a^^y coo B^OWM'S HAM 10 i O'F FARRIE ■ AM. ATSTTn; ■dm TME' ©OSIERS ES ®F Ws'i AE'B OTMiSl IxSlIIE^TriC AMaMj^^-. W ITH THEIR MODES Of LOEDOIT; GEORGE YIfi.TUB A MANUAL MODERN FARRIERY; EMBRACING THE CURE OF DISEASES IVCIDENTAL TO HORSES, CATTLE, SHEEP, SWINE, AND DOGS; INSTRUCTIONS IN RACING, HUNTING, COURSING, SHOOTING, FISHING, AND FIELD-SPORTS GENERALLY : TOGETHER WITH A SUMMARY OF THE GAME-LAWS. BY THOMAS BROWN, M.P.S., MEMBER OF THE ROTAL AORICUI-TCRAL SOCIETY, &C., &C., &C. LONDON : GEORGE VIRTUE, IVY LANE DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES. PLATE I. This is to illustrate the different external Parts of the Horse, which are all named on the plate. PLATE IL Represents the Skeleton of the Horse, exhibit- ing its Position when covered by the Muscles. Fig. 1, 1. The seven cervical A'ertebra;, or bunes of the neck. 2. The sternum, or breast-bone. 3. The scapula, or shoulder-blade. 4. The humerus, or bona of the arm. 5. 5. The radius, or bone of the fore-arm. 6. The ulna, or elbow. 7. The cartilages of the ribs. 8. 8, 8. The costEe, or ribs. 9. The carpus, or seven bones. 10. 10. The metacarpal, or shank bones : the larger metacarpal, or cannon, or shank- bone, in front ; and the small metacarpal, or splint-bone, bdiinl 11. The upper pastern. 12. The lower pastevn. 13. The coffin-bone. 14 to 14. The eighteen dorsal vertebrae, or bones of the £iv ^f Jj.^W^ - ■^•^— ->«JT»Vj. y\^l« ^"^.xV^^-^^ ■\ ^1 /v^^ d ^ ^^ ^^v"^ Tiu.l. Iu)-Z. b \\k \ ^V .^^ '-.r iXTEi^MM.. mm> m-KimmM. mh-^mwY m the s®bse's mmm. _LONI>Oa!r: GlIO! >< ^ * "-^ -^ y "^^""==^6- lililiClLEg @F lEE WQlAK ONDOn: GEORGR VXRTUP, ./ITE VII lONJJON: GEOKGE VIB-TUE . It &S. IBIl CMAWipf.. 4, TEJE STOMACrdL &, TMl IMT.1£S; merR VT-RTIJE a f ^ IV ^i^ ^^^^^^ if Ui0^ '^.. Ful 10 nf / in mmmt:^^:^:mm^^mxmmmm^^^^^ LONDON; GEORGE "VIRTUE rJ^Ji 1 T. .A / ^ I'LATK All DninTi hj T.3rcyn\ ■NDON; GEOB.GE "VI.KTl PLATE XIII' '^IICWIE ®W 1©® 4V. g-TOMiiCM m A001IJIM.TW(B 4HIIMIUL PLATE XIV. ■«1- I. " '*""'k#** liEFirsi WWim ©HE T© ^3iX "SH^.-:-. ATI: XV ^^i^ ON DCiN; GEORGE VlRTUJ-, wMWwmmwE mmmw> ®f mmBm 3Mm gmvi^ rn-MTimvT. lapopr.T' virtiti ii,iMaiiiiii^ 10NDi»'«T; GEORG-E '/iRTUE. :::^^^>i'v.,*j.>,^ . ^ v^t/^^^7.'V LONDON. GEOUGE VIRTUE MANUAL MODERN FARRIERY, INTRODUCTION. The term Farriery has been in use for a very long period, and embraced the Medical and Surgical treatment of the Horse, as well as Shoeing, and fitting him for taking the road and the field. The persons employed in the manual labour of construct- ing and fitting the shoes of horses were originally termed Ferrers, or Terriers, from the Latin word ferrum, iron, and ilieir practice /6rrz6'r^, which has, in the course of time, been changed into the word Farrier, and now universally adopted. In most country situations the blacksmith who shoes horses is called the farrier, because he is generally the only person, in many localities, who practises the art of horse and cattle doctor. Not only is this the case in Great Britain, but also in every country of Europe. It is to be lamented that more attention is not devoted to the useful practice of the cure of domestic animals, more especially when we consider not only their great value, but also their commercial importance. As well may the medical care of man be intrusted to shoemakers and tailors, as the care of horses, cattle, swine, dogs, and other domestic animals, be left B 2 MANUAL OF MODERN FARHIERY. to the tender mercies of an untutored blacksmith, who although by practice he may be extremely competent to shoe or bleed a horse, is, nevertheless, most unlikely to be able to administer relief to animals whose physical constitutions are subject to as many and complicated diseases, as humanity itself In France and Italy the importance of the cure of the diseases of horses and cattle was first manifested upwards of two centuries ago ; and professorships established for the art of farriery, as a medical and surgical science, and gra- dually the persons who professionally studied and practised this art assumed the names of Veterinary Surgeons. This term, although but recently adopted, is of great antiquity, having been in general use among the Latins. It is, however, surprising that in Great Britain, where our domestic animals are of such vast importance, it is only very lately that schools and professorships for the study of the Veterinary art have been established ; and not half a century ago, the surgeons of our cavalry regiments adminis- tered medicine to horses as well as to the soldiers. But the study of Comparative Anatomy soon rendered it manifest that a totally different course of study became nee essar for the treatment of animals whose internal organization was so different from that of the human being ; and now every horse regiment has its Veterinary Surgeon. All great towns, and many small ones also, possess medical and surgical practitioners, whose sole attention is devoted to the cure of domestic animals ; these gentlemen having attended and acquired diplomas from the Veterinary Colleges for their knowledge and capability to practise the arts. The intention of the following treatise is not to take the practice out of the hands of regular Veterinary Surgeons, but to serve as a ready manual to those living in the country, or even in towns, to give them a generoJ idea of the diseases INTRODUCTION. 3 and remedies, so that they may be applied in time of need, and where a regular veterinary practitioner is not at hand. Some of the diseases incidental to horses and cattle are so marked in their character, that a little experience will easily enable a person accustomed to be among those animals, to detect it with facility, and in such cases, medicine may be safely administered, according to the rules we have laid down ; but there are other disorders, whose characters are of a more complicated form, which ought not to be treated by a person uneducated in the veterinary art. In such cases it will always be found safer and cheaper in the end to apply to regular practitioners. Although in a certain sense there is some analogy between the diseases of man and animals, yet these are exceedingly different in their specific characters, and consequently in the remedies applied for their cures ; the construction of the stomach, the length of the alimentary canal and small intes- tines, with other organic distinctions — all combining to render the specific quantity and character of the medicines to differ essentially. Nevertheless, it is quite possible to acquire a thorough knowledge of all that is known in the veterinary art, by per- sons in private life ; although considerable study, as may well be supposed, is necessary to attain this degree of knowledge. The first thing to be studied is to acquire a knowledge of the skeleton, then of the muscles, and lastly of the internal organization. The two first of these are pretty much alike in all our domestic animals, but a very great difference will be found in the internal structure. For the skeleton and muscles, works and good engravings will give a good idea to the beginner ; and after acquiring the names of the difierent bones and muscles, the student must practise upon dead 4 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. sulbfjects, SO that he may be enabled, by dissection, at once to determine what part of the body is affected by lameness or a wound. He must next acquire a thorough knowledge of the exact situation of the internal organs, and their com- parative dimensions and structure. Attention must next be given to Chemistry, and the compounding of medicines, with the relative quantities to be administered to the different animals, which will depend upon, as above hinted at, the structure of the stomach and the length of the large and small intestines. Upon the character also of the nervous system will depend much of the treatment of animals, and the energy and immediate application of remedial means. Some diseases are slow in their progress, while others are so rapid that there is more art and utility in arresting them, than in a cure after they are fairly formed. But this can only be acquired by experience. It is not pretended that the knowledge above specified is to be found within the limits of this work, which is chiefly intended as a popular digest of all that is truly useful to the country gentleman and practical farmer, and others possessing domestic animals. We shall, however, in the course of the work, give illustrations of the general struc- ture of the Horse, with such other parts as should be generally known, and directions concerning their functions ; so that the classes for whom it is intended may have such a knowledge of the subject, as will enable them to act for themselves, in ordinary cases, and in others to qualify them for detecting the impositions too frequently practised by ignorant quacks. SECTION L OF THE HORSE, ITS DISEASES AND STRUCTURE. CHAPTER I. DISEASES OF THE HEAD, mCLUDING THE BRAIN, EARS, MOUTH, IfOSTRILS, EYES, &C. The diseases of the head in animals, as well as in the human being, are, for the most part, so complicated and obscure that few non-professional men are qualified to undertake their cure with success ; but it will be our endeavour to treat the subject in as plain language as possible, so that those who have not regularly studied the veterinary art may at least acquire such a knowledge as will enable them to apply some judicious remedy, until the advice of a practir tioner can be obtained. MEGRIMS. This malady is occasioned by a pressure on the brain, caused by an unusual flow of blood to it. The flow of blood through the brain is ten times greater in quantity than through any other portion of the body of equal bulk. To prevent as far as possible any unusual flow of blood to this organ, the arteries pursue an extremely winding and circuitous course, and enter the skull through small holes in the bony process. These holes are so small that they will G MAJ^UAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. admit but of little enlargement of the blood-vessels, and thus to a great extent the progress of inflammation is arrested. Yet, notwithstanding this beautiful provision in nature, the horse is liable to be afflicted with diseases in the brain, from violent and injudicious exercise, and hard driving or riding in warm weather, which forces the blood to the head, and distends the arteries of the brain more than the veins ; and the consequence is, the small vessels which ramify the substance of the brain get gorged with blood, and then its bulk is increased to such an extent that it will produce undue pressure upon the organ of the nerves, which is followed by loss of power and even consciousness, and consequences of a very serious nature frequently follow. The same efiects are also produced by the curb-rein being too tight, or from the collar being too small. Symptoms. — The Megrims is the name of the simplest form of inflammation, arising from the above causes. This most commonly appears when a horse is over-driven. When attacked, he will suddenly stop and shake his head, having been seized with giddiness and a slight degree of unconsci- ousness. If allowed to stand for a few minutes, this will go ofi", and he will be enabled to proceed on his journey. But it not unfrequently happens that the attack is of a more severe kind ; and under such circumstances the horse will fall suddenly, or in other cases will run round several times and then fall. Sometimes he will lie quietly in a state of complete torpor ; at other times he will struggle with great violence, and yet be unable to rise. In either of these conditions he will continue for from five to ten minutes, when he will gradually resume sensibility, and then will be able to get on his feet, and may then proceed on the journey. But after these attacks he generally exhibits symptoms of duiness and exhaustion. MEGRIMS. 7 Remedy. — Immediately after the first attack of this disease, recourse should be had to bleeding. Three or four quarts of blood from the neck generally have the eifect of arresting the symptoms. Another method is to cut the palate, which will permit a sufficient flow of blood to have the desired effect, that is, from two to three quarts. This, of course, should only be resorted to if the driver happens not to possess a lancet at the time the horse is attacked. The bleeding place of the palate is in a direct line between the middle and second cutting teeth, and situate a little more than an inch within the mouth. Here the vein and artery make a curve. A sharp penknife may be used, and cut down upon the spot where they intersect each other. The result will be a plentiful flow of blood, and which will stop of its own accord when two or three quarts have issued forth. In consequence of the artery being cut across, it will shrink and speedily cease to bleed, and the application of a sponge, or piece of rag and cold water, will stop the bleeding of the vein. In this operation the nerve is generally divided, but no bad eflects will result from it. If the cut is made a little too much on one side, and nearly opposite the second incisor tooth, it is possible the artery may be wounded longitudinally, but not divided, in which case there may be great difficulty in arresting the flow of blood. The most effectual method is to make a large and compact pl-edget of lint or tow, which should be rolled round a piece of twine, and then firmly tied round the front teeth, and its pressure on the surface of the bleeding part will generally stop it ; but should this prove ineffectual, then a gag may be constructed so as to press upon the pledget, which is sure to stop the bleeding. It is only when a horse is on a journey that the above mode of bleeding, by cutting the bars of the palate, is to bo 8 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. resorted to, because there is no way of ascertaining the measure of the blood, nor can the degree of inflammation be satisfactorily investigated. Therefore it is only in cases of necessity that it is to be applied, as it may not only occa- sion much pain to the horse, but also a great deal of trouble to the operator. The ordinary mode of blood-letting is preferable in all cases. Immediately after the first attack, three or four quarts of blood should be taken from the vein of the neck. A short time afterwards, give a dose of physic, m the form of a ball, consisting of the following ingredients : — Barbadoes aloes . . 1 ounce. Ginger ... 2 drachms. Calomel . . .2 drachms ; to be beat up in a mortar with a sufficient quantity of honey, so as to form them into a ball, which must be administered in the manner we direct under the head of " Medicines." The Megrims is a very dangerous disease, not only to the horse but also the driver, as in many instances the horse will die instantaneously, and frequently drop without the slightest previous indication of illness. If a horse has had one attack of this malady, he is liable to a return of it ; and after a second attack, although proper means have been adopted to prevent a. recurrence of it, the most prudent plan is to part with the animal, as he can never afterwards be depended upon. THE STAGGERS, OR APOPLEXY. Symptoms. — The premonitory appearances are a low hang- ing of the head, and either supporting it on the manger, or extending it nearly to the ground. He moves to and fro while standing, and seems liable to fall at every movement. Ilis siglit and hearing are much impaired. He will remain THE STAGGERS, OK APOPLEXY. 9 in this condition from one to twelve hours ; he then falls His eyes are open and protruding, with a fixed, seemingly unconscious, stare, with the pupils much dilated ; he grinds his teeth, the whole frame manifests twitchings, the vein of the neck is inflated, his muzzle is cold, and in attempting to swallow, the drink is returned by the nostrils and mouth, and he dungs involuntarily : strong convulsive twitchings follow, and these are the certain preludes to death. In the first stages of the disease it comes on progressively, with depression, sleepiness, and feebleness, which is distinctly indicated by dulness of the eye. As it increases, he presses his head against the wall or th*^. rack, and when aroused from this position he seems alarmed. Causes. — A deranged state of the digestive organs is the most ordinary cause, and this is the effect of over-feeding in many cases. Some persons are so foolish as to suppose that horses may have as much grain as they can eat, and that it will do them no harm. This is a serious mistake ; because, even without the aid of water, the grain will swell in the stomach, and from being completely overloaded, in- digestion follows, the stomach being too much distended to be able to perform its ofifice. Hence the head is affected ; as in the animal economy a very intimate connexion exists between the brain and stomach, each reciprocally influencing the other. The want of air and exercise with horses which are highly fed also tend strongly to derange the stomach, more especially during warm weather. The bracing in- fluence of exercise being wanting to give energy to the actions of the intestinal canal, the food frequently lodges there. This is also caused by the food being bad. Another cause is irregularity in watering horses, as this element is peculiarly necessary to animals which live upon dry food. Every horse should be watered at least four tim.es during the e 10 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY day, and in some cases while working hard, more frequently, and in smaller quantities. IvEMEDY. — The horse must be bled copiously in the jugular or neck vein, taking at first from eight to ten quarts, as the animal will bear it. After some little time has elapsed, this should be repeated, but a less quantity of blood drawn off. If the lower intestines, or rectum, is overloaded with dung, the hand should be forced up the rectum, and the bowels relieved in this way. K the animal exhibits symptoms of relief, the following medicine should be administered, in the form of a ball : — Barbadoes aloes . . 1^ ounce, Calomel . . .2 drachms. Ginger ... 3 drachms, Jalap . . . -g- drachm ; these to be mixed with honey or treacle, in sufficient quan- tity to form a ball. Sometimes a clyster is useful, which may be formed of the following ingredients : — Oatmeal gruel . . 3 quarts. Common salt . . 3 ounces, Olive oil . . . -^ pint, or in its stead half-a-pound of butter. Or the following : — A decoction of mallows . 3 quarts. Lintseed oil . . . ^ pint. Treacle . . . -^ pound. These clysters may be repeated twice or thrice with beneficial eft'ect Blisters behind the ears, Cayenne pepper blown up the nostrils, as well as bark and spices given internally, are perfectly useless. Indeed the two former are ridiculous. MAD STAGGERS. .11 Should the horse sufficiently recover to be able to take food, boiled barley, scalded bran or oatmeal, and lukewarm water, should be given to him for some days until he is able to masticate hay, which ought to be of the best quality. This must, however, be given in small quantities until his bowels have been thoroughly purged out. This will be knoAMi by the appearance of the dung, which should be free from the small, hard, blackish balls, and of a yellowish colour. To complete the cure, the following purgative may be given : — Lenetive electuary . . 4 ounces, Cream of tartar . . 4 ounces. Purified nitre . . , ^ ounce, Treacle . . . . 2 ounces ; these to be dissolved in a quart of hot ale ; to be given the first thing in the morning in a tepid state of heat. This may be repeated three or four times, always allowing two or three days intermission between them. . It is hardly necessary to remark, that this disease is in general extremely rapid in its efiects, and the utmost promp- titude must be exercised in the remedies. In some instances the horse dies instantaneously whenever he falls ; but while he live, there is hope of a cure, however severe the symptoms may appear. MAD STAGGERS. Symptoms. — This disease proceeds from inflammation of the brain. In the earlier stages it cannot be distinguished from the sleepy or stomach staggers. It soon, however, assumes a different character. The nostrils become dis- tended, and he commences to heave at the flanks ; his eyes 12 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. assume a fixed, vacant, and wild stare, which is followed by complete delirium ; he becomes furious, and dashes about in a violent manner from side to side, being quite unconscious of his actions. The mad staggers are considerably alike in their symptoms to rabies or common madness, and also to colic. In the former of these maladies, the horse retains his consciousness, and the violence of his actions will depend upon the peculiar character of the madness. In some instances a desire to be miscliievous is manifested. In colic the horse rises and falls, although not in a violent manner ; sometimes, however, he plunges ; but in most cases he rolls himself about, and fre- quently looks towards his flanks with an evident expression of suffering pain. Causes. — This disease is caused by the animal being too fat, too full of blood, by the chyle having too strong a ten- dency to widen the vessels ; and especially when the horse is over-heated during warm weather. The fever produced thereby causes a determination of blood to the head, and thus terminating in what is generally denominated " brain fever." Remedy. — The treatment in this malady is at all times exceedingly uncertain. Profuse bleeding should first be resorted to by opening the jugular veins in both sides of the neck. The incision with the lancet should be large, as the more rapid the flow of blood, it is the more likely to prove beneficial in its effects. As much should be taken as will cause him to fall ; or if he is down at the time, until he manifests evident signs of exhaustion. After this the follow- ing purgative should be administered : — Newly- powdered croton nut . . -§• drachm, to be given in a drink of oatmeal and water. Every six hours thereafter doses of ten grains should be given, until the bowels are freely moved ; to assist in which, injections of RABIES, OR MADNESS. 13 warm soap and water should be often used. Or, the follow- ing, which is most to be depended upon : — Aloes ... 1 ounce, to be dissolved in a pint of water. Afterwards a quarter of an ounce every four hours until it operates. After this such medicines should be given as have a ten- dency to diminish the circulation : foxglove in drink of doses of one drachm each, every six or eight hours ; or, instead of the foxglove, tartar emetic in the same quantity may be given. If the above treatment does not immediately arrest the disease, death is sure to follow speedily EABIES, OR MADNESS. Symptoms. — While the horse is apparently in perfect health, he will of a sudden stop, be seized with a trembling all over his body, will paw the ground violently, heave heavily, stagger, and fall down. In a few seconds he will rise again, and proceed a little way on his journey, when he will again stand still, look anxiously about him, and will again come down. He will again get up, and is then seized with the most violent paroxysm of frenzy, attempting to bite other horses or his groom, and will kick and plunge. in the most furious manner ; and if in a stable, striking at the wall or sides of his stall, or indeed at any object which may be near him, until the perspiration stands upon his whole body like foam. The animal is seized with almost insatiable thirst. He will continue in this furious state until quite exhausted ; and will remain in a quiescent condition for some hours, when another paroxysm will ensue. These fits will succeed each other at intervals for two or three days, when a ter- mination will be put to them by death. I'i MAJN^UAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. It is neither safe nor mse to keep the horse alive under such circumstances. But if the owner is uncertain whether it is rabies with which his horse is afflicted, he should have him slung, which will prevent his injuring either himself or others. The symptoms, however, which we have above detailed are so marked in their character, that they can hardly be mistaken ; and the sooner he is destroyed the better, as there is no chance whatever of his recovery. Causes. — This incurable disorder is caused by the bite of a mad dog, or other rabid animal. Horses have also been known to be seized with rabies, simply from having licked the dog after death, the poison entering the circulation by a sore on the sides of the mouth. Eemedy. — When symptoms of rabies have manifested themselves, it is in vain to attempt a cure. But in cases where horses have been known to be bitten by a rabid ani- mal, or, under doubtful circumstances, the wound should be well and deeply burned with lunar caustic. TETANUS, OR LOCKED-JAW. Symptoms. — To the human being, as well as to the horse, this generally proves a fatal malady. This disease does not manifest itself of a sudden ; but generally steals over tlie system by slow or insidious means. It first developes itself by the animal appearing heavy and unwell for a day or two ; he feeds sparingly, frequently half chewing his food, and then drops it from his mouth. When he drinks, the water is gulped, in place of the ordinary mode of taking it. The action of the jaw becomes extremely imperfect, and the saliva trickles from the sides of his mouth. The mouth can at length be but imperfectly opened ; and ultimately, the V/hole voluntary muscles of the neck, head, and upper por- TETANUS, OR LOCKED JAW. 15 tions of the shoulders become immovably fixed. After this, there is no hope of the mouth being opened again, and the horse, if not killed, must die of starvation. In a short time nearly the whole muscles of the body are spasmodically affected. Causes. — This disease proceeds from a portion of the nerves being injured, in consequence of a wound having been sustained by one of the ligaments or the tendons. It sometimes comes on instantaneously, after the infliction of a wound, or sometimes a considerable time afterwards. Nick- ing and docking have frequently caused this affection of the nervous system. It is also often caused by the animal being allowed to cool suddenly when very warm. Worms have also been known to be the remote or proximate cause of tetanus. The bots have also produced it. The usual way in which this disease comes on seldom leads to a suspicion of what it is, as few who have not previously watched its progress can trace its character. Hence, it has assumed its climax before persons are aware of it. In this condition, therefore, it can seldom be cured, from the difficulty of administering medicines. Remedies. — Bleeding has been found to be efficacious in some cases. From eighteen to twenty pounds of blood may be taken from the jugular veins on both sides of the neck. If the cause of the disease has been from docking, the opera- tion should be repeated higher up ; and if from nicking, by making a deeper incision, by these means the spasms have been in many instances removed. Another mode is by ^^ounter irritation. Medicine taken in water should be next resorted to. The powdered croton is the most effectual, when the animal is capable of taking it in a drink. Half a drachm may be given at first, and afterwards from eight to ten grains at intervals of six hours, until it acts as a purgative. To faci- 16 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. litate this, injections containing a drachm of aloes dissolved in warm water should be administered. A few instances have occurred of this disease being remedied bj suddenly dashing pailfuUs of cold or very warm water against the animal. Strong blisters applied to the spine have also proved efficacious. Warm clothing should invariably be adopted in this disease. Should what we have above pointed out prove ineffectual, the use of opium should next be resorted to, in the following manner : — Opium, pounded to a fine powder, a quarter of an ounce, dissolved in a drink of about half a gallon of warm gruel. This to be followed by a drachm every eight hours, and accompanied by a drachm of aloes. If, however, the jaw is so rigidly fixed that the horse cannot swallow at all, then the above should be administered in the form of injections. The following purgative has also been found to produce good results : — Aloes ... 8 drachms, Oil of croton 2 drops. Soap 4 drachms, Oil of aniseed 30 drops, Treacle 2 ounces, Ginger 3 drachms ; the aloes, ginger, and soap to be well beat in a mortar, and the oil of croton and oil of aniseed added and beaten into them ; after which the treacle must be added, and the whole mixed with a pint of warm water. To assist in removing the costiveness which usually accom- panies this disease, the following injection should be given : — Olive oil . . .8 ounces. Laudanum . . .1 drachm. Water-gruel ... 2 quarts. In administering the medicine, it is necessary to exercise EPILEPSY, OR FITS. 17 considerable caution ; as the rigidity of the muscles occasion much pain to the horse if the head be elevated. If it is given in a liquid state, a long slender bent tube should be used ; it must be considerably curved downwards near the point, then an almost straight portion, equal to the length of the animal's mouth from the gullet to the internal termina- tion of the cutting teeth, and from this it should be suddenly turned up in nearly a perpendicular direction, for a foot in length at least, terminating in a funnel-shaped mouth. The perpendicular pressure of the atmosphere will force the liquid down the animal's throat. If the medicine is given in the form of balls, then it should be cut in small portions and stuck on the point of a very thin piece of whalebone, and in this way put down the throat. In tetanus, the digestive functions are not affected, and the poor animals suffer much from hunger. To keep up the system as far as possible, strong gruel should be given by the aid of the tube above described. See pi. XV. fig. 1. If, by any of the modes of treatment recommended the rfpasms are removed, the horse should be fed upon warm mashes of bran and oatmeal for some days ; and should the weather be mild he may be turned out in a field for a few hours in the middle of the day. EPILEPSY, OR FITS. Symptoms. — The epileptic fits in horses are, as in the human being, very sudden, of which no premonition is given. The horse suddenly stops, is seized with considerable trem- bling, looks around him with a vacant stare, and then sud- denly falls. This is followed with convulsive struggles of a greater or lesser degree. The head and neck are consider- ably contorted. The convulsions seldom last more than a f ?w minutes ; he ceases to struggle, and on the recovery of 18 MANUAL OF MODERiX FARRIET^Y. consciousness, he generally springs to his feet. If in the stable, the horse will immediately commence feeding. It is exceedingly unsafe to use a horse so afflicted, espe- cially in riding. Indeed we would strongly recommend that after having one fit, he should never be again used for the saddle, as if once attacked, there is every probability of a return of the fits. We shall not attempt to point out a remedy for epilepsy, as hitherto nothing has been discovered to prove a certain cure. Therefore, anything that may be attempted must be by a regular veterinary surgeon. PALSY. This is usuaUy occasioned by blows, falls, or racks in pulling loads which are beyond the proper strength of the animal, and also from inflammation in the intestines. It is? for the most part, situate in the hind quarters. It is there- fore evident that it proceeds from spinal irritation. Palsy is, for the most part, met with in draught-horses. Horses so afflicted seldom lie down either in the stable or field, as they have invariably considerable difficulty in getting up again. It seldom happens that this complaint is removed. Blisters, stimulating medicines, and friction are the most probable means to be applied. GLANDERS. Symptoms. — Of all the diseases incidental to the horse this is without doubt the most malignant, and most to be dreaded in a steed. The instant that there is any appearance of it, the horse should be immediately removed to a place by itself, as this malady is exceedingly infectious ; and from want of dde GLANDERS. 1 9 f^aution, when erven a suspicion is entertained, tlie most dis- astrous consequences have been the result. Although the glanders has been known to mankind and described for upwards of one thousand eight hundred years, yet, we lament to state, that little more is known of its proximate cause than at the time we have the first records of its history and treatment. Medical remedies have alle- viated the severity of the disease for a time, and arrested its progress, but it is certain to return and prove fatal at last, as it is doubtful if ever this malady was cured. There are various diseases which in their early symptoms have much the same appearance as glanders, and therefore it is necessary to watch these narrowly, as, of course, perfect recovery may follow. The very first symptom of glanders is a constant dis- charge of mucus from one nostril, clearer and of a lighter colour than in a common cold or catarrh, and more glutinous in its substance. If rubbed between the finger and thumb, it has a sticky feel. The discharge also difiers from that produced by catarrh, in being continuous, whereas in the latter disease, it is only discharged at intervals. The matter discharged in this disease difiers from that of a catarrh in its specific gravity. If a small quantity is dropped into water it sinks, and it will mix with the water on being stirred with it ; whereas the mucous discharge of a common cold swims near the surface and preserves its slimy consist- ence, although stirred, and will not commingle with it. A singular character of the glanders is, that it generally attacks one nostril only, and that is the left one ; only a few cases having occurred where it commenced in the right nostril. Mr. Dupay, a celebrated veterinary surgeon, and director of this school of surgery at Toulouse, mentions, that out of eight hundred cases of glanders, which occurred during his practice, only one was afiectcd in the right nostril. 20 MAXCAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. Shortly after the discharge from the nostril takes place, the horse is then affected in the glands of the lower jaw, which swell to a considerable extent, and ultimately become attached to the bone. Another character by which this disease will be known, is, that at no time is the discharge from the nostril accompanied by cough. Some considerable time after the discharge has made its appearance, the gluey substance will be seen accompanying the mucus discharge. It is this pus mingling with the other gluey matter which, absorbed by the circulating vessels and carried to the gland, affects it. However, in common catarrh, the glands are sometimes swelled. But in the real glanders the swelling generally subsides considerably in a short time ; and the glands are not in the centre of the channel, but adhere firmly to the jaw. This is a never-failing test of the disease ; and besides, it is quite certain that if the discharge flows from both nostrils, that it is not the glanders. At this stage of the disorder, the mucous membrane of the nostril becomes dark purple or of a livid colour ; sometimes of a tone intermediate between these two shades. In some instances there is inflammation of those parts, which varies from the common appearance, being of a purple cast, instead of the high red which usually accompanies inflammation. This is followed by the formation of small circular tubercles on the lining of the nostrils, and these in a short time ulce- rate and discharge pus. When this has taken place, there can no longer exist a doubt that the horse is glandered. Care must be taken not to mistake the lacrymal or tear-duct for an ulcer. This duct is a continuation of the common skin of the muzzle, which is situate a little way up the nostril ; while the ulcerated tubercles are placed upon the mucous membrane above the duct, and well marked by a line of separation. After the formation of tubercles the animal is certaiii io GLANDERS. . 21 have become constitutionally affected. His coat will stare and fall off; he will lose flesh, and his belly will be tucked up ; cough will follow ; the appetite will be much affected, accompanied by a rapid diminution of strength ; the tubercles will multiply ; discharge will be much more abundant, and will assume a purulent and bloody appearance, accompanied with a very foetid smell. The ulceration will extend down the windpipe, and the lungs will be in a very short time studded with tubercles. A test of the lungs having become affected, the breathing will be difi^icult, and a stifled, grating noise accompanies it, which is a certain prelude to death. A common catarrh has often been mistaken for glanders ; but a little attention will soon enable any one to perceive the distinction between those diseases. Catarrh is invariably accompanied by fever, sore throat, generally cough, loss of appetite, and a discharge from both nostrils, and, in most cases, very copious ; sometimes purulent ; the glands are generally swollen in both sides of the throat, are moveable and hot to the touch. The proper means being adopted, all the symptoms are abated. Strangles have also been mis- taken for glanders. This disease usually affects young horses only. At first they resemble a common cold, with a severe cough and wheezing, and accompanied with a considerable thickening and swelling between the jawbones. The swell- ings become harder towards the middle, and a fluid can be felt in their centre, which ultimately breaks, and a discharge flows from it. The mucous membrane of the nostrils is of a vivid red colour ; and an ample discharge continues, which is mixed with pus from nearly the commencement. The remote cause of glanders has hitherto baffled all the members of the veterinary art : its true history being still uu^known, and the unsatisfactory theories of medical authors 22 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. on the subject throwing no light on it, I shall abstain from dwelling upon that part of its history. Cause. — Ill-ventilated and not properly drained stables, we fear, are too frequently the remote cause of glanders. There the ammonia from -the urine fills the whole atmo- sphere ; this being constantly inhaled, ultimately produces a poisonous effect upon the lungs, in consequence of an undue quantity of oxygen being breathed. Besides, the con- stant irritation which it must naturally produce upon that delicate portion of the mucous membrane, which is the organ of smell, it induces the formation of those tubercles which, once formed, can never be eradicated. We find that glanders almost invariably breaks out in ill- aired stables, and which are besides kept too hot. Fracture of the nasal bone has also been known to produce this malady ; as well as a long-continued and inveterate catarrh, with a constant and irritating discharge from the nostrils, may assume the form of glanders. We find that in the lofty, well-aired stables of gentlemen this disease is comparatively little known, and when it does show itself in such, it has in all probability been introduced by some addition to his stud, of one or more horses previously affected. In such a case, all the other animals in the stable may catch the malady, as glanders is known to be highly contagious. In many of the crowded, ill-aired stables of London and other large cities, this disease is but too often an inmate, and frequently great havoc is made among the horses in conse- quence. Persons who are in the daily habit of riding to town, should bespeak a stall expressly for themselves in a livery- stable, because, by introducing a diseased horse, the infection may be caught by their horses, in consequence of any slight wound about the muzzle coming in contact with the crib, on which the mucus of the glandered animal has GLANDERS ^3 been left, and is thus carried into the circulation. All public stables should have high divisions between the stalls, to prevent the muzzles of horses from coming in contact with each other, horses being very apt to smell at one another in a stable, as it is by this faculty alone they recognise their companions. From an ill-judged piece of economy, many persons, after being aware of a horse being glandered, persist in keeping it in the same stable with others. Every hour is risking the health of all he possesses. It is the duty of every person, so soon as he is certain of his horse having caught this dis- ease, to destroy it as speedily as possible. For, although a glandered horse may be able to work for a considerable length of time under the influence of this disorder, he will find ultimately that it is a bad piece of economy to keep him under such circumstances. Many persons who have lost their horses by this disease have resorted to extremes to prevent a continuance of it. Some have even gone so far as to pull down their stables, and others to remove their racks, mangers, and partitions. It is quite sufficient if the mangers and other parts which the discharge from the nostrils have touched, is well washed with a scrubbing brush, with a strong solution of soda and water, and afterwards with chloride of lime, the propor- tion of which should be a pint-and-a-half to a pailful ot water. The walls may also be washed with lime and water, and all the halters, &c., destroyed, and the iron work painted. Cure. — We have already said that we have never heard of a well-authenticated cure of glanders. Hind says, *' Glanders have been cured spontaneously on a large scale, under our own inspection, solely by regular good living ; a fine sea-side country and moderate work being the only 24 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. adjuncts. With such an auxiliary, venice turpentine, dif- fused in steam at the nostrils, has removed recent cases of glanders, wherein the shankers were already visible, the dis- charge foetid, and the gland hard and fixed. To apply this remedy, m_ake a bran mash, hot, in which the turpentine is to be mixed ; attach this by means of a nose-bag to the horse^s head, and renew its warmth in a quarter of an hour by means of a pail of hot water, into which the bag is to be partially immersed. Afterwards cover the body, neck, and head, so as to promote perspiration ; but if this does not come on by those means, cover the body first in a large blanket wrung out in hot water ; rub dry, cover up, and repeat the same daily. In all such cases we have given salt in every form the patient could take it, in his feeds, in his water, and washed his nose and his legs with salted water. With the same view we hear of sulphate of iron being given in the water, the pail being suspended in the stable for the horse to drink at will." We have given the above, on the respectable authority of Mr. Hinds, but we have known it to be tried without eifect. Whether this loathsome and fatal disease has its origin in th-e deteriorated atmosphere of stables, is a problem which has not yet been solved. Little doubt, however, can be entertained, that a strong preventive is clean cool, well-aired stables, and exposing the horse as much as possible to the influence of the atmosphere. For we find that in Arabia, South America, and Circassia, where horses are not confined to stables, the disease is unknown. Caution. — All purchasers of horses at fairs, or from dealers with whom they are not acquainted, should carefully examine horses as to their having this disease. Because they, by infamous trickery, too frequently use means to deceive the lairchaser. It is vvell known that if a horse is galloped PARCY. 25 pretty sharply, that the increased action in breathing will thoroughly drive the mucous substance out of his nostril. And to make it continue dry for a time, they force a pledget a considerable way up the diseased nostril ; after having bloAvn powdered alum or white vitriol into it. But a little attention will enable any one to perceive that the animal is in pain, and will make ineffectual efforts to sneeze ; and the foetid smell, so different from other discharges, will at once convince even an unexperienced person that the horse is glandered. FAr.OY. Symptoms. — This disease is nearly allied to glanders. Some have supposed it a modification of that malady. This, how- ever, is a mistake, as they are essentially different, as we shall point out. We have given it as our decided opinion that glanders is incurable, but not so farcy. The first symp- toms manifested are the appearance of small tumours, popu- larly called farcy huds, or buttons, situate close to some of the veins and following their course, connected by a sort of cord ; and hence they are called corded veins by farriers and veterinary surgeons. At first they are generally very small, and consequently may not be noticed for some weeks, until they have attained their full size ; after which they usu- ally increase more rapidly, become hot, and cause con- siderable pain, and at length ulceration ensues. They first make their appearance about the face, neck, and throat ; sometimes extending to the inside of the thigh, and produce lameness, and considerable swelling of the limb. A foetid discharge generally pi'oceeds from both nostrils, which, in process of time assumes all the maiignant characters of glanders, and is equally as contagious. It sometimes happens that farcy is progressing in the con- !^o MAXUAL OF MODERN FAHRIERY. stitution long before the buds make tlieir appearance, or swelling along the course of the absorbents takes place. In some instances, the buds do not ulcerate, but assume a callous texture, in which case they are very difficult to reduce. At this period an apparent check to the disease takes place, and the horse seems to be quite recovered. This, how- ever, is only a delusion ; and although no symptoms of the complaint manifest themselves for a number of months, it is working in secret, and all at once breaks out in a most malignant form, and probably in a few days he expires under its influence. Sometimes a considerable swelling of the head takes place, especially in the region of the muzzle, and from which an extremely foetid mucous fluid is discharged. Various por- tions of the body exhibit mangy eruptions ; swellings in the limbs will follow, the heels will become cracked, exhibit- ing all the appearance of grease. The animal in most cases will become emaciated and weak. Farcy assumes many difierent appearances in its various stages. It is no uncommon thing for one of the hind legs to swell suddenly to a very large size, frequently upwards ot three times its natural dimensions, accompanied by abrupt projections and depressions, and which the poor animal will be unable to move. This is generally accompanied by a considerable degree of fever. The above swelling differs materially from that which is usually denominated farcy humour. In this the skin pre- sents a red and shining appearance, from the whole surface of which exudes a thin fluid, accompanied by great lameness. The fetlock is round, tumid, and smooth, and swollen as far as the heel. This disease is in consequence of want of proper exercise, and being over-fed at the same time. Pain- ful and disagreeable as this malady is, frequent fomentations FARCY. 27 of a decoction of marsh-mallows, and smart doses of medicine, will speedily reduce the swelling, and especially if the swollen part is well rubbed, and the horse subjected to gentle exercise. Cause. — Bad stable management, want of exercise, and infection, are the causes of this complaint. There have been many occurrences of the disease which could not be accounted for upon any other principle than that it was contagious. In certain localities it has been known to be prevalent where horses could not have come into close con- tact with one another. Treatmejn^t. — In the early stages of farcy, the horse should be subjected to gentle doses of medicine. The following may be given as a dose : — Barbadoes aloes . 8 drachms, Castile soap . . 2 drachms ; formed into a ball, with liquorice powder, half-an-ounce. Others recommend the following ball in this early stage : — Corrosive sublimate . ^ drachm, Powdered aniseeds . 1 ounce ; mixed with sufficient syrup, and made into three balls. These to be continued for eight or ten days successively. But with some constitutions the above does not agree ; in that case, half-a-drachm of opium may be made into a ball with meal and mucilage, and given as a dose, but should it not prove effectual, the same quantity may be given in twelve or fourteen hours after the first, that is, if purging and staling is produced in too strong a degree. The above are doses for a horse of delicate constitution, but for horses of more robust habits, after a few days, the mineral substance may be increased to double the quantity, as well as the ani- seed. 28 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. The above applies to the stage of the disease when the farcy buds are unbroken. If any of them have begun to ulcerate, the welding iron should be brought to a dull red heat and gently applied to them. But if upon feeling that they are filled with matter, even if they have not ulcerated, they should be punctured with the welding iron. These should be carefully examined for some days afterwards, and if they exhibit an unhealthy spongy appearance, and a thin glary matter issues from them, then they should be fre- quently washed with the following lotion : — Corrosive sublimate . 2 drachms, Spirit of wine . . 4 ounces ; this wash should be continued until the bottoms of the ulcers assume a clear red appearance, and the spongy foul look has been dissipated. When this is the case, the matter discharged will have completely changed its aspect, and instead of being thin and glary, it will have become thick, and of a white or yellowish colour. Friar's balsam should now be applied to them, which will soon show its healing influence. During this time, should others of the buttons be found to contain matter, they must be treated as above directed. At this stage the disease will have attacked the constitu- tion, it will therefore be necessary to institute a more rigid medical treatment. The following is the best alterative : — Corrosive sublimate . 10 grains, Gentian ... 2 drachms, Ginger ... 1 drachm ; the above to be administered morning and evening, until the ulcers have dried up. But if this recipe acts violently as a purgative, or if the mouth of the horse becomes sore, one drachm of blue vitirol (sulphate of copper) may be substituted for the corrosive sublimate. FAECY. 29 It not unfrequently happens that one kind of medicine often administered loses its effect ; in such a case, tlie fol- lowing may be substituted for the above recipe : — Sulphate of t'opper . 3 drachms, Corrosive sublimate . 1 scruple, Powdered bark . . 2 drachms. Powdered ginger . . 2 drachms ; to be mixed with Venice turpentine, sufficient to form it into three balls, to be given morning and evening, as above directed. Probably in a few days the above must be made into two balls only, to produce the desired evacuations ; but should the intestines be moved too severely, recourse must be had to the opium ball, as formerly directed. During this treatment the horse should be kept apart from all others, and his food should consist of green meat ; but if in the winter season, carrots or potatoes, with the addi- tion of a moderate quantity of corn, with either of the kinds of food. He should be freely exposed to the air, and if in the summer season, he should be allowed to run in a field for four or five hours daily, but to be carefully stabled during the night, as his system, under the above course of medicine, will be open, and consequently very susceptible of the effects of cold. In the winter, when the weather is fine, he should be walked out for an hour in the middle of the day regularly. Instead of burning the ulcerated farcy buttons, some prefer applying the following escharotic mixture. JMuriatic acid . . 2 drachms. Muriate of mercury . 1 drachm. The above to be well mixed together, and then add. Pure water . . .4 drachms. Spirit of wine . . 6 drachms. Should it be found to produce too much irritation, then more water may be added. 30 MANUAL C? MODEri:s' FARRIERY. In applying the above, it should be done with a small bit of sponge or rag tied to the end of a piece of stick, as it will blacken the skin of the operator if touched by it, although immediately washed off, and the stain will continue until the surface of the skin is worn away. In cases where severe salivation ensues from the use of corrosive sublimate, (which is, in fact, a preparation of mer- cury,) which not unfrequently happens with horses of a deli- cate constitution, the following purgative should be given : — Epsom or Rochelle salts . 7 ounces. Sulphur . . -2^ ounces ; mixed with liquorice powder and treacle, and formed into a ball, to be repeated for two or three days. When farcy is attended with very great swelling, recourse must be had to bleeding, as well as to purgatives ; the limbs must be subjected to frequent fomentations with water, made as hot as the animal can bear it ; to be applied by soaking cloth in it, and wrapping it round the limbs. NASAL GLEET. Symptoms. — This is a constant discharge of a thickish fluid from the nostrils ; proceeding from the mucous membrane, wliich lines the internal cavity of the nose. This disease is frequently brought on by the effects of a long-continued discharge from catarrh or cold. It is un- attended with any feverish symptoms. The flow of tliis thick mucous gleet is often very considerable, and variable in colour. "When the horse is living upon green food, the discharge is of a bright grass-green colour ; but if his diet consists of dry food, and he is kept in the stable, then it assumes a very different hue ; varying from cream-white to brown, or straw-colour, and mixed with pus in some instances NASAL GLEET. 31 and in others mingled with blood. The discharge is some- times continuous, and at others it is only occasionally sneezed out. In the latter case it is generally thick, and when so, the disease is on the wane. If, however, it is of long dura- tion, it sometimes assumes a serous aspect, and may ulti- mately prove fatal to the horse. Cure. — Give the following medicine twice a day : — Sulphate of copper, or blue vitriol . 1 drachm, made into a ball with treacle and flour. Should this disease be attended with cough and fever, then the following draught must be prepared : — Lintseed .... 1 pint. Treacle .... 8 ounces, Vinegar .... 1 pint. The lintseed must be soaked or decocted in hot water for three or four hours, kept close to the fire, or on the hob of a grate. Let it be poured off, and the quantity of this tea which remains must be six pints. Then add the other ingredients. Give the horse half-a-pint from four to six times during the twenty-four hours. The above tonic, consisting of sul- phate of copper, should be continued along with the cough mixture. Should pus be found mixed with the nasal dis- charge, and the smell be disagreeable, then the following tonic medicine must be given : — Sulphate of copper . . 1 drachm. Gentian ... .2 drachms, Ginger .... 2 drachms, Treacle . . . ^ ounce; to be administered in a single dose, and repeated daily while the above symptoms continue. But if not removed in a few days, there is reason to expect that it will terminate in glanders. 32 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIER \^ POLYPUS. This a long worm-like substance which grows in the nos- trils, and although not painful, is attended with disagree- able consequences by obstructing the breathing, and often proves very annoying to the animal. We need not treat more of its cure or otherwise, as it can only be removed by an operation, which requires the aid of a skilful veterinary surgeon. LAMPAS. Symptoms. — This is disease of the palate : the lower bars, or those next the muzzle, sometimes swell to a great extent, frequently parallel with the cutting edges of the teeth. It is a painful malady, and the horse has much difficulty in eating while under its influence, from the pressure of the food. Young horses are most liable to it. Cause. — It is supposed in many instances to arise from inflammation in the gums, spreading to the approximating bars, especially when young horses are shedding their teeth. It is also produced by young horses having fever, brought on by over-feeding, especially after being removed from grass to a stable diet. Eemedies. — In most instances this disease will go ofi" with- out medical aid. Slight purgatives and some mashes will facilitate its removal. The animal will also be relieved by a few slight cuts across the bars. This may be done with a penknife or lancet, only the operator must keep clear of the palatine artery ; the situation of which will be obvious by a reference to plate in., fig. 1.e,e. This will allay the inflam- mation, and alleviate the pain which the animal sufiers. It is a common practice with farriers to burn the bars with a red-hot iron, a mode of treatment which cannot be too much deprecated. THE STRANGLES. 33 THE STRANGLES. Symptoms. — This is a disease incidental to joung horses, and few colts escape it. Occasionally it attacks old horses, in which event it is more difficult to cure. The usual period at which this disease shows itself is in the fourtli and fifth years, although it is by no means uncommon to attack horses two years earlier. High-fed colts are more liable to be seized with it at an earlier age than those which are kept upon a lower diet. The first symptom is cough, differing but little from that of a common cold, only that there is a more abundant discharge from the nostrils, which is of a yellowish colour, and unaccompanied by a disagi'eeable odour : it is also in most cases mixed with matter. There is, besides, a profuse discharge of slimy, stringy fluid from the mouth. The membrane which lines the nose is intensely red. It will be found that considerable swelling has taken place under the jaws and accompanied by fever, which is distin- guished by want of appetite, a quick pulse, and a hot mouth, a general weakness of the whole frame, producing a dejected appearance. There is likewise a quick motion of the flanks, and coldness in the ears and limbs. The swelling is in the form of a tumour between the jaws ; increasing with various degrees of rapidity, occupying nearly the entire space, and gives pain to the horse when eating ; he besides manifests a great disinclination to feed. This is accompanied by much thirst, but the swelling prevents him from indulging in water, and having swallowed a mouthful or two he desists. After which, and even after eating, he is frequently seized with a spas- modic cough, with suffocating symptoms. The swelling is one uniform body, and consequently differs from the enlarg-e- ment of the glands in catarrh and glanders. Cause. — Neither the remote or proximate cause of thia F 34 MAX UAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. complaint are known. It appears to be in some degree analo- gous to the small-pox in the human being ; and having passed through it, the constitution of the animal seems to have undergone purification and improvement. In some instances it has affected the animal in so mild a form, that it has passed through its various stages and gone off witli- out much inconvenience to it, or any remedial means what- ever having been employed. Contagion seems to have nothing to do with the disorder. Every horse has this complaint once during his life, and once only. Remedies. — As the principal source of the complaint con- sists in the swelling between the jaws, the first thing to be attended to is, to bring the tumour to a suppuration. A sharp blister is the first thing to be applied. This, adminis- tered in time, will facilitate the discharge a week or two earlier than it would have taken place, if allowed to come to a period naturally. It will also have a tendency to draw out the inflammation from the mucous membrane of the throat, and cojisequently greatly ameliorate the cough. The old practice of applying poultices and fomentations were very ineffectual ap[)liances, from the great thickness of the skin of the horse. The following stimulating ointment may be applied with advantage after the removal of the blister : — Camphor . . .1 drachm, Hog's-lard . . .1 ounce. Oil of origanum . . -| drachm. Shortly after having been anointed with the above, a large and liot poultice may be applied, and both repeated twice a-day until the tumour is full of matter and is quite soft. It fre- quently breaks of its own accord ; but if it should not, it must be laid open with a lancet, from the bottom upwards. The matter must be well squeezed out, and the lips of the incision kept open with a piece of lint for several days, until THE STRANGLES. 3 J the matter is completely discharged ; otherwise, a second tumour may be formed, which frequently proves difficult oi' cure. After the matter is dislodged, a small quantity ol Friar's balsam should be injected into the cavity of the tumour daily. It will be found that where tumours break spontaneously, the lips of the wound, from having uneven edges, will be more difficult to cure. At this stage of the complaint, if there is no unusual degree of fever, the following laxative draught should be administered : — Barbadoes aloes . . .2 drachms, Castile soap . . .1 drachm. Common salt . . .4 ounces, Water .... 1 pint. If there is much fever, with difficult breathing, proceeding from an affection of the chest and the lungs, it will be necessary to resort to bleeding. But it ought to be clearly ascertained whether this oppression proceeds from the swell- ing of the throat ; for if it does so, then bleeding would be injurious, because it would have a tendency to retard the progi'ess of the suppuration. Cooling medicines will be beneficial at this time. Two or three doses of the following cooling prescription will be found beneficial : — ISi itre .... 1 ounce, Tartar emetic . . .2 drachms. If there is no fever, the animal will soon manifest a desire to eat. His food should principally be oatmeal gruel and bran- mashes, with a supply of green meat, consisting of cut grass, or tares. Should these not keep the bowels sufficiently oper^ — which is of great importance in diseases of this kind- then the above laxative must be given : this will have the effect of preventing eruptions, which sometimes follow the strangles; aLd notliing more will be required, if it operates freely. 33 MANUAL OF M0DER5 FARRIERY. If, however, tlie complaint is followed bj weakness, it will be necessary to have recourse to the following tonic medicine, which should be repeated daily until the horse recovers strength : — Ginger , . .2 drachms, Camomile . . .2 ditto, Gentian . . .2 ditto. In bad cases of strangles the parotid gland will swell to a great size, and even become ulcerated ; and in other in- stances an accumulation of fluid will take place, from swell- ing of the duct, and cause the vessel to burst. In this event a fistulous ulcer will follow, which will be found very difficult to eradicate. In such a case, it will require the aid of a regular veterinary surgeon, as an operation must be had recourse to, which no one but a regular and experienced practitioner will be able to perform. Strangles seems incidental to almost every horse ; and as it is a complaint which is often of long continuance, foreign veterinary surgeons conceived the idea of inoculating to produce a milder degree of the disease. This they performed either with part of the discharge from the nostrils, or Avith matter from the tumour. In many cases , tliis has had a most beneficial result, being both shorter in its duration and milder in its effects. CANKER AND AYOUNDS IN THE MOUTH. It is but a too common occurrence, that the sides of the mouth and other parts are wounded by the bit, which may be either too acute in its edges or may not fit. Frequently deep wounds are in consequence inflicted in the sides and inner parts, more especially between the grinders and the tuslies, on which the bit rests. It is no uncommon occur- rence for the entire flesh to be removed from bet^veen the DISEASES OF THE TONGUE. 37 tushes and grinders, and instances frequently occur of the hone likewise being so injured that portions of it have been torn away. It may be well conceived the very grea\/ pain this must occasion to the poor animal. Those ^vho have had even a very slight inflammation of the gums, will readily have an idea of its sufferings. Ever}' man of feeling will make it his first study to see that the bit fits the mouth of his horse properly, and that it in no way can injure either the sides of the mouth or palate. Even his own comfort ought to dictate this ; for no horse can perform his work pleasantly while he is suffer- ing from an irritation in the mouth. When the owner of a horse finds that the bone of the jhw is injured, he should immediately apply to a veterinary surgeon ; but wounds and ulcers may be cured without the aid of a practitioner. The most simple remedies are tincture of myrrh, diluted in an equal proportion of water. The parts should be frequently washed with this ; or, dis- solve an ounce of alum in a quart of water, and use it as a wash. If the wound has become a settled ulcer, and looks foul in the edges, then it should be touched with lunar caustic, or with the liquid nitrate of silver, which will stimulate it and cause it to heal. At the same time the above wash should be applied to the parts. It will be proper to give a dose or two of the laxative mentioned at page 30, in the case of Farcy. DISEASES OF THE TONGUE. TONGUE BLADDERS. Symptoms. — A careful groom will occasionally examine the interior of the mouth of horses under his charge. If he notices any swelling of the tongue, he must ascertain from whence it proceeds ; or his attention may be directed 38 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. to this organ by a discliarge of ropy saliva from the sides of the mouth. This will be found to have its origin in inflam- mation, caused by one large or many small bladder-like swellings on the under sides of the tongue, frequently extending its whole length. Remedy. — If these bladders are fully charged with matter, they should be opened with a lancet, from one end to the other, which generally puts an end to the com- plaint, and the swelling will quickly subside. Should any degree of fever remain, a few doses of the cooling pre- scription mentioned at page 30 should be administered. BITTEN TONGUE. It often happens that horses bite their tongues. This takes place generally during sleep. If the wound be slight, it will heal of its own accord ; but when of large extent, veterinary aid must be called in, as it would be unsafe for a person not thoroughly acquainted with pathology to attempt a cure. YIYES, OR SWELLINGS IN THE SUBMAXILLARY GLANDS, During catarrh it is no uncommon occurrence for these glands to become enlarged, and also after strangles. In such cases, stimulating embrocations may be used, which generally relieve them ; or they may, in most instances, subside, after tlie cause which has induced the enlargement has ceased. ^Ye would on no account allow operations to be performed for their removal. These swellings are readily distinguished from those which accompany glanders, by their being, for the most part, larger, less distinct, and occupying the centre of the space between the jaws, and in never adhering to the jawbones, as in glanders. DISEASES OF THE TEETH. 30 BARBS, OR RAPS. In inflammation of the mouth, produced by catarrh or any other cause, the ducts situated on both sides of the fraenum, or bridle of the tongue, sometimes enlarge, and a redness is to be perceived under it. No operation is neces- sary in this disease ; the only thing to be attended to is the removal of that which causes them. Unskilful and bigoted farriers often operate for the paps, but in this event the cure is worse than the disease, as abscesses are likely to follow operations, which years may not eradicate. GIGS. The sublingual glands are liable to inflammation during colds. They are situate under the tongue, or on its lower surface. They assume the appearance of small pimples when inflamed. If they ulcerate they should be washed with a solution of alum, or tincture of myrrh, which will always be found to heal them. Operations seldom fail to prove injurious. DISEASES OF THE TEETH. Little is known of the diseases of the teeth in horses. , It seldom happens that rottenness takes place. From the constant use of the grinders, in chewing grain and straw, they are often worn down, and their edges occasionally pre- sent a sharp and rough appearance. This cuts the inside of the cheeks. To prevent this they should be filed down. If from the above cause the cheek has been cut, and an ulcer produced, it must be frequently and carefully washed, either with a solution of myrrh, or alum and water ; and if it prove obstinate, nitrate of silver must be had recourse to. Sometimes the teeth grow irregularly in length, more especially the grinders. This proceeds generally from these 40 MARITAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. teeth not being placed immediately opposite to each other. Instances are not wanting where such teeth have grown three quarters of an inch, or sometimes more above the general level of the grinders or molar teeth ; and this press- ing against the bars of the mouth irritates them, and generally ends in ulceration. The only remedy for this is to file the projecting tooth down to a level with the others. Unless the ulcer is very deep and spongy, it will heal of its own accord ; but should it prove otherwise, its edges must be touched with lunar caustic or nitrate of silver, after it has been well washed out with a solution of alum and water in the proportions as recommended at page 31. It often happens, from want of attention on the pait of the groom in this case, that the horse will not take his food, and will in consequence pine away, lose flesh, and become quite dispirited. Teeth that have thus grown will always have a tendency to shoot out again, and must therefore be watched to prevent a recurrence of ulcers. In all diseases of the mouth horses will half- chew their food and then drop it, which is familiarly termed "quiddiiig their food." DISEASES OF THE LIPS. Few persons are aware of the very great importance of the lips of horses. They may justly be considered as the hands of that animaL Without their aid he could neither collect his food in the fields, nor even convey corn down his throat. To prove this, I shall give an account of an experiment which, was tried with an ass, to ascertain the extent of the use of these important organs. The nerves Avhich give feeling and sensation to the lips were divided, and instantly it was perceived that he was not aware when DISEASES OF THE EYE. 41 ho touclied food with them. They were entirely divested of motion, and he was in consequence unable to convey the oats, with which his manger was full, to his teeth. Com- pelled by hunger, he made a violent effort to lick up a few with his tongue, but they were nearly all rubbed off before they could be conveyed to his mouth. The angles of the mouth are frequently lacerated, and become sore by the smallness of the bit, and from the unmerciful dragging of a heavy hand in either riding or driving him, and also from the shortness of the snaffle. This frequently induces the poll-evil. The severe excoria- tion of those parts produces deep ulcers, which cannot be removed while the animal is worked. Washing with a solution of alum is one of the best curatives ; and if the sore is callous, it must be burned slightly on the edges with nitrate of silver. DISEASES OF THE EYE. In the horse the diseases of the eye are not numerous ; but they are of frequent occurrence, and often most difficult to cure. COMMON INFLAMMATION OF THE EYE. Symptoms. — This malady generally makes its appearance unexpectedly, accompanied by considerable swelling of the eyelids, which has the effect of partially closing them, and causes a discharge of watery matter, or tears. The lid exhibits inflammation, and some of the vessels of the eye- ball are gorged with blood. There will also be a dimness in the cornea. Cause. — This usually accompanies a catarrh. But it may also be caused by substances getting under the eyelid, such as a seed of hay ; or from a blow. When inflammation occurs, the eye should be carefully examined, so that the G 42 MANUAL OF MODERN FARPJEHV. cause may be discovered. This seldom affects the health of the horse, or prevents his feeding. Remedies. — The eye should be bathed with the following lotion : — Sugar of lead . . 1 drachm, Rose-water ... 6 ounces. If this does not speedily abate the inflammation, then use the following : — Tincture of opium, or laudanum -^ ounce, Water .... 1 pint. Or the following will prove equally efficacious : — Powdered leaves of digitalis . 1 ounce, Boiling water ... 1 quart. His food should consist of mashes, with mild doses of physic. Three or four days should remove the disease. OPHTHALMIA. Symptoms. — This is manifested by great inflammation in the eyelids, as also the cornea and aqueous humour and iris, all of which assume a dim appearance, and lose tlieir transparency. The animal can hardly open its eyelids from the pain produced by exposing the eye to the action of light. This disease is extremely difiicult to combat ; and after a month's constant treatment the eye will exhibit an alterna- tion of remission and increase of the inflammation day after day. One day it will have all the appearance of being nearly well, and on the next exhibit more unfavourable symptoms than it has before assumed : the gorged appear- ance of the inner membrane of the eyelid will be much abated, and the inflammation on the white of the eyeball will have nearly quitted it ; the hazy aspect of the cornea have assumed a certain degree of clearness, and to all appear- ance the malady has taken its departure. DISEASES OF THE EYE. 43 It seldom happens, however, that it is so, for in six weeks or two months we too frequently find the eye again affected with all its former redness, often worse than on the former attack ; or oftentimes both eyes afiected. Indeed from time to time a succession of these abatements and attacks will have succeeded one another, until a cloudy appearance and permanent opacity of the lens or capsule of the eye have taken place ; and confirmed blindness in one or both eyes is the final result. Cause. — The constant heated air of the stable may be considered the remote cause of this inveterate disease, to which all horses seem to be predisposed. The poisoned air is also a powerful agent in the propagation of ophthalmia. To these may be added the too frequent use of stables which are totally dark, so that when the animal is suddenly brought to the light, the abrupt transition produces a spas- modic efiect on the muscles and vessels of the eye, and will cause that excessive inflammation which accompanies this disease. Eemedies. — When this disease first makes its appearance, the inside of the eyelids should be freely lanced, which often has the efiect of stopping the complaint. The horse should then be put upon a low diet, and gentle purgatives administered. Bleeding at the jugular-vein or temporal- artery has often proved beneficial in diseases of the eye. When the cornea presents a cloudy appearance, bleeding and cooling medicines are the most likely to relieve it ; and then use some exciting means to give energy to the absorb- ents. For this purpose the eye should be washed with a weak solution of corrosive sublimate, viz., two grains of the sublimate to an ounce and a half of water. If opacity of the lens has taken place, we are not aware of any means of removing it. 44 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. THE HAW. It is no unusual thing for a thickening of this part to fake place, and it will then protrude itself on the fore part of the eyeball. In this disease the retractor muscle pulls back the eye to protect it from the irritating effect of the light, and this thickening of the haw pushing it forward, and the adjacent parts being also thickened, no retraction can take place. The practice of cutting out this is exceedingly absurd, and ought never to be resorted to. It is intended for pro- tecting the eye against dust or insects. In former times few farriers understood the use of the haw ; and even yet it is surprising how few are aware of its value to a horse. In cases of inflammation of the eye ; it sometimes itself becomes inflamed and increased in dimensions, and the contiguous parts likewise thickened. This either forces it out of its place, or it is voluntarily produced to protect the eye from the action of light. In some cases it does not return into its place, and has been mistaken for a tumour or extraneous excrescence, and has been cut out by ignorant persons, and the eye consequently left unguarded. Bleed- ing, gentle physicing, and cooling applications will invariably effect a cure. The lotion pointed out at page 35 should be used. In some instances, vv^hen the inflammation is long-con- tinued, ulceration of the haw and destruction of the cartilage ensues. The above lotion ought first to be applied to it. Should this not stop the ulceration, then use the following : — White vitriol . . , -^ ounce, Water .... 3 ounces ; and if it becomes callous, a weak solution of nitrate of DISEASES OF THE EYE. 45 silver should be applied to it. If this proves ineiFectual, then it must be extirpated by a regular veterinary surgeon. ERUPTION ON THE EYELIDS. Symptoms. — The edges of the eyelids are occasionally affected with scale-like eruptions. This is always attended with great itching, which causes the horse to rub his eyelid against any projecting part within his reach, in the perform- ance of which it often happens that the animal injures the eye itself. Remedies. — The edges of the eyelids should be anointed with the following : — Nitrated ointment of mercury ^ ounce, Hogs* lard . , . ^ ounce, Bees' wax . . , ^ ounce. A few applications will generally produce the desired effect. WARTS. The eyelids are sometimes affected with warts, which are very irritating to the animal in consequence of his rubbing them on some prominent part : this causes them to bleed, and increases their number. They should be cut off with a pair of sharp scissors, and the roots touched with nitrate of silver, lunar-caustic, or blue vitriol. GUTTA SERENA. Symptoms. — This exhibits itself by an extraordinary dila- tion of the pupil, which becomes immovable, and has a bright glassy appearance. This is caused by a paralysis of the optic nerve, or the surface of the retina, (or mirror of the eye,) occasioned by a determination of blood to the brain, 46 MAXUxVL OF MODERN FARRIERY and its consequent pressure on the optic nerve or on the retina, and thus destroying its function. Cures in this disease are very few in the horse. Bleeding, medicine, and the rowel have been mentioned as remedies ; but from the nature of the disease we have but little faith in them. Indeed we doubt if ever the cure of a confirmed case of gutta serena, or glass eye, has ever been efiected. Bleeding, when determination of blood to the head is suspected, may prevent this malady ; but after the pressure on the optic nerve has produced the dilation, I consider the case hopeless. GENERAL BLINDNESS AND IMPERFECT VISION. No subject is of greater importance than the state of a horse's organs of vision, and ought to occupy the first attention of a purchaser ; for blindness, or a partial defect in the eyes, may lead to many unpleasant consequences to the proprietor, whether in riding or driving. It will require considerable knowledge of the anatomical construction of the eye to enable any one to judge correctly of its perfection or defects. Independently of the beauty of a prominent eye, it is of much importance that the cornea should possess considerable convexity ; but this must have a limit. If very prominent, the rays of light will be too convergent, which will cause indistinct vision ; on the other hand, if the cornea be small and flat, the rays may not be sufficiently convergent, and consequently will render the vision imperfect. A horse is unsafe with either of these defects, both in riding and driving, as he is certain to start at objects which suddenly present themselves, or he may quickly bolt round, and in cither case may over-balance the rider, or upset a vehicle. The cornea should, therefore, be moderately convex, perfectly transparent, and totally free from all opacity or DISEASES OF THE EYE. 47 cloudiness over its entire surface. The best method of examining this organ is to place the cheek of the scrutinizcr close to the cheek of the horse, both behind and under the eye, and the latter position is the most advantageous to see it thoroughly. The open air is not favourable for such an examination. The head of the horse should be a little within the doorway of a stable, and by looking outwards any defect is rendered more visible. If any faint whitish, milky-like streaks be noticed passing over the cornea, it is certain the animal has had inflammation in that portion of the eye. But, should the centre part of the cornea be per- fectly transparent, and yet the margin of it, where it unites with the sclerotica, have a hazy ring, it may be concluded that this has been occasioned by recent inflammation, and consequently the eye will be predisposed to a return of it. During the operation of thus inspecting the eye, no white or pale-coloured object should be near, as its form and great transparency are very likely to reflect these rays, and may deceive the person examining the organ. Attention to the dilation and contraction of the pupil will materially aid a person in the detection of blindness or otherwise. When the cornea and crystalline lens are quite transparent, with the retina paralysed, and of course not liable to be afiected by light, blindness in one or both eyes will be extremely difficult of detection. It generally hap- pens, when a horse is totally blind, he has a constant and rapid motion in his ears. He also lifts his feet high, as if some obstacle presented itself, and he puts his feet to the ground with a cautious uncertainty. Particular attention should be directed to the pupils of both eyes, and to noticing Avhether they are both of a size while he is in the stable ; and as he approaches the door, observe whether both pupils contract equally as they are subjected to the stronger 4S MANUiL OF MODERN FAIlAlEicY. light. If, however, the horse is examined in the open air and distant from a stable, place the liand over one eje, and then observe, after it has obscured it from the light for a little while, whether the pupil contracts. Repeat the same experiment with the other eje also. FRACTUKE OF THE SKULL. The admirable construction of the skull of a horse, as will be seen in our anatomical description, renders a frac- ture a thing of rare occurrence. And such is the force required to produce such an effect, that it almost invariably proves fatal by injuring the brain. Horses that rear, and in that act fall, sometimes fracture their skull, and in some instances blows inflicted by their grooms with a heavy weapon may have the effect of fracturing the skull. There is little hope of a cure, except with the assistance of a regular veterinary surgeon. But in case one is not to be had immediately, the parts of the bones should be replaced and held together by the aid of adhesive plaster. Bleeding and low feeding must be resorted to, together \nth small doses of medicine. CHAPTER II. DISEASES OF THE NECK AND CONTIGUOUS PARTS. POLL-EVIL. Symptoms. — This disease consists of an inflammation of the muscle over the poll-bone and the first vertebra of the neck. It generally extends under the ligament of the rOLL-EVIL. 4 [} neck which passes over the atlas-bone. This ligament is not attached to the bone, and the disease is consequently seated between it and the bone itself. It is being thus deeply seated which frequently renders it so difficult to cure. Before the swelling becomes very conspicuous, the part is very hot, and painful when touched, which can easily be noticed from the motion of the horse. Cause. — The poll- evil is too frequently occasioned by a severe blow on the poll of the neck, given by ill-tempered and unmerciful riders or grooms ; at other times it is brought on by the horse striking his head against the manger, or by the ligaments being too much stretched by severely tight reining. But, from whatever cause the malady proceeds, it frequently becomes exceedingly troublesome and tedious to cure. Remedies. — Before suppuration takes place, every means should be adopted to suppress the inflammation, and, if possible, to disperse the swelling. Medicines of a laxative kind should be administered, and bleeding resorted to, and also cold lotions applied. This treatment will often have the effect of reducing the tumour. But if it is found that the swelling continues in spite of these, other means must be resorted to, and applications to facilitate the ripening of the tumour must be adopted. This will be best effected by poultices, warm fomentations, and stimulating embrocations. Care must, however, be taken not to allow suppuration to ensue of its own accord. The progress of the disease must be narrowly watched, and when sufficiently advanced, which will be known by the softness of the tumour, it must be opened with a lancet, and afterwards kept open by means of a seton. The needle, with the cord attached to it, must penetrate the apex of the ulcer, and be forced out a little way below the bottom of the abscess, so that no mattei" 50 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. can' possibly collect in and lodge there. Gentle pressure should be used to squeeze the whole of the matter out. After this nothing more will be required except to keep it clean and occasionally fomented with warm water. If taken at an early stage of the disease, what we have recommended will generally effect a cure. On the other hand, should the ulcer spread and deepen and affect the ligaments of the vertebrae of the neck, the edges of the wound must be stimulated by nitrate of silver or caustic, to induce a healthy action into the muscular fibre, and excite it to granulate. When the interior of the abscess has assumed a callous appearance, it may be necessary to syringe it out with a very weak solution of nitrate of silver mixed with rose-water. Should this not have the effect of inducing a healthy condition, then it will be necessary to have the services of a regular veterinary surgeon. It is sometimes requisite to divide the ligament which passes over the occipital bone, in order to expose the interior of the abscess to the action of caustic applications. But no danger to the horse will result from this, as perfect re-union of the divided ends of the ligament will take place in two or three days. The cord used as a seton should be wet with the following mixture : — Corrosive sublimate . . ^ drachm, Spirit of wine . . 2 ounces. The cord should be cut off and united at both ends by wrapping a thread round it, and pulled round several times during the twenty-four hours, taking care to wipe the part which has been in the abscess, and also to wet the por- tion whi(;h is to remain in it for a time, with the above solution. ROARING. 5 1 When all the swelling has subsided, and the tumour becomes flattened, and the matter assumes a thick white appearance, the seton may be removed, and the ulcer dressed with the following ointment : — Digestive ointment . . ^ ounce, Nitrated ointment of mercury, I ounce, Bees'-wax . . . i ounce. The wound should be washed with a lotion composed of Muriate of mercury . . -^ drachm, Lime-water ... 6 ounces. ROARING. Symptoms. — This is a disease arising from an affection of the larynx and superior portion of the windpipe. When a horse so affected has been hard trotted or galloped, he may be heard at some distance to utter a grunting sound. Or when he is standing, if touched suddenly in the loins with a whip or stick, he will involuntarily grunt or groan. Dealers are frequently in the habit of practising this test ; because, if a horse is moderately exercised or at rest, this complaint never manifests itself. Cause. — It is supposed to be produced by a thickening of the larynx and upper portion of the windpipe, in conse- quence of previous inflammation, and thus obstructing the passage and limiting its action. After strangles this disease frequently follows. Tight reining is also a common cause of this evil. By this the action of the larynx and superior muscles of the windpipe are circumscribed, and ultimately become semi-paralysed, with consequent loss of power and action ; therefore, the opening not being sufficiently capacious during the rapid breathing occasioned by violent exercise, the pressure of the air rushing through the circumscribed space, the sound is produced which has been absurdly termed 52 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. "roaring." The practice of what is termed coughing a horse, to ascertain the state of his wind, is apt to produce roaring. This is performed by subjecting the larynx or trachea to violent pressure by squeezing with the fingers. A horse so afilicted may be considered as decidedly un- sound. Remedies. — Should this disease be occasioned by previous inflammation, and a thickening of the parts have ensued, bleeding may be resorted to with some little effect ; but if from compression, produced by what we have hinted at, there is no possibility of remedies having the slightest effect. After bleeding, purgative medicines, which have a tendency to diminish the circulation, should be had recourse to. The following may be tried : — Digitalis . . • li drachm, Nitre ... 2 drachms, Emetic tartar . . 1 drachm. Aloes . . . li drachm. Blisters have been tried, and not without apparent success. When the disease has been of such a character as to threaten suffocation, the part supposed to cause the difficulty of breathing by obstructing the passage of the air has been cut down upon, and a portion of one of the rings cut out ; and others have introduced a breathing tube. OBSTRUCTION OF THE GULLET. Symptoms. — In this malady the gullet has become con- tracted, which compels the horse to swallow its food in small quantities, and that with much difficulty, giving the animal the appearance of choking when in the act of swallowing. Sometimes the stricture is near the upper portion of tlie gullei^ : in which case an experienced veterinary surgeon INFLAMMATION OF THE JUGULAR VEIN. 53 may devise some remedy ; but if seated near the en- trance into the stomach, little hopes can be entertained of a cure. Horses eating too greedily sometimes swallow their food in too large masses, and before it is properly masticated, which has in many instances lodged in the gullet, producing alarming symptoms of suffocation. Kemedies. — The first thing to be tried is to force the ball of food which obstructs the passage downwards, by the aid of the elastic tube used for the hove in cattle. Sometimes it cannot be dislodged even by means of this instrument. In that case the only other remedy is to cut open the gullet to prevent suffocation. But this operation need not be described, as it can only be successfully performed by a veterinary surgeon. INFLAMMATION OF THE JUGULAJl YEIK In the horse the jugulars are single on both sides of the neck, while in horned cattle they are double. Inflammation is sometimes induced in them after the operation of bleeding, directions for which we shall give hereafter. After bleeding has been performed, the practice is to bring the cut edges of the vein together, and to keep them in contact by inserting a pin through the skin above it, and twisting tow pretty tightly round it, so as to keep it from being removed. In a couple of days the wound will have completely healed in most cases. Causes. — A variety of causes may, however, operate to induce inflammation of the vein. Among these may be enumerated striking too hard on the lancet with the fleam, (an instrument used in bleeding,) or using a blunt or rusty lancet. In other cases, by pulling the skin too far from the neck while drawing the wound together, and thus allowing 54 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. space for the blood to insinuate itself into tlie cellular tissue ; or working the horse immediately after the opera- tion ; or neglecting to tie up his head for a short while after bleeding to prevent his removing the pressure of the pin from the wound, by rubbing his head against the manger ; and other causes. Symptoms. — The edges of the wound having separated, or being ragged, from the clumsiness of the operator in not penetrating the vein at the first blow, become swelled and inflamed, and discharge a thin fluid of a bloody appearance. In a day or two this will put on the form of matter. In- flammation to a considerable extent may ensue, with swelling of the muscle, and the vein will become hard, and feel like a cord, and increasing upwards, the contiguous parts will feel very hot. This is generally followed by a series of small abscesses over the seat of the wound. The cordiness of the wound gradually increases still further upwards ; and from the inflammation also following that direction, it fre- quently proves fatal to the horse. Eemedies. — Some veterinary surgeons, to stimulate the part, apply a hot iron to the margin of the orifice, which induces a union of its edges. Should this not prove effectual, and if the swelling is great and the abscesses have made their appearance, the next remedies are to inject a weak solution of nitrate of silver or other caustic liquid into the abscesses, or to introduce setons into them ; and should this fail, he should cut out the diseased portion of the vein. This operation will not be attended with any bad conse- quences ; for all the blood-vessels, whether veins or arteries, communicate with each other either directly or indirectly, in so many difierent ways, that an injury sustained by a portion of them is compensated for by the current of the blood INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS. 55 Bowing in another channel, which, although not so direct in its course, will not retard the necessary progress of the circulation. CHAPTER III. Dk EASES OF THE CHEST AND ITS CONTENTS. INFLAMMATIO]^ OF THE LUI^GS. Symptoms. — Of all the diseases incidental to the horse, that of inflammation of the lungs is the most prevalent, and certainly the most fatal. Sometimes this malady is sudden in its appearance, but in the greater number of cases fever is a premonitory symptom. In its early stages it is not very rapid, but is indistinct and heavy in its action, feeling vibratory under the pressure of the finger. In other instances it is hardly to be perceived, so languid is its motion. This is followed by dilated nostrils, coldness in the extremities, and heaving in the flanks, which clearly indicate an oppression in the breathing ; difiering, however, from the laboured and hard action of the lungs in fever, and also the irregular breathing in broken-winded horses, which appears as if it required two expirations for every inspiration of air into the lungs. In inflammation the pulse is quick, hurried, and irregular, caused by the pain which is felt by the animal at each attempt to draw in the air, giving the appearance of something being imperfect in the respiratory organs. The animal thrusts out his head, the mucous membrane of the nose becomes very red, especially in the inside angles of the nostrils, where it continues ; although at times it extends further up, from which position it may disappear, but still maintaining its chief seat in the lower portion of 5f) MANUAL OP Modern farriery. the nostrils. The animal expresses great anxiety in his look, and turns his head frequently and hurriedly round towards his flanks, more especially to that side where the inflammation has settled. He stands in a straddling manner, with his fore legs generally considerably apart. He seldom lies down, and when he does so it is but for a few minutes, remaining for days on his legs. It does not, however, always happen that the premonitory symptoms are the same, for in many cases inflammation comes on slowly and in an insidious manner. Perhaps the horse may be ofi* his feed and his coat will stare ; his breath- ing may be but slightly accelerated and abbreviated, with the legs a little colder than usual. Sometimes inflammation of the lungs is preceded by symptoms which are attendant upon common fever, catarrh, or the distemper. In such instances the true disease manifests itself in its full force when the groom or master of the horse least suspects it. The first manifestations are coldness in the limbs and ears, accompanied by the flurried pulsation and anxious look, with a seeming dread of lying down. This is soon followed by an irregularity and indistinctness in the pulse, and extreme coldness afiects the legs and ears. The nostrils become livid — he hardly seems to breathe — he grinds his teeth — and these may be regarded as the too certain symptoms of disso- lution ; staggering ensues, and he finally sinks in his stall. This last is a picture of that kind of inflammation of the lungs which has lurked in the constitution without exhibit- ing premonitory symptoms, and which in most cases proves fatal. There are, besides, cases in which the disease is so rapid that it will have undergone its entire stages in twenty- four hours. In this short time the entire mass of the lungs will have sufiered complete destruction. Such a case has been satisfactorily proved not to proceed from long and INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS. 57 deep-rooted inflammation, but assuredly from the very reverse. It has been caused by an extraordinary degree of inflamma- tion bursting the coating of the vessels and filling the air- cells with blood, and having thus instantly destroyed their functions. There are bad cases, which are not so rapid in their termination, but which are nevertheless equally fatal. This happens when no rupture in the vessels has taken place ; and although means have been adopted to take ofi" the pressure of the inflammation, yet these have been insufficient to produce the desired effect. In such a case the breath of the horse will be extremely disagreeable, with a running at the nostrils, which is a sure indication that mortification has taken place in the substance of the lungs, and that death will soon follow. Inflammation of the lungs will be distinguished from inflammation of the bowels, by the pulse in the latter case being small and wiry ; the mucous membrane of the nose not being so red, and by pains in the belly, which are indi-- cated by kicking, pulling, stamping, &c. Cause. — This malady is brought on by the numerous and sudden transitions from heat to cold, to which most horses are subjected. They are, under the careless and wanton folly of masters and grooms, often galloped, or otherwise worked and overheated, and then permitted to cool in the open air, or in the draught of a stable. The stable itself is also kept too hot, frequently from twenty-five to thirty degrees beyond that of the atmosphere ; and its air is but too often of an impure kind, and which being breathed affects the mem- brane which lines the cells of the lungs, This is weakened, and hence rendered susceptible of irritation and inflamma- tion from breathing an atmosphere which is impregnated with ammoniacal gas, generated by the manure and urine.- I Ob MAXUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. Eemedies. — The treatment for inflammation of the lungs must be immediate and decisive. As the disease is rapid, so also must be the means emxployed. Although its first symptoms may exhibit a mild character, yet we have seen how rapid they become in their after effects. To palliate it therefore would be absurd. Ample bleeding must be resorted to ; but the quantity of blood taken cannot be spe- cified, we must therefore look to its effects. He should be bled until his pulse begins to rise, and afterwards until it flutters, and the horse even faints from exhaustion. During the flow of the blood the pulse should be felt all the while to mark its progress. Five or six hours afterwards the horse should be examined, and if he still exhibits the symptoms of the complaint, viz., quick and laborious heaving of the loins, a stiffness in his attitude while standing, great coldness of the feet and redness in the membrane of the nose, bleeding must again be resorted to, and as amply as before, even until it is followed by the same state of exhaustion. Such treatment will generally have the effect of putting a stop to the disease ; although in obstinate cases even a third repetition may be necessary, but not to the same extent as before, as an exhaustion of the system may follow, and prove fatal to the animal. It is surprising how soon the blood which has thus been taken away will be restored. If after all this the cold symptoms still continue, it may be proper in two or three hours to take from one to two quarts of blood, so as if possible to rouse the action and prevent the inflammation from again returning. The state of the disease can be pretty v/ell ascertained from the thickness of the blood and the buffy, orange- coloured appearance of the surface some hours after it has cooled and congealed. Should we have so far succeeded in mastering the com- INFLAMMATION OF THE LUNGS. 59 plaiut, our next attention must be turned towards the general condition of the system. If the horse be costive, which is frequently the case in inflammation of the lungs, from four to eight ounces of Epsom salts, mixed with a gruel, will be found useful, and we must next have recourse to blistering, which should extend over the brisket and sides- And if there is any doubt as to the eradication of the disease having been effected, the following ball should be administered every day : — Soccotrine aloes . . 4 drachms, Tartarized antimony . 3 drachms, Saltpetre . . . -^ ounce, Powdered squills . . 1 drachm ; to be formed into a ball, with a sufficient quantity of coji- serve of roses. In blistering, the hair should be carefully shaved off, and the following ointment well rubbed into the skin : — Powdered Spanish flies . 1 ounce, Resin .... 1 ounce. Lard .... 4 ounces. Let the lard and resin be first mixed together, and the Spanish flies afterwards added. During the time that the inflammation is at its height the blister will seldom rise, the internal excitement over- coming the external one ; and a failure in its operation also accompanies exhaustion. In this case there is danger to be apprehended. When the inflammation has been brought down by bleeding, it is the most proper time for the application of a blister, which produces a counter irritation, and thus transfers the inflammation from the lungs to the skin. 60 MANL^AL OF MODERN FARRIERV. Cooling medicines must now be resorted to, and the fol- lowing doses may be given until an intermediate state of the pulse is induced : — Nitre ... 3 drachms, Emetic tartar . . 1^ drachm, Digitalis ... 1 drachm. This medicine is persisted in until the horse hangs his head and becomes half stupid, with a flow of saliva from his mouth. In less than twenty-four hours after this condition has been effected the disease will be found to have completely subsided. It is a great mistake to suppose that in this complaint the stable should be kept very close and warm ; for the very cause Avhich in a great measure operated in remotely inducing the disorder is again brought into play. Rather let warm clothing be put upon the horse, which will have a tendency to keep up insensible perspiration. After this the horse should be well rubbed down, and his legs in particular should have a smart application of tlie brush, in order to restore heat and an increase in the circula- tion, and then thickly rolled up with flannel to keep up the action. The rubbing should be repeated from time to time. The less he eats at a time the better. Corn must on no account be given. Green food and cold mashes may be set before him in small quantities. If the oppression in the breathing now subside, heat be restored to the limbs, and the animal lie down, these are sure indications of the symptoms having abated. The strength and appetite will now gradually be restored. But much caution should be exercised in not allowing the animal to take too much food, which might have the effect of inducing a return of the malady : green meat, or, if that cannot be had, a gruel of oatmeal, cold mashes, and a little hay should form his diet. But to restore strength where LOCAL I^'FLAMMATIO.\. 61 much exhaustion prevails, tonics should be given. The mildest should first be administered, and this is camomile, in doses of from one to two drachms. Afterwards — Camomile . . .2 drachms, Ginger . . .2 drachms, Gentian . . .2 grains. Should the animal continue to improve, his diet may be extended, and probably in three or four days he may have a small quantity of corn, which may be increased as his strength is restored. A cool and clean stable are the best means for preventing predisposition to diseases of the lungs, both of which should be scrupulously attended to. The heated air of a stable, and the poisonous gas arising from the dung, prove most injurious to the horse. LOCAL mFLAMMATION. Symptoms. — The symptoms of local inflammation are red- ness of the parts, heat, pain, and swelling. Causes. — The redness is induced by the increased flow oi blood through the vessels of the part afiected, in conse- quence of an increased action of the blood-vessels. The heat arises from the change gradually taking place in the flow of blood, passing from the arterial to the venous con- dition. So that if more blood be propelled through the capillaries, more heat will consequently be produced in that situation. Swelling is induced by the same means as the redness, namely, from a fluid being deposited in the contiguous substance ; and pain must be the efifect of dis- tention and pressure produced, and the consequent disarrange- ment of the nerves of the parts afiected. Eemedies. — Inflammation of every kind is caused by an increased flow of blood through the vessels of the part 62 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. inflamed ; consequently the remedy must be to reduce the circulation to its ordinary and healthy action. Bleeding is the first remedy to be tried, and, if possible, from a vein close to the inflamed part. But if none of the larger vessels are situated near it, then the jugular vein must be resorted to. If the inflammation is in the eye, the gorged vessels should be scarified, which will prove more efi'ectual than bleeding from the jugular ; or a quart of blood taken from the foot in Acute founder will do more good than four times the quantity taken from the jugular. But whatever part is afi*ected, or from whatever cause, let bleeding be immediately resorted to as the only sure means of checking inflamma- tion ; and although it may not remove it entirely, yet it is certain to mitigate its violence. From neglecting this most important remedy at an early stage, many horses have been lost ; and also from over-caution in taking too little at a time. Four quarts from so large an animal may be removed without hesitation ; and where the inflammation is great, the stream of blood should flow rapidly. To effect this a broad-shouldered lancet should be used, so that the wound in the vein may be ample. In whatever situation therefore the inflammation occurs, let the bleeding be immediate and plentiful. After bleeding purgative medicines must next be had recourse to, because the nmcous membrane of the bowels and coating of the stomach are in most instances afibcted sympathetically by a deranged action in any other part of the system. But should this not be the case, they may be otherwise irregular, which invariably increases all kinds of inflammation, and fever is induced, more especially where there is much retention. Purging has the effect of lessen- ing the quantity of the blood, by removing from it the serous or watery portion ; and, by determining the blood to EXTERNAL INFLAMMATIOX. 63 the bowels, the pressure is necessarily removed from the inflamed vessels. As it is a law of the animal economy that where the circulation is directed to one set of vessels it proportionally diminishes the flow in other parts of the system, purging, by producing laiigour and sickness, lessens the general excitement, and hence the pressure upon the circulation is circumscribed. In administering medicine in cases of internal inflamma- tion much caution and consideration are required, because what might be beneficial in some cases may be prejudicial in others. Purgatives in inflammation of the lungs and bowels ought never to be administered until the inflamma- tory symptoms have been removed, as there is such a strong degree of sympathy between the various organs enveloped in the cavity of the chest, that they are apt to be influenced by that which affects any of them, more especially if the inflammation is violent. EXTERNAL INFLAMMATION. Great difference of opinion prevails on the means of treating external inflammation. Cold embrocations and lotions were considered as the most proper remedies to be employed in this disease, being more likely to allay the heat of the part ; and there can be little doubt but they will speedily lessen the heat from the well-known principle, that caloric has a strong tendency to equalize itself, or to quit any substance which is surcharged with it ; conse- quently, by these appliances the increased temperature it? diminished in the part which is inflamed. The effect will be considerably heightened by dissolving two ounces of nitre in a quart of water, and applying it immediately after the nitre is fairly dissolved, the inflamed portion being com- pletely exposed to the process of evaporation. Nitre will 64 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. lower the temperature of the water many degrees below its natural condition. But it is questioned whether permanent benefit is derived from cold applications in cases of inflam- mation. Warm fomentations, although not so grateful as cold ones to hot swellings, will, however, be found to produce better results ; as they open the pores of the skin, and if applied as hot as the animal can endure it, will more readily take off the tension produced by inflammatory swellings. Poultices will have the same effect. These should be made of lintseed meal, with a little butter or lard spread over the surface, which will keep it moist for twenty-four hours. Blisters have also been successfully applied in deep-seated inflammations ; for, by creating inflammation on the surface, on the principle of counter irritation, it will have the tendency to lessen it in the other part, as great inflammation cannot exist in two parts near to each other. In inflam- mations of the chest, blisters will be found of much benefit. But these should never be applied to parts which are already inflamed. PLEURISY. Symptoms. — This disease is entirely confined to inflam- mation of the pleura or membrane which lines the chest, and hence its name. It has no connexion with the sub- stance of the lungs. The pulse is hard, but not oppressed. The extremities are cold, although not so much so as in ordinary inflammation, nor is the membrane of the nose so very red. If pressure on the sides is applied, the horse will feel pain, and express it by a quick and impatient grunt. The unwillingness of the horse to lie down will be manifested in this as well as in violent inflammation of the lungs. riEURisr. G!y Cause. — This disease has its origin from the same causes as inflammation of the lungs, viz., sudden transitions from heat to cold, &c. Remedies . — Immediate and copi(jus bleeding is the first thing to be resorted to ; and afterwards sedative medicines, administered in the form of gentle purgatives, which may be given with more safety than in inflammation of the lungs and ordinary inflammatory cases. If pleurisy is violent, it frequently induces dropsy in the chest, as in this complaint a fluid is thrown out from the vessels of the pleura, which, having no means of escaping, lodges in the cavity of the chest. When this is the case little good is to be expected from the animal, and it seldom happens that a complete cure is efi*ected. Sometimes the chest is punctured for it, which may carry ofi" the fluid ; but it too frequently proves an inefi'ectual remedy. When- ever it is suspected that water is formed, puncturing should be had recourse to, the opening to be made by the instru- ment called the i7vcha7\ The locality where it is inserted is the intercostal membrane, between the seventh and eighth ribs, and as close to the cartilages as possible. Diuretic medicines, in combination with tonics, should be given. The following will be found the best : — Turpentine • • • i ounce, Ginger • • . • i drachm, Lintseed meal . . -a ounce ; made into a ball with common syrup or treacle. Some persons consider the following better : — Powdered resin . . ^ ounce. Ginger . . . -^ drachm, Lintseed meal . . 2 drachms ; made into a ball with palm-oiL K 66 MAi\UAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. When attended with any degree of fever, the following should be administered twice or thrice a day instead of the tibove : — Digitalis . . 1 drachm, Nitre ... 3 drachms, Emetic tartar . . 1^ drachm. FEVER. Symptoms. — Fever commences with a cold and shivering fit ; the animal manifests great dullness, with a desire to be inactive ; his hair stands erect, or stares, and his legs and feet are cold ; the pulse is quick, hard, and unequal ; his mouth is hot, with a total loss of appetite, shivering, and a dejected appearance. This is followed by general warmth of the body ; an unequal distribution of heat to the limbs, sometimes one being hot while the other is cold. He becomes very costive, with turbid urine ; affected sometimes with colic pains ; but there is no cough, pawing, or look- ing back at the loins. If these symptoms are allowed to proceed unchecked, the membrane that lines the eyelid becomes unnaturally red ; the inflammation may then be considered as settled in some internal organ, and pure or symptomatic fever will have ensued. While this pure fever continues, the shivering fit returns daily, at nearly the same hour, and is followed by a warm one, and sometimes by a cold clammy sweat. This state continues for several days, and local inflammation ensues ; or the fever gradually becomes abated. Some veterinary surgeons have absurdly denied the possi- bility of fever in the horse, but those who have advanced such an opinion must have paid but little attention to tlie state of his pulse. Causes. — General increased action in the heart and arteries FEVEK. 6^ is the cause of fever, produced bj the sympathy of the sys- tem, induced by local inflammation ; or it may exist without any perceptible local affection. It is too frequently in- duced by bad stable management, the sudden changes from heat to cold, and the lungs having breathed impure air from the filth and confined atmosphere of the stable. Symptomatic fever is caused by increased action of the arteries. Inflammation of the lungs, feet, or any other part of the body is generally accompanied by fever. Eemedies. — The same general treatment which we have recommended in local inflammation will apply to simple fever. Bleeding until an impression is made upon the system, while the finger of the operator or an assistant is held upon the artery to mark its efiects. Gentle purgatives will be found beneficial, but strong ones exceedingly in- I'urious. The following must be given morning and evening : — Digitalis ... 1 drachm, Nitre ... 2 drachms. Emetic tartar . . 1 drachm. Aloes . . • li drachms. AVhen the costiveness has yielded to the above, then the aloes may be discontinued. The above may be slightly augmented or diminished, according to circumstances. Should they, from frequent repetition, fail to produce the necessary efiects, which will sometimes happen, then half- a-drachm of white hellebore may be given twice a day. Symptomatic fever should be treated in the same manner as simple fever, only that attention must be directed to the diseased part which caused the fever. If the inflammation can be subdued, then the fever will naturally abate, without other means being adopted. GS .M ANNUAL OF MODERiX FARIlIEllY STOMACH-STAGGERS. Symptoms. — This disease is indicated by the dull, stupid, sleepy appearance of the horse, and he staggers about ir liis stall. He seems unconscious of what he is doing, and if roused from his lethargy will probably take a mouthful of hay, in a few seconds desist from chewing, and the hay will fall from his mouth. Many instances have occurred, when the disease has been allowed to acquire an ascen- dancy, that the horse would drop down and die while in the act of eating. In other cases the drowsiness goes off, and is succeeded by delirium ; and after falling, rising, and staggering about, will die in convulsions. The stomach- staggers are indicated by a twitching in the breast, and a yellowness in the eyes. Cause. — Over-feeding is too often the cause of this sad disease, and especially if the food is of a bad quality. Careless servants will too often neglect a horse ; and after- wards, by food being placed before him while ravenously hungry, he will swallow it rapidly and in too large quantity, without being properly masticated, consequently it svrclls in the stomach, and thus stretches it far beyond its natural capacity : its action is thereby impaired ; the consequence is, tlie brain is unduly acted upon, and giddiness and drowsiness induced, which occasion staggering. Besides the horse being allowed to eat in this manner, the groom may neglect to give the animal water to assist it in con- verting it into a pulp and facilitating the operation of digestion, the natural juices of the stomach, from its gorged state, being inadequate to the performance of their office. Remedies. — Before remedies are attempted it must first be ascertained what has caused the staggers ; as the mad staggers present exactly the same symptoms in their early STOMACH- STAGGERS. 69 stage. In this disorder, as may well be supposed, medicine will have but little effect, from the gorged condition of the stomach. Some veterinary surgeons recommend bleeding ; but we have never found this attended with any beneficial effects, as what must naturally debilitate the system can hardly be expected to aid the action of the stomach. Probably the safest plan is to allow nature to work its own cure, by abstaining from giving food. But as we know of no certain remedy for this disease, we should carefully guard against promoting it. It is no uncommon occurrence for farmers and others keeping a number of horses to lose several of them within very short periods of each other v/ith this malady, from which an opinion prevails with many that the staggers is contagious. Nothing can- be more erroneous than this belief, as it is quite certain that the complaint is induced by bad stable management, or by feeding the horse with unwhole- some food, or in the horse feeding too voraciously, as already mentioned. This disease is more common with old horses than others. We would strongly recommend the owners of horses to give some attention to the following : — Too much food given at one time after long fasting or hard work, and neglecting to give the animal water, is almost certain to produce the staggers. The hours of labour should be for limited spaces of time, with proper intervals of rest allowed, and the horse regularly fed during these intervals. Every man must have felt the effects of being without dinner for two or three hours beyond his accustomed time. Exhaus- tion is almost certain to follow, v/hich is produced by the gastric juice acting upon the coating of an empty stomach. From five to six hours are the intervals between the meals of a labouring man ; and with a horse that is worked no longer time should be allowed to elapse without feeding and 70 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. watering. When persons are occasionally so situated that they cannot unyoke their horses at stated times for food and rest, then they ought to carry hay and a nose-bag, and a supply of corn along with them. Indeed, it is surprising that if humanity does not influence many men to be kind to this valuable animal, self-interest ought to have the effect of inducing proper treatment. Staggers often attacks horses while they are at grass. This, however, happens chiefly with such as have been previously stinted in their food, or where the pasture is very rich. In such cases, nature generally works its own cure ; because, if the horse is kept from eating, the natural sap in green food will soon assist in promoting digestion. Horses that have frequent attacks of staggers are very liable to have their sight impaired by it. Indeed we have known instances of total blindness from this cause. CATARRH, OR COMMOI^ COLD. The sudden transitions from heat to cold to which horses are so frequently, and often so thoughtlessly, exposed, renders this a very common complaint with them. If masters and servants would bear in their remembrance the old and true adage " that it is better and easier to keep well than to make well," their horses would not require half the medicines which are given to them. A simple cold, if neglected, may end in an incurable disease, especially with horses of a delicate constitution. Catarrh commences with a slight degree of fever, with some little discharge from the nose and eyes, accompanied by cough, which is sometimes hard, frequent, and painful to the horse. When this is the case, bleeding will be neces- sary. But if the cough is not severe, the complaint may generally be removed by simple treatment. The horse BROXCIIITIS. 71 should be kept warm, and a few doses of the followinpj mixture administered : — Digitalis ^ drachm, Nitre 2 drachms Emetic tartar 1 drachm ; to be given in the form of a ball. Instead of corn, his food should consist of hay and mashes BEONCHITIS. Symptoms. — Inflammation of the bronchial tubes mani- fests itself bj the breathing being considerably harder and quicker than in a common catarrh ; and also by a wheezing sound accompanying the inspirations of air into the lungs, and which is temporarily removed when the horse coughs up the mucus secreted by the inflamed membrane of the throat. Cause. — Bronchitis is generally induced by a severe cold, and is indicated by the cough being severe. The seat of the disease is in the divisions of the trachea, or wind- pipe, just before it enters the lungs. At this portion it branches out into a numerous series of vessels, and these are denominated the bronchial tubes, and hence the inflam- mation which attacks their lining has been called bronchitis This disease is generally induced by catarrh having gained an ascendancy, and the inflammation extending to the entrance of the lungs. Remedies. — Moderate bleeding must be resorted to, as too much taken in this complaint would prove injurious. Blisters on the chest should also be applied, and the follow- ing medicine given : — Digitalis . . .1 drachm, Nitre . . .3 drachms, Emetic tartar . . 1^ drachm. 72 MAXL'AL OF MOIjERN FARRIEUV. When bronchitis is neglected, it produces thick wind, wliich can never afterwards be removed. THICK WIND. Symptoms. — Thick wind is indicated bj short, laborious, and frequent breathings when the horse is at rest, and becomes much more evident where he is employed in working, whether in a cart, carriage, or as a hunter or road- ster. In the latter cases, the inspirations and expirations succeed each other in such rapid succession that lead us to suppose the animal is about to expire through suffocation, and his breathing can be heard at a considerable distance ; his sides and loins exhibit marked symptoms of the difficulty with which he breathes. Causes. — This affection for the most part owes its origin to previous inflammation, and more especially from inflam- mation of the bronchial tubes. While this is the case the vessels exude a fluid, which coagulates, and is lodged in the substance of the lungs or in the bronchial tubes themselves, and the inflammation accompanying the complaint naturally circumscribes the dimensions of many of the air-cells, and totally closes up others ; which must of consequence lessen the capacity of the lungs for the reception of air, and render it necessary to breathe more rapidly to compen- sate for the limited space. This will be increased as the animal is put in more rapid motion. In morbid affections of the lungs of horses, the air-cells have been found completely fiUed with matter of a thick, grej^- ish, or bluish colour ; in other cases the tubes or passages communicating with the air-cells have been found nearly rnvisible from the thickening of their lining, and sometimes on tireiy covered with a hard, waxy mucus. Other instances have occurred where the internal lining of the cells them- THICK WIND. 73 selves have exhibited traces of having been in a high state of inflammation, which must have occasioned great pain to the animal when breathing, and consequently have induced it to limit as far as possible the extent of the inhalations. Certain conformations of the chest predispose horses to this complaint. Those with a round chest are liable to be affected in the wind, and especially if they are fat. Large draught-horses are nearly all thick in the wind, as well as all which are hard worked while their stomach is full. All inflammatory affections of the lungs produce thick wind while the malady exists, and frequently leave it even wdien removed. Glanders are too often the remote cause of tliick wind ; as the seat of this disease is so contiguous to the lungs and their air-passages, they soon become affected, and the air-cells are almost certain to be injured. Horses with a circular chest are less liable to this com- plaint than those of a more contracted form. Those which have been kept much in a stable, and without being regu- larly exercised, will manifest symptoms of thick wind when trotted or galloped. But if they are cautiously trained to this action to which they have not been accustomed, then this will wear off, and they may be ridden without being in the least affected in the wind. Remedies. — This disease does not come within the scope of medical treatment : all that can be done is to guard against overloading the stomach with heating food, and not to exercise the animal to any extent while his stomach is full. Abstain from subjecting him to hard labour, or trotting and galloping him violently. By these precautions the affection will gradually subside, and in time he may become perfectly sound. 74 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. BROKEN WIND. Symptoms. — A marked distinction prevails between this disease and thick wind. In the latter the inspirations and expirations are of uniform length and duration ; while in broken wind, for one inspiration two expirations are re- quired, which is plainly indicated by the motion of the flanks. This is caused by the rupture or union of several of AiQ air-cells, which renders the cavities of the lungs more complicated, and hence requires that double action to clear off the carbonized air. It may be easily conceived that when the lungs are expanded the air will rush in readily enough, and one exertion of the muscles of respiration is sufficient to expel the carbonized air ; but when these cells have become united, the cavity of the lung is so irregular and many-cornered, that air is with difficulty expelled from them, and therefore two efforts are required to effect it. Broken wind is generally accompanied by a hard, dry, husky cough, differing completely in its character from that of a common cold. Causes. — This disease may take place without any visible disordered condition in a horse. Voracious feeding may produce it, or food taken hastily and in too large quantities into the stomach, particularly coarse hay and straw, which, by distending the stomach beyond the natural limits, presses against the lungs and prevents their free action. Coarse and bulky food being frequently used, is extremely apt to produce broken wind, from the effect just mentioned. The constrained action of the lungs, from the frequently dis- tended stomach, is apt to burst the air-cells, and thus lay the foundation of an incurable disease. This complaint may, however, be generally traced to previous inflammation, and the consequent alterations of BROKEN WIND. 75 structure induced thereby. Thick wind is usually the pre- monitor of the disorder. When a portion of the lung has been destroyed, the surface being thus reduced, a greater effort must be required to supply the necessary quantity of pure blood, and hence the violent efforts to effect this purpose, when a portion of the air-cells are demolished. Remedies. — A radical cure of broken wind, I believe, has never taken place ; that is, after a rupture of a portion of the air-cells. All that can be effected is a palliation of the complaint. The food should consist as much as possible of that which affords the greatest nourishment in the smallest compass. Oats, and particularly beans and peas, as well as carrots, have this qualihcation. The bowels should be kept gently open by means of an occasional limited meal of green food, when in season ; and when this cannot be sup- plied, then mild purgatives may be administered. The following prescription may be used when required : — Aloes . . . • Ig drachm, Nitre . . . . 2 drachms , to be given in a ball made of syrup or treacle, or it may be given in a draught of gruel. When the bowels are suffici- ently open, then they may be kept so by frequent mashes, in place of hard and dry food. Let his drink be frequent and in small quantities through the day, but after he is suppered let him have an ample draught. Avoid exercise or labour when the stomach is full. A broken- winded horse should never be pastured, as, by having his stomach con- stantly full and distended, the disease is increased. By strict attention to all these rules, and by gentle, well-timed, and progressive exercise, broken-winded horses may be rendered capable of performing a fair proportion of labour, and may even live a considerable number of years under the influence of this affection, by cautious treatment. 76 MA.^UAL OF MODERN FArxRIERY. Experience must have taught many persons possessing a number of horses, that frequent instances have occurred of horses having been put into a straw-yard perfectly sound, coming out broken-winded. The food aifording but little nutriment, the animals require to keep their stomachs always full, which causes a constant pressure upon the lungs ; and their action being thereby restricted, a violent effort becomes necessary to effect respiration, and hence rupture of the partitions of the air-cells take place. In this complaint horses may have inflammatory affec- tions, as well as periodical returns of difficulty of breathing. 'vYhen this is the case, bleeding must be resorted to, and iperients used at the same time. These, accompanied by mercury, have been found excellent remedial means of alleviating the disease. The following are the propor- tions : — Calomel ... 1 drachm, Aloes ... 2 drachms ; these to be made in the form of a ball, and administered twice a week, while the affection continues. Various degrees of broken-wind produce certain effects, which have each their technical designations by dealers andjockies. These are — ROARI^'G, Which is a remnant of improperly treated catarrh. The alleviating remedies — for cure there is none — are gentle exercise, augmented slowly and daily until the animal is brought to the utmost of its power, without manifesting that well-known sound when under exercise or labour. The following drench will be found of considerable benefit when cough accompanies this complaint : — BROKEN WH]). 77 Lintseed ... 1 pound, Treacle ... 8 ounces, Vinegar . , . 1 pint. Let the lintseed be- put into six pints of hot water, and allowed to stand by the side of the fire until it has fairly taken the substance out of the seeds. Then let it be strained and the other ingredients mixed with it. Give the horse about half-a-pint of this five or six times during the course of the twenty-four hours. WHEEZING. This stage of the disorder is known by a wheezing sound being heard like that of the human being afflicted with asthma. It has its seat in the membranous lining of the windpipe, low down, where it separates into two branches, to convey the air to both lobes of the lungs ; there a mucus fluid lodges in the passages. Some old horses wheeze only after feeding, and when lying down. But with horses that are confirmed wheezers, tliey can be heard at all times. In purchasing horses it would be well to try them at a sharp trot or gallop, to ascertain if they are wheezers, as it is sure to manifest itself after action. Wheezers should not have too much hay, but enough of corn, which should be given frequently, as well as water. The drench mentioned at page 64 may be given with advantage in this complaint PIPING. The seat of the disease in this stage is higher up than tlie former, and consists in a strict contraction of the trachea, which considerably diminishes its width. The sound pro- duced in consequence is a sort of shrill wheezing, nearly like ?S MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. a wliistle. Blisters liave sometimes been found to alleviate this disease ; but a complete cure is quite hopeless. A WHISTLER. This is a mere modification of piping, and consists of an inflammation situated so high up as the glottis, or higher ring of the windpipe. The sound is more shrill than in the former complaint ; and, like the former, it cannot be cured, but the drench last mentioned will sometimes do the horse good. CHROXIC COUGH. Symptoms. — This is a constant, irritating cough ; wliich in particular manifests itself after feeding and drinking, and on first being exposed to the open air in the morning, and more especially after any excitement, such as hard work, a sharp trot, or a gallop. In most instances the complaint is accompanied by a staring coat. Causes. — Chronic cough has its origin in some previous iiiflammatory complaint. In becoming a fixed disease, it will proceed from inflammation of the air passages ; or it may be from severe irritation of the lower portion of the V\^indpip3. When the seat of the disorder is caused by inflammation in the substance of the lungs, it will manifest itself after eating, which is occasioned by the distended stomach pressing upon the diaphragm, and this organ in its turn pressing upon the lungs. This renders them less capable of transmitting tlie air through their passages ; which occa- sions considerable excitement, from the great effort made to perform respiration, and hence the irritating cough is induced. Remedies. — The following dose to be given every night, until the cough is modified : — THE MALIGNANT EriDElIIC. 79 Digitalis . . • i draclim, Nitre ... 1 drachm, Emetic tartar . . -^ drachm ; to be made up in the form of a ball, with tar. If this fails to lessen the irritation, a blister should be applied to the throat, extending from one ear to the other, and reaching six or eight inches down the windpipe, which will have the effect of lessening the irritation of the fauces or the larynx, if the inflammation exists in that situation. Sometimes a blister extending to the lower part of the windpipe, as far as the chest, has had a good effect. The food should be of an opening nature, as dry feeding, such as straw and chaff, is always found to increase the complaint : grass and other green food ^\;ill have a salutary effect in this and other similar diseases. Horses may have chronic cough without their general health being affected by it ; and should the above remedies prove ineffectual in removing it in a few weeks, there will be no use in persisting in attempts at a cure ; and it is only when the complaint assumes a more than ordinary degree of coughing, that medical treatment should be resorted to. A great object is to avoid exposing the animal to sudden transitions from heat to cold ; as a horse afflicted with chronic cough is more liable than others to be affected by changes of temperature. THE MALIGNANT EPIDEMIC. Symptoms. — This complaint is marked by a complication of disagreeable symptoms ; there is a fetid discharge from the nostrils, with an extremely stinking breath, and the whole evacuations become disgustingly offensive, accom- panied by a quick, small, and weak pulse, which is hardly sensible to the touch ; the animal refuses to eat, and a 80 MANUAL OF AIODERX FARRIERY. rapid loss of strength ensues. The inflammation, which is at the root of the disease, is soon followed bj mortification, which speedily spreads from the place first affected through the whole of the cellular tissue, and the body is soon entirely under its malignant influence. Remedies. — This is one of those diseases which it is easier to prevent than to cure. Indeed its course is so rapid, that there is but a short time to apply remedial means. We are still little acquainted with its remote cause, but it appears to be a violent stage of catarrhal fever, as the primary symptoms are nearly the same. Gentle bleeding has been known in some cases to be attended with beneficial results, but this remedy must be exercised with very great caution. If the animal has sunk to the low stage of debility, bleeding must on no account be attempted ; and purgatives at first must be of a gentle kind, and frequently repeated, to dislodge the fetid matter which occupies the bowels. Should the disease be taken in time, and the bowels have got thoroughly cleansed, the following stimulant should be given in doses for four or five days, or longer, if necessary : — Opium ... 2 drachms. Gentian ... 2 drachms. Prepared chalk . . 2 drachms, Ground ginger . 1 drachm, Columbo ... 1 drachm. Port wine . . . -^ pint. The horse should also be fed upon green meat, mashes, and gruel, until he recovers strength. CATARRHAL FEYER, OR DISTEMPER. Symptoms. — This disease usually manifests itself in the same manner as inflammation of the lungs and common CATARRHAL FEVER, OR DIOTEMPER. 81 fever, with a cold shivering fit, heat in the mouth, cough, and considerable heaving of the flanks. The ejeballs become red, and the eyes dull and languid ; the membrane of the nose also assumes a red and inflamed appearance, although in a less degree than in inflammation of the lungs, and is accompanied by a slight discharge, which is of a watery consistence at first ; but it becomes thicker, with a number of clotted flakes, which sometimes adhere to the mucous membrane of the nose, and look like white ulcers. It then puts on the appearance of pus, accompanied by an ofiensive smell. In some instances it assumes a livid cast, although this is by no means a common occurrence. The glands of the throat and under the jaw become swelled. The animal has then much difiiculty in masticating and swallow- ing his food, which he half chews, and then drops ; he also drinks water with much difficulty, especially if it is cold. In his endeavours to drink he will cough frequently, and the saliva will flow from his mouth into the pail. In many instances the animal suflers considerably in the frequent and painful attacks with which he is seized, which he manifests by restlessness and stamping his feet. Swelling of the legs accompanies this complaint, and also enlarge- ments in the chest and belly, with a rapid pulse, amounting to from sixty to seventy beats in a minute, varying of course with the intensity of fever with which the disease is always accompanied. Veterinary surgeons do not consider these swellings an unfavourable symptom. Very great weakness generally comes on, so nnich so that the horse will stagger while moving about in his stall, and will even lean against the sides to support himself. Cause. — The remote cause of this disease is not well understood. It may arise from a common cold, or may be induced by a certain condition of the atmosphere. One M 82 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. thing is quite certain, that it is more common in the middle of spring or beginning of autumn. Some seasons it is epidemical, and horses in many different parts of the same district will be attacked by it ; and it seems to prevail more when wet and cold weather sets in at those seasons, par- ticularly if it alternates from heat to cold. Many circum- stances have led to the belief that this complaint is infectious, and it is only proper to remove horses labouring under it to some distance from the others. Remedies. — Much skill is required in the treatment of thi-s disorder, and it is necessary to study it with great attention before remedial means are attempted, whether by the veterinary surgeon or the owner of the horse. Fever is one of its earliest symptoms, which is rapidly succeeded by loss of strength. If at the first appearance the disorder is ascertained, bleeding should be immediately resorted to, but care must be taken not to overdo this. We can give no specific quantity, as this will depend upon the state of the febrile excitement. But we would recommend that it never should exceed four quarts, although, in most cases, from two to three will suffice. Always avoid taking as much as will produce faintness. Should the pulse become hard and rapid after the first bleeding, then it will be necessary to repeat it. And if coldness in the limbs, with redness of the mucous membrane of the nose ensue, more blood must again be taken, but the quantity should be limited. If with these symptoms weakness prevails, and the horse staggers, and if the inside of the nostrils present a livid hue, then bleeding would be prejudicial But whatever condition the animal is in, the bowels should De cleared out. The following purgative may be administered : — Barbadoes aloes . • 2 drachms, CATARRHAL FEVER, OR DISTEMPER. 83 and a single drachm more in twelve hours thereafter. These to be given in solution, or in a ball ; and if the soil does not indicate a healthy colour, another drachm may be given when twelve hours have again elapsed. Should these prove ineffectual, then recourse must be had to back-raking, and injections of gruel given at the same time. Should debility not extend to the hind legs, although the other febrile symptoms continue, moderate bleeding with clysters will be found of service. If the inner surface of the eyelid is red, bleeding will then be indispensable ; and if not removed at the first operation, then recourse must be had to it a second time, but of course in moderate quantity. This should be followed by a laxative draught, which ought to be repeated twice, viz. : — Socotrine aloes, powdered 2^ drachms, Prepared kali . . 1 drachm, Mint-water . ^ -^ pint, Water ... 1 pint. Repeat in twelve hours. When the purging has subsided, give the following distemper-ball : — Crude sal ammoniac . 1 ounce, Nitre .... 1 ounce. Soap .... 4 drachms. Camphor ... 2 drachms ; to be formed into two balls, with a teaspoonful of lintseed- oil and a solution of gum-arabic. A ball to be given morning and evening for three or four days. At this stage of the complaint it is necessary that urine should be voided in quantity, and exhibit a clear and healthy appearance. The food should be of a restorative character when the symptoms of disease have subsided. Gruel and bran- mashes in small quantities, and given frequently, will be 84 MANUAL OF iMODERN FARRIER V. found tlie best means of invigorating the animal. When the horse shows signs of returning strength, then a small quantity of fresh sweet hay may be given, and oats that liave been steeped in boiling water ; occasional draughts of oatmeal gruel, and, as a stimulant, small malt- mashes. If the weather is mild, let the animal enjoy a few hours of the middle of the day in a field ; but not without clothing, and especially a breast-piece cloth and head-covering, or hood. In some instances inflammation of the throat accompanies this complaint, in which case the animal will refuse to eat. To remove the inflammation the submaxillary glands and also the parotid glands should be immediately blistered. It is a mistaken idea to attempt stopping the nasal discharge ; and it ought rather to be encouraged by means of warm mashes placed in the manger, or in nose-bags, while the head is kept perfectly warm by clothing. When the disease is protracted, great weakness generally folio AYS ; in which case, although the fever has not yet been reduced and means are taken to subdue it, it will be absolutely necessary to give such food as is of a nourishing nature to support the animal, such as carrots, malt-mashes, mashed hay. and tares, or other green meat. If the animal persists in refusing food, can'ots should be forced in between his grinders which will in most instances induce him to take food. If this should fail, then a pail- full of gruel should alwaj^s be placed in his manger, which he is sure to partake of occasionally. This will sustain him until a favourable turn of the disorder has taken place. Every means should be adopted to keep the limbs warm, by rubbing, warm bandages, &c. If this disease is not removed in a moderate length of time, thick wind, chronic cough, and broken wind may bj FISTULOUS WITHERS. 85 thereby induced ; and he will, during the remainder of his life, be liable to colds and other affections of the lungs. The symptoms of this malady are something similar to those which accompany inflammation of the lungs ; and as the medical treatment difiers considerably, it becomes a matter of considerable importance to be able to distinguish the one from the other. Inflammation of the lungs is always attended by a febrile and oppressed pulse, and is indicated by an early discharge from the nose, but is unac- companied by the intense redness of the mucous membrane of the nostrils — which is manifested in catarrhal fever ; and is invariably attended with a painful, frequent, and hard cough, enlargement of the glands, and inflammation of the throat, variable warmth and coldness in the limbs, and rapid loss of strength. In the year 1832 a distemper prevailed which swept off many horses. It was considered a contagious epidemic, and was ascribed to some latent atmospheric phenomena, which was never satisfactorily accounted for ; nor were the modes of treatment of the time attended with beneficial results. By post-mortem examinations it was found that the liver was invariably afiected, and an imperfect secretion of bile was the consequence. This caused increased action of the pulmonary arteries, followed by rupture and congestion of blood at the heart, producing immediate death. FISTULOUS WITHERS. Symptoms. — This consists of one or more hot and tender tumours formed upon the withers. If neglected it ends in a large and deep ulcer, and will sometimes extend beneath the shoulder-blade — or scapula — and consequently becomes extremely diflicult of cure. 86 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. Cause. — If tlie saddle does not fit exactly to the shape of the withers, these tumours may be formed. Remedies. — When first detected, it may possibly be removed by cold applications. The following lotion should be applied to the part afiected, with a sponge : — Alum powdered . . 1 ounce, Sulphuric acid . . 1 drachm. Water .... 1 pint. Or the following may be substituted for it : — Corrosive sublimate . 2 drachms. Muriatic acid . . 4 drachms, AYater .... 1 pint. It will be rendered more pungent by the addition of a drachm of sulphate of copper. If the above, after being carefully applied, does not diminish the size of the tumour ; or if it increases and becomes more sensitive on being touched, then fomentations, poultices, and stimulating embrocations should be resorted to, so as to bring forward the tumour to a suppuration. When the matter has formed, a seton should be passed through the top and bottom of the tumour to allow the discharge to pass freely off. After which the same treatment must be pursued as we have recommended in the poll-evil. Fistula in the withers is frequently the cause why some horses stumble on the road. If this is suspected, then the saddle should be taken off ; and if the part pressed on by the saddle be hot and enlarged, and the horse feels sensibly the pressure, then fistula of the withers may be apprehended. If taken at this time, and a lotion be diligently applied with a sponge, it is almost certain to prevent the disease becoming matured. Where this disorder has been neglected, and the ulcer has ■^ ounce e, and when completely WAIlBLES, SADDLE-GALLS, &C. 87 extended to the muscle below the shoulder-blade, in many instances the matter will work its way to the elbow, and sometimes to the bones of the withers, and render them carious. In severe cases the following hot stimulant must be poured into the fistulous ulcers : — Ivesin . . . . f ounce, Tar . . . . 1 ounce, Mutton-suet . . ; 1 ounce, Bees'-wax this to be melted slowly over a fin dissolved the following must be added to it : — Spirit of turpentine . . 1 ounce. Verdigris . . .3 drachms. After the above the treatment will have to be the same as recommended in the poll-evil. WARBLES, SADDLE-GALLS, &c. Causes. — When saddles do not fit, various tumours are produced on the back of horses. The name " warbles " is applied to small tumours produced by pressure, which sometimes do not ulcerate, but are nevertheless troublesome and painful to the animal. When they ulcerate they are termed sitfasts, from a small piece of callous skin in their centre, which adheres so firmly as to require great force to remove it, and frequently cannot be extracted without being cut out. Remedies. — The first thing that must naturally occur to the mind of a humane man, is to have the stuffing of the saddle altered so as to make it fit, and thereby prevent undue pressure on any particular spot, and the animal should be allowed sufficient rest to permit the tumours to be taken 88 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. up by absorption. To facilitate this, cold lotions should be frequently and plentifully applied, such as goulard, vinegar, or brine. If these fail, and ulcers and steadfasts appear, then a gentle blister should be applied, which generally has the effect of removing them from their seats ; after which the wound must be dressed with Friar's Balsam, or Turner's Cerate, or, where these cannot readily be pro- cured, with a mixture of bees'-wax and oil in equal pro- portions. Saddle-galls are generally cured with facility by an application of strong brine, with the addition of tincture of myrrh, in the proportion of a fourth part to three parts of brine. We have frequently been disgusted with the unfeeling cruelty of some thoughtless persons riding their, horses day after day, with large sores under the saddle. Such indi- viduals but ill deserve to be the possessors of horses. CHAPTER IV. DISEASES OF THE ABDOMEN AND INTESTINES. The complaints of the abdomen and bowels in horses are pretty numerous, and some of them attended with most serious consequences. In most of them the groom or horse- keeper ought to be extremely vigilant, and must watch their progress narrowly. Some are slow in their effects, while others are so rapid, that before proper remedies are applied the disease will have gained such an ascendancy that ministrations are of no avail. We would particularly allude to two complaints which are frequently mistaken for one THE JAU:?DICE, OR YELLOWS. S9 another, the distinctive symptoms of both we shall point out when we treat of them. INFLAMMATION OF THE LIVER. Symptoms. — Although this disease is rare in horses, it nevertheless occasionallj occurs, and is not easily to be detected from inflammation of the bowels. Its principal characteristic is a restlessness in the animal, without the appearance of suffering that pain which accompanies other inflammatory complaints. Remedy. — The following should be given for two or three days successively, in the form of a small ball : — • Compound extract of colocynth . 7 grains, Calomel 6 grains^ Syrup 1 drachm. Should the above not remove the uneasy symptoms, it will be necessary to have recourse to a veterinary surgeon. THE JAUNDICE, OR YELLOWS. Symptoms. — The eyes are yellow, as well as the skin of the mouth, and also the other naked parts. The dung is voided in small, hard balls, and the urine of a high yellow colour; the appetite is blunted, and general weakness evinces itself. Causes. — This complaint is occasioned by some obstruc- tion in the single duct — for the horse has but one — through which the bile is conducted from the liver to the intestines ; or from an increased and undue quantity of bile. The horse being destitute of a gall-bladder, the bile flows imme- diately as it is formed. Remedies. — Purgatives must be employed to restore the functions of the organs to their healthy condition. These N 90 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. must be administered with caution, and in small quantities, frequently repeated, until the bowels are freely opened. It would be dangerous to risk strong doses, as common inflam- mation of the intestines may cause the symptoms, which apparently mark this disease. Let the following be given twice a day : — Barbadoes aloes . . 2 drachms. Calomel ... 1 drachm. Bleeding in moderate quantity will also be found of service. Thin, slightly warmed gruel should be given in abundance, together with carrots and green food, particularly tares. Let the horse be warmly clothed if the weather is severe ; and the stable should be properly ventilated, but not allowed to be too cold. The following should afterwards be given : — Bran-mashes, with green meat, for four or five days ; also drmk of thin warm gruel. If purging should become pretty active after administer- ing the above medicine, it should not be hastily checked unless inflammatory symptoms begin to appear, or if the horse exhibits weakness. In either of these cases then the following medicine mav be given : — Gruel . . .1 gallon. Prepared chalk . . 1 ounce, Catechu . . . ^ ounce. Opium . . . . . i ounce. After this give the following tonic : — Gentian . , . . 2 drachms, Camomile ... 2 drachms. Ginger . . . .1 drachm ; formed into a ball, and repeated daily until the discharge is cliecked. INFLAMMATION OP THE KIDNEYS. 91 HERNIA, OR RUPTURE. This consists of a portion of the intestine being protruded from the abdominal cavity, either th^-ongh a natural open- ing or through one caused by disease. In many cases the intestine may be returned into the cavity, but it seldom is an effectual cure, in consequence of the impossibility of applying a truss to keep it up. There are other instances where, the gut having passed through the inquinal ring and protruded into the scrotum of the entire horse, or in the groin of the gelding, which may in time become so narrow as not to admit of the gut being again returned, in conse- quence of becoming thickened and the protruded portion being filled with the dung. This is called strangulated hernia ; and can only be successfully treated by a veteri- nary surgeon, and should on no account be attempted bv any other, especially an uneducated person. INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS. Symptoms. — This complaint is usually preceded by fever ; and when completely formed, the horse stands with his hind legs wide apart, and has an awkward gait in his walk. He withdraws from the pressure of the hand on the loins, which also indicate an undue heat, considerably above that in the natural condition. When turning with moderate quick- ness, he feels pain, and looks wistfully back at his flanks ; a suppression of the action of the urinary organs takes place, and is followed by a difficulty in voiding urine, which comes off in small quantities, and is generally high coloured, and not unfrequently mixed with blood. Strong efforts are made by the horse to discharge it in larger portions, but at length it is almost quite suppressed. Hence 92 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. it will be manifest that there is an affection of the urinary organs ; but whether in the kidneys or bladder it will be difficult at first to determine. At this stage of the disease the pulse is hard and accelerated ; it soon afterwards becomes small, although retaining its character of hardness. In order to ascertain the seat of the disease, the hand must be introduced into the rectum, and if the bladder (which is situated under the rectum) feels distended and hard, then it is certain that the neck or sphincture of the bladder is inflamed. If, on the other hand, it is soft and feeling empty, with a heat in the intestines over it, then there is inflammation of the bladder itself; but if there is no unnatural heat over it, then it may be certain that the affection is in the kidneys. Cause. — Musty or mow-burnt oats, from their diuretic properties, are often the cause of inflammation in the kidneys. Indeed very strong diuretics, frequently given, will bring on inflammation of the kidneys as well as weakness in the parts. A sprain in the loins often proves the remote cause of this disease ; or a sudden check, throwing him back upon his haunches, and giving a sudden shock to the muscles of the loins, is another cause. Exposure to rain and being allowed to cool and dry without having been rubbed down, will cause inflammation in the kidneys. Remedies. — Prompt and copious bleeding must be re- sorted to, after which a strong purgative must be given, and counter irritation produced as near as possible to the seat of the disease. To effect this, use a mustard blister, as turpen- tine and Spanish flies are improper in this disorder. Do not give the animal any diuretics, because these only add to the excitement, already too great. The horse must be kept warm by clothing, his legs well bandaged, and as much water given him as he will take. The food should consist; INFLAMMATlOxX OF THE BLADDER AND ITS SPIIINCTURE. 93 of mashes. The following should be given to him three times a day : — White hellebore . . 1 scruple, Emetic tartar . . 1 drachm, Lintseed meal . . 2 drachms ; made into a ball with treacle. IT^FLAMMATIO]^ OF THE BLADDER AND ITS SPHINCTUEE. Symptoms. — When treating of inflammation of the kid- neys, we described fully the symptoms of inflammation in the neck of the bladder. In this variety of the complaint the urine is voided in small quantities, and with consider- able pain each time ; and in extreme cases a total suppres- sion takes place. When this is the case the bladder becomes exceedingly inflated under the rectum, and may be easily felt by the means recommended in the former article. It is a spasm which causes this tightening of the neck of the bladder. Causes. — This is produced by some acrid substance, which has been generated in the system by the use of food of a heating nature, forming a chemical compound of an acrid quality in the urine. Stone in the bladder will also produce this disease. Some persons are so absurd as to administer the tincture of cantharides by way of hastening the season of horsing in the mare, which is almost certain to inflame the coating or sphincture of the bladder. Remedies. — Bleeding to a considerable extent will be necessary, being the most likely thing to reduce the spasu'. Some have gone so far as to let the blood flow until fainting is induced. The disease by such treatment is very often removed at once. But should this not relieve the malady, then the following must be administered : — 94 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. Powdered opium . . 1 drachm, Lintseed meal . . 3 drachms ; given as a ball or in a drink of gruel every three hours, and a strong blister put on at the same time. In cases where the marc is affected, the urine may be drawn off by means of a catheter. This will have a considerable influence in relieving the animal, and by taking off the tension will tend to abate the inflammatory symptoms. The same remedy is of difficult application in the horse, and should never be attempted by any one but a veterinary surgeon. STONE IN THE BLADDER. Symptoms. — Irregularity in the discharge of urine, with occasional suppression of it, and fits resembling spasmodic colic, are the symptoms which attend this disease. To ascertain if it is really stone which produces these effects, the horse should be thrown on his back and the hand introduced into the rectum, when the stone, if it exists, will be easily felt. IIemedies. — If the stone is of any size it must be extracted by an operation, which can only be performed by a regular veterinary surgeon. When it is small, or only appears in the form of gravel, diuretics are the only remedies which can do good ; these, by inducing an increased flow of urine, may carry with it the smaller concretions. The following will be found a useful diuretic, given twice or thrice a day in a drink : — "^urified nitre (nitrate of potash) 3 drachms, Digitalis .... 1 drachm, DIABETES. Symptoms. — This disease consists in an excessive discharge STALL\G OF BLOOD. ^5 of urine ; and, fortunately, is not of such common occurrence among horses as in the human species. Causes. — Bad food will produce irritation of the kidneys, as well as the improper and too frequent use of strong diuretics, which cause inflammation and an increased action in the kidneys. Remedies. — Whatever tends to lessen the undue action will be the best remedy. Bleeding, therefore, will be the first alternative, although it must not be carried to the same extent as in common inflammation. This to be followed by purging, astringent medicines, and counter irri- tation. The following should be given in doses three times a day : — Wortle-berry leaf, powdered . 2 drachms, Catechu .... 2 drachms, Opium .... -J drachm. Green meat and carrots will be of much use during this disease, as well as mashes. STALING OF BLOOD. Symptoms. — The symptoms of this complaint are nearly allied to those of inflammation in the kidneys ; and it always manifests itself by the highly-coloured urine, mingled with blood. If the bowels are not easy, let them be opened by the following cathartic : — Barbadoes aloes . . 5 drachms. Cream of tartar . . -J ounce. Ginger, powdered . . 1 drachm, Balsam of copaiva . 30 drops ; to be formed into a ball and administered. When it has operated, the following must be given once a day until the urine has assumed its natural colour : — • 4 ounce, . 2 drachms, • 4 ounce, . 1 ounce. • i ounce. 96 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. Peruvian bark, powdered Prepared kali . Antimonial powder . Nitre, in powder Balsam of capiva Let the above be well powdered together, and then given in three ounces of lintseed, boiled in half-a-gallon of water reduced to three pints. INFLAMMATION OF THE BOWELS. The intestines are subject to two different kinds of inflammation, namely, that of the mucous membrane or internal lining of the gut. The second is in the external coating of the bowels. These are very different in their characters, and consequently in the mode in which they must be treated. INFLAMMATION OF THE MUCOUS MEMBRANE. Symptoms. — This is accompanied with violent purging, proceeding too often from over-doses of physic being ad- ministered to the horse, or from acid generated in the bowels by the food, or some other unknown cause. In addition to the purging, considerable pain attends this disease, which is indicated by the animal frequently looking round to his flanks, with a heaviness in his breathing, accompanied by a quick feeble pulse, with a hot mouth, ears, and legs. Causes. — Sudden exposure from a warm to a cold atmo- sphere, and being allowed to drink plentifully of water when over-heated, or having his belly and legs wetted with cold water when too warm, are all causes which induce this complaint, more especially in high-fed horses Eemedies. — When accompanied by excessive purging, with great pain, astringent medicines should not be administered. IJiFLAMMATION OF THE ROWELS. 9V All food should bo denied him, and in its stead give him gruel, a decoction of lintseed, thin starch, or arrow-root, or a strong solution of gum-arabic. Clysters of warm gruel would also be proper, in which a quarter of an ounce of aloes is mixed. Some prefer from six ounces to half-a-pound of Epsom salts. These should be administered with Reid's patent pump. If the irritation and indications of pain still continue after twelve or fourteen hours have elapsed, it will be necessary to give the following : — Gruel .... 2 quarts, Prepared chalk . . 1 ounce, Catechu .... 4 ounces. Opium .... 2 scruples ; The above to be repeated every five or six hours until the purging and pain are allayed, after which the doses should be lessened in quantity and frequency. If the inflammatory symptoms are very great, it will be necessary to have recourse to bleeding ; but this must only be resorted to when accompanied by general febrile symptoms. The horse must be kept warm and well-clothed, with his legs bandaged after being rubbed thoroughly. SPASMODIC COLIC. Symptoms. — This disorder in general comes on very suddenly, without any premonitory signs. The horse be- comes very restless, shifts his position, paws the ground, and looks round with anxiety at his flanks ; sometimes raising his foot as high as his belly and striking it violently : he will also lie down and roll about on his back. In a few minutes the spasm subsides, and the animal after shaking himself will resume feeding. At longer or shorter intervals the attack is renewed, but with increased violence ; he will 98 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERV. throw himself with considerable force on the ground ; m]l break into a copious perspiration, and heave greatly at the flanks. These spasms are renewed at intervals, and gra- dually become less frequent and less severe ; or if, on the contrary, they are more frequent and acute, and at length manifest a nearly uninterrupted series, then it may be sus- pected that violent inflammation and mortification has taken place, and that death will speedily ensue. Causes. — Stones and large earthy lumps in the intestines cause colic pains, but it cannot be known when these are present. Drinking cold water when the animal is over- heated is a frequent cause of these spasms and pains. Green food is also apt to induce these pains when taken in large quantities, and especially if too hard worked after it. Remedies. — A combination of opium and turpentine are valuable specifics in this disorder, in the following quan- tities, and usually produce almost immediate relief : — Turpentine ... 3 ounces. Laudanum ... 1 ounce, Warm ale, or gruel . . 1 pint. If in half-an-hour after the above has been adfninistered no visible mitigation of the complaint exhibits itself, it will be necessary to have recourse to bleeding ; because a long- continued succession of spasms is almost certain to induce inflammation. The belly should be well rubbed with a towel or brush, and the horse should thereafter have moderate exercise, when it is clearly ascertained that it is colic pain. In about an hour after the above has been given, half the quantity of each ingredient may be administered, in combination with three-quarters of an ounce of Barbadoes aloes. Injections of warm water, or gruel, mixed with a small quantity of aloes, will have an excellent efifect in this complaint. INFLAMMATION OF THE BOWELS. 99 The following embrocation has produced good effects during the time the animal was suffering from spasms. It is made into a pretty thick paste and rubbed over a con- siderable portion of the belly : — Mustard, in powder . .8 ounces, Camphor . . . 1 ounce. Oil of turpentine . . 2 ounces, Water of ammonia . . 2 ounces. This disease and inflammation of the bowels are fre- quently mistaken for each other, which is caused by the general appearance being somewhat similar ; but if strict attention be paid to both diseases, it will be found that there are symptoms connected with each disorder speci- fically different, which will at once be understood by the following tables : — INFLAMMATION OF THE BOWELS. 1. Pulse considerably accele- rated, but very indistinct. 2. Gradual in its approach, with previous febrile indi- cations. 3. Lies down, seldom rolls on his back, starts to his legs suddenly. 4. Legs and ears generally cold. 6. Belly exceedingly tender, and when touched causing pain. 6. Motion increasing the painful symptoms. SPASMODIC COLIC. 1. Pulse natural, or lower thau in its natural state, but ac- celerated and more full during the spasms. 2. Sudden in its attack, but destitute of febrile symp- toms. 3. Lies down, and almost inva- riably rolls on his back, which seems to give him relief. 4. Legs and ears of a natural heat. 5. Rubbing the belly gives relief to the animal. 6. Motion evidently affording relief. IQO MA^'UAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. 7. Constant pain. 7. Intervals of rest. 8. Rapid prostration of strength. 8. Strength hardly affected. 9. Mucous membrane inside the 9. Mucous membrane of its nostrils very red. ordinary colour. 10. Lining of the eyelids unusu- 10. Lining of the eyelids of its allv red. natural colour. 1. Peristaltic motion of the 11. Slight motion of the intes- bowels excited, with the tines, unless by purgative anus hot. injections. Pawing of the ground is common to both complaints, but in cases of entanglement of the gut, he desists from pawing. Both this and the preceding complaint are induced by various causes. But if symptoms similar to them are caused by eating green food in too large quantity, a different mode of treatment will be necessary. Ei\TANGLEMEXT OF THE BOWELS. This is caused by colic, in consequence of the animal throwing himself about while suffering under the pain ot that complaint ; portions of that intestine called the ileum become twisted and knotted, and drawn together with astonishing firmness. There is no remedy for this complaint. STORES U THE INTESTINES. Horses that are subject to very frequent attacks of colic pains have usually stony masses in the csecum or colon. Sometimes they are some pounds weight. These, obstruct- ing the passage of the gut, produce colic pains ; and at other times, when exceedingly large, by pressing upon the mucous membrane, produce inflammation. But as yet no distinctly-marked symptoms have been detected by which their presence can be ascertained. Hitherto no certain mode of treatment has been discovered for their removal. INTESTINAL WORMS. 101 INTITSUSCEPTION OF THE INTESTINES. This is another evil arising from a long-continued spas- modic action of the ileum, which sometimes causes an inverted pressure from the caecum towards the stomach, which overcomes the natural action, which forces this con- tracted portion of the intestine into a portion above it, which retains its natural calibre. The irritation thereby produced increases the upward action, and causes still more of the intestine to be forced inwards, until an obstruc- tion of an insurmountable character is produced. Continued and unmitigated pain is the only symptom which may lead to a suspicion that this incurable malady has taken place. INTESTINAL WORMS. A variety of worms inhabit the intestines of horses, and when they become numerous often prove injurious to the constitution of the animal. Although a respectable writer says they are not of much consequence unless they are numerous, we would recommend that the sooner they are expelled the better, however small the number may be, tor this simple reason — that where there exists a single pair, there wiU naturally be an increase of their species. It is perfectly true that by what means they at first efiect a lodgement into the anim^al system is a mystery yet to be solved ; but it is equally true that naturalists have detected that these parasites are formed male and femaLs, and as Nature frames nothing in vain, they must propagate in the ordinary manner of reproduction. Symptoms. — Loss of appetite, griping pains, a rough coat, and tucked-up belly, are symptomatic of worms of tJie larger species, hmhricus teres, or long white round- worms, 102 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIER V. very much resembling in form the common earth-worm, which is met with from five to ten inches in length ; and itching of the rectum, evinced by a quick twitching of the tail and a small quantity of mucus, which hardens and assumes the appearance of a white powder at the anus, is indicative of ascarides — small, needle-formed worms, fvhich lodge in the large intestines, and frequently find their way in great numbers to the caecum. A third species sometimes, although of much rarer occurrence, inhabits various parts of the intestinal-canal from the stomach downwards. This is the tape- worm, which is known from its broad, flat, tape-like appearance, and con- sisting of many articulated joints. This species is the most formidable and the most difficult to be removed. Eemedies. — When the symptoms which we have pointed out are noticed, the groom should carefully watch whether worms are voided, to ascertain their existence. Still, how- ever, they may be lodged in the intestines without being evacuated ; and when there is a well-grounded suspicion that they inhabit the body, a dose of some vermifuge should be given. This may consist of eight grains of calomel, made into a ball, with oatmeal and treacle. For the expulsion of the round-worm, the following anthelminthick should be administered : — Calomel ... 2 drachms, Rhubarb . . • 1 i drachm, Soccotrine aloes . . 2 drachms. Ginger . • li drachm, The following may be given, if it is necessary to repeat an anthelminthick : — Calomel . . -Is drachm. Aniseeds, in powder . \ ounce, Powder of scammony . -^ drachm. THE BOTS. 103 Let it be given at night, and the following purgative in the morning : — Aloes . . , .5 drachms, Ginger . ... 2 drachms ; to be made into a ball with treacle. When the animal is infested bj ascarides, the same medicine should be given as for the round-worm ; but it frequently has not the desired effect. When this is the case» recourse must be had to injections, after the medicine : — Lintseed oil . . .1 quart ; or Aloes, dissolved in warm water, 1 ounce. If the existence of the tape-worm is apprehended, then the following will be the proper remedy : — Turpentine ... -J ounce. Castor oil ... 2 ounces, Gum arable, in powder . 1 ounce ; treacle to form it into a ball. Warm mashes to be given for a day afterwards It seldom, however, happens that these are removed bj- one dose ; and unless it is quite certain that the entire animal has been discharged, the above medicine must be repeated. If even a link or two is broken off and lefl in the intestines, these will be regenerated into a perfect worm, as they have the property of reproducing the parts of which they have been deprived. THE BOTS. Horses may be infested by bots without suffering material injury from them. But we cannot agree with the opinion of Mr. Bracy Clark, that they are destined by Nature to act upon the food in the stomach by trituration, or as peppei does in the human stomach. Like every other part of the 104 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERr. animal body, this organ is so admirably constructed that in its healthy condition no artificial aid is necessary to enable it to perform its olffice. If the opinion of Mr. Clark were correct, what would supply the place of those parasites during that portion of the year when the gi^ub assumed its perfect condition 1 Post-mortem dissection has proved that bots are not so inoffensive as Mr. Clark supposed ; as it has been found that horses which have been infested with these grubs had ulcers of considerable extent in the muscular coat of the stomach. Symptoms and Habits. — The progress of the disease gene- rally manifests itself gradually ; the horse becomes hide- bound, his coat becomes rough and unhealthy, he loses flesh and strength, although he feeds with his usual appetite, and has frequently a tickling cough. Cause. — The bots are a species of gad-fly called oestrus equi by naturalists, which may be observed in the month of July flying actively about the legs of horses in the fields. These flies are represented, (plate x., fig. 1,) which is the common gad-fly. They may be seen flying rapidly towards the sides and knees of horses. These are the females depositing their eggs in the hair, to which they adhere by a glutinous fluid by which they are surrounded (fig. 2, 3.) In a few days the eggs are hatched, and the minute grubs or caterpillars which they contain are set at liberty. This operation is performed by the horse, which, in licking him- self, bursts the eggs, and the caterpillar adheres to his tongue, and in the operation of eating the little animal is carried into the stomach along with the food. These caterpillars are provided with a small hook on each side of their mouths and by means of which they cling per- tinaceously to the cuticular portion of the lining of the THE FORE LEGS. 105 stomach ; (see fig. 4,) and so tenaciously do they adhere, that the hook will break before they leave their hold. There these pests contrive to locate during the whole winter, and to the end of the following spring, feeding on the mucus ; by which time they have grown to full size, (fig. 5,) and must now undergo a new transformation ; they quit their hold of the coating of the stomach, are carried into the villous portion along with food, from thence pass into the intestinal canal along with the chyme, and at length are discharged with it. The caterpillars thus evacuated seek an appropriate place in the ground, where they assume the imago or chrysalis condition ; and remaining in this state for some weeks, at length break out from their swathing and assume the form of the perfect insect. Immediately after this the males and females pair ; the latter becoming impregnated, set about seeking an appropriate situation where to deposit their eggs, which, in imitation of the parent, by a peculiar instinct, they fix on the hairs of a horse, from whence they are licked off and swallowed in the larva state. There are two species of gad-flies, the second is known by the name of the red bot, fig. 6 is its larva, and fig. 7 the perfect fly. Their natural history and habits are similar in all respects to the other. CHAPTER V. DISORDERS OF THE EXTERNAL PARTS OF THE HORSE. SECTION I.— The Fore Legs. We come now to treat of those portions of the framae of a horse most intimately connected with his action, and his r 106 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. essential value in the service of man. Unfortunately these are but too often liable to disease ; and the animal afflicted with maladies of those parts is not only rendered less useful to his possessor, but also less valuable in the market, as the extremities embrace the entire apparatus of progressive motion, and consequently that action in which mankind are chiefly interested in this useful animal. To thoughtless and reckless masters, and careless, cruel, and unthinking servants, this noble animal owes many of his complaints, both internal and external. And what is revolting to every humane mind, is, after the poor animals are afflicted with a painful disorder, their unfeeling masters too often continue to subject them to hard work while they are labouring under acute suJBfering. Let any man who has had a severe sprained ankle fancy to himself that he was compelled to carry a heavy burden, or remove a quantity of stones from one part to another by means of a wheel-barrow, or suppose he were even forced to walk at all, and what would be his sufferings ! The probability is, he would be utterly unable to perform one or the other task. But the poor horse has four legs, and probably three of these are sound, and he is thereby not only able to stand, but also to perform progressive motion ; but every time the lame limb is put to the ground and borne upon, his sufferings are equal to, if not worse than what man himself would feel. It is the interest of every man to have his lame horse rendered sound as speedily as possible ; and this, in most cases, cannot be effected without allowing the animal a cessation from labour ; and it is monstrous cruelty to subject a horse to labour whilst under the influence of a painful malady. The linger of contempt should be pointed at all such unfeeling wretches. SPRAIN OF THE SHOULDER. 107 In this portion of the work we shall treat of the diseases alone, and the anatomy of the various parts will be after- wards given, with complete references to the plates illustra- tive of those parts. SPRAIN OF THE SHOULDER. Many ignorant pretenders, who denominate themselves Farriers, frequently speak of what they call the " shoulder- lameness" without being able to state wherein this lameness consists. In innumerable instances they are wrong when they say or imagine that the lameness proceeds from the shoulder at all. We are decidedly of opinion that lameness of the shoulder is much less frequent than is supposed. Symptoms. — To those who have attended to the anatomy of the shoulder of the horse, shoulder-lameness can be recognised with considerable celerity, as well as certainty The horse generally suffers great pain in moving forward while under the influence of this complaint, which is indi- cated by dragging his toe along the ground instead of lifting the foot smartly up, which is the natural action in progressive motion ; for it is this lifting of the foot which produces the pain, by giving motion to the muscles of the shoulder, some of which are inflamed and tender, in con- sequence of the sprain. But it must be obvious to any one acquainted with the anatomy of the shoulder, that the pain occasioned by lifting the foot must be both short and small in lameness of the shoulder, as the limb is allowed to bear the weight a much shorter time than in any other species of lameness. For example, in sprain of the back tendons, it is only when the horse is moving forwards that he suffers much pain, and this is most felt when the weight rests on the leg ; consequently, there is a peculiar activity in moving up the limb in shoulder-lameness the instant the 108 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. weight bears upon it. This is strongly manifested in moving down a hill, in which case additional pressure is given to the limb. And while the horse is in the stable, it will be found that his toe only is resting on the ground when afflicted with shoulder-lameness, while in a sound state, he will have the foot flat on the ground. But one of its most prominent characters is, that when the foot is lifted and pressed considerably forward, the animal indicates a feeling of great pain, while the same action will give him no uneasiness if the lameness is seated in the leg or foot. In diseases or injuries of the muscles, heat generally accompanies them ; but from the muscles which are aflfected in this belonging to the under layer, of course the heat is not perceptible to the touch. Neither can the swelling be perceived for the same reason. Cause. — This has its origin in some sudden and severe shock which the muscles have received. A slip of the foot or side-fall may also occasion this complaint. Eemedies. — External applications in this disease will be of little use, as the part affected is deeply seated. Bleeding from the inside of the arm, that is, from the plate-vein, is the most likely thing to be beneficial, for this reason, that it is the most contiguous to the place which is inflamed. For the same reason, hot fomentations to those parts are most likely to have a good effect, and every care should be taken to prevent the horse from exerting, or even bringing into motion, the muscles affected. But we would not have the owner to expect much relief to be afforded from external applications, as the inflamed parts are so deeply seated as to be beyond their reach. Gentle doses of physic will be useful ; and if the injury remains long, a blister may be applied with probable success. >OMPLALNTS AND INJURIES OF THE ARM. 109 Numerous ridiculous operations, which only give pain to the horse labouring under this injury, have been resorted to^ but all of them are as absurd as they are cruel. The follow- ing mild purgative ball may be administered, so as to keep the bowels open : — Barbadoes aloes . . 5 drachms. Castile soap . . 2 drachms, Oil of caraways . .12 drops. COMPLAmTS AND INJURIES OF THE ARM. FRACTURE OF THE ELBOW sometimes occurs, and when this is the case, it would be exceedingly imprudent for any person to attempt a cure, except one skilled in the veterinary art ; and even with the regular practitioner there is no certainty of a cure being effected. To work a horse for a very long time with fracture in the elbow would be the height of folly, as nothing but long rest, with the use of the sling, are likely to be of any avail. PUNCTURE OF THE ELBOW-JOINT sometimes occurs accidentally. Rest is the only thing which can be recommended, and applications to close the wound. This also is not to be trifled with, as in many instances very rapid and extensive inflammation accompanies it, which frequently ends in mortification and the death of the animal. ENLARGExAIENT OF THE ELBOW may be induced oy a severe blow ; or it may be caused by the caskins of the shoes pressing against that part while the horse is asleep with his feet doubled under him. Remedy. — Let a seton be carried throuo^h the tumour 110 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. if it IS of small dimensions, and in most cases it will subside completely. But if large, an incision should be made in the skin along the centre of the prominent part, and the tumour removed by dissection. COMPLAINTS AND INJURIES OF THE KNEE. BROKEN KNEES. Much has been said, and a great variety of remedies have been recommended, for injuries received in the knees. It is a subject of very great importance, and therefore much patient attention should be bestowed upon it. Many fine horses have been blemished and disfigured for life by broken knees, and others have been so severely injured that it has rendered them unfit for future service, and in other cases has proved fatal to them. This injury is generally sustained while the horse is going at a quick pace, consequently the extent of the wound will generally be in proportion to the rate of the speed at which the animal is progressing, and the weight behind, as well as the condition and texture of the road on which he falls. The horse in the action of falling naturally throws his knees forward, and consequently they receive all the weight of both horse and rider, and frequently are very severely lacerated. Remedies. — The first precaution is to wash the wounds thoroughly with warm water and a sponge, so as to remove all dirt and gravel from the parts. The next thing to be done is to examine carefully whether the joint is cut, which is best ascertained by the application of a probe, and if the hard bone is felt by the grating of the instrument, it is certain that the joint is penetrated. But should a doubt remain as to its being so, then a poultice must be applied; COMPLAINTS AND INJURIES OF THE KNEE. Ill composed of lint seed-meal. This must be allowed to remain for about twelve hours, which will have at least the effect of acting as a fomentation to the wound, and assist in allaying the inflammation. When the poultice is removed, if the capsular ligament of the joint has been injured, then it will exhibit the synovia, or joint-oil, which manifests a yellowish, glary, transparent appearance. If a doubt still remains, then a second poultice should be applied for the same length of time. Having ascertained the fact that the joint has been laid open, and the flow of the oily matter continues, a,nd inflammation and gangrene follow, this may to a certciin extent be alleviated by washing all round the wound, but not on it, with the following cold lotion : — Goulard's extract . . 2 ounces. Vinegar ... 4 ounces, Water . . . .2 quarts ; to be applied with a sponge, which should always be repeated before any other application, such as a poultice, &c. Prompt attention must now be paid to closing the wound, an operation which is only fit for the skilful hand of a regular veterinary surgeon. But in cases where a veterinary surgeon is far off, or cannot be had in proper time, the closing of tlie wound may be effected by a compress enve- loping the entire wound, and allowed to remain at least fourteen days before it is removed. It must, however, be borne in mind that wounds from contusions of the kind mentioned are very different from a simple cut ; as the edges are irregular, and there is a consequent loss of substance, which can only be restored by the tedious process of granu- lation. It must therefore be evident that the less action in the limbs the better, as if those tender, new-formed portions are either stretched or bruised, it protracts the cure. 112 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. If the cut in the joint be large, and the joint-oil continues to exude from it, and the horse exhibit symptoms of suffer- ing much pain, it may be considered that the wound has become incurable ; and under the circumstances, it will be but proper to destroy the animal, and relieve him from the torture which always accompanies aggravated cases of broken knees : for high fever is almost always induced, of which he is nearly certain to die ; or if he survives it, the inflammation of the parts will induce a deposit of matter in the cavity of the joint, and this becoming fixed, produces lameness, for v/hich there is no remedy. To enable a person to judge of the exact situation of the wound in broken knees, he should have a thorough knowledge of the structure and situation of the bones of the knee-joint, which is the most complicated of all the bony structure of the horse. Between the lower termination of the bone of the arm, and the superior portion of the leg- bones, there are interposed seven other bones, called the carpal bones. Six of these are arranged in two rows of three each, and the seventh is placed behind the others. Should the wound be situated opposite the bottom row, and if its dimensions are small, then there will be little difficulty in closing it ; and even a pretty large one is frequently suc- cessfully cured, as there is but limited motion in that part. But if it is situate opposite the union of the two rows, its remedy is much more uncertain, in consequence of this being the seat of the chief motion of the joint, which has a ten- dency to disunite the lips of the wound, and also induces most irritating friction between the bones, which would become in close contact with each other, in consequence of the expenditure of the joint-oil. When the skin has been broken, it is always visible afterwards, but the extent of the blemish will depend COMPLAINTS AND INJURIES OF THE KNEE. 1V6 greatly upon the ireatment of the wound in its early stages. Caustic applications should invariably be avoided, as they always leave behind them a greater blemish. But should the mark left be of some extent, even without using caustic remedies, then the best way to render it less visible is to apply a mild blister to the part, which will stimulate the hair to shoot out more abundantly round the scar. We do not think there is much faith to be placed in the application of ointments, except they may be stimulating, in conse- quence of being generally composed of turpentine or Spanish flies. It is seldom a knee that has once been broken, is so healed as not to be perceptible, although in some cases the. hurt has been so slight that it can hardly be detected. But even in the least visible of these the hair is always slightly curled, and where this is noticed, the leg should be taken up and the knee bent, when the scar, however slight, will be at once perceived. But we would not have it supposed that a broken knee is invariably an indication of a stumbling animal, because the best of horses have come down, by being backed by a bad rider, or placing his foot on a rolling stone on a road when going at a quick trot, or other cause. However, a broken knee once detected will put the purchaser upon his guard to watch minutely the action and paces of the horse, as well as the form of his fore-quarters ; because, if his shoulder is thick and upright, and the legs placed far under him, then he is likely to have a bad action, and be apt not to lift his feet higli enough to clear the ground properly. On the other hand, I knew one of the finest hunters that ever took the field, with his knees broken, from his rider having forced him to a leap which it was impossible he could accomplish. If the shoulder is oblique and the withers high, with a strong, Q 114 MAXLTAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. well developed fore-arm, it may be fairly inferred that lie has come down from some accidental cause. SPLENT, OR SPLINT. A splent is an enlargement, or bony excrescence, of some part of the shank-bone, generally in the higher portion of it, and situate in the inside of the leg (plate 6, fig. 1.) This is a complaint to which young horses are most liable ; and it has been generally remarked, that as horses ad- vance in years they gradually diminish, and not unfre- quently disappear altogether. It seldom happens, unless the splent is tolerably large, and encroaches too much upon the knee-joint or the back sinew, that it is productive of lameness, unless the horse happen to strike it with the foot of the other leg. In other instances a splent not larger than a pea may be detected in consequence of being acutely sensitive, and produces such lameness as, without being experienced in this complaint, might lead to the belief that it was quite disproportionate to the cause. Cause. — It is difficult to conceive how splent should appear on the outside of the small bones, except we suppose that the space between these bones is occupied by mechanism of an important character. It is much easier to account for their almost exclusive appearance on the inside of the limb. The inner splent-bone is situate nearer the central part of the body than the other ; and from the nature of its connexion with the knee, it is subject to a greater propor- tion of weight than the outer one, and hence is more liable to injury and inflammation, and consequently inducing this bony deposit, which has been termed splent. The inner bone supports the entire weight, which is transmitted to one of the small knee-bones. It is the only support of that bone, while but a portion of the weight is sustained by Si'LEA'T, OR SPLINT. 115 the outer spleut-bone, and the pressure is divided between it and the shank-bone. Besides, many smiths who are im- perfectly acquainted with their profession, most absurdly elevate the outer heel of the shoe to a great degree, which throws an additional quantity of the weight of the animal on the inner splent-bone. Severe blows sometimes occasion splents on other portions of the shank-bone. During the formation of a splent, the horse is frequently lame, occasioned by the periosteum, or membrane which covers the bone, being stretched to an unnatural degree, and causing great pain to the animal in consequence of the sensitive nature of that membrane. But when it has been so stretched as to accommodate itself to the form of the tumour causing the splent — unless it be in a situation which comes in contact with the tendon — the lameness will disappear ; or a slight inflammation may be induced bj the pressure above referred to. Properly speaking, in most instances splents cannot be called unsoundness, as it is possible they may not at all interfere with the action of the horse, and in that case they will not depreciate its value. This, of course, depends much upon the situation in which the splents are found. Remedies. — When it is noticed that a splent is forming, which generally commences with a tumour, the hair should be shaved off all round it, and a small portion of mercurial ointment rubbed into it for two or three days, and after this a pretty strong blister should be applied. If these do not stop its progress, the cautery is sometimes used ; although we would recommend that this should not be resorted to, except where the splent threatens to be large, and is making evident progress after the above remedies. It often happens that the effects of the mercurial ointment and blister do not manifest themselves at first ; but after some little time il6 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. tlie splent will begin to lessen, and eventually disappear altogether. In fact most splents disappear hy absorption wlien the horse begins to get old. SPEEDY CUT. This is an injury inflicted on the inside of the leg, just below the knee-joint, and extending to the head of the inner splent- bone. Horses of high action are liable to this injury, by severely striking this part with the edge of the shoe when they are trotting at a speedy rate. This, in some instances, occasions a bony enlargement, and in others considerable tenderness and great heat in the adjacent parts. Sometimes the pain inflicted is so great that the horse will suddenly drop as if life were extinct. Remedies. — The only thing required is to prevent the shoe from extending beyond the hoof ; and the shoe should have only one nail on the inside of the foot, and that placed near the toe. Let the shoe also be of equal thick- ness at the heel and toe, and formed so that the foot may bear equally on both sides, KNEE-TIED. In some instances, when the trapezium or hinder bone of the knee is not sufficiently prominent, the ligamentous ring by which the tendons are bound together, will confine the flexor tendons of the foot so tightly that the leg will be very deficient in depth under the knee. This is known by the phrase, that the horse is " tied below the knee." This defect has always been found to limit the speed of the animal, as well as its endurance. If such a horse is ridden either fast or far, he is almost certain of being seized with a sprain of the back sinews. This is caused by the pressure of the ring producing such a degree of friction as will SrRAIN OF THE SACK SIJN'EWS. 117 militate against tlie free action of the tendons, and thus requiring a greater degree of exertion to keep up progressive motion. This will be the case, even with the best horse, otherwise well formed, and who has a complete degree of muscular development ; which bj a continuance of the pressure and action must strain the tendons. But this is not all : when the back tendons are thus bound down, they are squeezed into a more oblique direction, consequently it requires a greater force to make the muscles act, and fatigue is induced in a shorter time, and it is almost always accom- panied by a sprain. In short, it is one of the worst defects incidental to the horse. SPRAIN OF THE BACK SINEWS. The back tendons are enclosed in a sheath of thick cellular substance, which not only protects them from injury, but also keeps them in their proper situation. To prevent friction, a mucous fluid intervenes between the sheath and the tendon. When the horse has been over- exerted, or over-Avorked, the tendon presses upon the delicate* membrane with which the sheath is lined, and induces inflammation. This creates the secretion and discharge of a different fluid, which becomes coagulated, and the conse- quence is, that adhesions are formed between the sheath and tendons, which render the motion of the limb more diflicult and cause pain during action. Long-continued action will also sometimes rupture some of the fibres with which the tendons are bound. This is what has been termed a sprain of the back sinew, and when this takes place to a greater extent, the horse is said to have hrohen doiun. So that, in point of fact, there is no rupture of the tendon itself, as it cannot be sprained, not being elastic or capable of extension. Symptoms. — It will be seen that during every movement 118 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. of the limb the animal evinces great pain, in consequence of the excessive inflammation which accompanies this injury, and also the considerable local swelling and heat which accorn^ pany it. The horse will also stand with his foot off the ground, barely touching it with his toe. The first injury which is above pointed out consists merely of inflammation of the sheath, or partial rupture of the fibres by which it is attached. Remedies. — To prevent constitutional irritation, bleeding should immediately be resorted to, and afterwards doses of the following given : — Barbadoes aloes . . 1^ ounce, Calomel ... 2 drachms, Jalap . . . . ^ drachm; t3 be administered in the form of a ball. In this case the bleeding may be from the toe, which will relieve the vessels situate near the injury, and check the fever also. The bleeding should be performed in the follow- ing manner : — Let the sole be well pared down, and when sufl[iciently thin, let a groove be cut with a small drawing- knife, at the place where the crust and sole unite, (see plate 6, i\g. 1 0, w.) This will open the great vein ; but should it not hit upon the vein, the groove should be extended back- wards until it is met with ; and when the blood begins to flow, the vein may be further enlarged by a small lancet, inserted horizontally under the sole, by which means any quantity of blood may be obtained. The foot should then be placed in warm water, which will induce a more rapid flow of blood ; and when enough has been taken, insert a small quantity of tow into the slit, and let the shoe be put on again very slightly. When this has been accomplished, the wound will speedily heal. After this the limb should ])e well fomented with warn) SrRAIN OF THE BACK SINEWS. 1 1 9 water three or four times a day, each time for about an hour ; and in the intervals let large poultices of lintseed meal be wrapped round the leg. A little of Goulard's extract, or vinegar, may be added to the poultice with advantage. A great deal depends, however, on the warmth and moisture of the poultice, as well as the fomentations. These appliances are intended to allay the inflammation. Stimulants are to be carefully avoided, as these are sure to increase the inflammation. When the horse begins to rest his foot upon the sole, and the heat has left the part, it is certain that the irritation will have considerably abated. But although this is the case, means must be used to prevent the recurrence of the inflammation, and also to reduce the swelling. Apply a thin flannel bandage to support the parts, which, by gentle pressure, will have a tendency to stimulate the absorbents, and promote the absorption of the coagulated matter which caused the complaint ; and it should be applied tighter as the limb will endure increased pressure ; and this appliance should be continued for at least fourteen days. It wdll be better to keep the bandage wet with the following lotion : — Vinegar ... 1 pint. Spirit of wine . . . ^ pint. This will have the effect of reducing the deep-seated inflam- mation. If in a fortnight all the symptoms have disappeared, the horse may be put to work, but of course with caution. But if after this time lameness still continues, then recourse must be had to a blister ; and in this case it will be proper afterwards to turn out the horse for a month or two to allow proper time and opportunity for the reduction of the swell- ing and inflammation, otherwise an incurable lameness may be the result. 120 MANUAL OF MODERN FAKIIIERY. Severe sprains, as well as those which have been unskil- fully treated, especially where from long-continued inflam- mation the structure of the part has been considerably altered ; or if the swelling has become callous, and the skin thickened so as to prevent the free action of the limb, then it will be necessary to use the cautery, as the best means of rousing and stimulating to action the absorbents, so as to enable them to take up the coagulated deposit, as well as the thickened skin and unusual increase of the cellular substance. In firing, the cautery should be applied in straight lines so as to contract the skin, and by its natural elasticity to produce that pressure so necessary in this complaint. It may well be imagined that it will require some time before this hardened fluid can be removed, not less than six months cessation from work will suflSce. A blister applied six weeks or two months after the use of the cautery is frequently attended with beneficial efiects ; but it should never be had recourse to except in cases where it becomes indispensable ; and these are generally from unskilful firing. It is necessary to pay very strict attention to the appear- ance of the flexor tendons in the purchase of a horse ; and if there is any thickening of the cellular substance, then it may be inferred that the horse has had one of those sprains, and that it has not been properly managed. The action of the horse is sure to be aflected by it, and a return of the malady may occur ; and although all appearance of lameness has left the animal, still he cannot under such circumstances be considered a perfectly sound horse. WIND-GALLS. Symptoms. — Wind-galls more frequently occur in the fore than in the liind legs. These are known by the pufiy WIND-GALLS. 121 appearance so frequently noticed about the legs of horses which have been hard worked. (See plate 6, fig. 8, c.) There is a beautiful provision in Nature, in placing little bags between the tendons and other parts where they are exposed to pressure or friction. These sacs contain* a mucous fluid of a similar kind to the synovia, or joint-oil which oozes from the bags and lubricates the tendons of the muscles. In consequence of violent action and strain- ing the tendons, these bags get injured, become inflamed, swollen, and hard, the tendons being generally inserted near the joints, where there is more pressure and motion, and consequently these bags are more liable to injury. They become inflamed, and during this state the horse is generally lame to a greater or less degree. However, unless these sacs attain a very large size, the horse cannot be reckoned unsound, as few are entirely free from wind-galls, — which appellation they acquired from the fancy that they contained wind. — It was an old practice to cut or probe them, so that the air might escape. This has, in many instances, produced violent inflammation, and has been the death of many fine horses. Eemedies. — Unless wind-galls are large and interfere with the actions of the leg, we would recommend that no treat- ment should be attempted. The first appliance to a large wind-gall should be a bandage or roller of flannel, and under it, immediately over the swollen parts, a soft pad should be introduced, and firmly bound down. The band- age should be wetted with the same kind of lotion recom- mended in sprain of the back sinews, page 101. This treatment in most instances will cause the wind-galls to disappear ; but unfortunately they are liable to return, especially if the animal is hard worked. A blister is more likely to effect a cure, as it generally has the power of 122 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. dispelling the swellings. Firing is still more effectual in large galls, as it immediately induces absorption of the fluid, and consequently the swelling disappears, by means of the contraction of the skin caused by the use of the cautery ; and this contraction serves the purpose of a permanent bandage, and prevents a recurrence of the wind-gall. RUPTURE OF THE SUSPENSORY LIGAMENT. Extraordinary exertion will sometimes produce rupture in the suspensory ligament, (see plate 6, fig. 10, /.) This relaxation allows the sessamoid bones to fall down, and consequently the fetlock joint nearly touches the ground. It not unfrequently happens that this complaint is mistaken for rupture of the flexor tendons ; but one thing will render it sufl&ciently evident that it is really the suspensory tendon which is at fault, namely, that the horse is able to bend his foot. No malady which affects a horse is more serious than this ; for it is ten to one that the animal ever becomes effectually cured of it. In most instances he is ever after- wards lame. Remedy. — If a cure can at all be effected, it wiU be by keeping the animal quiet, and having the leg bandaged and giving him a high-heeled shoe. GROGGINESS. This consists of a singular knuckling over the fetlock- joint, and general shaking over the entire fore-leg. It is a complaint common to old, over- worked horses. Neither the fetlock or pastern joints are simply implicated in this complaint, although both are connected with it. Cause. — Working the animal beyond his strength is usually the sole cause of this complaint. It is for the most part a want of power in the ligaments of this joint, gene- CUTTING OF THE FETLOCK. 123 rally occasioned by frequent and severe sprains, brought on by cruel and oppressive treatment, in forcing the animal to pull more than his physical energies can accomplish, without a desperate effort. Remedies. — It seldom happens that an effectual remedy can be found for this complaint, because it is generally accompanied by ulceration within the joints, as well as of the membrane with which the cartilage is lined ; and even the cartilage itself is affected, which is inaccessible to any remedial treatment. SPRAIN OF THE FETLOCK. The fetlock-joint is peculiarly liable to injuries, from its being the principal situation of action below the knee. In sprains of the back-sinew, accompanied by inflammation, which is usually the case, inflammation is generally induced in this also. And many of the sprains which are supposed to belong to higher portions of the limbs are, in fact, affec- tions of this joint. Symptoms. — It is no easy matter to distinguish affections of the fetlock from those situate in the superior portions of the limb. Pressure by the finger on the part, and heat, are the surest tests for finding out the seat of this complaint. Treatment. — Strong blisters applied with promptitude are the most effectual means of removing sprain of this joint ; and afterwards bandages of flannel should be used. CUTTING OF THE FETLOCK. The inside of the fetlock-joint is frequently bruised or cut by the shoe of the opposite foot. This depends some- times upon natural defects in the form of the leg and foot ; and in such a case it is seldom that a remedy can be devised ; such as when the limbs are placed too near each 124 MAls^UAL OF MODERN FARRIElEtt. other, or when the feet have an inward or outward inclina- tion Some horses are subject to this when much fatigued, arising, no doubt, from a relaxation of the joint ; and it is not unfrequent for colts to cut when thej have not attained their full strength. Remedies. — Many plans have been tried to remedy this defect, such as raising or lowering the inside and outside of the heel, as the case might require it. In some instances it has succeeded, and in others failed. In fact no principle can be laid down whereby to guide an operation for this defect. The most successful remedy hitherto discovered is to use a shoe of uniform thickness from heel to toe, so that the bearing may be perfectly level, and to put but one nail in, and that situated near the toe, inside of the shoe ; this shoe to be applied to that foot which strikes the other. The greatest care must be exercised to prevent the shoe from extending beyond the hoof, besides having the crust a little rasped off the inside of the hoof. This part of the hoof being destitute of the nails will expand when it comes in contact' with the ground, and contract when raised, and relieved from the weight of the body. Great care must be taken that the shoe be equal in thickness on both sides, and also at the heel and toe, so as to equalize the bearing on both sides. When the defetit arises from natural malformation of the setting on of the feet, many experiments have been tried to remedy this, as above stated ; but the most ingenious of these were instituted by Mr. Moorcroft, by which he adopted a contrary practice to that above ; he says, " If the inside of the foot be raised, and the outside lowered, the supporting leg when in action will bring the body, and consequently the moving leg more to the side of the sup- porting leg, and hence more liable to be struck. On the SPRAIN OF THE COFFIN-JOINT. 125 other hand, if the outside of the foot be raised, the support- ing leg will throw the body off that leg, consequently the moving leg will be further off the supporting leg, and hence less liable to strike." These arguments are good ; but still there have been cases where the practice of these suggestions has failed to produce the desired effect. But cutting does not always arise from natural defects, as it is often the consequence of unskilful shoeing. When this is the case, we usually find the upper edge, or that part which comes in contact with the crust, to be hammered inwards, leaving the lower edge on the ground side wider than the hoof, and projecting beyond it. In purchasing a horse which manifests marks of cutting by callous thickening on the inside of the fetlock, it is safest to avoid the purchase, as it is most diflicult to ascertain the true cause by inspection, unless the throwing outwards or inwards of the toes be considerable. Besides, as above stated, some horses will cut when tired, and others from a weakness of the fetlock. SPRAm OF THE COFFIN-JOINT. This disease is indicated by a sudden lameness ; and a considerable heat exists round the coronet, as well as ten- derness, which gives the animal pain when pressed upon. Sprain of the coffin-joint sometimes becomes a very bad complaint, in consequence of its being so often unobserved by grooms or even farriers, and it becomes deeply rooted before it is detected. Above all others, this complaint is frequently confounded with lameness of the shoulder. Remedies. — The first thing to be tried is bleeding at the toe ; and afterwards a blister should be applied, and at the same time the animal should have occasional doses of physic. The following laxative may be given : — 126 MANUAL OF moder:!? farriery. Barbadoes aloes . - ^t o^iice, Calomel . . .2 drachms, Jalap . . . -g- drachm ; to be given in the form of a ball. RINGBONE. This is one of the worst species of lameness which is incidental to the horse. Whenever it exists, even in the slightest degree, it comes under the character of unsound- ness, because it is so liable to increase ; and when the bony deposit begins to enlarge, the lameness becomes incurable. This complaint commences in one of the pasterns, and usually near to the joint It is liable to spread rapidly, affecting not only the pastern bones, but also the cartilages of the foot. When the first deposit is on and surrounds the lower pastern, emanating from a violent inflammation of the ligaments, a small enlargement or bony process is to be per- ceived immediately above the coronet. (See plate 6, fig. 8, b.) The hind feet are most liable to this complaint, as they are subjected to the greatest stress in the force required by them to propel the horse, and in this case the back part of the foot is most liable to be affected. But the disease is not of so serious a nature, being chiefly confined to the ligaments, and the bones have not been injured by concus- sion, to which the fore legs are peculiarly exposed ; conse- quently, in them, diseases of the bones generally accompany ligamentary laineness. Remedies. — In the early stages of this complaint, when even a bony enlargement is visible on both sides of the pastern joint, or on one side only, and the enlargement is of but small extent, then there is a probability that it may be removed by the application of an active blister, or by the use of the cautery. But owing to the extreme CURB. 127 action of these joints, the inflammation and the bony secre- tion rapidly spread. The pasterns, in the first instance, become connected together by this bony process, which supplants the ligaments, and then the joints become im- movably fixed, or what is technically termed anchylosed. From this joint the disease is carried to the cartilages of the foot, and to the union between the lower pastern, as well as to the coflin and navicular bones, which either impedes or totally destroys all action in these parts, and this part of the foot becomes an entire mass of spongy bone. OSSIFICATION OF THE BACK SINEW. Ossification of the back sinew is very easily distinguished. When a healthy sinew is pressed upon with the thumb and two first fingers, from above downwards, it feels like a very tense cord, yielding slightly under the pressure, but spring- ing back to its natural position the moment that pressure is removed. When the sinew is ossified, it is divested of that elasticity so obvious to the touch of even the most inexperi- enced. It is true that in its incipient state it is not so readily discovered, as its bony texture has not been fully formed, although an expert veterinary surgeon will be able to detect it soon after it has begun to form. In the earlier stages of ossification of the back sinew, no lameness takes place, but it is certain to render the horse lame eventually, and that, too, for the remainder of his life. There is no remedy for this infirmity. CURB. This is a swelling below the hock, caused by hard work and by the animal being overloaded ; and sometimes occa- sions lameness. It is most common in cat-hammed, high- bred horses, especially when young ; and is caused by leaping 1^.8 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. before the animal has acquired its full strength. It is more visible when the limb is viewed sideways ; and by comparing it with the sound one, the extent of the evil will be the more observable. This swelling is unaccompanied with heat. Remedy. — The use of the cautery is the only remedy, and it should be promptly applied. After this recourse must be had to the following lotion : — Goulard's extract . . 2 ounces. Vinegar . . .4 ounces, Water .... 2 quarts. Keep two or three folds of cloth well wetted with this for some days to the part affected, until the swelling entirely disappears. CHAPTER VI. THE HAUNCH AND OTHER PORTIONS OF THE HIND LEGS. FRACTURE OF THE TUBEROSITIES OF THE HAUNCH. The only portions of the haunch or pelvis which are liable to injury or fracture are the tuberosities on the points of the various bones. It sometimes happens that those parts are fractured by a fall or heavy blow. When such is the case, the horse will walk lame, and swelling will take place in the contiguous parts, with a degree of heat, as inflamma- tion is always an accompaniment of fracture. There are no mechanical means of bringing those parts together, to force a reunion and place them in their natural position ; SPRAIN OF THE STIFLE-JOINT. 129 SO that all we can ao is to allow Nature to work her own cure. A large and strong adhesive plaster may be laid across the haunch, which will, in some measure, assist in keeping together and supporting the parts. It seldom, how- ever, happens that the parts again adhere in their natural position, consequently deformity and lameness are entailed upon the animal for life. SPRAIN OF THE ROUND BONE. Symptoms. — The rounded termination of the femur or thigh-bone is in common language termed the round-bone. In a few isolated cases this part has been dislocated, and the rounded part v/hich fits into the cavity of the hip-joint is fractured ; but sprain of this part is more commonly the case. The indication of this is, that the horse drags his leg after him, with the toe only touching the ground as he walks. If the bone itself has been injured, heat and ten- derness of the part will generally be manifested. Remedies. — It seldom happens that strains of this joint are immediately relieved ; and from the want of proper action the muscles of the limb waste away. A blister is the most likely thing to be of use, and the horse should -not be subjected to any kind of work. Firing has sometimes relieved the complaint. Should this fail, the only thing that remains to be done is to put a charge over the joint, and turn the animal out to grass for some months. SPRAIN OF THE STIFLE-JOINT. It is but seldom that this joint is sprained. When it does happen, heat and tenderness of the part will give an indication of it. Sometimes dislocation of the patella, or small bone, answering to the knee-pan in man, occurs. s 130 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. This will be indicated by the horse dragging the limb after him, or by his resting it on the fetlock-joint. The muscles of the inside of the thigh are sometimes sprained, which is known by the heat in all the contiguous parts. Remedies. — For dislocation of the patella, the aid of a veterinary surgeon will be absolutely necessary. In case of muscles being sprained, fomentations must be used ; and bleeding in some instances may be necessary, accompanied by doses of laxative medicine, as recommended at page 132. THOROUGHPm. In treating of wind-galls, we described certain little bags or sacs, containing a fluid for lubricating the joints. These, we mentioned, sometimes become inflamed and enlarged : similar sacs are situated contiguous to the hock-joint, and these also are liable to inflammation, and produce swellings of greater or lesser dimensions immediately under the strong tendon which unites with the cap of the hock. These swellings generally protrude on both sides, in the form of round swellings. Sometimes when the coverings of the tumour yield more readily in one direction than another, it will protrude principally in that part. The nature of the complaint is precisely the same as wind-galls, but from its situation has been termed thoroughpin, (see plate 7, fig. 3, e e, and 5,5 5.) These swellings generally produce stiffness of the joint, which sometimes wears off" when exercise has induced absorption of the fluid which these bags contain. However, it is only when the sacs become large that they occa- sion any inconvenience to the action of the limb. Many per- sons think thoroughpin of but little consequence ; but after a hard day's work, a horse will always manifest stiff"ness in the joint in which these swellings exist. And although a horse cannot strictly be called unsound which is afflicted CAPPED HOCKS. 131 with thoroughpin, still a purchaser, when he notices these, should otherwise examine the horse with care, to discover, if possible, that they have not been induced by previous hard work, which will sooner or later tell on the animal. Treatment. — The same remedies as recommended in wind-galls are applicable to this complaint. But there is no certain cure, and hard work is almost certain to make them re-appear. CAPPED HOCKS. Capped hocks consists of a swelling on the very point of the hock-joint (see plate 8, fig. 4, a.) The tumour is soft and fluctuating, caused by an enlargement of one of the mucus bags described in wind-galls and thoroughpin. Lame- ness seldom accompanies capped hock, but nevertheless it is an awkward complaint, particularly in draught-horses, in consequence of this part being very liable to come in contact with the bar of a gig or carriage ; and by causing pain to the animal, induces him to kick, and, if a high- tempered horse, often causes much mischief. It is generally produced by blows of some kind ; but in many instances the injury is inflicted by the horse himself in kicking, and that when the animal is in harness, although some are in the habit of kicking while in the stall. It also occurs some- times by the bedding of the horse being too thin, and the hock may be bruised in consequence, and it may besides proceed from a sprain of the hock-joint. Treatment. — Blisters are the only means that can be employed with the hopes of removing the swelling, and it often happens that these must be frequently repeated before a cure can be effected. Sometimes the swelling disappears without any other means than rest being employed. But often capped hock becomes of a very large size, and callous 132 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. ia its structure, in which case we are not aware that it can be eradicated. In purchasing a horse which exhibits capped hock, the whole of the part should be very carefully examined, in order to ascertain if there are any other bruises observable. His history should be obtained, if possible, and learn whether it has been the result of kicking. Horses that are given to kicking can seldom or never be broken from the habit. MALLENDERS AND SALLENDERS. These are scurfy eruptions, situate in the inside of the hock, a little way under the knee, sometimes even on it : the former appellation is given to those of the fore leg, and the latter to the hind leg. These seldom are accompanied with lameness, but if not attended to in time, they will ulcerate, when a thin watery humour will issue from them, which becomes difficult of cure. Remedies. — The following ointment must be applied to the parts affected : — Common tar . . .1 ounce, Sugar of lead . , . ^ ounce, Lard . . . .4 ounces. If the above does not stop the discharge in a week's application, then recourse must be had to the weak mercurial ointment. During the treatment of this complaint, the following laxative ball should be occasionally given : — Barbadoes aloes . . 5 drachms, Castile soap ... 2 drachms. Oil of caraways . . 10 drops. The cause of this complaint is in general owing to bad stable management. CURB. 133 ENLARGEMENT OF THE HOCK. The origin of this is a sprain or inflammation, affecting generally the hock-joint, produced principally from some sudden or violent concussion ; checking the horse abruptly when going at a rapid pace, or from the animal being com- pelled to draw a greater weight than his strength will enable him to do comfortably. Considerable lameness, with tenderness of the parts, always accompany this ; but these are not so difficult to remove as in more limited inflamma- tion. It will yield to i-est and fomentation in general ; but, if not, it will be necessary to have recourse to firing, which generally proves effectual. However, it too frequently happens that the enlargement of the whole joint remains. But this will not incapacitate him for work ; and if treated with ordinary caution, he may be worked during the re- mainder of his life without any increase of swelling or inflammation returning, although the parts around the hock- joint are altered in structure, and to a certain extent weakened. Although a horse may never afterwards exhibit lameness, still, where permanent swelling of the hock-joint exists, he is, in point of fact, regarded as unsound ; because, if he happen by necessity or accident to be subjected to extra hard work for a day or two, he is almost certain to become lame, and that too for life. Still, however, many a good and useful horse has enlargement of the hock. CURB. A curb is situated some inches below the point of the hock, (see plate 7, fig. 3, a, and fig, 8, e^ and is an enlarge- ment of the ligamentary bands of the part. When the limb is viewed from the side, a gradual puffing out of this part will be observable ; and if it is at all large or inflamed, 134 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. it is sure to be followed by lameness. If heat and tender- ness of the part are perceived, and the horse is lame, it is certain that it has its seat in this spot. The cause of curb, like other injuries of the hock-joint, proceeds from a sudden check, or over-exertion, and inducing extension of the ligaments, which bind down the tendons ; or it may proceed from an injury sustained by the sheaths of the tendons. This brings on inflammation, and frequently lameness ensues. It is most common to young horses, especiall}^. those which are cow- hocked ; that is-, with the structure of the hock and leg being like that of a cow, the hocks having an inward inclination, and the legs exhibiting a considerable outward angle. This formation of the limbs, it will be at once perceived, has the effect of inducing a continual stretch on the annular ligament, and thereby confining the action of the tendons. When curb first appears it is generally accompanied by swelling and lameness : it is seldom, however, that the swelling is great, exhibiting generally a gradual curve, so little to be noticed that, when viewed from behind, it cannot be observed. Remedies. — The first application should be cold evapo- rating lotions, frequently used. These to consist of Spirit of wine . . 2 ounces. Vinegar .... 2 ounces. Water .... 2 ounces. This to be often applied until the inflammation has subsided. Should the heat and lameness continue, bleeding from the subcutaneous vein must be had recourse to, the situation and course of which is exhibited at h, plate 7, fig. 2. After which purgatives must be administered. The following should be made up in the form of a ball, and given : — STRTNG-IIALT. 135 Barbadoes aloes . .5 drachms, Castile soap . . 3 drachms, Oil of caraways . . 12 drops. It the complaint has its seat in the annular ligament, or in the sheath of the tendon, very active treatment becomes necessary to eifect a permanent cure. Blisters will be found the most effectual. First, a liquid one should be tried, such as the following : — Tincture of cantharides . 1 ounce. This to be applied every day until considerable swelling is induced, after which let it subside to some extent, and again have recourse to the cooling lotion. If this does not thoroughly disperse the curb, then the hair should be shaved off the part and a regular blister applied, and repeated from time to time until a cure is effected. In very severe cases of curb, it has been necessary to have recourse to firing, after all other measures have failed. Long-continued rest is absolutely necessary in cases of curb, without which the lameness is liable to return upon the horse being worked. Horses that have, or have had curb, are decidedly unsound ; as this serious complaint always leaves weakness behind, and a return of it is almost certain for a very long period after an apparent cure. STRmG-HALT. This complaint consists of a convulsive or twitching action in one or more of the legs, and so evident that it is perceptible to any one, however inexperienced he may be in the action of horses. It is a complaint almost always confined to the hind legs, although in a few solitary instances it may be met with in the fore limbs. This com- 136 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. plaint is first noticed when the horse is just taken out of the stable. The animal lifts his leg high, suddenly elevating it towards his belly, and puts it to the ground with considerable force. Should both limbs be affected, then it gives the appearance as if the horse had very good and high action in his hind limbs, and many a purchaser has been deceived in consequence This shows the utility of all possessors of horses having a general knowledge of the complaints incidental to this useful animal. String- halt soon disappears after the horse has been heated a little, and it is no detriment to him after he has been warmed ; for we have seen and ridden some of the best of hunters which have had that affection, and which were first in at the death. We are not in possession of any means for the remedy of this affection ; and although it is unpleasant to the rider upon first setting out, yet it is no positive detriment to the animal, nor is it reckoned unsoundness. Indeed the true nature of the affection is not known. By some it has been supposed to exist in the spinal marrow, and by others to be situated in the nerves supplying some of the muscles of the leg. BONE-SPAYIK A bone-spavin is an increased growth of bony consistence situated on the lower and most prominent part of the inside of the hock-joint. (See plate 7, fig. 9, d) A well-formed hock-joint gradually tapers down so as to unite almost imperceptibly with the soft or fleshy parts. In examining a horse, the hand should be passed over the inside of the hock in a downward direction, when horses having this injury will be found to have a little prominence, near the lower point of the bone. This is an enlargement of BONE-SPAVIN. 137 the bone, and what is termed bone-spavin. It is a disease of the inner splint-bone, and serious in its nature and effects. The true nature and causes which induce bone-spavin cannot be properly understood without a thorough know- ledge of the hock-joint, which we have represented on plate 10, fig. 8. In this figure the shank-bone is represented at 5, and the two small bones behind at g are the splint-bones ; these support the lower layer of the bones of the hock The cube-bone, /, rest chiefly on the shank-bone, and in a slight measure on the outer splint-bone. The middle wedge-bone, e, rests entirely upon the shank-bone, and the smaller wedge-bone rests in a slight degree on the shank- bone, but its chief support is on the inner splint-bone. From this arrangement the splint-bones support a very unequal degree of weight and concussion. The inner one is placed more under the body, and consequently nearer the centre of gravity, and besides nearly the entire weight and concussion is communicated to the little wedge-bone. Hence it is that during any violent action of this joint either in leaping, galloping, or under the pressure of a heavy draught, the inner splint-bone or its ligaments are injured. This is mere especially the case with young horses before their joints have 1 ecome firmly consolidated. The shoeing blacksmith or farrier too often is the cause of inducing and increasing this complaint, by improper treatment of the feet. An erroneous notion has too long prevailed among smiths that cutting and wounds of the feet inflicted by the one foot treading upon the other can be prevented by adding a calkin on the outer heel of the shoe, which consists in the extremity of the shoe being bent, elevating the outer heel considerably above the ground, and thus the ligaments of the joints are subjected to an unequal 138 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. strain, and especially those of the hock, which increases the tendency to spavin. It is this which induces in the first instance inflammation of the cartilaginous union of the shank-bone, and this cartilage is absorbed, and a secretion of bony substance deposited in its stead ; consequently the elastic action between them is terminated, and the splint inside the hind leg formed, and has the appearance of a tumour, when the head of the splint-bone is united with the shank, and always in front of that junction, as exhibited in plate 7, fig. 3, c. Lameness universally accompanies spavin, but when the periosteum or membrane of the bone has been stretched, and taken the form of the bony enlargement, then the pain subsides, and with it the lameness. This, however, depends upon the size of the spavin, and whether it interferes with the motion of the joint. Many instances occur of horses with large spavins, and yet they are not much afflicted with lameness ; sometimes having merely a stiffness of the joint, which is not apparent after the animal has had a little exercise. And, on the contrary, there are instances in which the bony deposit is very small, and yet the horse is very lame, so much so as to render him comparatively useless. It must therefore be evident that we ought care- fully to examine horses with spavin before they have had exercise, and as soon as they have left the stable. Sometimes spavin continues to enlarge considerably, and spreads over the lower wedge-bones, (plate 7, fig. 8, e.) in consequence of these being nearest the original seat of the enlargement. These bones are capable of a small degree of motion, and participate in every action of the joint, but their chief oflSce is to prevent concussion. The principal motion of the joint is in the tibia, 5, and the astragalus, Cy and consequently stiffness more than lameness may BONE-SPAVIN. 139 accompany spavin, even when the small bones of the joint are affected. From which also it will be seen that there is a manifest advantage in each of these bones being provided with a separate ligament and membrane, and thus, as it were, constituting so many separate joints ; so that any of them may sustain injury, without its being communicated to the rest. It is not uncommon for the bony deposit continuing to enlarge and embracing the second series of bones, enveloping the larger wedge-bones, d, and extending to the cube-bones on the other side ; and even then the lameness may not be so great as to prove very injurious, for this reason, that the motion of these two joints, or rather parts of the joint, is small ; but when it reaches to the union of the tibia, b, and the astragalus, c ; when the joint in which the principal motion of the joint is affected, then the lameness is of a very serious kind, and the horse may be considered as no longer fit for use. Although spavin unfits horses for active employment, yet for farm purposes they need not be rejected, especially by those who possess limited farms ; for slow draught and Qther agricultural purposes they will be found quite useful, and from this sort of work, in which quick motion is not required, the horse may improve, and even the bony matter may be absorbed to a considerable extent. One strong reason why spavined horses do not improve, is that they seldom lie down, as they are conscious that they will suffer considerable pain in the act of rising again ; so that the continual pressure and weight of the body upon the limb, keeps alive the exciting cause. There is sometimes an enlargement of the heads of the bones of the leg, which may be mistaken for spavin. Remedies. — Spavin can only be successfully treated, if at all, by blisters frequently repeated, which may induce an 140 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIER V. absorption of the bony deposit, or at least a diminution of the ligamentary inflammation. When this fails, then re- course may be had to the cautery, and if burning proves ineffectual, no other known means is likely to succeed. BOG OR BLOOD-SPAVIN. Bog-spavin is a puffy elastic tumour on the inside of the hock, (plate 7, fig. 6, c.) It is in fact an enlarged and inflamed wind-gall of the part situated under the large subcutaneous vein which runs up the inside of the leg, and which being compressed by this enlargement, prevents the blood from flowing freely through it. This interruption of the circulation not only increases the size of the tumour, but also occasions a general torpor and stagnation of the blood, and, consequently, swelling of the limb in a slight degree, which presents an obstacle to its free action, and produces a very bad and incurable lameness. Even when lameness is removed, it has a strong tendency to return whenever the animal is subjected to severe labour ; and therefore a horse having some time been afflicted with it must be considered as decidedly unsound ; so that the safest plan is to get rid of a horse under those circuin- stances ; and he may be worked in a cart or plough without the danger of a return of the malady. The seat of this disease is deep, and consequently there is much difficulty in operating upon it. The simplest, and probably the best application is uniform pressure, which may induce absorption of the fluid contained in the enlarged mucus-bag. But this joint being exposed to almost constant motion, there is much difficulty in keeping the pressure uniform, and if it should happen to press upon the vein, it will only increase the inflammation. Remedies. — This, like bone-spavin, admits but of a limited SWELLED LEGS GENERALLY. 141 degree of treatment. Repeated blisters are the most likely to afford relief. These, by exciting a considerable degree of inflammation on the skin, may energize the deeper-seated absorbents, and enable them to take up the effusion of fluid in the enlarged and inflamed bag. But, in the majority of cases, all means which have hitherto been tried have proved abortive. OF SWELLED LEGS GENERALLY. SWELLING OF THE CELLULAR SUBSTANCE. Both the fore and hind legs of horses are liable to con- siderable swelling, but the latter are most subject to be thus affected. Frequently, when a horse seems to be affected with no other disease, the hind legs will suddenly swell to a very great extent from the hock to the fetlock, and in some instances even from the stifle downwards. This is accompanied by heat and extreme tenderness of the skin, inducing lameness of a peculiar character. A quickened and hard pulse are usual concomitants of this seizure, with a considerable degree of fever. This complaint is acute inflammation of the cellular substance of the limbs, being sudden in its attack, very violent in its degree, is con- sequently attended with the secretion of a quantity of fluid on the cellular tissue. Young horses, and those which are over-fed, with little exercise, are most liable to be thus attacked, and without having had previous inflammation. Remedies. — If accompanied by fever, moderate bleeding will afford relief ; after which the following diuretic should be given : — Turpentine • • • i ounce, Ginger . . . . ^ drachm, Lintseed meal . . ^ ounce ; made into a ball with common syrup. 142 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. Two hours afterwards give the following purgative, in the form of a ball : — Barbadoes aloes . . 5 drachms, Castile soap . . . 1^ drachm, Oil of caraways . . S drops. Also use fomentations, and in most instances the swelling will subside as rapidly as it appeared. SWELLING FROM INACTIVITY. The most troublesome, as well as the most frequent swelling in the limbs, is that caused by inactivity, from high feeding and want of due exercise. One kind is accompanied by actual or comparative debility, or loss of power in the part affected. Those horses which are over-fed, without exercise, are liable to swellings in the limbs from the arterial capillary vessels having sent forth an over-portion of fluid to the extremities, and in consequence of the want of muscular exertion and the perspiration naturally connected with it ; and the fluids having accumulated in the extre- mities, in consequence of the vessels not having sufficient power to return them. The heart is thus acting upon an additional quantity of fluid ; while, by the want of exercise, the limbs are deprived of that power by which the fluids are returned. Remedies. — The above physic and diuretic should be ad- ministered. These will lessen the quantity of fluid ; also exercise the horse freely, which will increase the perspiration externally, and diminish it internally, and the veins and absorbents will attain more activity, so that the complaint will gradually subside, and the limbs resume their wonted appearance. SWELLINGS AFTER GRASS. It is a common occurrence for horses just taken in from SWELLED LEGS GENERALLY. 143 grass to be seized with swelling in the legs. This is occa- sioned by the difference of food, owing to its containing a greater proportion of nutriment, which naturally increases the quantity of the blood, and the want of that exercise which is necessary to carry it off by the skin. It will therefore be quite apparent that exercise and a little open- ing medicine will effect a cure. Horses may also have swelled legs from general debility. The proper quantity or quality of food may induce this, or it may proceed from disease that has reduced the strength of the animal system. The limbs, being the most remote from the centre of circulation, first exhibit loss of power ; and this is manifested by swelling, in consequence of the accumulation of fluids in them. The cure in this case would be to give such diet and tonic medicines as would tend to invigorate the system, as well as to administer mild diuretics. Horses are liable to swellings in the limbs in the spring and fall of the year. This can be accounted for by the principal activity of the circulation being employed in pre- paring a fresh covering of hair at those periods, so that the vital influence in the extremities is somewhat diminished, and the same cause as above explained produces swellings in the legs. Administer diuretics to diminish the quantity of the circulating fluid, and give cordials to strengthen the system. Swelling of the legs is also common to horses which are used for hunting and pleasure only. This, it will be seen, arises from irregularity in their habits, one day having a more than sufficient exercise, and probably standing for days or weeks in a stable, and only walked out or trotted for a short distance. In such cases the limbs should be well 144 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. rubbed down every day, both morning and evening, so as to stimulate the vessels to activity. Pressure by means of bandages will also be found to have a powerful tendency to promote the circulation It is too much the practice of grooms to give diuretics in swellings of the limbs, as these by being frequently repeated are sure to weaken the urinary organs and produce an incurable debility. GREASE. This is a disease of the skin of the heel, sometimes in the fore feet, but most commonly in the hind ones. The disease is too frequently the effect of washing the limbs with cold water while they are over-heated from exercise, and allowing them to dry of their own accord ; the conse- quent reaction after the application of cold being very great, produces inflammation. The vessels becoming gorged, nature seeks to relieve them by sending forth a discharge of ichorous matter from the parts which are so violently inflamed. Another cause is taking a horse into a warm stable in winter, when the legs have been chilled by excessive cold from standing. Grease is not contagious, yet it has been known to affect all the horses of a stable at the same time, after one has been seized with the complaint. This can only be accounted for by bad stable management. The skin of the heel is considerably different in its texture from that of other parts of the legs. The fetlock is subjected to a greater degree of motion and friction than any other joint, and it is provided with a soft unctuous matter to keep it from chapping or excoriation, which can be easily felt to be greasy to the touch. When inflammation ensues, this greasy exudation stops, and the heel exhibits a red, dry, and mealy appear- ance ; and in consequence of the continual motion of this GREASE. 145 joint, cracks soon make their appearance ; these increasing considerably, present an entire mass of sores, which ulcerate very much and assume a fungus-like appearance. It is easy to account for the tendency of the heels to violent inflammatory attacks, which arises from their being so remote from the centre of the circulation, and also their constant exposure to extreme variations of temperature. In the first place, when standing in the stable the feet are subjected to a great degree of heat, from being at all times surrounded with straw, and then when the door is opened his heels, in many instances, being close to the door, are exposed to any cold draught which may rush in ; and then he may be taken from the stable to the open air and walked through soft and cold mud, after being over-heated, and thereby chilled. It is easy then to see that they are con- stantly liable to inflammatory attacks by being thus exposed to sudden transitions from one temperature to another, and hence the difficulty of subduing those attacks of inflam- mation to which the horse is liable. Farmers' and carriers' horses, and indeed those in general which are worked in carts, are not so liable to grease as riding and carriage-horses, being less exposed to those ex- treme transitions from heat to cold, or vice versa. And the hair, which is usually allowed to grow plentifully at the heels, is a great protection against sudden changes. Kemedies. — The first thing to be done is to wash the heel well with soap and warm water, and remove as much of the white scurf as possible. When it has become perfectly dry, which should be accomplished by rubbing, then the following ointment should be applied until the parts are healed : — Lard .... 1 ounce, Sugar of lead, vjell pounded 1 drachm. 14G MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. In cases where cracks appear, the treatment will gi-eatly depend upon their extent and depth : when they are small, the following lotion will be found beneficial : — Blue vitriol (or sulphate of copper) 2 drachms, Water .... 1 pint ; or four drachms of alum may be substituted for the vitriol, with the same quantity of water. This will speedily dry them up and close them. When the cracks are large and deep, and discharge an ichorous matter, accompanied with considerable lameness, a poultice of lintseed-meal will be indispensable; but when the discharge is thin and accom- panied by a fetid smell, it will be necessary to mix an ounce of finely powdered charcoal with the lintseed-meal, as it is a powerful antiseptic ; or a carrot poultice may be used in its stead : the carrots to be boiled and mashed. The poultices to be applied until the inflammation has abated, and a thicker and more healthy matter flows from the cracks. After this apply the following ointment : — Resin .... 1 ounce, Calamine powder . . 1 ounce, Lard .... 3 ounces. Let the resin and lard be melted together, and when sufliciently incorporated, allow the mixture to stand until nearly cold, then add the calamine, and stir them well together. This precaution is necessary, as the calamine would fall to the bottom if the mixture were thin. During the time of the above application, the cracks should be fre- quently washed with the solution, which will stimulate them to heal more speedily. Administer the following diuretic : — Turpentine . . . -^ ounce, Ginger . . . . -^ ounce. Purified nitre . . . ^ ounce, Lintseed-meal . . | ounce. GREASE. 147 Three hours afterwards let the following laxative be given : — Barbadoes aloes . . 4 drachms, Castile soap . . . -| drachm, Oil of caraways . .10 drops. When the cracks have been healed up, the legs will sometimes continue swelled. In this case a bandage will be found of much advantage. But nothing is better than turning the animal out to grass, if the season of the year is favourable. Blistering in this case should be had recourse to ; but burning may be resorted to with benefit if the skin is not broken by it, as this might be attended with bad consequences. Frequently the cracks spread over the whole heel and fetlock, or up the limb, as is sometimes the case ; and while the leg is considerably swollen, accompanied by a discharge of a thin watery matter from the cracks, and makes its appearance also in other parts of the limb, accompanied by great heat, so much so that the heels smoke, the skin being so hot that the watery fluid partly evaporates as it oozes from the cracks or through the skin. In the above state it would be attended with very bad consequences to stop the discharge suddenly. The first thing to be attended to is to allay the inflammation, and nothing is better calculated to do so than poultices, as already recommended, particularly those of carrots. When the heat, tenderness, and stifi'ness have abated, then a strin- gent, already recommended, should be used ; but that made of alum, or a strong decoction of bark are the best. Indeed it would be preferable to use these lotions alternately, but not a mixture of the two. The ointment above named should be used for dressing the cracks ; and as soon as the horse can bear the pressure without pain, a flannel bandage should 148 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. be applied, extending from the coronet to some inches above the swelling. From this period mild doses of medicine and diuretics should be given, accompanied bj a third part of cordial mixture, which is composed of the following ingredients : — Caraway powder . . 8 ounces, Bruised resins . . 8 ounces, Ginger . . • . 4 ounces, Palm-oil . . .4 ounces ; to be well beaten into a pulp. If the horse is of a full habit of body, physic should always be given before diuretics, and in some instances it will be prudent to abstain entirely from giving the latter ; but in cases where the animal is much debilitated, diuretics with the above pulp will be preferable. It will also be necessary to attend carefully to the feeding of horses at this time. Green meat will be found the best, and carrots are still better, and a very moderate cpantity of corn, so that the tendency to fever may be kept down. The next essential is proper exercise, and care must be taken not to overdo it ; and when the animal has been walked for some days, he may be afterwards exercised at a gentle trot. There is a much worse kind of grease than that which we have just described and prescribed for, although it is not so common. In this species the ulceration spreads over the skin of the heel and the entire fetlock, and a highly sensitive fungus protrudes from both, mixed with scales : it is irritable in the extreme, and bleeds on the slightest touch. In a short time this fungus assumes a covering of a horny texture, projecting in the form of knobs and in congregated bunches, which, from their peculiar similarity to grapes, have acquired that name. From the ACUTE FOUNDER. 149 entire surface of this callous substance issues a discharge of a peculiar fetid matter. In this complaint tlie horse suffers great pain and uneasiness, and quickly loses flesh. It would not be safe for any one but a veterinary surgeon to attempt a cure for this loatlisome complaint. CHAPTER VII. DISEASES OF THE FOOT. The diseases of the feet in horses are more numerous, and of a more complex nature than the inexperienced can have any idea of. The structure of the foot is very complicated, and having to sustain the weight of so heavy an animal, besides being exposed to the chances of many injuries, a knowledge of these is of paramount importance, both as regards the safety of the proprietor and the intrinsic value of the animal. When, therefore, we arrive at the anato- mical description of the horse, we shall dwell at some lengtli upon the structure of the foot as well as of the pastern. ACUTE FOUNDEU. Inflammation of the foot has been denominated " acute founder.'' It is the cause of many other diseases, and is more or less connected with them all. Inflammation of the sensible lamellae, or fleshy plates on the front and sides of the coffin-bone, is the cause of acute founder. These lamellae are thickly intersected with blood- vessels, like every other vascular part ; and, consequently, from their exposure to violent and long-continued action, they are elongated and strained, more especially when the 150 MANL^AL OF MODERN FARRIERl. hoofs have been subjected to a day's journey on a hard road. It is easy to imagine that if, after the feet have been thus heated, they should be washed and not immediately and tho- roughly dried, or the animal allowed to stand, with his feet ex- posed to a cold draught of any kind, that inflammation is likely to ensue from this sudden change of temperature. This ob- servation is equally applicable to the change from cold to heat. Symptoms. — Inflammation in the feet is manifested by restlessness and fidgety action of the fore legs, frequently shifting the weight of resting from the one to the other. But there is no appearance of pawing, or of elevating the hind legs towards the belly, as in colic and other intestinal complaints The pulse will rise to a pretty rapid state, the flanks will heave, and the inside of the nostrils will become very red, his countenance will exhibit an anxious expression, and that he is sufi*ering pain will be indicated by moaning. He will then scrutinize his litter, as if indi- cating a wish to lie down, but will not do so immediately, from an apparent fear of drawing his limbs together. He still continues to shift the pressure of his weight from one foot to the other, until impelled by pain and fatigue he at length lies down. There is a marked distinction in respect to his lying down between this and inflammation of the lungs, for in the latter complaint the horse never lies down until he drops under the influence of complete exhaustion. When a horse which is afiected with inflammation of the feet lies down, he invariably rests quietly, because the heat is so much relieved from the removal of the weight of his body ; whereas in colic and inflammation of the bowels, he kicks and rolls about violently, and his constantly looking at the part afiected as clearly shows the seat of the disease. A little attention to these will soon point out to the inex- perienced where the malady exists. ACUTE FOUNDER. lol After these symptoms have been manifested, the first thing to be done is to examine the foot, when it will be found very hot. Tap gently on the foot with a hammer, which will cause the artery at the pastern to throb violently, and the horse will express pain at the same time. The effects of inflammation in the foot are very rapid, and but a short time will elapse before the horse will be quite unable to get up, unless some means are adopted to check the progress of the complaint. Even when horses have been forced up while thus afflicted, they have been known to fall down immediately, from the intensity of pain which they suffered by resting on their feet. Remedies. — The treatment of this should be like that of all other inflammatory complaints. Bleeding must therefore be immediately resorted to, and that ought to be copious. If the disease is in the fore feet, three quarts of blood must be taken from the toe of each foot, at the position pointed out (plate 6, fig. 10, w,) and in the manner described at page 118. After this large poultices of lintseed-meal should be applied, so as to cover the entire foot and pastern, and these ought to be frequently replaced by fresh ones. The shoe should be removed, and the sole pared as thin as possible, and the crust of the hoof well rasped down, more especially in the quarters. This operation should be done as gently as possible, as in founder the pain experienced from the excessive inflammation is very great. This having been accomplished, recourse must be had to very mild purgatives. The following may be given in the form of a ball : — Barbadoes aloes . . 1 ounce, Calomel ... 2 drachms, Jalap . . . . -^ drachm. Inflammation of the foot is always accompanied by intense fever, and there is a danger of the inflammation 152 MANUAL OF MODERN FARIlIERr. shifting from the feet to the bowels or lungs ; as it is no uncommon occurrence for horses labouring under inflamma- tion of the feet to have that suddenly transferred to the lungs, or vice versa. In such a case it might, and indeed often proves fatal to the animal. It is therefore, probably, safer to have recourse to sedative medicines at first. The following are the proportions to be given once a day, three or four times : — Digitalis ... 1 drachm, Nitre .... 2 drachms, Emetic tartar . . 1^ drachm. K on the next day after bleeding no evident abatement of the complaint is observable, then it will be necessary to have recourse to bleeding again, and two quarts from each foot may be taken ; and in cases which resist this second bleeding, a third time will be necessary, but it ^ould not exceed a quart from each foot. To cool the feet, cloths wet with water in which pounded nitre has been dissolved immediately before used, should be frequently applied. This solution should be in the proportion of one ounce of nitre to a pound of water. About the third day a large blister will be found useful ; it must embrace the whole coronet and pastern. Previous to this, however, a cradle must be put on the horse's neck, and the feet must be covered after the removal of the blister, to prevent them from being blemished, which they are liable to be if exposed to the air. If at a favourable season of the year, the animal should be fed upon green meat or upon mashes, but which should always be limited, as nothing is so likely to keep up inflara- mation as a full stomach. It should on no account be attempted to force a horse to rise, as the animal will not lie longer than is necessary fo> his recovery, and every symptom of lameness should be gone CimONIC FOUNDER. 153 before walking exercise is attempted. A month or two's run at grass will be attended with much advantage after founder. ^0 disease is more to be dreaded than violent inflamma- tion of the foot, as, even with the utmost attention to remedy the complaint, very bad consequences result froni it. One of these of frequent occurrence is loss of the hoof. The first symptom of this is the appearance of a small separation between the coronet and the hoof. Great attention to this is necessary, as the horn thus sepa- rated will never reunite with the parts beneath, but the separation will continue to extend downwards, until entire disunion is effected and the hoof is ultimately lost. This is a most serious affair ; for although a new hoof will be formed, it will be not only smaller in size, but also thinner and weaker than the first, and liable to be injured by any- kind of hard labour or rough roads. In the event of no smith being at hand when it is ascertained that a horse has been seized with inflammation of the foot, and if the proprietor or his groom are not acquainted with the mode of paring down the hoof, then it will be safer to bleed from the vein running up the inside of the leg, as it is better to take blood from the nearest contiguous part to that which is affected, than not to do it at all at an early stage of the complaint. Pressure should be applied above the part to be opened, thus differing froni blood-letting from the neck, which is always made below it. CHUONIC FOUNDER. Chronic founder is merely a conventional term, adopted by farriers to express those changes which take place in the foot of the horse in disease brought on by bad shoeing or "aiismanagement in some way or other. Jn fact, it is a word X 154 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. too frequently used as a cloak by ignorant pretenders. Much attention has been devoted to diseases of the foot by many talented veterinary surgeons, but still these complaints are in a state of obscurity. Some feet are diseased to lame- ness without exhibiting any external signs of its cause, and many others arise from contraction also, without any other mark of disease. I shall therefore dwell at some length on this important subject. CONTRACTION. To enable persons to judge of the perfect and healthy state of the foot of a horse, they should examine those feet of young horses in the natural condition which have not been shod or worked in any way. We have given a repre- sentation of the sole of a sound foot, (plate 6, fig. 12.) It will be seen that it is very nearly circular, and is somewhat widest towards the quarters ; the inner one is a very little wider than the outer. This form, however, seldom continues long ; for the foot increases in length and gradually becomes narrow in the quarters, more especially at the heel, when the frog becomes contracted. The entire foot assumes a greater concavity, and the heels become higher, which induces lameness, or a circumscribed action follows. To those unacquainted with the different parts of the sole, we refer to the above figure for their form. The crust is repre- sented at a a ; the sole, h ; the bars, c c ; the frog, d d. Contraction may exist without inducing lameness ; nor does shoeing always promote this narrowing of the foot, although it is in many instances the source of contraction when unskilfully performed. The mismanagement of the stable is the source from whence this, as well as many other serious maladies, have their origin. In examining a contracted hoof, it is difficult to deter- CONTRACTION. 155 mine whether or not it is of such a nature as to render the horse unserviceable, as this can only be ascertained by his action and manner of placing his feet on the ground while in progressive motion. When contraction first commences, it is for the most part accompanied by a slight degree of lameness ; and when it is making rapid advancement, it is always attended with lameness, but it does not invariably exist when the process of wiring in is slow, or is of long standing. Causes. — If the owners of studs would look carefully into their general stable management, their horses would be afflicted with fewer diseases, and many of them would be prevented or ameliorated by a little personal attention to the stable. One of the chief causes of contraction in the hoofs is neglect of paring. The crust of the hoof, like all otlier horny parts of the animal system, is continually grow- ing, and consequently lengthens, while the sole becomes thicker. As Nature never intended that horses should be shod, this is a beautiful provision for the wear and tear of the hoofs. But when the hoof is protected by a shoe, it is prevented from being worn down by the friction of coming in contact with the ground ; the consequence is, that the hoof gets high in front, and the sole becomes thick as the expansion and descent of the sole and heel are interrupted, and thus contraction is induced. To obviate this the smith ought carefully to pare the sole and lower the heel each time the horse is shod. No doubt the thinning of the sole is attended with considerable labour, and without this is attended to, lowering of the heels cannot be accomplished, so that in avoiding the first both are neglected. In many instances, however, a prejudice is entertained by owners of horses that cutting away the hoof is injurious. Certainly, mischief may be done by overdoing cutting, and by carrying J 56 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. it to such an extent as to destroy the bars, and thus leaving the frog elevated from the ground, but such extremes are the result of ignorance ; for to allow the sole to thicken must limit the expansive principle of the hoof, by rendering it un elastic, and consequently unyielding, which cannot fail to militate against the comfort of the horse and impair his usefulness. From this it is obvious that it would be decided economy to pay the smith the value of the increased labour, and it should be accomplished under the inspection of a careful groom, or the owner himself. It is a grand mistake for persons allowing the shoes of horses to remain on. longer than three weeks or a month. Whether the shoes are worn or not, they should be taken off and the soles and heels thinned and pared. Without this precaution the feet must become malformed. I have known instances where riding-horses have been so seldom ridden or exercised, that their shoes have lasted three and even four luonths, and were not removed during this time, proceeding in some cases from the parsimony of the owners, and in others from their ignorance of the evil effects which would result therefrom. In some instances the shoes were made thicker than was necessary, consequently the animal sub- jected to carrying superfluous weight, besides being tightly fastened on and provided with an extra number of nails, and these too at the quarters. All of which increase the tendency to thickening. It is perfectly clear that without due attention to the above points, in proportion to the degree of neglect, so will the evil consequences increase, and the hoof must contract and close up the foot round tlie coronet. It is a notorious fact that low-heeled horses are seldom liable to contraction of the hoof. Contraction is also caused by want of natural moisture. It will bo seen that horses at grass are seldom or never CONTRACTIOIf. 157 afflicted with this evil, in consequence of the hoofs being kept cool and moist by the grass and occasional showers, by which their natural elastic condition is preserved, and con- sequently its expansive energy. Horses kept in a very dry and heated stable are certain to be liable to dryness of the hoofs, and hence that shrinking of the horny substance. It must therefore be sufficiently evident that some artificial means must be adopted to counteract this. Stopping the feet is the most obvious remedy, and ought to be had recourse to every night. A compound of cow- dung and a small quantity of clay is most commonly resorted to ; but a better one is a piece of thick patent felt, cut the shape of the sole, with a padding above. This should be soaked in water and applied to the foot. A common stopping was a mixture of tar and grease, but this has the tendency of increasing the evil which it is intended to remedy, causing brittleness and dryness in the hoof. It has been argued by many that the litter of the stable causes dryness of the hoofs, in consequence of the feet being in a great degree covered by it ; but I am disposed to think that litter which has been subjected to the pressure of the horse while lying down during the night, or even of his feet, cannot extend high on the hoofs during the day. Many resort to removing the litter entirely in the day-time. This, however, is quite unnecessary, and even objectionable, as it must be less comfortable to the animal ; and by the horse beating on the hard stones, as they are frequently in the habit of doing, the growth of corns is apt to be induced. As we have before noticed, while treating of grease, that keeping the heels of the horse embedded in straw and afterwards subjecting them to the cold of an open door may produce grease ; but we have never given credit to the injury we are now treating of being caused by the same means. 153 MANUAL OF MODERX FARPdErtY. Tliat moisture and keeping the feet cool are the most certain means of preventing contraction, we need only refer to the farmer's horses, which are so seldom, comparatively speaking, liable to contraction. It is a very common prac- tice for farmers to turn out their animals after their daily labour. Being thus daily exposed to moisture, they are so much the less liable to hardness and contraction of the hoofs. ^"othing can be more injudicious than to remove the bars, as they are a grand protection against contraction, their use being principally to prevent wiring in, so that cutting them away is certain to facilitate and greatly increase the contraction after it has begun ; but we must not have it supposed that the removal of the bars of themselves would produce this tendency. It has been said that thrushes are often the cause of contraction, but they are more frequently, if not altogether, the consequence rather than the cause. Many persons are disposed to have an undue objection to contraction, and at once reject a horse that exhibits the slightest degree of wiring in of the quarters. There can be little doubt but this is a malformation of the hoof ; but one thing is certain, that its growth is very slow, the altered form extremely gradual, and the parts are progressively accommodated to the change of form. As the hoof con- tracts, the under parts, and especially the coffin-bone and heels of the coffin-bone, diminish in size. However, this may be considered a mere change of form rather than of capacity ; for as the foot narrows, it acquires additional length, in consequence of the elongation of the coffin-bone, and accommodates itself as completely to the coffin or box as in its original condition ; and its small leaf-like margins are as firmly connected with the crust as before the change, which, in a great measure, compensates for its limited CONTRACTION. 159 breadth. So that horses may have their feet considerably contracted without being at all unsound. From this, how- ever, we would not have the purchaser hastily to jump at the conclusion that a horse with feet such as we have just described is positively sound ; on the contrary, we would recommend him carefully to examine such a horse scrupulously, but if he finds his action good, and his other points as he would wish them, then w^e would not recom- mend him to reject the animal. The species of contraction which occasions permanent lameness, generally proceeds from another cause, and is not only sudden in its attack, but also extreme in its nature. This is inflammation of the small plates which cover the coffin-bone. This inflammation is not so violent as in acute founder, but it speedily assumes a serious character, and terminates in distressing results ; and thus we find that it proceeds from causes which were concealed from our view, and too frequently unsuspected. We have already said that contraction is rare in agricul- tural horses, but it is of frequent occurrence in the stud of a gentleman or coach-proprietor. In both these latter situations much more attention is paid to shoeing, not only in the construction, but also to the frequency of change. This would appear an anomaly, and contrary to the theory which we have advocated. However, this may be accounted for by the circumstance that blood-horses are extremely liable to contraction, induced no doubt by the smallness of their feet and the original narrowness of their heels. In horses equally high bred it has been observed that proneness to contraction depends much upon colour, as the dark chestnut horses are, above all others, liable to be thus aficcted ; while in the broad, flat-hoofed cart-horse, contraction seldom occurs. IGO MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. Anotlier source of contraction proceeds from the manner in wliicli the animal is treated. Many are over-fed and not sufficiently exercised. Some are permitted to stand in the stable for days together without being taken out. Such norses must consequently be more liable to inflammatory attacks. The lamina or little plates of the coffin-bone are extremely sensible ; they are scarcely lengthened, Avhen, from want of exercise, they begin to diminish. It is natural, therefore, to suppose that if the horse is suddenly and violently exercised, either upon the road or in the field, these exquisitely sensible plates should, from concussion, become rapidly elongated and the whole foot heated, and that in- flammation should follow. The various parts of the foot then undergo an alteration of structure ; and hence a partial separation between the internal and external parts of the foot, limited expansion of the quarters, and a con- traction and falling in of the crust takes place. Symptoms. — Horses which are lame from rapid or sevei'e contraction always stand in the stable with one foot before the other, the lame foot being placed forward ; but if both feet are aflected, then he will change them alternately. When a horse with this complaint is taken out of the stable, it will be detected by the peculiar shortness and quickness of his step, and he will place his feet very gently upon the ground, and if trotted will hardly clear the surface as he moves along ; so that he is apt to come down by any uneven place on the road, and will be constantly stumbling even with the smallest irregularity of surface. Contraction is manifested by the fore feet being consider^ a])ly narrowed across the quarters, and also towards the heels. In some few instances the entire foot will exhibit a contracted appearance, as if it were shrunk ; but in most cases while the heel is narrowed the front will be elongated. CONTRACTION. 161 Both heels are sometimes contracted, at other times the inner one only. While both are affected, the inner one is generally wired in, in most instances, but chiefly at the coronet, at other times near to the sole of the foot ; but most fre [uently the contracted part is situated intermedi- ately between the coronet and sole. But in whatever por- tion of the foot the contraction exists, it will be indicated by that part being much warmer than the rest, and by an unusual degree of concavity in the sole • sometimes to a very great extent. Kemedies. — Many have been the inventions to prevent and retard the progress of contraction ; few, however, of these have had more than an ephemeral existence. The medical remedies of this complaint should not be entrusted to any but a regular veterinary surgeon ; because the chief thing to be done is to remove the inflammation which may exist, and this is best effected by local bleeding and doses of physic. The sole should be pared as much as it will bear ; the quarters should then be deeply rasped, taking care not to penetrate so deep as the coronary ring, (plate 6, f^g. 9, (?.) The toe ought next to be rasped, and it should likewise be scored. Wet clay ought to be so placed in the stall that the horse will stand in it all day, and at night a plentiful supply of wet cloths should be tied round the foot ; or he may be put out to wet pasturage and his feet frequently pared and rasped, as above recommended. It will require a run of five or six months before the horn will have grown fully down. He may then be shod, but without nails in the inner side of the shoe. The foot will have enlarged considerably. He may now be gently worked. It will be found, however, that where expansion has taken place forward on the quarters, that the crust will not have its natural adhesion with the elongated and narrowed heels T 1G2 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. of the coffin-bone, not being properly in contact. A very trivial cause will induce the foot to contract as much as it was before. It is therefore the best policy to allow a contraction to remain untouched, unless the action of the horse is very much impaired ; as it will be seen that a great length of time and trouble are required to effect any thing like a change on the hoof ; and, after all, it is very uncertain both in its results and also in its proving an effectual cure. The contracted heel can very rarely be expanded, for the reason that the elongated and narrowed coffin-bone can never be made to resume its former shape, nor can that portion of the frog be restored which has been absorbed. Where old contractions exist, which are accompanied with a cautious step, neurotomy, or cutting out a small portion of the nerve, may be had recourse to with much advantage. The mode in which this is accomplished will be found in the chapter treating of operations. By means of this, lameness has been completely removed. The foot being again allowed to rest fully upon the ground, the inner side of the shoe being left free from nails, a portion of the contraction is likely to be removed, from the due pressure of the sole on the ground expanding the hoof. SAND-CHACK. This is a downward crack, or division of the hoof, as represented on plate 6, fig. 8, a. It may, however, occur either in the fore or hind feet. In the fore feet they are usually found in the inner quarter, although they sometimes exist in the outer quarter. The reason why the quarters are most liable to this is, that the chief stress of the foot is where it expands, and the inner quarter is weaker than the outer. Sand-crack almost always occurs in the front of SAND-CRACK. 1 60 tlie hoof in the hind feet, occasioned by the pressure applied by the toe in progressive motion, especially when the animal is dragging a heavy load behind him, and more particularly on an ascent. Hoofs that crack in this manner are brittle in the crust, which is an extremely bad defect, and is caused by a want of that nutriment necessary to keep the crust supple. It also proceeds from disease in the foot. It may besides occur from a false step or over-exertion. Sometimes the crack is only superficial, and does not extend through the hoof, in which case it occasions no lameness. It will, however, require attention, as, if neglect- ed, it may reach the quick, and occasion much trouble. Remedies. — When sand-crack is occasioned by brittleness of the hoof, let the following composition be rubbed into the crust twice a day until it becomes pliable : — Oil of tar . . .2 ounces, Common fish-oil . . 4 ounces. To assist in softening the hoof while the above ointment is usedj cow-dung or felt should be applied to stop the foot, as recommended in contraction of the hoof, page 157. In a superficial crack it should be pared and rasped entirely out ; and if it has been of considerable depth, it ought to be strengthened by a coating of pitch, applied so thick as to replace all that has been rasped off, and formed so as to represent the natural shape of the foot. Indeed rasping ought to be had recourse to with every crack, so as to ascertain its depth. Should it be found to penetrate through the crust without occasioning lameness, and is situated low down on the foot, recourse must be had to a red-hot firing iron, which should be drawn across the hoof, both above and below the crack, so as to prevent it from extending. The edges ought thereafter to be thinned, to prevent any 164 MANUAL OP MODERN FARKIERV. pressure wliich might cause pain to tlie tender parts below ; and it must be bound up, taking care to avoid pressure immediately beneath the crack. Neither must the shoe be allowed to press upon the part below. Should lameness proceed from the crack having pene- trated through the hoof, the cure is much more difficult. The first thing to be done is to examine the parts, to ascer- tain whether any sand or dirt has got in and has reached the quick below, and the crack thoroughly cleaned out. If proud-flesh is found in it, an application of chloride of antimony must be used to destroy it, and the edges of the crack must be considerably thinned. Some veteri- nary surgeons have used the cautery ; but this has a tendency to thicken the edges of the horn and render it rough, which is liable to irritate the tender portions below. After the fungus has been destroyed, it will be necessary to apply the iron above and below, as recommended in a superficial crack. A pledget of tow should be put into the crack, and another over it, and then firmly tied down, and not ex- amined until the third or fourth day after. If the proud- flesh has not been eaten away, it will be necessary to apply the caustic again. On the other hand, if the crack is quite dry and exhibits a hard horny crust, the pitch-plaster should be immediately applied. Bees'-wax is considered preferable by some, and the crack carefully filled with it. The wax must be applied warm ; and to fill the crack pro- perly, it is necessary to draw the heated cautery slightly over it. This gentle pressure will contribute to the healthy granulation of fresh horn, and at the same time prevent the access of sand or dirt, and also cold or wet, or the influence of the atmosphere from reaching; the tender parts of the foot. The worst case of crack is caused by tread, which divides THE NAVICULAR-JOINT DISEASE. 165 the coronet ; and where this is imperfect the horn or crust will grow down divided, because the growth of horn pro- ceeds from the coronary ligament. The mode of cure which has been most successful in this crack, has been to draw the heated cautery over the division of the coronet. This will be followed with some degree of inflammation ; a scab will form on the part, which in a few days will fall off, when it will be found that no traces of the division will be visible, and fresh and sound horn will speedily grow downwards. When division of the horn at the coronet takes place, it requires five or six months to effect a cure. When the horn has grown downwards for an inch, the animal may be turned out, taking care that the part is well defended by a clambered pitch-plaster, which should be replaced by a new one as often as it separates from the hoof. At the same time a clambered shoe should be applied, but it must not press upon the hoof immediately under the crack. Every three weeks the shoe should be taken off and the sole care- fully pared down. It sometimes happens that bulbous projections are formed on the new horn. These should be carefully pared off. During the time the horse is sub- jected to surgical treatment for this complaint, he must have perfect rest, otherwise the cure will undoubtedly be protracted. In purchasing a horse, it is absolutely necessary to examine with care the inner quarter of the feet, as it is very common for low, unprincipled dealers to cover over sand-cracks so neatly with pitch, and afterwards along the whole hoof, that it is so completely concealed, as not to be observable except by a narrow inspection THE J^AYICULAU-JOmT DISEASE. Behind and beneath the lower pastern-bone, and behind IGG ma:s^l^al of modeRxY farriery. and above tlie heel of the coffin-bone, is placed a small bone, called the navicular bone. (See plate 6, fig. 10, e.) The use of this bone is to support and strengthen the union between the lower pastern and the coffin-bone, and to assist the flexor tendon in its action as it passes over it, in order to be inserted into the bottom of the coffin-bone, and forms a sort of joint with that tendon. The navicular bone is subjected to much pressure, as is also this tendon ; and besides, there is much plaj between them in the bending and extension of the pasterns. Cause. — Like many other complaints of the horse, this is often induced bj sudden and violent exercise after the animal has been allowed to stand in the stable inactive. The parts not being for some time adapted to overstrained action, there may be too much play between the bone and the tendon, and by concussion of the parts the periosteum or delicate membrane which covers the bones may be bruised ; or the cartilage of the bone may be inflamed, and thus produce destruction of it, and cause a lameness of the most painful description. From the navicular bone being so obscurely situated, it is difficult to ascertain by inspection when it is diseased. And this has puzzled many to find out the cause of lameness emanating from it, and has too often been attributed to the shoulder. Indeed the action of the horse with this lameness has all the appearance of being seated in the shoulder. Of late years the attention of veterinary colleges has been particularly directed to this point, and it has been found in numerous cases of dissection that this is the seat of this lameness, which has deceived and puzzled so many persons, both learned and unlearned. The membrane covering the bone has been found highly ulcerated, and the cartilage itself completely decomposed, and even the bones in a state of THE NAVICULAR-JOINT DISEASE. 167 decay from cariousness. Besides this, bony adhesions have often taken place between the navicular bone and the pastern, which consequently render this joint altogether unserviceable. Remedies. — Like some other diseases incidental to the horse, the cure of this is very uncertain. The first thing to be adopted is bleeding from the nearest vein. Afier which a poultice should he applied to allay the inflammation, and the bowels should be kept open. The following purgative should be given in the form of a ball, and repeated as long as is required. Barbadoes aloes . . 5 drachms, Castile soap . . 2 drachms. Oil of caraways . . 8 drops. The ball should be formed with a little lintseed-meal and treacle. If this complaint is discovered at its commencement, and before ulceration of the membrane has taken place, a cure may readily be effected ; but on the contrary if the mem- brane is ulcerated before remedies are applied, the difficulty in eradicating it will be exceedingly great, if not impos- sible. Caries of the bone is certain to take place, and that condition can never be changed. Blistering the coronet has been found beneficial in assisting a cure, by removing the inflammation to another part and expediting the growth of the horny substance. Setons passed through the part, as contiguous to the seat of the disease as possible, have either lessened the complaint or entirely removed it. But this disease is altogether of so delicate a nature, that we would not advise its cure to be attempted by an un- skilful person, as it is one of those which can only be successfully taken up by an experienced veterinary surgeon. 168 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. As in all other inflammatory diseases, there is heat in the seat of the navicular bone, and probahlj in the whole foot. In this complaint the animal suffers much pain, to alleviate which we would recommend neurotomy^ or cutting out a portion of the nerve, which has in some instances very much reduced the lameness. But at all events it will lessen the sufferings of the horse. In cases of extreme lameness, either with or without contraction, then it would be inju- dicious to resort to this operation ; because, if there was ulceration of the membrane or decay of the bone, the increased friction, in consequence of the freer action given to the parts, the feeling of pain being removed, would cause these to progress more rapidly, until complete dis- organization of the foot took place ; or in all probability the tendon itself would be gradually worn through by rubbing against the roughened surface of the decayed bone. FALSE QUARTEE. When the coronary ligament is severely cut or divided, it is termed false quarter. In some instances it is eaten through by the application of caustic applied to other wounds and sores of the foot ; vdien this is the case there will be a division of the horn as it grows down, having all the appearance of a sand-crack, or one portion of the horny substance will overlap the other. This is a very bad defect in the foot, and often occasions lameness, and there is very great difficulty in curing it. The coronary ligament is that by which the horn of the hoof is secreted ; con- sequently what must be first attempted is to restore it to the discharge of its healthy function. Remedies. — Caustic has been used in many instances, and found effectual ; but nevertheless it is a dangerous remedy, as it has often proved very injurious. Blisters FALSE QUARTER. 169 have also been successfully tried, but they are too often found not to be sufficiently active. The remedy v^hich has proved most successful, is the heated cautery carefully applied to the injured part. The edges of the horn on both sides of the crack should be thinned down, and a thick plastering of pitch spread over the parts so as to hold them closely together, as v\rell as to support the hoofs. This plaster to be kept on undisturbed for at least fourteen days, and then the parts should be carefully examined, to ascertain the condition of the coronet, and whether union of the parts has taken place. Should adhesion not be begun, then it must again be covered up and not looked at for eight days, by which time it will have adhered. During this treatment it would be judicious to strengthen the hoof by the use of a bar-shoe, only great care must be taken that there is no bearing at, or immediately below, the separation of the horn. To secure this against such a result, if the crust be naturally thick, accompanied by strong quarters, then a little of the crust near the part should be pared off, to prevent it from resting on the shoe. On the other hand, if the hoof be weak, an indentation should be made in the shoe itself opposite the part, which will prevent any stress, as well as the danger consequent upon a sudden or violent concussion which might have the effect of again cracking the hoof before it had got firmly united. In this complaint the horn sometimes grows down entire, but from an unhealthy action in the coronary ligament, it secretes a narrow slip of horn, generally different in appearance from the other parts, usually of a lighter colour. Although this is the case, it may become perfectly strong, but it must always be considered as a defect, and clearly- showing that the horse has had sand-crack, and of course predisposed to a return of it. The horse may be fit for all z 1 70 MAXUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. kinds of work, jet there generally will remain some degree of tenderness in the part, and may produce lameness when the shoe is allowed to press on it ; or when the horse is subjected to hard work, lameness may return. TREAD, OR OVERREACH. This is nearly connected with false quarter, and compre- hends wounds and bruises of the coronet, usually the effect of the horse either setting one foot upon the other, which not unfrequently happens in the hind feet ; or in the fore feet, by the hind foot overreaching the heel when in rapid action and wounding it. Remedies. — Although this is not in general a very serious injury, yet it should be immediately and carefully attended to. The first thing is to wash out any dirt or sand which may have got into the wound, and dry the part thoroughly with a cloth. After which a pledget of tow, wetted with Friar's balsam, should be firmly bound over the wound, which usually proves a speedy cure. If the wound is large or deep, then it may be a necessary precaution to poultice the part for one or two days before digestive ointment or Friar's balsam is applied. It sometimes happens that a soft tumour will form on the part. This must be poulticed and brought to suppura- tion. When the whole of the matter has been discharged, the sides of the ulcer should be washed with a weak solution of blue vitriol, (sulphate of copper,) which will have the effect of expediting granulation of the parts ; and a pledget of tow which has been dipped in Friar's balsam will soon effect a cure. Ignorant farriers are frequently in the habit of applying caustic to wounds of the feet. This should on no account be permitted, as it is very apt to. injure the coronary liga- QUITTOR. 171 ment, so as to render it incapable of afterwards secreting healthj horn. QUITTOH. A wound of tlie coronet, whether it proceeds from a tread, or otherwise, should be carefully and immediately attended to ; because if sand or gravel get into the wound, it is likely to produce those deep-seated ulcerations that are termed pipes or sinuses, which constitute the disease called quittor. But it may also proceed from any wound of the foot, and in any portion of it. In all ulcers matter is secreted, and the part aflPected cannot possibly heal until the matter is discharged. In wounds of the foot, there is much difficulty in the matter proceeding from ulceration finding its way from under the hoof, which covers the foot with its various complicated parts. The consequence is, it accumulates under the hoof until it has increased to such an extent that it must find escape in some way ; and frequently forces itself out in all directions, separating the little fleshy plates from their connexion with the horny ones of the- crust ; or dis- uniting the fleshy sole from the horny one ; and in extreme cases eats its way deeply into the internal parts of the foot, forming pipes or sinuses, which run in all directions. If quittor arises from a wound in the lower portion oi the foot, the matter which is collecte(f in it after the ulcer has ripened being confined there, issues from it, and mduces a separation between the horny and fleshy sole ; and having accumulated in considerable quantity, at length discharges itself at the coronet, generally close to the quarter. This, however, does not manifest itself to any extent, as both the aperture and quantity of matter which oozes out are apparently so insignificant, that they would 172 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. lead an inexperienced person to suppose the discharge of little consequence. In this, however, thej will be sadly mistaken ; for most serious mischief lurks within, and the difficulty of removing it is extremely great. In this state of the disease, although the fistula is of very small dimen- sions, yet the eifects of this confined matter will have extended over almost the entire quarter, and the horny sole may be separated from the foot. The matter may have penetrated and lodged beneath the ligaments and cartilages of the coffin-joint ; and besides, the pressure of the matter, wherever it has forced its way to, will have formed ulcera- tions which are most difficult to heal, and the horn which has been thus separated from the sensible parts below will never unite with them again, thus producing an evil of the worst description. Remedies. — It must be evident that this is a case which can only be successfully treated by a skilful veterinary surgeon. In most instances of such cases, it becomes neces- sary to remove the greater portion of the horny sole, and thereafter restore the healthy state of the tender surface beneath. When this has been effected, the horn will quickly be reproduced. But in cases where much of the sole has been removed, it will take at least six months to restore fully that which has been removed, so that the horse may again be subjected to labour. To restore the heallhy condition of the foot, very active means must be adopted. Caustic applications alone will destroy the ulcerated surface. To ascertain the state of the disease, a probe must be used, and if it touches any of the bones, it is doubtful whether a cure £an be effected even by the most skilful. One thing is certain, if it is found when the probe is inserted into the fistulous openings on the coronet, that the direction of the sinuses is backwards, it PRICK, OR WOUND IN THE SOLE OR CRUST. 173 is liiglilj probable that the parts may be thoroughly cured ; but if tiie direction of the pipes be forward, there is great doubt of a cure being accomplished. Quittor often proceeds from neglecting bruises and in- juries of the sole of the foot. When horses have flat feet, and are ridden quickly over a rough, uneven, stony road, the feet are very liable to be injured, and especially by getting a small stone between the shoe and the sole. Narrow webbed shoes are frequently the cause of bruises of the feet, by leaving too much of the sole unprotected. Another cause is, the smith paring out the sole too closely, or pricking the sole while in the act of shoeing, as also pressure of the ohoe on the sole, and gravel getting insinu- ated between the sole and the shoe. PUICK, OR WOUND IN THE SOLE OR CRUST. The sole is peculiarly liable to be injured by sharp-pointed stones, flints, and pieces of glass which it may come in contact with on a road. In shoeing, too, a nail may be driven either through the sensible part of the foot, or so near to it in the horn, that it will cause pressure and con- sequent irritation, probably inflammation, and this may end in ulceration. In all cases of lameness, particularly in those which are sudden, the legs should be examined with great care ; and if no cause can be discovered to account for it, the probability is that its seat is in the foot. The shoe ought to be immediately removed, when very likely the cause will be ascertained. But if it is not at once apparent by the heat of some portion of the foot, then the crust should be rapped all round with a small hammer, and when the part which is afiected is touched, the horse is sure to flinch from it ; or pressure applied by pincers will answer the same purpose. 174 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. Should lameness occur within two or three days after the horse has been shod, the first suspicion should fall upon the foot. The best of smiths may prick the foot in shoeing, and he that acts honestly in such a case, by at once acknowledging it, or informing the owner, will not deserve blame. It is in concealing or denying the possibility of the thing that causes all the mischief. Because, whenever it is discovered, the shoe should be taken off, and that too with much care. Some foolish smiths are in the habit of wrenching off shoes, a practice which, under any circum- stances, cannot be too severely condemned. Remedies. — As soon as the injured part is detected, the sole should be well thinned down around it, and at the punctured spot it should be pared to the quick. "We are speaking of one of some days' standing, in which case matter will issue from it, and the sore will be thereby relieved. If the wound is quite fresh, then all that will be necessary after thinning the hoof is to apply a pledget with some Friar's balsam to it ; or fill the wound with bees'-wax, and it will quickly heal if kept clean. If, how- ever, it does not heal speedily, and it becomes hot, then inflammation will have taken place, and therefore it will be necessary to apply a poultice. But in wounds of the foot much depends upon the par- ticular part which has been injured. Although a pretty deep wound is inflicted towards the back part of the sole, and even extending into the frog, still it may not be attended with much danger or inconvenience to the animal, because there is no motion in that portion of the foot, and there are besides no bones or tendons to be injured. Neither is much harm to be apprehended from a prick near the toe. But in the centre of the sole, where the flexor tendons pass over, especially where the tendon is inserted into the coffin- PRICK OR WOUND IN THE SOLE OR CRUST. 1 75 bone, a puncture may be attended with serious conse- quences, as well as a wound in the joint which unites the navicular-bone with the coffin-bone. K a wound in- flicted in this situation is neglected, the animal may be rendered useless for life. In short, injuries of the foot require the utmost skill to examine their precise nature, as well as the manner in which they ought to be treated. In searching for a wound, it is not uncommon for the smith to cut away an unnecessary po)*tion of the horn from the bottom of the crust of the sole, and thus leave no hold for the nail of the shoe. In such cases it has frequently taken months before the horny substance was of sufficient substance to hold the nails. When it becomes necessary to remove any portion of the horny sole in consequence of a wound, or if separation has taken place through suppuration, then the injured or wounded portion of the crust must be entirely removed, as the dead parts of the horn will never unite with that which is living. Then the fleshy sole which has been left exposed must be carefully touched with chloride of antimony, and some soft and dry tow or lint laid on it. But if there are inflammatory symptoms, it will be necessary to apply a poultice to the entire sole. So quickly is the horny sub- stance secreted, that on the following day a thin pellicle will be found covering the whole, or part of the portion that has been stripped of the crust. If it presents a healthy appearance, then it should be very slightly touched with caustic, so as to energize it. But if there are any symptoms of proud-flesh shooting through it, then it must be again subjected to an application of chloride of antimony and tow placed over it as before. In a few days the whole surface will be invested with a horny crust. If there is 176 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. any appearance of inflammation, bleeding at the toe and opening medicines must be resorted to. COKNS Cause. — This disease has acquired a name which but ill expresses its nature. It bears but little affinity to corns 0 the human foot ; although, like them, they are the effects of pressure. Instead of being hard as in the human subject, they are thin and very weak, and caused by pressure on the sole in the angle between the bars, as represented, plate 6, ^g. \2, c c. The horn becomes more spongy and softer than at other parts, and it is so sensitive, that upon the slightest pressure the horse indicates that he feels pain. AVhen the foot becomes contracted, that portion of the sole intervening between the external crust which is wiring in and the bars which oppose that contraction are squeezed very severely, which induces inflammation ; and hence it is that feet which are contracted are almost certain to bo afflicted with corns. The efi'ects of this pressure induce a small quantity of extravasated blood, and the horn being secreted in less quantity and of a more spongy texture, it has the tendency to enclose within it this extravasated blood. Nothing is more injurious than to allow a shoe to remain too long on, as it is sure to become embedded in the heel of the foot ; consequently the crust grows down on the outside of it, and the bearing is thus thrown on the angular portion of the sole. Continued pressure on the sole is certain to induce inflammation and corns. The shoe being long on, wears and gets loosened at the heels, which admits of gravel between it and the crust, and having accumulated in the angle it naturally insinuates itself into the heel, and produces a sore. CORNS. 177 As we have before said in another part of the work, nothing can be more injudicious than to allow shoes to remain too long on : even if they are not worn, they should be occasionally taken off and readjusted, to free the feet from long-continued pressure on certain parts by the grow- ing of the horny substance of the hoof. In shoeing, too, the bars are very often cut away, and this renders it neces- sary to be bevelled inward, so as to accommodate it to this injurious and ridiculous shaping of the foot ; consequently an unnatural disposition to contraction is induced by this slanting inward direction of the heel of the shoe. From this the sole is subjected to double liability to injury ; first, by being pressed upon by the shoe, and, second, by being squeezed between the outer crust and the external portion of the -bar. This angle is less able to bear pressure than any other portion of the foot, being more exposed to acci- dental bruises and injuries of different kinds, in consequence of the shoe being made unnecessarily narrow at the heel. In the act of shoeing, while paring out the foot, the smith is too apt to omit cutting away the horn between the angles of the bars and the external hoof ; and if he does cut away the bars, he hardly touches the horn at this point. Con- sequently, before the horse has been eight days or a fortnight shod, the shoe rests upon this angle, and the corns are thus produced. It is plain that a shoe thickened at the heels of the fore feet is certain to cause corns, in consequence of undue pressure on the heels, especially in feet that are weak. There can be little doubt but corns are mainly owing to faults in shoeing, as well as the fact of shoeing itself, however well performed, preventing the due expansion of the horn when the sole is growing downwards, and thus conlining and injuring this portion of the sole. And it 2 a 178 MANUAL OF MODERN FARHIERY. is easy to imagine that if the shoe is badly constructecl, or allowed to remain too long on, that corns must be induced. This effect will be rendered manifest by an attentive obser- vation of the foot in plate 6, fig. 10. When paring is not attended to in shoeing, or when it is injudiciously extended to the bars, the evil of corns is likely to arise. This unnatural pressure of the sole causes the blood to be thrown out, which enters into the pores of the soft and diseased horn which is then secreted ; and by the colour and softness of the horn at this place, the existence and extent of the corn is judged. Remedies. — The cure of corns is difficult and uncertain, because a diseased action is induced ; and to check this is no easy matter after it has contracted the tendency to secrete diseased horn ; for all shoeing produces pressure on the parts. The first thing to be done is to ascertain the extent of the corns ; and this can only be effected by paring out the angle between the crust and the bars ; at the same time it will relieve, and to a great extent do away with, what has caused the complaint. This can be best accomplished by the use of a small drawing knife, with which the corn must be pared out to the bottom ; but great care must be exercised not to wound the sole. After this operation, it will be seen whether there is any effusion of blood or matter underneath the corn. If there is reason to believe that such is the case, then an opening must be made through the horn, so that the matter may discharge itself and the separated horn be removed ; and when the course of the sinuses have been ascertained, the same remedies must be employed as in quitter. If there should happen to be no collection of matter, the chloride of antimony should be applied over the whole extent of the corn after the horn CORNS. ni) has been thoroughly thinned down, so as to stimulate the parts to throw out a fresh secretion of healthy horny substance. In bad cases of corns, where the inflammation has ren- dered the parts very sensitive, a bar-shoe will be of service, so chambered, that there will be no pressure on the part affected. This may be kept on for a couple of months or so, but not longer, as in removing one complaint it might induce another ; for few frogs could bear the constant pressure of the bar-shoe ; and the heel being subjected to no pressure while they are used, may induce a soft and bulbous condition of the heel, which would be the cause of constant lameness. In a majority of instances corns are either confined to the inner quarter of the foot, or crust, caused in conse- quence of contraction being generally seated in the inner quarter. The shoe being left free on the inner side, if a corn exists there, may prove of much advantage if the country is not too heavy, or if the horse is not required to perform rapid movements. If corns have once existed to a considerable extent, they are liable to return ; therefore, before shoeing, the seat of the corn should be well pared out, and the chloride of antimony well rubbed on it. The seated shoe (which we have described in our chapter on shoeing) should be used, with a web sufficiently thick to cover the situation of the corn, and extending as far back as possible without producing injury to the frog. When the horn has grown to some extent, if the horse is turned out to grass with a bar-shoe in the first instance, and afterwards with a shoe fastened on one side only, or with tips, it will frequently prove of much service. In all cases where horses have low, weak heels, tlie/ 180 MANUAL OF MODERN FARKIERY. should seldom be pared with a knife, but merely rasped down to a level surface. This is peculiarly applicable to the inner heeL The hind feet are seldom affected with corns, because they are stronger than the fore-feet, and less subjected to concussion ; and even where corns do exist, they do not produce lameness. CANKER. Canker consists of a separation of the horny substance from the sensible fleshy and bony portion of the foot, caused by the growth of fungus matter shooting up and occupying parts of, or the entire sole of the foot and frog. It is induced either by a puncture, bruise, corn, quitter, or thrush, more commonly proceeding from the latter than any other cause. It seldom attacks high-bred animals, being almost always confined to the heavy breed of cart and dray horses, which class seem to have a constitutional predisposi- tion to this complaint. Those which have previously had grease are peculiarly liable to canker, and especially those which have thick heels. Persons experienced in breeding have long ascertained that grease and canker follow certain blood, and have thus established the fact of these complaints being hereditary. Besides the hereditary predisposition of work-horses to canker, in order to give him foot-hold, it becomes necessary to raise the heels of the hinder feet so much that all pressure on the frog is done away with, which has the effect of destroying its functions, and con- sequently rendering it liable to disease. But canker is produced chiefly from the very ponderous shoes with which these horses are furnished, and the large- ness of the nails with which they are necessarily attached to the feet, together with the strain to which the animals are subjected in drawing and sustaining heavy weights. CANKER. 181 The dirty state of many of the stables, and the neglect of the feet generally, are fertile sources of this bad disease. Attention to these points might in many instances prevent the malady, but Avhen once it has been induced, it is extremely difficult to remedy. It is peculiarly necessary to give a watchful attention to all species of injuries in these heavy horses, as they are more likely than all others to assume a bad complexion. Their feet being clubbed, and their hoofs in general brittle, they are liable to be punctured while shoeing. Nine-tenths of the complaints of this kind arise from negligence either in the groom or master, and also from the carelessness or stupidity of the shoeing smith. It will only require a little attention to the subject to enable the master to detect where the mischief arises. Remedies. — Canker is a complaint which ought only to be undertaken by a veterinary surgeon, being exceedingly difficult and tedious in its progress towards a cure. The first thing which is done in this disease is to cut out the fungus growth ; and besides this it often becomes necessary to use both caustic and the cautery ; and all that portion of the horn which has been separated from the fleshy and bony parts must be carefully removed. Should fresh fungus be generated, it must be got rid of, and means adopted to check its growth, and by proper applicants to induce the secretion of healthy horn. Un- skilful veterinarians have been known to inflict severe and unnecessary torture on horses which had canker, by too deeply corroding the parts with caustic, and thus producing a sore. He that is an adept at his profession will know that canker is only a superficial disease, and does not extend to the bony or fleshy parts ; therefore a very slight daily application of chloride of antimony will suffice to 182 MAIsUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. produce the desired effect, if, besides, a firm and uniform pressure is applied, and nothing moist permitted to rest upon the surface, which would be sure to be attended with very serious consequences. In this complaint gentle exercise IS absolutely necessary where the disease is confined to the frog and sole of the foot, but moisture is carefully to be avoided. But it will be found that in effecting a cure the processes will be both tedious and painful, in consequence of the necessity of caustic applications, which, however slight, always cause considerable irritation in the parts. To relieve the animal as much as possible from unnecessary suffering, the nerve of the leg should be divided, which will stop the sense of pain. But after this is done, care must be taken not to expose him to severe hard work, or even contact with hard substances, as from the sense of feeling in the foot being so far blunted, he may batter the hoof to pieces without knowing it, and also bruise the cankered parts. In this complaint medicine is seldom had recourse to, as it is of little use, the disease being local. But it some- times occurs that grease follows canker ; in the event of which physic will become necessary, and these will be alteratives and diuretics. THRUSH. Thrush is a disease to which horses of all ages are liable, and in all situations. Even unshod colts are subject to this complaint, caused by the horny frog being subjected to pressure by the contraction of the quarters, which is thereby diminished in size ; and the lower portion of the fleshy frog being confined, is irritated and inflamed, which induces ulceration, and when matured is manifested by matter being discharged from the cleft of the frog. During this state of THRUSH. 183 inflammation the lower surface of the sensible frog secretes pus instead of the horny substance, which is its proper function. When the frog is in a healthy condition, the cleft sinks but a small way into it. Contraction, however, or any other disease, affects the cleft so that it extends in length and often penetrates deep into the sensible horn within, and it is through this diseased and deepened fissure that the matter from the thrush discharges itself. Any complaint which affects the healthy condition and action of the frog, is almost sure to induce thrush. Differing from most dis- eases of the foot, thrush is generally more severe in the hind than in the fore feet. This can only be accounted for by bad stable management, and that the hind feet are sub- jected to being so much exposed to the baneful conse- quences of immersion in the dung and urine, producing irritation, and generating disease. Besides, the hind feet are further removed from the centre of circulation than the fore, which consequently subjects them to the accumulation of matter and grease, as well as other affections to which they are liable. Contraction is generally the cause of thrushes in the fore feet. Wiring-in of the heels will produce pressure on the frog, and cause pain and inflam- mation. A horse may have thrush without being lame, and it often happens that no alteration whatever can be seen on the foot thus diseased, and it may require a close inspection to detect that it is affected. But it will always be mani- fested by the disagreeable and peculiar smell which inva- riably accompanies the complaint. In some cases no tenderness of the frog attends thrush, and therefore the horse is not reckoned legally unsound by many persons. This we, however, consider strange, as it is a complaint which may, and indeed is likely to assume a worse aspect; 184 MAJiUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. particularly if not remedied in time, and hence may lead to jDositive unsoundness. But it is only in cases where considerable alteration in the form of the hoof has taken place, that thrushes are likely to be of a severe kind ; for we find that they may exist in an otherwise sound and well-formed foot, without being attended with immediate detriment, and may be easily remedied. Still, if the thrush be not removed, in the course of time it will alter the shape of the foot and also the action of the animal, and conse- quently becomes confirmed unsoundness. It is quite certain if thrush is neglected, that however slow its progress may be, still it is sure ultimately to assume a serious and im- movable complaint. The frog ^vill contract, become rugged and tender, and will be followed by a copious and very fetid discharge, the horn will gradually disappear, and in its stead there will be accumulated a mass of hardened mucus, which easily comes ofij and leaves the sensible frog completely exposed and unprotected ; it is so tender that the slightest touch gives exquisite pain to the horse. In a day or two fungus granulations shoot out from it and spread in all directions, affecting even the sole ; and this canker invests the entire foot. From this will be seen the extreme folly of neglecting thrush, however simple its aspect may be at first. We have known valuable horses having been lost to their owners from the erroneous belief entertained by themselves, or put into their heads by ignorant quacks, namely, that thrush would benefit the horse, as it was only Nature work- ing its own cure by throwing off superabundant humours. Some ignorant country smiths, who call themselves farriers, have promulgated such a doctrine, and even recommended that the discharge should not be speedily dried up on this account ; and some have even said that it should not be THRUSH. 185 dried up at all. But, assuredly, in nine cases out of ten, what we have pointed out will be the inevitable conse- quence of neglected thrush. Its operations are slow, but its effects are certain. Disease of all kinds should be instantly attacked, and speedily subdued if possible. Eemedies. — Astringents generally are the best appliances to thrush ; but those of a caustic nature are to be avoided. The foot should be carefully examined, and when the cause of the thrush has been ascertained, our first attention should be directed to the cure of that. And previous to com- mencing any treatment, the frog should be forthwith freed from all portions of hardened mucus, as well as loose pieces of the horny substance. Then the following liniment should be applied : — Honey .... 4 ounces, Verdigrise . • .1 ounce. Vinegar . . . -J pint. Let these be boiled for a few minutes, and the composition applied to the place from which the discharge emanates. This is, however, a mild application, and will be somewhat slow in effecting a cure. But the most speedy, yet safe, appliance is the following : — Blue vitriol ... 2 ounces, White vitriol ... 1 ounce. Tar .... 1 pound. Lard .... 1 pound. The vitriols to be finely powdered, and then mixed with the tar and lard. A pledget of tow covered with the above should be inserted every evening as deeply as possible into the cleft of the frog, and renewed every day. If it is necessary to 2 B 18G MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. work the horse, then it should be taken out every morning and a new one applied after the labour of the day. Should the frog be much exposed, besides the pledget which is to be put into the crack, a larger piece of tow should be spread over with the above liniment, and applied over the whole exposed surface. Care must be taken not to force the pledget too hard into the cleft to press upon the tender part below, and during the treatment recommended it will be proper to keep the frog moist. This will be best effected by filling the cavity of the under surface of the foot with tow, covered by common stopping, or by placing on a felt pad, covered by the same material. In cases of thrush the feet should be kept dry ; and, contrary to the practice of some, who recommend turning out to grass with this complaint, we prefer keeping the animal in the stable until a cure is effected. OSSIFICATION OF THE CARTILAGES. These cartilages occupy a considerable portion of the back part and side of the foot, as represented on plate vii., fig. 7, h. Their use is to preserve the expansion of the upper portion of the foot ; they also sustain those parts when they are either limited or destroyed by shoeing. They are liable to inflammatory attacks, which induce absorption in them, and bon} matter is exuded in their stead. This ossified condition of the cartilages is frequently connected with ring-bone, but it often exists without any affection of the pastern-joint. Horses that are subjected to heavy draughts are most liable to this complaint, which no doubt originates in a sprain rather than concussion. But the real cause is not well understood, although many are the instances of draught-horses being affected with this complaint. WEAKNESS OF THE FOOT. 187 Symptoms. — AVhen the foot is in a healthy condition, the back cartilages will yield to the pressure of the fingers on the coronet over the quarters. But when ossification commences, and the complaint progresses, then a commensu- rate degree of resistance manifests itself, and in process of time it will no longer yield to any pressure It is then certain that complete ossification of the cartilages has taken place. During the transformation of the cartilage into bone no visible inflammation is observable in the foot, nor does much lameness appear ; and indeed frequently lameness is not at all manifested, although a slight stifihess may be noticed. These observations apply to cart-horses, or such as require only to be worked at a slow pace ; but in horses that go at a rapid pace, it amounts to positive lameness. When this complaint is connected with ringbone, very great lameness is the consequence. Remedies. — Unless this disease is taken at its commence- ment, no treatment can avail ; for the bony deposit once having taken place, there is no possibility of restoring the cartilage. When it is detected in its first formation, blisters and the use of the cautery may arrest its progi'ess, and entirely remove it. We know of no other application, except rubbing the cartilage smartly with iodine morning and evening, which may restore the action of the secreting vessels to a healthy state. WEAKNESS OF THE FOOT. This is merely a conventional term in general use among horsemen and dealers, which might with more propriety be denominated " malformation of the foot," because, in point of fact, it is rather a bad formation than a disease. In many instances it is a natural infirmity, and likewise proceeds from some other disease. The natural slant or angle of the 188 Mk^UAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. well-formed crust from the coronet to the toe, is an angle of fortj-five degrees ; but in this formation the angle will not exceed from thirty-eight to forty degrees. This incli- nation is but ill adapted for resisting the effects of pressure ; and consequentl}^, after the animal has been worked for one or two years, the line of inclination, instead of being straight, becomes hollowed half-way between the coronet and the toe ; a defect that also occurs in pumiced feet. The surface presents an irregularly rough appearance, but is more fre- quently roughened in circles or rings ; and the general structure of the crust assumes a conical form, with the lower portion, or sole, presenting an unnaturally wide aspect ; and in most instances the foot is larger than it ought to be. In this ill-formed foot the sole is always so flat that it will not stand paring when the horse is shod, and it will be found that the bars are very small in size, indeed in many cases they can hardly be said to exist ; the heels are so Ioav that the coronet appears almost to touch the ground, and the crust is so thin that it will hardly be capable of holding the nails of the shoe. Little good can be ex- pected from horses with such feet. Besides, they are cer- tain to be liable to corns ; also to frequent bruises and convexity of the sole ; to the crust being broken ; to sprain and injury of the pastern, the fetlock, and flexor tendons ; and to punctures from the nails in the operation of shoeing. Feet of this construction are susceptible of little or no improvement. To those who^ have the misfortune to possess norses with these feet, we can only recommend that . which we have condemned in the healthy state, namely, to shoe them as seldom as possible. The web of the shoe should be light and concave ; the foot should be as sparingly pared DIFFEKENT BOXES OF THE SKELETON OF THE HORSE. 189 as possible ; hard work and rough roads are carefully to be avoided. With these precautions the animal may work for a considerable time ; but an evil day must arrive, and the animal will turn out utterly worthless. CHAPTER VIII. THE ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF THE HORSE. It is not our intention to go deeply into the anatomy of the horse, as this would far exceed the limits of such a work as the present, and indeed would not be suitable for a popular treatise. We shall therefore confine ourselves to such an outline of his structure as will convey a pretty general idea of what is truly useful to possessors of horses in general. We may briefly state, that the bones of the skeleton and the muscles which cover them are all double, if we except a very few bones which lock the two halves together ; and that if an animal is divided correctly into two halves, these will be found exactly similar in the number of bones and the muscles with which they are covered. But this does not extend to the internal organization in general, although a few of its parts are also double. DIFFERENT BONES OF THE SKELETON OF THE HORSE. PLATE XL Instead of giving the bare skeleton of the horse, we have considered it better to exhibit an outline of the external 190 MA.XUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. form of the animal, which will convey a more correct idea of the situation of the different bones as embodied in the muscles ; and by comparing this view of the skeleton with our representation of the perfect horse in plate 1, the reader will have little difficulty in ascertaining the position which the various bones occupy under the superincumbent muscles. Fig. 1, I. The seven cervical vertebra, or bones of the neck. 2. The sternum, fore part of the chest, or breast-bone. 3. The scapula, or shoulder-blade. 4. The humerus, or bone of the arm. o. The radius, or bone of the fore-arm. 6. The ulna, or elbow. 7. The cartilages of the ribs. 8. 8, 8. Tlie costae or ribs, seven or eight of which unite with, or are articulated to the sternum — these are called the true ribs ; and ten or eleven are united tocrether by cartilages, and are called the false ribs. 9. The carpus, or knee, consisting of seven bones. 10. 10. The metacarpal, or shank-bones : the larger metacarpal, or cannon, or shank-bone, in front, and the smaller metacarpal, or splint-bone behind. 11. The upper pastern. 12. The lower pastern. 13. The coffin-bone. 14, 14. The eighteen dorsal vertebras, or bones of the back. 15, The six lumbar vertebrae, or bones of the loins. 16, 16. The haunch, consisting of the ilium, the ischium, and the pubis. 17, 17. The femur, or thigh-bone. 18, 18. The stifle-joint, with the patella, or knee-cap. 19, 19 The tibia, or proper leg-bone. 20. The fibula. 21. 21. The tarsus, or hock, composed of six bones. The prominent part behind is the os calcis, or point of the hock. 22. The metatarsal bones of the hind legs. BONES OF THE HEAD. 191 23, 23. The pastern of the hind feet, including the upper and larger bone, (fig. 23,) the lower pasteyn, (fig. 25,) and the coffin-bone, (fig. 24.) 26, 20. The caudal vertebras, or bones of the tail. BONES OF THE HEAD. PLATE YIII. Fig. 2 and 3. The head contains the brain and other important organs of sense. It is divided bv anatomists into two parts, namely, the skull and the face. The skull, or cranium, is that portion in which the brain is situate ; and the bones in which it is enveloped are destined for its protection. This division consists of nine bones : the two frontal bones, a, a; two parietal, c, c; two temporal, d, d; the occipital, g ; the ethmoid ; and sphenoid : the two latter are situate at the base of the skull, and are not visible in a front view, but their position will be seen in fig. 3, plate iii., the ethmoid, or sieve-like bone, immediately above k, and sphenoid, I. These nine bones are separated in the foal at an early period of its existence ; but soon after birth they are firmly united together by the sutures, at which parts they are so strong that fracture seldom or never occurs there. There is a beautiful evidence of design in this division of the head into so many bones. When the foetus of the foal in the womb first assumes a form, and may be said to be in life, this portion of the skull is merely a jelly-like consistence, which is gradually changed into a harder sub- stance, called cartilage ; and previous to the birth of the animal much of this cartilaginous substance is carried ofi by certain vessels emanating from the brain, called ab- sorbents, and bone is deposited in its stead. In all the flat bones, such as those of the head, this deposit takes 192 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. place from the centre, from which radiations, or rays of bone shoot forth in all directions. Therefore it is evident, that bj having so many bones, there are so many more centres of radiation, and consequently the formation of bone is carried /)n so much more rapidly, and becomes perfected at the time when the necessities of the animal require it. But when the foal is born, this process is not completed, as the edges of the bones remain somewhat soft and pliant ; so that in parturition they yield a little, and by overlapping each other render the birth more easy, and save the parent much pain, and contribute materially to the safety of the foal ; and indeed without a change in the form of the head, from this compression and yielding of the bone of which it is composed, the animal could not be born. a. The occipital bone, or bone of the hinder part of the head. h, b. The parietal bones, or walls of the skull. Cy c. The temporal bones, or bones of tae temple. J, d. The temporal fossa, or pits above the eye. The age of a horse is pretty well manifested by the depth of these fossa. At the back part of the eye there is a cushion of fatty matter on which the eye rests, and revolves without friction. In aged horses this substance decreases, and consequently the eye sinks and the pit above it deepens. To deceive the unwary, dishonest dealers puncture the skin of the pit, and with a blow-pipe fill up what it has lost in substance with air. This puffed-up skin will continue for many hours. The name which is given to this by these unprincipled men is '''puffing the glims!' e, e. The frontal bones, or bones of the forehead. The frontal bones are articulated together by a curious and very intricate dove-tailed suture, which gives great strength, so as to defend the upper portion of the brain, which lies immediately below them, from injury. The frontal bones SIDE VIEW OF THE CRANIUM. 193 strongly manifest the breed or bloods of a horse. Those which are high-bred have a broad angular forehead, with the face gradually tapering from the brow to the muzzle, as represented in this figure. The cranium of the dray or cart- horse is nearly as wide below as above. It is the full and largely developed forehead which gives to the blood-horse that fiery and intelligent expression. /, /. The zygomatic arch. g, g. The super-orbital foraminse, or holes above the orbit for the passage of the nerves and blood-vessels which supply the forehead. The small hole beneath receives vessels which penetrate into and supply the bone. In some craniums there are several such holes. hy h. The lachrymal, or tear-bones. i, i. The orbits which contain and defend the eye. j, j. The malar or cheek-bones. k, k. The nasal-bones, or bones of the nose. Ij L The suiDcrior maxillary, or that portion of the upper jaw containing the molar teeth or grinders. niy m. The infra-orbital foraminas, or holes below the orbits, through which pass branches of nerves and blood-vessels to supply the lower portion of the face. tiy n. The openings into the nose, with the bones forming the roof of the palate. o, o. The inferior maxillary, the lower portion of the jaw-bone, which is a separate bone in quadrupeds, containing the inci- sors or cutting teeth and the upper tushes at the point of union between the superior and inferior maxillaries. jp, p. The upper incisors, or cutting teeth, or, as they are otherwise called, the nippers, a term which we limit to the two central ones above and below ; the one next to these, on each side, are called the dividers, and the innermost ones on both sides are termed the corner incisors. There are in all twelve incisors in the head of a horse, viz., six in the upper, and six in the under jaw. SIDE VIEW OF THE CRANIUM. PLATE VIII. Fig. 2. h. The parietal bone. 2c 194 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. e. The frontal bone ; the cavities or cells below which are called the frontal sinuses. /. The zygomatic arch. g. The super-orbital foramina. h. The lachrymal bones. i. The orbit which contains the eye. k. The nasal bone. /. The superior maxillary bone. m. The infra-orbital foramina. n. The opening into the nose. 0. The inferior maxillary. p. The upper incisors or cutting teeth. qy qy q. The molars, or grinders of the upper and under jaw. r. The posterior maxillary or under jaw. t. The lower portion of the under jaw. u. The under incisors, or cutting teeth. SECTION EXHIBITING THE INTERNAL ANATOMY OF THE HEAD. PLATE III. Fig. 3. a. The occipital bone. b. The frontal bone, under which are cavities called the frontal sinuses, marked 16, 16. These frontal sinuses are cavities intervening between the frontal bone and a transverse plate of bone which grows within it. They communicate with the cavities of the nose, as also with those of the sphenoid, ethmoid, and upper jaw- bones. In consequence of this conformation, they increase the loudness and clearness of neighing. It sometimes hap- pens that the larvas of certain flies crawl up the nostrils and locate themselves in the frontal sinuses, occasioning great pain to the animal. Happily, this is not of very fre- quent occurrence with the horse, although sheep and horned cattle are more liable to such intrusion. Some veterinary surgeons have made these sinuses a medium to discover whether horses mth a running at the SECTIOI^ OF THE INTERNAL ANATOMY OF THE HEAD. 195 nostrils were glandered. An opening is made into these sinuses, which may be effected with perfect safety. Suppose a line to be drawn across the forehead from 2 and 3, one foramen to the other,, plate viii. fig. g^ g, g. On that line, and about half an inch from the suture, or line which separates the frontal bones, the sinuses or cavities are situ- ated, and extend to an inch in depth, as represented in plate iii., fig. 3, immediately under 5, and marked 16, 16. If the position of g, g in fig. 3, plate viii., and h in fig. 3, plate iii., are compared, a perfect idea of their seat in the forehead will be formed. At this part a small perforation is made, into this warm water is injected by means of a common squirt, which will run out at the nostrils. If there be matter either in the sinuses or nostrils, it will be found mixed with the water. If it presents the appearance mentioned at page 19 and sinks, then it is certain the animal is glandered. c. The nasal bone, or bone of the nose. d. The tentorium, or bony separation between the cerebrum and cerebellum. e. The occipital bone. f. The cerebrum, or brain. g. The cerebellum, or little bram. h, A portion of the medullary, or marrow-like substance of the brain ; and the prolongation of it, which bears the name of the cms cerebri, or leg of the brain, and from which many of the nerves emanate. i, and m. The ligament of the neck, or pack-wax, by which the head is chiefly supported. j. The sphenoid, or wedge-like bone, with its cavities. h. The cunieform, or wedge-shaped process, or base of the occipital-bone. Between it and the other portion of the occi- pital-bone, «, lies the great foramen or aperture through which the prolongation of that portion of the brain called the spinal-marrow issues from the cranium, sjid is continued through the spine or back-bone. 196 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. /. The medulla oblongata, a prolongation of the bram after the marrow-like substance of the cerebrum and cerebellum have united, and forming the commencement of the spinal marrow. This portion has a ropy appearance. n. The point of the atlas bone which sustains or carries the first bone of the neck. 0. The first bone of the neck. p. The dentata, or tooth-shaped bone, the second bone of the vertebral column. q. The cartilage covering the entrance into the eustachian tube, or communication between the mouth and internal part of the ear. r. The spinal marrow, extending through a canal in the centre of the bones of the neck, back, and loins, to the extremities of the tail, and from which the nerves of feeling and of motion which supply every part of the frame arise. 5, s The septiwi-nasij or cartilaginous division between the nostrils. When the nostril is opened, the membrane by which the cartilage and whole cavity of the nose is lined is seen. By the colour of this membrane, much more than by the lining of the eyelids, we may judge of the degree of fever, and especially of inflammation of the lungs or any of the air- passages. We also determine by the ulcerations which are seen on this membrane, the existence of glanders. This cavity on both sides is occupied by two bones, which, in consequence of being rolled up in the form of a turban, are called the turbinated bones. t, t. The septum-nasi, cut off at the lower part to exhibit the spongy turbinated or turban-shaped bones, filling the cavity of the nostrils. Part of the cartilage is removed to display them. They are as thin as gauze, and, like it, perforated into a thousand holes. Between them are left sufficient passages for the air. K these gauze-like membranes were unrolled, they would present a very considerable surface. On every part of them there is spread the pulpy substance of the olfactory, or first pair of nerves, and are the organs of smell. The design of SECTIO.\ OF THE INTERNAL ANATOMY OF THE HEAD. 197 this expansion of the olfactory nerves is to supply the place of touch, and what is acquired by experience by man It is by this exquisite sense of smell that the horse selects such food as is best calculated for his nutriment, and is enabled to reject what is poisonous. By smell he judges of the quality of his food in a domestic state, and examines a stranger. The horse will recognise his master or favourite groom by the sense of smell, and frequently expresses such recognition by a neigh. These cavities are also the organs of voice ; the sound reverberates through them, and in- creases in loudness as through the windings of a French- horn. All the air which passes to and returns from the lungs must go through the nostrils, as he can breathe through the nose only. The nostrils ought therefore to be large and expanded. The skin also which covers them should be thin and elastic, that they may the more readily yield when the animal requires a greater supply of air while trotting hard or galloping. In the race-horse the nostrils are wide and flexible, while in the cart-horse they are con- fined, and surrounded by a quantity of cellular substance and thick skin. There are besides four distinct cartilages attached to the nostrils, which are exceedingly elastic, and bring them back to their ordinary dimensions whenever the muscles cease to act. The bones also of the nose, n, plate viii. fig. 2, and n n, fig. 3, are tapered off to a point, to give a wider range for the action of the muscles ; while the cartilages are so constructed as not only to discharge the office above referred to, but also to prevent this tapering point of bone from injury. u. The palate. V. The inferior maxillary-bone, containinof the incisor teeth, or nippers. 198 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY v). The molar teeth, or grinders. s X, X. The tongue. y. The posterior maxillary, or jaw, witli its incisors. z, z. The lips. 12. The upper incisory teeth. 13. The lower incisory teeth. 14. The posterior maxillary, or jaw-bone. 1. The thyroid, or helmet-shaped cartilage, enclosing and protecting the contiguous parts. 2. The epiglottis, or covering of the glottis, or aperture of the windpipe. 3. The arj^tenoid, or funnel-shaped cartilages, having between them the aperture leading into the trachea, or wind-pipe. 4. The trachea, or wind-pipe, with its rings. 5. One of the chorda; vocales, or cords concerned in the voice. 6. The sacculus laryngis, or the sac or ventricle of the larynx, or throat, for the modulation of the voice. 7. The opening from the back part of the mouth into the nostril. 8. The soft palate at the back of the mouth, so constructed fis nearly to prevent the possibility of vomiting. 9. The muscle of the neck, covered by the membrane of the back part of the mouth. 10. The cricoid, or ring-like cartilage below and behind the thyroid. 11. The oesophagus, or gullet. 15. A 23ortion of the os hyoides, or bone of the tongue. REPRESENTATION OF THE PALATE AND TEETH. PLATE III. Fig. 2. cij a. The tushes canines, or tusk-formed teeth b, b. The incisors, nippers, or cutting teeth. c, c. The palatine nerve between the artery and the vein. e, e. The palatine artery. It is from this artery that blood is taken when horses are seized with megrims, as described at page 7. dj d. The palate, divided into ridges and bars. /, /. The palatine vein. EXTERNAL ANATOMY OF THE HORSES HEAD. 199 ^■y g. A strip of the palate, dissected up, to exhibit the position of the vessels and nerve beneath. hf h. The cheeks. i, L The molars, or grinding teeth. EXTERNAL ANATOMY OF THE HORSE^S HEAD. PLATE III. Fig. 1. a, a. The orbicularis muscles, surrounding the eye, and destined for the purpose of closing the eyelids. b. The nasalis labii superioris takes its rise from a depression at the junction of the superior maxillary and malar bones, and extending to the angle of the nostril. Its use is to raise the lip, and dilate the nostrils. c. Dilator magnus^ or great dilator, which assists in the office of retracting the upper lip and in dilating the nostrils. d. Dilator naris lateralis, or side dilator of the nostrils, reversed to exhibit the vessels and nerves which it covers, extending from the covering of the nasal and frontal bones to the angle of the mouth and side of the nostril. Its office is to retract the upper lip, and dilate the nostrils. e. The zygomaticus, extending from the zygomatic arch and masseter to the corner of the mouth, for the purpose of drawing back the angle of the mouth. /, g. The orbicularis oris, or circular muscle of the mouth. This muscle surrounds the mouth for the purpose of closing the lips and dilating the nostrils. ^ k. The buccinator, or trumpeter muscle, extending from the inside of the mouth and cheeks to the angle of the mouth, to draw it back. i. Depressor labii inferioris, or puller down of the under lip, attached to the sides of the under lip to pull it down. j. Branches of nerves, with small blood-vessels. k. The parotid duct, penetrating the cheek to discharge the saliva into the mouth. I. See letter r, and explanation. m. The vein and artery passing under the zygomatic arch. n, A branch of the fifth pair of nerves, the sensitive nerve of the face, emanating from under the parotid gland. 200 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. 0. The massefer, or chewing muscle. This muscle occupies the entire cheek of the horse, and is exceedingly powerful, extending from the upper jaw-bone into the rough surface round the angle of the lower one ; which, in conjunction with the temporal muscle, is destined to chew the food and close the mouth. p. The stylo-ma xillaris J or styloid, pencil-shaped process of the occiput, extending to the angle of the jaw. Its office is to pull the jaw backwards and open it. q. The maxillary gland, or gland of the lower jaw, with its duct. r. At this situation the submaxillary artery, a branch of the jugular artery and the parotid duct, pass under and within the angle of the lower jaw, and reappear again at I ; and, ascending the cheek, are distributed in a branching manner over it. 5. The subscapula hyoideus, emanating from under the shoulder- blade to the body of the os hyoides, to draw back that bone. ty w. The sterno maxillarls, or muscle belonging to the breast- bone and upper jaw, from the cartilage in front of the chest to the ^ngle of the lower jaw, for the purpose of bending the head ; or, if one only act, to bend it on one side. u. The levator humeri, or elevator of the shoulder, arising from the tubercle of the occiput, the mastoid, or nipple- shaped process of the temporal bone; and the transverse processes of the four first bones of the neck and the liga- ment of the neck, and proceeding to the muscles of the shoulders and the upper bone of the arm, for the purpose of drawing forward the shoulder and arm, or to turn the head and neck ; and, when the tv/o levators act, to depress the head. V. The jugular, or neck-vein. It is from this vein that blood is taken for all diseases in the head, neck, and contiguous parts. X The tendon common to the complexo majors or larger com- plicated tendon ; and the splenms^ or splint-like tendon, and the mastoid process of the temporal, to hold up the head, or, the muscles on one side alone acting, to turn it. y. The superior portion of the ligament of the neck. MUSCLES AND PARTS COI^NECTED AVITH THE EYE. 201 z. The superior portion of the parotid gland, or gland situate near the ear, reversed to exhibit the blood-vessels and nerves beneath it. MUSCLES AND PARTS CONNECTED WITH THE EYE. PLATE III. Fig. 4 and 5. The horse has a very extended field of vision. The eye is provided with seven muscles to move it in all directions ; and that they may act with sufficient promptitude and power, no fewer than six nerves are directed to the eye generally, or to particular muscles ; and that it may receive no injury from friction, it rests upon a mass of fatty matter, which also enables it to be turned without much exertion of the muscles. Four of the muscles, a, e, and d, are straight ; these rise from the back of the orbit, and are inserted into the ball of the eye, immediately opposite, and at equal distances from each other. One of these, /, rises to the upper part of the eye, immediately behind the , transparent and visible portion of it, the office of which is to raise the eye. When it contracts, the eye must necessarily be drawn upward. Another, a, is inserted immediately opposite, at the bottom of the eye, for the purpose of depressing the eye, or enabling the horse to look downwards. A third, e, is inserted at the outer corner, which turns the eye outward ; and a fourth is inserted at the inner corner for turning the eye inwards. By means of all these the eye can rotate, or be turned in any direction at the will of the animal. Should the animal wish to look upward and outward, then the outer and upper muscles are called into action, and can be modified in any manner at the will of the horse. These muscles perform another duty, namely, keeping the eye in its place, for while grazing the principal weight of the eye rests upon them ; and to aid them in this, another 2 D 202 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. muscle, d d^ called the retractor, is added ; it arises from the edge of the foramen, through which the optic-nerve enters the orbit. The use of this muscle is to support the eye generally, or when it is suddenly called into great action, and aided by the straight muscles, it draws the eye back out of the reach of danger, and in the act of drawing it back it forces the haw to protrude in the manner already described, as an additional defence. The cornea, i, is the only visible part of the eyeball of a horse, or at least it should be ; and it is said that where much white is seen, that it is an indication of bad temper. The pupil, h, in the horse dijQfers in form from that of all other animals. It is of an elongated, oblong, ovate form, and placed trans- versely, as represented in fig. 4, plate iii. The eye is a very important organ in the horse. It ought to be large and rather prominent ; the eyelid should be fine and thin. This thinness is for the purpose of preventing pressure, and at the same time to give more extensive and easy motion. The horse is devoid of eyebrows, and the eyelashes are singularly arranged. The rows of hairs are longest and most numerous on the upper lid, and especially towards the outer or temporal corner, because the light falls on the eye from above ; and as he stands, especially when he is grazing, as well as from the lateral situation of the eyes, the greater portion of the light, the attacks of insects, and the trick- ling down of moisture, is chiefly from the outside. To- wards the inner corner of the eye there are hardly any eyelashes, because there is little or no danger from below, and as little light is thrown from below, the eyelashes are thin and short. While horses are grazing, insects may find their way to the eye towards the inner angle, the principal or only hair is found on the lower lid. All of which most MUSCLES AND PARTS CONNECTED WITH THE EVE. 203 beautifully proves design in tne formation and adaptation of the animal. The eyelashes should on no account whatever be cut, as they have a most important office to fill, not only preventing the eye from being injured by dazzling light, but also protecting it from the intrusion of insects. The horse is destitute of eyebrows, but in their stead he is provided with a number of scattered bristly hairs, as also a projecting fold of the upper eyelid, which answers the same purpose. Some persons are so foolish as to cut off these hairs, and have absurdly attributed them to weakness. The under eyelid also is furnished with projecting bristly hairs, which are so sensitive that they give immediate warn- ing to the animal of the approach of any insect or other object which might injure the eye, and he naturally closes the eyelid instantaneously. Ignorant grooms sometimes denude horses of these admirable premonitory feelers. The power of this muscle is so great, that it has been ascertained to exert a force equal to twenty pounds, and in consequence the operation for cataract is rendered nearly impossible. It will thus be seen that these muscles are admirable substitutes for the want of hands, in protecting the eyes against the intrusion of things that would injure them. They are also partially separated into four divisions, and by this means assist the straight muscles in turning the eye. These muscles perform another important office in altering the focus of the eye to accommode itself to the examination of distant or, near objects. (See c and 6, ^g. 5.) The straight and retractor muscles draw back the eye, and forces it upon the substance, and thus in a slight degree flattens it, brings it nearer the retina or mirror, and adapts the eye to the observation of distant objects. But as these muscles are chiefly employed in supporting 204 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. the weight of the eye, they might not have power to turn it so quickly and to such an extent as the animal might wish or require ; therefore the eye is furnished with two other muscles, whose entire office is to turn it. They are placed obliquely, and in consequence are called the oblique muscles. The upper one, a h, is curiously constructed. It emanates from the back part of the orbit, and follows a direction upwards, and towards the inner side, and there, immediately under the ridge of the orbit, it passes through a perfect mechanical pulley, and turning round takes a direction across the eye, and is inserted a little beyond the middle of the eye, and towards the outer side. Thus the globe of the eye is evidently directed inward and upward. This is not all which is accomplished by this remarkable mechanism. That the eye may be completely defended, it is sunk deep in the orbit, but it may be occasionally requisite to bring the eye forward and enlarge the field of vision. Under the influence of fear the eye is positively protruded, and it is not only forced more forward, but the lids are opened more widely. It may be asked, how can this be possibly accom- plished '? The remarkable puUy-muscie, or trochlearis, at h c, readily efiects this, while the straight muscles at the same time do not oppose it, or only regulate the direction of the eye, it is really brought forward. The lower oblique muscle has its insertion just within the lachrymal-bone, n, and proceeding across the eye is fixed into part of the sclerotica, opposite to the other oblique muscle, and turns the eye in an opposite direction, and also assisting the upper oblique muscle in bringing the eye forward from its socket. There is another beautiful provision preventing impurities or insects from being carried to and lodging in the corner of the eye, which would, if allowed to accumulate at the THE EYE AND ITS VISUAL STRUCTURE. 205 inner angle of the eye, be carried down the duct, which would irritate and obstruct it. No sooner do any of these annoyances enter the eye but they are carried oflf by the haw, which lies concealed within the inner corner of the eye. This haw is a black or pied cartilaginous substance of a triangular form, concave within and made exactly to suit the globe of the eye ; while it is convex externally, accurately fitting the membrane lining the lid, while the base of it is reduced to a thin or almost sharp edge. The horse has the voluntary power of suddenly protruding this from its concealment, and passing it rapidly over the eye- ball, clears ofi" every nuisance mixed with the tears, and then being quickly drawn back, the dust or insect is wiped off as the cartilage again passes under the corner of the eye. In treating of disease of the haw, page 44, we mentioned the barbarous practice of cutting out this valuable appen- dage to the eye. This member is destined by nature as a substitute for the want of hands for wiping the eye and cleansing it from offensive matter. This being removed, subjects the poor animal to pain in its eye for life, and lays it open to the constant chance of inflammation from dust or small pieces of gravel being blown into it. The pain they thus inflict on the horse may be easily conceived by any one having dust or other extraneous matter lodged between the eyelid and eye, and being without hands to wipe it out. THE EYE AND ITS VISUAL STEUCTURE. PLATE X. Fig. 8. The eye is of a spherical figure, yet not perfectly globular ; or it may rather be considered as composed of the parts of 206 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIER V. two globes, the half of the one, a, plate x. fig. 8, smaller, and transparent in front ; and of the other, b, which is larger, with an opaque coat behind. It is an established law in optics, that all objects become visible from the rajs of light which flow from these objects into the eye. These rajs pass through the pupil and fall upon the retina, which is a fine expansion of the optic nerve, interwoven like net-work in the back part or bottom of the eje, and there the rajs form a picture of the object, whose apparent bulk depends upon the size of such picture so formed upon the retina. We shall suppose the animal looking at an arrow with the barb of it downwards, c, d. From everj part of the arrow rajs of light will be sent forth in straight lines, and in passing through the pupil, plate iii. ^g. 5, k, it is clear that those which flow from the under portion of the object, c, must flow upwards, while those above, d, must pass downwards ; and pursuing this principle, all the intermediate rajs,/, will intervene, con- sequentlj a reversed picture of the object will be formed upon the retina, as seen at ^, h. Palej makes the following interesting observation on this subject : he sajs, " In considering vision as achieved bj means of an image formed at the bottom of the eye, we can never reflect without wonder on the smallness, jet correct- ness of the picture, the subtletj of the touch, and the fine- ness of the lines. A landscape of five or six square leagues is brought into a space of half-an-inch in diameter ; jet the magnitude of objects which it contains are all preserved, are all discriminated in their .magnitudes, positions, figures, and colours. A stage-coach passing at its ordinarj speed for several minutes, passes in the eje onlj over one twelfth of an inch, jet is the change of place in the image distinctlj perceived throughout its whole progress." THE EYE AND ITS VISUAL STRUCTURE. 207 «, i. The points where the rays, having passed the cornea, con- verge by the refracting power of the lens. j. The cornea, or horny and transparent portion, which is covered by the conjunctiva uniting different parts together. The cornea fills up the vacuity which is left by the sclero- tica ; but although it is closely united with it, may be easily separated and will drop out. A prominent eye adds greatly to the beauty of a horse, and this will depend upon the projection of the cornea. But if too prominent, the rays of light may be rendered too convergent, which will reduce indistinct vision. If it be small and flat, the rays may not be sufficiently convergent, which will produce imperfect vision. An eye that is moderately convex will be found best ; because, when either too prominent or too flat, the horse is liable to starting and shying upon a road. The cornea is quite transparent in the healthy eye, and when cloudiness is observable, then it i^ an indication of disease. In the purchase of a horse, the utmost attention should be given to the condition of the cornea. Perfect trans- parency over the whole surface is indispensable. The eye should be carefully examined in the manner pointed out at page 47 ; first in front, and afterwards through its substance. /c, k. The crystalline, or glassy lens, situated behind the pupil and in front of the vitreous humour, which is so named from a supposed resemblance to melted glass ; it is a clear gela- tinous fluid, very much resembling the wdiite of an egg. I. The sclerotica, a hard firm coating, covering the whole of the eye, except that portion occupied by the cornea, and being a seeming prolongation of the covering of the optic- nerve, Z, L The choroides, or choroid coat, covered with a black secretion, or black or dark brown paint, called the pigmentum nigrum. This delicate membrane extends over the whole internal 208 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. part of the eye, from the optic-nerve to the cornea. This is intended to absorb the stray rays of light which might dazzle and confuse the animal, and is not found on any portion which may be called the field of vision ; but in its stead a bright green substance is spread, which extends more over the upper than the lower portion, because the objects which are most necessary for him to see are below the level of the head. This in some way, yet undiscovered, enables the animal to see even when it is comparatively dark. In the dusk this beautiful sea-green colour may be seen in the eye of a horse. Cream-coloured, or perfectly white horses, have not tliis dark pigment ; so that the ordinary appearance of the pupil is red instead of black. In looking into their eyes we do not see the covering, but the choroid coat itself. m, m. The iris, or rainbow-coloured circular membrane, situated under the cornea in front of the eye, and on which the colour of the eye depends. The duplicature behind is the uvea, so called from its colour resembling a grape. See also plate iii. fig. 5, i. The iris acts as a curtain, and floats in the aqueous humour. In horses the colour of the iris is subject to little variation, but for the most part has some analogy with that of the hide, varying in different degrees from hazel to dark brown. 72. The pupil is placed in the centre of the cornea, and through which all the rays of objects pass to the retina or mirror of the eye. See also plate iii. fig. 5, h. In the horse it is of an oblong form, (see plate iii. fig. 4.) It is variable in size, depending upon the intensity of the light in which it is viewed. In the open air it will be much con- tracted, so as to prevent too large a quantity of light being throAvn upon the retina, as it is painful and injurious to that object to receive too great a portion of it, as well as pre^ THE EYE AND ITS VISUAL STRUCTURE. 209 judicial to vision ; while in a dark stable it expands, in consequence of a deficient portion of light reaching the retina. This contraction and expansion of the pupil is of much service in enabling purchasers to judge of the state of the horse's sight. There is a description of blindness, in which the crystalline lens and cornea continue quite transparent, but the retina of the eye is palsied, and consequently not affected by light ; so that the pupils are hardly if at all altered by a change from light to darkness, or vice versa. In purchasing a horse, the size of both pupils should be strictly observed, to see that they both expand and con- tract to the same extent by the change of light. The hand ought to be held over the eyes for a short time, and then notice if both pupils expand alike, when removed. Suspended from the upper edge of the pupil of the eye two or three black bodies may be discovered on close inspection, the size of millet-seeds. When the horse is suddenly brought into an intense light, the pupil suddenly contracts ; these little globes are pressed out from between the edges of the iris, and an equal number, but of much smaller size, are attached to the lower edge of the iris. Their use probably is to intercept portions of light which would be injurious to the eye. But their chief function is called into action while grazing, and perform the duties which are attributed to the eyelashes, namely, to obstruct the rays of light in those directions in which it would come with the greatest force both from above and below ; while at the same time the field of view is quite open, so far as respects the pasture on which the horse is grazing. o, o. The ciliary, or hair-like processes. p. The vitreous, or glass-like humour, which fills the whole of the cavity of the eye behind the lens. It is a clear 2 E 210 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. gelatinous fluid, resembling the white of an egg. It fills about three-fourths of the globe of the eye, and extends from the posterior part as far forward as the ciliary liga- ment. q. The aqueous, or water-like humour which fills the space between the cornea and the crystalline lens. It is by means of this humour that the cornea is preserved m its rounded form. A small portion of it is behind the iris. r. The retina, or fine net-like expansion of the optic-nerve, which is spread over the whole of the choroides, as far as the lens. s. The optic-nerve, or nerve of sight. f. The conjunctiva, or that membrane which covers the for- part of the eye, and which lines the lids, and even extends to the transparent portion of it. It is transparent, and transmits colour to the parts beneath. It is very liable to inflamma- tion, during which the vessels of the lining of the lids will become gorged with blood, and present an intensely red appearance, which extends itself to those vessels in the white of the eye, which will also become completely covered with blood, and will ultimately render the cornea clouded and opaque. This membrane is the seat of almost all the diseases of the eye ; many of which too frequently terminate in total blindness. A defect of sight in the horse is more dangerous than total blindness, for this reason, that one with a defect of sight will start and shy at every object which he meets with upon a road, and the rider may be thrown off when he least expects it ; while a horse that is quite blind will generally resign himself to the guidance of his rider or driver. THE TEETH AND THEIR DEVELOPMENT. Mastication in the horse is performed in two ways, namely, by a champing motion, and also a grinding motion. At 0, plate iii. fig. 1, is the masseter-muscle, which is of THE TEETH AND THEIR DEVELOPMENT. 211 great strength, and constituting the cheek ; it has its origin at the superior maxillary bone, under the ridge continued from the zjgomatic-arch, plate viii. fig. 3,/ / and inserted into the lower jaw. This acts in conjunction with the temporal muscle in closing the jaw, and in producing its direct cutting, or champing motion. Inside of the lower jaw, on each side, and occupying the entire of the hollowed portion, and opposite the masseter, or cheek-muscles, are the pterygoid-muscles, which proceed from the jaw-bones to those more in the centre of the channel, also shutting the mouth, and likewise by their alternate action giving that grinding motion so necessary in preparing the food of the horse. The channel which occupies that portion of the lower jaw between the branches, is of considerable importance in the conformation of the head of the horse. If this part is too wide, it always gives a clumsy, heavy appearance to the face ; and when too narrow, it prevents the animal from bending his head with freedom and grace. Horses with such heads are unpleasant in the hand either of the rider or driver, as they constantly keep pulling and stretching their head, which also prevents them from being well reined in. The changes which successively take place in the incisory teeth throughout the whole period of the life, form the most certain test of the age of the horse. The teeth of a horse are forty in number, and in the mare thirty-six, being destitute of the four canines. The incisory, or cutting teeth, are temporary, and are replaced by others from two and a half years, to four or five. The marks on them which distinguish the age become obliterated at eight years. The life of a horse may be divided into three periods ; first, from birth to two and a half years, 212 MANUAL OF MODERJ:^ FARRIERY. which is distinguished by the first appearance of the incisory teeth, and by the wearing out of their external cavity. We have then the one characterized by the wear of the dental funnel. During this period the table of the incisor teeth contains in its middle the central enamel, and the funnel at first traverses from one side to the other, and becomes suc- cessively triangular, oval, and round. In the third period, the wear of the portion of the tooth next the root indicates it. After the central enamel becomes obliterated, the table shows a coloured point, which disappears before the wear of the funnel is completed, and takes difierent shades of colour as well as shapes ; and in very old teeth the root is super- seded by a small black cavity. In the early stages of their formation, the incisor teeth of the horse resemble a cellular body whose sides are soft and membraneous, and quickly become hard and thickened, and are then reflected at the side of the table. From this primary dental production emanate two cavities that have no communication with each other, and which are essentially difierent, the largest being situated next the root. (See Dlate V. fig. 11.) This contains the pulpy substance. The other cavity is open at the side next the table, and forms a reflected funnel. This dental production is soon trans- formed into enamel, which is quickly surrounded with the bony substance on both its surfaces ; the latter incrusts itseK in greater quantity on the side next the root, but never completely fills the funnel, the cavity of which is never obliterated except through the efi'ect of wear. This funnel, as has just been mentioned, is formed by the reflec- tion of the elementary membrane of the tooth, and forms a true partition, acquiring a certain length, and terminating in a rounded blind pouch. Through wear, the enamel of the incisors is divided DENTAL INDICATIONS OF THE AGE OF A HORSE. 213 into two portions, the exterior or casing enamel, and the other, the interior, which envelopes the funnel. The enamel being harder, and offering more resistance than the bony substance that surrounds it on all sides, the central enamel presents a slight prominence, and takes on diffei'ent forms in proportion as the funnel becomes destroyed and con- tracted. As we have stated, the horse has forty teeth ; namely, six incisor, or cutting teeth, in both jaws, (see plate iii. fig. 2, h, b ;) two tushes, or canines, in each jaw, a, a; and six molars, or grinders, in both jaws, A, L There is a consider- able vacant space between the incisors and tushes, as also between the tushes and grinders, as will be seen by the figure referred to. These teeth are inserted into sockets, consisting of a spongy, bony substance, called the alveolar process, which forms the edge of the maxillary bones. All the teeth are first germinated in the interior of the maxil- lary bones ; and having acquired a certain size, and the exterior table of their sockets having been dissipated by absorption, they push out above the gums. Those which appear shortly after birth are called sucking, or temporary teeth ; these consist of incisors and the three first grinders. The formation and appearance of the others are later, and are called the permanent teeth ; and those which succeed the temporary are called the replacers, or horse-teeth. DENTAL INDICATIONS OF THE AGE OF A HORSE. Nothing can more clearly indicate a proof of design than the beautiful contrivance in the formation of the grinders of the horse for the purposes required. They are, like the cutting teeth, covered on the sides with enamel, but not on the top, though several portions of enamel enter into their substance in their internal structure. They are subjected 214 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. to much more friction than the cutting teeth in grinding down the harder portions of their food, and nature has made ample provision for their strength and endurance. We have given a representation of the section of a grinder (plate V. fig. 12) to show its interior structure. The teeth are prepared and formed in cavities within the jaw-bones. In the unborn animal a delicate membraneous bag, contain- ing a jelly-like substance, is situate in the small cell within the jaw-bone. By degrees this substance assumes the form of a tooth, and then the jelly within the membrane begins to change to a bony consistence ; then a hard crystallization is formed on the outside of this membraneous covering. This is the enamel of the tooth. In the formation of each grinder of the horse in the upper jaw, there are originally five of these membraneous bags filled with jelly, and four in the lower jaw. This jelly is gradually superseded by bony matter, which is deposited by little vessels penetrating into it. These vessels are represented by the black streaks in the darker central portions of the figure, around each of which the crystallization of enamel can be distinctly traced, so that there would be five distinct bones or teeth. The white spaces in the figure represent a very powerful cement, which unites all these distinct bones into one compact body, thus making one tooth of the five as they originally ap- peared to be ; this being accomplished, an outer coating of enamel invests the whole of the sides, but not the top, which completes the tooth. It will thus be manifest that this is a beautiful and perfect contrivance to prevent the wearing down of the grinders by the constant friction to which they are subjected by chewing the harder portions of their food. Thus it will be seen there are columns ,of enamel penetrating through the entire substance of the tooth ; this, together with the bony matter and cement by DENTAL INDICATIONS OF THE AGE OF A flORSE. 215 which the different layers are united, and which fill the spaces between the columns, soon begin to wear away, while the enamel remains, thus occasioning the uneven surface presented by them, and which is the very best structure for them to possess in order to grind down the food. The grinders in the lower jaw, as we have above observed, having been only provided with four of those bags, are con- sequently smaller and narrower, and more regular in their form than the upper ones. They are placed horizontally in both jaws ; but in the lower one the higher side is within, and gradually shelving outwards, while in the upper jaw the higher side is without, and shelving inwards ; by which beautiful arrangement the triturating or grinding motion is most advantageously performed. Each of the grinders is different in structure and appearance, and can be respec- tively recognised with the situation of, and the jaws to which they belonged. When the foal is born, it has the first and second grinders, which are large compared with the size of those by which they are afterwards replaced. In six or eight days after birth, the centre nippers make their appearance. These are large in comparison to the size of the jaw, and occupy its whole front, as represented in plate iv. fig. 1. In three weeks or a month the third grinders will have made their appearance, and within six weeks an additional incisor on each side of the two first, both above and below, will be visible, and soon after completed, and the jaw will have assumed the form exhibited in fig. 2. The two molars that the foal has at birth remain until the animal is two and a half years of age, at which time they are forced out of their sockets by the protrusion of the second set, or re- placers. But from this time there is no use in consulting the grinders for the age of the horse, as the best tests and 21 G MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. easiest come at are the incisors. The supplementary molars appear in the following order : the first, at about ten or eleven months ; the second, about twenty months ; and the third, from four to six years of age. The incisor teeth are continually undergoing some change, in consequence of the friction produced by the action of their rubbing against each other. The anterior edge being considerably more elevated and sharper than the posterior, the wear first commences there, and in a short time it is level with the posterior, then both wear together ; the longitudinal cavity becomes narrower, and afterwards tri- angular, and, finally, at a certain period disappears, and is replaced by the small end of the funnel next the root ; it is this regular wear which is termed " losing the mark," (see fig. 4.) The obliteration of the mark has frequently taken place by the time the corner teeth are beginning to appear. It must be distinctly understood, that in speaking of the marks in the tooth we constantly refer to the incisors of the under jaw, except when otherwise expressed ; and the ages of all horses are reckoned from May. When an incisor tooth has commenced wearing, and its two edges are parallel, the table exhibits two bands of enamel, the one exterior, that surrounds the tooth, which is termed the casing enamel ; the other internal, only sur- rounding the cavity, and this is called the central enamel, (see plate iv. figs. 3 and 5.) The incisor teeth of the lower jaw always wear more quickly than those of the upper, and uniformly more regular. The reason of this has never been satisfactorily accounted for, but it is certainly very remark- able. From this fact it is obvious that it is more difficult to judge of the period of obliteration of the mark in the upper jaw. In the lower jaw the marks of the nippers, or central incisors, are always obliterated at ten months ; in DENTAL INDICATIONS OF THE AGE OF A HORSE. 217 the dividers or second teeth at one year, and from the corner or inner incisors varying from fifteen months to two years. By this time the marks of the upper nippers have become almost entirely obliterated, so that at two years old the cavities in all the teeth have disappeared, as well of the lower as of the upper jaw. At this period the crowns of the nippers become insen- sibly smaller, and with their base necked. They also assume a yellowish-brown aspect, soon after which they loosen and almost entirely lose their attachment in the gums, and finally fall out. It is at this time the second period in the age of a horse commences. The marh in the tooth is occasioned by the food blacken- ing the hollow pit which is formed on their surface by the bending in of the enamel, which passes over the surface of the teeth ; and by the gradual wearing down of the enamel from friction, and the consequent disappearance of it, we are enabled for several years t(j judge of the age of the animal. In the third year, the tushes sometimes begin to make their appearance, although there are instances of their not being developed until the fifth or sixth year. But the most general time for their appearing is in the fourth year. Little dependence can, therefore, be placed on them in determin- ing the age of the horse We have given a representation of a three-year-old mouth, (fig. 5,) in which it will be seen the central teeth are larger than the others, and are pro- vided with two grooves in the outer convex surface. The mark is long, narrow, deep, and black ; and these teeth, not having attained their full growth, are somewhat lower than the others. In the two next teeth the mark is nearly worn out, and in the corner teeth it is slowly disappearing. 2 F 218 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. At this period it is not unusual for dishonest dealers to deceive the unskilful with regard to the age of a horse. If they happen to possess one that has been foaled a little earlier than usual, probably in January, and which may liave acquired bulk and strength, they punch or draw out the central nippers, and the others appear some months earlier than they otherwise would. This will allow the teeth to rise much quicker than they would do naturally, and three or four months may be thereby gained in their reproduction ; consequently dealers who wish to take ad- vantage of this may sell a colt for a year older than he actually is. But we must look to the general form of the animal, and when young it will be manifested by the small development of the forehead. The second pair of incisors will still have the mark, and it will also be much stronger on the corner ones, and probably with an enlargement or irregularity about the gums, in consequence of the teeth having been violently forced out ; the first and fifth grinders will be small, and the sixth will not have yet appeared. As it is the teeth of the lower jaw which are usually consulted as to his age, dealers who wish thus to impose seldom extract the teeth of the upper jaw, therefore it would be well to examine it also^ when all the signs will remain. Attention to these points will enable any one to detect the true age of the colt. A horse at three years of age will have the central per- manent nippers growing with their edges sharp in com- parison to the others. All the others will be in a state of decay, and he will have six grinders in both jaAvs on each side, the first and sixth of which will be level with the others, and the sixth protruding. At three years and a half, or at least between that and DENTAL INDICATIONS OF THE AGE OF A HORSE. 219 foui', the central pair of incisors will be nearly perfect, and the second pair will have been shed, and a vacant space left where they were inserted ; the corner ones will have become narrower, and their surface considerably worn down, with the mark small and indistinct. The second pair of grinders fall at this time. At four years the central incisors will have attained their full size, and the sharp edge which always accompanies the teeth while growing will now be considerably worn off. The mark becomes shorter and wider, and more faint, (see fig. 6.) The second pair will be grown, but still a little smaller, with the mark very deep, and extending entirely across the surface. The corner nippers will be somewhat larger than the inside ones, although a little smaller tlian they were, and with their surface flat and the mark nearly obliterated ; the sixth grinder will have grown level with the others, and the tushes considerably developed. The mouth will be still shallow, the fore hand of the animal will still be low, and with a considerable degree of legginess, which are additional indications of the age of the horse. The last important change takes place in the mouth of the horse between four years and a half to five years. The corner incisors are shed, and the permanent ones make their appearance ; the central ones are considerably worn, and the next pair are beginning to exhibit marks of wear The tushes are now fully half an inch above the gums, with an external rounded prominence, and a groove on each side. Up to the period of the reproduction of the corner incisor the animal is designated a colt, but it now assumes the name of horse ; the female, which up to this time has been denominated fiUey, is now called mare. The mouth of the horse is nearly perfect at the age of five years. The corner incisors are fully developed, with 220 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. the mark on the inside long and irregular. (See plate iv. fig. 7.) The other nippers will exhibit considerable indica- tions of wearing, the tushes be much grown, and the grooves on the sides will have nearly or quite disappeared, present- ing an almost regular convex surface. They are still, however, as concave within, and with their edges nearly as sharp as they were six months previously. The sixth molar tooth will have attained its complete height, and the third molar will be wanting. This last sign can never be mis- taken, and if a dealer has removed it, such is the force required to displace it, that evident marks of violence will remain. The three last grinders and tushes are never shed. When the animal has attained its sixth year, the mark on the central incisors, or nippers, will be completely worn off, leaving, however, a little difference of colour in the centre of the teeth. The cement which fills the hole produced by the dipping in of the enamel will be somewhat browner than that of other portions of the tooth, and will exhibit evident proofs of the edge being surrounded by enamel. This condition has perplexed the inexperienced, as many expect to find the surface of the tooth plain, and of a uniform colour, whereas they are both irregular and dis- coloured, as we have above described, (see plate iv. fig. 8.) In the second incisors the mark is shorter, broader, and more faint, with the enamel of the edges of the corner teeth more regular, while the surface gives sufficient evidence of wear. The tushes will have attained their full size, being fully an inch long, convex outwardly, and a little concave inwardly, accuminated towards the point, and slightly in- curved at the apex. The third grinder will be fully up, and all of them presenting a level surface ; so that the mouth is now perfect. DENTAL INDICATIONS OF THE AGE OF A HORSE. 221 During the long period which the horse is subjected to teething, it is surprising how little the animal has suffered from it, and hardly a day of his valuable services will have been lost. In some instances heat and swelling of the gums take place, but this can easily be removed by scarification. Here then we have an example of the wisdom and perfec- tion of the works of creation ; were the horse to suffer as much as the human being, he would not be able to chew his food for weeks, and must consequently fall off in flesh. Dogs are liable to convulsions while cutting their teeth, and many even die during this process. At seven years the marks in the four centre incisors are worn out, and are speedily disappearing in the corner ones. The tushes are now undergoing an alteration of form ; they are rounded at the point and edges, but still inflated out- wardly, and beginning to round inwardly ; the inner edge of the corner teeth is on a level with the outer, in consequence of wear. Sometimes a notch is observable in the upper corner teeth. (See plate v. fig. 1.) At eight years old all the marks on the teeth of the lower jaw will be obliterated, and will be on a level at the surface ; their form is changed, they assume an oval shape, and the cavity is altered into an elongated transverse pro- trusion of enamel, which is the termination of the central enamel, or funnel next the root. (Plate v. fig. 2.) After this period it is the practice to examine the nippers of the upper jaw, and to draw deductions as to the age of the horse ; because, for years after the marks have become ob- literated in the lower jaw, traces of them exist in the upper jaw. This is in consequence of the enamel which occupies the pit in the centre of the tooth not being elevated to a level with the general surface, so that there is a greater depth to be worn down in order to rub it off ; and besides, the 222 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. upper incisors are less liable to friction and wear than those of the under jaw, in consequence of the lower jaw alone being moved in the act of chewing, and the upper jaw being fixed and without motion : its office is only to resist the pressure of the under jaw in eating. The tushes are of no use whatever in enabling us to determine the age of a horse, because the change of their form is very uncertain. They will sometimes be blunt at one year, and in other cases will remain pointed to eighteen or even twenty. They do not rub against each other like the teeth, and are consequently less liable to be worn down. After eight, we are best enabled to judge of the age of a horse from the form of the upper surface of the incisors. At this time all of them are transversely oval, that is, the length of the oval extended from one tooth to another. As the animal advances in years, they diminish in size, the width being the first affected, and not their thickness. They soon grow a little apart from each other, and their surface rounded, which continues to be the case up to thirteen years ; after this they assume a new character, and become triangular in the same order in which they had become oval and rounded. At nine, the nippers or middle incisors are rounded, and the next teeth or dividers begin to assume that form ; the remainder of the funnel of these four teeth is round, and quite close to the inner edge of the tooth ; thej also ex- hibit the septum of the root. At ten, the incisors will be considerably shortened in their oval form. There is merely a rudiment of the funnel of the nippers, as well as in the dividers, and the remainder of the central enamel touches the inner edge of the table of the tooth. The nippers and dividers are rounded, and the corner teeth exhibit an oval form. (Plate v. fig. 3.) DENTAL INDICATIONS OF THE AGE OF A HORSE. 223 When the horse has attained its eleventh year, the second pair of nippers are quite rounded, and the central enamel is hardly any longer apparent in the teeth of the lower jaw. The corner teeth at twelve are rounded, and the central enamel has completely disappeared ; the yellowish band is of greater extent, and occupies the centre of the wearing surface. In the upper jaw, however, the central enamel still remains. (See plate v. fig. 4.) At thirteen years of age the lower incisors are rounded, the sides of the nippers are getting elongated, the central enamel continues in the teeth of the upper jaw, but it is round and approaching to the posterior edge. The septum at the root is rounded in the dividers, and is seen in the middle of the table. The tushes are now generally much worn. The lower nippers present a triangular appearance at fourteen, the dividers are becoming long at the sides, the central enamel of the upper teeth diminishes, but still remains. The tushes are considerably more worn than in the preceding year. (Plate v. fig. 5.) At fifteen, the nippers are triangular, the dividers are becoming so ; the central enamel of the upper teeth has not yet disappeared. The septum of the roots forms a rounded point on all the tables of the teeth. The dividers are triangular at sixteen, the corner teeth are beginning to become so ; the central enamel in the upper teeth will in most instances have quite disappeared ; the nippers are beginning to be flattened at their sides. The tushes are now considerably more worn than in the preceding year. When the horse has reached its seventeenth year, the teeth of the lower jaw have become completely triangular. 224 MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. but the sides of the triangles are all of one length. (See plate V. fig. 6.) At eighteen years, the lateral portions of the triangle lengthen in succession. First the nippers, then the dividers, and afterwards the corner teeth. At nineteen, the angles begin to wear off, the central teeth are again oval, but in a reverse direction, that is, from forward, inward, and the lower nippers are flattened from one side to the other. This triangular form is not very much developed in the beginning, the edges being slightly rounded, and the three sides are very nearly equal in length ; afterwards, the lateral portions grow longer, whilst the anterior or outer side appears to diminish, the extremities become angular ; and this lengthening in a short time is so great, that at from nineteen to twenty years of age the incisors have in reality become flattened from one side to the other. This flattening proceeds in succession from the nippers to the dividers, and from them to the corner teeth, in such a way as to enable us to distinguish the age of the horse up to twenty-two to twenty -three years. At twenty, the dividers are of the same shape, and at twenty-one, the whole teeth have acquired this form. After this period the incisors do not exhibit any par- ticular characters whereby to guide us in determining the age of a horse. They gradually become more flattened, converging towards each other, and touching merely by their lateral and anterior edge. Gradually they become dried, and the gums whitened, the tables of the teeth assume a greyish cast, the incisors in their whole extent are frequently incrusted at their base by a thick coating of tartar. The jaw-bones also become narrow. In consequence of the continual growing up of the teeth DENTAL INDICATIONS OF THE AGE OF A HORSE. 22r» of the bone from the side next the root, and the socket not being sufficiently long, the pressure of the new portion of the root gives the tooth an outward inclination. Besides, these new portions of the teeth being always narrower, the sockets must necessarily contract, in order to secure the teeth. At this time the sides of the superior maxillaries become flattened, and the head assumes a lengthened and pointed form, which gives to the animal an appearance, which is very indicative of age. The horizontal direction, owing to the same cause, is always a mark of advanced life ; but this direction is much developed in some horses, and not at all in others, the cause of which remains still a question. The horizontal direction of the teeth, which increases with the years of a horse, will be easily understood by a reference to plate v. fig. 18. This figure represents the under incisor teeth of a horse known by the name of " Old Billy," which attained his seventy-sixth year, and was per- haps the oldest horse that ever lived. The cranium, with the muscles preserved, is deposited in the Museum of tha Manchester Natural History Society, from which I made the drawing. The whole of the incisors are much elongated horizontally, but not perpendicularly elevated more than those of a horse at six years of age. The upper surface of the nippers and dividers are of a quadrangular form, the inner margins being a little rounded ; while the corner teeth are oblong oval, nearly the form of an egg, with the most acute end outwards. The tushes are conical, a little blunted on the crown, and turned backward, with an elongated, shallow, curved groove on their inner sides. I will be seen that the outer edge of all the cutting teeth is nearly parallel, the corner teeth being only a little less pro- duced than the others. It does not appear that the jaw- bones themselves have been lengthened, the teeth alone 2g MANUAL OF MODERN FARRIERY. having shot forward ; consequently their surfiice is lying obliquely, and hence their elongated form from front to back, as more particularly developed in the corner teeth. The tushes are considerably larger in proportion than in a horse under twenty years of age. We may briefly remark that the incisory teeth of the horse remain as guides to mark throughout the whole of life his age, and indicate the successive degrees up from twenty-one to twenty-three years : first, by the order in which they appear ; second, by the obliteration of their outer cavity ; third, by the changes and disappearance of their funnel ; and fourthly and lastly, by the successive shapes assumed by their table after nine years of age, and which are the oval, the rounded, the triangular, and the biangular. The appearance of the incisors, and the oblite- ration of their mark, are unquestionably the most certain indications by which to judge of the age of a horse. During the four or five years that follow the obliteration of the mark, the knowledge of the age is still tolerably certain, because there are many modes of correcting it ; such as the condition of the termination of the blind pouch of the funnel next the root, the general appearance of the tooth, and the form that the table of the tooth assumes. The periods of triangularity and biangularity present the greatest difficulties ; the data of these latter periods are most com- monly approximations ; nay, it is next to impossible to pro- nounce a positive opinion as to the age of a horse from seventeen to twenty. That the reader may more easily comprehend and consult the data for judging of the age of a horse, we have given the following table, which affords a comprehensive view of all the periods which we have more fully detailed in the preceding re- marks, a reference to each being noted at the end of the table. oo^ao oi *^ trjHtJ hj>Tj HHH HH II IT. ru II ii r+ P p: P 3 3 3 agoqaq p p » a OqCfQ P P P l::^ CI- ti- ji, P 3 P (D >- pi O p P 3 p S. p- ^ 9 2 -^ ^ Oj O Cj 1^^2-2 1:!. ma t< P g w O '^ S-p §.i i^ & 3 P O) O "^ >— ' ' as Pj >-! »OCK5 o fS" p o >-« 5 P- 2 ro ' m w fo - ■ P P P &. P^ P g.^ g OS c*^ M 3 P • g.O- '. P-"t3 . P^O • rn ^ Hjjhj hjH HHH P- p 3 P P P 05 aq aq aq P P P c S p s P 3 P a> P'c: 3 o 3 o, ^ ;s ^ M 2 o> • ^ p q p p rt) ^-5^ S-TS - P- >-< O ft) O fB Paq g -'ro 3 !^ ^ Zi p C* o P • M 9 '^ -< >-. CO p 3 q (I> m ° « ^^ 3 n> £J- P • p^ 3 . ►-' S^ • rt> 2-' » a: I ii i P • o P o K* m pj f ^ ^ f5j^ HH HHH td^ , kJ. 2. o o td ^ 1=1 y i=! aqCWOq P P P P P P S P^P- ft) (t> P^p. c o O P fO 3 O P U.'-i ro !=^ *1 PT'^. I2c;q Z ^^3. m tit p^ E? • o^ o &£Lo ^ 3 < re P jl, (D t=^r+aq re p' re -" Pi' "^ o ^ 5' ^. 2 " 2 Pj • ' tr' m OT