldered together ; the gill-orifices, whether
several holes in the neck, or a single one opening
from beneath a lid ; the gills, whether arranged
like the teeth of a comb, or in tufts ; the rays of
the dorsal and anal fins, whether mostly soft and
jointed, or mostly hard and spiny ; the position
of the ventral-fins ; the form and toothing of the
gill-covers ; the form and arrangement of the
teeth ; the number of the gill-rays ; the size, form,
and extent of the scales ; the number and form of
the dorsal-fins or fin ; the form of the caudal-fin ;
the presence of spines ; the general shape of the
body ; the freedom of movement in the jaws ; and
the number of rays in the difi'erent fins.

Authorities. — The arrangement proposed by
Cuvier, and modified by the Prince of Canino, has
been mainly followed ; while, for the appropriation
of species to our seas, no higher authority need be
sought, or can be found, than Mr. Yarrell's admi-
rable " History of British Fishes."

Pisces.

Vertebrate animals, having cold blood ; breath-
ing by means of permanent gil]s; inhabiting
water ; furnished w^th fins for locomotion ; pro-
ducing eggs.

Skeleton composed of cartilage . . CartUaginei.
Skeleton composed of bone . . . Ossei.

CYCLOSTOMATA.

149

Sub-Class I. CARTILAGINEI.

Skeleton cartilaginous, without bonj fibres ;
skull formed of a single piece.
With fixed gills :

Mouth forming a sucker .... Cyclodomata.
Mouth armed with jaws . . . Selachia.

With free gills Sturiona.

Order L CYCL 0 STOMA TA.

Skeleton rudimentary ; spine an unjointed
column of cartilage ; no ribs ; no pectoral or ven-
tral fins ; mouth a sucking-disk, surrounded by a
ring of cartilage.

218

..uXCAQ-

'ii #

,..-»^

219

AmpMoxus (Yarrell). Lancelet. Compressed,
doubly pointed ; mouth a long slit, with a row
of filaments on each side ; a dorsal fin along the
whole length of the back.

A. lanceolatus. Fig. 217 ; ^ n.s.

150

PISCES.

Myxine (Linn.) . Hag. Cylindrical ; an orifice
[spiracle) on the head ; mouth round, surrounded
by eight filaments, and armed with one tooth ;
dorsal along the back, continued round the tail to
the vent.

M. glutinosa. Fig. 218 ; -| n.s.

Petromyzoii (Linn.). Lamprey. Cylindrical;
gill-openings seven on each side of the neck ;
mouth round, armed with many teeth ; dorsal as
in Myxine.

P. marinus. Fig. 219 ; ^ n.s.

220

Order 11. BEL A CHI A .

Skeleton complete ; jaws (formed of the palatal
and post-mandihular bones) armed with teeth ;

RAIAD^.

151

pectoral and ventral-fins present ; gills attached at
their outer edge, with separate orifices to each gill.

Body flat, with a slender tail ; pectorals

enormous, meeting in front . . . Raiado!.

Body long, tapering gradually ; pecto-
rals moderate Sqiialida.

Family I. KAiADiE.

Body forming with the large fleshy pectorals a
broad flat disk ; pectorals generally united before
the snout ; eyes and orifices [spiracles) above ;
mouth, nostrils, and gill-orifices below , dorsals
on the tail.

221

Cephaloptera (Eisso) . Horned Ray. Head trun-
cate, with a membrane rolled on itself, on each side ;
eyes large, lateral ; otherwise resembling Trygon,
C. Giorna. Fig. 220 ; j^ n.s.

My Uohatis {Cmy.). Eagle Bay. Head projecting ;
pectorals extended like wings ; teeth pavement-

152

PISCES.

like ; tail armed with one dorsal-fin, and a notched
spine.

M. aquila. Fig. 221 ; ^ n. s.

Trygon (Cuv.). Fireflaire. Head enclosed by
the pectorals ; tail with a doublj-notched stiif
spine, without a dorsal.

T. pastinaca. Fig. 222 ; -|- 71. s.

222
Haia (Linn.). Skate. Body rhomhoidal; tail
with no spine, but with two small dorsals near the
tip.

R. radiata. E. marginata. Fig. 223 ; I n. s.

clavata. batis.

fuUonica. intermedia,

spinosa. oxyrhynchus.

miraletus. mucronata.

microcellata.

SQUALTDJi:.

153

Torpedo (Cuv.). Cramp-fish. Body nearly
round ; tail short, fleshy, with two dorsals, and a
caudal ; teeth small and sharp.

T. nobiliana.

marmorata. Fig. 224 ; ^ n.s.

223

Family II. Squalid^.

Body lengthened, merging insensibly into a
thick tail ; pectorals of moderate size ; gill-orifices
on the sides of the neck ; eyes lateral.

Squatina (Dumeril). Angel. Depressed; head
rounded in front ; spiracles large ; pectorals very
large; two dorsals and a caudal on the tail; no
anal.

S. angelus. Fig. 225 ; ^ n. s.

154

PISCES.

Echinorhinus (Blainv.). Spinous SJiark. First
dorsal opposite the ventrals ; teeth in both jaws,
broad and low, the edge nearly horizontal, their
sides with one or two transverse toothlets ; skin
studded with spines.

E. spinosus. Fig. 226 ; ^ «. s.

224

226

227

Scymnus (Flem.). All the fins small; two
dorsals, one before, the other behind the ventrals ;

SQUALID^.

155

no anal ; spiracles large ; teeth lancet-shaped,
diverging from the centre ; skin rough.
S. borealis. Fig. 227 ; -5^ n. s.

Acanthias (Rkso). Picked Dog-fish. Two dorsals,
each preceded by a spine ; no anal ; skin rough,
with heart-shaped scales, each with a central spine;
several rows of teeth in each jaw.

A. vulgaris. Fig. 228 ; ^ n.s.

228

Alopias (Bonaparte). Sea-fox. Two dorsals,
the first high, the second over the anal ; head
pointed; upper portion of the tail very long,
notched at the base.

A. vulpes. Fig. 229 ; /^ n. s.

Selachus (Cuv.). Basking Shark. Two dorsals,
wide apart ; snout short and blunt ; gill-openings
very large.

S. maximus. Fig. 230 ; yItf ^- *•

156

PISCES.

Lamna (Ciiv.). 'Porbeagle. Two dorsals, as in
Alopias ; snout pointed ; both portions of tlie tail
large, nearly equal ; gill-openings large.

L. Cornubica. Fig. 231f; ^ n. s.

230

232

Galeiis (Cuv.). Toj)e, Two dorsals, the first
behind the pectorals, the second over the anal ;
head flat and long; teeth pointed, concave, and
serrated on the outer edge.

G. vulgaris. Fig. 232 ; ^^ n. s.

SQUALID^.

157

Notidanus (Cut.). One dorsal, over the anal ;
teeth of the upper jaw triangular, of the lower jaw
saw-like ; six gill-openings.

N. griseus. Fig. 233 ; ^n.s.

233

234

235

Mustelus (Cuv.). Smooth Hound. As Galeus,
but the teeth are flat, as in the Raiada.

M. leevis. Fig. 234 ; ^ n. s.

Zyg(B7ia (E-isso). Hammer-head, Head flat
produced on each side, with the eyes at the ex-
tremities ; fins as in Galeiis.

Z. malleus. Fig. 235 ; -^^ n. s.

158

PISCES.

Carcharias (Cuv.). Shark. Head pointed, flat-
tened ; teeth flat, pointed, cutting, notched at the
edges ; no spiracles.

C. vulgaris. Fig. 236 ; gL ^. 5/
glaucus.

236

237

8cylUum{Qw.Y.). Dog-fish, Head blunt ; nostrils
near the mouth, continued in a groove to the lip ;
spiracles distinct ; teeth with a long point, and a
shorter one on each side ; two dorsals, both behind
the middle.

S. canicula. Fig. 237 ; |- n. s.
catulus.
melanostomum.

STURIONA.

159

Order III STURIONA.

Gills free, as in the Bony Fishes, protected by a
gill-cover, and opening by a single wide orifice, on
each side.

CMincera (\a\\\\.^. Gill-cover rudimentary ; gills
partly attached : tail ending in a long filament ;
two dorsals, the first high and short, the second
low and long ; skin smooth.

C. monstrosa. Fig. 238 ; ^ n.s.

238

^<^^^^^^^^^^^^

Acipenser QJnm..). Sturgeon. Body angular, the
angles carrying bony plates ; snout pointed, fur-
nished with filaments ; mouth tubular, without
teeth; gill-cover broad, bony; tail two-lobed,
unequal.

A. sturio.

latirostris. Fig. 239 ; ^ n. s.

160

PISCES.

Sub-Class II. OSSEI.

Skeleton formed of bone ; skull composed of
many distinct pieces.

Jaw-bones soldered together . . Fledognathi.

Jaw-bones free :

Gills arranged in tufts .... Lophobranchii.
Gills in comb-like fringes :

Fin-rays soft, jointed .... Malacopterygii.

Fin-rays (partly) spinous . . Acanthopterygii.

Order I. PLECTOGNATHL

Skeleton partly of bone, partly of cartilage ;
jaws formed by the soldering together of the
maxillaries and tnter-maxillaries ; arch of the
palate united to the skull ; mouth small, almost
motionless ; gill-opening small ; body usually short
and thick.

240

Balistes (Linn.). File-fish, Body compressed,
covered with lozenge plates ; first dorsal spinous ;
cutting-teeth in both jaws.

B. capriscus. Fig. 240 ; J n. s.

PLECTOGNATHI.

161

Ortliagoriscus (Sclineider). Sunfish. Body com-
pressed, deep, short, truncate behind ; jaws un-
divided, forming cutting-edges ; dorsal and anal
high, pointed ; caudal short and high.

0. mola. Fig. 241 ; -^n.s.
oblongus.

241

Tetraodon (Linn.). Globe-fish. Body capable
of inflation^ partly covered with short spines :
jaws divided by a groove, giving an appearance of
four teeth.

T. Pennantii. Fig. 242 ; i «. ^.
M

162

PISCES.

Order 11. LOPHOBRANCHIL

Jaws complete and free ; gills disposed in pairs
of small round tufts, along the arches ; gill-cover
large ; gill-orifice small ; body angular, covered
with bony plates.

242

Hippocampus (Cuv.). Sea-horse.
Jaws united into a tube, the mouth
at the tip ; body compressed, deep,
marked by ridges lengthwise and
crosswise ; pectoral and dorsal in
both sexes, anal in the female ;
no v^ntrals nor caudal.

H. brevirostris. Fig. 243 ; ^ n. s.

Syngnatlms (Linn.). Pipe-fish.
Body long, slender, tapering, co-
vered with plates set lengthwise ; no ventrals ;
jaws as in Hippocampus.

S. acus. S. ophidion.

typhle. anguineus. Fig. 244 ; ^n.s.

sequoreus, lumbriciformis.

APODA.

163

Order III. MALA COPTER YGIL

Jaws free ; gills arranged in comb-like fringes ;
gill-cover large ; gill-orifice usually large ; fin-rays
flexible, jointed, and branched, with the occasional
exception of the first two or three rays in the
dorsal or pectorals.

Ventrals wanting ....
Ventrals under the pectorals
Ventrals behind the pectorals

Apoda.

Sub-bracJiiati.

Abdominales.

244

245

Tribe I. Apoda.

Ventrals wanting ; form snake-like.

Artimodytes (Linn.). Laiince. Gill-orifices large ;
dorsal nearly the whole length ; anal nearly half
as long ; caudal distinct and separate.

A. Tobianus.

lancea. Fig. 245 ; ^n.s.

m2

164

PISCES.

EcModon (Thompson). Jaws furnislied with
large cylmdrical teeth in front ; small teeth on the
palate and vomer ; body smooth, compressed ;
gill-orifices large ; dorsal and anal nearly as long
as the body, united behind, vent close to the head.

E. Driimmondii. Fig. 246 ; ^ ti. s.

247

248

OpMdium (Linn.). As EcModon, but the jaws
armed with small teeth ; the anal fin only half the
wdiole length, and the vent near the middle of the
body.

0. imberbe. Fig. 247 ; ^n.s.
barbatum.

APODA.

165

Leptocephalus (Pennant) . Morris. Head minute ;
body very thin, translucent ; pectorals minute ;
dorsal and anal as in Ophidium.

L. Morrisii. Fig, 248 ; \ n.s.

Murcena (Linn.). No pectorals ; dorsal and anal
very low, united beliind ; gill-opening minute ; a
single row of sharp teeth in each jaw.

M. Helena. Fig. 249 ; ^i n- s.

249

250

Anguilla (Cuv.). Eel. Body cylindrical, long,
mucous, with minute imbedded scales ; dorsal and
anal united behind ; teeth in both jaws, and on
the vomer.

A. acutirostris. Fig. 250 ',\n.s.
latirostris.
conger.

166

PISCES.

Tribe II. Sub-brachiati.

Ventrals beneath tlie pectorals ; suspended from
the shoulder-bones.

Ventrals united into a sucking

disk Cyclopterida.

Ventrals separate :

Head furnished with a sucking disk Echeneidce.
Eyes on one side of the head ; body

flat, unsymmetrical Pleuronectidce.

Form ordinary, symmetrical . . Gadidm.

.... .. Ooo'o VJ\

2S1

Family I. Cyclopterid^.

Ventrals and pectorals united to form either one
or two circular disks, beneath the body, with the
power of adhering to foreign bodies.

Cyclojjterus (Linn.). Lump-fish. Bodj deep,
with a ridge on the back ; two dorsals ; first dorsal
concealed within the skin ; pectorals and ventrals
united into a sinsfle disk.

C. lumpus. Fig. 251 ; |- n. s.

ECHENEIDiE.

167

Lijmris (Flem.). Sea-snail. Body lengthened,
mucous, without scales ; one long dorsal ; pectorals
and ventrals forming a single disk.

L. vulgaris.

Montagui. Fig. 252 ; n. s.

252

Lepidog aster (Flem.). Sucker. Nearly as Li-
parts, but the dorsal is shorter, far behind ; pectorals
and ventrals forming two disks.

L. Cornubiensis. Fig. 253 ; n. s.
bimaculatus.

253

Family II. Echeneid^.

Crown of the head covered with an oblong flat
disk, capable of adhering to foreign bodies, and
formed of two rows of transverse moveable plates,
directed backward ; body lengthened ; one dorsal
placed far behind.

168

PISCES.

EcTieneis (Linn.). Remora. Characters as above.
E. remora. Fig. 254 ; ^ n. s.

254

Family III. Pleuronectid^.

{Flat-fishes.)

Greatlj compressed, always resting on one side,
which is destitute of colour ; head unsymmetrical ;
eyes both on the same (the upper and coloured)
side ; dorsal extending along the whole back ; anal
nearly as long, on the opposite edge ; air-bladder
wanting ; six gill-rays.

255

Solea [QviY.). Sole. Eyes on the right side;
mouth twisted on the opposite side ; teeth in both
jaws, but only on the left side ; body long-oval.

S. vulgaris. Fig. 255 ; j n. s.
pegusa.

PLEURONECTIDiE.

169

MonocMrus (Cuv.). Pectorals minute, especially
the left; which is sometimes wanting ; otherwise as
Solea.

M. lingula. Fig. 256 ; \n. s.
linguatula.

256

257

Rhomhus (Cuv.). Turhot. Eyes on the left
teeth in the jaws and throat ; dorsal commencing
in front of the eyes.

E.. maximus.
vulgaris,
hirtus.

punctatus. Fig. 257 ; n. s.
megastoma.
arnaglossus.

170

PISCES.

Hi]pj)oglossus (Cuv.). Holihut. Eyes on the
right ; dorsal and anal commencing behind the
head.

H. vulgaris. Fig. 258 ; -^ n.s.

258

259

Platessa (Cuv.). Plaice, Flounder, Dab. Eyes
on the right ; dorsal commencing over the eyes,
extending (as also the anal) nearly to the caudal ;
both fins generally dilated in the middle, giving a
rhombic form to the fish.

P. vulgaris.

P. limandoides

flesus. Fig. 259 ; \ n. s.

pola.

limauda.

elongata.

Isevis.

GADIDiE.

171

Family IV. Gadid^.

Body long, covered witli soft small scales ; liead
naked ; fins soft ; for the most part two or even
three dorsals, and two anals ; teeth in rows in the
jaws and vomer ; seven gill-rays.

Raniceps (Cuv.). Tadpole-fish. Head large,
flat ; body compressed ; two dorsals, the first very
minute, the second long ; ventrals long.
E. trifurcatus. Fig. 260 ; \ n. s.

250

261

Fhy cis {Ciiv.). Forked-beard. Body long ; two
dorsals, the first short, pointed, the second long ;
a single long, forked ray in each ventral.
P. furcatus. Fig. 261 ; |- n.s.

172

PISCES.

Brosynius (Cuv.). Torsh. A single lengthened
dorsal ; ventrals fleshy.

B. vulgaris. Fig. 262 ; \n.s.

262

26;

264

Motella (Cuv.). Rochling. Two dorsals, the first
low, and exceedingly delicate ; filaments on the
upper as well as the lower jaw.

M. vulgaris. Fig. 263 ; J n. s. M. glauca.
cimbria. argenteola.

quinquicirrata.

Lota (Cuv.). Ling. Body long; two dorsals,
both fleshy, and one anal ; lower jaw with a fila-
ment.

L. molva. Fig. 264 : Jg- n. s.

GADID^.

173

Merlucuis (CuY.). Hake. Body long ; head flat ;
no filament.

M. vulgaris. I'ig. 265 ; ^ n. s.

^

265

266

267

Merlangus (Cuv.). WJiitiiig.
two anals ; no filament.

M. vulgaris. Fig. 266 ; ^ n. s.
albus.
carbonarius.

Three dorsals and

M. pollachius.
virens.

174 PISCES.

Morrhua (Cuv.). Cod, Three dorsals and two
anals ; a filament on the chin.

M. vulgaris. M, lusca. Yig. 2Q1 \ '^ n.s.

callarias. minuta.

seglefinus.

Tkibe III. Abdominales.

Ventrals behind the pectorals, not attached to
the bones of the shoulder, but suspended from the
abdomen.

One dorsal, near the middle of the back ChpeadiS.
One dorsal, far behind, opposite to the

anal I]socidce.

Two dorsals SalmonidcB.

Family I. Clupead^.

Form graceful ; body clothed with large scales,
usually forming a saw-like edge along the belly ;
one dorsal fin, of the ordinary structure, near the
middle of the back.

Clupea (Linn.). Herring, Pilchard. Body com-
pressed ; scales large, thin, easily removed ; mouth
of moderate size, upper lip entire.

C. harengus. Fig. 268 ; \ n. s.
Leachii.
pilchardus.
sprattus.
alba.

CLUPEAD^.

175

Alosa (Cuv.). Shad. As Clupea, but the
upper lip deeply notched.

A. finta. Fig. 269 ; I ?i. s.
communis.

269

270

Engraidis (Cuv.). Anchovy, Head pointed ;
mouth very wide ; gill-openings very large ; abdo-
men smooth.

E. encrasicliolus. Fig. 270 ; \n.s.

176

PISCES.

Family II. Salmonid^.

Body graceful, clotlied witli scales ; two dorsals ;
the first formed of soft rays ; the second minute,
without rays, formed of skin enclosing fatty sub-
stance {adipose).

Bcopelus (Cuv.). Argentine. Body long, slender ;
second dorsal almost obliterated ; mouth wide.

S. Humboldtii. Fig. 271 ; n. s.

271

"o O o O O O 0

°/° o o o o Q o o o n"^

272

Osmerus (Cuv.). Smelt. Characters those of
Salmo, but the body is more slender ; there are
two rows of teeth on each palate-bone, but only a
few at the very front of the vomer.

O. eperlanus. Fig. 272 ; ^n.s.
Hebridicus.

ESOCIDiE.

177

Salmo (Linn.). Salmon, Sc, Head smooth;
body scaled ; teeth in the maxillaries, inter-maxil-
laries, palatals, and mandibularies, and two rows
on the vomer, the tongue, and the throat.

S. salar.
eriox.
trutta. Fig. 273 ; ^n.s.

273

274

Family III. Esocid^.

Body generally lengthened, flattened on the
back, tapering abruptly; one dorsal, placed far
back, and corresponding in form and position to
the anal ; lower jaw generally projecting.

N

178

PISCES.

Exocoetus (JLinn.). Flying -Jisli. Head and body
scaled; pectorals nearly as long as tlie body; head
flat, somewhat square in outline.

E. volitans.

exiliens. Fig. 274 ; ^n.s.

Belone (Cuv.). Garfish. Body long and slender,
covered with minute scales ; head smooth ; both
jaws prolonged into long slender beaks ; dorsal
and anal entire.

B. vulgaris. Fig. 275 ; \n.s.

275

276

277

Scomheresox (Cuv.). Saiiry Pike, As Belone,
but the dorsal and anal are cut into a number ot
small triangular finlets.

S. saurus. Fig. 276 ;ln.s.

ACANTHOPTERYGII. 179

Hemiramplius (Ciiv.). Half-heah. As Belone,
"but the lower jaw alone is prolonged into a beak.

H. Europseus. Fig. 277 ; n. s.

Order IV. ACANTHOPTERYGII,

Jaws free ; gills comb-like ; gill-covers and ori-
fices generally large ; first rays of the dorsal, pec-
torals, and anal, and generally the first ray of each
ventral, unjointed, inflexible, and spinous.

Yentrals behind the pectorals :

Jaws forming a tube Fistnlariadis.

Lips thick, fleshy.

One dorsal Lahridae,

Two dorsals Mugilida.

Ventrals before the pectorals :

Wrist-joint of pectorals exterior Lophiadce.
Rays of dorsal flexible .... Gobiadce.
Body thin, ribbon-like .... Cepoladce.

Ventrals generally below the pectorals :*

Rays of dorsal always exposed . Scomhridce.
Rays of dorsal clothed with scales Chcetodoniidae.
Spinous rays of dorsal falling into
a groove.
Gill-covers unarmed .... Sparidce.
Gill-covers toothed.

Head covered with bony

plates Trigladte.

Head not plated.

No teeth on the palate . Scianadts.
Teeth on the palate . . Percadce.

* In Gasterostetis they are behind, and in Cottus and Trachimis,
before the pectorals.

n2

180

PISCES.

Family I. Fistulaeiad^.

Bones of the head projecting into a long tube,
at the tip of which is the small mouth.

Centriscus (Linn.). Snipe-fish. Body ovate,
compressed ; two dorsals.

C. scolopax. Fig. 278]; |- n. s.

278

279

Family II. Labrid^.

Body ohlong, clothed with large scales ; one
dorsal, frequently with membranous appendages ;
lips thick and fleshy ; teeth large, conical.

LABRID^.

181

Labrus (Linn.). Wrasse. Cheeks and gill-
covers clothed with scales ; gill-covers smooth at
the edges ; three spines in the anal.

L. maculatus.

Donovani. Fig. 279 ; J 7i. s.

mixtus.

trimaculatus.

comber.

280

Crenilahrus (Cuv.). As Lahrus, but the gill-
covers have toothed edges.

C. melops.

Norvegicus. Fig. 280 )^ n.s.

pusillus.

rupestris.

182

PISCES.

Acantholabrus (Cuv.). Fore gill-cover toothed ;

six spines in the anal.

A. Couchii.
Yarrellii.
exoletus. Fig. 281 ; ^n.s.

JuUs (Eisso). Cheeks and gill-covers without
scales ; otherwise as Labrus.

J. Mediterranea. Fig. 282 •j'^ n.s.

282

283

Family III. Lophiad^.

Body usually grotesque, without scales, irregu-
larly clouded or spotted; head and gape very
large, furnished with spines and filaments ; wrist-
bones of pectorals external to the body, causin
these fins to resemble the fore-legs of a quadruped.

o*

GOBIADiE. 183

LojyMus (Linn.). Frog-fish. Head enormous,
depressed; mouth deeply cleft; jaw fringed with
fleshy filaments ; two dorsals, with several slender
free spines erect on the head ; gill-openings under
the pectorals.

L. piscatorius. Fig. 283 ; ^g- n. s.

Family IV. Gobiad^.

Body thick, tapering to the tail, secreting a
slimy mucus ; a single lengthened dorsal or two ;
the spinous rays unusually slender and flexible ;
ventrals before the pectorals, composed of two or
three rays, or united into a sucking cup, or wanting.

Callionymus (Linn.). Dragonet. Head large,
flat ; eyes on the summit ; gill-openings mere
holes in the neck ; two dorsals ; ventrals under the
throat, separate, very large ; all the fins greatly
developed ; body without scales.

C. lyra.

dracunculus." Fig. 284 ; ^- n. s.

Gobius (Linn.). Goby. Ventrals united into a
cup-shaped disk ; two dorsals ; body clothed with
large scales.

G. niger. G. gracilis.

Ruthensparri. Fig. 285 ; n. s. unipunctatus.
minutus, albus.

184

PISCES.

Blennius (Linn.). Blenny. Head large, blunt,
with an abrupt profile ; usually armed with fringed
appendages ; a single lengthened dorsal ; ventrals
formed of two rays, free.

B. Montagui.

ocellaris.^ Fig. 286 ; ^n.s.

gattorugine.

pholis.

Yarrellii.

285

286

Mu7'ceno{des (Lacep.). Gunnel. Head small;
body thin, long, ribbon-like ; a low dorsal extend-
ing the whole length ; ventrals each a very minute
spine.

M. guttata. Fig. 287 ; ^r,.s.

MUGILID^.

185

Zoarces (Cuv.). Eel-pout. A.^ Blenniiis, but the
dorsal and anal are continuous with the caudal.
Z. viviparus. Fig. 288 ; \ n. s.

AnarrMcas (L\rm.). Wolf-Jisli. As Blennms, hut
with the ventrals entirely wanting; face round,
cat-like ; teeth strong and pointed.
A. lupus. Fig. 289 ; ^ n. s.

287

288

<

289

Family V. Mugilid^.

Body ohlong, more or less cylindrical, clothed
with large strongly-marked scales ; head depressed,
covered with large plates ; lips thick ; eyes large ;
two dorsals, short, remote from each other ; ven-
trals behind the pectorals.

186

PISCES.

Mugil (Linn.). Mullet. Under jaw with a central

projection, whicli is received into a groove in tlie

upper.

M. capito.

chelo. Fig. 290 ; \n.s.
curtus.

Atherina (Linn.). 8and Smelt, Moutli protrac-
tile, simple, not thickened ; a broad silvery band
along each side.

A. presbyter. Fig. 291 ; ^n.s.

290

291

Family VL Cepolad^.

Body long, flattened sidewise, like a ribbon,
with minute scales ; ventrals usually before the
pectorals, sometimes wanting.

CEPOLAD^.

187

Cejpola (Linn.). Band-fish. Body blade-like,
long, gradually decreasing in depth from the head
to the tail ; mouth oblique ; dorsal and anal run-
ning nearly the whole length ; pectorals, ventrals,
and caudal minute.

C. rubescens. Fig. 292 ; \ n.s.

292

^^-^^^^^^^^^-?^^?v?%f^=^^^^f^g^^£^^^saa

293

Gymnetrus (Bloch). Body thin, long, without
an anal ; ventrals each of two long slender rays,
dilated at the tips ; head crowned with tall, slender,
erect filaments.

G. Hawkenii.

Banksii. Fig. 293 ; -^q n. s.
glesne.

188

PISCES.

Lepidojms (Cuv.). Scahhard-fish. Body blade-
like; head long, pointed; dorsal extending the
whole length ; anal moderately short ; caudal
forked ; ventrals represented by two minute scales.

L. argyreus. Fig. 294 ; Jg- n. s.

Tricliiurus (Linn.). Hair-tail. As Lepidopus,
but ventrals, anal, and caudal are wholly wanting,
the tail passing into a long fine point.

T. lepturus. Fig, 295 ; ^n.s.

295

296

TracIiyiJterus (Cuv.). Vaagmaer. Body length-
ened, blade-like ; dorsal extending the whole
length ; ventrals delicate, long ; pectorals small ;
anal wanting ; caudal set on obliquely.

T. Bogmarus. Fig. 296 ; -^n.s.

SCOMBRIDiE.

189

Family YII. Scombrid^.

Body commonly ovate, often compressed ; scales
minute or invisible ; fins strongly developed ; pec-
torals nsii ally long, narrow, and pointed; generally
two dorsals, of which the first contains spinous
rays, sometimes greatly lengthened ; caudal gene-
rally forked.

Zeus (Linn.). Dory. Body short, greatly com-
pressed, without scales ; two dorsals scarcely sepa-
rate, the first carrying long threads ; mouth capable
of great protrusion ; a row of spinous scales on
each side of the base of the dorsal and anal.
Z. faber. Fig. 297 ; -| n. s.

297

Capros (Lacep.). Boar-fish. As Zeus, but clothed
with scales ; no accessory threads to the dorsal, and
no spines along its base.

C. aper. Fig. 298

n. s.

190

PISCES.

Lampris (Cuv.). OpaJi. Body oval, compressed ;
one dorsal, mucli elevated and pointed in front ;
ventrals, pectorals, and lobes of the caudal long,
curved, and pointed.

L, guttatus. Fig. 299 ; •^j n. s.

298

299

SCOMBRID^.

191

Caranx (Lacep.). Scad. Body scaled ; lateral
ine formed of broad keeled scales ; two dorsals ;
ree spines in front of anal.

0. trachurus. Fig. 300 ; \ n. s.

300

302

Centrolophus (Cuv.). Blach-fisli. Body covered
with minute scales ; one long, low dorsal.

C. pompilus. Fig. 301 ; -^n.s.

192

PISCES.

Naucrates (Cuv.). Pilot-fish. As in Centrolophus,
but there are free spines before tKe dorsal and anal ;
sides of the tail keeled.

N. ductor. Fig. 302 ; 1 71. s.

Xipliias (Linn.). Swordfish, One dorsal very-
high in front ; ventrals wanting ; anal large ;
caudal high, and crescent-shaped ; upper jaw pro-
longed into a hard sword-like beak.

X. gladius. Fig. 303 ; ^n.s.

303

304

Scomber (Linn.). Mackerel. Body gracefully
shaped, smooth, brilliant, clothed with minute
scales ; two dorsals remote from each other ; second
dorsal and anal cut into triangular finlets j tail
crescent-shaped.

S. scombrus. Fig. 304 ; 1 71. s.
colias.

Tliynnus (Cuv.). Tunny. Large scales on the

SCOMBRID^.

193

throat ; first dorsal reaching nearly to the second ;
otherwise as Scomber,

T. vulgaris.

pelamys. Fig. 305 ; ^ n. s.
sarda.

;f06

Ocynus (Cuv.). As TJiynnus, but the pectorals
very long, reaching beyond the vent.
0. alalonga. Fig. 306 ; \ n. i*.
0

194

PISCES.

Alexis (Ciiv.). Large scales on tlie breast as in
Thynnus, but the dorsals remote as in Scomber.

A. vulgaris. Fig. 307 ; ^ n.s.

Family YIII. Cn^TODONTiDiE.

Body mucli compressed, very liigli ; dorsal and
anal fins clothed with scales.

Brama (Cuv.). Profile deep, abrupt ; slender
curved teeth in the jaws and palate ; caudal high,
narrow, crescent-shaped.

B, Eaii. Fig. 308 ; J^ n. s.
pinnasquamata.

308

Family IX. Spaetd^.

Body ovate, rather deeper than wide ; a single
dorsal, not scaled, falling into a groove on the
back ; gill-covers neither spinous nor notched ;
mouth not protrusile.

SPARID^.

195

Cantliarus (Cuv.). Teetli crowded, curved, placed
like the prickles of a card round tlie jaws ; mouth
small.

C. griseus. Fig. 309 ; ^ n. s.

309

310

Dentex (Cuv.). Teeth conical, placed in a single
row, the front ones larger, hooked inwards ; a space
beneath eyes and on muzzle free from scales.

D. vulgaris. Fig. 310 ; \ n.s.

Pagellus (Cuv.). Sea-hream. Teeth in front
conical, slender, numerous ; sides of jaws set with

0 2

196

PISCES.

flat molars like paving-stones, three rows above
and two below.

P. erythrinus.
acarne.
centrodontus. Fig. 311 ; ^n,s.

311

312

Pagrus (Cuv.). Braize. Four or six strong
conical teeth in front, succeeded by small ones;
two rows only of rounded molars in each jaw.

P. vulgaris. Fig. 312 ; \ n. s.
Chrysoplirysi^wN.). Gilt-head. Six conical teeth

SCI^NAD^.

197

in eacli jaw in front ; molars in four rows above
and three below.

C. aurata. Fig. 313 ; J n, s.

314

Family X. Sci^nad^.

Body ovate, ratlier deep ; dorsal grooved ; gill-
covers spined ; fore gill-covers toothed ; teeth in
the jaws, but none in the vomer or palate ; seven
gill-rays.

Scicena (Linn.). Maigre. Head inflated with
cavernous bones ; two dorsals ; spines of the anal
slender ; head covered with scales ; a row of strong
teeth in each jaw.

S. aquila. Fig. 314 ; -^ n.s.

198

PISCES.

Umhrina (Ciw.). As Scicena, but the spines of
the anal are stout and sharp ; the teeth are small
and numerous ; and there is a filament on the chin.

U. cirrosa. Fig. 315 ; ^n.s.

315

Family XI. Teiglad^.

Head and face encased in a bony buckler of
plates soldered together, often studded with spines;
the bone beneath the eye (suh-orhifal) greatly di-
lated, so as to cover the cheek, and jointed to the
gill-cover ; fins generally well developed.

Gasterosteus (Linn.). Stichlehach. Without scales,
but covered more or less with broad plates on the
sides ; one dorsal, with free spinous rays in front ;
ventrals (each consisting of a single spine) behind
the pectorals.

G. trachurus.
semiarmatus.
leiurus.
brachycentrus.
pungitius. Fig. 316 ; n. s.
spinachia.

TEIGLAD^.

199

Sehastes (Cuv.). Norway Haddock. Plates of tlie
head scaled ; one long dorsal, of whicli the first
half is spinous ; eyes very large ; teeth small,
numerous.

S. Norvegiciis. Fig. 317 ; \n.s.

316

318

Cottus (Linn.). Bidl-head. Head large, de-
pressed ; teeth in both jaws and in the vomer j

200

PISCES.

gill-covers spinous ; gill- orifices large ; gill-rays
six ; body slender, without scales ; two dorsals.

C. scorpius.

bubalis. Fig. 318 ; ^ n.s.
quadricornis.

As^idop7io7'us [CwY.). Pogge. Body eiglit-angled,
enclosed in plates ; recurved spines on the snout ;
teeth only on the jaws ; lower jaw fringed.

A, cataphractus. Fig. 319 ; I- n. s.

319

320

TriglaiJAmi.). Gurnard. Head four-sided; sub-
orbital plate very large ; gill-cover and shoulder-
plate ending in spines ; three free rays beneath
the pectorals ; two dorsals ; body clothed with
small scales.

T. cuculus. Fig. 320 ; '^ n. s.
lineata.
hirundo.
pseciloptera.

T. lyra.

gurnardus.

Blocliii.

lucerna.

PERCAD^.

201

Peristedion (Ciw.). As Tngla, but tlie body is
encased in hexagonal plates; and tlie snout runs
out in two points ; no teeth.

P. cataphracta. Fig. 321 ; ^ n.s.

321

Family XII. Peecad^.

Body oblong, usually deep in the middle, clothed
with rough scales ; gill-covers armed with spines,
or cut into teeth; both pairs of jaws, palate, and
vomer set with teeth, which are usually minute
and close like the pile of velvet ; sub-orbitals con-
nected with the temporal bones, and not with the
gill-covers.

Mullns (Linn.). Surmullet. Head and fore parts
thick ; profile abrupt, nearly vertical ; lower jaw
carrying two filaments ; gill-cover scaly, without
spines ; two dorsals.

M, surmuletus. Fig, 322 ; \ n.s.
barbatus.

TracMnus (iAww.). Weever. Compressed; eyes
near together ; mouth oblique ; gill-cover ending

202

PISCES.

in a strong spine; two dorsals, the first small,
formidably spinous, tlie second long ; anal equally

long.

T. draco. Fig. 323 ; J n. s.
vipera.

^^^3^5

323

324

Serranus (Cuv.). Sea Perch. One long dorsal,
of wliich the fore half is spinous ; gill -covers and
cheeks scaled; gill-cover ending in several flattened

PERCAD^.

203

spines ; fore gill-cover minutely notched ; some

long teetli among the small ones.

S. cabrilla. Fig. 324 ; ^ n.s.
gigas.

Poly prion (Cuv.). Nearly as Serranus, but the
gill-cover has a bony ridge ending in a single
spine ; its lower edge, as well as the fore gill-
cover, the sub -orbital, and two arched ridges over
the eye, are notched ; the spinous rays of the
dorsal, anal, and ventrals, are also notched along

one edge.

P. cernium. Fig. 325 ; ^ n. s.

325

Labr ax [QiUY.). Basse, Two dorsals ; teeth on
the jaws, vomer, palate, and tongue ; gill-cover
ending in two spines ; fore gill-cover notched.
L. lupus. Fig. 326 ; \ n. s.

204

Class v.* MAMMALIA.
(Mammals.)

The peculiarity wliicli is most distinctive of this
Class, — the most exalted of all living creatm-es, —
is that its members bring forth living young,
which they suckle and thus nourish in the period
of early infancy with a fluid secreted in the body
of the mother.

The blood is warm, circulating in closed vessels ;
the whole quantity is sent from the heart to the
lungs, a spongy mass of minute cells in the cavity
of the body, communicating with the external air.
Over the surface of these cells the blood-vessels
ramify, their coats becoming so thin as to admit
the union of the oxygen with the contained blood,
the result of which is an instantaneous change of
its colour from dark-red to vivid scarlet. This
renewed blood is now returned by another set of
vessels to the heart, whence it is ejected into the
arteries, which, large at first, but branching with
innumerable ramifications, convey it to every part
of the body, at length transferring it through
tubes {ca2nllaries) of excessive minuteness into
the veins. These now carry it back to the heart,
whence it is again pumped, as it were, into the
luncjs again. The heart is thus composed of four

* Of the intervening Classes, — Amphibia, Eeptilia, and
AvES,— Eeptilia is the only one which includes marine species;
and of these none can properly be considered as British.

MAMMALIA. 205

chambers, two auricles and two ventricles, wliicli
receive the blood in the following succession : —

Lungs.

Veins.
Left auricle.
Left ventricle.

Arteries.

Capillaries.

Veins.
Eight auricle.
Right ventricle.

Ai'teries.

Lungs.

In general, the animals of this Class are furnished
with two pairs of limbs, fitted for walking on the
solid ground ; but those which we have to notice
are adapted for aquatic life, and hence their
structure is modified with a view to this adapta-
tion. The Seals, which possess the usual number
of limbs, have them shortened, enveloped in skin,
and so placed as to perform the office of fins rather
than legs, as indeed they resemble in appearance
those fish-like organs. But in the Whales, the
fore limbs are still more decided fins, wliile the
hinder extremities are wholly wanting, their place
being supplied by a broad horizontal caudal-fin:
many of the species are also furnished with a proper
dorsal.

Notwithstanding this fish-like form, however,
the Whales and Dolphins have no real affinity
with Fishes, but are true Mammalia ; bringing
forth living young, nourishing them with milk,
having warm blood, a perfect circulation, and
breathing air by means of internal lungs.

Localities, &c. — The Seals are found on the
wildest, most rocky, and least frequented coasts,

206 MAMMALIA.

especially tliose wliicli are indented witli caverns,
to wliicli tliese animals delight to resort, and in
wliicli tliey congregate. They may often be seen
off the shore, in summer weather, playing in the
sea. The various species of Whales and Dolphins
are dwellers in the broad ocean, usually associating
in herds, and approaching the shore only by
accident ; the smaller kinds frequently ascend our
tidal rivers, and the Whales are not rarely seen to
enter bays and harbours, especially on the northern
and western shores, where they are sometimes
stranded.

Identification. — The presence of hind limbs ;
their structure ; the comparative size of the head ;
its prolongation into a snout ; the presence of a
dorsal ; the number and arrangement of the teeth,
— are the points which principally require notice
in the determination of the species.

Authorities. — Professor Bell's " History of
British Quadrupeds," M. Fred. Cuvier's " Historie
Naturelle des Cetacees," and the volumes on Seals
and Whales in Jardine's " Naturalist's Library,"
have afforded me materials for the following
enumeration.

MA]\[MALIA.

Vertebrate animals having warm blood ; breath-
ing by means of lungs ; bringing forth living young,
which are suckled and nourished with milk.

Order CETACEA.

Form fish-like ; skin naked ; fore limbs short ;
bones of the hand concealed in a skinny fin with-

BALiENADiE. 207

out claws ; hind limbs wanting ; tail terminated
by a broad cartilaginous fin, set on horizontally;
windpipe opening at the summit of the head by
one or two hloic-holes.

Head enormously large.

Muzzle rounded ; upper jaw fringed . Balanada.
Muzzle truncate ; upper jaw simple . Fhi/seterid<s.

Head moderate DelpUnidce.

Family I. BAL^NADiE.

Head disproportionately large, with a sloping,
rounded muzzle ; upper jaws fringed with trans-
verse plates of a horny substance [lohalebone) ;
both jaws destitute of teeth; blow-hole single.

Balcenoiotera (Lacep.) Rorqual. A small dorsal
near the tail ; throat and belly wrinkled with deep
folds. (The largest of known animals.)

B. rostrata. Fig. 327 ; 3^ n. s.

327

Balmia (Linn.). Right-ivMe, No dorsal; belly
smooth ; whalebone very deep.

B. mysticetus. Fig. 328 ; ^lo ^^- ^'

208

MAMMALIA.

Family II. Physeterid^.

Head enormouS; terminating in an abrupt,
square muzzle ; lower jaw narrow, pointed, armed
with stout conical teetli ; upper jaw destitute of
teetli and whalebone ; blow-hole single.

Pliyseter (Linn.). Sperm-icJiale. The only genus ;
characters those of the family.

P. macrocephalus. Fig. 329 ; 2^0"
tui'sio.

n. s.

328

329

Family III. Delphinid^.

Head of moderate size, often prolonged into a
beak ; both jaws commonly furnished with teeth,
which are numerous, and conical in form; no whale-
bone plates ; blow-hole single, crescent-shaped.

Monodon (Linn.). Narwhal. No teeth, except a

DELPHINID^.

209

pair of tusks in the upper jaw, only one of which
is usually developed, projecting as a straight
twisted ivory horn of great length ; no dorsal.

M. monoceros. Fig. 330 ; g^^ n. s.

Diodon (Less.). Two small teeth in front of the
lower jaw, which is projecting and convex ; fore-
head low ; one dorsal.

D. Sowerbyi. Fig. 331 ; g^ n. s.

330

■ ^ ^^^>^^rii '

331

Hyperoodon (Lacep.). Bottle-nose. Forehead
high and round ; muzzle a short beak ; otherwise
as Diodon.

H. bidentatus. Fig. 332 ; ^ ti. s.

Beluga (Less.). White Whale. Head blunt, un-
beaked ; nine teeth on each side in each jaw ; no
dorsal.

B. leucas. Fig. 333 ; -^j^ n. s.

210

MAMMALIA.

Pliocaina (Ciiv.). Porpoise. Head blunt, im-
beaked ; teeth various in "both jaws ; a dorsal
placed far back.

P. communis. Fig. 334 ; -^ n.s.
orca.
melas.

333

334

Beliylihiorliynchus (Blainv.). A lengthened beak,
not separated from the forehead by a groove ; a
small dorsal.

D. micropterus. Fig. 335 ; ^ n. s.

PHOCAD^,

211

Ddjphinus (Linn.). BolpMn. Forehead round ;
a lengthened slender beak, separated by a distinct
eroove ; dorsal near the middle of the back.

D. delphis.
tursio.

Fig. 336

36" ^' *•

335

836

Order CARNIVORA,

Cutting-teeth (usually six) in front in each jaw ;
two stout pointed canines ; and a varying number
of molars, which have cutting edges.

Family Phocad^.

Fore limbs very short, enveloped in the skin,
and reduced to swimming-paws ; hind limbs set
far behind, and directed backward ; the toes con-
nected by wide webs, forming powerful oars; body
covered with dense short fur.

p 2

212

MAMMALIA.

Trichechus (JAxm.) . TF«?rz^5. Lower jaw without
cutting or canine teetli ; canines of the upper jaw
arching downwards, in the form of projecting
tusks ; muzzle greatly enlarged.

T. rosmarus. Fig. 337 ; -^ n.s.

337

338

Halichoeriis (Nilsson). Four cutting- teeth to
each jaw ; molars simple, the lower ones with a
minute knob before and behind ; head flat ; muzzle
deep, obliquely truncate.

H. gryf)]ius. Fig. 338 ; -^^ n. s.

PHOCAD^.

213

Plioca (Linn.). Seal, Six cutting-teeth above
and four below ; molars with a small cutting knob
before the main one, and two behind ; forehead
round and full ; countenance intelligent,

P. Groenlaudica. Fig. 339 ; -^ n. s.
vitulina.
barbata ?
bicolor ?

339

ADDITIONS AND COERECTIONS

TO

PART I.

Pp. 28, 29. Actinia miniata is a Sagartia, not
a Bunodes.

P. 31. After Edwardsia splicer o'ides, add —

E. vestita.
carnea.

P. 31. After line 12, add Actiniadce, ot doubtful

genera : —

A. coccinea.
intestinalis.
biserialis.
vermicularis.

A. digitata.

A^ tuberculata.

Templetonii.

Johnstoni.

BaUii.

Alderi.

pellucida.

Yarrellii.

Bellii.
Anthea Couchii.

plumosa.

See Joliuston's Br. Zooph.
2d Edit.

Alder in litt.

Cocks, in Trans. Royal
f Polyt. Soc. Cornwall.

y

ADDITIONS AND COREECTIONS. 215

P. 73. Add Psolus tenema.

P. 92. After Flemmgia plumosa, add — ^

Crossostoma (Gosse). Upper margin of mouth

set with cirri; segments thirty, the fore ones

furnished with bristles, feet, and superior cirri;

inferior cirri from the fourth segment to the tail,

ear-like, cleft ; eight tentacles on the second and

third segments; tail furnished with a pair of

minute styles.

C. Midas.

P. 94. After Sahella chorama^ add —
Protula (Griibe). Gill-fans two, each composed
of four thick, soft, doubly-pectinate, radiating
stems ; their united base surrounded by a fleshy,
reverted collar ; body flat, divided into thorax and
abdomen, composed of many segments ; inhabiting
a shelly tube, equally thick throughout, open at
each end; many tubes crowded into a contorted
mass, attached to submerged bodies.

P. Dysteri.

P. 103. After Nereis versicolor, add —

CritMda (Gosse). Antennae five, very large,
viz., a frontal pair, which are bulbous at base, and
two-branched, and three occipital ones, which are
very thick, tapering to a blunt point, and long ; a
pair of tentacular cirri on the head ; two large
eyes ; feet ovate, very moveable, each with a
thread-like cirrus above, a pencil of short bristles,
and a second pencil of long straight bristles.

C. thalassina.

216 ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS.

P. 133. After lone thoracicus, add —

Pachyhdella (Diesing). Body a three-sided sac,
containing eggs arranged in bundles, like bunches
of grapes ; intestine passing straight through the
body. Attached by the mouth to the abdomen of
Crabs.

P. carcini. (See Ann. N. H. for Sept. 1855.)

P. 177. After Halacarus ctenoji)uSy add —

Pachygnathus (Dug^s). Palpi thick, conical,
pointed ; mandibles slender, style-shaped ; limbs
as in Halacarus,

P. notops.

P. 179. After line 19, add—

Order THY8ANURA.

No wings ; three pairs of legs ; peculiar organs
for locomotion at the sides or at the extremity of
the body ; no proper metamorphosis.

Family Podurad^.

Feet jointed, lit for walking ; body divided into
head, thorax, and abdomen ; breathing by air-
pipes [tracliece) ; two antennas ; mouth rudimen-
tary ; abdomen composed of six segments, usually
ending in two bristles for leaping, bent under the
body.

Anura (Gervais). Antenna conical, shorter
than the head, composed of four joints ; four pairs
of eyes ; mouth without jaws, placed at the end
of a conical proboscis ; no scales ; no leaping
apparatus ; no terminal points.

A. maritima.

ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS. 217

Order DIPTERA.
One pair of membranous wings.

Tribe Nemocera.

Antennae many-jointed, much longer than the
head ; head small ; body lengthened ; eyes large ;
legs long and slender.

Family Tipulad^.

Proboscis short ; palpi curved downwards.

Chcm'o (Haliday). Proboscis obsolete; antennee
eleven-jointed, the third and eleventh joints long ;
wings not transparent, with two forked veins.

C. marinus.

P. 180 to be cancelled, and the following to be
substituted for it : —

Family I. Harpalid^.

Wing-sheaths sessile, rounded at the tips ; fore
legs deeply notched.

Pogonus (ZeigL). Fore feet [tarsi] with two
dilated joints ; thorax squarish ; upper lip notched.

P. luridipennis.
chalceus.
; littoralis.

Aepus (Leach). Head large, eyes minute, wing-
sheaths flattened; upper jaws projecting, many-
toothed.

A. marinus.
Robynii.

218 ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS.

Family II. Bembidiad^.

Last joint of feelers minute, conical.

Cillenus (Leacli). Slender, flattened ; third joint
of antenna longer than fourth ; fourth joint of foot
[tarsus) spined.

C. lateralis.

Bembidium (Illiger). Thorax heart-shaped,
truncate; eyes extremely prominent; wing-sheaths
rough.

B, concinnum.
scutellare.
ephippium.

Tribe II. Hydrocanthart.

Legs formed for swimming ; hind pair remote
from second, fringed wdth hairs ; body oval,
depressed.

Hydroporus (Clairv.). Fore feet [tarsi) four-
jointed ; hind feet slender, with equal moveable

claws.

H. insequalipes.

Tribe III. RYPOPHAaA.

One feeler to each maxilla ; antenna thickening
towards the tips.

Sub-Tribe I. Philhydrida.

Wing-sheaths covering abdomen ; legs formed
for swimming.

ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS. 219

Heterocerus (Bosc). Body oval; leg-slianks
spined; antennae eleven-jointed, the last seven
joints forming a club; feelers shorter than antennae.

H. obsoletus.
femoralis.
pusillus.

Berosus (Leach). Antennae eight-jointed, the last
three forming a club; wing-sheaths prominent,
much broader than the thorax.

B. spinosus.
luridus.

Sub-Tribe II. Brachelytra.

Wing-sheaths much shorter than abdomen ; legs
formed for running. ^

Family I. Oxytelid^.

Body slender; head projecting; fore-legs spinous ;
ta7^st apparently three-jointed.

Phjtosus (Eudd). Slightly convex ; antenna
elbowed ; thorax flattish, not channelled, spined at
the front angles ; legs downy.

P. spinifer.
nigriventris.

Bledius (Leach). Narrow, convex; fore legs

toothed; antennje elbowed; head and thorax (of

male) horned.

B. tricornis.
arenarius.

Hesperophilus (Steph.). As Bledius, but head
and thorax unarmed.

H. arenarius.

220 ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS.

Family II. Omaliad^.

Body broad and flat : head projecting ; fore legs
smooth; tarsi distmctly five-jointed.

Micralymma (Westw.). Oblong, flattened; wing-
sheaths minute ; abdomen long, much broader than
thorax ; margined ; tarsi fringed with long hairs.

M. marina.

Family III. Tachyporid^.

Head deeply sunk in the thorax ; body short
and thick ; elytra comparatively large.

Dtglossa (Haliday). Antennae with the second
joint very long; maxillae with two very long
lobes ; lower lip with two long slender teeth.

D. mersa.

Homalota (Mann.). Slender, flat; thorax as
broad as head; antennse bead-like; last joint of
tarsi long.

H. ?

?

Tribe IV. Eupoda.

Head and thorax narrower than abdomen ; head
sunk in the thorax to the eyes ; hind thighs long
and thick.

Hmnonia (Latr.). Antennae with the fourth and

fifth joints lengthened ; wing-sheaths terminating

in a minute point.

H. Curtisi.

P. 189. In the List of Illustrations, the num-
bers from 95 to 116a are false: 95 should be 94,
and so on to 116a, which should be 116.

GLOSSARY

^3^^

o

^ H.

'-Vi-

QQ

\ \

4-

v\^

/»«i^C9

L.'

^■

c

>^

./

c>.

OF TECHNICAL TEEMS IN PART II.

Arborescent (page 102). Resembling a tree.

Closely adhering together.

Spreading on solid substances

An outer skin.
Leaf-like.
Containing minute grains in its

Sunk into the common sub-

Coalescent (p. 18),

Encrusting (p. 8).
like a crust.

Epidermis (p. 54).

Foliaceous (p. 12).

Granulated (p. 80)
substance.

Immersed (p. 18).
stance.

Infertile (p. 18). Capable of turning inside out.

Laminated (p. 103). Furnished with thin leaf-like
expansions {lamince).

Medial (p. 8). Passing along the middle.

Papilla (p. 100). A soft fleshy wart.

Polyzoary (p. 7). The united mass of many Polyzoa
organically connected.

Process (p. 103). A portion which proceeds or pro-
jects from the general outline, usually longer and more
slender than a lobe.

222 GLOSSARY.

Froduced (p. 100). Drawn out.

Quincunx (p. 12). The aiTangement of the knots
in a net.

Serrated (p. 156). Notched like a saw.

Striated (p. 59). Marked with fine indented lines.

Thorax (p. 32). The part of the body answering to
the chest. j

Umbilicus (p. 118). The hollow axis of some Gas- i

tropod shells, around which the spire is wound.

Note. — For other technical terms refer to the Glossary in
Part I.

3Cist 0.f Illustrations :

(WITH THE AUTHORITIES WHENCE DERIVED.)

Fig.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.

TuBDLiPORA patina (jiat. size) . .
Diastopora obelia (w. s. & mag.)
Idmonea atlantica {n. s. & mag.) .
Pustulipora probo?ciclea («. s, & mag.)
Alecto dilatans {n. s. k mag.) . .
Crisia denticulata {n. s. & 7nag.) .
Crisidia cornuta (w. s. & mag.) . .
Salicornaria farciminoides {n. s. & mag.)
Cellularia Peachii {n. s. & mag.) .
Menipea ternata (». 5. & mag.) . .
Scrupocellaria scruposa {n. s. & mag.)
Canda reptans {n. s. & mag.) . .
Scruparia chelata (w. s. & mag.)
Salpingia Hassallii (mag.) . . .
Hippothoa divaricata {n. s. & mag.)
jEtea anguinea («. s. & wia^f.) . .
Beania mirabilis {a. s. & mag.) . .
Gemellaria loricata {n. s. & inag )
Notainia bursaria {n. 6: & mag.)
Caberea Hookeri {n. s. & mag.)
Bicellaria ciliata {n, s. & mag.)
Bugula avicularia (n. s. & mag.) .
Flustra papyracea (n. s. & mag.) .
Carbasea papyrea {n. s. & mag.)
Membranipora pilosa (n. s. & mag.)
Lepralia Pallasiana (?i. s. k mag.) .
Cellepora pumicosa {n. s. k mag.) .

Specimen.

Ibid.

Ibid.

Ibid.

Ibid.

Living specimen.

Ibid.

Specimen.

Ibid.

Ibid.

Ibid.

Ibid.

Living specimen.

Coppin.

Specimen.

Living specimen.

Ibid.

Specimen.

Living specimen.

Busk.

Living specimen.

Ibid.

Ibid.

Specimen.

Living specimen.

Specimen.

Living specimen.

224

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

Fig.

28. Escliara foliacea {n. s. & mag) .

29. Retepora cellulosa {n. s & mag.)

30. Alcj'onidium hirsutum {n. s. & mag.)

31. Cycloum papillosum {n. s. & mag.)

32. Sarcocliitum polyoum {n. s. & mag.)

33. Amathia lendigera (n. s. & mag.)

34. Vesicularia spinosa (/?.. «. & wa^/.)

35. Valkeria cuscuta (n. s. & mag.) .

36. Mimosella gracilis {n. s. & ?wag'.)

37. Avenella Dalyellii {mag.) . . .

38. Nolella stipata {n. s. k mag.) .

39. Bowerbankia imbricata {n. s. & mag.

40. Farrella gigantea {n. s. & mag.)

41. Anguinella palmata (mag.) . .

42. Pedicellina Belgica (n. s. & mag.)

43. Aplidium fallax (??. s. Forbes .fc H

44. Sidnyum turbinatum {n. s.).

45. Polycliniim aurantium {n. s.) .

46. Amoeroecium proliferum {n. s. & mag

47. Leptoclinum gelatinosum (n. s.)

48. Distoma rubriim {n. s.) . . .

49. Botryllus polycyclus] (?i. s.). .

50. Botrylloides rubra ] {n. s.) . .

51. Syntethys Hebridicus (J 7i. s.) .

52. Clavelina lepadiforinis {n. s.)

53. Perophora Listeri {n. s. & mag.)

54. Ascidia yirginea {n. s.) . . .

55. Molgula tubulosa {n. s.) . . .
66. Cynthia quadrangularis (??. s.) .

57. Pelonaea corrugata {n. s.1) . .

58. Salpa runcinata {n. s.) . . . .

59. Appendicularia flagellum (mag.)

60. Teredo norvegica (n. s.) . . .

61. Xylopliaga dorsalis {n. s.) . .

62. Plioladidea papyracea (w. s.) , .

63. Pholas parva {n. s.)

mag

)

Specimen.

Ibid.

Living specimen.

Hassall.

Living specimen.

Ibid.

Specimen.

Living specimen.

Hincks.

Thompson.

Living specimen.

Ibid.

Busk.

Ibid.

Living specimen.

Savigny.

Forbes & Hanley.

Ibid.

Living specimen.

Ibid.

Savigny.

Living specimen.

Ibid.

Forbes.

Living specimen.

Ibid.

Ibid.

Forbes & Hanley.

Living specimen.

Forbes k Hanley.

Ibid.

Huxley.

Forbes k Hanley.

Ibid.

Specimen.

Living specimen^

LIST OF ILLUSTEATIONS. 225

Fig.

64, Gastrocbsena modiolina {)i. s.) , . . . Specimen.

65. Saxicava rugosa {n. s.) Living specimen.

66, Pandora obtusa {n. s.) Specimen.

67. Lyonsia ISTorvegica (J n. s.) Ibid.

6S. Tbracia pubescens (^ n. s.) Ibid.

69. Cocblodesma pr^Btenue (w. s.) . . . . Ibid.

70. Panopoea Norvegica (I n. s.) .... Ibid.

71. Poromya granulata {n. s.) Ibid.

72. Nesera cuspidata (n. s.) Ibid.

73. Corbula nucleus {n. s.) Ibid.

74. Spbsenia Bingbami {n. s.) Ibid.

75. JMya truncata (| «. s.) Ibid.

76. Solecurtus Candidas (| n. s.) .... Ibid.

77. Ceratisolen legumen {^ n. s.) . . . . Ibid.

78. Solen siliqua (g w. s.) Living specimen.

79. Donax anatinus (^ n. s.) Specimen.

80. Ervilia castanea {n. s.) Ibid.

81. Scrobicularia piperata {h n. s.) . . . . Ibid.

82. Sy ndosmy a alba (w. s. &Atw^e magr.) . . Ibid.

83. Psammobia Ferroensis (J n. s.) . . . . Ibid.

84. Diodonta fragilis {n. s.) Ibid.

85. Tellina incarnata {n. s.) Ibid.

86. Lutraria elliptica {\ n. s.) Ibid.

87. Mactra stultorum (J w, s,) Ibid.

$,%. Petricola lithophaga in. s.) Ibid.

89. Venerupis irus {n. s.) Ibid.

90. Tapes pullastra {n. s.) Living specimen.

91. Lucinopsis undata (i w.s.) Specimen,

92. Artemis exoleta {I n. s.) Ibid.

93. Cytherea cbione {\n. s.) Ibid.

94. Venus verrucosa {n. s.) Living specimen.

95. Isocardia cor {^n, s.) Specimen.

96. Astarte elliptica {n.s.) Ibid.

97. Circe minima (n, s.) Ibid.

^8. Cyprina Islandica {\n. s.) Ibid.

.99. Galeomma Turtoni {n. s.) Ibid.

Q

226 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

Fig.

100. Lepton squamosuin {n. s.) Ibid.

101. Montacuta substriata {mag. j) . , . . Specimen.

102. Kellia suborbicularis {n. s.) Ibid.

103. Turtonia minuta {mag. f) Ibid.

104. Diplodonta rotimdata (n. s.) . . . , Ibid.

105. Lucina spinifera (| n. s.) Ibid.

106. Cardium echinatum (| n. s.) . . . . Ibid.

107. Leda caudata («. s.) Ibid.

108. Nucula nucleus (n. s.) Ibid.

109. Pectunculus glycimeris (| n. s.) . . . Ibid.

110. Area lactea (n. s.) Ibid.

111. Modiola modiolus (| n. s.) Ibid.

112. Crenella discors {n. s.) Living specimen.

113. Mj^tilus edulis (5 n. s.) Ibid.

114. Pinna pectinata (j n. s.) Specimen.

115. Avicula tarentina (5 n. s.) Ibid.

116. Lima hians {h n. s.) Ibid.

117. Pecten opercularis (5 n. s.) Living specimen.

118. Anemia ephippium (i n. s.) . . . . Ibid.

119. Ostrea edulis (^ n. s.) Specimen.

120. Crania anomala (mag. ^) Ibid.

121. Hj^jothyris psittacea {n. s.) Ibid.

122. Terebratula caput-serpentis {n. s.) . . Ibid.

123. Argiope cistellula (mag. IJ) . . . . Woodward.

124. Hyalea trispinosa (/?. s.) Specimen.

125. Spirialis Flemingii {mag. ^) . . . . Ibid.

126. Clio borealis (n. s.) Gray.

127. Elysia viridis (n. s.) Woodward,

128. Actaeonia corrugata {mag. 1) • • • • Alder &Hancock.

129. Cenia Cocksii {7nag. -5.) Living specimen.

130. Limapontia nigra {inag. ±) Woodward.

131. Eolis coronata {n. s.) Living specimen.

132. Fiona nobilis {^ n. s.) Adams.

133. Embletonia pulcbra (7?ia^. A.) .... Alder & Hancock.

134. Proctonotus mucroniferus {mag. S.) . . Ibid.

135. Antiopa cristata {n. s.) Living specimen.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 227

Fig.

136. Herm?ea bifida (w. s.) Alder & Hancock.

137. Alderia modesta {mag. |.) AVoodward.

138. Tritonia lineata (magr. |) Alder & Hancock.

139. Scyllsea pelagica {mag. f) Cuvier.

140. Dendronotus arborescens {n. s.) . . . Alder & Hancock.

141. Doto coronata {mag. ^) Ibid.

142. Lomanotus marmoratus {mag. 2.) . . Ibid.

143. Doris tuberculata {n. s.) Living specimen.

144. Gouoidoris castanea (wiagr. 2.) .... Alder & Hancock.

145. Triopa clavigera {n. s.) Living specimen.

146. ^girus pimctilucens {n. s.) Ibid.

147. Thecacera pennigera {mag. |.) . . . . Adams.

148. Polycera ocellata {n. s.) Living specimen.

149. Idalia aspersa (ma^r. 3.) Alder & Hancock.

150. Ancula cristata {n. s.) Living specimen.

151. Runcina Hancocki {mag. |-) .... Ibid.

152. Diphyllidia lineata (| n. s.) Cuvier.

153. Pleurobranchus plumula {n. s.) . . . Living specimen.

154. Aplysia punctata (| ri. s.) Ibid.

155. Philine aperta {n. s.) Ibid.

156. Scaphander lignarius (J n. s.) . . . . Specimen.

157. AmpMsphyra hyalina (?i. 5.) .... Forbes & Hanley.

158. Cylichna cylindracea {n. s.) .... Specimen.

159. Acera bullata {n. s.) Ibid.

160. Bulla liydatis {n. s.) Living specimen.

161. Tornatella fasciata {n. s.) Specimen.

162. Chiton cinereus {n. s.) Living specimen.

163. Dentalium entalis (». s.) Specimen.

164. Patella vulgata {n. s.) Living specimen.

165. Acmsea testudinalis {n. s.) Specimen.

166. Calyptraea Sinensis (w. s.) Ibid.

167. Pileopsis Hungaricus (J n. s.) . . . . Ibid.

168. Fissurella reticulata (| n. s.) . . . . Living specimen.

169. Puncturella JS'oachina {71. s.) . . . . Specimen.

170. Emarginula reticulata {mag. h) . . . Living specimen.

171. Haliotis tuberculata {I n. s.) . . . . Specimen.

Q 2

228 LIST OF ILLUSTEATIOXS.

Fig.

172. Scissurella crispata {mag. ^) . . . . Specimen.

173. lanthina communis (n. s.) Ibid.

174. Phasianella pullus {mag. ^) .... Living specimen.

175. Trochus ziziphinus {n. s.) Ibid.

176. Adeorbis subcarinata {mag. ^) . . . Specimen.

177. Littorina littoiea {n. s.) Living specimen.

178. Lacuna vincta {n. s.) Ibid.

179. Eissoa parva [mag. ^) Ibid.

180. Jeflfreysia opalina {mag. ^) Specimen.

181. Skenea planorbis {mag. |-) Living specimen.

182. Truncatella Montagui {n. s.) . . . . Specimen.

183. Scaiaria communis (w. s.) Ibid.

184. Coecum glabrum {mag. ^) Ibid.

185. Aclis asearis {mag. A) Ibid.

186. Turritella communis {n. s.) Living specimen.

187. Aporrliais pes-pelicani {n. s.) . . . . Specimen.

188. Ceritliium reticulatum {mag. ^) . . . Living specimen.

189. Cerithiopsis tubercularis {mag. ^) . . Specimen.

190. Stylina Turtoni {mag. ^) Ibid.

191. Eulima polita {n. s.) Ibid.

192. Chemnitzia elegantissima {mag. ^) . . Ibid.

193. Eulimella acicula {7nag. j) Ibid.

194. Odostomia conoidea {mag. -^) . . . . Ibid.

195. Velutina laevigata {71. s.) Living specimen.

196. Otina otis {mag. A) Specimen.

197. Lamellaria perspicua {n. s.) Living specimen.

198. Natica monilifera (| w. s.) Specimen.

199. Ovulum patulum {n. s.) Ibid.

200. Cyprsea Europaea {71. s.) Living specimen.

201. Marginella Isevis {n. s.) Specimen.

202. Pleurotoma rufa {71. s.) Ibid.

203. Purpura lapillus {)i. s.) Living specimen.

204. Nassa reticulata {71. s.) Ibid.

205. Buccinum undatum (g n. s.) . . . . Ibid.

206. Fusus Islandicus {h n. s) Specimen.

207. Trophon clathratus {n. s.) . . . . . Ibid.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIOXS. 229

Fig.

208. Trichotropis borealis {n. s.) .... Specimen.

209. Murex erinaceus (n. s.) Living specimen.

210. Sepia officinalis (^ n. s.) Specimen.

211. Loligo media (l n. s.) Ibid.

212. Ommastreplies sagittatus (^ n. s.) . . Forbes & Hanley.

213. Sepiola Eondeletii {n. s.) Specimen.

214. Eossia Owenii (l n. s.) Forbes & Hanley.

215. Octopus vulgaris (g w. s.) Cuvier.

216. Eledone octopodia (l n. s.) Carus.

217. Ampliioxus lanceolatus (| n. s.) . . . Specimen.

218. Myxine glutinosa {^ n. s.) Ibid.

219. Petromyzon marinus (| n. s.) . . . . Ibid.

220. Cephaloptera giorna (^-l^ w. s.) . . . Miiller & Henle.

221. Myliobatis aquila (g n. s.) Specimen.

222. Trygon pastinaca (i 7i. s.) Bonaparte.

223. Eaia marginata (1 n. s.) Specimen.

224. Torpedo marmorata (| n. s.) , . . . Ibid.

225. Squatina angelus (Jg- n. s.) .... Ibid.

226. Echinorhinus spinosus {-^^ n. s.) . . . Bonaparte.

227. Scymnus borealis (J^ n. s.) Yarrell.

228. Acanthias vulgaris (1 n. 5.) Specimen.

229. Alopias vulpes (Jq- n. s.) Bonaparte.

230. Selacbus maximus (j^q n. s.) . . . . Yarrell.

231. Lamna Cornubica (J^- ^^- s.) .... Bonaparte.

232. Galeus vulgaris (^ n. s.) Specimen.

233. Notidanus griseus (-^jj n. s.) .... Bonaparte.

234. Mustelus isevis {\ n. s.) Specimen.

235. Zygjena malleus (^ n. s.) Fresh specimen.

236. Carcbarias vulgaris (Jg. n. s.) . . . . Ibid.

237. Scylliunj canicula (l n. s.) Living specimen.

238. Chimsera monstrosa (1 n. s.) . . . . Specimen.

239. Acipenser latirostris (J^ n. s.) ... Fresh specimen.

240. Balistes capriscus {\n. s.) Yarrell.

241. Orthagoriscus mola (^ n. s.) . . . . Ibid.

242. Tetraodon Pennantii (| n. s.) . . . . Donovan.

243. Hippocampus brevirostris {\ n. s.) . . Specimen.

230 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

Fig.

244. Syngnatliiis anguineus (J n. s.) . . . Living sipecimen.

245. Ammodytes lancea {I n. s.) .... Ibid.

246. Ecliiodon Drummondii (| n. s.) . . . Thompson.

247. Ophidium imberbe (| n. s.) .... Bloch.

248. Leptocephalus Morrisii (^ n. s.) . . . Specimen.

249. Murasna Helena (J^- n. s.) Ibid.

250. Anguilla acutirostris {^ n. s.) . . . . Ibid.

251. Cyclopterus lumpus (-^ n.s.) .... Fresh specimen.

252. Liparis Montagui {n. s.) Specimen.

253. Lepidogaster Cornubiensis {n. s.) . . . Ibid.

254. Echeneis remora (§ oi. s.) Ibid.

255. Solea vulgaris {^ n. s.) Fresh specimen.

256. Monochirus lingula (J n. s.) .... Ibid. ■

257. Rhombus punctatus (n. s.) Specimen. |

258. Hippoglossus vulgaris {-^ n. s.) . . . Donovan, |

259. Platessa flesus (1- n. s.) Fresh specimen. \

260. Eaniceps trifurcatus {\ n. s.) . . . . Specimen, n;

261. Phycis furcatus (l n. s.) Bloch.

262. Brosmius vulgaris (^- n. s.) Donovan.

263. Motella vulgaris (^ n. s.) Fresh specimen.

264. Lota molva (Jg- n. s.) Yarrell.

265. Merlucius vulgaris (J^ oi. s.) . . . . Donovan.

266. Merlangus vulgaris Q- n. s.) .... Fresh specimen.

267. Morrhua lusca (i n. s.) Ibid.

268. Clupea harengus (| n. s.) Ibid.

269. Alosa finta Q n. s.) Donovan.

270. Engraulis encrasicholus (^ n. s.) . . . Ibid.

271. Scopelus Humboldtii {n. s.) Griffith.

272. Osmerus eperlanus (5 n. s.) Donovan.

273. Salmo trutta {^- n. s.) Fresh specimen.

274. Exoccetus exiliens (i w. s.) Bloch.

275. Beloue vulgaris (i w. s.) Specimen.

276. Scomberesox saurus (1 n. s.) . . . . Ibid.

277. Hemiramphus Europseus {n. s.) . . . Ibid.

278. Centriscus scolopax (g n. s.) .... Donovan,

279. Labrus Donovani (^ n. s.) Living specimen.

LIST OF ILLUSTEATIONS. 231

Fig.

28 0 Crenilabrus Norvegicus (| n. s.) . . . Living specimen.

281. Acantbolabrus esoletus {| n. s.) . . . Yarrell.

282. Julis Mediterranea (g n. s.) Donoyan.

283. Lopliius piscatorius (Jg- n. s.) . . . . Living specimen.

284. Callionymus dracunculus (3 n. s.) . . Ibid.

285. Gobius Rutbensparri {n. s.) Ibid.

286. Blennius ocellaris (| w. s.) Ibid.

287. Mur^noides guttata (5 n. s.) . . . . Ibid.

288. Zoarces viviparus (g n. s.) Donovan.

289. Anarrbicas lupus {Jj- n. s.) Cuvier.

290. Mugil cbelo [^ n. s.) Fresb specimen.

291. Atberina presbyter (4 n. s.) .... Cuvier.

292. Cepola rubescens (5 n. s.) Donovan.

293. Gymnetrus Banksii (J^ n. s.) . . . . Hancock.

294. Lepidopus argyreus {^^ n. s.) . . . . Cuvier.

295. Tricbiurus lepturus (g n. s.) .... Bloch.

296. Trachypterus Bogmarus { ^^ n. s.) . . Reinbardt.

297. Zeus faber (i n. s.) Eresh specimen.

298. Capros aper {h n. s.) Cuvier.

299. Lampris guttatus {^^ n. s.) .... Ibid.

300. Caranx tracburus (i- n. s.) Ibid.

301. Centrolopbus pompilus (J^ n, s.) . . . Bonaparte.

302. Xaucrates ductor {^ n. s.) Cuv. & Yalenc.

303. Xipbias gladius (J^ n. s.) Cuvier.

304. Scomber scombrus (i- n. s.) Fresb specimen.

305. Tbynnus pelamys (J^ n. s.) Cuvier.

306. Ocynus alalonga {^ n. s.) Newman.

307. Auxis vulgaris (l n. s.) Cuvier.

308. Brama Eaii (yL- n. s.) Donovan.

309. Cantbarus griseus (i ». s.) Yarrell.

310. Dentex vulgaris (i w. s.) Specimen.

311. Pagellus centrodontus (i n. &) . . . Fresb specimen.

312. Pagrus vulgaris {j- n. s.) Cuv. «& Yalenc.

313. Cbrysopbrys aurata (^ n. s.) .... Donovan.

314. Scisena aquila (^ 01. s.) Bonaparte.

315. Umbrina cirrosa (g ». s.) Ibid.

232 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

Fig.

316. Gasterosteus pungitius {n. s.) . . . . Living specimen.

317. Sebastes Norvegicus (5 n. s.) . . . . Cuv. & Yalene.

318. Cottus bubalis (^ n. s.) Living specimen.

319. Aspidophorus cataphractus (5 n. s.) . . Specimen.

320. Trigla cuculus (1 n. s.) Fresh specimen.

321. Peristedion cataphracta (l n. s.) . . . Cuvier.

322. Mullus surmuletus (l n. s.) Ibid.

323. Trachinus draco (| 01. s.) Fresh specimen.

324. Serranus cabrilla (l n. s.) Cuv. & Yalene.

325. Polyprion cernium {-J^ n. s.) . . . . Cuvier.

326. Labrax lupus (i n. s.) Fresh specimen.

327. Balaenoptera rostrata (^ig- n. s.) . . . Scoresby.

328. Bal^na mysticetus (-sr^ n. s.) . . . . Cheever.

329. Physeter macrocephalus (^l^ n. s.) . . Beale.

330. Monodon monoceros (^ n. s.) ... Scoresby.

331. Diodon Sowerbyi (Jj n. s.) Sowerby.

332. Hyperoodon bidentatus {-^ n. §.) . . Hunter.

333. Beluga leucas (^ n. s.) Scoresby.

334. Phocsena communis (^ n. s.) . . . . Fresh specimen.

335. Delphinorhynchus micropterus ( J^ n. s.) Cuvier.

336. Delphinus delphis ( Jg- n. s.) . . . . Living specimen.

337. Trichechus rosmarus (J^ n. s.) ... Wolf.

338. Halichoerus gryphus (Jg 71. s.) . . . . Xilsson.

339. Phoca Groenlandica {J^ n. s.) , . . . Ibid.

ALPHABETICAL INDEX

TO THE GENEUA AND SPECIES IN PART H.

N.£. The names 0/ Genera are printed in Italics; those 0/ species in Roman.

Abbreviata, 55.
abyssicola, 120.
Acanthias, 155.
Jcantholabrus, 182.
acarne, 1S6.
Acera, 111.
acicula, 125.
Acipenser, 159.
Aclis, 122.
Acmcea, 114.
Actceonia, 98.
aculeata, 74.
aculeatum, 68.
acuminata, 131.
acuminatum, 128.
ECUS, 162.
acuta, 125.
acutirostris, 165.
Adeorbis, 118.
adversum, 123.
jEgirus, 105.
seglefinus, 174.
aequoreus, 162.
^tea, 13.
affinis, 125.
aggregata, 36.
alabastrum, 118.
alalonga, 193.
alba, 59, 99, 125, 174.
albicans, 33, 34.
albus, 113, 173.
Alcyonidium, 19.
Alderia, 101.
Alderi, 99.
Alecto, 9.
Alopias, 155.
Alosa, 175.
Amathia, 19.
amethystina, 99.
amoena, 99.
Ainceroec'mm, 33.
Ammodytes, 163.
Amphioxus, 149.

Amphisphyra, 110.
ampulla, 36.
jinarrhicas, 185.
anatina, 120.
anatinus, 58.
Ancula, 107.
angelus, 153.
Anguilla, 165.
anguina, 13.
Anguinella, 22.
anguineus, 162.
angulata, 99.
annulata, 17.
anomala, 80.
Anomia, 74.
Antiopa, 101.
antiquus, 131.
aper, 189.
aperta, 110.
Aplidiiim, 31.
Aplysia, 109.
Aporrhais, 122.
Appendicularia, 37.
aquila, 152, 197.
arachnoidea, 35.
arborescens, 103.
Area, 70.
arctica, 53, 65.
arenaria, 56.
arenicola, 99.
argenteola, 172.
Argiope, 82.
Argus, 33.
argyreus, 188.
arnaglossus, 169.
Artemis, 63.
ascaris, 121.
Ascidi'i, 35.
asellus, 113.
aspera, 105.
aspersa, 106.
asperum, 33.
Aspidophorus, 200.

Astarte, 65.
Atherina, 186.
athletica, 114.
atlantica, 8, 103, 140.
attenuata, 129.
aurantiaca, 99.
aurantium, 32.
aurata, 197.
aurea, 62.
aureum, 33.
auriculata, 16.
Auxis, 194.
Avenella, 21.
Avicula, 72.
aviculatia, 15,

Balcena, 207.
BalcBuoptera, 207.
balaustina, 60.
Batistes, 160.
Banksii, 187.
barbata, 70, 214.
barbatum, 164.
barbatus, 201.
Barleei, 124.
Barvicensis, 131.
batis, 152.
Beania, 14.
Beaniana, 18.
Beanii, 120.
Belgica, 23.
Belone, 178.
Beluga, 209.
Berniciensis, 131.
Bicellaria, 15.
bicolor, 214.
bidentata, 66.
bidentatus, 209.
bifida, 101.
bilamellata, 105.
bilineata, 124.
bimaculata, 60.
bimaculatus, 167.

234

INDEX.

Binghami, 56.
bipennata, 51.
biserialis, 139.
bispinosa, 17.
bivittatus, 34.
Blennius, 184.
Blochii, 200.
Bogmarus, 188.
borealis, 67, 86,131,155.
Botrylloides, 34.
Botryllus, 34.
Bowerbankia, 21.
brachycentrus, 198.
Brama, 194.
brevirostris, 162.
Brongniartii, 16.
Brosmius, 172.
bubalis, 200.
Buccinum, 130.
Btiqula, 15.
Btilla, 111.
bullata, HI.
bursaria, 14.

Caber ea, 14.
cabrilla, 202.
C(Ecum, 121.
cserulea, 99.
calathus, 120.
callarias, 174.
Callioj}ymus, 183.
Calyptresa, 115.
cancellatus, 113.
Canda, 11.
Candida, 52.
candidus, 57.
canicula, 158.
canina, 35.
Cantharus, 195.
capitatum, 106.
capito, 186.
capriscus, 160.
Capros, 189.
caput-serpentis, 82.
Caranx, 191.
Carbasea, 15.
carbonarius, 173.
Carcharias, 158.
Cardium, 68.
carnea, 99.
casina, 63.
castanea, 58, 105.
cataphracta, 201.
cataphractus, 200.
catena, 110.
catenularia, 13.
catulus, 158.
caudata, 69.
Ccllepura, 17.
Cellularia, 10.

cellulosa, 18.
Cenia, 98.
Centrisciis, 180.
centrodontus, 196.
Centrolophus, 191.
Cephalopfera, 151,
Cepola, 187.
Cerafisolen, 57.
Cerithiopsis, 123.
Cerithium, 123.
cernium, 203.
cervicornis, 18.
chelata, 12.
chelo, 186.
Cliemnitzia, 124.
ChirncBra, 159.
Chione, 63.
Chiton, 113.
Chrijsophrys, 196.
ciliata, 15, 17.
cimbria, 172.
cinerarius, 118.
cinereus, 113.
cingillus, 120.
cingulata, 99.
Circe, 65.
cirrosa, 198.
cisteUvila, 82.
Clarkia?, 66.
clathrata, 124.
clathratula, 36, 121.
clathratus, 131.
claudicans, 36.
clavata, 152.
Clavelina, 34.
clavigera, 105.
clavula, 125.
Clio, 86.
Clupea, 174.
coarctatus, 57.
coccinea, 16, 104.
Cochlodesma, 54.
Cocksii, 98.
colias, 192.
comber, 181.
communis, 11 7, 121, 122.
compressa, 65.
conchilega, 35.
concinna, 16, 99.
conger, 165.
conoidea, 125.
conspicua, 125.
conulus. 111, 118.
convexa, 54.
convexum, 66.
cor, 64.

corallinus, 131.
Corbula, 56.
coriacea, 16.
Cornubica, 156.

Cornubiensis, 167.
cornuta, 9.
coronata, 99.
corrugata, 36, 98.
costata, 120, 129.
costellata, 55.
costulata,55,59,71,120,

121.
Cotlus, 199.
Couchii, 99, 182.
Cranchii, 111.
Crania, 80.
cranium, 82.
crassa, 60, 116.
crassior, 119.
crassus, 118.
crebricostata, 65.
Crenella, 70.
Crenilabriis, 181.
crenulata, 120.
Crista, 9.
Crisidia, 9.
crispata, 52, 117.
cristata, 101.
cuculus, 200.
curtus, 186.
cuscuta, 20.
cuspidata, 55.
Cutleriana, 121.
Cyclopferus, 166.
Cycloum, 19.
Cyl'tchna, 111.
cylindracea, 111.
cylindrica, 125.
Cynthia, 36.
Cyprcea, 128.
Cyprina, 65.
Cytherea, 63.

daetylus, 52.
Dalei, 130.
Dalyellii, 21.
Danicus, 73.
decussata, 62, 69, 71,

125.
deflexa, 8.

Delphinorhynchiis, 210.
Delphinus, 210.
delphis, 211.
dendritica, 101.
Dendronotus, 102.
Denlalium, 114.
Denfex, 195.
denticulata, 9,
despecta, 100.
diaphana, 105, 120.
Diastopora, 8.
dilatans, 9.
Diodon, 209.
Diodonta, 59.

I

INDEX.

235

Diphyllydia, 108.
Diplodonta, 67.
discors, 71.
discrepans, 71, 113.
disjunctus, 120.
Disloma, 33.
distorta, 54, 124.
divaricata, 13, 67.
divisa, 121.
dolioformis, 125.
donacina, GO.
Donax, 58.
Donovani, 181.
Doris, 104.
dorsalis, 51.
Doto, 103.
draco, 202.
dracunculus, 183.
Drummondi, 99, 164.
dubia, 125.
ductor, 192.

Eblanse, 140.
eburnea, 9.
Echeneis, 168.
echinata, 23, 35.
echinatum, 68.
Echinorhinus, 154.
Echiodon, 164.
edule, 68.
edulis, 74.
Eledone, 141.
elegans, 99.
elegantissima, 124.
elliptica, 61, 65.
elongata, 22, 170.
Elysia, 98.
Emarginula, 116.
Embletonia, 100.
encrasicholus, 175.
Engraulis, 175.
ensls, 57.
entalis, 114.
EoUs, 99.
eperlanus, 176.
ephippium, 74.
erinaceus, 131.
Ervilia, 58.
erythriiius, 196.
Eschara, 18.
Eulima, 124.
Eulimella, 125.
eulimoides, 125.
Europaea, 127.
Europaeus, 179.
excavata, 125.
exigua, 99, 117.
exiguus, 118.
exiiiens, 178.
Exocoetus, 178.

exoleta, 63.
exoletus, 182.

faba, 71.
fabalis, 119.
faber, 189.
fabula, GO.
fallax, 32.
farciminoides, 10.
Favrani, 99.
Farrella, 22.
fasciata, 63.
fasciatum, 68.
fascicularis, 113.
fenestrata, 124.
Ferroensis, 59.
ferruginosa, 66, 67.
ficus, 32.
finta, 175.
Fiona, 100.
Fissnrella, 116.
flabellaris, 8.
flabellata, 15.
flagellum, 37.
flammea, 104.
flavidus, 103.
Flemingii, 16, 86.
flesus, 170,
flexilis, 125.
flexuosa, 67.
F lustra, 15.
foliacea, 15, 18.
formosa, 124.
fragilis, 59, 103.
fulgida, 120.
fuUonica, 152.
fulvocincta, 124.
furcatus, 171.
fusiforme, 130.
Fusus, 131.

Galeomma, 66.
Galeus, 156.
gallina, 63.
Gasterosteus, 198.
Gastrochcena, 53.
gattorugine, 184.
Gattyae, 17.
gelatinosum, 19, 33.
Gcmellaria, 14.
gemmeus, 34.
geniculata, 9,
gigantea, 22.
gigas, 202.
Giorna, 151.
glabra, 36.
glabrata, 125,
glabrum, 121.
gladius, 192.
glauca, 99, 172.

glaucoides, 99.
glaucus, 158.
glesne, 187.
globularis, 120.
Glottensis, i;9.
glutinosa, 150.
glycimeris, 69.
Gobiiis, 183.
Goniodoris, 105.
gracilis, 20, 23, ^d, 128,

183.
granifera, 17.
granulata, 9, 55.
granulatus, 118.
griseus, 157, 195.
Grcenlandica, 121, 214.
grossularia, 36.
gryphus, 213.
Gulsonae, 125.
gurnardus, 200.
guttata, 184.
guttatus, 190.
G-ymnetrus, 187.

H all cheer us, 213.
Haliotis, 116.
Hancocki, 1C7.
Hanleyi, 113.
harengus, 174.
Hassallii, 13, 17.
Hawkenii, 187.
Hebridicus, 34, 176.
Helena, 165.
helicinus, 118.
helicoides, 127.
helvacea, 61.
Hemiramphus, 179.
HermcBa, 101.
hians, 73.

Hippocampus, 162.
Hippoglossus, 170.
Hippothoa, 13.
hirpida, 8.
hirsutum, 19.
hirtus, 169.
hirundo, 200.
Hombergi, 102.
Hookeri, 14.
Humboldtii, 176.
Humphreysianum, 130.
Hungaricus, 115.
Hyalea, 85.
hyalina, 8, 17, 101.
hydatis, 111.
Hyndmanni, 17.
Hyperuodon, 209.
Hypothyris, 81.

lanihina, 117.
Idalia, 106.

236

INDEX.

Idmonea, 8.
imberbe, 164.
imbricata, 21.
inaequalis, 106.
incarnata, 60.
inconspiciia, 105, 120.
incrassata, 130.
indistincta, 124.
informis, 36.
insculpta, 12.5.
intermedia, 59, 152.
interrupta, 120.
interstincta, 125.
intestinalis, 35.
irus, 62.
Islandica, 65.
Islandicus, 131.
Isocardia, 64.

Jeffreysia, 120.
Jeffreysii, 86.
Jtilis, 182.

Kellia, 66.
Kingii, 127.

labiosa, 120.
Labrax, 203.
labrosa, 17.
Labrus, 181.
Lacroixii, 16.
lactea, 70, 120.
Lacuna, 119.
laevigata, 126.
laevis, 113, 121,127, 157.
Lamellaria, 126,
Lumna, 156.
Lampris, 190.
lanceolatus, 149.
lancea, 163.
Landsborovii, 17.
Landsburgii, 99.
lapillus, 130.
latirostris, 159, 165.
Leachii, 34, 106, 174.
Leda, 69.
legumen, 57.
leiurus, 198.
lendigera, 20.
Lenfroyi, 129.
lepadiformis, 34.
Lepidogaster, 167.
Lepidopus, 188.
Lepraliay 16.
Leptocephalus, 165.
Leptoclinum, 33.
Lepto7i, 66.
lepturus, ISS.
Lessonii, 106.
leucas, 209.
leucoma, (i7.

lignarius, 110.
Lima, 73.
limacina, 36.
limanda, 170.
limandoides, 170.
Limapontia, 98.
lincta, 63.
linearis, 16.

lineata, 16, Q9. 102, 108.
linguatula, 169.
lingula, 169.
Li par is, 167.
Listeri, 35.
Listerianum, 33.
lithophaga, 61.
littoralis, 119.
littorea, 119, 120.
Littorina, 119.
lobulata, 8.
Loligo, 139.
Lomanotus, 103.
Lophius, 183.
loricata, 14.
Loscombii, 73.
Lota, 172.
lucerna, 200.
Liicina, 67.
lucinopsis, 62.
lumbriciformis, 162.
lumpus, 166.
lupus, 185, 203.
lusca, 174.
Lutruria, 60.
Li/unsia, 54.
lyra, 183, 200.

Macandrei, 86.
macrocephalus, 208.
macrosoma, 140.
Mactra, 61.
maculatus, 181.
maculosum, 33.
magus, 118.
major, 9.
Malleus, 157.
Malusii, 17.
mammillaris, 36.
mammillata. 111.
marginata, 152.
marginatus, 57.
Marginella, 128.
marinus, 150.
marmoree, 139.
mannorata, 71, 153.
maniioratus, 103.
marmoreus, 113.
maximus, 73, 155, 169.
media, 139.
Mediterranea, 182.
megastoma, 169.

megotara, 51.
melanostomum, 158.
melas, 210.
melops, 181.
membranacea, 16.
membranaceus, 108.
Membranipora, 16.
Menipea, 10.
mentula, 35,
Merlangus, 173.
Merlucius, 173.
metula, 123.
microcellata, 152.
microcosmus, 36.
micropterus, 210.
millegrana, 104.
millegranus, 118.'
Alimosella, 20.
minima, 65. 129.
minuta, 67, 100, 174.
minutus, 183.
mirabilis, 14.
miraletus, 152.
mixtus, 181.
modesta, 101.
Modiola, 70.
modiolina, 53.
modiolus, 70.
mola, 161.
Molgula, 35.
molva, 172.
moneta, 128.
monilifera, 127.
monoceros, 209.
Monochirus, 169.
Mouodon, 208.
monostachys, 16.
monstrosa, 158.
Montacula, 66.
Montagui, 118, 121, 127,

167.
Morrhua, 174.
Morrisii, 165.
morus, 36.
Moiella, 172.
mucronata, 152.
mucroniferus, 100.
Mugil, 186.
Mullus, 201.
Murcena, 165.
Murcenoides, 184.
Murex, 131.
muricata, 105.
muricatus, 131.
Murrayana, 15.
Mustelus, 157.
Mya, 56.
Myliobatis, 151.
mysticetus, 207.
Myxine, 149.

INDEX.

237

nana, 99, 129,
Nassa, 130.
Natica, 126.
Naucrates, VJ2.
navalis, 51.
Necera, 55.
nebula, 129.
neritina, 15.
neritoides, 119.
niger, 183.
nigra, 70, 99.
nitida, 17, G9, 125, 127.
nitidissima, 122.
nitidula, 111.
nitidum, 66.
niveus, 74.
Noachina, 116.
nobiliana, 153.
nobilis, 100.
nodosa, 105.
nodosum, 68.
Nolella, 21.
Nordmanni, 33.
Northumbrica, 99.
Norvegica, 51, 54, 55.
Norvegicum, 68.
Norvegicus, 131, 181,

199.
Notamia, 14.
Notidanus, 157.
nucleus, 56, 69.
Nucula, 69.

obelia, 8.
obliqua, 125.
oblonga, 60, 105.
oblongus, 161.
obtusa, 54, ill.
ocellaris, 184.
ocellata, 106.
octopodia, 141.
Octopus, 141.
oculata, 35.
Ocynits, 193.
Odostomia, 125.
ofScmalis, 139.
olivacea, 99.
Ommaslrephes, 140.
opalina, 120.
opercularis, 74.
ophidion, 162.
Ophidium, 164.
orbicularis, 35.
orca, 210.
Orthagoriscus, 161,
Osmerus, 176.
Ostrea, 74.
Otina, 126.
Otis, 12G.
ovata, 63.

Ovulum, 128,
Ovvenii, 140.
oxyrhynchus, 152.

Pagellus, 195.
Pa grits, 196.
Pailasiana, 17.
palliata, 119.
pallida, 100, 117, 125.
pallidula, 119.
palmata, 22.
Pandora, 53.
Panopcea, 54.
papiliosa, 92.
papillosum, 19.
papyracea, 15, 52.
papyrea, 15.
parallelogramma, 35.
parasiticum, 19.
parva, 52, 120.
pastinaca, 152.
Patella, 114.
patelliformis, 74.
patina, 8.
patula, 119.
patulum, 128.
Peachii, 10, 99.
Pecten, 73.
pectinata, 72.
Pectunculus, 69,
Pedicellina, 23.
pegusa, 168.
pelamys, 193.
Peloncea, 36.
pellucida, 99.
pellucidus, 57.
penicillata, 8.
Pennantii, 161.
pennigerum, 106.
perforans, 62.
Peristedion, 201.
Peroph'jra, 35.
perspicua, 35, 126.
pes-carbonis, 123.
pes-pelicani, 123.
Petricola, 61.
Petromyzon, 150.
phalangea, 8.
phaseolina, 54, 70.
Phasianella, 117,
Philine, 110,
Phoca, 213.
Phocana, 210.
Pholadidea, 52,
Photas, 51.
pholis, 184.
Phycis, 171.
Physeter, 208.
picta, 99.
pilchardus, 174,

Pileopsis, 115.
pilosa, 16, 105.
Pinna, 72.
pinnasquamata, 194.
pinnatilida, 103.
piperata, 59.
piscatorius, 183.
planata, 104.
planorbis, 121.
Platessa, 170.
plebeia, 102.
Pleurobranchw, 108.
Pleurotoma, 129.
plicata, 125.
plumosa, \5.
plumula, 108.
pccciloptera, 200.
pola, 170.
polita, 124.
politus, 58.
pollachius, 173.
Polycera, 106.
Polyclinum, 32.
polycyclus, 34.
polyoum, 19.
Pohjprion, 203,
pompilus, lyi.
Poroniya, 55.
praetenue, 54.
presbyter, 186,
proboscidea, 8.
Proctonotus, 100.
producta, 34.
proliferum, 33.
propinquus, 131
proxima, 60, 105, 120,
prismatica, 59.
pruinosa, 1 10.
prunum, 31.
Psammobia, 59,
psittacea, 81.
pubescens, 54.
pulchella, 106.
pulcheiTima, 120.
pulchra, 100.
pullus, 118.
pumicosa, 17.
pumilio, 34.
punctata, 99.
punctatum, 33.
punctatus, 169.
punctilucens, 106.
punctura, 120.
Pvncturella, 116.
pungitius, 198.
Purpura, 129.
purpurea, 129.
purpurescens, 99,
pusilla, 105, 127.
pusillus, 118, 181.

238

INDEX.

pusio, 74.
pustulata, 99.
Pustulipora, 8.
pustulosa, 20.
puteolus, 119.
pygraaea, 60, 69, 130.
pygmaeum, 68.

quadrangularis, 36.
quadrata, 110.
quadricornis, 106,200.
quadrilineata, 106.
quinquecirrata, 172.

radiata, 69, 152.
Rata, 152.
Rail, 194.
ramulosa, 18.
Raniceps, 171.
raridentata, 69.
remora, 168.
repens, 22.
reptans, 11.
Retepora, 18.
reticulata, 16, 116, 129.
reticulatum, 123.
rhombea, 71.
Rhombus, 169.
Rissoa, 119.
rissoides, 125.
Rondeletii, 140.
rosea, 56, 116.
rosmarus, 212.
Rosselii, 16.
Rossia, 140.
rostrata, 54,207.
rota, 121.
rotifera, 34.
rotundata, &7.
ruber, 113.
rubescens, 187.
rubra, 34, 120,
rubrum, 33.
rudis, 119.
rufa, 124, 129.
rufescens, 124.
rufibranchialis, 99.
rufilabris, 120.
rugosa, 53.
Runcina, 107.
runcinata, 36.
Rupellaria, 139.
rupestris, 181.
rustica, 36,
rusticum, 68.
Ruthensparri, 183.

sagittatus, 140.
salar, 177.
Salicornaria, 10.

Salmo, 177.
Salpa, 36.
Salpingia, 13.
Sarcochitum, 19.
sarda, 193.
saurus, 178.
saxatilis, 119.
scabra, 35, 110.
Scalaria, 121.
scalaris, 124.
Scaphander, 110.
Schlosseri, 34.
Scicsna, 197.
Scillae, 125.
Scissurella, 117.
scolopax, ISO.
Scomber, 192.
Scomberesox, 178.
scombrus, 192.
Scopelus, 176.
scorpius, 200.
Scotica, 85.
Scrobicularia, 58.
Scruparia, 12.
scrupea, 11.
Scrupocellaria, 11.
scruposa, 11.
sculpta, 120.
ScijlliEn, 102.
Scijllium, 158.
Sciimnus, 154.
Sebastes, 199.
Selachus, 155.
semiarmatus, 198.
semistriata, 120.
Sepia, 139.
Sepiola, 140.
septangularis, 129.
serpens, 8.
Serranus, 202.
setacea, 9.
Sidnyum, 32.
siliqua, 57.
similis, 73.
simplex, 17.
Sinensis, 115.
Skenea, 121.
Skenei, 18.
smaragdina, 99.
smaragdus, 34.
Solea, 168.
Solecurlus, 57.
Solen, 57.
solida, 61.
solidula, 60.
soluta, 120.
sordida, 127.
Sowerbyi, 209.
Sphcenia, 56.
spinachia, 198.

spinifera, 16, 67.
spinosa, 20, 152.
spinosus, 154.
spiralis, 125.
Spirialis, 85.
sprattus, 174.
squamosum, 66.
St/iiaii?ia, 153.
stipata, 99, 21.
striata, 120.
striatula, 63, 120.
striatus, 73, 118.
strigella. 111.
striolata, 125, 129.
stultorum, 61.
sturio, 159.
Slylina, 124.
subauriculata, 73.
sub-carinata, 118.
suborbicularis, 67.
subitriata, 66.
subtruncata, 61.
subulata, 124.
Suecicum, 68.
sulcata, 65.
supranitida, 122.
surmuletus, 201.
Syndosinya, 59.
Syngnathus, 162,
Syntethys, 34.

Tapes, 62.
tarentina, 72.
tarentinum, 114.
Tellina, 60.
tellinella, 59.
tenebrosa, 119.
tentaculata, 126.
tenuis, 59, 60, 69.
Terebratula, 81.
Teredo, 51.
teres, 129.
ternata, 10.
tesselata, 36.
testudinalis, 114.
tetragona, 70.
Tetraodon, 161.
Thecacera, 106.
Thracia, 54.
Thyiinus, 192.
tigrinus, 74.
Tobianus, 163.
todarus, 140.
Tornatella, 112.
Torpedo, 153.
trachea, 121.
Trachinus, 201.
trachurus, 191, 198.
Trachypterus, 188.
Trevelyana, 121, 129.

INDEX.

239

triangularis, 65.
Trichechus, 212.
Trichiurus, 188.
Trickolropis, 131.
trifurcatus, 171.
Trigla. 200.
trimaculatus, ISl.
Triopa, 105.
trispinosa, 16, 85.
Tritonia, 102.
Trochus, 118.
Trophon, 131.
truncata, 8, 13, 15, 56,

61, 111.
Truncatella, 121.
truncatula, 125.
trunculus, 58.
txutta, 177.
Trygon, 152.
tubercularis, 123.
tuberculata, 1C4, 116.
tuberosa. 36.
Tubulipora, 7.
tubulosa, 35.
tulipa, 70.
tumidus, 118.
turbinatum, 32.

turricula, 129.
Turrilella, 122.
tursio, 208, 211.
Turtoni, 66, 124, 131.
Turtonia, 67,
Turtonis, 121.
typhle, 162.

Ulidiana, 105.
ulvae, 120.
umbilicata. 111.
umbilicatus, 118.
Umbrina, 198.
undata, 62.
undatum, 130.
undulatus, 118.
unica, 122.
unidentata, 125.
unipunctatus, 183.
uva, 20.

VeluUna, 126.
ventrosa, 120.
verrucosa, 16.
villosiuscula, 54.
vincta, 1 19.
vipera, 202.

virens, 173.
virescens, 106.
virginea, 114.
viridis, 98, 99.
vitrea, 120.
vitrina, 17.
vittata, 99.
vitulina, 214.
viviparus, 185.
volitans, 178.
vulgaris, 139, 141, 155,
156,158, 167,108,169.
vulgata, 114.
vulpes, 155.

Warrenii, 125.

Xiphias, 192.
Xylophaga, 51.

Yarrellii, 182, 184.

Zetlandica, 120.
Zeus, 189.
zizipliinus, 118.
Zoarces, 185.
Zygcena, 157.

THE END.

R. CLAY, JPRINTEB, BREAD STREET HILL.

MARINE
NATUEAL HISTORY CLASS.

In the summer of 1855, I met at Ilfracombe, on the coast of North
Devon, a small party of ladies and gentlemen, who formed themselves
into a Class for the study of Marine Natural History. There was much
to be done in the way of collecting, much to be learned in the way of
study. Not a few species of interest, and some rarities, fell under
our notice, scattered as we were over the rocks, and peeping into the
pools, almost every day for a month. Then the prizes were to be
brought home, and kept in little Aquariums for the study of their
habits, their beauties to be investigated by the pocket-lens, and the
minuter kinds to be examined under the microscope. An hour or
two was spent on the shore every day on which the tide and the
weather were suitable ; and, when otherwise, the occupation was varied
by an indoors' lesson, on Identifying and comparing the characters of
the animals obtained, the specimens themselves affording illustrations.
Thus the two great desiderata of young naturalists were attained
simiiltaneously ; they learned at the same time how to collect, and
how to determine the names and the zoological relations of the speci-
mens when found.

A little also was effected in the way of dredging the sea-bottom, and
in surface-fishing for Medusse, &c. ; but our chief attention was directed
to shore-collecting. Altogether, the experiment was found so agreeable
that I propose to repeat it by forming a similar party every year, if
spared, at some suitable part of the coast.

Such ladies or gentlemen as may wish to join the Class should give
in their names to me, early in the summer; and any prehminary
inquiries about plans, terms, &c. shall meet the requisite attention.

P. H. GOSSE.
58, Huntingdon Street,

Islington, London.

PROPOSED WORK

ON THE

BRITISH SEA-ANEMONES.

Mr. Gosse has for some years been collecting materials for a
complete history of our native Sea-Anemones, with illustrations of
every species, drawn and coloured by himself from living specimens.

In order to further this project, he respectfully invites the co-
operation of his kind scientific friends at various parts of the British
and Irish Coasts, who may materially assist him by transmitting to
him {free of expense) specimens of all species that are not common
everywhere.

An Anemone of medium size may be safely sent hy post, in a small
tin-canister, without water, but with a small tuft of damp sea-weed to
maintain a moist atmosphere around the animal. A piece of paper
should be pasted round the canister, to secure it, and also to receive
the address ; and the whole would probably come within the weight
covered by a twopenny or fourpenny stamp.

58, Huntingdon Street, Islington.

WORKS ON MARINE NATURAL HISTORY
AND THE AQUARIUM,

BY PHILIP HENPvY GOSSE, F.R.S.

A NATURALIST'S EAMBLES

ON

THE DEVONSHIEE COAST.

With TwENTT-EiGHT Plates, somc coloured. Post 8vo. 21s.

" The charming hook now before us .... The lively pages of this graphic and
well-illustrated volume .... We know of no hook where that beautiful family, the
Sea-Anemones, are more graphically described and brought before the eye of the
reader." — Fraser's Magaziiie, Oct. 1853.

" This charming volume, which we so strongly recommend to our readers ....
largely enters into the private history [of the Sea-Anemones and other Zoophytes],
and to the attractions of an engaging style and healthy piety, adds the accompani-
ment of elaborately coloured drawings of the animals themselves." — Leisure Hour,
Feb. 9, 1854.

" Scarcely have we pronounced a most favourable opinion of Mr. Gosse's ' Natu-
ralist's Sojourn in Jamaica' than we are called upon to review another book from

the same pen, equally beautiful, equally amusing, and equally instructive

This is a fit companion to the ' Sojourn; ' like that, it is a series of pictures which
it must delight the lover of nature to look upon .... the animals of the sea are
here revealed to us in all their most attractive forms." — Zoologist, Oct. 1853.

"The present will ably support the previous character of its talented author."
—Natural History Review, Jan. 1854.

THE AQUAEIUM;

AN UNVEILING OF

THE WONDERS OF THE DEEP SEA.

Post Svo. with coloured and uncoloured Illustrations, 17*.

"Those who have had the gratification of spirit-companionship with Mr. Gosse
in his former rambles, will rejoice to find themselves again by his side on the shores
of Dorset. He has the art of throwing the 'purple light' of life over the marble
form of science ; and while satisfying the learned by illustrations and confirmations
of what they knew before, he delights the seekers of knowledge, and even of
amusement, by leading them into profitable and pleasant paths 'which they have

not known ' The volume ought to be upon the table of every intelligent

sea-side visitor. It would be injustice to close these remarks without paying a
tribute to the singular beauty, both of design and execution, of the plates which
accompany the work." — Globe, June 22, 1854.

"To all who have looked with interest upon the collection of marine aquatic
animals in the Zoological Gardens, and observed with attention their wondrous de-
velopment of form and function, this book, by an eminent lover of Nature's marvels,
will be a delightful and welcome companion. Mr. Gosse has himself dived into the
bejewelled palaces which old Neptune has so long kept reluctantly under lock and
key, and we find their treasures set before us with a freshness and fidelity which
aff"ord welcome and instructive lessons to naturalists of all ages. . . . It is a charm-
ing little volume, and an admirable pocket companion for visitors to the sea-side."
— Literary Gazette, July 15, 1854.

"The beautiful little work now before us Every page of this fascinating

work is quotable. ... A fitting ornament for the drawing-room table." — Chambers's
Journal, Aug. 1854.

LONDON : JOHN VAN VOORST, PATERNOSTER ROW.

f

WORKS BY PHILIP HENRY GOSSE, F.R.S.

A HANDBOOK to the MAEINE AQUAEIUM :

CONTAINING

PRACTICAL INSTRUCTIONS

FOR CONSTRUCTING, STOCKING, AND MAINTAINING A TANK,

AND FOR COLLECTING PLANTS AND ANIMALS.

Second Edition. Foolscap 8vo. 2s. 6d.

" This little Handbook appears to contain every information that can be required
for a commencement ; and will, doubtless, prove highly acceptable to those who
interest themselves in marine zoology."— An7ials of NaturalHistorij, Feb. 1856.

Just Published,

TENBY:

A SEA-SIDE HOLIDAY.

With 24 Plates, coloured, post 8vo. 21s.

" Here we have another issue from the fertile pen of Mr. Gosse, and another of his
delightful sea-side books. It is fully worthy of its predecessors in pleasant gossip,
in interesting information, in important scientific novelty, and in variety and beauty
of i\\\\^lTation."—AthencBum, May 31, 1856.

"It is the history of a month spent by a man of research, in the pursuit of a
favourite study, under favourable circumstances; and is full of original investi-
gations, successful observations, and pleasing descriptions of the impressions pro-
duced by novel objects upon an unaffected and healthy mind. It is a book we
cannot read without regretting, as we pass from page to page with increasing

interest, that we were not his companions No intelligent reader can rise

from the perusal of ' Tenby ' without gaining much knowledge from a delightful
book." — Eclectic Revieiv, June, 1856.

" Mr. Gosse tells us how he got to Tenby ; talks of the places there, the caverns,
Monkstone, North Cove, Hean Castle, Hoyle's Mouth, Tenby Head, and other
places to be visited ; shows where the marine animals, his favourites, most abound ;
teaches how to get at them, when to catch them in a visible condition, how to keep
them, how to study them, and what their points of interest are. Of such matters is
the book made up, and to us it seems to be perfect iu its way." — Gardener's Chronicle,
May 17, 1856.

" The natural history is admirable, the descriptions picturesque and vivid in a
very uncommon degree, and the illustrations excellent. Mr. Gosse has, in his
various books, added a great deal to our knowledge of marine [animals], many of
them microscopic; and this book is amongst his best on this subject." — Guardian,
June 11, 1856.

" This charming issue from his fertile pen will delight scores of naturalists, as
well as induce a liking for a healthy and rational amusement among the many
loungers who indulge in a sea-side holiday." — Lincolnshire Times, June 10, 1856.

LONDON : JOHN VAN VOORST, PATERNOSTER ROW.

1 i ' ' 1 ,

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