yire!
Strag

is
oe

*

mh
oi

ey

$2 ena!

isnkeeteg

ated

Be loa Setaie
Ree

a tnt nto ne Ge
GRE ee toes

PSs

ss 3 % rab eats,
as nay : ; rs

3
SeXy
yy

‘

FASE
irom

tee rae
bance : : . noe

ta Leet oats

Oany
SSS

Smithsonian Institution.
ibrartes

Alexander Wetmore

1940 Sixth Secretary 1953

i
RMA
navi
ie b

+)
AK

H

es ues
SS...

Fes
MANUAL

OF

ORNITHOLOGY.

Big
WINPRID A) STEAKNS:

se

BEING A PRELIMINARY STUDY OF THE CLASSES, OR-
DERS, FAMILIES, SUB-FAMILIES, WITH AN ENU-
MERATION OF THE GENERA AND PRIN-

CIPAL SPECIES, OF THE BIRDS
oF NortH AMERICA.

TOGETHER WITH A BRIEF SYNOPSIS OF THE SPECIAL
FEATURES OF GENERAL ORNITH®LOGY.
DESIGNED FOR THE STUDENT AND ALL LOVERS OF THIS
MOST FASCINATING BRANCH OF SCIENCE. SUITABLE ALSO
AS A SIMPLE, PRELIMINARY INTRODUCTION TO ANY OF
OUR PRESENT WORKS UPON THIS SUBJECT.

——34----

1895.
PRINTED FOR THE AUTHOR
AT THE ATLANTA UNIVERSITY PRINTING OFFICE,

ATLANTA, GA.

DEDICATION.

TO ALL WHO ARE BEGINNING THE STUDY OF THIS

MOST DELIGHTFUL SUBJECT.

PREPFACE.

HAVING searched in vain for more than thirty years for a
simple text-book to assist in the study of general — and es-
pecially North American — Ornithology, the writer has de-
cided, at length, to make one for himself. The work was
planned some years ago ; and the following letter was written
in answer to a communication anticipating, ina great measure,

these very pages, and will explain itself:

““Woop’s Hote, Mass., June 17, 1871.

My Dear Sir:

Your letter of the 6th has been forwarded to
me from Washington, and in reply it gives me pleasure to authorize any
use you desire of the material published in my work on the Birds of North
America.

I shall, of course, be gratified to have you make whatever acknowl-
edgment you may think best of the service which you consider that this
may have been to you.

Very truly Yours,
Spencer F. Barrp.”

iv.

PREFACE iv

No one would attempt to study Brrps successfully without
ultimately referring to the works of this great man. Much
of his material has been found a valuable help in the prepara-
tion of these pages.

The works of nearly all of our well-known writers of to-
day, that were available, have been consulted, also, that noth-
ing essential to a clear exposition of the subject might be
omitted.

I shall hold myself personally responsible for the material
alone of which this work is composed, and not for typograph-
ical errors discovered too late to remedy them.

WINFRID A. STEARNS.
ATLANTA, GA.,
July 1, 1895. DSI

[INTER ODUCE TON:

O

We had penned “ The History of Ornithology ” as far as
the name of GARROD before seeing a somewhat similar ar-
rangement of Boldface type, for the name and date of the au-
thor, in the Encyclopedia Brittanica. ‘The system appears to
be too useful to change, just because so excellent an authority
has also employed it. The Ornithological Spectra uist will,
doubtless, regret the briefness of the biographical references
given under each name; but we are writing for the Ornitho-
logical StupENT, who will, we hope, be pleased at the omis-
sion of technicalities which would hinder rather than assist
him. A wise teacher will know at once what lines to pursue
in this investigation ; what portions may be used in the class
room, and what to omit. The advanced student can judge
for himself how to use the material here suggested rather than
fully presented. The main text is intended as an introduction
to general Ornithology, and to the study of individual spe-
cies. The Glossary follows as a necessary explanation of the

various terms employed in the previous parts.

THE HISTORY OF ORNITHOLOGY.

WHEN a writer attempts to present an historical account of
some event or events, or a long procession of events, he must,
of necessity, study deeply the writings of the chief actors in
them. He does this, usually, in one of two ways — perhaps
in both, namely: by investigating for himself the original
writings, or by reading what persons of eminent authority in
such subjects have said of them. The History of Ornithol-
ogy and the Progress in Ornithology have been written and
rewritten, both wholly and in part, times without number. I
do not seek to do anything new in endeavoring to present a
brief account of the principal actors upon the Ornithological
stage, but wish simply to bring together, as far as seems neces-
sary for our present purpose, an intelligible, brief history of
the principal changes and additions as they have combined, to
the preseat time, to give us the classification which we em-
ploy to-day, imperfect as it is.

To name all the different systems of Ornithology which

i

2 THE HISTORY OF ORNITHOLOGY

have appeared from time to time, during the past few centu-
ries, would make a volume almost in itself. Our intention is,
in the main, merely to indicate the proper lines of study which
one might pursue with advantage to become familiar with its
history. It is more to assist the student than to furnish him
with complete information.

The progress which Ornithology has made, from its earliest
inception until the present time, is very similar to that made
by any of the kindred sciences. Each has begun with the
lowest ideas of the real relations existing between men and
things ; and each has advanced, as rapidly as the spirit of the
times would admit, to its present standpoint. All along the
line, however, have appeared special departures, as one might
eall them. where the old thought was left for, or incorporated
in, a new and generally more complete one. These depart-
ures have been, for the most part, so radical, and so noted for
their truthfulness to nature, that the men who conceived them
were and still are mentioned as masters in their departments.
We note the progress of any great event more by the brilliant
light which genius casts upon it, as if by special revelation
from the unknown to the known, than by the petty wrang-
lings of jealous rivals. TRutrH always clears itself in the
end. No part of it was ever lost to the world through want
of the means to spread itself abroad. When the mind of
man is prepared for its reception, it will appear in all its
beauty and fullness, and harmony of law, — until then we
have but faint and disconnected glimpses of it only. A mas-
ter mind will collate the disjointed thought and embody it in
a grand harmonious expression of some vital, living TRUTH.

Let us look briefly at this Progress of Ornithology as his-
tory furnishes it to us: And here, as in other sciences, we can
justly begin with the old Greek philosopher Aristotle, who
was the first to give us any very definite conceptions of Birds,
—but, though he separated the species and recorded their
habits with considerable fidelity, his ideas were crude when
viewed from the standpoint of our present understanding of

THE HISTORY OF ORNITHOLOGY 3

them. He tells us, for instance, that ‘‘ some are carnivorous,
others granivorous, and others omnivorous ; some are terres-
trial and some aquatic ; and many migrate during the winter.”
This is good as far. as it goes, but it does not go far enough.
His “ Pert Zoon 7Isrorias”’ is full of practical suggestions
and pleasing information. He was followed by Pliny [the
elder,| who was rather a compiler than an original thinker
and observer, though he filled several volumes with both com-
pilations and original observations. It seems hardly fair to
accuse him of a lack of originality in his work, though it be
true, when it is remembered that he lost his life while investi-
gating a volcanic eruption of Vesuvius, Pliny [the younger),
is really an observant naturalist, though he tells a great many
‘“‘fish stories.” He amuses us with his account of the Os-
trich, and says: “ Their Hoofs are like unto Stags, with which
they fight or skirmish, being cloven-footed, they are profita-
ble to them by laying hold of stones which they throw with
their feet against those who follow them in flight.” He also
says: ‘‘ The first distinction principally is made from the feet
of Birds. For either they have hooked talons, or claws with
nails, or are of the kind of having their feet closed with a film
or web, as the Geese, and almost all aquatic birds. Those
which have hooked talons only for the greatest part feed on
flesh.” A curious and interesting extract is the following, re-_
futing the credited authority of to-day for this established
‘“‘ SUB-ORDER OScINEs ;”’ it will be seen from this that PLINY
THE YOUNGER and not Dr. CABANIS is the proper definor of
this division. He says: ‘these birds which have crooked
claws, do not at all assemble together, and which prey on
themselves. And almost all of them soar or fly on high ex-
cept the nocturnal or night birds; and the larger birds the
more so. They have all of them large wings, but a small
body. They walk with difficulty. They seldom stay on
rocks, the crookedness of their claws forbids it. Now we
will treat of those according tv a Second order, which are di-
vided into two species, the OsciNES and ALITEs: the first of

t THE HISTORY OF ORNITHOLOGY

them, the OscrnEs, have a kind of singing, chirping, or the
like, the latter, such as Eagles, a magnitude hath given a dif-
ference to these. And so they proceed according to order.”
Pierre Belon, 1551-53, who may really be called the founder
of Ichthyology, gives us our first really reliable information
regarding the habits and lives of Birds, — yet his attempts at
a classification would simply amuse us now, as for instance :
“the rapacious birds form the first division, the waders the
second, the swimmers the third, and the birds which nestle in
trees or on the ground the fourth.” This last division does
not seem so absurd when we recollect the ancient belief that
water birds built nests which swam upon the water wherein
they laid their eggs and reared their young ; also, that as late
as 1633 the common goose-necked Barnacle was supposed to
bear within it the young of the Wild Goose. For all this,
BELON was a careful student of bird anatomy. Many of the
later naturalists regard his works with favor, and even the
eminent BuFFON quoted him frequently. About the same time
with Bron, though a little later, appeared Conrad Gesner,
1585, whose work was hardly more than a compilation from
the works of all of his predecessors, yet he was highly es-
teemed in his day and by many even now for this very reason.
Next appeared Ulysses Aldrovandi or Aldrovandus, 1599-
1640. He is nore frequently called by the latter name. He
was said by many to be the greatest naturalist of his times.
Three volumes of a work on Ornithology, with the classifica-
tion of BELON, and many new descriptions, treat of the sub-
ject In a very interesting manner. He was a great traveler,
and appears, to some extent, in nearly all of the sciences ; but
no real advancement in our knowledge of Ornithology seems
to have been made until Francis Willoughby, 1678, and af-
ter him John Ray, 1710, appeared, and gave scientific form
and accuracy to the hitherto scattered thoughts upon this great
theme. Both were Englishmen ; both companions and trav-
elers. WILLOUGHBY conceived the idea of a general work
upon all known animals and plants. He labored hard, and,

THE HISTORY OF ORNITHOLOGY 5

being rich, successfully for his time. With him appear the
first gleams of systematic classification. He divides Birds
into LAND Brrps and Water Brrps, and each of these di-
visions are separated into sub-divisions. His work was one
of great merit. He died without publishing his volumes and
his friend Ray saw them through the press. Ray then con-
tinued these subjects adding his own investigations ; he, also,
died without publishing his results, these were published by
Dr. William Derham, 1713

We come now to a lull of nearly a century in Ornithologi-
cal writings, when the master mind of LinN aus appears.
Carolus or Charles Linnzeus was a Swede, born at Ras-
halt May 24, 1707, and he showed a remarkable fondness for
Nature from a very early age. His way was full of difficul-
ties, but he persevered, and the light which his genius threw
upon science claims for him a position which will ever remain
an exalted one. The divisions which he established were
based upon form, and all those external and striking peculiar-
ities even now make so prominent by many observers, and
were as follows: ACCIPITRES, Picm, ANSERES, GRALL#,
GALLIN#, and PassarEs. These orders were almost en-
tirely characterized by the shapes of the feet and of the bill.
Linn aus’ works ran through many editions. The twelfth,
1766, was his last. The thirteenth, 1788, was compiled by
John Gmelin. It might, even now, be justly called in ques-
tion as to which of the two were the better and more perfect.
But the spirit of Linnasus had cast its spell over a subject
which was, thenceforth, never more to remain inactive-
M. T. Brunnich, 1754-63, wrote extensively upon Ornitho-
logical subjects, though he gave us no definitely improved
classification. He was of Danish extraction. Mark Catesby
1754-71, ranks high as an original investigator in our colonial
Natural History. He described all that he could find of inter-
est in our South-eastern Atlantic States. M. J. Brisson,
1763-69, proposed a classification based upon “ the toes and
their membranes, the bill, and the feathers of the legs.” He

6 THE HISTORY OF ORNITHOLOGY

emphasized “ descriptions and illustrations,” and noted 26 or-
ders and 115 genera, and more than 1300 species of birds.
Jacques Scheeffer, 1764, also proposed a system, he princi-
pally “ divided birds according to their feet.” P. 5S. Pallas,
1767-80, published a work called Spicilegia Zoologica, which,
with his other Ornithological writings, gave him great renown.
He belonged to what is called the LINNwAN ScHooL, and
described species rather than presented new classifications.
Then the Count Buffon, 1770, gave us, without classifica-
tion, his then famous popular bird-biographies. The name of
J. R. Forster, 1771, is often quoted as an Ornithological
writer of repute, but more as a describer of species and a com-
piler than as a systematic classifier. After ForsTER a very
important classification was proposed by J. Ant. Scopoli,
1777, based upon the “ reticulation, scutellation, etc., of the
tarsal envelope.” The name of Thomas Pennant, 1776-92)
was a household word one hundred years ago. He was an
Ornithological as well as a literary giant in his day. He is
still a peer in “ Arctic Zoology,” and especially in Ornithol-
ogy. His classification was followed in later years by Alex-
ander Wilson.

We are often indebted to the Germans for some of our best
technical scientific discoveries. In the science of Ornithology
this is also true: and now a German, Blasius Merrem, 1786,
hands down to us a very important factor in our systematic
classification, by bringing into prominence the shape of the
sternum: the “ AvEs CAaRINAT#” having it prolonged and
keeled, and the “ Aves Ratirm” having it flat and smooth.
These distinctions, first made prominent, were afterwards used
only as minor, though none the less interesting, features in the
formation of the higher divisions. Just why the peculiar ar-
rangement of Birds used by Dr. John Latham, 1782-99,
should have received so much attention, both at the time and
even to within quite a late date, does not readily appear. He
used, in the main, the system of Linna&us with a few correc-
tions and additions of his own, and his general classification,

THE HISTORY OF ORNITHOLOGY 7

now almost worthless, was followed by writers for over a cen-
tury. LATHAM was an Englishman. He laid a very credita-
ble basis for a description of the Birds of the World, and di-
vided them into 9 orders, (6 of LAND Brrps and 3 of WATER
Birps), 111 genera, and described over 4300 species ; this
was something magnificent for those days. The Abbe Bon-
naterre, 1790, of whom we know very little, yet gave us very
valuable additions to our classification. He proposed 12 clas-
ses and 112 genera ‘‘ according to the form of the bill and
other minor distinctions.” Several of his suggestions were
made abundant use of by later writers. W. Bartram, 1791-
99, followed closely after CaTEsBy, and their names are inti-
mately associated. They pursued a parallel course of studies.
B. S. Barton, 1799, followed BArTRAM and CaTEsBy, —
but most of the writers since Dr. LATHAM’s time were spe-
cies discoverers and describers, and pleasing writers rather
than systematists. At this same time the eminent M. de
Lacepede, 1799, presented a classification for Birds making
the FEATHERING or /BEARNESS OF THE TARSUS and the
WEBBING OF THE FEET AND TOES his basis, — he separated
Birds into two great groups accordingly. The general char-
acter of the orders remained unchanged. His system was a
great advance towards modern classification. William
Lewin, 1801, classified and arranged the Birds of Great
Britain, though after Dr. LarHAm’s plan. Ornithologists of
to-day do not appear willing, it seems to me, to ascribe to
poor La Vaillant, 1801, his proper due. The work which
he did for this science, American as well as African, was sim-
ply tremendous ; yet he died poor, and gave to others a chance
tofreap where he had. sown. The Frenchman F. M. Dau-
din, 1802, published a work which became more popular,
probably, than its author had ever anticipated. Constant
Dumeril, 1806, in his Zoologie Analytique, put forth another
system, but it soon gave place to that of J. F. Blumenbach,
probably about 1804, who gave us a classification more
nearly corresponding to that of Dr. LarHam than almost

8 THE HISTORY OF ORNITHOLOGY

any which had appeared since the latter’s time. It bears the
author’s personal impress, — and is still worth being referred
to as an evident sign of progress by revertion to a previous
classification with emendations to date.

Alexander Wilson, 1808-14, published his North Ameri-
can Ornithology, that noted exposition of the Birds of North
America, just previous to the master work of AUDUBON.
Originally there were nine volumes, of which the last two
were completed by Orp. Wzuxson pursued the classification of
PENNANT. His work ran through several editions. Later
several writers of note published their own revisions of it, es-
pecially BONAPARTE, JAMESON, JARDINE, and the late Dr.
T. M. Brewer. If Ornithologists of to-day would emulate
more the example of this last careful, honest, honorable, and
painstaking Christian gentleman, there would be much more
knowledge of our Birds, and much less of some writers and of
their too evident compilations put out under the guise of orig-
inal matter, abroad in our land. Both WILson and AUDUBON
studied Birds not Books. Asa result they are still quoted as
authority in most Ornithological matters.

Dr. Geo. Shaw, 1809-12, was another writer who reverted
to a former author for his system of classification, and he cop-
ied extensively from LinNmus; on the other hand J. F.
STEPHENS, who compiled the latter part of SHAw’s General
Zoology, really thought in advance of his time by anticipating
many of the changes of later writers, — yet, on the whole, it
is doubtful if his views were credited to him with the same
generosity with which they were credited to those who followed
out many of his ideas. Messrs. J. Wolf and B. Meyer,
(1810,) two German scientists, now revived the idea that Land
and Water Birds were the two great classes which separated,
most successfully, the species, and they further furnished a
somewhat new arrangement of 9 orders of the former and 2
of the latter. The Oscings, though the division was much
more limited as to the species comprised by it than at present,
were brought into prominence largely through their means.

THE HISTORY OF ORNITHOLOGY y

Still another German, J. C. W. Illiger, 1811, now became
prominent, and his work stands next to that of LINN Us, in
point of time, as regards scientific accuracy and value. He
brought together the results of all his predecessors, and at-
tempted, successfully, a new departure as a basis for future
advancement. His idea was of a system which should recog-
nize more close affinities than had hitherto been apparent of
Birds with each other. He did this by introducing the Fam-
ILY as a sub-division of the Order. His system gave us not
always the most perfect but, to the eye perhaps, the most nat-
ural, arrangement. Of his 7 orders the Ist, The Scansores or
Climbers, contained 5 families; the 2nd, The Ambulatores or
Walkers, 11; 3d, The Raptores or Birds of Prey, 3; 4th, The
Rasores or Seratchers, 5; 5th, The Cursores or Runners, 3 ;
6th, The Grallatores or Waders, 8; and 7th, The Natatores, or
Swimmers, 6. Through Inureer the idea that all Birds were
more or less closely allied to each other by such character-
istics as would separate orders into families, and families into
still smaller divisions, until ultimately individual difference,
embracing within it order and family itself, began to dawn
upon the mind of scientists. Closely following ILLIGER came
the Baron George Cuvier, 1817, with his great work La
Regne Animal. He was a man whose erudition is still the
envy of the world. His work was preeminent in its day.
The great majority of writers who preceded, as well as those
who have followed, him have fallen far below his worth and
penetration. CuviER and LinNa&vus go hand in hand, —- the
‘former correcting the ostensible and real errors of the latter.
The basis of Cuvier’s classification has been followed almost
universally by the thousands who, since his day, have revelled
in the broad field of Nature’s creation. His special tribute to
the chain of Ornithological classification which we are seek-
ing to examine were investigations upon the MUSCULAR ANAT-
omy of Birds. He made. prominent the singing muscles of
the larynx, by which we separate the Jnsessores into the Osci-
nes or Singers, and the Clamatores or Screamers. He made

10 THE HISTORY OF ORNITHOLOGY

many important changes besides this. It was a great advance
in our knowledge of the systematic relations of Birds. Next
comes M. P. Vieillot, 1817-23, really 1805-23. His labors
were noted for their descriptive value. He published a great
deal, and, as he sought to popularize the science, his works
proved very attractive and became quite widely known.
Cc. J. Temminck, 1820, at the time Curator of the Royal
Museum at Leyden, then brought out his noted Manual of
Ornithology, the second edition of which appeared at the above
date. It contained an analysis of general Ornithology, and
his arrangement of the different classes of Birds — which was
essentially a new one. It was for a time recognized as an au-
thority, but being mainly a compilation from previous writers
soon gave way for newer matter. He wrote a great deal be-
sides this, praising ILLIGER but deprecating VIEILLOT.
L. Oken, 1821, was a German Ornithologist of great note.
He added a great deal to our knowledge of Birds. A treatise
of his published in 1809 really foreshadows his maturer work
in 1821. He speaks of “ birds that are fed by their parents
and those that run about at birth” in such a way as to leave
no doubt but that he outlined our present division into ALTRI-
ces and Prascoces. Somewhat later his work was taken up
by EHRENBURG. John P. Selby, 1821-34, is another ex-
cellent writer who sought to popularize British Ornithology
by his elegant volume. It was the best effort of his time and
approached by few. Conjointly with Sir Wm. Jardine, he
published several valuable works and many detached writings
upon this subject. The latter conducted that eminently pop-
ular and intensely interesting series entitled The Naturalists’
Library. R. P. Lesson, 1822-34, was a most voluminous
writer whose works were constantly appearing. He seems to
have both adopted an old and created a new system, — but
there seems to appear no special marks by which to show that
any really new material became incorporated into the great
fabric of our present classification. After Lesson there came
C. L. Nitzsch, 1829. He introduced the “ cAROTID COoM-

THE HISTORY OF ORNITHOLOGY 11

MUNES,” and described so definitely the ‘ forms and positions
of this artery ” as to fully establish it as an evident factor in
our present classification. William Swainson, 1827-31.
Mr. Swarnson probably did more than any other writer in
his time to popularize science. His name is connected with
many volumes upon many subjects. He was a careful and
accurate naturalist. He prepared the greater part of the sec-
ond volume of Arctic Zoology, that on Birds, for the careful
execution of which he is specially known among Ornitholo-
gists, in connection with Dr. John Richardson, who pre-
pared volumes one and three of the same work.

The name of John James Audubon, 1827-31, marks a
new Ornithological epoch. His efforts to give to the world a
thoroughly reliable account of the Birds of North America
will ever remain unique. These efforts produced “5 octavo
volumes of text and an elephant folio atlas of 4 volumes of
435 plates:” The ordinary ‘ Audubon” of to-day is not
this, however, but a smaller edition of 7 volumes which has
sprung from it. In a small single volume, his Synopsis, he
sets out his views regarding the general classification of the
Birds of which he speaks, although, as he there states, “ the
location of the groups is not such as, in ali respects, to sat-
isfy me.”” He studied deeply the ANATOMY OF THE DIGESTIVE
ORGANS of Birds, and introduced it as a new feature into his
various groups.

Jan Van der Hoeven, 1828-33, [revised edition, 1849-
50,] was a voluminous writer, and is still a favorite with many
for his apparent definiteness of general classification ; but it
is mainly a compilation, not always of the latest facts that
might have been obtained at the time, from previous writers
with very little original new matter; yet this was a better
text book of general Zoology than it was at the time, or even
now is, credited with being.

Thomas Nuttall, 1832-34. This searcher apparently after
the same object as incited both AUDUBON and WILSON raised
himself to eminence by popularizing his subject and reducing

12 THE HISTORY OF ORNITHOLOGY

the price of his volumes, of which he published two — one of
them on the Land Birds and the other the Water Birds. His
second edition of-this work was a much more creditable one
than the first. The recent revision of it by Mr. Montague
CHAMBERLAIN makes it, now, a most valuable and truly de-
lightful book for all Bird lovers.

Cc. J. Sundevall, 1835-56. We are indebted to this dis-
tinguished Swede for a departure which gave to the classifica-
tion of the present day a most decided feature. He crystal-
lized the hints of OKEN and the maturer judgments of HHR-
ENBERG by his definition of the groups Altrices and Preecoces,
and of the Birds which belong in each. These groups are
often regarded as of SUNDEVALL’S own creation. This is
hardly true in view of the previous definite statements of the
two gentlemen above named. Most of his work remains to-
day as much of an authority as when he wrote it. Ornitholo-
gists still follow closely his classification, and he is liberally
quoted, though essential features of his work are being modi-
fied by later authors who are leading writers in this and other
countries. He also made prominent the details in the use of
THE WINGS AND THEIR COVERTS to separate his groups. C. G.
Ehrenberg, 1836, worked in harmony of thought with OKEN,
and the two are usually mentioned together. The latter ex-
plained and solidified the work of the former. William
MacGillivray, 1836-52, was a Scotchman, whose Histories of
British Birds and Mammals has rendered his name famous in
this country as well as abroad. He was much esteemed by
AUDUBON, whose spirit of equity would justify to him a title
to accuracy and reliability. We cannot lightly pass over the
important labors of G@. R. Gray, 1837-49, whose Genera of
Birds, as issued from the British Museum, as well as his other
Ornithological writings, though following CuvimEr largely yet
with many important changes of his own, still forms, revised,
a very important source of reference even to-day. His sys-
tem was, however, much improved a little later by Vieors-
N. A. Vigors, 1829-39, whose work centers about this period,

THE HISTORY OF ORNITHOLOGY 13

wrote chiefly detached papers upon special subjects, but for
clearness of judgment and depth of thought he obtained
through them a wide eminence. The systematic ending of
family names in ID: is attributed justly to him. He formed
a classification to suit himself and it was a good one, hoping,
as so many of his predecessors had done, that he had estab-
lished the true relations between Birds. He joined what had
before been styled the normal and aberrant groups, and, tak-
ing the formation of the foot for CLASPING or NON-CLASPING
as a basis, he changed the order of the orders so that the Rap-
tores and the Jnsessores comprised the former, and the Rasores,
the Grallatores, and the Natatores the latter. He has been
much noted by Ornithologists of the present day for many
advanced ideas ; but his system still failed to establish perma-
nent “typical” forms. Messrs. A. G. Keyserling and
J. H. Blasius, 1840, are names generally associated together,
although much good work was done by each individual sepa-
rately. They really first presented us with an extensive use
of the TARSAL COVERING and its various modifications as we
now employ them in our descriptions. The scheme was af-
terwards elaborated by CaBANis. Two other gentlemen now
formed a valuable combination, investigating in a new field,
these were P. J. Van Beneden, 1845, and Carl Vogt, 1851.
Both were active in promoting those EMBRYOLOGICAL inyes-
tigations which are now so generally adopted, and which were
so fully and so clearly set forth by L. AGassiz. J. Cabanis,
1847, has really assisted our classifiers more than many are
willing to acknowledge, though a great deal of the new mate-
rial which is credited to him is, in reality, the property of
those who came previous to him; thus he really perfected
much hitherto rudimentary knowledge. He incorporated into
his system the various markings of the TARSAL ENVELOPE,
and added to them the gradations in size of the principal
PRIMARY QUILL FEATHERS of both the wing and of the tail.
He also used the characters of the “ LARYNX INFERIOR,” said
to be borrowed from MULLER, a Danish naturalist. We owe

14 THE HISTORY OF ORNITHOLOGY

him a debt of gratitude in assembling and perfecting the spe-
cial characters brought forward by so many previous authors,
and giving to us the whole in one continuous, comprehensive
combination.

We next come to Charles L. Bonaparte, 1850-57, who
was an ardent enthusiast, and clearly stamped his opinions as
regards obscure points in our classification. He proposed a
system, which, though it added few new phases to those al-
ready possessed, embraced faithfully the best suggestions of
previous writers upon the subject. It was regarded, both at
his time and for a long while after, in very high repute ; and
from the number of species then known to science of exten-
sive scope. It was used by the best writers of the time in
preference to the system of either LinNaus or CuviER. His
name, though generally associated with that of Wr1son has,
however, a wide significance of its own. John Cassin, 1853-
55, really supplemented the work of AupuBOoN by his histo-
ries of Birds, for the most part those west of the Rocky Mount-
ains. He also wrote a part of that fine work, The Ninth Vol-
ume of the Pacific Railroad Report, conjointly with Professor
S. F. Barrp and Mr. Gro. F. Lawrence. P. L. Sclater,
1857, ef sec. and O. Salvin, separately and together, added
their voluminous writings to the cause of Ornithology. The
former has especially given us a very valuable basis for fur-
ther definiteness of separation by his GEOGRAPHICAL REGIONS.
He divided the world into a given number of these regions,
and portioned to each its avi-fauna. These boundaries have
been enlarged, from time to time, until our present well-
> or “ faunal areas” have resulted.

Professor Spencer F. Baird, 1858, was a gentleman de-
serving of more than passing mention. He was, for many
years, the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, at Wash-
ington, D. C., and a most able writer and zoologist. From
his personal ability alone he would very easily have lead the
cause of Ornithology in America, if not abroad also. In his
position as head of an institution such as the Smithsonian

known “ faunal regions’

THE HISTORY OF ORNITHOLOGY 15

then was, he took that lead naturally ; and the majority of
writers since his day have largely compiled from him and _ his
collaborators. He himself compiled largely: taking the best
points from previous writers, he has added so many pertinent
suggestions to his careful deductions from them that one can
naturally and almost justly consider the whole matter as Mr.
BAIRD’sS own personal emanation. This is not done in any
spirit of injustice to others, for no one was quicker in giving
credit for any material which he might have used of another
person’s than was he ; but his happy mode of presenting even
the dryest technique makes one feel a master hand in all that
he did. One is safe to be guided by the directing influence of
the works of this truly great man.

J. C. Hyton, 1859-67, produced, to a large extent, the sys-
tem which we very naturally look to Professor RicHaRD
OWEN to adduce, namely: one based almost wholly upon the
OSTEOLOGICAL characters of Birds. Its importance is mani-
fest at a glance. It has entered largely into our later classifi-
cations, and in recent years become especially prominent.
Professor OWEN, Sir Richard Owen, 1866, used many os-
teological characters in a classification of Birds which he pro-
posed, but its chief feature consisted in a radical transposition
of the whole plan of arrangement as used up to this time; a
putting of the lowest Water Birds first, and following this in-
verted order to the highest which came last, proved an inno-
vation that became immensely popular at once, the more so
as its appearance seemed to correspond with the recently
largely adopted theories of evolution. It was something new,
and had the impress of a great man. W. Lilljeborg, 1866,
was a professor in the University of Upsala, Sweden, and him-
self a Swede. What he has accomplished as a student of Or-
nithology few have so far equalled. The basis of his struct-
ure was what he called “ IRRITABILITY,” or activity as we
might perhaps better say. This, he contended, presented the
fittest expression of Ornithological preeminence. On this
scale he placed the Thrushes first. Our present system is but

16 THE HISTORY OF ORNITHOLOGY

a modification of his most careful and excellent suggestions.
Thomas H. Huxley, 1867, the eminent English scientist,
in a system of Birds which he has tabulated in his volume on
the Anatomy of the Vertebrate Animals, for the purpose of in-
cluding the general field of fossil as well as recent Ornithol-
ogy, has laid out a very comprehensive plan. He has com-
bined and drawn deductions from former writers, ‘changed
many of the already existing relations of the characters, made
prominent many osteological features, and taken for his two
grand divisions the “ Aves Carinate” and “ Aves Ratite” of
MerreM. He has also added a few special ANATOMICAL
distinctions. Admirable as this system is itis a system rather
for the scientific student whereby to study relations than for
the every-day working naturalist or bird-collector. The
prominence still given to the groupings of Professor LILLJE-
BORG speaks highly to its credit. A. H. Garrod, about this
time, presented us with some very valuable features to add to
our distinguishing characteristics between the various groups
of Birds. He patiently worked upon the MuscULAR relations,
which had hitherto been of little import in classification. We
are greatly indebted to him for his efforts in this direction.

The magnificent work of Baird, Brewer, and Ridgeway,
it is safe to say, will not soon be duplicated ; issued in five
splendid volumes, it has really done for North American Birds
a work of permanent good. It is both technical and popular,
though rather expensive for the majority of students in this
most fascinating branch of study. This work, with the indi-
vidual Ornithological writings of these same gentlemen, has
far out-distanced any modern competitors for Ornithological
honors in America at the present day, at least as far as accuracy
in scientific detail and reliability are concerned. Several very
choice works upon Birds have appeared, from time to time,
besides those we have mentioned above, some very recently,
amongst which may be especially mentioned “ Special Bulle-
tin, No. 1,” of the U. S. National Museum, entitled, Life His-
tories of North American Birds with special reference to their

THE HISTORY OF ORNITHOLOGY 17

Breeding Habits and Eggs, by Captain Charles Bendire, and
the various other National Museum and Government Reports.

One cannot examine the Ornithological writings of such
men as D’Orbigny, Bechstein, Sclater, Salvin, Elliott,
Gould, Tschudi, Hartlaub, Gosse, Cassin, Hudson, and
a perfect host of others, who have described thousands of spe-
cies, without wonder and amazement at the amount of accu-
mulated new material from which to draw new deductions and
even a newer Classification, which shall be more thorough and
more accurate in detail than any that has hitherto appeared.
The present revertion of writers of the present day to the
systems of LILLJEBORG and of SUNDEVALL is evidence of
their depth of thought, boldness of design, and definite con-
ceptions of the general relations of both the higher and the
lower groups of Birds.

From the following selected List of Ornithological Writers
write a composition upon, or short life history of, all or any
of the persons indicated, and illustrate the peculiar manner in
which they have become known to the world as Ornitholo-
gists. Give name, place and date of birth, nationality, date
of death, and the most prominent and important works or
writings of each. Arrange the names in three groups: Ist.
Noted Ornithologists with a world-wide reputation as such ;
2nd. Those whose works are well-known and an authority,
but who were not Ornithologists but men of eminence in other
departments, often, who made the study of Birds a recreation
or of minor consideration. 3rd. Those whose names and
works are generally little known and rarely cited, except upon
some technical or obscure historic point. Encyclopedias and
works upon Biography and Natural History will be the means
through which to obtain this information.

Agassiz, Louis, Bachman, Rev. John,
Aldrovandus, Ulysses, Beru, Nichol,
Aristotle, Baird, Spencer F.,

Audubon, John James, Barrere, Pierre,

18 THE HISTORY OF ORNITHOLOGY

Barton, Benjamin F.,
Bartram, John,

Bechstein, J. M.,
Belknap, Jeremy,

Belon, Pierre,

Bewick, Thomas,

Blasius, J. H.,

Boie, F.,

Bonaparte, Charles Lucien,
Bonnelli, Francois,
Bowditch, Thomas E.,
Brandt, J. F.,

Brehm, Charles Louis,
Brewer, Thomas M.,
Brisson, Mathurin Jacques,
Bruch, Notar L.,
Bruunich, Martin Thomas,
Buffon, Geo. Louis le Clere,
Cabanis, Dr. Jean,

Cabot, Samuel,

Cassin, John,

Catesby, Mark,

Cetti, Francesco,

_ Edwards, George,

Elliot, D. G.,
Emmons, Ebenezer,
HKyton, J. C.,
Faber, Fr.,
Fabricius, Otho,

‘Fleming, John,

Forster, J. R.,
Frankfort, A. M.,
Frisch, Jean L.,
Gambel, William,
Gatke, Heinrich,
Gerhardt, Alexander,
Gesner, Conrad,
Giraud, J. P.,
Gloger, C. L.,
Gmelin, 8. G.,

Gosse, Philip Henry,
Gould, John,
Graves, George,
Gray, Gai,
Gundlach, John,
Hahn, Dr. Car] Wilhelm,

Cuvier, Baron Geo. L. C. F. D., Haldeman, S. S.,

Daudin, Francois Marie,
Degland, C. D.,

DeKay, James E.,
Desmarest, Anselme-Gaelan,
Des Murs, O.
Deville, E.,
Donovan, Edward,
D’Orbigny, A.,

Douglas, David,

Dubus, B.,

Dunn, Robert,

Dumeril, A. M. Constant,

p)

Hartlaub, Dr. G.,
Haymond, Rufus,
Heerkens, G. N.,
Heermann, A. L.,
Holboll, Carl,
Hudson, W. H..,
Illiger, J. Ch. William,
Jacquin, J. F. E. von,
Jardine, Sir William,
Jenyns, Rev. L.,
Kaup, J. J.,
Keyserling, A. Graf.,

THE HISTORY OF ORNITHOLOGY 19

Kirtland, J. P.,
Kittlitz, F., H.,
Korner, M.,

Kuhl, H.,

Latham, Dr. John,
Lawrence, George N.,
Leach, Dr, William E.,
Lembeye, Juan,

Lesson, R. P.,

Lewin, J. W.,
Lichtenstein, Dr. H.,
Lilljeborg, Prof. W.,
Linneus, Charles,
Linsley, Rev. J. H.,
MacGillivray, William,
Malherbe, E.,

McCall, George A.,
Merrem, Blasius,
_Meyer, Dr. B.,
Moebring, P. H. G.,

__Moschler, H. F.,

- Muller, John,
Moller, O. F.,
Natterer, o
Nauman, J. A.,
Nauman, J. F.,
Newberry, Dr. J.5.,
Nilson, 8. V.,
Nitzsch, C. L.,
Nuttall, Thomas,
Ord, George,

Pallas, Pierre Simon,

Peabody, Rev. W. O. B.,
Pennant, Thomas,

Ray, John,

Read, M. C.,
Reichenbach, Dr. Ludwig,
Reinhardt, J.,
Richardson, Dr. John,
Sabine, Captain E.,
Sabine, J.,

Salvin, O.,

Savigny, Jules Cesar,
Schlegel, Prof. H.,
Sclater, Philip L.,

Selby, John Prideaux,

Shaw, Dr, George,
Sparrman, Andrew,
Streubel, A. B.,
Sundevall, C. J.,
Swainson, William,
Temminck, C. J.,
Thienemann, Dr. F. A. L.,
Thompson, Zadock,
Townsend, John K.,
Tschudi, J. J. von,
Vaillant, Francois C.,
Vieillot, L. P.,
Vigors, N. A.,
Wagler, J.,

Wied, Max Prinz von,
Willoughby, Francis,
Wilson, Alexander,

Wolf, Dr. J.,

Yarrell, William.

A

MANUAL OF ORNITHOLOGY.

Linn us, the father of Ornithology as we know it, and
the most modern of the older writers, divided al] Natural ob-

jects into 8 KINGDOMS:

I THE ANIMAL KINGDOM
II THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM
III THE MINERAL KINGDOM

We have to deal exclusively with the ANIMAL KING-—
DOM and but part of that.

There are, to-day, TWO SCHOOLS OF WRITERS
upon the Animal Kingdom (as there are, also, upon the other
Kingdoms) called, respectively, the OLD SCHOOL and
the NEW SCHOOL.

Of the former were Linnzus, Cuvier, and others, whose
work cannot be wholly ignored ; of the latter are Huxley
and the German naturalists, who have found able advocates,
in this country, in Packard, Morse, Hyatt, and many others.

21

29 MANUAL

The Old School divided the Animal Kingdom into 5
BRANCHES :
I VERTEBRATES
II ARTICULATES
III MOLLUSCS
IV RADIATES
V PROTOZOA

The last 4 Branches, taken together, are calied the [N-
VERTEBRATES, in distinction from the Ist or VERTE-—
BRATES. Thus we speak of the Animal Kingdom, as a
whole, as being divided into 2 SUB-KINGDOMS :

I VERTEBRATES
II INVERTEBRATES

The New School divides the Animal Kingdom into 8
Branches, and reverses the general order of their precedence,
thus :

I PROTOZOA
II PORIFERA
III COELENTERATA
IV ECHINODERMATA
V VERMES
VI MOLLUSCA
VII ARTHROPODA
VIII VERTEBRATA

Here the first seven Branches constitute the Invertebrates,
as opposed to the eighth or the Vertebrates.

Some writers do not make a separate Branch of the Porif-
era or Sponges, but connect them with the Protozoa and, after
the Mollusca, add the MOLLUSCOIDEA and the TUNI-
CATA as of the same relative value as the others.

In either case we have to do only with the

SUB-KINGDOM VERTEBRATA

Both the Old School and the New School of writers unite
in dividing the Vertebrates into 5 distinct GROUPS :

OF ORNITHOLOGY

iw

I MAMMALIA or MAMMALS

II AVES or BIRDS

III REPTILIA or REPTILES

IV BATRACHIA or AMPHIBIANS
V PISCES or FISHES

We have to deal only with the
GROUP AVES or BIRDS

The Birds of the World are separated into two great SU b-
GROUPS, — according as the SreRNUM OR BREAST-BONE
is FLAT or KEELED in front. |The eatinct species, however,
belong to other divisions]. They are, the

I AVES RATITAE

(Latin ratis, a ratt), Sternum FLAT. Wings rudimentary

and unfit for flight.
II AVES CARINATAE

(Latin carina, a keel [ofa ship]. Sternum KEELED. Pro-

vided ‘with true Wings.

The first of these divisions embraces the Ostriches, Casso-
waries, Emeus, and Birds of a similar nature.

The second division comprises the majority of known Birds
all over the World.

In treating of the Birds of NortH AMERICA, we have,
therefore, to do only with the

CARINATE BIRDS

For many years the great assemblage of the Birds of the
World have been considered as belonging to three separate
spheres of activity :

1. Those which live in the air,
2. Those which live upon the ground,
3. Those which live in the water.

It has always been so difficult to form any real and stable
divisions in this portion of the Animal Kingdom (as in any
other portion, in fact) — as one group often so insensibly drifts

24 MANUAL

into another — that, really, we have come to unite these two
into one, and shall speak hereafter only of the LAND
BIRDS and the WATER BIRDS.

Nearly every writer upon scientific subjects uses different
names for the different divisions into which he separates his
subjects. These names with one are often applied in exactly
the reverse order with another writer upon the same subject.
We shall endeavor to be consistent in our use of all terms.

We will illustrate, then, the manner in which the various
terms are used as follows:

KINGDOM Animal,
SUB-KINGDOM Vertebrate,
GROUP Aves or Birds,
SUB-GROUFP Carinate Birds,
CLASS (Carinate Birds have two classes, the
Land Birds and the Water Birds).

SUB-CLASS (the Land Birds only are thus
divided, into Aerial and Ter-

restrial Birds).

The three Sub-Classes are usually designated as follows :

I AERIAL BIRDS OR INSESSORES
II TERRESTRIAL BIRDS OR CURSORES
III AQUATIC BIRDS OR NATATORES

Again, the Birps oF NorrH AMERICA belong to
ELEVEN DIFFERENT ORDERS.

Each Sup-Criass has its own distinct OrpERs, let us tabu-
late them, then, together,

SUB-CLASS I AERIAL BIRDS
ORDER 1 PASSARES or Perchers.
2 PICARIZ or Picarian Birds.
ft 3 PSITTACI or Parrots.
4 RAPTORES or Birds of Prey.
5

COLUMBZ: or Dove-like Birds.

i
Ot

OF ORNITHOLOGY

SUB-CLASS II TERRESTRIAL BIRDS
ORDER 6 GALLINZ or Fowl-like Birds.

7 GRALLATORES or Wading Birds.
SUB-CLASS III AQUATIC or WATER BIRDS
ORDER 8 LAMELLIROSTRES or Duck-billed Birds.
a 9 STEGANOPODES or Totipalmate Birds.
‘ 10 LONGIPENNES, Long-winged or Gull-like

Birds.
i ll PYGOPODES or Diving Birds.

Let us examine these orders more closely and see in what
respect they differ one from the other.

The leading features of the different Orders of Birds, and
their necessary divisions into Sub-orders, may be shown as
follows, — though the Sub-orders, as a rule, are of compara-
tively little importance to the student as they show merely a
character, and not always a stable one, of the Order.

ORDER I PASSARES
Latin Passer, a sparrow or sparrow-like bird.

They have the hind claw equal to or greater than the claw
of the middle toe. Toes one behind and three in front. Bill
without cere. Toes never reversible. Tarsus envelope gen-
erally entire behind. Greater wing coverts not half as long as
the primaries. Tail almost invariably of twelve perfect feath-
ers. Having but one carotid artery. The Sub-orders are two.

Sub-order 1 OSCINES or Singing Birds
Latin oscen, a singing bird.

Though all the birds of this sub-order do not sing, yet the
vocal apparatus is highly developed with, usually, five distinct
pairs of singing or vocal muscles. Generally the tarsus coy-
ering is divided into two plates which meet behind in a con-
spicuous ridge.

Sub-order 2 CLAMATORES or Screaming Birds
Latin clamator, a brawler.
These birds have no well-developed singing muscles, conse-

26 MANUAL

quently their note is a discordant scream. The tarsus is not
ridged behind; but: composed merely of scutellate plates
throughout.

ORDER II PICARIAE

Latin picus, a woodpecker.

They have the hind toe rarely equal to, generally less than,
the middie claw. Toes in pairs. All toes excepting the mid-
dle one capabie of being reversed. Tarsus covering never en-
tire behind. Bill without cere. Greater wing-coverts as long
as or longer than one-half the primaries. Tail generally of
ten perfect feathers. The birds of this order (together with
the Parrots) have been variously named by former writers as,
STRISORES, SCANSORES, and ZYGODACTYLI; all referring to
the same or very nearly the same groups which we now com-
bine under the name of P1cARINE (Woodpecker-like) Brrps,
from the similarity of the characters and disposition of the
feet in all of them, being very short and week.

The Sub-orders are three: [The birds of this order fall
naturally into three groups, the birds of each group very
closely resembling each other ; yet, without doubt, this is the
most difficult order to define in all ornithology, and when de-
fined the most unsatisfactory ].

Sub-order 1 CYPSELI or Swift-like Birds
Greek kupselos, a species of swallow.

Wings long and pointed ; feet weak and small: toes never
in pairs. [Some birds have the anterior outer toe reversible,
so that they seem as if two in front and two behind (owls will
sometimes present this peculiarity) they are then called Zygo-
dactylous| ; bill variously shaped, but weak ; syrinx with one
pair of muscles.

Sub-order 2 CUCULI or Cuckoo-like Birds

Latin cuculus, a cuckoo.
Feet generally small ; toes usually-zygodactyle ; bill vary-

OF ORNITHOLOGY 27

ing, but mostly hard and strong, not weak ; syrinx with more
than one pair of muscles. This sub-order is usually defined
as including all the birds of the order not included in the two
other sub-orders.

Sub-order 3 PICI or Woodpecker-like Birds
Same as Order 2.

This sub-order generally refers almost exclusively to the
Woodpeckers. Wings of ordinary character, nof unusually
long and pointed ; hind toe noé unusually short ; toes in pairs,
zygodactyle ; bill stout and straight, not weak ; tongue long
and slender.

This whole order is usually best treated by defining the sep-
arate families in the successive order of their likeness to each-
other ; this is really no great labor as there are not many of
them. It is about the only order among the birds that cannot
be readily divided. The young student will do well to study
the order thoroughly by itself, and become perfectly familiar
with the forms that occur in it, —it will then divide itself in
his mind naturally and give him comparatively little trouble
in referring its members to their proper places.

ORDER III PSITTACI
Latin psittacus, Greek psittake, a parrot; Greek sizo, to hiss.
Bill with a cere, and with upper mandible curving over the
under ; feet zygodactyle. No one would ever mistake the
general form and appearance of a parrot, though the species
are very few here in North America. It has no special sub-
orders here.

ORDER IV RAPTORES
Latin raptor, a robber.

This order is so distinctive in its characters as to be readily
told from any of the other orders, even without the aid of spe-
cial characteristics. Like the Parrots, it has the bill with a
cere and with the upper mandible curving over the under, but

28 MANUAL

the feet are never truly two in front and two behind [(zygo-
dactyle), though one of the front feet in the Owls moves back-
ward sufficiently for these birds to sit ona perch and clasp
their prey as they fly with two feet in front and two behind,
thus appearing only to be zygodactyle]. The student of os-
TEOLOGY will find several distinctive characters exclusively
pertaining to this order, and even in the different sub-orders.

The Birds of Prey are usually separated into

A THE NOCTURNAL BIRDS OF PREY
containing the Sub-order
1 STRIGIDES or OWLS
B THE DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY
containing the Sub-orders Hoa,
2 ACCIPITRES or FALCONS HAWLS EAGLES
3 CATHARTIDES or VULTURES

The Nocturnal Birds of Prey are at once distinguished from
the Diurnal Birds of Prey, by the peculiar shape of the feath-
ers about and around the eye, by the bristly feathers about the
bill, the reversible outer front toe, and the soft, fluffy plumage
of the Owls (Nocturnal) compared with the clean-cut bill and
cere, the tough-skinned feet, and the rough, hard plumage of
the Hawks, ete. (Diurnal) Birds of Prey. The Sub-orders
are three.

Sub-order 1 STRIGIDES or Owls
Latin stra, a screech owl; Greek striga, a screech.

The Owls are not easily mistaken for birds of either of the
other sub-orders of this order. The radiating disc of feath-
ers surrcunding the eyes; eyes large, soft, and watery ; the
bristly feathers almost hiding the bill; the tomia of upper
mandible without tooth or notch ; the nostrils partly in the
horn of the bill and partly in the cere ; with reversible outer
front toe ; legs feathered nearly or quite to the toes ; together

OF ORNITHOLOGY 29

with the soft fluff of the plumage ; everywhere characterize
these birds. An Owl is an Owl, and could seldom be mis-
taken for any other bird.

Sub-order 2 ACCIPITRES or Hawks etc
Latin accipiter, a general name for birds of prey.

The Hawks and their allies are rather harder to character-
ize than the Owls, yet their peculiarities are none the less per-
sistent: Only an occasional disc, and that an imperfect one ;
eye, though not large, fierce and fearless ; stiff feathers do not
hide the base of the bill; cere entirely surrounding the nos-
tril openings ; tomia of upper mandible seldom if ever with-
out notch or lobe of some kind, be it never so faint ; toes sel-
dom if ever retractile ; legs seldom feathered, and toes never ;
whole plumage more or less tough and roughened.

Sub-order 3 CATHARTIDES or Vultures
Greek kathartes, one who purifies.

Were this sub-order merged in that of the Hawks, etc., the
distinctions between (1) and (2) would be mainly by the pres-
ence or absence of positive or negative characters ; as it is,
they are separated from (1) easily enough, from (2) as follows:
feet weak, long, more or less blunt ; hind toe as also its claw
short, and elevated above the others somewhat ; toes not re-
tractile, front ones webbed at base; nostrils open from one
side of bill to the other; bill long and little curved, not
toothed at tip ; head more or less naked.

ORDER V COLUMBAE

Latin columba, a dove or pigeon.

This is another of the small yet very decided orders, seem-
ingly marked out almost exclusively for birds of the dove and
the pigeon families. It would be useless to define its sub-
orders as but a single one exists in North America. The or-
der is the same as the PULLASTR& of old authors [with the
addition, perhaps, of the TEXAN Guan]. In characters it
has bill without cere, naked at base but with a distended

30 MANUAL

membrane enclosing the openings of the nostrils, One would
hardly mistake the peculiarities of a common domestic pigeon,
which represents the order well: the striking features of the
bill, the feet, and the soft, compact plumage, are noticeable
throughout the birds of this order. These birds are very
closely related to the old order of Rasores, which included
them with the next order (the GALLIN«) ; but we seldom use
the name now.

Tt will be observed, that with the CoLumMB® we close the
Sub-class of Aerial Birds. [The INsEssores, as they are still
called, which, with the CurRsoREs, the GRALLATORES, and
the NaTATORES, form all that remains to us of the misleading
names of the old-time classification of early writers].

ORDER VI GALLINAE

Latin gallus (m), gallina (f), a domestic fowl.

The GaLLIn® is still another small yet well-defined
order. It is also, so to speak, an historic order, being really »
the old order of Rasores or Scratchers. Its principal mem-
bers are easily separated: for, — though some of the species
show characters which agree well with some of the Plovers —
thus approaching the Wading birds — on the one hand ; and
an the other it contains, at present, the TEXAN GUAN, which
is sometimes placed with the order CoLUMB.®, — no one would
fail to recognize instantly the fow/-like appearance of its mem-
bers, the Grouse and Quails. I should define the order as
follows: Bill short and stout and shorter than the head, base
not covered with a soft membrane (as in CoLUMB#) ; legs
rather long, toes short, usually elevated somewhat above the
rest, and with connecting membrane at their base; general
appearance fowl-like.

Some writers divide the order into two sub-orders, — but
this does not seem necessary, as there are so few birds in it
that it would hardly be required, especially as one of them

OF ORNITHOLOGY 31

contains but a single species which might, almost equally well,
belong to the previous order, I refer to the GUAN.

The Guan differs from all the other related birds by havy-
ing what are called pigeon-like toes, the hind toe being situ-
ated scarcely if any above a level with the others, and longer
than in the other families.

ORDER VII GRALLATORES ——

Latin grallator, “ one who goes or runs on stilts.”

Science is not prepared to wholly do away with this old yet
perhaps well-chosen name. These are the Waders. The old
name of Shore Birds, often applied to the whole order, is mis-
leading, as several of the species seldom visit shoreward, but
remain in the interior. The special characteristics of the or-
der are: Legs long (with but few exceptions), naked far
above the knee joint, thigh joint generally not enclosed within
the body ; toes with no, or only a very small, basal mem-
brane ; nostrils exposed and not covered by feathers or bris-
tles; bill usually very long (or rather long, and weak, and
thin) ; tail short.

Some authorities divide this order into two sub-orders, the
second of these being again divided into what they term
“ Tribes ” ; but this seems unnecessary, because, of there so-
called Tribes, one, the third, is a distinct Sub-order, and the
other two make a false separation of another Sub-order. Our
best writers make three full Sub-orders, as follows :

[Drviston A. Young able to run about from the time they
are hatched from the egg, PRacocEs].

Sub-order 1 LIMICOLZ
_ Latin limicola, “a dweller in the mud.”
Shore Birds. — Hind toe short and elevated, or absent ; bill
short or slender, membranous, and with nostrils usually in a
slit in'the membrane ; plump bodied.

32 MANUAL
[Division B. Young fed from the nest, ALTRICES].

Sub-order 2 HERODIONES
Greek crodas, a heron,
Heron-like Birds. —- Hind toe long and slender, not obvi-
ously elevated; bill long and stout, and hard; body com-
pressed ; neck lengthened.

[Division C. Young able to run about from the time they
are hatched from the egg, PR=&cOocEs].

Sub-order 3 ALECTORIDES
Probably Greek alektos, incessant, referring to their incessant clatter.
Crane-like Birds. —'Toes long with hind toe lengthened
and not obviously elevated ; embraces birds similar to those
of each of the foregoing sub-orders yet obviously different ;
tail short and of few feathers ; bodies compressed ; neck and
legs rarely unusually lengthened.

Comparing what I have called Division A with Division B,
it will be seen wherein our present three sub-orders become
two of many writers. Thus,

Division B becomes Sub-order 1 Herodiones,
Division A becomes Sub-order 2 Gralle.

Many writers use these two sub-orders to-day. When this

is done Sub-order 2 Gralle is further separated into,
Tribe 1 Limicole or Shore Birds,
Tribe 2 Paludicole (Alectoride).

But this still leaves us the Limicole to separate into still
smaller divisions, both on account of their number and their
peculiarities, until we become confused unnecessarily.

[The old Sub-class CuRsoRES (What we now call Terres-
trial Birds) or Runners, contained a/so our present Order 6
GALLINe. The BREVIPENNES are the extra-limital. Os-
triches, etc. and were included among the GRALLATORES.
Our Order 6 GALLIN & is also the old Sub-class RAsSOREs (in-

OF ORNITHOLOGY BD

cluded also among our Terrestrial Birds). ‘The present Order
5 CoLUMB& moreover belongs to them. It was thus, for-
merly, the great question of the day as to how to reconcile all
these inconsistencies. By rejecting entirely the o/d systems
and substituting the new this now becomes possible ].

The young student will notice how difficult it is to charac-
terize, with any degree of exactness, the various divisions in
Ornithology ; the difficulty will increase rather than diminish
as he progresses. As he becomes familiar with the imdividu-
als from which the characters of these divisions are drawn,
however, the matter will appear to him in a new light, and his
difficulties will decrease with experience.

We now come to the third Sub-class, the Aquatic or Water
Birds, usually called the NaTATORES or Swimmers. Estab-
lished usage still separates these into what we may call,

Division A ANSERES and
Division B GAVIA

The latter (Division B) are called AuTricgs, or Birds that
rear their young in nests and feed them ; the former (Division
A) are called PRacoces, or birds whose young run about and
procure their own food almost from the moment they are
hatched from the egg. To make these characteristics a basis
upon which to divide the remaining birds would be useless,
as our present system is so clear and well-defined on these
points.

ORDER VIII LAMELLIROSTRES

Latin lamina, “a thin plate or layer” ; and rostrum, the beak.

Bil) with that peculiar arrangement of layers or plates along
its edge called lamelle, resembling somewhat “‘ the teeth of a
saw,” as the Latin gives it — It is recognized instantly by the
student. The greater portion of the bill is membranaceous’
Feet palmate ; hind toe elevated (sometimes absent) and free.
The great assemblage of Swans, Geese, and Ducks, form the
principal and almost entire portion of this order.

34 MANUAL

Science still persists in framing a separate sub-order for
that awkward monstrosity of nature the Flamingo, and so we
divide the order into two sub-orders. [It should be remarked
that most authors place the Flamingo, with the Spoonbills and
Ibises, among the Herons]. It seems rather unfortunate that
we should be obliged to mar an otherwise symmetrical order
for this bird, but there seems to be vo help for it.

Sub-order 1 PHQAINICOPTERIDES or Flamingoes

Greek phoinikopteres, red winged ; Latin the same.
With long legs ; stout, curved bill ; long neck ; short tail ;
color red. Also called Pseudo— (false) Lamellirostres.

Sub-order 2 ANSERES or True Lamellirostres
Latin anser, a swan.
The Swans, Geese, and Ducks belong here, and as the order
itself fully characterizes these it will not be necessary to re-
peat them here.

ORDER IX STEGANOPODES
Greek steganos, covered, closed up; pous, a foot.

Bill not laminate or membraneous; hind toe large, on a
level with the other toes, and webbed with the inner toe; feet
totipalmate. Nostrils small. Throat with pouch called the
gula pouch. The birds of this order are birds having little
real likeness either to any of the orders which immediately
precede or those which follow it, or to each other. That they
should contorm sufficiently to characterize an order by them-
selves, is indeed a surprise ; yet such is the fact.

ORDER X LONGIPENNES
Latin longus, long; and penna, a wing.

This order is not easy to characterize, though its members
all bear a certain resemblance which, of itself, is one of its
most constant features. The bill is never extensively either
lamellate or membraneous, though it varies strangely and very
strongly in many of its individuals, — it can hardly be relied

OF ORNITHOLOGY

te
~

on as a permanent distinguishing character ; the legs occupy
a position midway between those of the preceding and of the
following orders, and more nearly balance the body as in the
Insessores or Perching Birds; hind toe, when present, free ;
wings of special importance, and Jong — usually extending to
beyond the base of the tail — flat, and narrow, hence the
power of flight is strong and flight swift, well-sustained, and
often long-continued, and the usually light body is well in
keeping with these characteristics ; nostrils open; no pouch
on throat ; web of feet variable in the different families. The
two sub-orders are :

Sub-order 1 LARIDES or Gulls, Terns, etc.
Latin darus, Greek daros, ‘‘a ravenous sea-bird, the mew.”

The birds of this sub-order would be better characterized
by their families than collectively. Nostrils not tubular but
linear. The Larides comprise four families, quite distinct,
and with the birds of each conforming well with each other -—
to the more advanced student, a glance will usually determine,
without question, to which of the four a specimen belongs.

Sub-order 2 PROCELLARIDES or Petrels, etc.
Latin procella, a storm bird.
The birds here comprise two families, of which the familiar
Albatros forms one of them and the difficulty is much dimin-
ished. Nostrils tubular.

ORDER XI PYGOPODES
Greek puge, buttock or rump [“ tail’ ]; Greek pous, a foot.

Our last order comprise what are usually characterised as
“the Diving Birds.” They walk with difficulty as their legs,
as their name indicates, are situated at the extreme end of the
buttock or rump, so that walking with any degree of comfort
is impossible — their gate being an extremely awkward wad-
dle, and they do as little walking as possible. The wings are
more or less rudimentary, — long, narrow, and for the most
part not well-developed. Hind toe, when present, free ; tail

36 MANUAL

rudimentary. About the only thing that they do well is to
swim both in and under the water. The three families which
compose the order conform sufficiently to preclude the form-
ing of sub-orders.

The above brief characterization of the Classes and Orders
of our Birds, though made primarily for the use of students
of North American Ornithology, will apply almost equally to
the birds of the whole world, — which number about 12,000
species. The numbe¢ of North American species are about
900, or less than one-thirteenth of the above number ; yet,
by our most recent authorities, they include every order known
but two. The BREVIPENNES or Ostriches, etc., and the SPHE-
NICE or Penguines, alone accepted ; but they form a very small
per cent. of the whole number. In order, then, that we may
have the field fully before us, a brief mention of the usual
classification of the Birds of the World will now be intro-
duced. It will do well for the use of the student as he ad-
vanees in study; and, I think, be equally understood by
the amateur who has reached thus far in his work amongst
these most charming subjects of the present sketch.

What we have styled in the beginning of our analysis the
Old School Ornithologists, divided the Birds of the World
into SEVEN Groups — called sometimes Classes and sometimes

Orders as follows:

I RAPTORES or ROBBERS
II SCANSORES or CLIMBERS
III INSESSORES or PERCHERS
IV RASORES or SCRATCHERS
V CURSORES or RUNNERS
VI GRALLATORES or WADERS
IIV NATATORES or SWIMMERS

OF ORNITHOLOGY BT

The characteristics of these Orders can be readily defined,
should one care to distinguish them, by what has already heen
said in the foregoing pages. These groups held until within
a comparatively few years. The Fossit Birds have not been
included, so far, in any of our analyses.

Our various institutions of learning, throughout the coun-
tay, before what we call the New System was very generally
adopted, arranged the Classes of Birds as follows :

SUB-CLASS I INSESSORES
Order 1 PASSARES Oscine and Clamatorial Birds
“ 2 STRISORES Humming Birds and Kingfishers
3 ZYGODACTYLI Parrots and Woodpeckers
4 ACCIPITRES Birds of Prey
5 PULLASTRZA Pigeons and Doves

SUB-CLASS II CURSORES
6 GALLINZ! Grouse and Turkies
7 BREVIPENNES Ostriches
8 GRALLA Plovers and Herons

SUB-ORDER III NATATORES
9 LAMELLIROSTRES Swans Geese Ducks
10 STEGANOPODES Pelicans Cormorants
1l LONGIPENNES. Gulls Terns Petrels
12 PYGOPODES Diving Cirds

By careful comparison of this ‘‘ Intermediate Series,” as we
may call it, with both the old and the new classification, it
will be seen to be a decided step in advance of the old, while
foreshadowing the new. But few writers continue to use it at
the present time.

We now come to what we will call the New System, in dis-
tinction from the others which we have thus far enumerated.
This system is well recognized as embodying the latest results
of the best workers in this department of science.

38 MANUAL

1 PASSARES

2 PICARIAE

3 PSITTACI

4 RAPTORES
‘ 5 COLUMBAE

6 GALLINAE

7 BREVIPENNES

8 LIMICOLAE

9 HERODIONES
“10 ALECTORIDES
“11 LAMELLIROSTRES
“12 STEGANOPODES
“13 LONGIPENNES
«14 PYGOPODES
“15 §PHENICI

Omitting orders 7 and 15, it will be seen that our foregoing ‘
classification, answering perfectly well as it stands for group-
ing the known birds of the world, will serve us for classifying
our present known North American species. Orders 7 and 15
are so individual in their character, and so easily to be recog-
nized, that they need no special additional mention. Order 7
stands for birds of the OstricH type and order 15 for the
PenGuiIns. Thus is the field of Universal Ornithology merely
suggested rather than fully treated of. To further separate and
characterize the families of the Birds of the World is no part
of the duty which we have laid upon ourselves, in the ar-
rangement of the present work. In properly setting forth
the families of the North American species, we shall find that
we will have our hands more than ful! : nevertheless, we shall
attempt to do it, and hope that our efforts will prove satisfac-
tory to ourselves and to those who may choose to avail them-
selves of the results of our labors in this most fascinating and
delightful field of research.

OF ORNITHOLOGY 39

To properly characterize the FAMILIES, SUB-FAMILIES,
and GENERA, and to name the Species, of North American
Birds would require more space than the limits of these few
pages of preliminary study will permit. Nor is it always
easy to give even the mere necessary determining marks of
family, sub-family, and genera. We could not, with propri-
ety, say that any one division DEVELOPS into or from another ;
yet, one group drifts so insensibly into another that, as yet,
the greater part of our system is, of necessity, merely arti-
ficial. Different writers often place the same species in very
different genera or even families ; hardly any two writers will
agree as to the members of each group. Of one thing only
ean we be certain: namely, the individual. This remains con-
stant wherever it is found. The wise student, therefore, ig-
nores, in a very great measure, a/l systems of classification,
and studies the individual. This is especially evident when,
as often happens, a single new genera, sub-family, and even
family are formed for a single species. To the individual, then,
we must all go, sooner or later; but it is not our object here
to study so much the different members of our various groups
as to ascertain the present state of our knowledge of the
higher divisions, that, by their careful arrangement, we may
be brought to a wiser grouping, if possible, of the individual.
Many of our divisions are known more by the members which
they contain than by any of the usual arbitrary “ characteris-
tics’; in fact, some of our so-called families can not be char-
acterized at all, so varied are the individuals included within
them. Of these the Thrushes are a good example.

I LAND BIRDS.
a
FAMILY I TURDIDAE THE THRUSHES
Latin turdus, ‘a thrush, a field-fare.”
The main characters of this family are: Tarsus booted!
primaries ten, the first spurious or quite short ; wings longish
and pointed and generally shorter than the tail; bill mostly

40) MANUAL

long and sijender, nearly straight or very little curved and
notched more or less distinctly at the tip, with roundish or
oval nostrils, and not concealed by the stiffish bristles of the
base of the upper mandible ; tarsus rather long and slender
and generally longer than the middle toe and claw, the scu-
tella fused into a single plate ; tail feathers twelve, rarely any
longer than the wings (only so in Mimus) and merely rounded.

It will be perceived, at a glance, that the characteristics of
this family are modified frequently by some such word as usu-
ally, generally, etc., and not boldly set forth, as are most of the
following families, in precise language. Yet it is one of the
oldest families that we have, and the hue and cry would be
something terrific should we cause it to disappear ; still we
venture to predict its removal in the near future.

Sub-family «2 TURDINZ True Thrushes
Bill straight and shorter than the head ; nostrils oval, and
situated just beyond the rictal bristles ; first quill of the wing
truly spurious ; tail shorter than the wings; tarsus booted,
and in length equal to or barely longer than the middle toe
and claw ; wings typical of the family.

Genus, Turdus, The True Thrushes (13 species).
Sus-GEenpra, Merula, Hesperocichla, Turdus.

[These SUB-GENERIC names are applied to different species
by different authors, who wish to still further separate the
members of the genus, and are often given the rank of true
genera; the name Hylocichla is also often thus used. We pre-
fer the single, well-known name of Turdus for all the species
under the present sub-family.

Nore. — Of the many changes in Ornithological nomencla-
ture whieh have been made, within the past few years, that of
raising the above sub-genera to the rank of genera will, doubt-
less, in time, be fully accomplished though we look forward
to it with regret. The Robin and the Thrushes deserve to
have a decided and definite distinction: Yet so strongly does

OF ORNITHOLOGY 4]

the former still appeal to us as a Thrush — a typical Thrush —
that we can hardly bear to separate it from the genus Turdus,
especially as this involves, to a very great extent, new genera
and new relations for the remaining individuals. of the sub-
family.

Sub-family 6 MIMIN 2 Mocking Thrushes
Bill much as in Turdine, but usually slender, long, and
curved — often in a remarkable degree ; first quill of the wing
nearly one-half as long as the second ; tail equal to or longer
than the wings; wings short and somewhat saucer-shaped ;
tarsus with (mostly) distinct scutell
GENERA, Oreoscoptes, The Mountain Mocker.

Mimus, The True Mockers (2 species).
Harporhynchus, The Thrashers (10 species).

Sus-cenera, None, unless we admit G'aleoscoptes in place of Mimus for
the Catbird, — but, in so doing, we must raise it to the rank of a genus,
which there seems to us no especial reason for doing. It is pressing a
point, somewhat, even to insist upon making Oreoscoptes distinct from
Mimus, — yet thisis pretty generally conceded, at present, though applied
to but a single species.

Sub-family ¢ CINCLINZ Dippers
Bill shorter than the head ; nostrils in slits (“inear), open ;
no rictal bristles ; tail short and square; wings longer than
tail ; first quill about one-half the length of the second ; with
booted tarsus. (Aquatic.)

Genus, Cinclus, The Water Ouzel.

Sus-cenus, None. The sub-family itself being formed for a single species
apparently quite constant.

Sub-family 7 SAXICOLINZ Chats
Bill shorter than the head, small and weak ; nostrils oval
and rictus with bristles; wings long and pointed with first
quill very short (spurious) ; tail short, emarginate, or squared ;
tarsus booted and generally but not always longer than the
middle toe and claw,

42 MANUAL

Genera, Saxicola, The Stonechats.
Cyanecula, The Blue-throat.
Sialia, The Bluebirds (3 species).

Sup-GENERA, There seems no good reason for any separation here into
sub-genera. As the first two genera are each fora single species, Sialia
alone remains, and this seem incapable of any further division.

Sub-family ¢ REGULINZ Kinglets
Bill very small and delicate, short, and straight ; nostrils
more or less exposed; wings straight, with a spurious
first quill ; tail emarginate or almost even ; tarsus booted, and
longer than the middle toe and claw. Species very small.
Genera, Phylloscopus, The Kennicott’s Warbler.
Regulus, The Kinglets (5 species).

Sup-GENERA, None, as of the two genera the former is for a single species
and the latter is the same as its neighbor Sialia, incapable of further di-
vision.

Sub-family / POLIOPTILINZ& Gnat-catchers

Bill much as in the last sub-family (Reguline) but longer
and very slender, wide and flat at base, with notch and hook
at tip; rictus with bristles ; nostrils not covered ; first quill
half as long as the second ; tarsus scutellate.

Genus, Polioptila, The Gnatcatchers (3 species).

To transfer Phainopepla and Myiadestes (each for a single
species) to the Thrush family, as is done by some authors, (af-
ter Sialia and before Polioptila,) from the family-of the Waz-
wings MAY, presently, become established, — it is not neces-
sary to discuss the change here.

FAMILY II CHAMAEIDAE THE WREN TIT

Latin cama and Greek chamai, to dwell “ou the ground.”

A small family which it is very hard to define. While rad-
ically different from any of the Yhrushes, it has been placed
with the Wrens, though seemingly with more of a likeness to
the Zitmice: Wings short and rounded, very noticeably so,
and about one-third shorter than the tail, which is also round-

OF ORNITHOLOGY 43,

ed; general plumage “ lax,” and very soft; tarsus without
distinct scutelle and longer than the toes ; long rictal bristles
about the base of the short and compressed bill [bill less than
the length of the head]. An instant’s comparison of the bird
with those which it resembles will show how necessary it is to
frame a separate family upon its stable peculiarities.

Genus, Chamea, The Ground Tit and ally.

[The position of this family, numerically, is liable to be
changed, with perfect propriety, at any time].

FAMILY III PARIDAE THE TITMICE
CHICKADEES

Latin parus, a titmouse.

As we progress in the enunciation of the characteristics of
the family groups, our difficulties increase rather than dimin-
ish; Strange as it may appear, the Titmice are allies to the
Jays ; most of our writers regarding their differences merely
as a difference of size. There is no necessity of attempting to
divide the family into sub-families, as our North American
species would fall naturally under a single sub-family : Bill
short and stout, straight and somewhat compressed, tip straight
and unnotched ; nostrils concealed by stiff feathers (not bris-
tles) ; tarsus scutellate and longer than the middle toe ; toes
stout for size of bird ; wings (primaries 10) with spurious Ist
quill — one-half or less the 2nd — wing about length of tail
and both rounded ; tail (12 feathers) noé acuminate. Size
small, five to seven inches only.

GeneRA, Lophophanes, The Crested Tits (4 species).

Parus, The Chickadees (11 species).

Psaltriparus, The Tits (3 species).

Auriparus, The Yellow-headed Titmouse.
Sup-cenera. None: There seems to have been little desire on the part of
writers to separate these well-grounded and will-established genera. Two
or three species only rest under an apparent temporary cloud, — but this
seems a matter more of local variation than distinction of type. The spe
cies are not abundant, and in form and position pretty reliable.

44 MANUAL
FAMILY IV SITTIDAE THE NUTHATCHES

Latin sedeo, I sit: referring to the manuer in which the bird sits upon the
tree or limb.

The present family, untouched by the hand of time, still
throws its beacon, its defiance, with undiminished rays, upon
the pathway of Ornithological literature. With comfort can-
we look back from Audubon in 1838-39, to Nuttall in 1832,
to Wilson in 1808, to Latham in 1790, to Gmelin in 1788, to
Linneeus in 1766 and 1735; and see Sitta —in the same let-
ters and the same relations —as transcribed by the scientist
of to-day. Of but few families can this be said, and we are
justified in stopping, for an instant only, to contemplate some
of the changes wrought by time in our ornithological litera-
ture and characterization. The general features of the family
are: Bill about equal to head, straight, sharpely tapering to
point, compressed, and slender ; nostrils roundish and con-
cealed by bristles, which are in tufts; wings nearly as long as
the tail, and with 1st quill spurious or less than one-half the
2d; tail short, and nearly even [while the wings are, compar-
atively, long, narrow, and pointed, the tail is short and broad-
ened]; tarsus about equal to the middle toe, stout, and with
scutellee. General plumage soft and almost greasy in feeling.
The species are easily distinguishable at sight.

Genus, Sitta, The Nuthatches (5 species).
We can find no record of either swh-genus or synonym; if any are known
they are of no value at present.

FAMILY V CERTHIIDAE THE CREEPERS

Said to be from Latin “ Certhius, a creeper,’ — but I can find no such
word in my lexicons.

The characteristics of this small family are striking and pe-
culiar. The small size of the bird; the long, slender, and
sickle-shaped bill; the sharp claws, and long claws of the
hind toes ; the stiff, rough, and sharp-pointed [acuminate] tai!
feathers ; all determine it at a glance. The single genus is
nearly, if not quite, as old as Svtta and fully as familiar. It
seems absurd to construct a separate sub-family for the only

OF ORNITHOLOGY 45

two known American species, nor shall we attempt it, as it
would simply be a repetition of the family characteristics al-
ready given above.

Genus, Certhia, The Brown Creeper and ally.

I can find no record of either suwb-genus or synonym (of genus).

FAMILY VI TROGLODYTIDAE THE WRENS
Latin Troglodyte, Greek Troglodutai, a cave-dweller.

The typical Wren is a figure easily represented to one’s
mind, — to so characterize the family that it shall be instantly
distinguishable, upon sight, is quite another thing — for it has
features of many other families strongly engrafted into it, no-
ticeably those of the Z%tmice and the Thrushes. Its special
peculiarities are: The uniting of the basal joint of the inner
and middle toes with part of the second joint of the outer toe.
The bill varies in size and shape, but is slender and without
terminal notch or basal bristles (rictal). Nostrils varied in
shape and size, but not concealed save by a sort of roof or
seale-like piece which lies above them. Wings short and like
a miniature Catbird’s, with short Ist quill. ‘The tail and the
tarsus vary with the species (forming genera) but, in general,
preserving a more or less family resemblance, and with scu-
telle (either before or behind — sometimes both).

The two sub-families are distinguished especially by the
shapes of their tails, their size, and their other markings.

Sub-family 7 CAMPYLORHYNCHINZ F'an-tails
Size large, being 73 to 8 inches in length or over ; tail very
broad at tip, and fan-shaped.

GENERA, Campylorhynchus, The Cactus Wrens and ally.
Salpinctes, The Rock Wrens and ally.
Catherpes, The White-throated Wrens and two allies.

Sus-GENeRA, None.

Sub-family / TROGLODYTINZ True Wrens
Appearance more like that of a typical Thrush ; tail not fan-

46 MANUAL

shaped, but more nearly equal-edged throughout the entire

length of its feathers, and delicate ; size small ; plumage more

or less completely barred.

GENERA, Thryothorus, The Great Carolina Wren and allies (6 species).
Troglodytes, The House Wrens (3 species).

Anorthura, The Winter Wrens, (3 species).
Telmatodytes and Cistothorus, The Marsh Wrens (3 species).

Sup-Genera, None, unless Vhryomanes be considered a sub-genus of
Thryothorus.

In this family, as in several others, species are often trans-
ferred by different writers, from one genus to another, without
the use of specific sub- genera.

A careful comparison of the toes of the two sub-families
will show a marked difference which were hard to explain of
either one alone.

FAMILY VII ALAUDIDAE THE LARKS
Latin ‘“ alauda, the lark, ‘a Celtic word, literally great songstress.’
This is a small family made, apparently, originally for a

single species. One or two varieties and one extra-limital
species have crept into it, however. North America is noted
for a great many of these peculiar one-specied families. The
larks are noted for: The peculiarly shaped head horns or

LP]

crests, and the immensely lengthened hind toe nail — these
alone would distinguish the family, They have, also: the
tarsus scutellate ; wings long and pointed, 1st primary spuri-
ous or wanting; bill short, stout, pointed ; nostrils more or
less concealed by tufts of feathers. The tail hardly enters
into the composition of the family characteristics. Until re-
cently the family admitted of but a single sub-family ; the re-
cently imported European Skylark, however, would naturally
add a second sub-family. It does not seem necessary to allow
this in the present instance: The main difference being in
the presence or absence of a spurious Ist wing quill, this is
wanting in the European Lark. The different places in the
families of birds which are given to the members of this fam-

OF ORNITHOLOGY AT

ily, show clearly how difficult even yet it is to decide just
where, as a family, it belongs. We prefer to place it here, so
that we may show the difference between it and its nearest al-
lies the Titlarks.

The two sub-families into which this family are divided are,

a CALANDRITINZ: Shore Larks
6 ALAUDINZ Skylarks

These are inisleading, as the old and still much used name
for our American Shore Lark was Alauda, and here we apply
it exclusively to the European Skylark as Alauda arvensis ;
while now, though placing our American Shorelark in the sub-
family Calandritine we do not use the name with a generic
signification and say Calandrita. It is, therefore, better to do
away with sub-families entirely, and give the family two

GENERA, Hremophila, The True Larks (3 species).
Alauda, The Skylarks.

Though these names are often used as synonyms they are quite distinct.

FAMILY VIII MOTACILLIDAE THE WAG-
TAILS TITLARKS PIPITS
Latin Motacilla, “The White Water Wagtail.”’

The similarity, in many respects, of this family with the
preceding (VII) places it, naturally, next in order. Those
unacquainted with the species, except in name perhaps, readily
confound them, yet they are radically distinct. They have:
Bill short, slender, straight, and with noticeable notch at tip ;
nostrils open (not concealed by feathers); wing without a spu-
rious quill (primaries 9) and of about the same length as in
the tail ; tarsus with seutella, and hind toe nail long and not
much curved. A comparison of the specimens of these two
families will show the distinct peculiarities of the tarsus and
the toes and their clefts in each. The sub-families are each
well defined.

48 MANUAL

Sub-family 7 MOTACILLINAE True Meadow
Wagtails
Tail not shorter than the wing, of which the 3rd quill is the
longest.

GENERA, Motacilla, The White Wagtail and ally.
Budytes, The Yellow Wagtail.

Sub-family / ANTHINAE Titlarks and Pipits
Tail shorter than the wings, of which the 4th and 5th quills
are the longest.
Genera, Anthus, The Titlark and the Pipit.
Neocorys, The Missouri Titlark.

(Synonym = Alauda.)
Sup-GENERA, None.

The members of this, as also of the preceding, family have
been placed in so many different and peculiar situations, both
in relation to themselves and to that of the other Jnsessoves
that it is best to leave a critical examination of them to the
more advanced student. A few facts may be noticed, how-
ever: In the present case, the two sub-families are perfectly
justifiable, for, examining the different works on Ornithology
to-day no one would consider the different geneva as belonging
to tlhe same family. This will appear more evident when we
remember that the recent name of the genera of the Titlark
was Alauda, the same as was formerly used for our present
Shore Lark. This would give us a synonym but not a sub-
genus. It will be noticed, also, that the American Titlark is
not the same as the European Titlark ; that the American
Skylark (Shore Lark) is not the same as the European Sky-
lark ; and that the Skylark (whether American or European)
is not identical with or even related to the Zitlark (either Am-
erican or European), notwithstanding the fact that so many of
our writers will persist, wrongly, in placing them all in the same
genus ALAUDA. BupbytTss isa distinct Motacilla. Both are
different from the other members of either family, — though
we are not prepared to arrange them any differently at pre sent

OF ORNITHOLOGY 49

FAMILY IX SYLVICOLIDAE THE WARBLERS

Latin Silva, woods; colo, I inhabit: syLvAn.

The group of Warblers, or the American Wood-Warblers,
as their name implies, are among the most interesting of all
the groups of North American birds. They are so exclusively
American, and the species are so numerous, as to render them
familiar, attractive, and not easily to be forgotten objects of
interest to every man, woman, and child throughout the length
and breadth of our land. They occur, either as residents (dur-
ing Summer mostly) or migrants, everywhere throughout
North America; and are also found in Central and South
America and the West India Islands. They form the greater
bulk of what are known as the “ migratory birds ” ; and their
movements are so extraordinary, so peculiar, and yet so regu-
lar, as to be altogether inexplicable. The questions evolved
in explaining their movements are so many and so involved
that no one answer, or even set of answers, will account for
all their actions. No rule can be set down for their occurring
as either resident or migrant in any given area or locality,
save that of actual observation ; and even this often varies,
from some wholly unknown cause, in different years. Exam-
ples are continually occurring of individual species which oc-
cur as “ resident and breeds ” in one limited locality which do
not so occur again within a radius of hundreds of miles in any
direction. Further, — in some states a species may be a com-
mon, even abundant, summer resident throughout the state,
yet, in isolated places or towns perhaps, in the very midst of
this abundance, the most strict search will often fail to detect
a single individual of that species ; or they may be found only
as “very rare migrants.” Were this true of a single state,
there might be some reasonable answer to the question, Why
is it? But it is equally true of every state or section of coun-
try in all North America.

The question of the position of the Sylvicolide among our
other North American birds, is one very easily disposed of as
being one merely of natural affinity. That of “ what birds

50 NEAT,

constitute the family,” though now settled with much cer-
tainty, was a much more difficult one to decide. Should we
enter into the question, as some authorities seem disposed to
do, of what features of other groups in other families do the
individuals or genera of this family possess, we shall have our
hands at once so full that a separate volume would be needed
to fully explain the relationship. We might give it the name
of SyLvANOLOGY ; and to discuss this fully would involve a
discussion of nearly two-thirds of all the species of Jnsessorial
Ornithology. The advanced student will soon discover “ like-
nesses,” as well as see in what lines to push his inquiries. For
the present, the young student had best seek to know in what
respect the included forms are lke themselves, then the resem-
blance of individua! forms to other and outside species will
open to him naturally. We will proceed, then, to give the
very difficult formula which characterizes the group.

In General: Let the young student procure a specimen of
a species of Sylvicolide, which he has shot himself or ob-
tained from some museum or dealer or thorough, systematic
ornithologist, and has been correctly named ; then, taking this
as a model, proceed to make his own diagnosis (as it is called)
of its characteristics. To do this almost any of the True
Warblers will answer. When he has carefully written out all
these evident characteristics, let him apply them to any of the
other forms in the family. He will then find that, with very
little change, they will apply equally well to every species of the
Sylvicolide. And that they will not apply, except with very
great change, to any other family of North American birds.
Then the characters of this family are, in the main, negative
characters. In the above manner, only, have I been able to
separate the group with any degree of satisfaction, either to
myself or to others.

In Particular: Size small; bill short, conical, and abrupt-
ly acute, even or very faintly notched at end ; tarsus, feet, and
toes symmetrically regular and not, any of them, abnormally
developed ; tarsus scutellate ; wing and tail regular and sym-

OF ORNITHOLOGY a1

metrical in length, shape, and outline, and are not abnormal
in shape or looks; the tail is composed of 12 feathers, and
the wing quills (primaries) of 9, and there is no spurious or
half-sized Ist quill, that is equal in size to the other long
quills. Only a very few of the members of this family vary
from the form of the typical warbler. If left to his own
course, a young beginner in the study of this group will, with-
out doubt, pick out — from pure innate contrariness — these
very forms and, thenceforward, can never make head nor tail
of the group which will remain, forever after, an untangled
mystery by reason of the disassociation of ideal.

The typical Warbler, then, determines easily this family
from all others preceding or following it. The different indi-
viduals composing it fall, naturally, into three sub-families.
And here just a word about the positions which are now, and
were formerly, occupied by the members, or I should rather
say by the species and even genera, of this family. I shall dis-
cuss as little as possible what other writers do and _ say, or
where they place this species or that ; our work is, if possi-
ble, to simplify and to harmonize ornithology — not to tear it
to pieces and so complicate it that nobody can make head nor
tail of it. What if several of the genera were formerly clas-
sified with other families? That is no reason why, in tne
light of our present more perfect knowledge, we should not
group together all those species which present the closest tech-
nical resemblances. This we have aimed at doing throughout
the present work, rather than to speculate upon what older
writers have incorrectly thought and said in the matter.

To assist the student in the better separation of this family
we repeat here, for reference merely, the excellent divisions
made use of by Professor Baird in the “ Pacifie Railroad Re-
port.” So very little change will be required to conform the
table to our present classification that the differences, if any,
will become apparent upon very slight examination. As his
family Sylvicolide embraces the Larks and the Tanagers, we
will begin with his Sub-family Sylvicoline.

52 MANUAL

“SYLVICOLIN ®. — Bill rather slender, conical, or depressed. Culmen
straight or convex. Hind toe shorter than the middle; the claws all much
curved; hind claw not conspicuously longer than the middle one. When
the hind toe is lengthened, it is usually in the digit not the claw. Tertials
generally not longer than the secondaries.

It may be conveniently divided into the following sections:

A ‘Rictus with short bristles or none.
Mytorittex. — Bill notched. Hind toe longer than the lateral

ones, its claw shorter than the digit. Wings pointed. Tail
nearly even, spotted.

GroTrutyee& — Bill notched Legs very stout. Hind toe longer
than the lateral; its claw equal to the digit. Tail unspotted.

TorerRIE&. — Bill without notch, very stout, much compressed.
Commissure and culmen both much curved.

VerRMIvorRE®. — Bill entirely without a notch; conical, slender,
weak, acutely pointed.

SyivicoLe&. — Bill notched. Wings pointed. Hind toe equal to

the lateral.

B_ Rictus with well-developed bristles.

SeropHAGE®. — Bill depressed, broad, notched at tip.”

MntIoviLteE® contsins the genera Mniotilta, Parula, and Protonotaria.
GEOTHLYPE® contains Geothlypis and Oporornis.

IcTERIE® contains Jcteria.

VERMIVORE® contains Helmitherus.

SYLYICOLE® contains Seinrus and Dendreca.

SETOPHAGE® contains Myiodioctes, Cardellina, and Setophaga.

We will ourselves divide the family into 3 sub-families :

Sub-family a SYLVICOLINA True Warblers

Size small or not large; bill short, slender, and conical —
typical of the family, in fact, and generally with rictal bris-
tles; wings typical and longer than the tail excepting in
Geothlypis ; tail nearly if not quite even and not conspicuously
large or wide. (Hook of bill, and noteh when present, very
inconspicuous.) Nostrils free from bristles.

The True Warblers, (this sub-family was formerly called
Wood Warblers, in distinction from the Ground and Swamp
Warblers of Audubon and. other writers,) are, then, the most

OF ORNITHOLOGY 53

difficult of all the members of the family to separate into gen-
era and species, and to accurately determine ; yet they are not
so difficult as would seem at first sight for all that. The ge-
nus Siurus (or Setwrus as it used incorrectly to be called) alone
would seem to stagger the novice. Why should it be placed
here? The reason for this will appear later on.

_“ Keys ” without number have been invented as “ infalli-
ble guides ” for the determining of the genera and species of
our American warblers ; most of these are worthless, as they
deal either only with the adult males, or with adult specimens,
or the migrant dress, or with partial states of plumage: But
it must be remembered, that with most of our species the
“dress ” of the male differs from that of the female, and that
of both male and female from that of the young-of-the-year
bird ; again, the spring dress often differs from the fall dress,
and both or all together from that of the summer or breeding
plumage. In any event, the student had far better deal with
characters that will decide the genus and species, under any
circumstances, than to fill his head with partial characters that
cannot always be relied on.

GeneRA, Mniotilta, The Creeping Warblers (2 species).

Parula, The Blue Yellow-backed Warbler (with 3 species).

Protonotaria, The Prothonotary Warbler.

Helmintherus, (same as Helminthotherus and Helmitherus) The
Worm-eating Warbler and ally.

Helminthophaga, or Helminthophila, allies of the Tennessee
Warbler (12 species).

Peucedramus, The Olive Warbler.

Dendreca (often spelled Dendroica) The True Warblers (25 or
26 species).

Siurus (wrongly Seiwrus) The Oven Birds (4 species).

Oporornis, The Connecticut Warbler and ally.

Geothlypis, The Ground Warbler.

[Siurus, at one time regarded an almost typical thrush, agrees with the
Warblers in nearly every important particular save that of size alone].

Sup-cenera, Helonea is often made a sub-genus of Helmintherus, for the
accommodation of Swainson’s Warbler; Perissoglossa, often used as a dis-
tinct generic name, is really a sub-genus of Dendreca, and used for the
Cape May Warbler.

54 MANUAL

The young student will have his hands full if he attempts
to follow the synonymy of the genera and species of this or of
any other large family of North American Birds. The ques-
tion of to-day is, what is? not so much what used to be ?

Sub-family 4 ICTERIINZ Chats

This sub-family seems to be framed for one genus and two
species. It has been, by some authorities, put with the War-
blers, from which it differs in its large size, huge bill (for a
warbler), long and rather broad tail, short wings, and absence
of rictal bristles of any kind. The commissure is strongly
curved, and the whole bill much compressed. It is different
from any of the other members of the family, and really ought
to stand apart from them. It might, with propriety, be called
the ‘ Mountain Warbler.” Excepting the bill, it much re-
sembles a very large Geothlypis. It is, however, a true War-
bler and has usually been always classed with the Warblers.

Genus, Icteria, (2 species).

Sub-family - SETOPHAGINAE Flycatching
Warblers

The Flyeatching Warblers are at once distinguished from
the True or Wood Warblers. Their name implhes their dif:
ference, which is especially noticeable in the shape and size of
the bill. In size they resemble the True Warblers, as also in
shape and general appearance of the wings and tail. The
nostrils are, however, quite covered by the long bristles at the
base of the bill, the tip of which is strongly hooked and
notched. The base of the bill is depressed and broad, some-
what like that of a flycatcher, and reminding one strongly of
that bird. To a novice the illusion is complete, especially
when these birds are actively employed in catching insects.
Yet they are, except in this one particular, warblers strictly,
and have nearly all of the characteristics of True Warblers.
The Setophagine have been placed in various relations with
the other birds of the family, though recent writers agree,
pretty generally, in placing them after the Icteriine.

OF ORNITHOLOGY

Or
Ot

Genera, Myiodioctes, The True Flycatching Warblers (5 species).
Cardellina, The Red-faced Warbler.
Setophaga, The Redstarts (3 species).

The generic names of the Warblers seem to be pretty gen-
erally accepted, and to be without equivalents either in generic
or sub-generic terms. The mere fact of a genera having a
synonym does not necessarily give it a right to a place in our
system without sufficient other reasons. Only when a species
differs essentially from the type of the genera, can it receive
the designation of sub-genera. When two or more writers of
equal merit differ in their naming, and reasons for naming,
any given genera, and when each review the past field and
state their reasons for the change, do we feel justified in giy-
ing to both names a generic equivalence. This does not
make either name a synonym of the other, strictly speaking,
unless, by mutual or universal consent or a more complete
knowledge of the species, one writer is proved right and the
other wrong in his premises, or one for any reason takes the
. preference of the other.

FAMILY X COEREBIDAE THE HONEY
CREEPERS

Derivation seems uncertain

This family is distinguished at once from the last, which it
very closely resembles, by the peculiar character of the bill,
—and in this respect it greatly resembles the Certhiide or
Creepers. Though its generic name, Certhiola, is said to be a
“‘ diminutive of Latin certhia, a creeper,” I can find no deri-
vation for the family name. It belongs in the tropics, and is
not usually regarded as strictly a North American native spe-
cies. It might be rightly called the Creeper Warbler.

Genus, Certhiola.

The exact position of this curious bird cannot be stated, at
present, with any degree of positiveness, and authors have
placed it at different times in very different relations. It ap-
pears to be a straggler here representing a single species.

56 MANUAL
FAMILY XI TANAGRIDAE THE TANAGERS

Derivation not certain. The latest German authorities say ‘from the
portuguese ¢tangara”’; the tangarine is a species of orange, so may refer
to the color; the name of a city in Greece.

This is another group for whose family name I can find no
satisfactory derivation, and whose precise position would seem
somewhat uncertain. It resembles both the Warblers and the
Finches, and would seem to stand, naturally, between them
—but then where should we put the intervening groups?
Such families as this show the advanced student how unsatis-
factory our present classification really is.

The characters of the family are very marked: The form
of the bill (like that of a finch or sparrow) with the peculiar
tooth in the center of the edge of the upper mandible ; nostrils
small, rounded, and basal; tarsus scutellate ; and wings with
9 primaries. Being a tropical family the North American
species are few.

Genus Pyranga, The Tanagers (2 species). [Both Wilson and Audubon
give the genus name Yanagra, corresponding to the family designation].

Some writers plaee the Mexican straggler Hwphonia in this family; but
others connect the Cerebide with the Tanagers by means of it. We see
no reason for giving it any further special mention, it being an extra-lim- ’

ital form.

FAMILY XII HIRUNDINIDAE THE
SWALLOWS

Latin hirundo, a swallow.

The exact position of the Swallow family, like that of many
others, is not, at present, satisfactorily settled. Some place it
before and some after the Vireos and Shrikes. 1t is one of
those groups which, like a good many others, shows us how
next to impossible it is to arrange the divisions of the Brrps
in anything like a continuous line of ascending and descend-
ing likenesses, and so give color to the tree-theory or rather
tree-representation which is so often used to express the vari-
ous relations and inter-relations of all groups of both Animal
and Vegetable Kingdoms. For the present, we must be con-

OF ORNITHOLOGY 57

tented with their present position. The peculiarities of the
family are striking. Few could mistake the general appear-
ance of a Swallow: The long, pointed wings; the delicate
yet stiffened feathers of the tail ; the little legs, feet, and toes ;
the short, wide and compressed bill, give the familiar features
of a Swallow at first sight. More particularly, we have:
wings of 9 quills, nicely graduated from the first, which is the
longest, to the last, which is about half the length of the first ;
tail usually forked more or less, outer feathers often very
long ; bill short, broad, and compressed, with deep gape ; nos-
trils various in the different groups and usually without rictal
bristles ; feet small and weak ; tarsus scutellate (in front), feet
weak but claws strong. The head and mouth resemble very
strongly those of the Goatsuckers and Swifts.

Genera, Hirundo, The Barn Swallow and allies (4 species).

Cotyle, The Bank Swallow (2 species).
Progne, The Martins (2 species).

Sus-cenerA, Lridoprocne, Tachycineta, Petrochelidon, of Htrunpo; and
Stelgidopteryx of Coryun. Nore. — Stelgidopteryx often assumes
the position of a true genus, but we do not think that its similarity to Co-
tyle and its dissimilarity to the other swallows will properly admit to this.

FAMILY XIII AMPELIDAE THE WAXWINGS

Greek ampelion, “a diminutive singing bird, species not determined,
doubtless one of the ‘ Motacille’ the ‘Warbler tribe’ that frequent
vineyards; hence the name ampelos, a vineyard.”

Were this family comprised of the Waxwings alone there
would be little difficulty in disposing of it satisfactorily ; but
the species which, for want of a better place, are associated
with them render the whole group one very difficult to man-
age, at least in respect to its position. It is pretty generally
conceded to have three sub-families, which, however, agree in
having the: bill short, stout, compressed, and wide at base, tip
notched ; rictal bristles, if any, few and short ; basal portion
of toes more or legs joined to each other. The species of the
family are so few that they are easily studied individually.
The common Cedar Bird is a good type of the group. To

08 MANUAL

trace the various positions which these species have, at differ-
ent times, occupied would be a work for the specialist. We
will not change them from their usual order.

Sub-family 2 AMPELINZ Wazwings.
Always known by the even tail with its wax-like append-
ages (except in rare cases and usually immature specimens).

Genus, Ampelis, (2 species). [Synonym, Bombycilla].

Sub-family / (Ptiliogonidine), (Ptilogonydine), and
(Ptilogonatine),
have all been used to designate this group, sometimes with
and sometimes without other members of the family.
GeneRA. Phainopepla, The Black-crested Flycatcher. (Occurs also un-

der the names of Phenopepla, Ptilogonys, and Cichlopsis, all valid as.
GENERIC specifications).

Sub-family - MYIADESTINA:

Genus, Myiadestes, The Townsend’s Solitaire.

It will be noticed, in the study of the individual, that Sub-
family a is very distinct from the Sub-families 6 and c. As

Sub-family a. Wings with first quill spurious or nearly
so; tail short ; frontal feathers extending beyond the
nostrils, and rictal bristles absent.

Sub-families 6 and c. Wings with first quill one-half (or
nearly so) that of the other long quills, tail long ;
frontal feathers not extending beyond the nostrils,
and rictal bristles present.

This combining of the Sub-families 6 and ¢, as above, usu-
ally results in three genera :

Ptiliogonys, Cichlopsis, and Myiadestes.

The first two of these are, really, valid as distinct and sep-
arate GENERA, and not as mere synonyms for each other, al-
though often so used. -

The species of Sub-families 6 and ¢ are, by some author-
ities, still placed with the Thrushes or near them.

9

Or

OF ORNITHOLOGY

The affinity of any of the species of this family with the
Flycatchers is, now, entirely out of mention; though Myia-
destes does somewhat resemble them, thus supposedly involy-
ing the other members of the family, the relationship is much
nearer to the Shrikes. We teel justified, however, in our pres-
ent disposition of them.

FAMILY XIV LANIIDAE THE SHRIKES

Latin lanius, “ an executioner.”

Bill very strong, stout, and powerful, — basal two-thirds
greatly compressed and wide at the base; tip hooked quite
abruptly and distinctly toothed and notched ; tail long, and
with each pair of feathers, from the center or longest ones,
smaller than the preceding pair; primaries 10, the 1st about

one-half the longest ; tarsus scutellate in front and on sides.

Genus, Lanius, (4 species). (Collurio or Collyrio are syNONYMs).

FAMILY XV VIREONIDAE THE VIREOS or
GREENLETS

Latin vireo, “a kind of bird, according to some the Green-finch.”

It is only within a few years that the Vireos have been sep-
arated and isolated from the Shrikes. They were formerly
made a second sub-family of, and secondary to, the latter. If
we compare a Vireo with a Shrike it will be readily seen that
the former is a diminutive of the latter, to all appearances :
The bill is smaller, more cylindrical and less compressed —
though still notched and toothed — and the tail is not gradu-
ated but even and short; wing of 10 primaries, though the
Ist is often rndimentary and somewhat displaced, and at other
times very short and somewhat spurious (often called spurious) ;
size small ; tarsus scutellate in front and not on the sides.

Genus, Vireo, (16 species).
Sus-cenera, Vireosylvia, and Lanivireo.
Many of the Vireos formerly appeared under the generic

name of Lanius, but this only serves to show their former con-
nection with the Shrikes proper.

60 MANUAL

Nore. — Both the Shrikes and the Vireos would seem, at
first, to resemble several other families, more especially the
Flycatchers, but a few moments consideration will convince
one of the great gap that lies between the two, and show how
distinct and individual they really are.

FAMILY XVI FRINGILLIDAE THE FINCHES
SPARROWS ETC |
Latin Fringilla, “the chaffinch.”

The Fringillide are, without doubt, the largest and the
most complex family with which the student will have to deal,
in his study of Ornithology, though the character of a Finch
or of a Sparrow would not easily be mistaken. Next to them,
on the American continent at least, come the Sylvicolide, of
which we have already treated. Their numbers are immense,
their forms varied — often greatly and curiously so — and
they are distributed so universally in almost every possible
and conceivable location, as to render them, at once, among
the most familiar objects of the animate creation in any given
location. Sparrows and Finches occur everywhere through-
out North America, in greater or less numbers, at all times of
the year: As migrants, replaced by distinct and separate spe-
cies at different times of the year, as summer residents, and
again as winter visitors and residents of still different species
and varieties. All sorts of localities have their peculiar spe-
cies. Their food is varied and almost anything that comes in
their way, though, for the most part, consisting of grains and
seeds. ‘They are, generally speaking, gregarious — often go-
ing about in immense flocks, especially in the spring, fall, and
winter. Most of them are fine singers ; and their colors, with
a few exceptions , are modest and somber.

The family is well characterized, in general, by the old-time
name for the group of “‘ Conirostres ” or cone-bills, or the cone-
shaped bills. Though few people would mistake the general
form, shape, and contour of a Finch or Sparrow, yet to define
properly the family were a very difficult thing to do. It were

OF ORNITHOLOGY 61

easier to say what birds were “ fringilline ” in their character
than to give the reason therefor. It is as difficult, also, to say
exactly where, in the natural sequence of the family, each spe-
cies should be placed. There are species in other families,
and even whole families, which so greatly resemble the Frin-
gillide as to leave the question still an open one, as to whether
or no they should rightly be placed with them. We adopt,
however, the seemingly best adapted definition for the whole
group meagre and unsatisfactory as it is:

Bill short, stout, conical, and tapering abruptly to the sharp-
pointed tip from a base whose diameter, in either direction, is,
very frequently, nearly if not quite as great as the length of
the whole bill. The bill itself forms the best means of char-
acterizing the family. Tarsus scutellate in front, undivided
on the sides, and ridged behind ; wings with nine primaries
ouly ; tail with twelve feathers: the size and shape of both,
however, are subject to almost endless variations. The angle
of the commissure at the base of the bill is often made the
prominent characteristic of the family — but this does not
seem as decided throughout all the species as the general cone
shape of the bill itself. The nostrils are prominent but un-
certain in position, shape, and general appearance and general
surroundings ; the rictal bristles, also, are not constant.

I have found it very advantageous to the student, in this
group especially, as well as in many of the others, to have him
or her secure one or several typical forms, then write out a
careful analysis of their chief characteristics —even going
into minute particulars. He can, with this as a guide, com-
pare his other genera with it and note how they deviate from
this type. The Song Sparrow, the White-throated Sparrow,
or the Purple Finch, are good species for this purpose.

The attempts to arrange this family into sub-families have
been so intricate and unsuccessful that we shall not enter into
a discussion of the question here.

Professor Baird’s separation of the Finches is of especial

62 MANUAL

interest and well worth a great deal of very careful study. It
is not intended to be strictly scientific, being more a natural
grouping of like with like; yet it will not be very difficult to
compare it with our present systems of classification, as, for
the most part, the genera treated of and named are of the
same equivalence as our present ones.

“Family Fringillide.
I divide all the United States species into 4 sub-families,
briefly characterizable as follows : —

1. CoccoTHRAUSTIN &.— Bill variable, from enormously large
to quite small; with the base of the upper mandible
almost always provided with a close-pressed fringe of
bristly feathers (more or less conspicuous) concealing
the nostrils. Wings very long and pointed, usually
one-half to one-third longer than the forked or emar-
ginate tail. Tarsi short.

2. SPIZELLIN#&.—Embracing all the plain-colored, sparrow-
like species marked with longitudinal stripes. Bill
conical, always rather small; both mandibles about
equal. Tarsi lengthened. Wings and tail variable.
Lateral claws never reaching beyond the base of the
middle claw.

3. PASSERELLIN#®.—Sparrow-like species with triangular
spots beneath. Legs, toes, and claws very stout; the
lateral claws reaching nearly to the end of the mid-
dle ones.

4. Spizin«z.—Brightly-colored species usnally without any
streaks. Bill usually very large and much curved ;
lower mandible wider than the upper. Wings mod-
erately long. Tail variable.

Under sub-family 1 we have,

A.—Bill enormously large and stout; the lateral outline as
long as that of the skull. Culmen gently curved.

Genus, Hesperiphona.

OF ORNITHOLOGY 63

B.—Bill smaller, with the culmen more or less curved ; the
lateral outline not so long as the skull. Wings about one-
third longer than the tail or a little more ; first quill shorter
than the second. Claws considerably curved and _ thickened ;
hinder one most so, and almost inappreciably longer or even
shorter than the middle anterior one. Tarsus shorter than the
middle toe. Lateral toes unequal.

GENERA, Pinicola, Carpodacus, and Chrysomitris.

C.—Hind claw considerably longer than the middle anterior
one, with about the same curvature ; claws attenuated towards

the point and acute. Lateral toes about equal. Wings usu-
ally almost one-half longer than the deeply forked tail.

A.—Points of mandibles overlapping.
Genus, Curvirostra.
B.—Points of mandibles not overlapping.

GENERA, @giothus and Leucosticte.

D.—Hind claw much the largest ; decidedly less curved than
the middle anterior one. Tarsi longer than the middle toe.
Lateral toes equal; reaching about to the base of the middle
claw. Hind toe as long or longer than the middle one. Bill
very variable ; always more or less curved and blunted. Tail
slightly emarginate or even. Wings one-half longer than the
tail. First quill as long as the second.

Genus, Plectrophanes.

Under sub-family 2 we have,

A.—Tail small and short; wings considerably or decidedly
longer than the tail, owing either to the elongation of the wing
or to the shortening of the tail. Lateral toes shorter than
the middle, without its claw. Species streaked above and
below.

A.—Thickly streaked everywhere above, on the sides,
and across the breast. Wings pointed , longest pri-

64 MANUAL

maries considerably longer than the secondaries.
Tail forked.

GENERA, Centronyx, Passerculus, and Poocetes.

B.—Moderately streaked above, on the sides, and
on the breast ; the dorsal streaks broader, the others
fainter, than in the last. Wings short, reaching a
little beyond the base of the tail. Not much dif-
ference between the primaries and secondaries. Tail
short, graduated, and the feathers lanceolate, acute.

GENERA, Coturniculus and Ammodramus.

B.—Tail longer and broader ; nearly or quite as long, some-
times a little longer, than the wings, which are rather length-
ened. The primaries considerably longer than the second-
aries. None of the species streaked beneath, and the back
alone streaked above.

A.—Tail rounded or slightly graduated.

GENERA, Chondestes, Zonotrichia, Jnnco, and Poospiza.

B.—Tail decidedly forked ; a little shorter than the
wing, sometimes a little longer.

Genus, Spizella.

C.—Tail lengthened and graduated ; decidedly longer than
the wings, which are very short, scarcely extending beyond
the extreme base of the tail. Feet reaching but little beyond
the middle of the tail. Species all streaked above ; streaked
or nearly unicolor beneath. No white on wings or tail. Outer
lateral toe the longer. First quill not the shortest of the
primaries.

GENERA, Melospiza and Peucea.

D.—Tail rather short, and much graduated ; longer than the
wings: the midrib more median. Culmen curved. Tarsus
considerably longer than middle toe. Outer toe longer. But
little difference in the length of the quills; the outer ones

OF ORNITHOLOGY 6

or

much rounded; even the second quill is shorter than any
other primary except the first.

Genus, Embernagra.
Under sub-family 3 we have simply the genus Passerella.

Sub-family 4 contains,
A.—Tail decidedly shorter than the wings ; nearly even.

A.—Bill elongated ; upper mandible rather deeper,
or as deep as the lower. Feet large and strong.

GENERA, Calamospiza and KHuspiza.
B.—Bill stouter, and more curved. above; upper

mandible generally not so deep as the lower. Feet
smaller.

Genera, Guiraca and Cyanospiza.

B.—Wings and tail of the species about equal in size.

Genus, Spermophila.

C.—Wings much shorter than the tail, which in broad and
graduated ; primaries graduated ; the first seldom longer than
the secondaries.

A.—Head crested. Prevailing color red. Bill red.
Genera, Pyrrhuloxia and Cardinalis.

p.—Head not crested. No red. Bill dusky.
Genus, Pipilo.”

The North American genera and species of the Fringillide,
at least the most prominent ones, may be briefly enumerated
as follows :

Genera, Hesperophona, The Evening Grosbeak.
Pinicola, The Pine Grosbeak.

66

MANUAL

Pyrrhula, The Cassin’s Finch (or Bulfinch).

Passer, The House and Mountain Sparrows, [imported and Nat-
uralized from Europe, ]| (2 species).

Carpodacus, The Purple Finches (3 to 6 species).

Loxia, The Crossbills (3 species).

Leucosticte, The Rosy Finches (5 species).

Agiothus, [suB-GENERA, Linota,] The Linnets. Red-poles, ete.
(5 species).

Chrysomitris, The Pine Finch or Linnet.

Astragalinus, The American Goldfinch and 5 others.

Plectrophanes, The Snow Bunting.

Centrophanes, The Longspurs (3 species).

Rhynchophanes, The Bay-winged Longspur.

Passerculus, The Savanna Sparrow (8 or 9 species).

Pocwcetes, The Grass Finches (2 species).

Coturniculus, The Yellow-winged and Henslow Sparrows or
Buntings (4 species).

Ammodramus, The Sea-side and Sharp-tailed Finches (4 species).

Melospiza, The Song and Swamp Sparrows (9 species).

Peucea, The Summer Finches, (7 species).

Amphispiza, The Sage Sparrows (3 species).

Junco, The Snow-birds (8 species).

Spizella, The Chipping Sparrows and allies (7 species).

Zonotrichia, The White-throated Sparrow and allies (6 species).

Chondestes, The Lark Finches (2 species).

Passerella, The Fox Sparrows (4 species).

Calamospiza, The Lark Bunting.

Spiza, The Black-throated Bunting and ally.

Zamelodia. The Rose-colored Grosbeak and ally.

Guiraca, The Blue Grosbeak.

Passerina, Yhe Nonpariels or Painted Finches (5 species).

Pyrrhuloxia, The Texas Cardinal.

Cardinalis, The Cardinal Red-bird and ally.

Pipilo, The Towhee Buntings (12 species).

Embernagra, The Texas Sparrow.

A comparison of the most recent writers, in fact of a ma-

jority of writers, for the past fifty years, fails to show any
very great deviation from the above generic names —as to
the form and spelling of the name. Many of the species as-
signed to these genera are rare, and either Alascan, Texan, or
Mexican forms. Again, a few of them may be somewhat ques-
tionable. A large number of them are, really, mere geo-

OF ORNITHOLOGY 67

graphical varieties of some given type form. Taking all these
facts into account, we can easily imagine, and in reality prove,
that nearly every genera possesses a typical representative of
that genera. The shifting of species from one genera to an-
other, though strictly in accordance with a commendable spirit
sometimes unwisely persistently manifested however to ar-
range the species thus typically under their appropriate genera,
must be studied under the direction of some competent au-
thority or looked for in the various tables of SYNONYMS which
are given by so many of our ornithological writers.

It were not a part of our plan to characterize the genera of
our North American birds. To simply mention them in what
we consider their best systematic position, for the present at
any rate, were enough for our purpose here.

FAMILY XVII ICTERIDAE THE BLACKBIRDS
STARLINGS ORIOLES and GRACKLES

Latin icterus, “a yellow bird.” Greek ikteros.

This is one of the most familiar and attractive of the fami-
lies of North American birds. Old and young turn to it with
pleasure and delight. The number of species is not great ;
but they are distributed everywhere, and their well-known
forms are looked for with eager expectations, each year,
throughout the length and breadth of our land. It is also a
very satisfactory family with which to deal scientifically, as it
is well defined and definitely grouped. Its likeness to the
Fringillide is, however, in many important respects, very
close ; yet a glance at the general form of the birds, the bill,
aud the general coarseness of the plumage, will at once show
a difference, between the two — notwithstanding the fact that
both retain the 9 wing primaries and the angulated commis-
sure to the bill. The bill conforms to the Corvide, and is in
general nearly or quite as long as the head; it is long with
sharp edges rather than short with dull edges, and is un-
notched at the tip; rictus without bristles. Legs strong and
stout. Asa rule the tail and wings are rather long in propor-

68 MANUAL

tion to the body of the bird, yet the difference between them
and the Corvide is a permanent one and quite well defined.
There are four sub-families, all perfectly natural ones.

Sub-family 7 AGELAXINA| [AGELAIN A) Blackbirds
This sub-family is known as the Slackbirds, in distinction

from that of the Grackles which ase also called blackbirds but
wrongly so — strictly speaking. The distinction might per-
haps be better preserved by calling the present sub-family the
Swamp Blackbirds, as the name much better illustrates the
characteristics of its various members. These birds are among
our most familiar early Spring arrivals, and in later Spring
and late Autumn swarm in thousands and one might almost
say tens of thousands, doing immense damage to the grain
fields of the farmer. The type, the Red-winged Blackbird, is
familiar to every one at all acquainted with the blackbirds.
It is hard to give characters that will determine absolutely,
from a scientific standpoint, either with or without the speci-
men before one, the peculiar features of the group. We are
obliged therefore, with this as with so many other families,
to select a typical specimen, describe it, and compare with it,
and the student will soon form his own distinguishing charac-
teristics. Bill, feet, and general plumage, however, have an
appearance not easily mistaken. The main sure feature is that
the bill is not longer than the head. The genera are separable
from each other with great distinctness. There are four gen-
era, all quite constant. The predominant color is black.
GeNERA, Dolichonyx, The Bobolink.

Molothrus, The Cowbirds (3 species).

Ageleus [or Agelaius], The Swamp or Marsh Blackbirds (3

species).
Xanthocephalus, The Yellow-headed Blachbird.

These genera are without sub-genera or synonyms of any importance, as
are also most of the other genera of the family.

Sub-family 6 STURNELLINA Starlings
The well-known single representative of this snb-family

OF ORNITHOLOGY 69

(with its few varieties) is called indiscriminately the Starling
and the Meadow Lark ; but by whichever name it goes it is
always distinguishable by its yellow breast and streaked back,
and by its bill which is always equal to or much longer than
its head, coupled with the peculiar stiffness of its tail feathers.
These birds are well-known features of our meadows all the
Spring, Summer, and Autumn.

Genus, Sturnella, The Meadow Larks (3 species).

Sub-family - ICTERINZ Orioles

This is another sub-family created for a single genus, yet of
sufficient prominence and distinction to be so treated. The
Orioles are not, however, with a single exception, as familiar
universally as many others of the family. The Orchard Ori-
ole, for instance, will often escape most careful search even in
localities where it is a common summer resident, and must be
searched for carefully to be detected at all. While the Black-
birds and the Girackles are eminently gregarious, the Orioles
and the Starlings are not so strictly speaking. Again, in the
two former groups the bill and the legs are both stout and
strong ; in the two latter (especially in the Orioles) they are
weak and slender. In thé Orioles the bill is not longer than
the head, and the claws are strongly curved as is not the case
in the other three sub-families. The plumage, also, serves to
distinguish them.

Genus, Icterus, The Orioles (8 species).

Oriolus might, by some, be regarded as a sub-genus, by
others a distinct genus, but we see no reason to use the name
at all at present, it is misleading and involves species in other
sub-families. We simply note it to answer an otherwise per-
tinent inquiry.

Sub-family 7 QUISCALINZ Grackles
The Grackles strongly resemble the true Blackbirds, and
their predominant color is black. The peculiar gloss of the

70 MANUAL

plumage and blackbird-like bill and claws are present, yet
there is a distinction. The bill is as long as or longer than the
head, the legs are long, the tail is long, and, comparatively,
the wings are short ; were there no other characteristics these
alone would be sufficient to distinguish the group. The care-
ful study of the bill will show other well-defined differences.
The two genera are constant.

Genera, Scolecophagus, The Rusty Blackbirds or Grackles (2 species).
Quiscalus, The Crow Blackbirds or Grackles (6 species).

FAMILY XVIII CORVIDAE THE CROWS
AND JAYS

Latin corvus, the raven.

Few persons would mistake a Crow for any other bird, yet,
strange to say, when we come to consider the family to which
it belongs, and all the members of that family, we are again
baulked, as in many other instances, for a precise definition
of it. This only shows, more conclusively than ever, how
truly defective a great deal of our classification really is.
The number of families which individuals of the Crow family
closely resemble is very great, and we have not space to enter
largely into this subject. If you define the Titmice you de-
scribe a miniature Crow or Jay; if, on the other hand, you
judge merely by resemblance, at a little distance, your Crow
becomes a gigantic Grackle; yet, technically even, nobody
would ever think seriously of combining any of the individ-
uals of either family with those of the other.

The general characters of the Corvide are: Bill stout, regu-
larly tapering to its acute point and not longer than the head,
and altogether a very typical bill; nostrils more or less con-
cealed by tufts of stiff bristly feathers which are directed for-
wards towards the tip of the bill; tarsus scutellate in front
and grooved ; wings of ten primaries, with the first about half
the second in length ; tail of twelve feathers and, though va-
rying greatly in shape, is generally rather long and always
rounded or graded. Aside from these characters, the general

OF ORNITHOLOGY 71

appearance of the group is not easily to be mistaken. There
are two sub-families, though it is rather difficult to positively
define either of them. The shifting of the species has been
noticeable in both genera.

Sub-family 2 CORVINA True Crows.

Bill long and equal to head ; tail barely rounded and much
shorter than in sub-family 6 ; wings rather long and flattened,
longer than the tail.

‘GENERA, Corvus, The True Crows and Ravens (6 species).

Picicorvus, The Nutcracker Crow.
Gymnocitta, The Blue Jay-Crow.

It is a source of great satisfaction that modern writers have not tangled up
the good old name of Corvus, at present, however, we go no farther than
genera; Gymnocitta is also spelled Gymnokitta.

Sub-family 6 GARRULINZA Jays
Bill shorter than head; tail long and much rounded or
more or less graduated ; wings shortened and outwardly some-
what convex, equal to or shorter than the tail.
GENERA, Psilorhinus, The Brown Jay.
Pica, The Magpies (2 species).
Cyanocitta, The Blue Jays (5 species).
Amphelocoma, The Crested Jays (5 species).
Aanthura, The Green Jay.
Perisoreus, The Canada Jay and allies (5 species).

Cyanurus (or Cyanura) and Garrulus are, in the main, simply syNo-
Nyns for the Jay family in general, exclusive of the Magpies. The names,
especially that of Cyanurus, is even now preferred by many writers.

‘There seems to be no well defined suB-GENERA.

The student must compare these two sub-families thorough-
ly, by means of specimens, and strive to find, if possible, more
fixed characters than the present ones which will conform for
all the members of each.

The European Starling has been reported as having “ Strag-
] 8 8

gled to Greenland in one known instance.” It belongs to a

genus Sturnus, and some writers give it a position in our North

72 MANUAL

American fauna; but the probability of its having been an es—
caped specimen, or brought over to this country in some ship,
or otherwise “ straggled ” from its own peculiar habitat, liter-
ally, is at once suggested. It is not strictly then an American
bird, and should not yet be recorded as such.

FAMILY XIX TYRANNIDAE THE FLY-
CATCHERS

Latin tyrannus, a despot, a tyrant.

The Flycatchers form what is known as the group of soNG—
LESS, in distinction from the sincInG, Passerine Birds. Set
off from the great mass of SINGING BirDs, in a group by
themselves, one would naturally expect that the distinguish-
ing characteristics of this single family would be so marked as
to be instantly recognized. Here again we are brought face
to face with the incompleteness and inconsistencies of our
present classification. The fact that any specimen we may
have before us is a “ true flycatcher” alone settles our point
indisputably.

Among the essential qualifications for being a member of
the CLAMATORES, as given by most of our writers at pres-
ent, is the number and state of development of the stinging or
laryngeal muscles. It has been told us that the OscINEs have
four or five pair of distinct laryngeal muscles ; and that the
CLAMATORES are known by having less than four pair of la-
ryngeal muscles: Yet no less an authority than Audubon tells
us distinctly that the Nuthatches have “a single pair of large
inferior laryngeal muscles,” and includes his Ptilogonys (our
Myjiadestes) and his Culicivora (our Polioptila) in his group of
Flycatchers under the distinct understanding of having no in-
trinsic muscles to speak of. We give these examples of “ dif-
ferences of opinion ” to excite further investigation into our
complex groups — not to perplex the student — and to show a
few of the apparent inconsistencies with which even our pres-
ent classification seems burdened.

The general appearance as well as the general habits of a

»

OF ORNITHOLOGY 73

Flycatcher are familiar to any one. The general scientific
characters are as follows: Bill length of head or shorter,
flattened or compressed more or less for its whole length,
broad at base, tip fine and sharp, abruptly hooked at end and
notched, and with its edges nearly or quite straight ; mouth,
when open, large and wide; a few bristles at base of bill ;
nostrils round and situated at the end of the oblong fosse,
when present ; the tarsus is peculiar, it is scutellate (scutelle
small) all around and with a deep grove where the plates
join ; feet small and, for the most part, weak when compared
with the general activity of these birds ; tarsus about equal to
the middle toe and its claw ; wing of ten primaries, of which
the first is often the longest, and never spurious or under size,
— the outer quills subject to a greater or less degree of emar-
gination on their inner webs towards their tips ; tail of twelve
feathers, deeply forked or nearly even.

Most of the Flycatchers are more or less crested, and this
crest they can raise or lower at will. “Being strictly insect
feeders most if not all their food is captured while on the
wing. They are excessively nervous and agile creatures, sel-
dom remaining long in any one place but constantly darting
about, now here and now there, and performing most surpris-
ing evolutions while on the wing in search of food. When at
rest the peculiar and constant jerking of the tail, as if for the
purpose of balancing itself, is very noticeable. The frequent
and loud snapping noise produced by the quick closing of the
mandibles, is also a prominent peculiarity of these birds.

The North American Flycatchers are, ordinarily, separated
from the world-wide group of Flycatchers by a sub-family
TYRANNIN#. ‘This may seem necessary to some; but we fail
to see any reason why it should be thus forced upon us, with-
out any explanations, as is done by so many or our ornitho-
logical writers of to-day. We shall dispense with the usual
sub-family, and then the above family characteristics will an-
swer equally well for our present purpose. The explanation
that our classification is a universal one, while our fauna is
North American, seems a very one-sided one.

74 MANUAL

GENERA, Myiozetetes, Giraud’s Flycatcher.
Pitangus, The Derby Flycatcher.
Myiodynastes, Henshaw’s Flycatcher.
Milvulus, The Swallow-tailed Flycatchers (2 species).
Tyrannus, The Tyrant Flycatchers (5 species).
Myiarchus, The Crested Flycatchers (5 species).
Sayornis, The Pewee Flycatchers (3 species).
Contopus, The Olive-sided Flycatcher and allies (4 species).
Empidonax, The Least Flycatcher group (10 to 12 species).
Ornithion, The Small-billed Flycatcher.
Pyrocephalus, The Vermilion Flycatcher.

Several other species, mostly rare or perhaps extra-limital, may yet be ac-

corded a place in our North American fauna.

A number of synonyms for msny of the above genera, and even individual
species, are so far obsolete that we do not need to recall them at the pres-
ent time. Neither do we recollect any well-founded sub-genera, or changes
in generic signification, that need be further added here.

FAMILY XX CAPRIMULGIDAE THE GOAT-
SUCKERS

Latin caprimulgus, “a goatsucker. ,,

The name Goatsucker is more truly a tropical than a North
American name. Our species are, for the most part, called
Whippoorwills, and Nighthawks, and written either as one name
or with each syllable separated. There are but few species in
the family, and these are not easily mistaken for members of
any other family. The general appearance of any one indi-
vidual represents very well all the others.

The general characters of the family are: Bill very small,
depressed, triangular-shaped, somewhat curved, culmen very
small but gape immense ; nostrils situated near the base of the
bill, round, uncovered, and more or less tubular — that is,
raised above the level of the surrounding parts and rounded.
Tarsus short, rather weak, and partly feathered above, feet
small and weak, very short, the middle toe rather long and all
scutellate above, the anterior ones connected with a small web
at their base ; wings long and pointed, of ten primaries ; tail
rather broad and of ten feathers. Whole plumage soft, fluffy,
and more or less greasy to the touch. The above characters

OF ORNITHOLOGY 7

on

are as near representing the typical species as can be well
given in a short space, and will be found correct in the main.
The species are almost nocturnal, preferring twilight to either
day or night. Owing to the elasticity and lightness of their
plumage their flight is swift and almost noiseless.

There are two sub-families, both well defined and valid, but
only one of them belongs to our fauna, and thus the charac-
ters of the family answer equally well for us here. The gen-
era are as follows :

Genera, Nyctidromus, The Parauque Goatsucker.
Phalenoptilus, Nuttall’s Poor-will.

Antrostomus, The True Whippoorwills (3 species).
Chordeiles, The Nighthawks (4 species).

Sus-cenus, Caprimulgus of ANTROSTOMUS.
Some writers make these both separate genera, but the species are so very

similar that whichever one finally stands for the genus the other can only
take swb-generic rank.

FAMILY XXI CYPSELIDAE THE SWIFTS

Probably from the Greek kupsele, ‘a species of swallow.”

The Swifts, at least some of them, were formerly regarded
as true Swallows and included iu the genus Hirundo, but that
was years ago ; to-day we see the difference, and a vast differ-
ence it is. The well-known Chimney Swift, or Swallow as it
is often called, is typical of the family. So well known is this
species that very little need be said in general regarding the
members of the family. The group is akin to the one which
precedes it, and can be placed naturally next to it. The bill
is very small indeed and strongly resembles that of the Whip-
poorwills in miniature with a correspondingly large gape ; but
while there is an apparent notch at the end of the bill in the
former, however, there is none in the Swifts and the bristles
also are wanting; the nostrils also are exposed and barely
reached by the feathers at the base of the bill, they are elon-
gated not round ; feet small and weak and skinny, toes nearly
equal and without basal membranes — the hind toe more or
less abnormal and versatile ; wings of ten feathers, long, nar-

76 MANUAL

row, and pointed, and when the bird is at rest overlapping
each other behind ; tail of ten feathers, which are more or
less stiffened and with the mid-rib extending beyond the
feathered portion in some species. There are 2 sub-families.

Sub-family 2 CYPSELINZ True Swifts
The tarsus and toes being feathered.

Genus Panyptila (or Cypselus), The White-throated Swift.

Sub-family 6 CHAATURINZA Swallow Swifts
The tarsus and toes unfeathered and naked.

GeneRA Nephacetes (or Cypseloides), The Black Swift.
Chetura, The Chimney Swifts (2 species).

FAMILY XXII TROCHILIDAE THE HUM-
MING BIRDS

Probably Latin trochilus, “a very small bird, perhaps the Golden-crested
Wren”; Greek trochilos a name used for the “ wren.”

This is another group easily distinguishable from any other
family, at least of North American birds, and, except to fol-
low out our plan, it would not be necessary to minutely define
it here. Though similar to the Swifts in many respects they
are, in reality, unlike any other family with which we shall
have to deal. The family, however, presents a variety of feat-
ures which are similar to those in other families — individual
features, that is — for instance: the wings resemble those of
the Swifts; the base of the tongue curves back behind the
skull, as in the Woodpeckers ; with other peculiarities of struc-
ture corresponding more or less closely to those of still other
families.

Humming Birds are peculiar to the continents of North and
South America. Though mostly tropical, their variation in
shapes of bill, wings, tail, plumage, as well as in general col-
oration, is something extraordinary and remarkable. Their
food consists in great measure of insects, with a strong ad-
mixture of the honeyed sweets of the flowers about which
they so continually hover. The exclusively North American
species are few and much similar in appearance.

OF ORNITHOLOGY 77

In general: the bill is usually long, curved in a variety of
directions or straight, slender, pointed, and generally from
one-third to one-half the length of the whole bird; nostril
slits with a scale covering them and generally more or less
feathered, without rictal bristles ; wing like that of a minia-
ture Swift, of ten feathers (Ist generally the longest), small,
scythe-shaped, and very powerful for so small a bird ; tail va-
riable, of ten feathers ; feet small, weak, and, with the tarsus,
altogether peculiar. Our species are, for the most part, four
inches or under in length, which shows their comparative
smallness. Many species of the insect tribe surpass them in
size. The student will find great pleasure in making special
study of this delightful family, and it will afford him unex-
pected enjoyment. We have no sub-families to present.

GeneRA Hugenes, The Refulgent Humming-bird.
Trochilus, The Ruby-throat and ally.
Selasphorus, The Rufous Humming-birds (3 species).
Calypte, The Anna Humming-bird and ally.
Atthis, The Heloise Humming-bird.
Stellula, The Calliope Humming-bird.
Calothorax, The Lucifer Humming-bird.
Amazilia, The Dusky-tailed Humming-bird and ally.
Basilinna, The Xantus Humming-bird.
Iache, The Circe or Broad-tailed Humming-bird.

[ Calypte ame was formerly Atthis Anna, and C. coste A. coste].
Selasphorus formerly went under the genus Trochilus, but wrongly as the
genera are quite distinct.

The shifting of species from one genus to another is rare in this family.
The above are all stable genera and species, but no doubt others will be
discovered in Southwestern North America.

FAMILY XXIII TROGONIDAE THE TROGONS

Greek trogo, “to grind with the teeth,” “especially nuts and fruit.”

The family of the Zrogons is a tropical one and very char-
acteristic. The best general impression of it may be taken
from comparison with any single representative specimen. As
its name implies its bill is well suited to ‘ grind nuts and fruit
with the teeth, being very powerful and with a toothed edge.

78 MANUAL

The general appearance of both bird and plumage is peculiar
and unmistakable. ‘There is but a single individual ineluded
in our North American fauna, yet this is enough to character—
ize fully the family. It has the, Bill broad, stout, short, and
with the tip hooked and dentate ; the antrose feathers at base
extending over the nostrils; tarsus broadly plated and con-
cealed by the feathers; feet small, weak, and with the inner
anterior toe reversible ; wings short, convexed, and more or
less faleate-shaped ; tail of twelve feathers, long, and broad.
Genus Trogon, The Copper-tailed Trogon. One species without synonym..

Some authorities give the Momotus (or Motmot) a position in
the fauna of North America. It is known instantly by the
long, slightly curved, serrated-edged mandibles, and the long
central tail feathers ; the feet are “‘ syndactyle.” (These birds
have been also associated with the Alcedinide, which they re-
semble strongly).

FAMILY XXIV ALCEDINIDAE THE KING-
FISHERS
Latin alcedo [alcyon], Greek alkuon [HaLcyon] “ the kingfisher.”

This is another family easily distinguishable at sight. It is
one, also, difficult to place with accuracy ; yet the same gene-
ral similarity of many of its important features with other
birds of the ORDER associates them, and we cannot reject the
likeness. They come naturally in their present position, al-
though high authority has associated them with the Clamato-
res, as well as AFTER the Woodpeckers. They are a familiar
feature of water scenes, and their harsh, rattling cry not easily
mistakable. Their general characteristics are: Bill usually
longer than head, strong, straight, tough and hard, and like a
somewhat compressed cornucopia very sharp at the tip and
with immense gape; lower part of tibia bare, tarsus reticu-
late plainly in front and like the feet small and weak, the toes
more or less united at their base, inner toe very short ; wings
of ten primaries, long compared to the rest of the body, with
third quill generally the longest ; tail of twelve feathers, short

OF ORNITHOLOGY 19

and broad but with feathers small and slender. The typical
bird will supply many features at a glance that can be de-
pended on for all the members of the family wherever they
are to be met. The American sub-family is sufficiently char-
acterized by the above family definition.

Genus Ceryle, (2 possibly 3 species).

Synonym Alcedo.

FAMILY XXV CUCULIDAE THE CUCKOOS

Latin cuculus, “a cuckoo.”

The Cuckoos form another of those anomalous groups, of
which we have so many, which are at once difficult to place
with accuracy and hard to characterize satisfactorily. The
forms usually placed in this family are strangely varied, and,
but for certain technical characters, would hardly be supposed
to belong to the same order even. There are about six Amer-
ican species, and yet they have been placed in THREE distinct
sub-families.

The family of the Cuckoos agrees with that of the Wood-
peckers and the Parrots in having the feet_disposed in pairs,
two being anterior and two posterior (zygodactyle), it being the
“fourth ” toe which in this case is reversable. In respect to
other distinguishing marks we have: Bill about the length of
the head, barely curved, and slightly compressed ; toes short
compared to the length of the tarsus. And here we must
stop, as it is impossible to proceed any farther with satisfac-
tion. ‘The remaining external features are so different in the
different sub-families which have been formed of the group,
that we must let them speak for themselves. It was formerly
attempted to treat these sub-families as genera, but in view of
the peculiarities of form, the constancy of the characters, and
the relation to the wniversal family of Cuculide, our best
writers to-day have decided upon retaining the sub-family in
each case. Upon comparing the species, the student will
without doubt justify this decision.

80 MANUAL

Sub-family 7c CROTOPHAGINZ Anis
Tail of eight feathers; bill short, compressed, and high,
and altogether marked and peculiar, once seen not easily for-
gotten ; nostrils near the centre of the base of the upper man-
dible, exposed, oblong, and upper mandible curved down over
the under ; wings about the length of the body and slightly
concaved ; tail long and graduated ; face naked.

Genus Crotophaga, (2 species).

None of these birds are common, though the species are numerous, even
in tropical countries where they mostly reside. They live on the ground.

Sub-family / SAUROTHERINA Ground Cuckoos

Tail of ten feathers ; bill about equal to the head, still com-
pressed and with the upper mandible curving over the under,
stout though slender; rictus with bristles; tarsus long and
toes strong though still small, scutellate (both toes and tar-
sus) ; nostrils much less rounded than in a; wings much as
in a though even shorter than the body or not longer, and
more concaved ; tail long, narrow, and graduated. This, like
the former, is a rare group as well as a peculiar one. Face
feathered.

GENUS Geococcyx.

Sub-family - COCCYGINA True Cuckoos

Tail of ten feathers; bill a little shorter than the head,
stout growing more slender towards the acute tip, curved no-
ticeably, and compressed ; nostrils as in a and 6 but oblong ;
face feathered ; tarsus and feet fitted for living among the
trees and not on the ground as with a and 6, and weak ; wings
longer and more pointed than in the other groups (relatively
to the size of the body, that is) ; tail long, broad, graduated.
Genus Coccygus.
Synonym Cuculus.

Two species of this family, only, are everywhere distrib-

uted in North America, at least in the United States, and
common ; they are the Black-billed and Yellow-billed Cuckoo.

OF ORNITHOLOGY 81

FAMILY XXVI PICIDAE THE WOODPECKERS
Latin picus, a woodpecker.

The Woodpeckers constitute the last, really the first and
characteristic, family of this ORDER. Familiar, as well as pe-
culiar, and universal, this group possesses especial interest to
all lovers and observers of our birds. Few have received
more or more careful study and attention, or are more inter-
esting, than the Woodpeckers. Various as have been the clas-
sifications of these writers the simplest, as is often the case,
have proved the best and we have come back to them. One
family and a few genera serve well our purpose. Should we
enter into a careful review and revision of the field of past
and present systematists, it would occupy far too much space.
— And every one knows what a Woodpecker is. They are
found in all parts of the world (with one or two rare excep-
tions). Their food is largely insect life — principally larva,
or what the farmers often calls “ worms.” The tappings
made in garden trees by these birds are usually made to se-
cure some concealed grub, which would otherwise damage the
tree much more if let alone. They appear to seldom touch or
injure a sound tree. The prejudice against them which some,
even very intelligent, farmers possess to-day is wrong and al-
most wholly unfounded. They are eminently beneficial.

In general the features of the family are: feet disposed in
pairs, two being anterior and two posterior (zygodactyle) the
“fourth toe” being reversed ; tail feathers acuminate with
the shafts elastic and very stout, of twelve feathers, outer pair
very small; wings of ten primary quills, the first being al-
most spurious ; tarsus and toes with scutelle in front, more or
less reticulate behind — both tarsus and feet are, comparatively
speaking, short, small, and weak, yet possessing remarkable
strength and tenacity, the toes also are remarkably pliant, the
claws strong, sharp, much curved, and very tough ; the bill is
peculiar, being straight, stout, somewhat compressed, with an
awl-like, truncate tip, and is a veritable chisel. The special
study of this feature alone would be productive of much in-

82 MANUAL

terest. The tongue of most of these species sends terminal
shoots around the base of the skull by means of which it can
throw that member out to a very great length, and with its
horny, rasp-like tip secure grubs and insects from far within
the interior of the tree upon which it is in search of food.
One genus has but three feet. The student will do well to
make a careful and separate study of this family, and he will
find his interest in it increase as he progresses.

The family is generally divided into three sub-families, but
only one of them is exclusively American. In consequence
the family characteristics will stand for those of the sub-fam-
ily Pictnz.

GENERA Campephilus, The Ivory-billed Woodpecker.
Hylotomus, The Pileated Woodpecker.
Picus, The Hairy Woodpecker and 9 to 12 allies.
Xenopicus, The White-headed Woodpecker.
Picoides, The Three-toed Woodpeckers (3 species).
Sphyrapicus, The Yellow-bellied Woodpecker (and 3 allies).
Centurus, The Red-bellied Woodpecker (and 3 allies).

Melanerpes, The Red-headed Woodpecker (and 4 allies),
Colaptes, The Flickers (5 species).

As these genera are all stable, and, at present, no SUB-GENERA or SYNON—
ymMy seems to be desirable, we shall not try to puzzle the student by at-
tempting to account for o/d generic forms. The family does very well as
itis. Picoides, alone, seems to depart from the family characterization.
A study of its embryonic forms would be highly interesting.

FAMILY XXVII PSITTACIDAE THE PARROTS.
Latin psittacus, Greek psittake, a parrot; probably from their hissing
or chattering (sizo to hiss).

As there is but a single family of these curious birds, and a
single American sub-family, moreover but a single genus, in
referring back to the characterization of the ORDER, the stu-
dent will find plenty of marks by which to determine the real
position of the group. Until recently there were accorded us
but a single species, now we can innumerate two genera and
three species. They all conform to the same general type.

The curious bill, hawk-like and yet not hawk-like ; the pe-
culiar disposition and shape of the feet, being disposed in

OF ORNITHOLOGY 83

pairs, two anterior and two posterior, the “‘ fourth toe ” being
reversed (zygodactyle), as in the Woodpeckers and the Cuckoos,
and few if any other birds, we can determine the specimens
referable to this family with absolute accuracy. The general
form of the Parrot is a familiar one. That parrots should be
so rare now in North America, when formerly so abundant at
Jeast in the Southern United States, is remarkable. The or—
DER has anatomical peculiarities, also, which are fully as re-
markable as their general appearance. It is one upon which
a great deal of time may be satisfactorily used in study. We
have two genera:

GENERA Rhynchopsitta, The Thick-billed Parrot.
Conurus, The Carolina Parakeet and ally.

The above two genera and three species, owing to the paucity of forms in
this oRDER, are included here, — one genera and two species occur South
of the limits of the United States proper. Conurus carolinensis, The
Carolina Parakeet, alone represents the species common north of Mexico.

FAMILY XXVIII ALUCONIDAE THE BARN
OWLS

“Ttalian alocho, some kind of owl,” probably akin to Latin alucinor.

Strange as the arrangement may appear, at least to the un-
initiated, we find that the majority of writers of to-day agree,
almost unanimously, in separating this curious Owdl-anomaly
from the great mass of NOocTERNAL Birps oF PREy by a
separate and distinct family. Writers have for a long while
been aware that its peculiarities showed it tu be different from
the other Strigides. Until recently writers were in the habit
of placing it last instead of first on the own list. Its present
place is nof, as might at first seem to appear, from any desire
to place all the owl species in a reverse order from the usual
one. This new position results more from the fact that this
species is more typical of the Universal Order of STRIGIDEs,
perbaps, than any other of our North American species. Be
this as it may, the general position as first seems now almost
universally acknowledged. The single family, genera, and
species, referring directly to our common American Barn Owl,
is instantly recognizable.

84 MANUAL

Although we have styled our family ALUCONID#, and our
genus Aluco, it is the same as Professor Baird has styled,

“ Sub-family STRIGIN A. — Typicat Owts.

Size medium, never very large. Head large; facial dise
perfect ; bill rather long ; eyes rather small for this family ;
[Stricip#, The Owls] legs rather long, fully feathered to the
toes. Strix, LINN.

Head large, without ear tufts; eyes rather small; facial
dise perfect, and very conspicuous ; wings long; tarsi long ;
tail rather short; toes and claws rather long. This genus
contains about twelve species from all parts of the world.

STRIX PRATINCOLA, Bonaparte
The Barn Owl.”

Our present writers agree in making Aluco the name of the
genera.

FAMILY XXIX STRIGIDAE OWLS IN GEN-
ERAL

Latin striz, Greek strigz, “a screech owl.”

This family has been characterized very fully under the Or-
der and Sub-order Raprores. It is a family not easily mis-
taken under any circumstances. The main difference between
the Strigide and the Aluconide is principally an anatomical
one: The universal characteristics of the OWLS remain the
same, outwardly, with very little difference. I have given
Professor Baird’s characters for Aluco, but as he has treated it
as a sub-family under a general heading of “ Family Srrie—
1pD&,” his family characters must necessarily include charac-
ters which will answer equally well for both our Aluconidee
and our Strigide. This might prevent our using his Family
Strigide characters for our Family Strigide characters. And
yet, as may be seen from above, the real difference is very
slight and chiefly an anatomical one. So, as a purely technical
matter, we find ourselves in a real quandry for a proper diag-
nosis for our present Family. Many writers make no sub-

OF ORNITHOLOGY 85

families of our American Owls, but treat only with generic
differences.

Professor Baird’s admirable classifications, however, are not
old, and are still authority. As we have adopted one part of
them we cannot do better than adopt the remainder, for the
Owls at least. We shall quote the parts we borrow.

Sub-family 2 “BUBONINZ Horned Owls
Head large, with erectile and prominent ear-tufts. Eyes
large ; facial dise not complete above the eyes and bill; legs,
feet, and claws usually very strong.”

GENERA Bubo, The Horned Owls (4 species).
Scops, The Little Screech Owls (8 species).
Asio, The Eared Owls (2 species).

The present Asio stands for the recent Otus and Brachyotus, while both
of these latter generic names formerly received the generic equivalent of
Strix. Neither of the three latter names seem to be used now either as a
SUB-GENUS or in the sense of our present genus STRIX.

Sub-family 4 “SYRNINZ Gray Owls
Head large, with very small and concealed ear-tufts, or en-
tirely without. Facial disc nearly perfect ; eyes small for the
family of Owls; wings rather short, or not so long as in the
preceding ; tarsi and toes generally fully feathered.”
There are both large and small Owls here as in (a).

Genera Strix, (5 species).
Nyctale, (2 species).

It is now pretty generally conceded that at present the name Strix ap-
pears appropriate as the genus for the five species which formerly went by
other generic names. Some of these are still in good standing as generic,
but whether they could any of them be called even swb-generic, or should
simply remain as generic equivalents = SYNONYMS, is a matter very much
of individual opinion. We should doubt very much the propriety of using
any of them in a swb-generic sense. Professor Baird used the name Swi-
nium for both the Great Gray and the Barred Owls; Professor Ridge-
way used Strix for the Barred Owl and its varieties only. He used Ulula
for the Great Gray Owl and its varieties.

86 MANUAL

Sub-family c “ ATHENINA Bird Owls
Size small; facial dise very imperfect, or nearly obsolete ;
tarsi generally partially or but thinly covered with feathers ;
head without ear-tufts.” These are all small Owls.
GENERA Glaucidium, The Pigmy Owls (2 species).

Micrathene, The Elf Owl.
Speotyto (Spheotyto [wrongly ]), The Burrowing Owls (2 species).

As originally constituted this sub-family contained only Athene, (a syNo-
wym for Speotyto ; ) and one species of Glaucidium. If we admit Micra-
thene as a SUB-GENERA of Glaucidiwm, which seems to us perfectly justifi-
able, we still come within the prescribed limits of the swb-family.

Sub-family 7 “NYCTEININZ Day Owls

General form compact and robust. Head moderate, with-
out ear-tufts ; wings and tail rather long ; tarsi strong, which,
with the toes, are more densely covered than in any other di-
vision of this family.” These are large and medium-sized
Owls. (Surnia agrees well with Asto in point of size).
GeNERA Nyctea, The Snowy Owl.

Surnia, The Hawk Owls (2 species).

We see no reason why, with the above separating distine-
tions, the Family Srricimpa should very greatly perplex the
student. It surely gives him all the elementary facts for a
working elassification, at once correct and up to date. Upon
this basis he will find it comparatively easy to enlarge his
knowledge of the classification of the family, and to add much
thereto from his own investigations.

FAMILY XXX FALCONIDAE THE FALCONS
HAWKS AND EAGLES

Latin falco, Greek phalkes ; a falcon.

The main distinguishing characters of this family are much
the same as in the Sub-order of the RAproreEs on page 29.
We shall point out the differences in the Sub-families here so
fully that there will be little need to enlarge upon the family.
It would be a matter of some difficulty, indeed, to do other-
wise. As some families are known best by the individuals

OF ORNITHOLOGY 87

placed in them (as evinced in the Order PICARIA#,) so others,
like the Owls, Hawks, etc., are best known by their sub-fam-
ilies. (And they, likewise, by the individuals placed in them).
Many writers are now making a separate family of the Fish
Hawk or Osprey ; perhaps the wisdom of this is as evident as
that of constituting a separate family for the Barn Owl. As
we treat the one we will so treat the other. In general: a
Hawk, a Falcon, or an Eagle, are easily to be told at sight or
with but very little difficulty. The general appearance is not
easily to be mistaken. The hooked bill, the fierce eye, the
head, wings, tail, and general appearance of the body, are all
characteristic, and striking the eye at once give an unmistak-
able impression. Even the dead bird and the dried skin bear
with them the form, appearance, and general air of a dead
warrier. The flight is powerful, “and bears out well the gene-
ral character of the bird. The foot of a Hawk is also a nota-
ble characteristic — the sharp, curved, and strong claws could
not easily be mistaken for those of birds of any other family.

The Sub-families of the FALCONID are as persistent and
as well defined as in the Stricgip#. The areas follows:

Sub-family a CIRCINZ Harriers

The Marsh Hawk, our only representative of this sub-fam-
ily so far, is a familiar and well-known bird. It differs mate-
rially from any other of the hawks, and yet approaches the
Kites from which, on a first inspection, it would seem to be
the farthest removed of any of the lesser hawks. It has the
bill less powerful than the other species with which it was for-
merly associated, and it is neither notched or toothed at the
tip; the tarsus is long and slender, and the feet and claws
comparatively weak as well as slender ; cere prominent ; nos-
trils large and oblong; rictal bristles many, curving, and
long ; head large; face with a partial disc much as in the
Owls ; ears prominent ; wings long and pointed ; tail long and
broadening towards the tip. The difference in the plumage of
the male and the female often confuses a novice into the sup-

88 MANUAL

position that he has discovered a new species — the male be-
ing bluish in color and the female and young brownish — all
have the RUMP WHITE, this alone would characterize the sub-
family and distinguish it from any other.

Genus, Circus, The Marsh Hawk.

The old generic equivalent was Falco.

Sub-family 6 MILVINZ Kites
In most instances the Kites would be known at once by

their long and often deeply forked tail, though a few species
do not have the tail abnormally long. The tail and wings
would alone characterize the sub-family. Compared with the
Crrctnm®: bill rather slender, weak, and not toothed at the
tip ; no facial disc ; bristles few or wanting altogether ; upper
mandible sometimes barely notched the under one never ;
wings long and pointed ; length of tail varied ; tarsus not very
long and feet small, claws slender — the whole foot weak.
The student will find that the genera vary considerably among
themselves, yet all conform to the general A?te-like outline.
He will do well to compare his specimens and form his own
diagnosis of the group in that way.
GenERA, Rostrhamus, The Everglade Kite.

Ictinia, The Mississippi Kite.

Elanus, The White-tailed Kite.

Elanoides, The Swallow-tailed Kite.

Synonyms, (the most important ones): Milvus of ELANUs, and Nauclerus
of ELANOIDES. Several synonyms, hardly worth mentioning in the present
connection, will doubtless occur to students of synonymology; especially
that of Falco, which occars for all four species.

Sub-family c ACCIPITRINZ True Hawks
We call the AccrIPITRIN# the True Hawks in distinction
from the BUTEONIN® or the Buzzard Hawks. Both families
are really “True Hawks,” though why the latter family is
so almost universally styled the “ Buzzards” would be hard
to say. To call them “ Buzzard Hawks” might indeed be
eminently proper, as they partake of the characteristics of both

OF ORNITHOLOGY 89

True Buzzards and True Hawks. ‘The former are more pYop=
erly “ Partridge or Chicken Hawks.” The AccrpIrrRiIn® are
slender built hawks, though in courage equal to Eagles them-
selves. Their flight is swift and sure ; and they pursue their
prey with a heedlessness and blind obstinacy, regardless of ob-
stacles, that is often their own ruin. They often secure their
prey only to dash themselves to pieces against some building,
window, or other obstruction which lies in their path. Ii
general they have: Bill short, stout, untoothed though cur-
ved and of irregular outline (edges) ; nostrils oval, slightly
oblonged, without central tubercle ; legs long and rather slen-
der, scutellate, and rarely feathered ; wings short, concaved,
and powerful, first quill short, third to fifth longest ; tail long,
feathers broad, end of tail square, rounded, or often emargin-
ated. The general appearance of being long and slender
rather than short and stout distinguishes them at once.

Genera, Accipiter, The “ Sharp-shinned”” Hawk (2 species).
Astur, The Goshawks (2 species).

Accipiter and Astur were both formerly classed with Falco, a moment's
glance, however, will show the different appearance of the two families ;
but, to look at the synonymy of our Hawks and Eagles, one would think
that there was formerly but one family for all, 7. e., Fauco.

Sub-family 7 FALCONINZ True Falcons

The Falcons proper are historic birds, and their appearance
is striking and unmistakable. They are found in all parts of
the world, have been referred to by writers as far back nearly
as the art of writing itself is known, and gives a character to
the whole family which is partaken of to a greater or less de-
gree by every individual in it. Yet they differ in appearance
from the members of all the other sub-families. They have
the bill supplied with both tooth and notch, (the bill alone
would characterize the sub-family and furnish a study in it-
self, a single glance will give a better impression of it than
pages of descriptive matter) ; cere prominent; nostril circles
with central tubercle and placed near the crown of the cere ;
tarsus and toes rather short but very stout, and more or less

90 MANUAL

fully reticulate, tarsus feathered, middle toe noticeably longer
than any of the others, claws all stout, tough, and are sharp,
typical talons ; wings long, strong, pointed, and very power-
ful, well fitted for an arrow-like, cutting flight, first four quills
long and often emarginate on the inner webs ; tail short, fan-
like, and rather powerful and strong. The whole bird gives
one the general idea of its being the embodiment of concen-
trated power, and it is fierce and relentless in its pursuit of its
prey. There is properly but a single
Genus, Falco.
Sus-cenera, Hierofalco, The Gryfalcons (5 species).

[ Falco, The Faleons proper (3 species) ].

salon, Vhe Merlins (4 species).

Tinnunculus, The Sparrow Hawks (5 species).
[T. fusci-cerulescens is frequently called Rhynchofalco fusci-cerulescens. |
These sub-genera are often given the rand of genera.

Sub-family - POLYBORINZA Caracara Eagles

The genus Polyborus, for which this sub-family has been
framed, is a curious mixture of the Vulture and the Eagle,
and through the latter of the “ Buzzard Hawks”; anatomi-
cally, also, it is related to the Falcons proper. »We do well,
therefore, to give it a decided individual character. In Pro-
fessor Baird’s Report he has classed them as following the
Fish Hawk (genus Pandion) which follows the Bald Eagle
(genus Halietus) ; both of these, with Polyborus, are classed
under the sub-family containing the Eagles. In describing
Polyborus, he says: “ Smaller than in either of the preceding
genera of Eagles. (Pandion and Halietus.) Bill rather
long, compressed ; cere large ; wings long, pointed ; tail mod-
erate or rather long ; tarsi long, rather slender ; claws long,
rather weak, and but slightly curved ; space in front of and
the eye naked.” These birds are evidently restricted to
Southern North America, and may differ somewhat from the
common South American species.

Genus, Polyborus (2 species).

OF ORNITHOLOGY 91

Sub-family / BUTEONINZ Buzzards or
Buzzard Hawks

Some of our writers make a distinction between the Buz-
zards or Buzzard Hawks, (placing them in different sub-fam-
ilies,) and the Hagles, while others do not. While it is true
that there are certain forms in either group that grade toward
each other, the main body of each differ in so many particu-
lars that we shall regard them as separate sub-families and
treat them as we herewith do.

The Buzzard Hawks are easily and naturally grouped to-
gether, though having peculiarities of several of the other
sub-families of the family. Their stout, robust, and heavy
form and appearance stands out prominent against the longer
and more slender form of nearly every rival. They differ
from the FALCONIN&, in that the nostrils are not circular and
have no central tubercle ; from the AccIPITRIN &, in that the
tip of the wings is formed by the third or fourth or fifth quill
or any two or all of them, and that the tail is uniformly at
least one-third smaller than the wings (in ACCIPITRIN® the
siath quill enters into the tip of the wings and the tail is equal
in length to the wings), and the tarsus being short and stout
and usually more or less feathered ; from the PoLYBORIN A,
by their genera] size and shape ; and from the Hagles by their
shape, size, and generally subdued figure and less fierce aspect,
and from the fact that the extremities — bill, legs, feet, and
claws, long-pointed wings and the tail— seem more in keep-
ing with the birds here enumerated than to be out of propor-
tion [long, sharp, slender, and pointed] with the body, as in
that group. An Eagle, however much it may resemble in
certain features the BuTEONIN®, would never, at second
glance, be mistaken for one of them. There are few mem-
bers of the group that would not be immediately recognized
as belonging to this sub-family.

Genera, Antenor, Harris’s Hawk.
Buteo, The “ Buzzard or Hen Hawks,” (14 species).
Archibuteo, The Rough-legged Hawks (2 species).
Asturina, The Mexican Goshawk.

92 MANUAL

Urubitinga, The Mexican Black Hawk.
Onychotes, Gruber’s Hawk.

Antenor is merged in Buteo by some writers, we confess that we cannot
see why in view of its record as a new genus. ‘*

Sub-family - AQUILINA: Eagles

The Hagles would be sufficiently distinguishable from the
sub-family preceding them (the BurronIN =) by their mere
size alone, provided size were a proper character for so high a
division as that of a sub-family. When we add the long,
slender, falconine shape of the body, and extremities even ;
the strongly curved and sharp-pointed bill and talons; the
compressed basal half of the upper mandible — in distinction
from the rather short, stubby, and slightly inclined to de-
pressed base in the BuTEoNINa’ —; and the difference in
shape of the feet in the two groups when spread out and the
bird is standing upon them —in the Eagles the ends of the
toes raising themselves considerably above the base of the
tarsus ; we are satisfied that these sub-families are and should
be made distinet. The North American families are few, and
easily determined.
Genera, Aquila, The Golden Eagle.

Haliaétus, The Bald Eagle and ally.
Thrasaétus (or Thrasyaétus), The Harpy Eagle.

FAMILY XXXI PANDIONIDAE THE OSPREYS
Latin Pandion, a king of Athens.

The Ospreys or Fish Hawks are madea separate family from
the FaLconip#, (they are usually made a genus under the
Eagles, which they very closely resemble in many particu-
lars,) chiefly through the reversibility of the outer toe, (which
is not reversible in the FALCONID&,) and the curious plumage
or rather state of plumage which these birds are known to
possess. They resemble, in various ways, several groups:
The bill is much like the Eagles, but shorter ; the wings like
the Falcons, but rather heavier about the shoulders ; the body
like the Buzzard Hawks, but more slender ; and yet all of its

OF ORNITHOLOGY 93

characters are so individual as to place it justly by itself, and
and yet none of them seem to exactly resemble those of the
other groups above alluded to. It is a family hard to define
precisely, and yet a glimpse of the bird is sufficient to fix it
at once in the memory. There is but a single genus and a
single species common, at least in North America.

Genus, Pandion, The Fish Hawk or Osprey.

Though placed between the Fatconrp# on the one hand and CaTHARTIDz
on the other, they can in no way be called a link between the two, as Pan-
dion differs materially from any form of either.

FAMILY XXXII CATHARTIDAE THE
VULTURES

Greek kathartes, “one who purifies.”

The American representatives of this family are not diffi-
cult to determine or to characterize. Their peculiar form and
shape makes them at once conspicuous and easy of recogni-
tion. There being no necessity in America for sub-family di-
visions, and but a limited number of genera and species, the
family characters will be the same as those enumerated under
the SUB-ORDER heading on page 29. The fact that they feed
exclusively, or nearly so, upon carrion, however, would not
of itself prevent a strictly scientific or technical difference ;
it would be rather a peculiarity of the species. The bare space
on the head and neck ; the curiously-shaped bill — long and
weak and hooked at tip; large nostrils ; and strong, long, and
wide wings ; are enough to determine the family wherever it
may be found.

Genera, Pseudogryphus, The California Condor.

Cathartes, The Turkey Buzzard.
Catharista, The Black Vulture, Carrion Crow.

Vultur was formerly a generic equivalent for all of the above names, but
it is now seldom employed.

It is strange if these three species of Vultures, without va-
rieties, be all that occur within our borders. One or two ad-
ditional species (or varieties) may yet be found on our South-
western borders, but they are still unrecognized.

94 MANUAL
FAMILY XXXIII COLUMBIDAE THE PIGEONS

Latin columba, a dove or pigeon.

This is another family whose characteristics would be the
same as those of the SUB-ORDER ; but as there is but one sub-
order, to obviate the necessity of falling back upon the ORDER.
we will represent the family characters as of, primarily, a gen-
eral domestic pigeon- or dove-like appearance ; the bill is not
easy to describe, but the inspection of the bill of a domestic
pigeon will give at once the main noticeable characteristic of
the family ; the head is small, the body plump and compara-
tively large (or full) ; the tarsus differs essentially in the dif+
ferent sub-families, as will be shown below ; wings long and
pointed, broad and somewhat concaved at the shoulder (almost
powerful and capable of long-continued flight) ; tail varying
— rounded or almost square — and often with graduated feath-
ers (showing most plainly from beneath) ; the plumage re-
markably soft and somewhat greasy to the touch. In fact,
they are simply pigeons — wild pigeons, and doves — wild
doves ; and conform in appearance much more satisfactorily
than in exact definition. There are three sub-families :

Sub-family 2 COLUMBINZ& True Pigeons
Tarsus feathered and scutellate ; feet small; tarsus short ;
wings rather long, flat, and pointed.
GeneRA, Columba, (3-species). .
Ectopistes, The Passenger (Common Wild) Pigeon.

Sub-family 6 ZENAIDINZ True or Ground Doves

Tarsus not feathered but scutellate ; feet medium in size;
tarsus also medium ; wings rather short, concaved, and barely
pointed.

GenerA, Engyptila, The White-fronted Dove.
Zenaidura, The Carolina Mourning Dove and ally.
Zenaida, The Zenaida Dove.
Melopelia, The White-winged Dove.
Chamepelia, The Ground Dove (2 species).
Scardafella, The Scaled Dove.
Geotrygon, The Key West Dove.

QT

OF ORNITHOLOGY 9

Sub-family - STARNG@NADINA
Tarsus not feathered and reticulate ; feet large ; tarsus long ;
bill short and stubbed ; wings much concaved at shoulder,

Genus, Starnenas, The Blue-headed Dove.

The above genera are, at present, almost uniformly stable and without
synonyms. Zenaidura was not formerly used exclusively for the Caro-
lina Dove. TYurtur was formerly used for several of the Doves. Columba
was an old generic name for nearly all of the above genera.

The wings and tail vary so as characters that they can
hardly be relied on except for generic distinctions.

FAMILY XXXIV CRACIDAE THE CURASSOW
GUAN

‘Derivation uncertain.

The Texas Guan or Curassow is a bird most curious and in-
dividual in its character. The single species recognized at
present is made the type of a genus and a family, as well as of
a SUB-ORDER, among the North American birds. Its position
is, however, somewhat uncertain — being placed in the Order
CoLuMB& by some writers, and in GALLIN& by others.
The student should be careful not to fall into the error, on this
account, of regarding it as a “ link ” between these two orders
as it has no such relation and could therefore occupy no such
supposable place. The curiously “ naked narrow streaks,” —
Baird (Gray) — of the throat (wattles absent) ; the naked
tarsus (scutellate), and short hind toe; the slender bill; the
crested head ; the curious shade of olivaceous of its plumage ;
and the short wings for the length of the bird | wing 83 inches
and length 23 inches]; furnish sufficient characters to more
than determine the family as well as its present single member.
More species may doubtless yet be discovered probably in the
South-western part of North America.

Genus, Ortalis, The Texan Guan or Curassow.

( Ortalida = also Ortalis).

96 MANUAL

FAMILY XXXV MELEAGRIDAE THE “WILD”
TURKEYS
Latin Meleagris (Greek similar) “a Guinea hen.”

This family needs no special technical definition in order
that the young student may identify its members. In the
present instance the family, sub-family, and specific diagnosis
would be the same. The curiously naked head and neck with
its warty outgrowths (caruncles), the fleshy “ dew-lap” [or laps],
the breast “ tassel,” the spurs of the male, and the general ap-
pearance of the plumage, all bear indisputable testimony to
the characteristics of the Turkeys. We have at present but
one genus, and two possibly three species. |

Genus, Meleagris, The Wild Turkey and ally.
( Gallopavo = also Meleagris).

FAMILY XXXVI TETRAONIDAE THE PAR-
TRIDGE GROUSE AND QUAIL

Latin tetrao, Greek tetraon, a heathcock, moorfowl.

This family is one of such especial interest throughout the
length and breadth of our land that it is worthy of more than
passing mention. Probably to no family, at least among the
Lanp Birps, is more general attention drawn than to this
one. The distinctions between the Grouse, the Partridges, and
the Quail, are ‘‘ fine points ” in ornithological science ; and it
‘is sufficient here to say, that the scientific and the popular sig-
nifications for the individuals in question are often greatly at
variance. We shall endeavor to give the student ouly the cor-
rect technical scientific equivalent for each species — and then peo-
ple may call them what they please to suit their own conve-
nience. This family constitutes the great majority of the
LAND GAME Brrps of North America — and its species are
found North, South, East, and West: everywhere in this our
grand old continent. The woods, the plains, the mountain
regions, and the prairies, are alike inhabited by members of
this family. Formerly, the Grouse and the Quail were made
separate families; but this does not seem necessary, for the

OF ORNITHOLOGY 97

difference between them is apparently greater than it really is.
To make them swb-families under one family, seems more in
keeping with the general scientific character of the separate
individuals in question. As a family, however, they are very
hard to characterize. The peculiar “ plumage,’ or rather
state of plumage, being its most constant character. The
feathers are, for the most part, short, broad, elastic, soft, fine,
yet remarkably strong and stout—this renders the plu-
mage soft, close-fitting, water-proof, barely greasy to the touch,
dove-like, and of a neat, trim appearance not possessed by any
others, in the same degree, whether Land or Water Birds.
We shall separate the members of this family into two sub-
Jamilies, as follows :

Sub-family ac TETRAONINZA Grouse
Tarsus wholly or in part feathered ; feathers extending also
into the groove of the nostrils. The Grouse are of a much
larger size than the Quail ; here size alone being another con-
stant character.

Genera, Canace, The Canada Grouse and 4 others.
Centrocercus, The Sage Cock.
Pediecetes, The Sharp-tailed Grouse (2 species).
Cupidonia, The Pinnated Grouse and ally.
Bonasa, The Ruffed Grouse (3 species).
Lagopus, The Ptarmigans (3 species).

Some of the species of Grouse have interchanged their genera, frequently,
especially in former years; the old genus Tetrao stood then for almost any
of the species. It is not at present used at all in America, but is confined
to its proper European representatives.

Sub-family 6 ODONTOPHORINZ Quail
Tarsus naked and scutellate; nostrils unfeathered ; toes

also naked ; size compared with the Grouse small.
GENERA, Ortyz, The Common Quail and 2 allies.

Oreortyx, The California Mountain Quail and ally.

Lophortyx, The California Valley Quail and ally.

Callipepla, The Scaled Quail.

Cyrtonyxz, The Massena Quail.

98 MANUAL

The genus (European) Coturnyz, The Messina or Common European
Quail, is not a true native of North America but an introduced species,
and very different from Cyrtonyz as above which is a native of the South-
western United States.

Regarding the family in general: The individuals among
the Quail also have changed genera somewhat, in former
years, but not to the same extent as the Grouse. Tetrao also
included some of the Quails. Perdix seemed to be the old
favorite, however, but it is seldom referred to now.

The above characters for these two sub-families are to be
fully relied on ; the individuals themselves will furnish other
points of difference. The genera can be better characterized
than the sub-families even, as each genera presents peculiar-
ities in itself which do not, as is so often the case, combine to
perplex the student with their similarity to each other in so
many of their essential feetures. The above genera of both
sub-families are stable and all we have at present. The gen-
eric names of the sub-families have changed but little in the
past fifty years, and are all probably good and stable.

II WATER BIRDS.

We

The excellent diagnosis of the Limicota given by Profes-
sor Baird is so very useful in separating the different group-
ings of this division of the ORDER — this SUB-ORDER, In fact
— that we copy it for the student, who can use it fearlessly
and freely to give him a comparative view of the families con-
tained therein and of their connection with each other. He
divides the SUB-ORDER into two portions, each of which con-
tains their respective families of which a brief outline is

given :

“ A.—Nostrils reaching usually to the end of the basal third
or half of the commissure ; oval, short. Bill contracted about

OF ORNITHOLOGY 99

the nostrils, where the culmen is more or less indented. Na-
sal groove closed obtusely and abruptly, or shallowing out
broadly to the end. Hind toe generally wanting ; neck short
and thick.

CHARADRID#.—Bill rather cylindrical, as long as the
head, or shorter ; the culmen much indented opposite
the nostrils, the vaulted apex more or less swollen and
‘rising, quite distinct from the membranous portion.
Legs elevated ; hind toe rarely present, and then rudi-
mentary ; the outer and middle toes more or less unit-
ed by membrane.

Hamaropopip#.—Bill as iong as the head, or twice
as long, compressed ; culmen but little indented, and
the bill not vaulted beyond the nostrils, which are
quite basal.

B.—Nostrils narrow and fissured, not reaching beyond the ba-
sal fourth of the commissure. The bill attenuated and linear
beyond the nostrils, not compressed nor indented around them.
The nasal groove running out into a narrow, acute channel to
or beyond the middle of the jaw, just above the edge of the
bill ; the forehead narrowed and depressed to the bill.

RECURVIROSTRID&.—Legs covered with hexagonal
plates, becoming smaller behind. Anterior toes all
connected more or less by membrane. Bill much
lengthened and attenuated ; the groove along the side
of the upper mandible not extending beyond the mid-
dle. Gums denticulated only at the base.

PHALAROPODID#.—Feathers of breast compact, duck-
like. Legs with transverse scutelle before and behind.
Toes to the tips with a lateral margin, more or less in-
dented at the joints, the hinder with a feeble lobe.
Bill equal to or longer than the head, the lateral groove
extending nearly to the tip.

ScoLOPACID£.—Legs with transverse scutelle before
and behind, as in the last family, (except in Nwmeniec.)
Toes not margined broadly to the tips, with or without

100 MANUAL

basal membrane; hind toe generally present. Bill
generally longer than the head, the groove extending
beyond the middle.”

The above characters will aid the young student. He will
do well, however, not to confine himself too strictly to them,
without looking for other determining characteristics for his
family problems in this most perplexing group of interest-
ing forms.

FAMILY XXXVII CHARADRIIDAE THE
PLOVERS

Greek charadrios, Latin charadrius, a plover.

The vast extent, both as to territory and as to numbers, of
the “SHoreE Brrps,” as they are called, renders them at once
a difficult and an interesting group of individuals to study.
The varieties of classification to which they have been sub-
jected, and the diversity of forms presented, are well calcu-
lated to perplex the student, though they present a most ex-
cellent field for research and careful investigation. We have,
hitherto, been treating of the LAND Brrps exclusively: We
now enter what is known as the province of WATER Brrps.
In the former case we found that the characters of the bill,
the tarsus (rarely the toes and the wings to a small extent),
and the tail, presented us with the main features of our classi-
fication ; in the latter or present case, the feet — and toes —
and the wings, added to the bill and often peculiar shape of
the head, will furnish perhaps the most prominent and strik-
ing determining characteristics. The d7l/ varies about equally
in both divisions.

Our first family, then, will be that of the Plovers. As our
American representatives are included in a single sub-family,
our characterization of them will answer equally well for sub-
family or family diagnosis: Bill equal to or shorter than the
head, somewhat Columbine in appearance at base, but more
like a true bill at the terminal portion ; nostrils a long slit

OF ORNITHOLOGY 101

deep in the soft membranous fossee, which are oblong and very
prominent — nostrils at the extremity of the fossee — and gape
very small ; tarsus reticulated ; hind toe very small or absent,
middle toe much shorter than the tarsus, web at base cleft or
not large ; wings long and narrowed, and reaching to or be-
yond the tail; tail rather short and nearly or quite even.
General’form rather plump and full. The genus Aphriza dif-
fers somewhat from the other genera by combining with its
four toes, which have no basal web, a tarsus scutellate instead
or reticulate in front.

The CHARADRIID# are not exclusively ‘ Sea Shore ”’ birds.
they are found inland as well where many of them breed.
GenerA, Squatarola, The Black-bellied Plover.

Charadrius, The Golden Plover (3 species).
gialites, The Ring-neck Plovers (8 species).
Podasocys, The Mountain Plover.

Vanellus, The Lapwing.
Aphriza, The Surf Bird.

Sus-cenera, [?] Oxyechus for the KinitpEER, and Ochthodromus for the
Witson’s PLover, might easily be regarded as suB-GENERA of Mgialites.
We should prefer such an arrangement rather than placing them as dis-
tinct genera in a group whose members show such apparently natural afii-
nities. We see no reason why other and older synonymy, which is now for
all practical purposes discarded, need trouble us,

FAMILY XXXVIII HAEMATOPODIDAE THE
OYSTER-CATCHERS AND TURNSTONES

Greek aimasso, “to be bloody or blood-red,” and pous, the foot;
= red-footed.

This second family of our Water Birds, though by no means
so difficult to characterize as the former, is none the less inter-
esting. They are exclusively ‘ Shore ” birds, and wade to the
depth of their rather long, slender legs for shell-fish (bival-
ves) which they open with their stout bills. The family feat-
ures are well set forth in the table at the beginning of this
portion of cur work. It seems strange, perhaps, to set off the
few species here into sub-families, but they are sufficiently in-
dividual to admit of it.

102 © MANUAL

Sub-family 27 HAEMATOPODINAE Oyster-
Catchers
Tarsus less than bill, reticulate in front, outer toes with a
barely apparent membrane, no hind toe; bill long, flattened,
and prominent. Length over 12 inches.

Genus, Hematopus, (3 species).

Sub-family 6 STREPSILAINAE Turnstones
Tarsus longer than bill, scutellate in front, outer toes with-
out membrane, hind toe present; bill short and pointed and
not prominent. Length wnder 12 inches.

Genus, Strepsilas, (2 species).

These genera are all stable and without synonyms that need annoy us.

FAMILY XXXIX RECURVIROSTRIDAE THE
AVOCETS AND STILTS

Latin recurvus, recurved; rostrum, a bill.

This is still another family whose peculiarities of structure
at once determine its members with very little difficulty. It
is not, like the former family, divided into sub-families ; al-
though the genera are very decidedly different from each other.
The family, as a family, is at once known by the long, slender,
and often extraordinarily recurved bill; the long, small neck ;
and the immense long, bare legs (tarsus and nearly the entire
length of the tibia bare). ecwrvirostra has four toes with
complete webs and long and strongly recurved bill, while Ai-
mantopus has three toes almost wholly unwebhed and with bill
much shorter and almost straight. The previous table will
give further characters. Although “Shore” birds they are
more abundant inland by fresh water.

Genera, Recurvirostra, The American Avocet.

Himantopus, The Black-necked Stilt.
These two genera were formerly merged in one, Recurvirostra. Their po-
sition in the scale may at any time be changed, but the genera are stable.

OF ORNITHOLOGY 103

FAMILY XL PHALAROPODIDAE THE
PHALAROPES
Greek phalaris the “coot,” pous a foot; coot-footed.

This small family is sometimes placed near the end of the
Shore Birds rather than near the beginning. ‘The position we
give to it, near its larger allies, seems to us more natural, and
leaves nothing between the Snipes and the following ORDER.
The family contains three genera of one species each. The
main characters of the family have been given in the previ-
ous table, the other points of peculiarity are: feet lobate, toes
with narrow membranes — with either plain or lobed edges ;
tarsus thin but wide. The general appearance of these birds
is much like that of a small sandpiper, but the plumage is
trim, close-fitting, and like birds that spend the greater part
of their time in the water, as these do. The bill differs con-
siderably in the different genera, as do also the feet. The
birds are small, and are to be found, often in immense flocks,
just off shore all along our coast and rarely in inland waters.
Genera, Steganopus, Wilson’s Phalarope.

Lobipes, The Northern Phalarope.
Phalaropus, The Red Phalarope.

These genera are all quite stable, even hardly interchangeable, though all
went formerly under the one name Phalaropus.

FAMILY XLI SCOLOPACIDAE THE SNIPES
AND SANDPIPERS

Greek skolopax, Latin scolopax, a woodcock or snipe.

This family is, without doubt, the most numerous and the
most difficult with which the young student will have to con-
tend among all the WarTER Brrps. It is, in fact, at least
third if not second in importance in the whole Chass. The
general resemblance of the species will at once show that they
belong to this family, but there are a good many individuals
that will cause very great trouble to the beginner. The table
placed at the beginning of this division will, in a great meas-
ure, help to remove the difficulties of identification ; yet much
will remain to be done, even with that aid, in guiding the stu-

104 ' MANUAL

dent in right directions. The members of the family are eas-
ily distinguished from members of any of the families which
have gone before; and the Rails, which are often wrongly
made a sub-family of this family, have decided peculiarities of
their own at once prominent and stable. Perhaps the most
important character of this and allied families is the bill. It
is eminently adapted to the means employed by each individ-
ual species for the procuring of its food, and the legs and feet
as well as the bill vary accordingly.

The members of this family are, in a very great measure,
gregarious and migratory. Nearly every locality, along both
the Atlantic and the Pacific coasts, has its restricted summer
or breeding fauna of these individuals. They are of almost
universal distribution: some being found along the sea-coast,
some inland, and many in intermediate areas. People unac-
quainted with the habits of our birds are often surprised to
find sea-coast birds far inland; but it is a well-known fact
that many of our sea-birds, especially the snipes and sandpi-
pers and gulls, follow up the course of our larger and even
some of our smaller rivers and, at certain times of the year,
are abundant along the meadows and river banks hundreds of
miles away from the Ocean. The True Snipes (and also the
Woodcocks) are found, in fact, more often in the bogs and the
ditches inland than directly along the coast.

The more carefully the student studies the habits of this
family, (as of all especially of migratory birds, in fact,) the
more thoroughly will he become convinced that its members
are influenced in their movements by well-defined laws, rather
than chance as many seem to suppose. The laws which com-
pel birds to seek food — giving us either extensive or limited
inigration — are entirely different from those which influence
the domestic, seasonable, or daily economy of those same birds
when inhabiting peacefully a region where food is abundant,
and where they can act out the natural impulses of instinct.
It was formerly supposed that, in a very great measure, this
peculiarity of this species “ happened,” that peculiarity of that

OF ORNITHOLOGY 105

species “ chanced.” As we become daily more and more ac-
quainted with the habits of our birds, we find that very little
“ happened ” by “‘ chance ” ; fixed laws govern everything, we
might say, but lack of food. When the food gives out, the
bird breaks loose from all apparent rule to seek food ; when
this is found its regular habits reduce it again to rule. The
True Snipes and the Woodcock have been found, after a long
study of their habits, to be creatures of fixed laws and habits.
We are finding out, slowly, that these laws apply to other spe-
cies as well, The more reason why the habits of birds should
be studied more than ever before, and with an intensity of in-
terest that may discover to us more of these laws. We ven-
ture to predict, that each species will be found eventually to
possess an individuality of habit not before suspected. ‘Thus
we see that each species seems adapted to its mode of life, and
a little study soon brings order out of confusion. Each gen-
era groups itself according to similarity of habit as well as to
similarity of structure. In the ScOLOPACID is this especi-
ally true. It is for the young student to discover for himself
what these habits may be.

Before entering upon an enumeration of the genera of the
ScoLOPACIDA, if may be well to present to the student, for
careful study, comparison, and general reference, the tables
prepared by Professor Baird for this family. Though it pre-
sents but a partial review of the family, and was, like the pre-
vious ones, prepared some thirty-five years ago, its main feat-
ures are still sufficiently useful to serve our present purpose
in preparing for more extended tables if the student wishes.

“ Family ScoLOPACID®.

According to Bonaparte’s arrangement, the ScoLOPACTID.&
are divisible into two sub-families— ScoLopactna» and
TRINGIN#& ; the former with one tribe, SCOLOPACE® ; the lat-
ter with four, TRINGIN@/, Toranem, Limosinm, and Nu-
MENIN&. The arrangement of Keyserling and Blasius and of

106 MANUAL

Burmeister, however, seems more natural in associating TRIN—
GE# with ScoLopACE® under ScoLopacina«. On this basis
the two sub-families may be characterized as follows :

ScoLoPpActn 4.—Bill covered with soft skin to the sensi-
tive, vascular, thickened, or laterally expanded tip.
Uncovered portion of tibia short, stout. Body and
legs rather stout. Neck rather short and stout. Toes
generally cleft to the base, (not in Macrorhamphus and
Micropalama, &c.) Gape of mouth very small, not ex-
tending beyond the base of culmen.

ToraNiIn«®.—Bill covered with soft skin towards the
base ; the terminal portion hard, horny, and more or
less attenuated. Body more slender. Legs and neck
slender and lengthened. Toes generally with a basal
web. Gape of mouth larger, always extending beyond
base of culmen (except in Limosa.)

Sub-family ScOLOPACIN#.

Bill swollen at the end, and covered almost to the tip with
a soft skin, the edges only of the rather valted tip horny.
The end of the upper bill generally bent a little over the tip
of lower. The jaw bone in typical genera finely porous, and
perforated by vessels and nerves, imparting a high degree of
sensibility to the bill, enabling it to find food in the mud.
After death the end of the bill is usually pitted. Legs rather
stout ; the naked portion of the tibia much abbreviated. The
hind toe well developed and generally present ; the toes usu-
ally without basal membrane, (except in Macrorhamphus, etc.)

Under the head of ScoLOPACIN®, as at present defined, I

range two tribes with the following brief diagnosis :

A. ScoLopace#®.—Bill much longer than the head or than
the naked leg; the end of the upper jaw thickened
and bent over beyond the tip of lower. Roof of mouth
not excavated to the tip. A longitudinal furrow along
the culmen towards the end. External ear placed be-
neath or anterior to the eye. Tail banded ?

B. TrRINGEX.—Bill shorter than the naked leg, widened

OF ORNITHOLOGY 107

or rather spoon-shaped at the end, with the edges not
bent over. Roof of mouth excavated to the tip. No
groove along the culmen. Eye behind the ear. Tail
without bands ?”

Under “Tribe ScoLopacem,” he enumerates the genera
Philohela, Gallinago, and Macrorhamphus, which are practi-
cally the same as our present genera.

Under “Tribe Trincem,” ne enumerates the genera
Tringa, Calidris, Ereunetes, and Micropalama ; and his genus
TRINGA contains Tringa, Arquatella, Erolia [our Ancylochilus],
Scheniclus [our Pelidna], and Actodromus, which also are very
nearly the same as our present genera.

“ Sub-family Toranin ®.

Bill as long as the head, or longer ; the basal portion cov-
ered with soft skin ; the terminal portion (generally at least
half) horny, and more or less attenuated and pointed in To-
TANEH. The lateral grooves of bill extending to the horny
terminal portion. The gape of mouth extending behind the
base of culmen. Toes generally connected by a basal mem-
brane. The tail always with distinct transverse bars in North
American species , except in FHeferoscelus.

This sub-family appears to differ from most SCOLOPACIN
in the less degree of sensitiveness in the tip of the bill, which
is more horny, and not covered by soft skin well supplied with
nerves. ‘The toes are almost always connected at the base by
a membrane, this being the rule and not the exception, as in
SCOLOPACIN &.

A. Tarsi covered anteriorly and posteriorly by transverse
scutelle, except in Heferoscelus ; finely reticulated lat-
erally. Bill nearly straight, or bent a little upwards.

ToraNne#®.—Bill nearly straight, about as long as the
tarsus, attenuated. Bill not grooved for the terminal
fourth. Gape of mouth extending beyond base of
culmen.

108 MANUAL

LimosE®.—Bill longer than the tarsus, curving slightly
upwards towards the end, where it is thickened. Both
mandibles grooved for nearly their whole length.
Gape of mouth very short, not extending beyond the
base of culmen.

B. ‘Tarsi covered anteriorly only by transverse scutelle,
reticulated laterally and behind. Bill curving consider-
ably downwards from near the middle.

NuMENIEX.—Lateral grooves not extending beyond the
middle. Bill thickened at the tip; longer than the
tarsus.”

Under “ Section [Tribe] ToranE®,” he enumerates the
genera Symphemia, Glottis, Gambetta, Rhyacophilus, Heterosce-
lus, Tringoides, Philomachus, Actiturus, and Tryngites, all sub-
stantially the same as they are at present.

Glottis = part of Totanus [Florida Greenshanks].

His “Section [Tribe] Limosez,” and “Section [Tribe]
NUMENIE®,” are the same as our present representation.

The arrangement as to the order of succession of the above
genera are changed somewhat it our present diagnosis.

GrnERA, Scolopax, The European Woodcock.
Philohela, The American Woodcock.
Gallinago, The True Snipes (2 species).
Macrorhamphus, The Red-breasted Snipe and ally.
Micropalama, The Stilt Sandpiper.
Ereunetes, The Semipalmated Sandpiper and ally.
Actodromas, The True Sandpipers (6 species).
Arquatella, The Purple Sandpiper and 2 allies.
Pelidna, The Dunlins (2 species).
Ancylochilus, The Curlew Sandpiper.
Tringa, The Knot.
Calidris, The Sanderling.
Eurynorhynchus, The Spoon-billed Sandpiper.
Limosa, The Godwits (4 species).
Symphemia, The Willet.
Totanus, Two species of “ Yellow-Legs”’ and ally.
Rhyacophilus, The Solitary Sandpiper and ally.
Tringoides, The Spotted Sandpiper.

OF ORNITHOLOGY 109

Machetes, The Ruff.

Bartramia, Bartram’s Sandpiper.
Tryngites, The Buft-breasted Sandpiper.
Heteroscelus, The Wandering Tattler.
Numenius, The Curlews (5 species).

The above genera are almost uniformly constant. The o/d synonymy, and
the transferring of species from one genera to another —in past years —
has but little part in our present advanced ideas about this family.

FAMILY XLII IBIDIDAE THE TRUE IBISES
Latin and Greek, Jbis, the Ibis.

The Jbises, the Spoonbills, and the Storks, are all intimately
related. Their relation is close also to the “ Shore Birds ”
and the Herons and their allies. Writers differ somewhat as
to the exact positions of all of these birds, their order of suc-
cession amongst themselves is also somewhat open to question.
We will follow here an order which, at least, will lead us
through the difficulty if it does not present to us the most ex-
act form of relationships between them, and make a different
family for each ; more than one writer has given us an exam-
ple in this direation, and we are bound to foJlow where others
lead when we propose nothing which seems to suit the occa-
sion any better. The True Ibises present the following char-
acteristics : Bill long and slender, curved, compressed, grooved
to tip which is blunt not pointed, and with the mandibles
meeting quite evenly ; tarsus to ora trifle longer than the
middle toe and claw, reticulate but scutellate in front; toes
barely webbed at base; claws compressed, sharp, and more
eurved in Hudocimus than in Plegadis ; wings rather long, but
broad and concaved ; tail short ; head with bare spaces more
or less covering it ; bodies small, necks long and thin. The
birds look much like immense Rails, yet differing materially
from the Herons. They are more or less tropical ; and, al-
though found along the Southern borders of North America,
perhaps prefer rather the inland river and lake regions to the
immediate sea-shore. There are two genera :

GeneRA, Plegadis, The Glossy Ibis and one ally.
Kudocimus, The White and Scarlet Ibises.

110 MANUAL

A variety of synonyms are known for these species, old now, the most im-
portant of which are Yantalus, Ibis, Falcinellus, ete.; but Tantalus is
better restricted to the Wood Ibis and is, even now, preferred by many for
that species.

FAMILY XLIII PLATALEIDAE THE SPOON-
BILLS

Latin platalea, the spoonbill.

The Spoonbill resembles the Jbises in very many respects ;
but its long, flattened, spoon-shaped bill instantly distinguishes
it from anything else in the bird kingdom. The beginning of
a gula pouch is also strongly characteristic. Its habitat is
much the same as that of the Lbvses.

Genus, Ajaja, The Roseate Spoonbill.

The Latin equivalents for Ajaja, still somewhat in use, are Platalea and
Platea.

FAMILY XLIV CICONIIDAE THE STORKS
Latin ciconia, a stork.

What we call the Stork family differs from the Jbises in that
the bill is stouter, is not grooved to tip, tip pointed, nostrils
prominent, tarsus long and articulated. Habitat much simi-
lar to that of the two preceding families. It has two sub-
families, each of a single genus and a single species.

Sub-family ac TANTALINZ Wood Ibises
Bill of moderate length with decurved tip.

Genus, Tantalus, [or Tantalops,| The Wood Ibis.

Formerly called bis.

Sub-family 4 CICONIINZ True Storks
Bill very long, tip recurved.
Genus, Mycteria, The American Jabiru.

Seldom occurs north of Mexico or Texas.

FAMILY XLV ARDEIDAE THE HERONS

Latin ardea, Greek erodas or erodios, a heron.
The Herons constitute a very easily determined and inter-

OF ORNITHOLOGY 111

esting group, also a very ancient one. Its members are dis-
tributed all over North America, though preferring the warm
tropical regions of the continent. They are equally abund-
ant along the seashores and inland about the rivers and ponds.
They feed upon fishes and small reptiles, and nest generally in
trees. They are familiar objects in nearly every part of North
America. Though differing somewhat form the Herons pro-
per, the Bitterns are still true Herons and entitled to a sub-
family by themselves. The family has: Bill much longer
than the head, very nearly or quite straight, compressed,
grooved, and with a sharp-pointed tip ; nostril slits near the
upper base of the bill; head flattened, loral spaces naked ;
tarsus naked, reticulated (but scutellate in front), long and
slender, toes fitted for wading and with a small, evident basal
web — claw of the middle toe like the teeth of a comb beneath ;
wings and tail much as in the previous families — the feather
plumes of the tail are characteristic of many species of this
family. Feather plumes often occur also on the hind head and
front breast of many species. Neck long and small. The
tracts of what are termed “ powder-down ” are numerous and
extensive, and in some species largely developed. The char-
acter of these downy tracts needs special study — but the stu-
dent will not want for characters to define the family, which
has two sub-families, The general appearance of shape and
plumage alone would almost distinguish them.

Sub-family a ARDEINZ True Herons.

Tail with twelve feathers; the outer toe is not shorter than
the inner one.

The True Herons are, generally, more abundant at or near
the sea-coast. They build in trees, and their eggs are blue.
They generally seek escape by immediate flight when alarmed.
Genera, Ardea, The Great Blue Heron and 2 allies.

Herodias, The Great White Keret.
Garzetta, The Snowy Heron.

Dichromanassa, Peale’s Egret.
Hydranassa, The Louisiana Heron.

112 MANUAL

Florida, The Little Blue Heron.

Butorides, The Green Heron.

Nyctiardea, The Black-crowned Night Heron.
Nyctherodius, The Yellow-crowned Night Heron.

The changes among the above genera have been something frightful, within
very recent years even, and the names Ardea, Hgretta, Herodias, have ap-
plied successively to nearly every species of the entire family.
Garzetta has been tolerably constant to the Snowy Heron; and Audubo-
nia to the Great WuiteE Heron (not the Great White Egret).

Sub-family BOTAURINZ Bitterns

Tail with only ten feathers; the outer toe 7s shorter than
the inner one.

The Bitterns are found inland at immense distances from the
sea, as well as far North and South on our continent. They
build on the ground, and their eggs are brown or white barely
tinged. They generally seek escape when alarmed by skulk-
ing and remaining quiet until the intruder has gone.

GeneRA, Botaurus, The American Bittern.
Ardetta, The Least Bittern.

Both the above species have appeared under the names of Ardea and Bu-
tor, but not recently ; Ardetta has also been known as Ardeola.

FAMILY XLVI GRUIDAE THE CRANES

Latin grus, a crane.

The Cranes are usually supposed to occupy a position be-
tween the Herons and the Rails. As a family, their size alone
would distinguish them. They inhabit the interior of North
America. The head is more or less naked, or ornamented
with curious appendages peculiar to birds having that curious
appearance about the above-named region ; the neck and legs
are extremely long; bill generally longer than the head, very
strong yet slender, straight, and compressed ; nostrils large,
open, and situated near the centre of the bill; tarsus with an-
terior scutellz, front toes short and partly webbed, and hind
toe elevated ; head without crest; wings large and broad ;
tail short, of twelve feathers. There is but a single genus.

Genus, Grus, (3 species).

The Cranes once passed current as Ardea, but not recently.

OF ORNITHOLOGY 113
FAMILY XLVII ARAMIDAE THE COURLANS

Greek arasso, aratto, ‘‘a clanging, ringing, rattling noise” implied.
A very noisy bird.
This curious form is at once known by its peculiarities.
Professor Baird thus describes the genus “ ARAMUS ” which
will do us equally well for a family diagnosis.

“ Bill elongated, much compressed, both mandibles decurved
at tip. Gonys very long. Bill of equal width nearly from
base to tip; nostrils pervious, in the basal fourth of the bill.
Head feathered to bill; eyelids only naked. Legs length-
ened ; tibia half bare; tarsus longer than middle toe; toes
without basal membrane ; outer lateral rather longer than in-
ner ; middle claws not pectinated. The tarsi are broadly scu-
tellate anteriorly.

‘The wings are broad and rounded ; the tertials equal to the
primaries. The first quill is scarcely longer than the tenth,
and sub-faleate. The tail is composed of twelve feathers.”

Size immense, length 2 feet or over.

The affinity of this bird is curiously shown, by the fact that
its South American kindred have received the generic name of
Ardea, and both the South and the North American species
have been styled Rallus. (It has also been called Notherodius.)

It is a bird of tropical America, and once seen it is not
easily forgotten.

Genus, Aramus, The Courlan or Crying—-Bird.

FAMILY XLVIII PARRIDAE THE JACANA

Probably Latin parra, “a bird of ill-omen,” from its resemblance to the
“lapwing.”

Another curious bird, for which a family has been formed,
is the Jacana. This bird also is distinguishable at first sight.
It resembles so many different families that its true position
may well be a subject for further investigation. It resembles
the Rails very closely in many respects. It has not until re-
cently been classed with the North American birds. Its cu-
rious bill and face shield ; its wing spurs ; its long, naked legs

114 MANUAL

and feet; long claws — nearly straight and pointed ; deter-
mine the species at a glance. Its feet and light weight allow
it of walking about on the pads of lillies and of other water
plants, so that it looks as if it had the power of walking upon
the water. Its body is smal]. It is really a South American
species, but found occasionally along the tropical shores of
North America.

Genus, Parra, The Mexican Jacana.

FAMILY XLIX RALLIDAE THE RAILS
GALLINULES AND COOTS

Probably French rd/e, “a rattling”’ noise, ‘rail, crake,” referring to

the rattling of their continued notes.

We come now, once again, to a familiar and well-known
family representatives of which occur over nearly the entire
portion of North America, though principally shore-ward.
They are dispersed to some extent throughout the interior of
the continent. Nearly every shore-marsh and a great many
fresh-water marshes hundreds of miles inland along our sea-
board has its Rail fauna. The members of the family are eas-
ily known at sight, and a single representative characterizes
well the whole group ; although its special peculiarities easily
separate it into three well marked and stable sub-families.
The family characteristics are rather difficult to formulate, in
spite of the unmistakable appearance of the birds. Professor
Baird’s diagnosis of his “ Tribe PALUDICOLZ” gives us well —
the features of our family, and is as follows :

“Species living in marshes, with elevated bodies, much
compressed laterally ; usually with longer necks than most
snipe, with moderately long, strong, and stout bills also much
compressed and covered at the tip by a horny investment ;
the remaining portion membranous, with elongated nasal fur-
rows, and narrow, more or less perforated, nostrils. The lores
are feathered uniformly as in the LimicoLa#; the rest of the
plumage without the spotting of the snipes. Wings rather
short, more rounded than pointed, and when folded do not

OF ORNITHOLOGY 115

reach beyond the short, soft, and feeble tail; in fact, seldom
to its tail. The outer two or three primaries generally abbre-
viated. The toes are very long, cleft to the base, thin, and
generally with very long claws; the same is the case with the
hind toe, which is not only much longer than in the Lirwi1c—
OL, but is generally inserted more nearly on the same level
with the anterior ones, touching the ground for most of its ex-
tent. The species pick up their food on the surface, and do
not probe the soft mud in search of it.”

The Rails are a curious family to study. They are peculiar.
Their cry or scream is peculiar. Their shape, general appear-
ance, method of life, food, nesting, and times of appearance
and of disappearance in any given region is peculiar. They
do not resemble any other family — except casually ; and they
might well be made, even, into a distinct SUB—-ORDER, so indi-
vidual are they. The Rails are divided into 3 sub-families :

Sub-family a RALLINZ True Rails
This sub-family is easily determined by having no so-called
frontal shield at base of bill. The toes simple and without
membranes. The compressed shape of the body is also noted
in this sub-family.
Genera, Rallus, The Marsh Rails (5 species).

Porzana, The “ Crakes”’ (5 species).
Crex, The ‘Corn Crake,’ [Land Rail].

Rallus and Porzana are, really, both Marsh Rails in distinction from Crex
which is eminently a Land Rail. The distinction between the two former
is not so evident, Various synonyms have appeared at times for all these
species, but they are pretty generally discarded now for those given above.
Gallinula seemed to hold its own for the whole family formerly, as did also
Rallus. Creciscus and Coturnicops still occur occasionally. Perdix is
old; and Ortygometra, recently discarded, had the support of many good
authorities.

Sub-family GALLINULINZ Gallinules
Frontal shield present ; toes with narrow membranous mar-
gins in Gallinula, toes simple in Jonornis. The Gallinules do
differ from the Rails in other respects, but it is hard to say

116 MANUAL

just how without a careful comparison of the birds. They ap-
pear to set higher upon their legs, have rounder bodies, and
to be stouter (more robust) every way.
GenERA, Gallinula, The Florida Gallinule.

TIonornis, The Purple Gallinule.

Both genera were formerly Gallinula, Ionornis was also Porphyrio.

Sub-family c FULICINA Coots
Frontal shield present, and toes with scalloped membranes.
The body has none of that compressed shape so noticeable in
a and barely seen in 6, but is rather the reverse as to pressure
(depressed rather than compressed). This is an inland bird,
and common all over the continent. It has a single genus
and a single species.

Genus, Fulica, The Coot or Mud Hen.

FAMILY L PHOENICOPTERIDAE THE
FLAMINGOES
Greek phoinikopteros (Latin similar), red-winged.

The extraordinary bird for which this family is formulated
has been placed by some writers with the Storks, the Cranes,
ete., and by others with the Geese and Ducks. By placing it
between the two, yet not making it a subordinate portion of
either, we overcome the difficulty as much as it seems to us to
be possible. The Flamingo is a bird that could not be mis-
taken for any other known species. Its immensely long neck
and legs, its curiously formed bill, and its size, place it at
once. The adult plumage is scarlet with black ends to the
wings. There are but few species and they occur in the trop-
ical portions of the globe. Our species inhabit the Southern
portion of North America, and build immense mud piles for
a curious study in themselves. We have but one ge-
nus and a single species.

nests

Genus, Phenicopterus, The American Flamingo.

OF ORNITHOLOGY 117

FAMILY LI ANATIDAE THE SWANS
GEESE AND DUCKS

Latin anatinus, “pertaining to a duck,’ duck-like.

It may seem strange, to one not well acquainted with the
species, that all of our North American Swans, Geese, and
Ducks should be classed together in a single family. A little
careful study, however, will show how constant certain char-
acters are throughout all these birds, and that the deviation
from the typical structure could not well command a higher
recognition than that of sub-family. Accordingly we separate
the family into several groups or sub-families, and find that
they fit in with a nicety that shows how well they merit such
relative positions. Wherever one goes upon our continent,
north, south, east, or west, — along the seacoast or in the in-
terior — they find members of this family common and even
abundant. Again, the number of species are so comparatively
few that one would scarcely look for very extensive special
faunas for special localities ; this would render the great ma-
jority of these species of almost universal distribution — at
least throughout North America. The few of specially local-
ized occurrence are, usually, the rarer forms only.

This family, as a family, is somewhat difficult of definition.
Its main features are: Bill with series of plates (lamellee) ex-
tending around the edges of both mandibles and fitting into
each other, when the bill is closed, like teeth — general shape
of bill, high and feathered (more or less) laterally at the base,
tapering to a flattened and wide thin tip — tough, strong, and
yet of somewhat elastic material, the end terminating with a
horny shield or NAIL of various sizes and shapes in the dif-
ferent species; nostrils variously shaped and placed in the
different sub-families and genera ; the short legs are feathered
usually quite to the tarsus, which is variously scutellate or re-
ticulated, toes fully webbed, sometimes somewhat incised, and
hind toe simple or barely membranous ; wings moderate or
long, pointed, narrow, strong, and elastic ; tail short, usually
rounded ; body compressed, neck long, head large — compar-
atively. Their anatomical characters are of special interest,

118 MANUAL

and should be studied separately. Their digestive organs are
also worthy of special investigation and comparison.

Professor Baird gives the following table which will greatly
aid in the study of the higher divisions of the family :

“ A.—The teeth of the bill directed downwards, the lamellz
composing one series only on the edge of the upper jaw. The
rami of the lower jaw separated. Bill broad; depressed at
the end.

A.—Tarsi reticulated, covered anteriorly with small hexag-
onal plates, gradually becoming smaller and rhomboidal
laterally. Hind toe without free lobe.

CyGNIN#.—Neck very long. Bill high at the base ;
longer than the head; of equal width to the rounded
tip, with its narrow nail. Soft skin of bill generally
extending to the eye. Tarsi shorter than the middle
toe without claw.

ANSERIN&.—Neck rather long. Bill high at base; as
long as or shorter than the head, narrowing to the tip,
which is chiefly formed by the large nail. Region in
front of the eye feathered. Tarsi longer than middle
toe without claw.

B.—Legs with transverse plates or scutelle anteriorly, these
becoming much smaller and more hexagonal laterally and
behind. ‘Tarsi generally shorter than middle toe without
claw.

ANATIN ®.— Hind toe without a broad membranous lobe
attached. Tarsi not longer than the middle toe; feet
moderate.

FULIGULIN®&.—Hind toe with a broad membranous lobe
depending from its under surface. Feet large. Nail
of bill superior, gently decurved. ‘Tail rather soft ;
the coverts well developed.

ERISMATURIN &.—Toes and feet as in the last. Nail of
bill abruptly bent back from tip of bill, showing but
little on upper surface of the latter. Tail feathers

OF ORNITHOLOGY 119

rigid, spinous, and almost entirely exposed ; the coy-

erts much abbreviated.
B.—Bill high at the base, much compressed. The lamelle
directed backwards as serrations. The upper jaw with two se-
ries of teeth on each side; the lower with one which fits be-
tween the others. The nail of the bill compressed, much
curved, forming the tip of the bill. Edges of bill nearly
parallel. Legs with transverse plates anteriorly.

Merarn 4.—Characters as above.”

Most writers do not make the ERISMATURIN a separate
sub-family from the FuLiGuin®, otherwise the above table
answers perfectly for our present classification. We shall
unite the two into one sub-family, and call it the FuLIGu—
LINE. The family divides itself naturally into the following
sub-families :

Sub-family 7a CYGNINZ Swans

The difference between the Swans and the Geese is easily
recognizable. The size of the former, alone, would separate
them ; add to this the naked loral spaces and there will be
very little difficulty in telling them apart. Swans are still
rare in North America, and our species are now reduced to
four well-marked and constant forms. ‘There is but a single
genus, though writers differ in names ; some calling it Cygnus
and some Qlor. Whichever form we admit, we must recog-
nize the other as an equivalent SYNONYM and not a sub-genus.
Swans appear to resort more to inland and fresh waters than
to the sea coasts, and to the extremes of the continent in arc-
tic or sub-arctic rather than ordinary temperate regions.

Genus, Cygnus or Olor, (4 species).

Sub-family 6 ANSERINZ Geese
The Geese are much better known throughout North Amer-
ica than the Swans. They inhabit all portions of the conti-
nent — inland and seaward, north, south, east, and west. The

120 MANUAL

species are not many, yet they congregate in immense num-
bers in favorable and favorite localities. Though, like the
Ducks, they have the feathered loral spaces they are easily dis-
tinguished by the reticulations of the tarsus — neither are the
legs placed so far backwards which gives them a firmer wad-
dle when they walk. The habits, in general, of Geese seem to
be more periodic and regular than of the Ducks. The habits
of the different species are not so well known as they should
be, and here is a fine field for the working ornithologist. The
different genera are well marked, and all of our species now
pretty fairly characterized, notwithstanding their former con-
fused state.
Genera, Chen, The Snow Geese (4 species).

Anser, The White-fronted Geese (2 species).

Philacte, The Emperor Goose.

Bernicla, The Canada Geese or Brants (7 species).
Dendrocycna (or Dendrocygna] The Tree Ducks (2 species).

We shall not enter upon the old synonymy of this sub-family, yet a few
points may be necessary. Anser was often used for both ansER and CHEN;
Anser and Bernicla were used interchangeably for BERNICLA; and Den-
dronessa for DENDROCYCNA: this latter was formerly classed with the Ducks
as Anas.

Sub-family - ANATINZ River Ducks

The majority of this sub-family are easily recognized It is
not so easy to draw the line between them and some of the
duck-like geese and the Sea Ducks; yet the arbitrary distin-
guishing characters — for such they are in reality — are near
enough to give us a fairly accurate diagnosis. The small size,
the short neck [and legs], and the flattened, rather than
rounded or compressed, shape of the bill uniting with the
feathered loral spaces and scutellate, rather than reticulate,
tarsus and simple hind toe (hallux), will greatly assist in the
separation from the other sub-families. It were less difficult
to define the difference between the Geese and River Ducks,
than that between the latter and the Sea Ducks. The River
Ducks are, eminently, River Ducks. They frequent rivers,
ponds, lakes, and inland waters generally. They seldom oc-

OF ORNITHOLOGY 121

cur seaward to any very great extent, and prefer the shallow
waters of marshy or overflowed lands where they can procure
a more delicate assortment of fine fresh plant and other food,
suited to their taste, than their neighbors the Sea Ducks, who
secure their food almost exclusively by diving for it. The
flight of River Ducks is generally high, light, and rapid ;
while it is, on the contrary, low and heavy — though more
often long-sustained than remarkably rapid — with the Sea
Ducks. River Ducks are, therefore, very different from Sea
Ducks. They might well be styled the more refined and aris-
tocratic birds of the family. The genera are :
Genera, Anas, The Mallard or Black Ducks (3 species).

Dafila, The Pintail Duck.

Chaulelasmus, The Gadwall Duck.

Mareca, The Widgeons (2 species).

Querquedula, The Blue-winged Teal and ally.

Nettion, The Green-winged Teal and ally.

Spatula, The Shoveller Duck.
Aiz, The Wood Duck.

Mallard hybrids (with other ducks) are not rare, some of these offspring
prove fertile, contrary to the generally accepted rule.

The above generic names seem to have come safely out of the former syno-
nymic confusion. A few suggestions are still of interest. Anas formerly
stood for almost anything and everything in the Duck family. The student
will avoid a great deal of confusion by paying little attention to former
uses of Nettion and Querquedula other than as given above. Various
names ending in nessa, such as Dendronessa, Lampronessa, etc., have been
used for the Woop Duck; this will only show its formerly supposed kin-
ship with the “ Tree’? Ducks (our present Goose form) Dendrocygna.

Sub-family 7 FULIGULINA Sea Ducks

The Sea Ducks are eminently diving ducks. While the
River Ducks do not seem to glide into the Sea Ducks, yet the
Sea Ducks do seem to glide into the River Ducks, and then to
glide out again as serenely as if they had never seemed to ap-
proach them. We see, in this family especially, the absurdity
of what I call the LINEAR THEORY, or trying to arrange each
species according to its likeness to the one before and the one
following it. Sea Ducks love the Sea ; and are generally found

122 MANUAL

singly or in large flocks far from land (one to three miles),
where they sport in the water and feed at their pleasure at
regular intervals of the day and in the evening. They often
go about in immense flocks, feed together, and even breed in
colonies. They fly long distances, but usually their flight is
heavy. Their habits vary with the species throughout the
sub-family : Some prefer the sea far out, some in shore, some
the bays and inland parts of the estuaries, and a few are abund-
ant in wholly inland and even fresh waters. The lobate form
of the hind toe at once distinguishes the group, while both
feet and bill are usually larger and stronger than in the River
Ducks. The strong and compact “ build ” and size of this sub-
family are in striking contrast to the light, swift “build” of
the River Ducks.

Genera, Fulix, The Blackhead or Scaup Ducks (3 allied species).
thyia, The Canyas-back and Red-head Duck.
Clangula, The Golden-eyed Ducks (3 allied species).
Harelda, The Long-tailed Duck.

Histrionicus, The Harlequin Duck.

Camptolemus, The Labrador Duck.

Somateria, The Eider Ducks (6 species).

(Edemia, The Scoter or Surf Ducks (4 or 5 species).
Erismatura, The Ruddy Duck.

Nomonyx, The St. Domingo Duck.

Polysticta and Lampronetia seem to be fairly sus-cEnERA of Somateria
proper; the former being applied to Stedler’s Hider and the latter to the
Spectacled Hider.

Melanetta for two varieties of Vetver Scorer, and Pelionetta for two
varieties of true Surr Ducks (species P. perspicillata and P. Trow-
bridgii), stand for true SUB—GENERA.

Erismatura seems tolerably constant. [There may be two species]. It
has been made a separate SUB-FAMILY, and may be still entitled to such
consideration.

Aithyia is not a sub-genera of FuLix, as some would seem to lead us to
suppose (also spelled Aythya), and Fuligula seems to be an old name for
most everything, [as was also Anas,] in the duck family. The Canvas-
BACK has sometimes received the name of Avistonetta, as “ Aristonetia
vallisneria, Baird,’ in Professor Baird’s ‘Birds of North America,”
(Ninth volume of the Pacific Railroad Report, p. 794). This name is a
genuine relic —a curiosity. On the previous page (793) Professor Baird
says, “should it be considered expedient [for reasons stated] to establish

OF ORNITHOLOGY 123

for the Canvas-back a new genus, the name of Aristonetta would be very
appropriate, on account of the great superiority of its flesh as an article of
food.” It is significant, however, that the Professor himself does not use
the name (save as a synonym perhaps), but uses Aythya.

Clangula and Bucephala appear to be used about equally for the GoLDEN
Eye, though preference seems to favor the former, at present. [ Histrion-
icus was formerly a CLANGULA, — but did not remain so long].

The Erper Ducks seem to be curiously synonymed. Somateria is really
the standby for all of them: yet the Steller’s Eider has received, respec-
tively, the names of Eniconetta, | Heniconetta?], and Polysticta, as well
as Somateria ; The Spectacled Hider, the names of Lampronetta and Arc-
tonetta, besides Somateria; four others have been classed as Somateria
proper — yet even here we are not allowed to rest in peace, as the name of
Erionetta is fnrther suggested for the King Hider. All of these names ap-
pear to have been used as of GENERIC RANK formerly. The hosts of old
synonyms, besides these, now of no sort of practical use save as a matter
of reference merely, is legion.

The Surr Ducks have been styled both Gidemia and Oidemia; the syno-
nym Melanetta is distinct from Melanitta used by Bote for perspicillata.

Sub-family ¢ MERGINA Mergansers

The Mergansers are evidently distinct from either the Sea
Ducks or the River Ducks ; but whether they combine the
characteristics of the former with the habits of the latter, or
VICE VERSA, is not at first so apparent. A careful examina-
tion of these birds leads us to believe that they are more Sea
Ducks with the habits of inland Water Ducks. As a sub-
family they are at once distinguished from their neighbors by
the shape and character of the bill; the saw-like rows of
sharp-pointed teeth at once proclaiming the position of the
bird. They are carnivorous ducks. They live upon fish, it
is true ; yet they are rather scavengers than birds refined in
their tastes and food. ‘They were formerly classed with the
Sea Ducks. The Mergansers, with their toothed bills, bear a
not distant resemblance to recently discovered toothed fossil
forms. ‘There is but a single genus.

Genus, Mergus, The Mergansers (3 species).

Sus-Genera. Lophodytes is a sub-genera of MERGUS, and is used for the
Hooded Merganser — it is often accorded generic rank even.

Merganser was an old-fashioned generic name, but it is seldom met with in
modern writers.

124 MANUAL
FAMILY LII SULIDAE THE GANNETS

The derivation of this word is very questionable. Latin sol, Welch sil, 2
This is a small family and is not difficult to distinguish from

all others. Though at a distance it might easily be mistaker
by a novice for a true Goose, near to it bears no sort of re-
semblance. They are large, cumbersome-looking bodies with
very little that is graceful or agile about them or their move-
ments. They are, on the contrary, fine swimmers; and are,
to a very great extent, gregarious — living and breeding in
large numbers in special and favorite localities. Size large —
length from 30 to 40 inches and extent of wings 50 to 70 (the
average of both species) ; bill long, as long as or longer than
the head, straight and slightly compressed, very stout at base
and tapering to awl-shaped point which is a trifle decurved ;
nostrils and groove very small; gular sac present, but this
also very small ; tarsus short and stout, toes long and slended
and fully webbed ; wings long, pointed, and rather clumsy ;
tail short and cuneiform.
Genus, Sula, 4 species.
Susp-GenerA, Sula, The Common Gannet and | ally.

Dysporus. The Booby Gannet and 1 ally.
The Gannets are still all classed under Sula by many writers; they for-
merly received the generic equivalent of Pelecanus. Though Dysporus was
also used at one time for the Common Ganwnet, it was discontinued when it
was found that that bird was really a typical Sw/a.

FAMILY LIII PELECANIDAE THE PELICANS

Latin pelecanus, Greek pelekinos, a pelican.

The Pelicans require very little description for their deter-
mination and identification. Their peculiar shape and size are
familiar to us, at least through pictures, from our childhood,
The enormous development of the gula sac,a membranous at-
tachment to the lower mandible, alone would fix the species
and the family — indelibly in our minds. In size they
vary from four and a half to five feet in length, and from six
anda half to eight and a half in extent, The bill is very
long, and very peculiar in shape and size — as to both upper

OF ORNITHOLOGY 125

and under mandible ; nostrils very insignificant ; wings very
long ; tail very short ; tarsus short, stout, and reticulated, toes
long and fully webbed. In general, excepting the bill and its
accompanying sac, they greatly resemble immense and slug-
gish Gannets. The Pelicans are largely gregarious, preferring
tropical and sub-tropical regions; yet there are few species
known to science.

Genus, Pelecanus. 3 species.

Professor Baird appears to have given us two suB-GENERA: Cyrtopelicanus
(White Pelican) and Onocrotalus (Brown Pelican). At least, if consider-
ing only the American species they might rank as such. In a classifica-
tion of Universal ornithology they might take Generic rank.

FAMILY LIV PHALACROCORACIDAE THE
CORMORANTS

Latin phalacro | corax (Greek similar) a sea-raven, a cormorant.

Unlike the Pelicans the Cormorants are not so easily identi-
fied, at first sight, to a novice, as might be supposed ; and yet
when once known they are easily remembered. They average
about the size of the Gannets, yet some are much smaller and
others much larger. The general color of the plumage is
more or less metallic and black. Their general characteris-
tics are rather difficult of easy definition. A single careful
glance at a specimen will serve to fix it in the mind better
than a fuller and more careful diagnosis of the family or than
any mere description. I shall quote Professor Baird’s descrip-
tion of the family characteristics :

“ Bill rather moderate, culmen concave, tip much hooked
and acute; nostrils not perceptible; wings moderate and
pointed ; tail rather short and rounded ; tarsi short ; toes long
and all joined by full webs ; gular sac capable of considerable
expansion.”

This, in general, will give a very fair idea of the Cormor-
ants, yet is far from satisfactory. The long neck and the
shape of the head and bill are marked peculiarities. The legs
also are situated so far in the rear of the body as to give these

126 MANUAL

birds the same general appearance, when on land and in an
upright posture, as in the auks and puffins, with which they of-
ten associate. They are fish feeders, expert divers, gregari-
ous, and found all over the world.

Genus, Phalacrocorazx, (10 to 11 species).

Graculus is a GENERIC synonym, and Prof. Baird gives us what appears to
be three suB-GENERA: Phalacrocorax, Graculus, and Urile. The old gen-
eric appellations of Pelecanus and Carbo are now seldom heard of. Carbo
alone is still occasionally adhered to for its simplicity.

FAMILY LV PLOTIDAE THE DARTERS

Greek plotos, “a powerful swimmer.”

A more extraordiny bird than the Darter, or Snake Bird as
it is frequently called, could hardly be imagined. It is one
of Nature’s curiosities. It is also known as the Anhinga or
Water Turkey, is a native of tropical waters, and has but few
representatives In any country. The common American spe-
cies is a resident along the Gulf States, and a familiar object
in places where it abounds. At a distance, it might be mis-
taken for a member of the Goose family but for its long, slen-
der, straight yet pointed bill; and for a large Heron or Egret,
but for its short legs which are situated so far back upon its
body. It has a slight pelican-like pouch which is naked, and
very small nostrils. The wings are long and pointed ; and
the tail, of moderate length, is broad and stiffened and com-
posed of twelve feathers. The Darter might resemble a long-
necked Cormorant, but it is of a more slight, neat, and trim
appearance. They are swamp-dwellers, feeding upon reptiles
and fishes for which they dive and swim with remarkable dex-
terity. The habit of swimming with only the head above the
water has procured for it the name of Snake Bird, as it then
greatly resembles that reptile.

Genus, Plotus, The Anhinga or Snake Bird.

FAMILY LVI TACHYPETIDAE THE FRI-
GATE BIRD
Greek tachupetes, swift-flying.
This is still another bird that could not, by any possibility,

OF ORNITHOLOGY 127

be mistaken for any other species. The characterization of
the Genus Tachypetes, by Vieillot, as given by Professor Baird,
is so apt that we quote it entire :

“ Bill long, broad at the base, the culmen concave, the un-
guis much hooked and very acute, the sides grooved and com-
pressed ; nostrils basal, linear, and hardly visible ; wings very
long and pointed, first two primaries longest ; tail lengthened
and deeply forked ; tarsi very short, strong, compressed, and
feathered for half their length ; toes long and all united by
webs; claws curved and rather small; gular sac extending
nearly to the end of the lower mandible and admitting of
considerable expansion.”

Thus, in a word, the general appearance is of an immense
kite-like bird with long, narrow, pointed wings ; long, forked
tail ; rather long bill and neck ; short legs ; and a lean, atten-
uated body. They are tropical birds and lonely wanderers
about the ocean, far from land and high in air. ‘Their power
of wing — of flight — is scarcely surpassed by any other bird
known. They breed, as do the Tropic Birds, in large num-
bers together, on or near the ground along the coast. They
are poor swimmers and divers and walk badly, but wing the
strongest tempests far to sea and high in air. It might well
be called the Water Eagle ov Robber. There is one species.

Genus, Tachypetes, The Frigate Pelican, The Man-of-War Bird.

Has been classed as Pelecanus, [also Fregata and Attagen].

FAMILY LVII PHAETONIDAE THE
TROPIC BIRD

Greek phethon, —See the legend of Phaéthon in Mythology.

This is the last of these “ Freaks of Nature,” as one might
almost call them, for which the Order SreGANOPODES is so
noted. It is associated with the Man-of- War Bird, and very
much resembles it in many particulars. Their habits are much
the same, as are also their habitats : yet the one represents the
Lion Brrp—Kine and the other the Dove-Lamps. The one
the fierce, untamed, powerful- and skillful-winged scorner and

128 MANUAL

lover 6f the tempest ; the other the calm, gentle, — yet no less
master of the air — Dove-like Commander of the Sky, who
views all below him with unmoved eye and unruffled breast,
yet conscious of a power that guides him even in the fury of
the storm. Thus the two birds picture themselves to my
mind. The description of the Genus PHa#rTon, of Linneus,
as given by Professor Baird, is :

“ Bill about the length of the head, strong, broad at the
base, compressed, the culmen curved to the tip, which is
pointed ; nostrils lateral, basal, and pervious, situated in a
short groove near the ridge ; wings long and pointed, the first
primary longest ; tail graduated, the two middle feathers ex-
tremely lengthened and narrow ; tarsi short and stout; toes
rather long, all connected together by full webs ; claws small,
curved and rather acute.”

At a little distance the Tropic Bird does not look very un-
like an immense Dove or Pigeon with two immensely long,
streaming tail-feathers. A very little stretch of the imagina-
tion would picture it as an object of veneration and worship
throughout the splendid dominions, on festal occasions, of the
Montezuman dynasty — this GULL-LIKE Sun Brrp.

Genus, Phethon or Pheeton, The Tropie Bird (2 species).

(Formerly called Lepturus.)

FAMILY LVIII LARIDAE THE GULLS
AND TERNS

Latin Jarus, Greek Jaros, “a ravenous sea-bird the Mew.”

This is the last large family with which we have to deal ; it
is a large family, yet the singular regularity or conformity of
structure which runs through all of its members renders it an
exceedingly easy one of which to treat. With the exception
of one or two species, the Gulls and Terns can usually be told
at sight. They have, generally speaking, long and powerful
though rather slender wings, and are capable of long-contin-
ued flight and surprising agility. Their bodies are long and
slender rather than short and robust. There is very little

OF ORNITHOLOGY 129

difference in the general gull-like appearance of the different
members of the different sub-families, though some of them
display more agility of wing than others. The larger birds
have an apparently slower and steadier motion while on the
wing than the smaller species, yet this may not be strictly
true — their larger size may only make it seem true. All the
members of the family are remarkable for their habit of div-
ing, from high in the air, for their prey, and will often remain
entirely submerged for several seconds at a time; yet, as a
rule, they are not diving birds. Their bodies are extremely
bouyant while they rest upon the water, and they swim with
ease, grace, and facility. They are more or less gregarious,
often flying together in flocks of many hundreds or even thou-
sands. All their motions are full of grace, and even their
walk has a sort of daintiness about it that makes it appear
not altogether awkward. Although the sea and seacoast are
their places of greatest resort they are not confined there alto-
gether, and many species follow up the larger streams and
even occur far inland about lakes and ponds and other large
bodies of water. They are distinguished from their near al-
lies the Petrels by the absence of the tubular nostrils, for which
the former are noted. There is no gularsac. The bill is long
and dart like. The toes well webbed ; hind toe short, ele-
vated, and free. The general color white or pearl-gray (blu-
ish). In general appearance not unlike a Sea Dove.

Professor Baird gives the following brief diagnosis of the
four Sub-families of this FAmILy :

“ LESTRIDIN &.—Basal half of upper jaw with a horny cov-
ering, distinct from the tip, and under which the nos-
trils open considerably beyond the middle of the bill.
Bill abruptly and much decurved at the tip. Tail cu-
neate. Body full, stout.

Lartina.—Covering of the bill continuous. Anterior
extremity of nostrils generally reaching to the middle
of the bill. Culmen generally decurved towards the
tip. Body robust. Tail generally even.

130 MANUAL

STERNIN&®.—Covering of bill continuous. Nostrils
opening in the basal third of the bill. Culmen gently
curved to the tip of the lengthened and attenuated bill.
Body rather slender. Wing lengthened. ‘Tail usually
deeply forked.

RHYNCHOPIN &.—Bill excessively compressed, like the
blade of a knife. Lower jaw much longer than the
upper ; the point obtuse. Body slender ; tail forked.”

Sub-family a LESTRIDINZ Skua or Jager Gull

The Skua or Jager Gulls are most extraordinary birds. At
first sight they resembl the smaller species of Hawks ; a sec-
ond view of them makes them appear dark-colored Terns.
The immense cered mandibles strengthen the former idea, and
their graceful, powerful, and wonderful agility of wing and
power of flight the latter. When viewed near to they appar-
ently turn out to be neither, and the young student cries out
excitedly, ‘ What can it be?’ The Skuas have been the sub-
ject of a great deal of study and speculation. They have been
variously classed by different writers and have received a large
number of generic appellations, but have now been reduced
to a single well-established genus. They are arctic-temperate
rather than tropical-temperate species. The GENUS is thus
characterized in Professor Baird’s Report (p. 838): “ Sterco-
rarius, Brisson. Bill rather strong; culmen straight and
covered at the base with a smooth cere, the end curved. Nos-
trils linear and more open anteriorly. Wings pointed ; first
quill longest. Tail of moderate length ; the two middle feath-
ers elongated. Tarsi strong, and curved with prominent
scales ; claws sharp and much curved. Feet fully webbed ;
hind toe short and but little elevated.”

Genus, Stercorarius, 4 species.

There are, properly speaking, no SUB—GENERA, unless the name Megalestris
for the Skua Guu (in distinction from the other three which are true
Jagers) be such. The names Lestris, Catarracta, and Buphagus are only
synonrmys for Stercorarius.

OF ORNITHOLOGY 131

Sub-family 6 LARINZ& True Gulls
The True Gulls are too well known to need any extended

introduction. Though some of the species are giants and oth-
ers dwarfs, they all possess a similarity of appearance and of
habit which at once characterizes them and binds them to-
gether. They have little of the agile flash-like flight of the
Skua’s, and still less of the methodical scissor-like flight of
the Terns. They are, rather, bold, powerful, slow-moving
brigands, whose wild screaches send terror into the hearts of
all smaller species, whom they seem to laugh at as if they con-
sidered them much inferior beings. The sexes are alike as to
plumage in the Gulls as well as in the Terns. The young are
of different degrees of brownish or greyish-brown, and dis-
tinctly noticeable even among the flying birds. They are two
to three years in maturing, the plumage from very dark brown
becoming lighter and lighter at each succeeding moult. A
full and thorough study of the Gulls has never been made.
We shall not attempt to characterize it further.
GenerA, Larus, The Gulls Proper (14 or 15 species).

Chroicocephalus, The Laughing and Rosy Gulls (3 species).

Pagophila, The Ivory Gull.

Rissa, The Kittiwakes (3 species).

Rhodostethia, Ross’s Gull.

Xema, Sabine’s Gull.
Creagrus, The Swallow-tailed Gull.

Some writers do not recognize Chroicocephalus as differing from Larus
unless, perhaps, as a suB-GENuS; and, though the distinction is more nearly
generic, yet really Rhodostethia is certainly a sus-GENUs of Rissa.

In the same way, if not really a distinct genus, Creagrus is a sUB-GENUs of
Aema.

The synonymy of this sub-family had better not be attempted by the young
student, as he will find a strange tangle of Larus, Laroides, Leucus, At-
ricilla, etc., and other vexing suggestions.

Sub-family - STERNINZ Terns
The difference between the True Gulls and the Terns is not
technically so great as would at first seem. The general ap-
pearance, however, is much more evident. The long, pointed
wing, the strongly marked bend of the wing, and the length-

132 MANUAL

ened body, are all characteristics of the Terns. They secure
their food — usually fish — by darting upon it, from high in
air, with the velocity and the true aim of an arrow from the
bow of an expert archer. Most Terns have a forked tail, so
that one can generally tell them, even while yet in the air,
from Gulls. They often occur a short distance inland, but
seldom stray far from the seacoast or its immediate vicinity.
Terns are social birds and fond of each others company ; throw
a dead tern even up high into the air and, if there be any liv-
ing terns near, even if not in sight at the time, numbers will
swoop down upon you ina moment. In general: Bill usu-
ally hard, horny, even at the point, and sharp tipped; the
nostrils are always prominent and opening from one side of
the mandible to the other and are oblong slits — more or less
basal. Toes usually long compared to the short and weak tar-
sus; webs not quite full, and concave rather than straight
edged. Even the young student, after a moment’s examina-
tion, will hardly mistake the Terns for the Gulls.

GeneRA, Sterna, The True Terns (14 species).

Hydrochelidon, The Black Tern and ally.

Anous, The Noddy Tern.
Sus-cenera, Gelochelidon for The Gull-billed Tern; TYhalasseus for the .
Caspian, Cayenne, Elegant, and Sandwich Terns; Sterna [proper] for the
Wilson’s, Forster's, Arctic, Roseate, Trudeau's, Least, Aleutian, Sooty and
Bridled Terns. The Sooty Tern is sometimes named Haliplana.
The syNoNyMs are hardly worth mentioning, being almost invariably
Sterna, (Sternula [little Sterna] for The Least Tern,) and Thallasseus.

Sub-family ¢ RHYNCHOPINA Skimmers

The bill of this bird alone distinguishes it from anything
else in the bird kingdom. It is like a long, blunt pair of
shears, with part of the top (the upper mandible) broken off
part way from the tip which is then filed to a rounded point
as it lays upon its fellow. Otherwise it isa true Tern. Only
three species are, I believe, known to science ; one alone in-
habiting North America.

Genus, Rhynchops, The Black Skimmer.

OF ORNITHOLOGY 13%

FAMILY LIX PROCELLARIDAEK THE
PETRELS

Latin procel/a, connected with a storm, something stormy, a storm bird.
The Petrels, at least the True Petrels, may best be com-
pared to the familiar common Dove or Pigeon: ‘They are, in

CO

fact, Sea Pigeons to all appearances when viewed from a little
distance. Near to, the technical difference is much greater.
Taken as a family, they vary greatly as to size. Professor
Baird thus characterizes the family as a whole:

“ Bill much or less lengthened, compressed, and deeply
grooved, appearing to be formed of several distinct parts ; the
tip is strong, much hooked, and acute ; the nostrils open from
distinct tubes, either single or double, and are situated at the
base of the upper mandible.”

While the above is, probably, as accurate as the circum-
stances will permit, we must look at the two sub-families,
which differ very materially from each other, for a better
knowledge of the group. The hind toe is very small, and
more or less elevated, even sometimes altogether wanting —
at least for all practical purposes. ‘They are strong swim-
mers, and their flight is easy, not ungraceful, and capable of
long continuance. They pick their food up from the top of
the water, and are not divers. Their long wings and short
tails, together with their curious habits of flying close to the
water — probably most of the time — render them conspicu-
ous objects at sea. We know so little of the general habits of
this family that anything really new about them would be a
boon to science ; they are worthy of a very special and careful
study. We have two sub-families :

Sub-family 2 DIOMEDEIN ZA Albatrosses
The technical difference between the Albatrosses and the
True Petrels is very evident, the shape and position of the nos-
trils alone would distinguish them regardless of size. As a
matter of fact, the Albatrosses are immense creatures: the
Giant Fulmer alone approaching it partially as to size. The

134 MANUAL

nostrils are entirely separate and disconnected, and situate one
on either side the mandible. They are found usually far from
land, and would seem to be sea-birds in the truest sense of the
word, seldom approaching land save for breeding purposes.
Two genera are known to North America.
GenERA, Diomedea, 2 species.

Phebetria, 1 species.

Phebetria seems to be a proper genus, rather than a sub-genus, though
often occurring under the generic name of Diomedea. I know of no syno-
nyms: [Unless Thalassarche, which is a sort of sub-genus of Diomedea,
be one. Itis used by Professor Baird as is the name Phebastia — both
are used, however, rather as expressive of GENERIC peculiarities than in a
sub-generic sense ].

Sub-family PROCELLARINZ Petrels
The True Petrels are known at once by the curious shape of
the nostrils, which have the appearance of a very short
double-barreled gun saddled to the base of the upper mandi-
ble. The general features of the Petrels are best studied, as
are many other of the bird groups, by means of a “ typical ”
specimen. Nearly all of the members of the group conform,
with slight variations in each genus, to this typical specimen
—and almost any one of the SUB-ORDER will serve as typical.
Many families do not require this mode of study, a few do.
The shapes of the nostrils, of the wings and tail as modified
by the number of their feathers and the forked, even, or
wedge-like appearance of the latter, size of both wings and
tail, and even the coloration of the various parts, all vary in
the different species and genera.
Genera, Ossifraga, The Giant Fulmar.
Fulmarus, The True Fulmar (3 species).
Priocella, The Slender-billed Falmar.
Priofinus, The Black-tailed Shearwater.
Puffinus, The True Shearwaters (10 species).
(Estrelata, The Black-capped Petrel and ally.
Daption, The Cape Pigeon.
Halocyptena, The Least Petrel.
Procellaria, The Stormy Petrel.
Oceanites, Wilson’s Petrel.
Cymochorea, Leach’s Petrel and 2 allies.

Oceanodroma, The Forked-tailed Petrel (2 species).
Fregetta, The White-bellied Petrel.

Cyr

OF ORNITHOLOGY 13:

The synonymy of the Petrels, all things considered, is one
apparently of strange inconsistency, and I would not advise
the young student to bother much over it. Professor Baird
added Daption and Fregetta to the family, and he gives a suB—
GENUS for nearly every individual species besides. The
names Procellaria, Fulmarus, Thalassidromas, and Puffinus,
were used by old writers as SYNONYMS, generally for the whole
sub-family and in their present restricted sense.

FAMILY LX COLYMBIDAE THE LOONS

Greek kolwmbos, Latin colymbus, “a kind of water fowl.”

The Loons might at first be somewhat puzzling to a novice,
were he not familiar with both the name and the general form
from his childhood’s picture books, When flying bigh in the
air, they are easily mistaken for the Canada Goose unless one
is quite familiar with the appearance of both birds. It is on
the water that the Loon is in his native element. They swim
with ease and grace ; dive at the flash of the gun ; and swim
long distances under the water, apparently without very great
exertion. They only take wing when compelled to, prefer-
ring to escape their pursuers by diving. They are easily dis-
tinguishable when examined closely: The long, stout, com-
pressed, straight, and sharp-tipped bill; long, narrow, and
lobed nostrils; strong and long-pointed wings ; short, thick
tail; legs situated very far back making it difficult for them
to walk on land ; toes all present, webbed ; these features tell
the Loons at once. They are usually spotted black and white
above, and pure white beneath. Their curiously harsh and
fiendish cry has struck terror into the heart of many a camper-
out quietly taking his first outing by the side of some cool
inland lake or stream. There is but a single genus.

Genus, Colymbus, 5 species.

The old-time Hudytes or Hudites are not now in use except for references.

FAMILY LXI PODICIPIDAE THE GREBES

Latin podex buttox, and pes foot; buttox-footed.
The Grebes, though strongly resembling the Loons in very

136 MANUAL

many respects, are yet easily told from them at a glance.
They were formerly classed as a sub-family of the divers, al-
though now made a distinct family. Their habits are, in the
main, almost identical. The technical difference between the
two families is easily seen by the appearance of the feet-webs.
The feet of the Loons being what are known as palmate, that
is the membrane connecting them is smooth and entire (in-
cised, cut into, or not) ; while those of the Grebes are lobate,
scalloped or lobed, and running down each side of each toe
nearly or quite to its base. Aside from this they are usually
much smaller; the bill blunter; the wings more rudiment-
ary ; the body feathers greasy or oily to the touch; and the
plumage not black and white spotted above and pure white
beneath, but more or less brownish dusky all over.

GreneRA, A’chmophorus, 2 species.
Podiceps, The American Red-necked Grebe.

9

Dytes, 3 species.
Tachybaptes, St. Domingo Grebe.
Podilymbus, The Pied-billed Grebe.

Formerly Podiceps was used for all the Grebes; later Podilymbus became
a stable genera. Colymbus was also used for nearly if not quite all species
of both Grebes and Loons. Other synonyms, now somewhat out of date,
need not be mentioned here. The Podiceps cristatus, or Crested Grebe, so
frequently cited by former writers, is not now recognized even as being a
North American species.

FAMILY LXII ALCIDAE THE AUKS AND
PUFFINS

Derivation uncertain, perhaps like alcedo or halcion, pertaining to the sea.

The Auks and the Puffins constitute the last family of which
we treat, and they are, without doubt, one of the most inter-
esting. To study them carefully and fully one must visit them
in their home, the Arctic regions of both coasts of both con-
tinents ; for there they make their home. The Auks are the
lowest specimens of the bird kingdom the Penguins excepted,
and are placed naturally at the end of the bird kingdom ; why
writers should be at such pains to reverse this apparently nat-
‘wal order and put the lowest water birds Frrst, thereby ren-

OF ORNITHOLOGY 137

dering it necessary to put in a reverse order every specimen
and every group in the sub-kingdom, in order to conform to
what I call the LINEAR THEORY, we confess we are at a loss
to imagine. The Auks are the least developed of the birds.
Their legs are situated so far back that they walk and even
stand with difficulty ; their wings are rudimentary ; and their
habits primitive. They seem to have little vitality save that
of mere existence. They lay generally a single egg — seldom
more, and often leave the sun to hatch that. They are emi-
nently social, often assembling together in regular colonies ;
and, though stragglers are sometimes found a great way from
home, they seldom stray far away from the main body of their
associates.

As a family they are easily told from their neighbors in the
same ORDER by having but three toes to their feet, all fully
webbed. The tail is short and of few feathers. The bill is
variable in shape and often subject to seasonable, periodical,
or sexual changes. They are confined to the sea-board, though
severe gales often blow them many miles inland. When once
on wing they fly well, but prefer the water where they are
perfectly at home, swimming and diving with great facility.
Their notes are harsh and few. There are two well-defined
sub-families, though they are scarcely distinguishable so very
closely do they run into each other. Many authors make no
sub-families, | believe. There is a great deal yet to learn of
these sub-families, whose extremes are so dissimilar the ends
that approach eacho ther so similar.

Sub-family 7 PHALERIDINZ@& Puffins and allies

Genera, Fratercula, The True Puflins (3 species).
Lunda, The Tufted Puffin.
Ceratorhina, The Horn-billed Puffin.
Simorhinchus, The Crested and Whiskered Auks.
Phaleris, The Parrot Auk.
Ciceronia, The Least Auk.
Ptycorhamphus, The Aleutian Auk,

138 MANUAL

Sub-family 6 ALCINA True Auks
Nostrils naked and not reached by the feathering at the
base of the bill.

Genera, Alle, Sea Dove, Dovekie.
? Synthliborhamphus, 2 species.

~

Brachyrhamphus, 5 species.

Uria, The True Guillemots (3 species).
Lomvia, The True Murres (4 species).
Utamania, The Razor-billed Auk.
Alca, The Great Auk.

The above generic equivalents for the Auks and Puffins is
correct, as the family is now treated by our best ornitholo-
gists. It would be unwise to enter into a discussion of old
relations and old synonyms. <A very few of them may be
mentioned only, such as Alca, Phalaris, Utamania, and Uria,
as being general names for the AuKs ; Mormon tor the Pur—
FINS ; Ceppus and Colymbus for the BLAcK GUILLEMOT and
its allies: Colymbus was also used for many of the other spe-
cies of Guillemots.

WE have omitted, in the above pages, the discussion
of a large number of Debatable Questions, especially
concerning /zdzvedual Speczes and the admission of
genera based upon them. We hope, however, that no
essential genus has been left out.

Subjects for Essays.

Let the pupil Write AN Essay upon any of the follow-
ing Subjects :
1. The Migrations of Birds.
2. North American Birds found in Europe and other For-
eign Countries.

“I

OF ORNITHOLOGY 159

European Birds found in North America.

North American Birds found in South America.

South American Birds found in North America.

Where shall we draw the Line between the North and
the South American Avi-fauna ?

The Avi-fauna of Central America and its Boundaries
North and South.

The Birds of the West Indies.

The Winter Residence of our North American Birds.

In the Nests of what Birds does the Cow Birp, JMolo-
thrus ater, lay her eggs and how many ?

Double-yolked Eggs.

The Colors of Birds Eggs and how produced? Is there
a Law regulating them ?

Changes of Habits amongst Birds.

A Theory of Albinism. Enumeration of Species.

A Theory of Melanism. Enumeration of Species.

A Theory of Bird Growth. (Size in Old and Young, in
Male and Female.)

Pneumacity in Birds. [This could be made a very inter-
esting subject for Original investigation].

Coloration and Ornamentation in Birds.

The Theory of Flight in Birds.

Birds that Sing in the Night.

Birds that Sing on the Nest.

Curiosities of Bird Architecture.

Causes of Decrease (or Increase, if observed) in the
Abundance of Certain Species of Birds in different
Years in the same Area.

Extinct Birds.

Faunal Areas.

Early and Late Arrival and Departure of Birds (in any
given Locality) and probable Causes.

Variation in Size in Eggs of the same Species.

Derivation of Names from Foreign Languages.

Any or all of these Topics can be enlarged indefinitely.

140 MANUAL

Most of them can be restricted to North American Birds, or
applied to Birds in General. The number of Topics might
be increased, also, upon careful consideration. The above,
however, will be found to contain most of the leading Ques-
tions of the Day, as applied to Ornithological problems.

An Enumeration of the ORDERS and FAMILIES
of the BIRDS OF THE WORLD.

The present list of the /amzlzes of THE BirRDS oF
THE Wor -p, following their respective Orders, is the
result of over twenty-five years of careful study and
reflection. The latest works upon the subject, in both
the European and the English Languages are in my
Library and have been faithfully examined.

Besides the actual specimens in the Central Park
and Vassar College Museums (in 1873), Amherst Col-
lege, and the Boston Society of Natural History ; the
magnificent collection of birds, both stuffed and in the
skin, of Prof. H. A. Ward of Rochester, N. Y.; a val-
uable collection of about 2000 skins of birds from the
East Indies, belonging to my brother the late William
F. Stearns, Esq. of Orange, N. J.; a collection oi 600
skins from the same source, the property of the -Rev.
William O. Ballantine of Ahmednagar, India ; hesides——
many smaller collections from various parts of the
world which have been opened to me and have been
no less interesting.

A discussion of wy each family has been placed as .
it has, would occupy more space than can at present

OF ORNITHOLOGY 141

be allowed in these pages. A hasty glance at the
classification of an eminent English writer, in a recent
work just come to my notice, strengthens my convic-
tion that the /zzear theory of classification is no longer
tenable. The idea of direct relationship, from the be-
ginning to the end of the series, through similarity of
common features — say of bill, wing, tarsus, etc., —
which has occupied the mind of ornithologists for over
two hundred years, has, by our latest and most emi-
nent authorities, given place to what I will call, to coin
a word of my own, THE Cusicat THEorRY of relation-
ship and inter-relationship from a central point Aves.
Groups of birds, more or less complete in themselves,
are so far removed from each other that no recent or
fossil forms supply the deficiency. Our ornithological
ensemble is, therefore, zo¢ a LINEAR one. AS a very
simple illustration: We have Lanp Birps and WaTER
Birps, we have also Game LAND _Birps and GAME
WATER Birps. We have Fowt among both Land and
Water Birds. Then we have a host of PECULIAR FORMS
that conform to nothing but themselves. In many
ways does this cupicaL theory of distinct phases of
Bird life peculiar in themselves and resembling noth-
ing else, except in being a zr, show itself throughout
the whole Class.

In the following list, the English equivalent for the
Latin or Greek name has been faithfully translated ;
though they do not seem always to fully apply, they
are at present the best that we have to offer, and often
too familiar to be changed without good reasons. The
student would find a great deal of advantage, also, in
studying the derivation and meanings of names in Or-
nithological nomenclature. A few names, déracketed

142 MANUAL

but not included in the regular families or numbered,
are yet made families by some authors. They may in
time be given full /amzZy rank, but not now.

It has not been thought necessary to cumber these
pages with Swé-Orders or Sub-Famzlies. They are,
to a very great extent, useless divisions in Ornithology
in any event and seldom stable.

The accompanying Zadéé will serve as a diagnosis
of Orders and explain itself. These Orders are given
an thetr order upon the back of the Table. Order 3
should read Macrocuires. We may, at a later date,
elaborate a diagnosis for the amzles.

Order |. PassarEs—Sparrow-like Birds.

1 Turdidz True Thrushes.

2 Troglodytidz Wrens.

3 Paridze Titmice.

4 Chameide Wren-tits.

5 Nectariniidee Sun-Birds.

6 Meliphagidz Honey-eaters.
7 Ccoerebidz Honey-creepers.

8 Certhiidz Creeping Warblers.
9 Sylvicolidee True Warblers.
10 Muscicapidz Old World Flycatchers.
11 Ampelidz Wakxwings.

=
N

Motacillidz Wagtails and Pipits.
13 Alaudidz Larks.

14 Hirundinidz Swallows.

15 lLaniidz True Shrikes.

16 Dicruridz Drongo Shrikes.

17 Vireonidez Vireos.

18 Oriolidz Orioles.

19 Icteridz American Starlings.

20 Sturnidz Old World Starlings.
21 Corvidz Crows.

22 FPtilonorhynchidz Bower Birds.

A Clas

Jaw bone provide

' Some auth

EP 2-190 Way {aa sno ee

FE -UBICUIOU B YIM po} ‘om SNOUBIGUIOW B YA po}UN daAoU S80} JUOI “aAOGR WAZ padano [IG

$ ¥-tunsoyuog “oaoqe

% Sully poatnd jou [1g s

DQ ee

q 201 Se.

= "J09} SJL JO sepos ay} uodn yystadn ys Uv PaIq OY IBY} ING puULYyod «Vy Os yos ZOU sBor]
SS ee - ——

"7992 gnoypIM sug MBE

A Classification for the Orders of the Birds of the World.

Jaw bone provided with leeth.......- cesses. ceeeees cress ees ROOT Gnbseotapedasabac> EANNANpENSOLND 16. ODONTORNITHES.

Jaw bone without teeth.

hat the bird can sit upright upon the soles of its feet.

Pa
0

Toothed Birds.

{ Legs set very far behind, so that the bird sits with difficulty in an upright position 15. PYGOPODES.'

touchin

the soles of the feet upon the yround ........ 0.0.2.0. ceeeesee eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeees Rump-footed.

Front toes on
branous web..

3. LONGIPENNES
Long-winged.

connected by mem-

2 section-

ong the

Bill without cr

al horny plates

edges. 1 All four toes connected by mem- 12, STEGANOPODES,
branous Web. .........csseeeeeeeeeee Web-footed.

| m with cross sectional horny plates along the edges. .....s+. es M4. LAMELLIROSTRES

= Plated-billed.
Sr 8 aes
| 2, S| Bill horny as far as the tip.sssser 10. CICONIA.
Z = | Wing developed, Storks.
z Bel | Bill covered at base with soft skin, Ul. GRALLZ.
a $ | Stilt-walkers.
2 = a oe
& 2 Wings rudimentary and wnfit for fight.....-...ccecceee ceeeereee 7. BREVIPENNES.
= 5 l Small-winged,
| = Young able to run about and fly from time of hatching............... 8 RASORES.
i = | Scratchers.
a Bill with horny sheath only at its arched tip. ....--.:. snes COLUMBA.
2 Pigeon-like.

(f
4. RAPTORES.
Birds of Prey.

Bill with a cere at the base. Feet nof united in pairs.......

Front toes never t

iE s epefandtcenmlrayatcors Re
2 = Feet not | ered with large plates............./: PASSARES.
2 Re united in 4 ; Sparrow-like.
5 irs Legs and feet no/ clearly
g\a45 2 5 pues Dliteds ssssiticccesseescnvuensn:.3: MACROCRIRES,
2/=/2 5 | Long-handed,
2/2] = 3} PICT.
E£/4 Al = = | Feet united in pai Woodpeckers,
Biels a ; Panel
£ = val = | Formation of palate bones desmognathous [united.] 2: COCCYGES.
ete = Cuckoos.
= || <=
a = 5. PSITTACI
— | Bill with a cere. Feet united in pairs, Parrots.
l a

' Some authors use the name Urinarores for this Order as Pygopus is the name of a Reptile.

1. PASSARES.
Sparrow-like.

2. COCCYGES.
Cuckoos.

3. MACROCRIRES.
Long-handed.

4. RAPTORES.
Birds of Prey.

5. PSITTACI.
Parrots.

6. PICT.
Woodpeckers.

7. BREVIPENNES.

Small-winged.

& RASORES.
Scratchers.

9. COLUMB.
Pigeon-like.

10. CICONIA.
Storks.

ll. GRALLA.
Stilt-walkers.

12. STEGANOPODES.
Web-footed.

13. LONGIPENNES.

Long-winged.

14. LAMELLIROSTRES
Plated-billed.

15. PYGOPODES.'
Rump-footed.

16. ODONTORNITHES.
Toothed Birds.

OF ORNITHOLOGY

23 Paradiseidz Paradise Birds.

24 Tanagridz Tanagers.

25 Fringillidee Finches.

2G Ploceidz Weaver Birds.

27 Menuride Lyre Bird.

28 Tyrannidz _ Tyrant Flycatchers.

29 Cotingidze Chatterers.

30 Dendrocolaptidze [Sitta] Tree Creepers.
31 Formicariidz Ant Eaters.

32 Pittide [ittas.

Order 2. Coccyces—Cuckoos.

33 Cuculidz Cuckoos.

34 Alcedinidz Kingfishers.
35 Coraciadz _ Rollers.

36 Meropidz _ Bee-eaters.
37 Momotidze Motmots.

38 Upupidz Hoopoes.

39 Galbulidz Jacamas.

40 Bucconide Barbets.

41 Rhamphastidz Toucans.
42 Musophagide Plantain Eaters.
43 Bucerotidz Hornbills.
44 Trogonidz Trogons.

45 Coliidz Colies.

Order 3. MacrocHires—Long-handed Birds
46 Trochilidz Hummingbirds.

47 Cypselidze Swifts,
48 Caprimulgidz Goatsuckers.
Order 4. Raptores—Birds of Prey.
49 Vulturidz Old World Vultures.
50 Cathartidz American Vultures.
51 Serpentariidze Secretary Birds.
52 Falconidze Hawks and Eagles,
53 Pandionidz Ospreys.
54 Strigidz True Owls.
55 <Aluconidz Barn Owls.

14:

144 MANUAL

Order 5. Psitraci—Parrots.

56 Strigopideze Owl Parrots.
57 Psittacidee True Parrots.

Order 6. Pici—Woodpeckers.

[Picumnidee. |
58 Picus Woodpeckers.
59 Yungidze Wrynecks.

Order 7. BREvIPENNES—Small-winged Birds.
60 Apterygide Apteryx.
61 Dinornithide, etc. [Extinct.|
[Dromeadidze Emus.]
[Casuaridze Cassowaries.|
[Rheidze Rhea.]
62 Struthionidz Ostriches, eic.

Order 8. Rasores—Scratching Birds.

63 Tinamidz Tinamous.

64 Meleagrideze Turkeys.

65 Tetraonidz Grouse.

66 Phasianidz Pheasants.
67 Perdicidz Quail-like Birds.
68 FPteroclidz Wild Hens.
69 Cracidze Curassows.

Order 9. CoLumBaE—Pigeon-like Birds.
70 Gouridz Crowned Pigeons.
71 Columbidz True Pigeons.
72 Caloenodidee Maned Pigeons.
73 Treronidz Fruit Pigeons.
74 Didunculidze Toothed Pigeons.
75 Dididz Dodo.

Order 10. Ciconia—Storks.
76 Plataleidz Spoonbills.
77 Ibididz Ibises.
78 Ciconiidz Storks.
[Scopide. |
79 Ardeidz Herons.

OF ORNITHOLOGY 145

Order 11. GraLtLtaeE—Stilt-walkers.

80 Otididz Bustards.

81 Gruiidz Cranes.

82 Psophiidee Trumpeters.
[Chionidide.|
[Rhinochetide.|

83 Charadridz Plovers.

84 Scolopacidz Snipes.

85 Parridz Jacanas.

86 Rallidze Rails.

Order 12. STECANOoPOoDES—Web-footed Birds.

87 Pelecanidz Pelicans.

88 Phalacrocoracidz Cormorants.
89 Sulidz Gannets.

90 Plotidez Darters.

91 Tachypetide Frigate Bird.
92 Phethontide Tropic Birds,

Order 13. LoncipENNES—Long-winged Birds.

93 Laridz Gulls.
94 Procellaride Petrels.

Order 14. LAMELLIROSTRES—Plated-billed Birds,

95 Palamedeidz Horned Screamers.

96 Phoenicopteridz Flamingoes.

97 Cygnidee Swans.

98 Anseridz Geese.

99 Plectropteridze Spur-wing.
[Tadornide.|

100 Anatidz River Ducks.

101 Fuligulidee Sea Ducks.

102 Erismaturidz Ruddy Ducks.

103 Mergidze Fish Ducks.

Order 15. Pycorpopes—Diving Birds.

104 Colymbidz Divers.
105 Alcidz Auks.
106 Spheniscidze Penguins.

146 MANUAL

Order 16. OpDonToRNITHES—Toothed Birds Axézzc¢.

107 Hesperornithes
108 Ichthyornithes Fish-like.
109 Saurure _ Lizard-tails.

GLOSSARY OF SCIENTIFIC TERMS.
SSS SSS

A.

Abdomen, the lower part of the belly.

Aberrant, a deviation from some typical form.

Abnormal, not normal or regular, irregular.

Abortive, not perfect or fully grown.

Abrupt, with the appearance of having been suddenly broken
or cut off, ending suddenly.

Acicular, when the whole bill is of nearly the same width and
thickness from the base to the tip, which is pointed
abruptly ; differs from attenuated and acuminate, in that
these latter begin large and dwindle gradually to a fine,
sharp point.

Acuminate, short, slender, and tapering to a sharp point.

Acute, sharp-pointed.

Aerial, pertaining to the air.

Affinity, having a likeness to.

After-shaft, the supplemental, part of the shaft of a feather,
that which bears the web, or ‘“ feather web.”

Albino, a white condition of some different colored plumage.

Attenuate, long, slender, and tapering to a sharp point.

Altrices, birds which rear their young i the nest.

Alula, the little or “ spurious ” wing, the thumb.

Anal regions, the regions about the anus.

Angulated, meeting at an angle.

OF ORNITHOLOGY 147

Ankle, the heel joint,
Anterior, in front.
Antrose, directed forward.
Anus, the lower opening of the body.
Apex, the point or upper end.
Aquatic, pertaining to or living in the water.
Arched, convexed.
Auricular, pertaining to the ear, the region just above the ear.
Avi-fauna, bird fauna.
Avillary, belonging to the avilla or arm-pit. [The inner un-
der wing-coverts are called the avillary coverts. |
B.
Barbs, the small branch- or hook-like portions of a feather.
Barbules, the small branch- or hook-like portions of the barbs.
Basal, when situated at the base.
Bastard wing, SEE Alula.
Bifid, having two divisions or parts, divided into two parts.
Bilobate, having two lobes.
Booted, showing a smooth, plain surface or single, large plate,
— neither scutellate or reticulate.
Boreal, applied to species dwelling mostly in the far Northern
latitudes.
C.

Caniculate, furnished with a groove or channel.

Carinate, keeled, like the inverted keel of a ship.

Carnivorous, flesh-eating. —

Carpus, the wrist ; carpal, pertaining to the wrist.

Caruncles, — of fowl, ete., — fleshy outgrowths.

Caudal, pertaining to the tail.

Cere, the naked [wax-like] membrane at the base of the bill
of many birds, especially of hawks, parrots, ete.

Cervix, SEE Neck ; cervical, pertaining to the hind neck.

Cheeks, the sides of the head below the eye, (between the au-
ricular patch and basal point of the upper mandible.)

Circular, round.

Clavate, club-shaped.

148 MANUAL

Cleft, cut into, (incised.)

Coalesce, to join together.

Coccyx, the last bone of the tail.

Combs, — of fowl, etc., — fleshy outgrowths, fleshy head crests.

Commissure, the angle of the mouth behind (when the bill is
open), often [wrongly] applied to the whole edge from
tip of mandible to the angle.

Compressed, flattened in a perpendicular direction.

Concave, hollowed toward the centre.

Conical, cone-shaped.

Conirostres, birds in which the bill is conical (sparrow-like).

Contour, the shape, outline, or outward form of anything.

Contracted, suddenly growa or made smaller in any direction.

Convex, swelled or bulged from the center ontward.

Coriaceous, tough like leather.

Corneous, hard and horny.

Corrugated, roughened, wrinkled.

Coverts, small feathers covering the base of some growths of
larger feathers: there are the primary coverts, the sec-
ondary coverts, and the tertiary coverts ; the greater cov-
erts and the lesser coverts ; the upper coverts and the
under coverts, ete.

Crenulate, wavy edged.

Crest, a portion of the feathers of the body which are, (being
somewhat elongated) or are capable of being, raised
above the surface of the surrounding feathers. Crests
properly belong to the head.

Crissum, the region between the anus and the base of the un-
der tail coverts.

Crown, of the head, the central portion.

Crus, that portion of the leg represented by the tibia and the
fibula taken together.

Culmen, the highest median line of the upper mandible.

Culminate, where the upper edges of any thing join each other.

Cultirostres, birds in which the bill is of a cutting, knife-

shaped shape (Heron-like).

OF ORNITHOLOGY 149

Cuneiform, wedge-shaped.

Cutanaceous, pertaining to the skin, skinny.

Cuticle, hardened portions of the skin.

Cylindrical, shaped like a cylinder.

D.

Decurved, curved downwards.

Dentate, toothed.

Dentirostres, birds in which the bill is lobed or toothed at the
tip, (Flycatcher-like.)

Denuded, rendered nude or bare in any part.

Depressed, flattened in a horizontal direction.

Dermal, pertaining to the skin.

Dew-laps, fleshy or skinny outgrowths.

Diagnosis, a brief description of the marks which distinguish
one Order, Family, Genus, Species, etc., from another.

Digit, any one of the phalanges (or fingers proper).

Digitigrade, — amongst birds — walking on the toes of the
feet in distinction from plantigrade.

Dilated, enlarged, swelled or bulged cut.

Disc, a more or less circular, plate-like arrangement of radiat-
ing feathers, — shown especially about the eyes of Owls
and other Birds of Prey.

Divaricate, spreading out (or fan-like) from some common
stem or centre.

Dorsal, pertaining to the back.

E.

Elbow, the outer joint of the humerus.

Elliptical, an oval about twice as long as wide.

Emarginate, notched, cut into, as if a piece had been cut out.

Epidermis, the outer layer of the skin.

Epignathous, when the tip of the wpper mandible is bent over
that of the under.

Epiphysis, (pl. epiphyses), the caps to the limb bones.

Esophagus, the gullet, the channel leading into the stomach.
Also spelled Gisophagus.

Excoriaceous, a state in which the skin seems to come off in
small scale-like particles.

150 MANUAL

Exserted, projecting beyond the rest.
Exterior, upon the outside.
F’.

Facial, pertaining to the face.

Falcate, sharp and sythe-shaped.

Fasciculate, covered with little bunches or tufts of fme and of-
ten stiff hairs or feathers.

Fauna, the birds (or other animals) of any given region : (dis-
tinguished from the flora or plant life.)

Feathers, true feathers have a shaft (with an after-shaft) and a
web: feathers may also be downy, thread-like, hairy, or
bristly, (or real bristles). The so-called powder-down of
some birds is really a kind of feather.

Femur, the thigh bone.

Fibula, the outer leg bone. SEE Tibia.

Filaments, small thread-like growths.

Fissirostres, birds in which the bill is short and has a very
wide cleft or gape. (Swallow-like.)

Flanks, the sides of the rump.

Flaps, SEE Dew-laps, fleshy outgrowths.

Flattened, made flat — longer than wide or wider than long —
given a flat surface anywhere [a word very common
yet very indefinite. |

Flexible, bending easily.

Forficate, deeply forked. .

Fosse, nasal, the grooves in which the nostrils open, often
called su/ce (when very long).

Frontal regions, the forehead.

Fuliginous, sooty or smoke colored, smoky-brown.

Fulvous, a tawny yellow color, yellowish-brown.

Fuscous, a darkish or blackish-brown color.

Fused, two or more portions of anything firmly united.

G.

Gape, the line from the tip of bill to the angle of commissure.

Globular, round.

Gonys, the point where the rami of the under mandible join,

OF ORNITHOLOGY 151

the line of the gonys is often distinct to the very tip of
the bill ; (they are very variable in shape.)

Graduated, implying that the quills are graded or so arranged
that each will be shorter than the one next to it.

Granivorous, grain-eating.

Granular, composed of small grains or granules.

Gregarious, living or assembling together in flocks.

Gula region, SEE. Throat.

Gullet, SEE Esophagus.

H.

Habitat, the place or region which any species peculiarly in-

abits.

Hallux, the hind toe.

Hamulate, hooked.

Heel, practically the elbow, the joint of the tibia and tarsus.

Horny, hard, tough, and flexible, like horn.

Humerus, the bone of the arm from the shoulder to the elbow.

Hybrid,7a cross between two different species.

Hypognathous, in which the lower mandible is longer than the
upper mandible.

I.

Imbricate, furnished with scales or plates which overlap each
other, similar to the shingles upon the roof of a house.

Immaculate, unspotted.

Impervious, not apparently pervious or open, shut up.

Incised, cut into.

Incumbent, where one portion lies upon another (when the
whole surface of the toes or feet lie upon the ground
when the bird is standing).

Inferior, when below any given line or point, as inferior to the
median line.

Inflated, swelled out, distended.

Insistent, — of bird’s feet, when only the toes lie upon the
ground when the bird is standing (or of the hind toe
when raised above a level of the others just so much
that only the end of the toe can touch the ground).

Interior, within, inside of.

152 MANUAL

J.

Jugulum, SEE Throat.

K.

Keeled, having a raised, central ridge like the inverted keel of
a ship.

Knee, practically the joint of the femur and the fibula.

L.

Lamelle, thin plate- or scale-like processes.

Lamellirostres, birds in which the bill is furnished with lamelle
(Duck-like). |

Lanceolate, shaped like the head of a lance.

Larynx, the upper part of the trachea or windpipe, from the
lower part of which proceed the laryngeal or the sing-
ine muscles.

Lateral, pertaining to the side or sides.

Latitudinal, long, — in height.

Linear, like a line, long and narrow.

Lobate, furnished with a series of lobes or flaps along the sides
of each toe.

Lobes, fleshy outgrowths (of membrane).

Longirostres, birds in which the bill is long but stout (Snipe-
like).

Longitudinal, long lengthwise.

Lores or Loral regions, the spaces between the eye and the base
of the upper mandible, on either side of the head.

M.

Maculate, spotted.

Malar, pertaining to the cheek.

Mandibles, the upper and under sheaths of the bill.

Mantle, —in gulls, ete., the upper surface of the wings and
back taken as a whole.

Mazillary line, the line at the base of the jaws or mandibles.
[The word mazillary is seldom used in Ornithology,
being interchangeable with mandible ; it refers, really,
to the secondary jaws of Insects. |

Median, middle.

OF ORNITHOLOGY 153

Melano, a black variation of some different colored plumage.

Membranaceous — membrane — covered with or having a
membrane or skinny covering.

Mentum, the chin.

Metacarpus, that portion which lies between the carpus and
the phalanges.

Metagnathous, a state in which the points of both mandibles
cross one another.

Metamorphosis, a change of form, shape, or structure.

Migrant, (MrGRaTIoN,) (MicrAToRY,) the passing from one
region to another at stated intervals, usually in both
Spring and Autumn: cause — temperature, food, etc.

Morphology, treats of the forms of any given animal structure:

Moult, the shedding of the old and the acquiring of the new
plumage (occurs once and often twice each year.)

Mucronate, abruptly pointed by a sharp, spiney shaft.

N.

Nasal, pertaining to the nostrils.

Nape, SEE Neck.

Neck, The, the neck of a bird is really divided into three re-
gions: the occiput, just back of the crown of the head ;
the neuchal region, or nape; and the hind neck or cer-
viv. The NAPE Is often spoken of as the back of the
neck, and it lies between the occiput and the cerviz.

Neuchal region, SEE Neck.

Nidify, Nidification, to nest, to make a nest, the process of
nesting.

Normal, regular, ordinary.

Nude, naked.

Oblique, stanting, inclined.

Oblong, longer than wide.

Obtuse, not sharp-pointed (blunt).

Occiput, SEE Neck.

Omnivorous, the eating of all kinds of food indiscriminately.
Orbital region, the region about the eye.

MANUAL
ed.

Ovate, rounder, but longer than wide.
Ovoid, shaped like an egg, egg-shaped.
PB.

Palmate, webbed (the web may be more or less incised, or cut
into, but always reaches to the base of the claws).

Papille, little raised knobs. |

Paragnathous, birds in which both mandibles are of equal
length.

Patella, the little bone at the cap of the knee, the “ knee-cap.”

Pectal regions, regions of the breast.

Pectinate, furnished with teeth, like a comb.

Pectoral, pertaining to the breast.

Penne, Pennate, Pennaceous, refers to the small feathers of a
bird, often called contour or down feathers, which con-
stitute the main part of the plumage.

Perforated, open from one side to the other, pierced by one or
more openings.

Pervious, provided with holes, opened.

Phalanges, the fingers, or that part of the wing which an-
swers to the fingers.

Pinion, a feather, or quill, — thus often the whole wing.

Plantigrade, walking with the soles of the feet on the ground.

Plume, a single feather, a small bunch of peculiar feathers.

Plumule, diminutive of Plume.

Podotheca, the naked part of the leg.

Posterior, behind, (back of.)

Postorbital, behind the eye.

Precoces, birds that run about and pick up their food from
the time they are hatched.

Pessirostres, birds in which the bill is short and well com-
pressed, (Plover-like.)
Primary quills, Primaries, the quill feathers of the last joint of

a wing of a bird — often called the hand.

Pubescent, covered with down, downy-

Puncetate, covered with punctures, pitted.

Pyramidal, pyramid-shaped.

OF ORNITHOLOGY

R.

Rachis, the shaft of a feather.

Radius, the inner of the two bones of the forearm.

Rami, the branches (upon the under side) of the under man
dible.

Recurved, curved upward.

Remiges, the long, true quills of a bird’s wing — and includ-
ing the primaries, the secondaries, and the tertiaries.

Remote, said of the hind toe when it is situated so far above
the others that its tip cannot reach the ground.

Reticulate, covered with very smai! plate-like scales which are
of various (irregular) sizes and shapes, not imbricated.

Retrose, directed backwards. .

Rictus, the line from the base of the bill to the point of the
commissure, (inner angle of gape.)

Rigid, stiff, inflexible, or not easily bent.

Rostrum, the bill, the beak.

Rounded, round, but not necessarily completely so.

Ruff, a collection of feathers standing out at an angle from the
rest of the surrounding plumage.

Rufous, a reddish-brown color.

Rugose, covered with irregular elevations — roughened irregu-
larly, (having a surface resembling sandpaper but more
irregular.)

Rump, the region just above the extremity of the backbone
and near to the base of the tail.

S.

Sagittate, arrow-shaped.

Scabrous, roughened with scab-like scales.

Scapularies, the feathers springing from the shoulder-blade or
Scapula, (the shoulder of the wing.)

Scurf, the dry external scales of the skin (or epidermis).

Scutellate, covered with plate-like scales or scutelle, and gene-
rally so arranged that one overlaps the other like the
shingles of a house roof.

Secondary quills, Secondaries, the quill. feathers of the forearm
of a bird.

156 MANUAL

Semipalmate, partly- or hali-palmate or webbed.

Serrate, saw-shaped (having teeth like a saw).

Sessile, attached directly to anything, without a “ foot-stalk.”

Sete, small bristly tufts of fine hairs or feathers.

Shaft, the tough central stem of a feather, hence the whole
feather often.

Sheath, the horny covering of each mandible.

Sinuate, waved or wavy in outline.

Spatulate, flattened and then widened at the end.

Speculum, the peculiar mirror-like appearance often noticed
on the wings of many species of ducks and other birds.

Spinous, covered with stiff bristles, more or less spiney.

Spurious, false, or small compared to other things of the same
kind and nature ; imperfect, incomplete.

Sternum, the breast bone.

Strie, streaks, streaked, striated.

Sub-basal, haltway between the base and the middle of a thing.

Subulate, awl-shaped.

Sub-terminal, halfway between the middle and the point or
end of a thing.

Sulcate, grooved or furrowed.

Superciliary line, the line [or a line] just above the eye.

Superior, when represented as being above any given line,
usually the median line.

Synonym [Synonymous], literally THE SAME AS: when any two
different names are applied to the same ORDER, FAM—
ILY, GENUS, or SPECIES, or particular part of a bird,
the one is called a synonym of the other, or the two are
synonymous. It refers especially to the scientific names
for each individual species.

ai

Tarsus, the bone from the heel to the base of the toes (really
the meta-tarsus).

Temporal region, the region of the temples.

Tenwirostres, birds in which the bill is long, slender, and with
short gape (Humming-bird-like).

OF ORNITHOLOGY 157

Terete, nearly cylindrical, having the transverse section nearly
circular.

Terminal, at the end.

Terrestrial, pertaining to the ground.

Tertiary quills, Tertiaries, the quill feathers of the upper arm.

Thigh, the thigh of a bird is represented by the femur or thigh-
bone.

Throat, the throat of a bird is, really, divided into 2 regions :
the upper or gula region, and the lower or yugulum.

Thumb, the small outer bone of the wing, also called bastard
wing or alula “ little wing.”

Tibia, the inner leg bone (both tibia and fibula are usually
spoken of together as the tibia in describing birds).

Toma, the cutting edges of the mandibles.

Totipalmate, fully or wholly webbed (not incised anywhere).

Trachea, the windpipe.

Transverse, crosswise, up and down.

Trifid, having three divisions or parts, divided into three parts.

Trilobate, three lobed.

Truncate, cut or broken off at the top.

Tubercles, small wart-like raised surfaces on the skin.

Tubular, having the shape of a tube.

Tumid, rough and uneved, swelled out, (with skin soft.)

Turgid, rough and uneven, swelled out, (with skin hard.)

Typical, a Type, a specimen best illustrating any given group
or series, or series of groups.

U.

Ulna, the outer of the two bones of the forearm.

Unguiculate, claw-like.

Unguis, the nail (applied to the bill and sometimes the claw).

Upper tail coverts, upper wing coverts: the small feathers cov-
ering the base of the tail or wing above ; under tail
coverts, under wing coverts, the same below.

V.
Vaulted, arched (like the roof of the mouth).
Vascular, furnished with little pits (like the extremity of a

Snipe’s bill).

158 MANUAL

Vent, SEE Anus.

Ventral regions, the regions about the vent.

Versatile, capable of being turned either backward or forward.

Vevillum, the web or vein of a feather (each true feather has
two of them).

Villose, covered with fine hairs, hairy.

Ww.

Wattles, of fowls, ete., — fleshy outgrowths.

Web, — of a feather — the closely connected feathery ends of
each vevillum (vein or side) of a feather ; Web-footed,
when the toes are connected, more or less, by a web or
lobe (nmembrane).

ay

Young-of-the- Year, this expression is often used to signify ‘a

young bird not a year old and moulting.”—MAyYNARD.
Z.
Zygodactyle, having two toes in front and two behind.

OF ORNITHOLOGY 159

SYSTEMATIC ARRANGEMENT,

heskustony os Ormith ology cscs sc-casnecncseer caieteecn caseeeere ere reteete see 1
GroupmAayesrOrsDir ds sswicrviisssaceeatsoau ceases aecee-ererarne. comer eenee teeeieates 23
Sub-group Aves Patitee... .ccecssccoecsescee seers Baseaes SeReS steeped lemaetens dceresss 23
Shalosaaronyny 22 eas OPO DEI e a aeucdcticecoacenodd sobccbeee oubodudensenococ0s 665. na0ace Gactoed 23
Sub-ClasseAvrvals birds or InsessOLesirsrccee-seccesececes ceeeseaci cee eecacie tea 24
Sub-ClassiVernestnial Birds Or Cursoress..scecsdes-eeeen saeco eesenecee eee 24
Sub-Class Aquatic Birds or Natatores.......c)....s0s.-sesecoo0 ccossence cose se: 24
Onder ERG ssanestenre aces cecker caer encrn as ceaee USAR Peace tea sere te eae ee ela 25
Sab-OrderdivOscinesior Sincine Binds:t-s.sssosesceeneeeeeeeeeeeeeee se 25
Sub-Order 2 Clamatores or Screaming Birds............2.....s+ee00e 25
Ondlers2 WUC Ont rasenc sides saree ones coamaaets oeeidemn arncate tee Acasa bes aceon eee 26
Sub-Order 1 Cypseli or Swift-like Birds..............cs:cccesen veeeeeee oe 26
Sub-Order 2 Cuculi or Cuckoo-like Birds...... 0.0.00 -cccc+scceee ceeeeee 26
Sub-Order 3 Pict or Woodpecker-like Birds. .......... 0.20. ceeeeeeee es 2K
Oracle 8}: JPEG Gua dsontion soscoo venous codecs debate ocdndbdnG acdaso Sodaobess condos. ado0Ko ecovoaond 27
OreGlanp 2 I Har QUOTAS sence shapes cB Nn ebb Aca bobo soodomadedh diced iastnaq'krdcnd BuoneoaBelouonce 27
Sub-Order Wy Strg¢des’ or Owlske-..4s.+-06sse--s eee sdseniessseece Laie 28
Sub-Order)2-Accipitnes or Hawhks)..25.s0c:scseosce-s0 -nstsee- occa seeee 29
Sub-Order 3) Cathantides or Viulturest:..ccsss- esas. s ieeeeee eos eee 29
Orders sn ColaniU ee careconseicceee consis ouceNouceearen abet ode whose Lee Mae a deee ss: 29
Ornalern AGHA Oi ade Uaconsecch: oh rocenG Ea anodenocaseroacateeco soe ocemcneaurosesiestacdesees 30
(Ore ene: 00. Oi RoW GR IOTR iicbacees ounce heccoaca cae a Sacacioudons SooeSuon mocdosdcce uconaosadenodas 31
Sub-Order 1 Limicolee or Shore Birds...... 02.0... ceceseceee) eee eeeees 31
Sub-Order 2 Heriodiones or Herons......... cceeeece cteceeces sucess evenes 32
Sub-Order 3eA ectonudes_ or Crames ascends ac sees sesess sere aesee canes 32
Ordena PE amellinosinesnccvswkaeceh wuctee te coi esorene ek ene sect ueaeRen ee oeeee 33
Sub-Order 1 Phaenicopterides or Flamingoes..........s0..scceseeeeeeee 34
Sub-Order 2 Anseres or Ducks, Geese, etC..........ceeecceecee concen ee 34
OrdersNSTeQANOPOU CS r.. ewes cic ceeceineveaecnsseecteecsce mess ene aes eee a asseeees 34
Oyeclere: 10) J Onno OD DIR@Scce608 saeco ad aA8 secedodoonsodee chocbobuTaddcaneeG c8 Gone cedkeaceneAe 34
Sub-Order 1, Larides or Gulls'andMerns.etccs.cocce cee eeenec es ce eesees 35
Sub-Order 2 Procellarides or Petrels......... SABE RORaBETS acsoneeruncstors 35
(Ojmolaie IU JAG YROC A Scosote necscosbadcsnsnoes anbobbbod romedobon botuURREM oOGeSODGS! Cbososse 35
Mtb eriSyste mise ees wee eck lec cae aeciemtoes err ae ence eee Cae) tites SAMs 36
TReAG AUNT BERD Giccsent eeaonstuarcesutahlc dome catebiic cee eaten, ae See heen eens 39
Mamilvale funded ces bem Mlarushtes is redencoscstMacttenten cienccessessns cee ctecsea 3
Sub-family a Turdine, True Thrushes......... ....:c02 5 eeeeeee Sressond 40
b Mimine, Mocking Thrushes--c.sccs..c.6. se-e cece voneacs 4]

¢ Cincline, Dippers......... Metastacsieseendasnbec soca secs sestoece 4]

160 MANUAL

diSaxicoling@Chatsec coca eee eee

e egulincee Kang lets)ns-4 cece ees cese cen oeeeee eee eee

Jf Rolioptiine;Gnat-catehersy..:-cssesesesseeeaecee eee
Bamilys2Chammidey Mhe WireniDitsr--ses)-ccessescere ieee eeee eee eee eee
3 Raride;, The Nitmice, Chickadeess...+-2.- .ccs---s-cseeeeece eee

AS Sitti. ce shea Nuthatechesaesenccstce see eee eee Cees
SCenthvid@: sPhey Cree persis ..ccoclercstny seecrecense eee ere ee

6. Proglody tide MhesW renshe crete. seca: en ose ea se eee eMC
Sub-family a Campylorhynchine, Fan-tails.... ~......s:eseeees ceeeeres

b Troglodytine- rue Wrench ccss.-scecc cetera eee

Hamily We Alaudidcs ihe Warksi 25 eeessodecsenc tee een heen is tere
8 Motactliide; The Wagtails; Witlarksi22s-:..c3.creneanceecee eee eee
Sub-family a Motacillinw, True Meadow Wagtails...............-..5
CAnthinge Mitlarks seiiescsecssreeteceeee nee eee

Family 9 Sylvicolide, The Warblers.......... s SUotapeana te alapeecsh woncengraeseeeees
Sub-family a Sylvicoline, True Warblers.............c0.0.secceeseenees

b lcternrine Chiattsinc. say cteccesecseics stots eee eee ae

c Setophaqine. Flycatching Warblers............ 0606

Ramuly, 10\Cerebide) fhe Honey, Creepersip..s-cssc--e-c0e- tes eoscee cack eee
I Lonagride. Whe Rana gerse-c.ncsss-cecrdeceact acess eee ee eee eee

12 Eirundinidce’ he Swailllowsesecenccesosce<s sce eee eee eee

U3 Ampelid es Mi he Wiaxwintsrnncsoaccie-ccb scree tare cere eee near
Sub-familyia Ampelinc, Waxwings-..s0:s-0:-e-0-sce-- seereteesneceeeee

DO APLLOG ONDINE een oescctnn sec eeee eos ren ee

C May ACSI wrxcmicnnnae -na-cecetesnan seas teneen eee

Hamily 4 Bonide. The Shrilkests term. .see-scetsse acto seeran eee eee eco
15 Vireonide, The Vireos or Greeniet sduspacer tenes ee eeeee ene

16 Fringillide, The Finches and Sparrows.............0+sss0s0eeeee
limictendce whe Blackbindsmetcheccscete cence eterno eee eee
Sub-family a Agel@ine, Blackbirds........:.0-cs..004 ssos00ceseeeeees 5

b Stumneliine;sStarlines scx. cc nsaeeee bees peeee eee eee

culeterimce Oniolesseceenceeeesceeeee eee ee Nenicere ena

aOuiscalinees Gracklesseccsn-sssasee ee eee

Family 18 Corvide, The Crows and Jays......... Mielec eho Reh pets Betaeess
Sub-family, ¢.Coroznce-~ brie Grows ..-sachseeeaceeces eee eeeee ore
beGarnwlinc: Saysyrssss-vestsstece ecco eee ee ee

Ramily 19 Tyrannide; The Plycatchers --i<.5..\.5..-c-t-- ecssee eee eee
20) Caprimulgide, The Goatsnckers.. ss 22. -eeee seen

21 Cypselide, (The Swilts... 55.5. esecnc+- 2 sedans eee ee
Bubtamily.a Cypseline,. True switts »-o..q.02-8- noe eater een

b Cheturine Swallow Swilts)-.4-.-.. =-24-e-esse eee

Bamily, 22)frochilide, The Humming Bindsie.-2.2...2-54ss-ceeeen ee eee
Pamily 23) Tyogonide, The Troconst.,.. 2.22.01 nsses-ene 244-9 -o eee eee
24 Alcedinid@, The Kingfishers. ::25..9..% os ces cece eee eee
Cuculadee, The Gneko0s....sc5scs-oncecegesacctce saenics oes aeee epee

OF ORNITHOLOGY

Sub-tamulya"Crovophaginaew Nmiisn sss sense tener ante ace hess oseeee
b Saurotherinae, Ground Cuckoos........, cseceeeeeeeeerees
e Coccyoinacy ren Cuckoostemaasseste wastes ee tce

Hamilya2opreccedae. he Woodpeckerse...nren tates scerm.-eanee ower es aeceus

Piwksitvactaae smhe-barnotsacacaece rene aeons ne cee on eee
28) Alucontdae The Barn Owlsicccsss.ccscoccreses saeeeeecoseses 1s2e00se
2oEstcondaey Owl sing seneraleaacssse seer ren aecn een eay aoe:
Sub-family a Buboninae, Horned Owls...... .sccccee cecseceee veces veeee
ouSynninae, Gray. Owlsy.ccse erent eesee ac eee. aeoeres

CpAt heninoem BirdeOwlspanese acest cee aeieaeeeeee ene:
deNyctemminaes Ways Owlstsncmeesres ens ese sariers

Family 30 Falconidae, The Falcons, Hawks, and Hagles.................06

SubstamilyaaeCincrnamesrdarnrnicrsme tse ee eee ieee eee ene
OpMiiloinae Kites: et aunts a ee eee creer ian acs oustnn ae
cpAccrpitranime sre sa wikia: at secs sy acer
ad Halconinae et ruerk al Comsmessren ee aetna eeeeee ees
e Polyborinae, Caracara Hagles.................. Beebadce:
jp puteoninae, weuzzard Hawks t..ses sce enesee oe seee eee:
gpAguilinge. Wages aoccs nce SS an aa aa saSsS

Kamilyveoleeanavonid des. Dne) OSPreySeescacse settee sare eeeec ee eee seers

S2nCavharnivd de he Wrultunescses ca eae eee ends eee
San Columobidae. Nev Piseonsi.s.csccaies cessee ce eea eerere
- Sub-family a Columbinae, Trite Pigeons....../.....-..ccecc0ee seneeeee
6 Zenaidinae, True or Ground Doves......... ....0...0c00e

CUSTOTIUC UC UIUGLE tari eet ce ey

Family 34 Cracidae, The Curassow or Guan............0. cecseeeeteeeeeren eres

so Meleagrnidae. Lhe Wald Turkey sists. sscen- cece oeetee en eee:
36 Tetraonidae, The Partridge, Grouse, and Quail........ 0.0.2...
Sub-tamuilyva Uetraoninae, Growuses.t. cess. sacs daeeeeee acct ce neces
GO Odontophoninae @wailcirecavct nates secede esate

TA WEAUIN ERG BRD) Sissies oleae caesarean RO ate Seat ele oii a tt ies eRe Us
Family 37 Charadriidae, The Plovers...... s Wits tacuneker ra capee saad mecha,

38 Hematopodidae, The Oyster-catchers and Turnstones........
Sub-family @ Haematopodinae, Oyster-catchers....c. 0.06. sseeeeeee un
DP Sinepsilainadck MurastOmesiessssated ese eee es

Family 39 Recurvirostridae, The Avocets and Stilts................:0..2e

40 Phalaropodidae, The Phalaropes............... eee Piceee ee
41 Scolopacidae, The Snipes and Sandpipers..............:see ceeeee
AD) Mooalieiarg, Aine: WEN WoTtGeSSoooss oases 4 sokeses cooseosos oesocoss. eokacas
Asmetataterdaes DhesSpoonbbillscsnns-sestecousseseansesceerecscecee ceacenes
AAR CLCONMAGE UNE StOLKSe ree ene Reenter eee
Sub-tamulyaa Vancalimaes Wiooddlibis esinc.ssss\crcecerer sss--c scenes eotees
DaCiconunage nm lrne Stonkcusnenaeestee tence ener ene

BamuilytorAndeidae. Mbesbleransncseaccossasseerecseteeeerenecreescc see eeeeaee

Sub-tamilyeaeAudenracs nue iveronsresesescacatensscetcceacecces cocceee:

102
103
103
109
110

162 MANUAL

OV BOtaUrinde SBitterMsmscceecceaeacecenen eee eae eee ere 112

Hamily 46) Gowidae, “The; Cranescccesescn-cqsee erence sce sec eee econ mene eee eee 112
AeAramidac. ihhe Courlanseeeere-teeeeeere ee eee eee Mee 113

48 -Parridae) Whe JaGamayssccccnseccsceserese sess sobeicaoeseontestee eee 113

49 Rallidae, The Rails, Gallinules, and Coots............06. ceeeee es 114
Sub-familya Hallinac. Uroe Railsicsncccr. sere te ses seeceeeeena = eee 15

b Gallinulinae, Gallinules......... RAE ORNs noses Lodsus 115

6 MUlacinge I COOtssc a ccssessaoeesere dace ree eee eee 116

Family 50 Phenicopteridae, The Flamingoes......... .........----0000+ sesene 116
Family 51 Anatidae, The Swans, Geese, and Ducks ..............cssceeeee ens liz
Sub-faninilysa Cygne SWansies.scese cose: secesese sees ete aes 119

br Anatinae Rivers Diekspeccc cesta cece eee ee ee 120

eiuliguiimae. Sea DucksSsscccacsscesassesewu seep eceeer seers 121

ad. Merginae: Mer gamsersicncsecescis-uacereos sce iecneeneeeeerees 123

Hamuly 52 Sultdae, The Gannets. .-ce.:-sceeccsesseccneseececa ss. ce eee 124
53 -Pelecanidac™llhesRelucamspsessnsceeseeeoeacce sean cace eee areeeee 124

Aw Phalacrocoracidacy the: Cormorantsr---seseeees oseeeeeee ener 125

55 -Plotidae: (ive Wartersirscccseasceses cacntantaeseescant nee eee 126

56) Lachypetidae) Mhe Eric ate: Binds. .secsssscoh-ee cesses) -soeee ee 126

bt Phoetonidae: he Mropre: Bindesss-ccncssnaccdeuece-aeaere eee eee 127
5sebanvaaevuherGuillsvandylennsees-aseecae-csecsseenseeeee cease eee 128
Sub-family a Lestridinae, Skua or Jager Gull............ce eee eee ee ee 130
bxLarinaelnunesGull seesesesotescsess core ee eee rerce eee 131

e SterninaeMernse.: sesso. ee ee eee 131

Q Ahynchopinae SKimMers ee .cc eet. seers eae eee 132

Hamily 59) :-Procellaridae, The Petrels xc: ---s2e----- 428-2 2+ ocense ss ee-e eee 133
Sub-tamilya@eDiomedemae Albatrosse@sas.-c-ce- ++ see secenee ese eee 133

bo Procetlariae® Petrelsieec- mess sees eoncseaceneate eee cee 134

Hamily160 Colymbidae. DheWboonstercens-oss-son esse eosees oe eee siseataeeeeee 135
6] -Podicipidae: "The Grenesicscc.sisssep cece 2 toneneh csepeeeeeee eee 135
62RAlicidaewhherAukssand sleuitinseeescer etna cesses caer penance 136
Sub-family a Phaleridinae, Puffins and allies. ................ scene ee 137

be Aileinae rue Ailks vescussnece cesarean eee 138

Subjecs for, Hssays’. :-ck.- ser seh oarastes-eeeabene qneence espe ssiancer seek eee ene reer eens 138

An Enumeration of the Orders and Families of the Birds of the

Accipiter

INDEX TO GENERA.

St BEe OM nasa vis an is OCU a 88
/NGHUUS Soapacmounuoo bocuo .108
IA CUOMTOMASH A oe amievercielsh .108
PNCUVOGROMUS ene seers 107
4Mchmophorus........... ....-.. 136
ADENINE Bao pole ded dooop coded s.006.6 101
ADAOUNNGS 5465 co0000 c04-40b 6 bo 6 63, 66
CAN SATOMI Aerie ONL iG I baa ERIM ator 90
SAN UTY Aadays nls MAN anu ee 122
PEE SIIS BGs nea ca Salome mina terol al ai 4 68
ACOLWNUS 66 bond anunas oo Domo . 68
TNT BAO aH Ua RA a Ce TY 121
JNIEMEM Oo aea/s hehe weonaaey homens ose: 110
INI IIGIR See iia cme atiadats ean 47, 48
Alea. .. 138
INCOM Osa tera meee ae i ponents 79
INMG SS Oe EOE eR LCT aa 138
DANTUC Ope oe acre onan Se COs 84.
BANTIN AZANIA acct sista eee creisiete se vsusie ares di
PANT CUS MN eo Saat cnci ests Gabe ees antes 58
AMMOGTAMUS) o8s on cee ese: 66
Ammodromas......... . 64
Amphelocoma.................... 71
PATI IMNIS PUA. eee ss). oe eens 66
INDEGS Cs SUES Oa RI aiaencn 120, 121, 122
JANINE MNOCMUME SG bonnie code odae 107, 108
ANTAOI PA OEE among eee anos pune ty ala, 46
Anous... 132
JPNTOIEI sep ae ae REE ENG CES HN Ea rela 120
PACTL OTRO ME oti tooi surangas te ae un 91, 92
PAMTUGUMUS Rest teeecicnake Due a lrN cetera ana 48
PAIUEOSTOMMUS Hcy renin vitaliel 75
YAS DIANA eae hoe Wismts mnenee gael 101
ANGIE a raibpantcwe osama ono ean 92
PACTS ANTIA UL Secchon st etre ict ne Ea AMS ae) 1138
JAE CMM UGEON nine alee SOIL
JNIRO ER a WAIN PCIe CRcoR Regia 111, 112 ,118
IAT Ae OLA eae es Jy
Ardetta... ...... eo
IAL CUONEGCCA Ss cit coke Seine ens 123
ArIStome tba seen . 122
AT Guavelilatiwers sania 107, 108
TAS TIO Mee an Ars RVR PAE Cera Peer cnce 85, 86
AGEN MDUNOE Gaooo dudes sqdoouu0e8 66
SNH G0 Nes ene I UE se oe Reta aa wi 88
PAYS GUMIMIINA ees ed ae ai Na pcre gs AE 91
TNUELOYES 6 eae eS AOE Sea EEE 86
PANTO CTU MIG Yet eee yy aes aren enue Deas 131
PNG OEYERE 1 porn SSRN IO uO led
PACE Glan Sievers cae ACen tars Oe Take ek a
FANT GITID OMIA RNs eee eHecepersectere 112
IMUTUP ALU Ss scee Meee meres Moe 43
Aythya... 122, 123
Bartramia BE Mietier A AR IRI ME wee ae ke 109
1 BY SHH bi ola es Wee ener rare Thanet se he im Mere Rel A7/
Berniclae (eps ceste oe ccs 120
lsxoinjon null gece saat n Goode 58
BON ASAN Aan en: 5 Yl
Botaurus .... rele?

Brachyotus ........ . 85
IBUDORE Ree ores) ene Cee 85
IBUVOS NIVEA) 665.4 d0000000 Dod0ns545- 123
ISWOKYIES coon dcocadogodeoenoecd0dc 48
Bupha gus ecm ier ner 130
IBUNTEO sb og boon od0dog s404000200C 91, 92
BUCO ee ee le tere xoicvoe: sori ene 112
TSMMOPIGIENS odo boouppocoodc dcdcdc 112
Calamospizamneicertr a eect 65, 66
Cali Ti Siirr ervey spaiun Nei eln eae 107, 108
@allipeplagerceceeecorue coe 97
Calothorax.......... Ltet esti oe HO
Cahy pte renee mcrae Teee 77
Campephilus .................... 82
Camptolemus ........-......... 122
Campylorhynchus .............. 45
CAMACE Re ueak id sere eines spina 97
WaprimUlg WSloe oltre a eae
WaTbOnactincccriee elec 126
Cardinalis.... CEE eee OO MOG
Carndellinatyence te cictenteieerr ..B2, 55
Carpodacuse cans s see ae 63, 66
Catarrachame acer .. 130
Cathanistayeereccc en eee 93
(OPNDOENPES 85 ands 500005 CODbG DD Da0C 93
Catherpeseecay- rere Ceres 45
Centrocercuss.sa.- one eer ee 97
@Wentromy Leet eue rolerere 64
Centrophanesiy herein reece. 66
Cembuyus yy. rN ertes Selves 82
CepPUSM reais soccer weer os 138
Ceratorhimases sacar L37,
Cer thay se One re ee ney ra eae 45
Certhiolkay oe aoe eee 55
(COmMIOecoobocogeopbolasab,cbobecss 79
LONE Deena aoa aeciaia Ha SIRO G+ 76
@ WaT se Bip Sra ee ee Ree cree 43
@Whamee peliiag sis. cotsensesn es eva 94
@hanadaEiuse ae ear eres 101
Chaulelasmus....................121
(Gaver ae hen amen an eae it een aid cine o & 120
Chondestes ......... . 64, 66
@hordeillesseaee coe one 75
Chroicocephalus ........ ees
ChrysSomutris ss js.s004 5.40 eek 63, 66
CICeRomiiat Acme ccgeneeseheeeen 137
@iGhlOPSIS sia clse ic el ee oe erere 58
GiNClUSH arches elec ei eee 41
CIEGUSH er tent eine GaSe ee Eee 88
Cistothorusheness aoe ee eects 46
CHE DIEM Ep cideg ogododees iesos LERE IS
Coccygus. Bey VO sag ooea eo oll)
Colaptesiee saci casemate: aise 82
ColUnlowees ise LEE ene
Collhy rion ecw ee 5§
COMMIT sco og ssbgscosoodNeoote 94, 95
WC ollyima bUSts sewage 135, 136, 188
ContopuUswe nace soccer eee 74
[be O TUTTI SI iyi: SC ay ese eer a Ogee Ci $3

INDEX TO GENERA.

COWS ob amensakescaublar sim rane de GL | WROSOUI s5 06 ccac00c 134, 135
COMMPNCOOS jcc yasnodo0se ses co5e M5) 1" Cass: asec eh Sere ee a eee 116
(COUUMICTUITIEE. 5 Saoogseemas os Gl GS) Iwblekey ooo ss sccccae aes vo'o.0 122
WOCUEMY xc ene erie ns otal (pel HOLD cee Rotates aka ho Gs) 5.3~, 0 122
COG oshoeodabaadd pee path Oe RB Ue Bf | IMUM NRIs bao agck os snmood0. 134, 135
(CiRCRVERPUISS 26.0 $antococundbuigh Jo00 1S Galeoscopteserent =) a-eree ree 41
C@reciSCUSrwe0. i hieedelets ss sues se 15s) Galllimac Ose ars ae 107, 108
Cineext Asus Meese ad oMdoonaed score Tis) |) Geum 6 do505 ccdusl doen e: 115, 116
Crocophaganeesre ee eee C0) GallopaviOnere sees oe 96
CWC oso nccticdoadsosdo00 so0oGs SOR Gambettaye-n. sen aor eeeoe 108
CUMGIVORS accécoé5 500050 000s006 (20 AGATE US Her ce ieee recor eee 71
Cincy. so ddoadnoaososooeeaan 97 | Garzebtas a soseracds: see eee 111, 112
WUTVITOStTLARSS = secre Gee eee in Oo =| a G.e loche lad Oni eyes ee 132
Cyanecula.... a4 21b | Ge OCOCCYEXee ee ere 2 eRe OO
CyADOClbba ms aa le eee (Ala SGeoublyipism sccm eee 52, 53, 54
OV AMOSPUZAc)-0:c2 deel efele of OD JH RG. COULRYC ON ny ere een ee 94
ONEN TURE EE Rb OO mA Geese pons S a (4 Glauci@iuims oye acto 86
(OWATUIPS S o5 kao cabobtan ideo sindle sx VAs) AGLObbIS eae tense Cen ee eee Eee i08
Cygnus. NOES AG ACIUSH ere ieee 126
Cymochorea, BER ae hee eionsyeels 4am eG nu Sie Fa Leal eee ee 112
Wy pSelovdests: surier ict e cmeeee el Guiracars ses. 2 eee 65, 66
Cyipselusnae nce career rar 5 Bi) CapmmiNOOlrccoGs sasacooossoce- 71
(ChymPO ON S-< Soca soda 55ec 2 Ot HAG OkiG bale a beet eee 71
CyrtopelicantStas sapere heer 12519 || SElzemiabopUShike eee ere 102
JD EVIE aaa eA eA nee Aig nikeoe ee 2 Hates bi Sheen. seme eee eee 90, 92
IDAYOMOM sooo sensadcdocnssgo- ISA Soe evap lanai eire)-11-t ee eee 132
IDSINGCHACYAVOMES 6.45.95 bd00 4000 20000- 1203) Halocyptenay. 2a7- tone ee 134
IDXONChOC ENE ys ooh anon ooon 120 Sala Elare dane eer eta). eee Cee 122
Dendreeca eyo stots 5205 | Harporhynchusia..... -.5e eee
IDSINGT HONOR. sp obonnsndooondanccn Oy | TRIGA NAANS So5 se aesoons te 53
IDETOMRONESSA ase eee 1205 12 || elminthotherus’..2c--- seo 53
Dichromanassapen.s seeeeeeeee 1s) Helminthophagal ss aes 53
Diomedea. .. Joe | Helminthophila. aoe eer 53
IDO lions EAS Asoo ase Soo0 cone 68] Helmitherusse 5-55-22 Peo DS
IDWS DOWNS cogossitedosondo nec a0oe 1243), Elelonceaievsnedios aes cr ener 53
Dytes ...... Saha oy eae 136) | selenicon etal] 1-8 ere 123
INGUODISLESH 45. eee eee 94) | Herodias 2s. e ete eee eee 111, 112
Heretta (.:...--. 1120) Melespeniphonae ss ates 62, 65
Elanoides.... Joadvovsodossde SSie tEesperocichlare. 4... eee 40
PNAS: Sovaleica eis claves Ei EeOe | PELE LELOSCCULIS Tans ne» air 107, 108, ei
IM PERNALTAR = . nei | 4.004 O68) HNerOlal COs tcc Lee Eeicene oee

IDV SICKNESS eee Gadoodos Gsasbo05. J Huinantopie cho cee te
Engyptila ....... O49 | SECU dO aes eeeeere ae 57, 75
Hmniconetta ......... 23) | EuStriontCus sere rer 129.123
Hremophilay ey asga-riegs ao ee 47°) Ebydranassaisy. cactus Sele 111
HTeunehes =. Lee ee eee 107 ; 108 | Eoydrochelidonss.-- pene eeeeece 132
EITIOMELUA =). sesitiekie ee kee Ile. || Cebylocicblaver er here rr entre 40
HPISMAGUEA ose 1224 Hiv lotomus#sf nsec ae ee eerie 82
TOTO OS ees a AB Ai OT '| Bache se is 55s ae ae eer 77
PUG OCTMUS oes hs hiss) se mieyintelaser sete OO IMTS Sena ce eet 110
PWT GES shite bcos ath css seo eae 135 -|\Getberiay 3 Ano ae ae ee ee 52, 54
PRICY GESESG ot cracss ae cae aaa 135: |. TCberuSiccc 4533.0 oe ee eee 69
IMSS Sonya tone ead oudbios. sas ie i) ICRI os. as ay eee 35089)
EHO NWA, Ss ee eae eens eee 56. |- HONOrNIS Wer as Aa eee 115, 116
HN ONvVNCHYS 3800.06 = ee 108 | Iridoprocne ABA Ray aS TG 5 25 oe 57
HUSPIZA. Soko wpe oe eos oe 65 | Jacana (SEE sae iy Oe Paes 114
Havlemellas 225 Fosse. Rt eee = 110 | Junco.. = )b Sten ica 5) eral ea eee OE MESO
MEMO Ro Anas ks oe kp pie ease 88, 89, 90 Lagopus ~ Foes taianie Goal 7 5 97
Monday foe ok) oo ee ets 112))) “Gampronessa..s s.--7eeeeeer rer 121
pabencuila ee foe anon aee ot 137 | iampronetia 2.3. sere 122, 123
PURE Pb A OE es, had Shes eotg roe ee ee 127 | Suaniusss2 2 Ascae hoe eeeene nie

INDEX TO GENERA.

GH Gemlameae cee

IDAINIVWEEDs clas oodboobumooucd ned. By)
IDEN RONGCKS sy Soins oe hoe nine 0 o0,e jAlBiil
NG ATAU Stroatipoir Neste ean ease nectar) eet 131
IL @VOWUUIPUIS so 5 olde on' 0140.0 ds soo ob 128
BES GETS Ore eau nw ete a, 130
IESUKGCORNCHE HS he binom aaecdos Bdaipe 63, 66
Leucus 131
Limosa..... 106, 108
IUIIOUE ono Soo aciaietod sadloiGansedodc 66
ILO ONDE Ss o0'00a0gegces eons, coocds 103
AIG; TMV eae eg ela Nu ee on Peru zee achat 1388
Mophodytes......2....... 123
Hophophanesis taal aca. 43
Lophortyx........ 97
NG OSCARS eke den ena . 66
JE AUTON OIE WSIS ee a temic ems roe 137
INLEKOIN OWES sal ntnin ts Pee talslate SAlae a alias coat 109
Macrorhamphus. .... .106, 107, aa
IN [GH EYORIG uci ie riod Rep RcatoMeic cum nomeent
Mie rallestnrist: 35 oii smiscieseinc scraet. ‘8
MeV AMER DOS! tie /pale es sae onda ease 82
IMrelameti aces elas era 122, 123
IMDSTe OMEN aig alee aectstale Win cenesis Salah 123
WIGNER CARI SS bo dee oonS a4, OKO
Melopelia.... .. 94
WIGIORiIe: caosbosdobeo coue sods 64, 66
INGSPCRVNEEP SS odor saben Goodane dude 123
MISES -'.',\seigcospuceod ao opuecado 123
IMI TUM srey ys PRAISE Na na 40
Micrathene .... 86
MUIGEOpPAlamany say avert 106: 107, 108
A TION UNS seus Os eae ee mete 74
IM GU ADIS Oop acy ariamenet Cram nie erent a 88
AMIRI Seep RMON reese ni VEN NN Teper 5 40, 41
MGanOw@Uley coooe as Sosdosoccds ons 52, 53
Molothrus.... nia! (he)
IMO NRO GUSH ayetoe tro stan senate ee 78
MO TIMIO Mec science oe . 138
IMO GaCillae Piel eecicvcth ances cto 48
IMEV CLOT AN 8 tres srere\ care ehtords cee .110
Myiadestes ............ 42, 58, 59, 72
MEV ATC HUSH setae crc eee 74
WHT@COCWS. 6h 66ba0 be econo ue ot 52, 55
WMIOGh MAES 5 aloo dole naeees-oo00 74
IMavTOZELE LESH tues nnn Wi terlaes Eun, 74
INCE TUS ere RN edna ase a 88
INECOOIA YS eine eg wisie IB eto etme este 48
INiephoecetesi aie 5 3
INC GT OM racer ecepee pe aate ened cate 121
NOM OMY Reva eenea ane hee sose 122
INOW NPOOMMNE SS Slscc dodoh ook bab ex 113
IN(WITNEIM IIE aan tid plomoMbOe Gy ae 109
NMOUMO TO Ship een nooe os amuse 85
INFVIGLE As Aa aeeere = cently eereuste sy wiekone 86
INiycuberodiasmerr yt sss ee 112
IN| CWMENOIEE aoe an oee md bomen Oo Sc 112
INA/OWIGMOMNTS 5o5/64505b 0500000 508
Oceanites..... 134
Oceamodnomiayaeyiee.y 8 eee eae 134
Ochthodromustesece one ..101

Sbic0 122, 123

Gistrelatares shines toe eee 154
OlOn aie aes beet oe 119
Onocrotalus .... 125
Onwvyichotesinys ia. Mane ee eee 92
OpOrornisMiee se. cree: Fee ony Be
ORC OR bye es see ce Le i corerataerciee: 97
Oreoscoptes.... 41
OQiPamiwpjaiOi, Goss coven dedacscavoner 74
Ontaliday ase cn he so oes 95
Ortalisr ores eee a eee 95
Ortycometranace ero eee 115
ORGY Sane ae en ce sen eet ee eae 97
Ossifraga . 134
OGUS 38 cia see thar ctocieNesier aera eee 85
Oxeyechwuser wa bs eye Ae resale 101
Paso philawe rsh sec Lol
pea W KOKO a tea Ray ena cme ee a Cats 90, 93
Panyptila.. Hiapemve Bite as Tle
Parra (also Jacana). See SL see 114
Barulae sie. ctiece oe eee OS
IPATU Stes atane Bis ects wean heen eee 63
PASS CIs Wo ae ian ee Neen te ets .. 64
Passerculus 33.7 eer nee 64, 66
assere Warsecca nin ces eees oe eter. 65, 66
Basserimaly een eS eeoae ala cneiiae 66
Pedicecetes: ao ss tye eee ee 97
Rellecamusie segsicicl: 124, 125, 126, 127
Relidiiay 2 ee Cupeeeray sae 107, 108
Peliomettal .)4y.Go.nce ae suo crn 122
IRErdumxeeye iter ns 98, 115
Perisoreus .......... 71
JESIPISOPMOSSEY SS wdvodseocccsn Gos ES
etnoche lions eee eee 57
DELO KOE oF eR A Sen amr irate Bale 64, 66
Peucedinamus te see eee 25 8
Phanopeplassdaseso cepa ee eee 58
IPnerhOn heerlen eee 128
nesbOM Ss Aeon ae eeaeee: 198
Ehainopeplaessaccneeeescee: 49, 58
Evallce mop UU S Rem epetrretsc ie eee sie
ehalacroconaxe sec eee
Phalaropusic-s. ieee 103
PAW Aleris ee ieen ey eek ee wish 138
Philacte ... LMP anget et IRE Giese esd Aly
Phil Oe] ase ieee 107, 108

inilomachussaes se ae eee OS

INO PAST ARs see ee ee . 134
Pheebetria . Psion Bene kenya TiSy!
JEaOANOOIDWEUWIS, loan obdsdooce se acl
JEM MOHOOOUS «oc boar ag boodaswe nce 42
TPAC A rare vee Ne TO 1 ys, tree ae Ti
IRGICOEMUS cco cere see ee 71

FAC OLGESH is Seats ace Ee Oe
TAT GUISH ead ose ae earn Ee Oe

Balm COLA re te tec shea copter eee 63
DIO Ren ete Ne Oo G6
PCAN OMS Ros conn ae ey ae Nrneee 7

IEE IEE Waa spndting: s eaiGiNin eo c 110
Plabeaeie tad scons ce amie .110
Jectrophanes sess ener ee . .63, 66
IPC AMISH nae ee ace .. 109

INDEX TO GENERA.

NATO bUSWasaeies tanietein cs oles eee 126
IBOGIGCE DSi. stasis ase 2 ceeteesics 136
TEOGASKOHOW S506 6566 o0655050 500008 101
ZO GHA DUStse eee rere ae 136
Polioptila, sss... 42, 72
HR ORZAM AN Geri ner eens ht nt cge lena 115
ZON Vi DOLUS cert eleercl ko vate clots ceneiels 90
Polysticta .. 122, 128
IPOOORIGS cocotbo aces coD0bGaH DOORS 4
OCR CELESiar tn ca tecicrnetciey ee 66
IROOSDIZaksoa neice Sop ae shee 64
HOLD DVEIOm reer eee s ec 116
IPPIOCel ay en aereccks/eteress) Sats wae 134
Briotinuss.;-. OND bie Gere amy Bees
iBrocellariawaswns aac ets 134, 185
IER fg Se dsoeseomaas é 59 a
IPTFOCOMOCATIAR tolerance: 52, 53
IPSAIGEIMALUS as seakieleels ok eles 43
Pseudogryphus. ...,.. 2 ba dogn
Silo LMNs ers once eres 71
ECUVOSONMY Sie ies eee OS
LIMDOROONE casgacedesesasodoc 58, 72
by COLNAMP MUS antec <i ere 137
EA UEUMU Sree yer: eters eee 134
Pyranga.. SIGHS HOBAGO mae ele 56
Py rocephalus- Sor it cee totntere werent eere tices 74
JEWRONUE), so onbosesooomadoadsooos 66
Pyrrhuloxia 65, 66
Quenquedwlarreree eee cee ree 121
Quiscalusterreree oer eeeee 7

Les MINVEPEs 6 Shggcd5 so GoGoonooaol abe hk
IVE CUBVAROSLEA re ssn oer ee eae os 102
Rep UNS st cteya sia Modo HOES OOS oe o Le
FANOIOARUNWD, asooicondosesscnaooc 131
JiemmyeKooO MUS, 5 -55dn5+05609c0000¢ 108
IBMNAMOLMOPNCO RAG So605n5oos0050l04 90
hivnchophaneses-s2-..5 sesso ecr 66
JES IV TIVOM XG) fee pains Somedas OAc tood sr:
Rhynchopsitta..... . 83
Rissa aagoladosanGad 131
Robichamusesae 6 noe eee 88

SENT OUNOUES < pagovoubSon edo soar 45

SP AOO Pesounocmasdsanacosoues sos 424
SRV GOEINIS mip utcter< siete injeies Auer ae ee
SGETGIMIAIIEY S54 5B656noo00seuSooRb 94
SchosniGlustar cece See ioe 107
Scolecophacus mes saan ere ae 70
SCOLOP Ake eer ae 108
SONS 5555 bone to5a5¢ 5c fis)
SSUES 5 46 5 Oa eG adigcs oe OSE 52, 53
PelaspPHOLUSm. cme) ee ace - Fe
SIO MEP oso os aadoemouonolmy Oy)
RSD CUL A Re oie etacich yan easel oor neg ade 42
Sil Rag aia cele cata oe aCe NTO 44
SHIFTS) FS Pons Gonos Goo BORON AGOGO DOF 53
SOMMUCTIA Manes eneee hee 1225 123
SAUUILA Ne cea ake ace nine ees: 121
DEOL VUOmecseiis maul: eine ke See: 86
Specmophiayes oss oece eee 65
SPNEORVbOne ss eee oe eee 86
SD] OCH AEN TOUS Aningesa res ai ois c Ooae 82
3) OUCADy SERA ae eMac Sens Se ae Ar 66
Sy OAS earn Gris ONO SeIe 64, 66

Squatarolay <i e cc cee 101
Starnoonassss eo eee ee eee 95
Steganopusia. eer eee eer 103 -
Sbeleidoptery xs 20 Cee eee 57
Stella wow 6 eos eee ee ali
SFELCORALIUS = 5 ee eee 130
SOCEM AA hee ele See ee 132
Sbernulas.cs oe eee 132
Strepsilass..c.c scree. acces 102
SUTIK: Gee eas Soak eee Pee 84, 85
Sturmel lal je susheaecccteae enero 69
SCULMUS He hee ee ee 71
Sula oer kien eee eee 124
SUM TA eee ea oo eee as eee on ee 86
SUTIN ayes co eet ee ee 85
SHVMMONSMVEY soos ccescos Goesceece 108
Synthliborhamphus....... 138
DEVON ONG 5 asasn00500 obocacas 136
Machycimetagvye sera hae heer 57
Machypetesewe eee eee 127
AMMO YI) SoocoodGboDDDN Fb0abo000¢ 56
Pan balopsiss aes eee eee 110
MamnbalUSiesasicd cston tes eee eine 110
Relmatodiyitesiea-c ieee ee . 46
Mebrao: saan: eee ae ee eee 97
‘(Rhalassarchee. oe eee ee 134
Thalasseuse\s =. serosa te ee 132
Thalassidromas : 135
“PhallasSeus! 22 J-. se elenesroct octets 132
Phrasactls, ...0 ost eee 92
MPATASYAEbUS san 7-cleneoeeeeeree 92
Ah OMAN ES ie orieiecreclet eres 46
Thryothorus ..... . 46
ANIM ATKOONIING: Se pessensoau owe. vc 90
Notanus: seen ssc h oes Meet eR eee 108
Wiig Wert iyed- Ree Sa eem on ghee Lan Stoo 107, 108
Trin@oides. .2 neh: eda eee ee 108
Prochilus! (: coe ieee eee Tel
Mroelodybesie as oils ehetleleneeien lente 46
TPOLOD G2) 22 dee sy its
Tryngites Ree Seer che Eh ccine 108, 109
PULGUS Meee os 2 See Beer 40, 41
PUrbur. sie Soe eee eee eee 95
My TANMUS! 032 cece Reece 74
Wlula eet. eae 85
Uriah oo ss se ee 138
Urilene oc aes ne eee 126
Urubitiniga se. es. eee 92
Utamania e229 o eee et ee eee 138
Mamellus aac asia sien os. Lane ene 101
MiIRCO iss Hoh ae epee aa eee 59
Vire osy IVIA.e caches x soe RO 59
Vultures cect ~ 3
Xanthocephalus . i oatd PE ERE eee 68
RManthura: ...ccscheee wee eee 71
Mema.-2 2455.65 37 See eee ere 131
XENOPICUS 6 5552-0 eee Seiko
“ZamMeoaia ~. 8265s. 4 Se eee 66
| \Fienai Gare ei miss eee 94
| EZenadUnalenee > ln See eee 94, 95
ZOnOvUMehia: his p). aeeeee 64, 66

ba
of Rice crea |
‘ lane i oe

} y Hi WAY
Ms

See Py
peach:

a

yp

Gh oar

lon
ae,