porn ret - A A ELS OE IO NEA Le ester ToC ser 1 we Re aed dmate pen iet Aa aie ase Qlpet Da mn tine Mab Ae om pore ETE aR * ~ ici ye om * a sev teeter meen ass - inane yp enna 8 es sierra inst Sh aaa Samar ne pe anita! ea eer stante Se SS oe eer ae eer - . tee Se: } it ' i ¥ % f WAS AS Sa Ere ee - a ee tgs Xe une ei rons on Pie Ty Ov BE Rett Walnees eo | ro by OT Ae | i) ft WAU A Manual of Poisonous Plants Chiefly of Eastern North America, with Bnef Notes on Economic and Medicinal Plants, and Numerous Illustrations By L. H. PAMMEL, Ph. D. Professor of Botany, Iowa State College Agriculture and Mechanic Arts PART II LIBRARY NEW YORK BOTANICAL GARDEN. Me as THE TORCH PRESS CEDAR RAPIDS, IOWA 1911 KOUARTRN A eae NYY) eh (ie TABLE OF CONTENTS Part Ti Key For Piant Kincpom MyxoTHALLOPHYTA EUTHALLOPHYTA SCHIZOPHYTA SCHIZOMYCETES ScHIZOPHYCEAE FLAGELLATAE . EUPHYCEAE PERIDINALES BACILLARIALES CoNJUGATAE CHLOROPH YCEAE CHARALES PHAEOPHYCEAE DIcTYOTALES RHODOPHYCEAE EUMYCETES PHYCOMYCETES ZYGOMYCETES . OoMYCETES BASIDIOMYCETES HEMIBASIDII EvusBasIpI1 ASCOMYCETES . Funct IMPERFECTI LICHENS . EMBRYOPHYTA ZOIDIOGAMA BRYOPHYTA PTERIDOPHYTA FILICALES : | EQUISETALES . ! ‘ A EMBRYOPHYTA SIPHONOGAMA OF SPERMATOPHYTA . GYMNOSPERMAE CoNIFERAE ANGIOSPERMAE MonocoryLEDONEAE PANDANALES HELOBIAE . GLUMIFLORAE 153-158 158-160 160 160 161-184. 184-188 194 209 210-220 220 247-281 281-306 307 308-325 308-312 312-325 313-322 322-325 325-802 325-332 327 332 332-395 332 332 336-369 iv TABLE OF CONTENTS—PART II GRAMINEAE CYPERACEAE PRINCIPES SPATHIFLORAE . FaRINOSAE LILIIFLORAE ScITAMINEAE MIcCROSPERMAE DicoTYLEDONEAE ARCHICHLAMYDEAE . VERTICILLATAE . PIPERALES . SALICALES . MyricaLrs BALANOPSIDALES LEITNERIALES JUGLANDALES FAGALES URTICALES . PROTEALES . SANTALALES ARISTOLOCHIALES POoLYGONALES CENTROSPERM AE RANALES RHOEADALES SARRACENIALES . RosaALks GERANIALES SAPINDALES RHAMNALES MALVALES . PARIETALES OPUNTIALES MyrTIFLORAE UMBELLALES METACHLAMYDEAE ERICALES PRIMULALES EBENALES . CONTORTAE . TUBIFLORAE PLANTAGINALES RUBIALES CAMPANULATAE CATALOGUE OF Poisonous PLAN'S BispLioGRAPHY OF Poisonous PLANTS INDEX 336-367 367-369 369-370 | 370-372 © 372-374 374-390 390-392 392-395 395-802 — 395-064 395 416 417-423 423-444 444470 479-496 497-500 500-574 574-604 © 604-620 620-621 621-627 627-634 634-637 637-645 645-664 664-802 664-675 675-679 679-683 683-697 698-739 739-740 740-748 748-802 803 809-918 919 LIST OF PLATES Honey Colored Armillaria. ; ‘ ; : } : i \\ 2aa Amanita sp. : ; ; : : : : : : ; fe 26 Deadly Amanita 3 . : : : : ; : " Sen 2a9 A. Yucca. B. Greasewood and Tetradymia . : d 5 ata Death Camas. A ; : : : : : ; F s Dis eS ys) Wild Indian Corn: Swamp Hellebore : : : : a este Pennsylvania Smartweed : i : ; L Z : a cap AZ Wild Cherry. : , : F ; , , : ‘ tf ©. SUS Lupine in flower. : . ; 5 3 ; 4 . . Sty 5 SAG Great Basin Lupine . f ‘ ; : : j ; q i se aS Common Milkweed . , be GOs A. Rhododendron; Hydrangea. B. Mountain Laurel, Rhododendron . : ‘ ; : : : : ‘ % GOF mO OD gp : : ()) nix Oy OD df @)) % ON lay gy ) (i) WY nO CG | wy WS iy ( OD @ OZ () aya No Gy rae gy BO ql) Y OH WD @ (es SSS ) mm OIG, OOpyY | a) (WD ee M\ ((})) \ \\ NN De) y @ @ SS — =\\\\ "Wlarx det Cowbane—Very Poisonous. (After Vasey) KEY FOR THE PLANT KINGDOM Organisms without chlorophyll, the vegetative body a naked mass of proto- plasm with many nuclei; reproduction asexual, spores free or enclosed in sporangia; spores produce motile swarm spores or amoeboid bodies. A. Mysxothallophyta. 158 Cells generally with cell membrane, with one or more generations; sexual reproductions frequently absent, the fertilized spores when present with one cell, which later separates from the mother plant, or a several celled body resulting from the fertilization of the female fructifying body, which later develops into a new plant. B. Euthallophyta. 160 Small unicellular organisms, never green but frequently of other colors, blue greens, etc.; reproduction asexual by fission; spores formed in the interior of the cell or by transformation of vegetative cells into the endospores or arthrospores; nuclei absent, but a so-called “Central body” occasionally present; coloring matter equally distributed. I. Schizophyta. 160 Unicellular organisms generally colorless at least never green; membrane, consisting of a chitin-like substance, occasionally gelatinous; cells frequently with cilia; reproduction by fission; spores when present endospores or arthro- spores. Schizomycetes. 161 Unicellular organisms like the preceding, cells contain chlorophyll and phycocyanin consisting of blue, blue-green, violet, or reddish pigments; swarm spores absent. Schizophyceae. 184 One-celled- organisms with nucleus sharply differentiated; protoplasmic body with a simple denser protoplasmic membrane, pseudopodia absent, motile during most of their existence; cilia 1 or more, and with 1 or 2 pulsating vacuoles; chromatophores occasionally absent; reproduction asexual by longitudinal division. II. Flagellatae. 188 Plants occurring mostly in water, always with cell-membrane and nucleus; green or other colors (brown or red) mixed with the green. III. Euphyceae. 188 Small unicellular organisms occasionally forming chain-like colonies. Cells possess two long cilia which arise from a furrow in the ventral surface. Found mostly in the plankton of salt water. Peridinales. 188 Small one-celled organisms of brown color, the chlorophyll masked by diatomin found in chromatophores; cell-wall consisting of silica with a girdle ~—and fine lines; reproduction asexual; division parallel to the long axis of the organism, and the formation of auxospores and sexual, by the formation of auxospores by conjugation. Bacillariales. 188 ey _- Chilorophyll green algae; membrane without silica; reproduction by division, X LL] 0 | 154 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS swarm cells absent; sexual reproduction by zygospores through the union of two equivalent gametes. (Aplanogametes). Conjugatae. 189 Chlorophyll green plants, occurring singly or in colonies (threads or flat- tened bodies) ; one or more nuclei, reproduction asexual by producing multilateral zoospores and nonmotile aplanospores; sexual by the copulation of zoogametes, or spermatozoids and oospheres; the spores produce a new plant directly or generally produce swarm spores. Chlorophyceae. 190 Plants of brackish or fresh water, consisting of internodes, short whorls of cylindrical branches, cells nucleated; growth from an apical cell; asexual reproduction by means of bulbils and vegetative threads; sexual reproduction by egg-cells and spermatozoids, the latter are spirally coiled in the cells of the antheridium; the egg cell is contained in a spirally coiled structure and after fertilization becomes an oospore. Charales. 193 Brown algae, chlorophyll masked by a brown coloring matter, phycophaein; reproduction sexual and asexual, swarm spores, sperm cells and egg cells; marine; tetragonidia absent. Phaeophyceae. 194 Brown algae; reproductive bodies without motion; tetragonidia present. Dictyotales. 194 Red or violet algae; chromatophores contain chlorophyll and a red coloring matter (phycoerythrin and rhodophyll); reproduction sexual and asexual; mostly marine. Rhodophyceae. 194 Parasitic or saprophytic plants with one or more cells, chlorophyll absent, with apical growth; mycelium usually evident; reproduction sexual and asexual, generally the latter; asexual by the formation of zoospores, conidia or spores. IV. Eumycetes. 195 The vegetative body mostly 1-celled, tubular, asexual by the formation of spores or endospores sexual by the formation of zygospores. Phycomycetes. 195 Copious nonseptate branched mycelium, asexual reproduction by endospores or chlamydospores; sexual by zygospores. Zygomycetes. 195 Mycelium occasionally sparingly developed, tubular, asexual; reproduction by swarm spores or conidia; sexual by the formation of oospores. Oomycetes. 204 Mycelium, many celled; reproduction asexual or sexual by union of nuclei; conidia borne on basidia, number various. Basidiomycetes. 209 Mycelium many celled; reproduction sexual and asexual; the latter by conidia; pycnidia and spermogonia with spermatia; sexual spores in sacs known as asci; spores called ascospores. Ascomycetes. 247 Fungi whose spores are not in sacs, or consist of sterile mycelium. Forms like Oidium, Ozonium, or Mycorrhiza. Fungi Imperfecti. 281 Organisms consisting of a fungus and an alga. Spores either in sacs (Ascolichenes) or borne like toadstools (Hymenolichenes). Lichenes. 307 Plants with stem, root and leaf; cormophyte or in some cases thalloid. Two generations, gametophyte and sporophyte; antheridium with sperm cells; tube cell absent. C. Embryophyta Zoidiogama. 308 Many celled differentiated structure frequently with leaves and stem or KEY FOR THE PLANT KINGDOM 155 thalloid in some cases. Male (antheridium) and female (archegonium) organs are produced. Asexual spores in spore cases which open at the top, in true mosses. I. Bryophyta. 308 Spores alike or unlike, microspores and macrospores developing into flat or irregular prothallia; these bear the reproductive organs, (antheridia and archegonia) ; flowers and seeds absent; usually a well developed vascular system. i Il. Pteridophyta. 312 Plants with a microsporangium (anther) containing the microspores (pollen grains) which develop a tubular body, the prothallium (pollen tube) a macro- sporangium (ovule) containing the macrospore (embryo-sac) which develops into a minute prothallium; this remains enclosed in the macrosporangium; after the fertilization of the egg cell in the macrospore a seed develops; plants with flowers and usually well developed tissues, the epidermis, parenchyma and vascular. (Embryophyta Siphonogama). D. Spermatophyta. 325 Ovules not enclosed in an ovary. I. Gymnospermae. 325 Resinous trees or shrubs; wood with tracheids, tracheae usually absent; fruit a cone of dry or fleshy scales. Coniferae. 327 Ovules enclosed in an ovary. II. Angiospermae. 332 Embryo with 1 cotyledon; stem without distinction into pith, wood, and bark; endogenous; leaves usually parallel veined; flowers generally on the plan Of ' 3: 1. Monocotyledonae. 332 Flowers generally small, unisexual, regular with persistent perianth; 6 or 3 stamens; carpels free or rarely united; fruit a berry, drupe or nut; embryo small; endosperm copious. Principes. 369 Palm-like plants with palm-like leaves; flowers naked or with thick leaves of perianth; carpels 2 or 4 with 2 or 4 placentae. Synanthae. Mostly fleshy herbs or thalloid floating plants; inflorescence a fleshy spadix subtended by a spathe or naked or reduced to few or solitary flowers on the margin or back of a thalloid body. Spathiflorae. 370 Herbs generally with narrow leaves; flowers usually complete, their parts mostly on the plan of 3; corolla regular or nearly so; ovary compound superior; endosperm mealy. Farinosae. 372 Mostly herbs; flowers with a well developed perianth, usually regular and complete; usually on the plan of 3; ovary superior or inferior, compound; endosperm fleshy or horny. Liliiflorae. 374 Large herbs; flowers irregular; ovary inferior, compound; composed of several united carpels; seeds generally arillate, frequently with perisperm and endosperm. Scitamineae. 390 Herbs, tropical species frequently epiphytes; flowers very irregular, or in one family regular, generally complete and perfect; parts of the perianth in 3’s or 6’s; ovary inferior, compound; seeds numerous; endosperm present or absent. Microspermae. 392 Embryo usually with two cotyledons; stem usually with wood, pith and bark marked, usually exogenous; leaves mostly netted veined; flowers fre- quently on the plan of 5. 2. Dicotyledoneae. 395 Petals separate or distinct from each other or wanting; occasionally some 156 MANUAL, OF POISONOUS PLANTS carpels united; in one division ovules with many megaspores. In most plants of the other division there is a single megaspore with synergidal and antipodal cells. (Choripetalae and Apetalae). a. Archichlamydeae. 395 Tropical plants with monoecious flowers and branches with a longitudinal ridge in which the stomata are hidden. Verticillatae. 395 Dicotyledonous herbs; petals and sepals absent; flowers small spicate with bractlets. Piperales. 396 Trees or shrubs; flowers small, in catkins, imperfect; sepals and petals none; leaves simple; fruit a many-seeded capsule; seeds with tufts of hairs at one end. Salicales. 396 Trees or shrubs; leaves simple; flowers small, monoecious or dioecious, in catkins; perianth absent; ovary 1-celled; style short; stigmas 2; endosperm none. Myricales. 397 Woody plants with simple leaves; flowers, staminate spicate, pistillate soli- tary. Balanopsidales. 399 Shrubs or trees; flowers small, dioecious, in catkins; leaves simple, alter- nate, petioled, perianth absent in staminate flowers; pistillate, subtended by bractlets; ovary 1-celled; endosperm thin. Leitneriales. 400 Trees with alternate, pinnately-compound leaves; flowers monoecious, with bractlets, staminate in catkins, pistillate, solitary or several; ovule solitary, erect; fruit a drupe, indehiscent or dehiscent, with woody husk, seed large 2-4 lobed; endosperm none. Juglandales. 400 Trees or shrubs; flowers small; calyx usually present; monoecious, or rarely dioecious, in catkins; pistillate flowers subtended by an involucre which becomes a bur or cup in fruit. Fagales. 402 Shrubs, herbs or trees; calyx present but corolla absent; flowers small, not borne in catkins, monoecious, dioecious or polygamous; ovary 1-celled superior. Urticales. 404 Shrubs, trees or herbs with scattered leaves; flowers in spikes, racemes or panicles usually perfect; single carpel. Proteales. 415 Herbs or shrubs; generally parasitic; calyx present; corolla absent; flowers perfect, or imperfect; a single inferior ovary; fruit various. Santalales. 415 Generally vines or herbs; leaves cordate, or reniform; corolla absent; calyx inferior; tube wholly, or partly adnate to ovary; flowers perfect. Aristolochiales. 416 Generally herbs, occasionally trees, shrubs or twining vines; leaves simple, mostly entire; flowers small, regular, perfect, dioecious, monoecious or poly- gamous; petals absent; stamens 2-9; filaments filiform or subulate; ovary superior one-celled; ovule solitary; fruit an achene; endosperm mealy. Polygonales. 417 Generally herbs, occasionally shrubs; flowers perfect; corolla usually ab- sent, when present polypetalous; calyx present; ovary superior; embryo coiled curved or annular; albumen present. Centrospermae. 423 Herbs, shrubs or trees; calyx usually of separate sepals; corolla generally present, polypetalous; ovary superior; carpels many usually separate; stamens generally free and more numerous than sepals. Ranales. 444 KEY FOR THE PLANT KINGDOM | 157 Generally herbs; flowers regular and perfect; petals generally separate; stamens free; ovary compound, superior; free from calyx. Rhoeadales. 479 Carnivorous plants; flower scapose; corolla with separate petals or nearly so sepals generally distinct; stamens free; ovary compound superior. Sarraceniales. 497 Herbs, shrubs or trees; usually with petals which are separate; stamens generally perigynous or epigynous; sepals generally united or confluent with receptacle which is concave; carpels 1 or more distinct or united into a com- pound ovary. Rosales. 498 Trees, shrubs, or herbs; usually with petals which are separate,, united in some or entirely wanting; sepals mostly distinct; stamens few or occasionally more than twice as many as the sepals; alternate or opposite with them; ovary compound, superior. Geraniales. 574 Trees, herbs or shrubs; petals usually present and separate; sepals generally distinct; stamens opposite usually fewer than sepals or as many, occasionally more than twice as many; ovary superior, compound; ovules pendulous. Sapindales. 604 Shrubs, small trees or occasionally vines; leaves generally alternate; flow- ers, small, regular; stamens as many as sepals or calyx lobes alternate or oppo- site with them; ovary compound superior; ovules erect. Rhamnales. 620 Trees, shrubs or herbs; leaves simple, mostly alternate; flowers regular, usually perfect; sepals separate, or more or less united; petals separate, or wanting; stamens usually numerous; ovary superior, compound; disk incon- spicuous or none. Malvales. 621 Shrubs, trees or herbs; flowers generally complete, perfect, and regular or irregular in some; sepals distinct, or more or less united; petals almost always present and distinct; stamens usually numerous; ovary compound, super- ior; placentae mostly parietal. Parietales. 627. Fleshy plants, leafless, or with small leaves, generally spiny; flowers mostly solitary, sessile, regular, perfect and showy; calyx tube adnate to ovary; limb many-lobed; petals numerous; stamens numerous; ovary l-celled; ovules num- erous; fruit a berry. Opuntiales. 634 Shrubs, trees or herbs; leaves simple; petals usually present and distinct; calyx 4-5 lobed or entire and petals wanting in Thymeleales, superior or in- ferior;’ ovary 1 or more celled; ovules 1 or numerous. Myrtiflorae. 637 Herbs, shrubs or trees with petals; leaves of calyx usually 5; stamens 4 to 5; ovary epigynous, adnate to calyx; ovule, 1 in each cavity. Umbellales. 645 Petals partly or wholly united rarely separate or wanting; coherence varia- ble in some cases; tubular or funnel-form. (Sympetalae or Gamopetalae). b. Metachlamydeae. 664 Flowers complete, regular with lobed or distinct calyx; corolla cleft gamo- petalous; stamens free from corolla; ovary compound. Ericales. 664 Mainly herbs; corolla gamopetalous; calyx generally free from ovary; stamens borne on corolla, as many as its lobes, or twice as many, or more. Primulales. 675 158 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS Trees or shrubs; alternate, simple leaves; flowers generally regular; calyx free from ovary, inferior; corolla gamopetalous or polypetalous; stamens borne on tube, at base of corolla. Ebenales. 679 Trees, shrubs, herbs or vines, generally with opposite leaves; flowers regu- lar; corolla generally gamopetalous, or rarely polypetalous or wanting; stamens borne mostly in lower part of corolla, as many as lobes or fewer, alternate; ovaries 2 and distinct. Contortae. 670 Rarely trees, shrubs, generally herbs; corolla nearly always gamopetalous, regular or irregular; stamens adnate to corolla tube; ovary one, superior coim- pound. Tubiflorae. 698 Herbs frequently acaulescent or caulescent with opposite or alternate leaves; flowers small, perfect, polygamous or monoecious; calyx 4-parted; corolla free; stamens 2 or only 1; ovary sessile, superior, 1-2-celled or falsely more celled; fruit a pyxis. Plantaginales. 739 Plants with gamopetalous corolla; stamens as many as corolla lobes; and alternate with them, or occasionally fewer, or twice as many; ovary compound inferior, adnate to calyx tube or ovary 1 or more celled; ovules 1 or more in each cavity of ovary; leaves opposite or verticillate. Rubiales. 740 Herbs or rarely shrubs with gamopetalous corolla or occasionally petals separate; stamens as many as corolla lobes or fewer; anthers generally united; ovary inferior. Campanulatae. 748 MY XOTHALLOPHYTA Fungus-like organisms without chlorphyll, regarded by some as animals; intermediate, in some respects, between animals and plants and hence called Mycetozoa by Rostafinski. In their vegetative condition, they consist of naked masses of protoplasm with many nuclei, the mass of protoplasm being called the plasmodium which creeps about on the substrata changing in form and thrusting out processes called pseudopodia which may later coalesce. After Fig. 20. Slime Mould (Trich- ia varia). a. Before germina- tion. b, c, d. Different stages in germination. d, e. Amoe- boid body with flagellum. After DeBary. MYXOTHALLOPHYTA 159 Fig. 18. Various slime moulds. a—f. Club root of Cabbage; Plasmodiphora Brassicae: a. Swollen root; b. Spore; c. Spore germinating; d. Plasmodium; e. Cells showing aggregated masses; f. Spores in cells; g. Lycogola epidendron; h, j. Plasmodium with branches; 1. Spore; k. Spore germinating showing cilium; m. Stemonitis; 1. Stipe; 2. Columella; o. Capillitium; b. Trichia decipiens; sp. Sporangia; q. Elater; r. Spore. 160 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS a shorter or longer period the protoplasm contracts forming little heaps which contain the spores; the parts of the reproductive body are called the sporangium or spore case, the peridium or the wall of the case, the stipe or stalk, the columella or central axis in the spore case, the capillitiwm or fine threads, and the spores. ‘The spores after absorbing water, germinate by breaking the wall and move about by means of cilia; sexual reproduction is entirely absent. The division Myxothallophyta includes three classes: Acrasieae without swarm cells; Plasmodiophorales. of which the club root of Cabbage, Plasmodio- bhora Brassicae is an example (a very destructive parasite upon cabbage, turnip, etc., in Europe and the Eastern States) ; and Myxogasteres which con- tains a great many species and genera common on spent tan bark, rotten logs, and the ground. Of the third class Stemonitis, Physarum, Lycogola and Fuliga are common genera. No species of this class is poisonous so far as known. EUTHALLOPHYTA Cells generally with cell membrane, with one or more generations, sexual reproduction frequently absent, the fertilized spores when present, with 1 cell which later separates from the mother plant, or a several-celled body resulting from the fertilization of the female fructifying body, which later develops into a new plant. This division includes such plants as bacteria, blue green algae, the green algae, rusts, smuts, mildews, moulds, puffballs, mushrooms and toad- stools. SCHIZOPHYTA Small unicellular organisms, never green but frequently of other colors, blue greens, etc., reproduction asexual by fission, spores formed in the interior J om ] so: j Fig. 19. Schizophyta. Schizomycetes Bacteria. 1 and 2. Bacillus subtilis 3 and 4. Bacillus anthracis. 1, 3 and 4x1000. 1, 3, and 4 after Frankel and Pfeiffer. 2 after Migula. EKUTHALLOPHY TA—SCHIZOPHYTA 161 of the cell by the transformation of vegetative cells into endospores, or by the transformation of ordinary vegetative cells into arthrospores; nuclei absent, but a so-called “central body” occasionally present; coloring matter equally distributed. This sub-division includes the Bacteria or Schizomycetes and the Blue-green Algae or Schizophyceae. We Ye ar eH Fig. 20. Schizophyta. Shizomycetes. Bacteria with flagellae. 1. Planococcus citrus 2. Pseudomonas pyocyanea. 3. Pseudomonas syncyanea. 4. Bacillus typhi. 5. Spirillum comma. 6. Spirillum rubrum, Fig. 1-6x1000; all after Migula. SCHIZOMYCETES Schizomycetes is one of the two classes of the sub-division Schizophyta. All the members of this sub-division are characterized by having no known sexual method of reproduction, multiplying by means of simple fission or cell division. The bacteria are distinguished from the first, or Schizophyceae, by the absence of the blue-green coloring matter which is characteristic of these forms. The two sub-divisions approach each other very closely at some points, particularly among the branched bacteria. The shape of the bacteria is used as the character in the separation of the families. They are either rod-shaped, and unbranched, spherical, bent, or spiral and straight and branched, and with or without sheath- ing, covering, or membrane. Five families are distinguished by Migula. Some of these contain considerable numbers of bacteria important from their toxigenic properties. Bacteria are among the smallest of living beings, some undoubtedly being so small that they cannot be seen with the highest powers of the microscope. Others are large enough so that they may be seen as minute specks by the naked eye. In other words, they vary from less than 1/10 » to 100 w. They may be arranged in the case of the rod-shaped forms or bacilli, either singly or in chains. The same is true of the spirilla, or spiral forms. The cocci or spherical forms may be single, in pairs, in regular mass of 4 and multiples of 4, in chains, in irregular clusters, or imbedded in gelatinous mass forming zoogloeae. Multi- 162 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS plication, as before stated, is by simple fission or cell division. Growth takes place very rapidly in many forms, some being capable of growing to their full ‘size and dividing to form two individuals in twenty minutes to half an hour. Under favorable conditions, this rapidity of multiplication explains the import- ance of the results obtained, and the products formed from such small plants. Some forms are capable of moving or swimming about by means of whips or flagella placed on all sides or simply at the ends. Other forms move by a sinuous or snake-like bending of the body. Many forms are incapable of motion. Spores are formed by many species; they are called endospores when formed singly within the bacterial cell, and arthrospores when formed by increase in size of the cells of the filament or part of a filament and its splitting into a VA f I) ieee 2 eset: Fig. 21. The root tubercle organism (Rhizobium leguminosarum). 1. General view of root showing tubercles. 7. Root hair and strand with enlargements at a and e. 25. Cross-section of root at b bacterial tissue. 30. Cells of clover plant filled with the organism nucleus at ». 26. Rod and y shaped organisms from 30 more enlarged. 31. Single cell containing bacterioids. After Frank. SCHIZOPHYTA—SCHIZOMYCETES 163 number of small cells. These spores serve, on account of their great resistance to dessication, and other unfavorable conditions, to tide the organism over until suitable conditions once more obtain. Bacteria are universally distributed, abounding in the soil, in the water, and being present often in the air, except at high altitudes. Normally, they are absent from the tissues of living animals and plants, but are to be looked for practically everywhere else. Their food requirements are as various as their habitats. Some require the most complex organic compounds, while others cannot live in the presence of such, but man- ufacture their own food from inorganic substances. Most bacteria lie between these two extremes. In respiration, some bacteria require oxygen or air, others will not develop in its presence. Most species require an abundance of moisture for their development, but many species will withstand a considerable amount of drying. Light inhibits the growth and in many cases destroys the bacteria. As to heat requirements, some live only in hot water, others will develop upon the surface of ice, some best at blood heat, while most develop between 15° Band 22° .C, Fig. 22. Schizophyta. Schizomycetes. Nodule forming bacteria. Rhizobium legumin- osayum. 1. Root tubercle of Lupine. 2. Cross-section of nodule. 3. Cell showing bacteria x 600. 4. Bacteria x 1500. After Woronin and Fischer. Bacteria are also important in connection with the decomposition of organic matter. The nitrifying bacteria in the soil change the complex albuminous substances into nitric acid. This uniting with a base forms nitrates. The tu- bercle bacteria like Rhizobium leguminosarum are in mutual relation with clover and other leguminous plants and are important in the acquisition of nitrogen. Some bacteria play an important part in the dairy industry, the aroma and flavor of butter being due to these. Some, like the red milk or- ganism (Bacillus prodigiosus), produce bad and disagreeable odors or cause the milk to become viscid or colored. Vinegar is produced by the acetic acid bacillus (Bacillus aceticus). Some bacteria produce diseases of plants like Fire blight of apples (Bacillus amylovorus), Cabbage rot (Pseudomonas cam- pestris), Sorghum Blight, Corn wilt, etc. Some bacteria produce diseases of insects like Foul brood of bees, Silk worm disease, etc. BACTERIA; Poisonous PrRoPERTIES. It is believed best to consider in a general way, the various poisonous principles which are developed by bacteria before the discussion of the specific organisms and their specific poisons. Inasmuch as bacteria play a very important part in nature in breaking down dead tissues of all kinds, destroying them and returning them to their elements, or forming simple compounds, it is to be expected that among the multitude of chemical substances which are developed, there would be some which would be harmful 164 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS when taken into the body of man or animal. In fact, such decomposition pro- ducts are known and as most of them, probably all, are basic, containing nitro- gen, they have been grouped with that general class of vegetable alkaloidal sub- stances called Ptomains. If other poisonous substances than Ptomains are developed, they are not known at the present time. In addition to these poison- ous substances that arise as decomposition, other poisonous substances are pro- duced by certain bacteria which are strictly synthetic, that is not produced by the breaking down of complex compounds into more complex forms. ‘The exact chemical nature of these substances is not understood, the reasons for this being that they are extremely unstable, it being impossible to heat them without destroying, and they cannot be recognized by any known chemical means. They must be distinguished and differentiated, and often detected only by animal inoculation and experimentation. ‘These soluble substances excreted by the bacteria are called toxins. The term toxin is rather an unfortunate choice, because it refers simply to their poisonous properties. In the broad sense, any poisonous substance is a toxin, but in the sense in which it will be here used, toxin indicates specific bacterial poisons excreted into the medium in which the Fig. 23. Bacillus cloaceae from corn, cause of corn disease, also found in sewage. Supposed at one time to pro- duce toxic substances to which was attributed the corn stalk disease. After Burrill. Fig. 24. Sorghum Blight (Bacillus Sorghi). b Young plant infected with the organism, a leaf and sheath. c Bacilli. Modified after Kellerman and Swingle. organism is growing, and producing upon inoculation, anti-toxins. In addition to the products above mentioned, many bacteria undoubtedly owe their pois- onous or intoxicating qualities to the fact that the protoplasm of living matter of the organism is poisonous or contains poisonous substances which are not excreted into the surrounding medium. When bacteria of this type are allowed to grow in favorable culture media for a considerable length of time, there is a certain amount of self-digestion or autolysis which takes place and these SCHIZOPHYTA—SCHIZOMYCETES 165 poisonous contents of the cells are liberated and then go into solution. They may be liberated, also, by grinding the bacteria, and extracting with water. These poisonous protoplasmic substances have been called toxalbumins, but this term commits one to the supposition that all of this type of poisonous sub- stances are proteid in nature. This has been by no means proven, consequently the term endotoxins is to be preferred. The following terms used in discussions of immunity will need defining. An Antitoxin is a substance capable of neutralizing a toxin by combining with it, and is produced in the animal body as a reaction to the introduction of a toxin in non lethal doses. A Bacterial Agglutinin is a substance produced in the animal body as a re- action to the presence of certain bacteria or their products. When introduced into a suspension of the organism the agglutinin will cause Ds bacteria to clump (agglutinate) into groups. A Bacteriolysin is a substance produced in the animal body as a reaction to the presence of bacteria or their products which will destroy and dissolve the corresponding (homologous) organisms. An Opsonin is a substance found in the blood serum which will unite with bacteria and render them positively chemotactic for the white blood cells. This preliminary union of opsonin and bacterium seems to be necessary before en- gulfment and destruction of the bacteria by the white blood cells can take place. In discussing the specific effects and products of the various species of bacteria, there would be an advantage in grouping these bacteria, according to the substances produced, and their effect upon animals and man. However, that this portion may be in keeping with the remainder of the text, the specific effect will be discussed and noted under each organism, and the organisms put in their correct place in the genera of Migula’s system of classification. In many instances, bacteria not closely related produce effects that are very similar; in some of these cases, the discussion will be under the first of that group reached, the remainder of the group will contain simply the reference to the form under which the discussion is given. COCCACEAE Organisms globose or spherical in a free state, not elongated in any direc- tion before division into one, two, or three planes, when united in pairs or groups, sometimes flattened on the proximal sides, containing five genera, three of which are of importance from our point of view. BACTERIACEAE Cells cylindrical or oval, dividing only in one plane, cells straight, rod- shaped, without sheath, either non-motile or motile, by means of flagella; con- tains three genera. SPIRILLACEAE Cells cylindrical, dividing in one plane, not straight, being bent or spiral, and without sheath; contains four genera. CHLAMYDOBACTERIACEAE Cells cylindrical, dividing in only one plane, enclosed in a sheath; contains five genera. 166 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS BEGGIATOACEAE Cells cylindrical, dividing in only one plane, destitute of the sheath, united into threads containing sulphur granules, usually motile by means of the un- One genus only. dulating membrane. O0d 4 00 005 GRR meee: LENIENT DEO con nee Tr i) V/ 1) Y, ' f
*> = Mee 5
Fig. 30i. Cholera organism. Microspira
comma. From the margin of a drop of broth
containing pure culture of the Spirillum. a.
Long spiral filaments. All x 600. After
Fligge.
Pathogenesis. It is essentially an intestinal disease, the organism living
within the intestines. The characteristic lesions are produced through the
absorption of the poisonous matters there produced. Large and small intestines
deeply congested, diarrhoea, Peyer’s patches and glands swollen, eventually
mucosal necrosis in part. Ulcers eventually form, though perforations are rare.
The parenchymatous organs show marked signs of degeneration; the vascular
system, the nervous and respiratory systems show no characteristic lesions.
Poisonous properties. The essential poison is intracellular, undoubtedly an
endotoxin. It is found in the filtrate of old cultures and in solution of bacterial
cells.
Immunity. Produced by considerable quantities of bacteriolysins and prob-
ably opsonins. Agglutinins are also produced. Vaccination with killed or at-
tenuated cultures has proven fairly successful, but not the use of the blood
serum of immunized individuals as a curative or a prophylactic agent.
SPIRILLACEAE
Spirochaeta pallida
Disease produced. Syphilis.
Animals infected. Man and ape.
Animals immune. Other animals.
Pathogenesis. Produces primary lesions in form of ulcers at the point of
inoculation, second as gummata in the parenchymatous organs.
Poisonous properties. Not known.
Immunity. Not well understood.
Spirochaeta anserina, Sakharoft
Disease produced. Goose septicemia.
Animals infected. Goose.
Animals susceptible.
Pathogenesis. Producing septicemia.
Immunity.
Spirochaeta Obermeieri, Cohn
Disease produced. Relapsing fever.
Animals infected. Man.
Animals immune. Mouse, rabbit, sheep, and hog.
Pathogenesis. Produces relapsing fever in man.
Immunity.
SCHIZOPHY TA—SCHIZOMYCETES 183
CHLAMYDOBACTERIACEAE
Cladothrix bovis (Bollinger)
The mass consists of several distinct zones of different elements, the central
portion granular with small round bodies radiating out from this tangled mass
of thread-like bodies, the outer portion consisting of conspicuous club-shaped
ec’onies. The organism is quite polymorphic. In cultures the threads are from
310 to 5-10 w» in thickness with flask-shaped or bottle-like expansions. The
organism may be grown upon all the artificial media. The colonies appear as
small gray dots with translucent, radiating filaments. If kept for a few days at
37° C. they are opaque and nodular, later they show a whitish downy appear-
ance. In blood serum the nodules are yellowish or blood-red in color; on agar
agar the color becomes brownish with age; on potato, reddish-yellow and the
white down makes its appearance early.
Distribution. Widely distributed both in Europe and North America.
Pathogenic properties. The organism was discovered by Langenbeck in
1845, but was not described until 1878 by Bollinger. Israel in 1874-78 called
attention to the disease in man, and Bostr6m in 1899 made a careful study of
the disease. The disease is not common in man but cases have been described
by Murphy and Ochsner and Senn of Chicago. Two of the cases described by
Murphy began with tooth-ache and swelling of the jaw.
The disease may be caused by direct inoculation of pus, but there is good
reason to believe that not an infrequent source of infection is by means of
barley ‘and other grains. There is reason to believe that it occurs in nature
as a saprophyte. The history of many cases reported in man seem to indicate
Fig. 30j. Lumpy Jaw Cladothrix bovis showing the radiating masses. At the left, the
elub-shaped bodies and branches (After Ponfick). At the right, one of the millet like
bodies less magnified. After Fligge.
184 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
this kind of infection and it is a well-known fact that certain fields are the
source of infection. Dr. McFarland says:
When inhaled, the organisms enter the deeper portions of the lung and cause a
suppurative broncho-pneumonia with adhesive inflammation of the contiguous pleura. After
the formation of the pleuritic adhesions the disease may penetrate the newly formed tissue,
extending to the chestwall, and ultimately form externa] sinuses; or, it may penetrate the
diaphragm and invade the abdominal organs, causing interesting and characteristic lesions
in the liver and other large viscera.
Another allied disease is the Mycetoma, or Madura-foot (Cladrothix ma-
dureae), which is found in India, especially in the province of Scinde, but
occurs also in other parts of Asia; in Europe and northern Africa, and a few
cases have even been reported in North America.
Another Cladrothrix farcinica, found in Guadaloupe country, is character-
ized by a superficial lymphangitis and lymphadenitis extending to the tracheal
and axillary glands. The glands enlarge, suppurate, and discharge a pus.
The internal organs have a pseudo-tubercular appearance.
The organism consists of long delicate filaments, characterized by distinct
branching; the old cultures are rich in spores. The organism has been culti-
vated in the usual media.
It is pathogenic for guinea pigs, cattle and sheep. The culture is virulent
for some time.
The papers by Nocard on the farcinica organism and a paper by Musgrove,
Clegg and Polk on streptothrix should be consulted.
SCHIZOPHYCEAE
Unicellular organisms common in fresh and salt water. They contain blue,
blue-green, violet, or reddish pigments; swarm spores absent; are common in
fresh and salt water; simple in structure; existing as a single cell or as a
chain held together by a gelatinous envelope, or in small colonies; chlorophyll
and other pigments not in definite bodies but distributed throughout the cell-
contents or else forming a sheath which lines the cell-wall; reproduction occurs
by simple division; some forms produce spores which are thick walled thus
enabling the organism to live over unfavorable conditions; after a period of
rest these spores germinate and again reproduce in the vegetative way by
fission or division. Some of the more common, more or less injurious types
found in water are Oscillatoria, Anabaena, Clathrocystis and Nostoc. Cells
contain phycocyanin and chlorophyll, the latter not visible because of the former.
CHROOCCACEAE
Cells spherical, singly or collected in colonies surrounded by a copious cov-
ering of mucilage forming gelatinous colonies of various sizes. The genus
Merismopedia consists of flat rectangular colonies. Cell-division occurs in two
directions. ‘The genus Gleocapsa has spherical cells united into colonies, the
cell with a thick colorless, brown yellow or violet coat. Some of the species
are common in fresh water.
Clathrocystis. Henfrey
This alga occurs in colonies which are at first solid, but later become perfor-
ated. The colonies are held together by a gelatinous matrix. The cell contents
are blue green, or rose-purple in color. ‘The species most commonly found is
the C. aeruginosa, occurring not only in Europe, but very widely scattered in
SCHIZOPHY TA—SCHIZOPHYCEAE 185
ED
HEN
|
Fig. 31. Schizophyta. Schizophyceae. Blue Green Algae. 1. Chrococcus turgidus
x 400. 2. Gloeocapsa sanguinea x 400. 3. WNostoc verrucosum. 3a. A pair of chains.
4. Chamaesiphon confervicola x 400; at the right, a caenobium; at the left, germinating
arthrospores. 5. Rivularia minutula x 200. 6. Anabaena macrosperma x 100; at the right,
a caenobium; at the left, germinating arthrospores. 7. Plectonema Tomasinianum x 200.
8. Filaments of Tolypothrix aegagropila; c—central body, ch—chromatin bodies, x 100.
9. Lyngbya aestuarii x 150; at the right filiaments with hormogonia (ho). In all figures,
sp—spores, h—heterocyst. Fig. 1, 2, 3, after Cooke; Fig. 4, 5, 7, after Hausgirg; Fig. 8,
after Nadson; Fig. 3a, 6, 9, after Wettstein.
North America, especially common in ponds and the plankton of lakes. Other
species are C. roseo-persicina and C. Kiitzingiana, the former being especially
common in ponds and ditches which contain a great deal of decaying vegetable
matter. The latter species is now generally referred to the genus Coleosphaer-
tum, and the C. aeruginosa to the genus Microcystis.
OSCILLATORIACEAE
Cells in filaments, apical cells disc-shaped with sheaths variable, sometimes
wanting, heterocysts absent; form hormogonia. Common representatives, Oscilla-
toria and Lyngbya which at times are common in fresh water.
Oscillatoria, Vauch
The plant consists of more than one cell forming a simple filament held
together by a common but stout gelatinous sheath, the cells being packed to-
186 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
gether like a row of lozenges. A few of the cells fall out of the sheath form-
ing what is called a hormogonium. ‘This starts a new filament which has a
characteristic movement hence the name Oscillatoria. Oscillatoria is common
in hot springs sometimes also covering damp soil in greenhouses. It is mainly
through decomposition that these algae become noxious.
NOSTOCACEAE
Cells spherical in unbranched chains frequently torulose; sheaths gelatinous
frequently forming jelly-like masses; reproduction by hormogonia and spores.
Many species of the order are troublesome in water supplies. Some species
of the genus Nostoc are used as food.
Nostoc, Vaucher
Colonies in flexuose chains united in definite gelatinous investment; cells
usually spherical or ellipsoidal; heterocysts terminal or intercalary; spores
spherical or oblong. These algae are very common in the lakes in southern
Minnesota, Northern Iowa, and elsewhere in the United States. By decomposi-
tion, Nostoc produces disagreeable products. Dr. Arthur, some time ago, found
Nostoc in quantities in the lakes of southern Minnesota and at one time it was
supposed one species produced poisoning of cattle. Dr. Arthur, however, did not
attribute the poisoning to this alga. One of the species of this genus frequently
found is Nostoc verrucosum common in both the Old and New World.
Anabaena, Bory
Filaments straight or curved, surrounded by a thin sheath united to form
a flocculent mass; heterocyst and spores intercalary. This alga also forms
filaments which are free or united in a mass. In the filaments occur the vege-
tative cells, the heterocysts, whose function is not known, and a spore which
serves to start the organism again. This organism causes much annoyance
in water, not only in North America but in Europe. Dr. Farlow some years
ago referred to its injurious properties. It has also been frequently mentioned
by Parker as contaminating water supplies in Massachusetts; others have no-
ticed it in New York, and Dr. Trelease has found it in Madison, Wisconsin.
The latter writer says in speaking of the Waterbloom and other algae:
After a warm spring, on my return to Madison, June 26, 1887, I observed a considerable
quantity of putrid scum on the shore of Fourth Lake, but the south wind scattered it before
specimens of it could be obtained. The succeeding fortnight was hot, and after a couple of
calm days, succeeding a strong wind from the north-west, the southern half of the lake
was filled with suspended particles about a millimeter in diameter. ‘These consisted exclusive-
ly of Anabaena Hassallii, already in full fruit; the spores were the customary Sphaerozyga
arrangment, in a collection made June 20th.
This algae is common in many of our northern lakes and is a frequent
pest in water reservoirs, producing pig-pen odors and bad taste of water.
RIVULARIACEAE
Filiform filaments attenuated from base to apex, heterocysts basal or rarely
absent; sheath tubular, gelatinous, or membranous .
Gloeotrichia, J. Ag.
Free floating colonies solid when young but inflated and hollow when
old; the filaments radiating from the centre outwards.
SCHIZOPHY TA—SCHIZOPHYCEAE 187
Gloeotrichia Pisum, (Ag.) Thur.
It forms small green spherical bodies about 1 millimeter in diameter, floating
at various depths in the water. It consists of a mass of tapering threads ar-
ranged radially in the gelatinous matrix. The apices of the threads protrude
more or less, giving it a bristly appearance. The base of each filament contains
a heterocyst and above it a slender cylindrical spore and beyond it the ordinary
vegetative threads of the alga.
According to Dr. Arthur it is common in Minnesota. He found it common
in Waterville, Lake Minnetonka, Lake Phelan in Minnesota and East Okoboji
Lake in Iowa. It was thought by the people. of Waterville, Minnesota, that
this alga caused the death of cattle which drank the water. The history of these
cases is recorded by Dr. Arthur as follows:
“That some of the animals had drunk of the water and scum a few hours only before
they died was positively known, and that all had done so seemed from circumstances quite
probable. After the most careful examination the only plausible hypothesis that could be
advanced to account for the death of the animals was that the alga present possessed some
toxic or other baneful properties sufficiently powerful to kill a cow in a half hour or more
after drinking freely of it. The well-established reputation of all the algae for innocuous-
ness made this hypothesis appear from the very first extremely improbable, but for want
of the slightest hint in any other direction it was thought worth while to bear it in mind,
and to investigate the matter further.
About the middle of June, 1884, word was received that eight cattle had died on the
shore of Lake Tetonka. I at once started for Waterville, arriving on the twentieth and
found the algae less abundant than in 1882, but still making the water green some fifty
feet or more out from the shore toward which the wind had been blowing several hours.
Although the conditions were not the most favorable, yet it seemed best to attempt a direct
experiment by giving the animals water charged with algae. After much delay the services
of Prof. M. Stalker, state veterinarian of Iowa and professor of veterinary science in the
lowa Agricultural College, were secured to conduct the experiment. A horse and calf were
employed. On June 30th, Prof. Stalker, with the assistance of Prof. Edward D. Porter
of the university of Minnesota, and in the presence of citizens of Waterville, made the
tests, the writer being unable to remain. ‘The animals had not been permitted to drink
for some twenty-four hours previous, and were consequently thirsty enough to take a large
amount of water well charged with the algae. No bad results of any sort followed.
The thorough and able manner in which the test was made leaves no reasonable doubt
of the perfect harmlessness of the algae in a growing condition. I append this last clause,
because the citizens of the place still believe that the algae are at the root of the trouble,
and that the test did not show it because they were not made at the right stage of their
occurrence. Although no sufficient study of the habits of this plant has yet been made to
enable one to speak with certainty, yet it does not appear from present data that in some
other stage it would give different results, unless it be when decaying, when it turns
brown or reddish brown and gives off a peculiar stench. At this time the microscope
shows the cells of the algae to be swarming with bacteria. Whether these are other than
the common and harmless bacteria of putrefaction it is at present impossible to say. The
probabilities are, however, entirely against the hypothesis that the decaying algae or the
accompanying bacteria have anything to do with the trouble.
We are therefore obliged to sum up the economic part of this investigation by stating
that the death of the animals is probably not due to the suspected algae, and that no clue
to the real cause has yet been obtained.”
Dr. Arthur in a recent communication states that he has had no evidence
so far that these algae are poisonous. That the death of these animals was
probably due to bacteria found in the marshes.
OTHER BLUE GREEN ALGAE
Quite a number of additional genera are known to occur in our fresh
waters; among them the Glococapsa with cells single or in groups surrounded
188 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
by a gelatinous envelope, cell contents bluish green, brownish or reddish;
Merismopedia, with division in two directions, cells arranged in tabular groups
of 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, etc.; Lyngbya, with filaments enclosed singly in a sheath,
branchless or occasionally branched, cell contents blue and granular.
FLAGELLATAE
One-celled organisms with nucleus, sharply differentiated protoplasmic body,
some with a simple membrane, pseudopodia absent, motile during most of their
existence; cilia 1 or more and with 1 or 2 pulsating vacuoles; chromatophores
occasionally absent; reproduction asexual by longitudinal division. The Eugle-
nales contain the family Euglenaceae. The most common of these is the Euglena
viridis which occurs in stagnant pools. Cells are elongated spindle-shaped, cilia
1 and with a red eye spot at one end. Water where these are abundant is not
wholesome. The Uroglena forms small sphaeroidal nearly colorless colonies,
the central portion of the colony is a hollow space filled with mucilage and the
ciliated cells are arranged around the periphery; vegetative multiplication occurs
by simple fission and by zoogonidia. The Uroglena, when occurring in large
quantities produce a fishy, oily odor. The related Synura produces an odor
of ripe cucumbers with a bitter and spicy taste.
EUPHYCEAE
Plants mostly occurring in water, always with a cell-membrane and nucleus.
Green or other colors mixed with the green (brown or red). This includes ali
of the algae or thallophytes that contain chlorphyll which is, however, fre-
quently masked because of other pigments like red and brown.
PERIDINIALES
Small 1-celled organisms of brown color, the chlorophyll masked by diatomin
found mostly in the plankton of salt water.
BACILLARIALES
Small 1-celled organisms of brown color, the chlorophyll masked by diatomin
of the chromatophores; cell-wall consisting of silica with a girdle and fine lines;
reproduction asexual parallel to the long axis of the organism and the forma-
tion of auxospores and sexual auxospores by conjugation.
The diatoms are especially important in considering water supplies since
they are widely distributed and at times very common. The diatom is like a
pill box, made up of two parts, one fitting tightly within the other; the walls
are strongly silicified and marked with fine lines; the cell contents are colored
brown. Economically, these algae are of some importance as food for fishes,
in manufacture of dynamite, and for polishing.
Dr. Moore, speaking of Diatoms in water says:
There are only a few species which are known to give rise to serious trouble in water
supplies, but these occur quite frequently and in great quantities. Sometimes the infected
water has an odor, variously described as resembling fish or geraniums, and the taste is
disagreeable enough to render it quite unfit for use. ‘This condition is often produced by
Asterionella. In addition to this effect, however, diatoms are extremely troublesome when
contained in water to be used for the manufacture of paper or for laundry purposes, because
—— ——
EUTHALLEPHYTA—EUPHYCEAE 189
of the greenish-brown coloring matter they contain, which stains articles coming in contact
with it. Whipple has observed that the growth of diatoms seems to depend upon certain
definite conditions of the water—that is, they do not develop when the bottom of the pond
or reservoir is quiet; but in spring and fall, when the rising or lowering temperature causes
the water to circulate and a good supply of air and nitrates is obtained, the growth is most
luxuriant. Thus, it is seen that temperature is only an indirect cause, and not one that need
be taken into account by itself.
A NOU er
VEL TELE RI UMTMTEAAVEL AAAS URS AVAVA VYAL NOG
AARAR AAA
AAR ARR Tn iaAan
ANOLE MESUUCUEUCUCUEEEEC CEE
SMI SUN HABLA gp NN
TTAB ABARAGAAAIAAAARAAAADADRDD Donnan ADA ;
Minis MAE CR AAT,
SS
Fig. 32. Diatoms. Pinnularia viridis. 1.
View showing markings in wall, c—central nodule;
e—polar nodules; r—raphe. 2. Girdle view, s—
silicified cell walls; g—girdle bands. 3. In process
of division. Fig. 1 and 2 after Pfitzer; Fig. 3
after Wettstein.
CONJUGATAE
Chlorophyll-green algae, membrane without silica; reproduction, swarm
cells absent; sexual reproduction by forming zygospores through the union of
aplanogametes.
DESMIDIACEAE
The desmids are green unicellular organisms represented by such
genera as Cosmarium, and are found mostly with other algae. They are not
especially troublesome. Common genera are Closterium, Cosmarium, and Des-
midium.
The filaments of Zygnema are small consisting of a single series of cylin-
drical cells placed end to end, occasionally with a slight constriction at the
points of junction. Each cell has two star-shaped chloroplasts, each one con-
taining a large pyrenoid.
Spirogyra, Link
Spirogyra is a common alga everywhere in our fresh waters, especially in
quiet waters as in ponds and ditches. The filaments are simple, occur in bright
green masses, often several feet long; cells cylindrical, variable in diameter and
relative length; wall smooth and slightly gelatinous; chlorophyll arranged in
190 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
chl.
7
Fig. 32a. Lower figure, two views of diatom.
m lateral view; / upper view. Upper figure, a desmid
Closterium; chl—choroplastid. Charlotte M. King.
1 or more spiral bands, depending upon the species; nucleus is generally situated
in the central portion of the cell; in the chlorophyll band occur what are known
as the pyrenoids; reproduction both asexual, by the simple cutting off of the end
cell, and sexual, by conjugation through the union of two cells.
ZYGNEMATACEAE
Cells cylindrical, unbranched forming threads, chromatophores present, in
masses or spiral bands. Formation of zygospores.
CHLOROPHYCEAE
Chlorophyll-green plants, occurring singly or in colonies, (threads or flat-
tened bodies) with one or more nuclei; reproduction asexual by producing
multilateral zoospores and aplanospores; sexual by the copulation of zoogametes,
or spermatozoids and oospheres; the spores produce a new plant directly or
generally form swarm spores. Water net (Hydrodictyon reticulatum), Pedias-
trum and Scenedesmus are common in fresh water; Pleurococcus is common on
trunks of trees. The Confervales contain the sea lettuce, Ulva latissima, which
is used as food, the Conferva with slender green filiaments common in fresh
water, the Cladophora fracta in fresh water. Cladophora is a common alga
and is quite rough to the touch, and may therefore easily be distinguished from
Spirogyra or Zygnema. ‘The frond of Cladophora is branched, with many-
EUTHALLEPHY TA—EUPHYCEAE 191
AUN
)
Bigs 33: Fresh Water Green Fig. 33a. Botrydiaceae. Green
Slimes. Conjugatae. Left hand figure; Scum. Botrydium granulatum. 1. A
n—Zygnema. 1. Stellate chlorophyll single large zoosporangium. 2. Rhizoid
grain. 2. Zygospore. Right hand fig- process.
ure., s—Spirogyra chlorophyll in a
spiral band. 1, 2, 3 and 4, in different
stages of conjugation. 4. Zygospore.
nucleated cells or, in some instances, only 1 or 2; chloroplasts occur on the mar-
gins with a single pyrenoid in each piece of the reticulum. The Siphoneae
contain the Vaucheria, found in damp ground, the long unsegmented threads of
which produce antheridia and oogonia, and the Botrydium granulatum found
on damp ground.
VOLVOCACEAE
Unicellular organisms or forming colonies, each cell with a single chroma-
tophore; forms gametospores and oospores.
Pandorina, Bory
The algae of this genus are collected together in spherical or subspherical
colonies known as caenobia. Each caenobium contains about 16 cells closely
packed within a gelatinous envelope; the cells are pyramidal in shape and reach
almost to the center of the spherical colony; each cell produces 2 cilia.
Volvox, (.) Ehrenb.
Volvox consists also of globose colonies known as caenobia, each consisting
of a large number of small cells from 200 to 22,000, arranged in a single layer
within a gelatinous sheath; the caenobium is a hollow sphere, the cells being
connected by protoplasmic threads of varying stoutness; each cell has a distinct
chloroplast, 2 or more contractile vacuoles and a number of cilia; reproduction
occurs through asexual methods or by fertilization; in fertilization, the sperm
192
ing
with sperm
fi,
MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Fig. 34.
Pandorina Morum. a.
and c. Zoospores. d.
e. Process of conjugation complete. f.
spores. After Luerssen.
Chlorophyceae.
Floating caenobium. b
Zoospores conjugating.
Pond Scum.
Zygo-
Bladder Wrack.
Single oogonium with egg cells.
Fig. 35. Fucus vesiculosus.
oogonia. b.
cells. . Kee cells in
Germination of spores, rhizoid below. g.
process of
Single sperm cells.
a. Section through conceptacle contain-
c. Egg cells escaping. d. Antheridium
fertilization, surrounded by sperm cells.
After Thuret.
-
EUTHALLEPHYTA—EUPHYCEAE 193
cell, coming from the antheridium, unites with the egg cell which is contained
in the oogonium; the caenobium because of the cilia has a rolling motion.
Several species are common like V. globator and V. minor.
Eudorina, Ehrenb.
The caenobium is globose or subglobose rarely ellipsoid and normally con-
sists of 32 cells arranged within the periphery of a copious mucilaginous mass;
each cell contains 1 or more pyrenoids; reproduction takes place as in Pandorina.
Eudorina like Pandorina produces a faintly fishy odor.
CHARALES
Plants of brackish or fresh water, consisting of internodes; short whorls
of cylindrical branches; cells nucleated; growth from an apical cell; asexual
reproduction by means of bulbils and vegetative threads; sexual reproduction
by egg-cells and spermatozoids, the latter spirally coiled in the cells of the
Fig. 36. Bladderwrack. Fucus vesiculosus.
Air spaces shown in light areas (/); concep-
tacles (s) containing reproductive bodies. After
Luerssen.
194 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
antheridium; the egg cell is contained in a spirally coiled oogonium and after
fertilization becomes an oospore. The Stoneworts or Charas are common in
brackish water, and though not injurious frequently stop up canals and fill ponds
so that it becomes necessary to pull them out.
PHAEOPHYCEAE
Brown algae; chlorophyll marked by a brown coloring matter, phycophaein,
reproduction sexual and asexual, swarm spores, sperm cells and egg cells:
marine; tetragonidia absent.
The Phaeosporeae contain the Laminariaceae; the Devil’s Apron, Laminaria
digitata, and other species from which iodine and mannite are derived. The
Macrocystis pyrifera is of great length. The Clyclosporeae contain the family
Fucaceae, the common Bladderwrack (Fucus vesiculosus) from which iodine,
bromine and soda are obtained. The Sargasso weed (Sargassum bacciferum)
found in the Atlantic ocean is also abundant in the Sargasso Sea.
DICTYOTALES
Brown algae; reproductive bodies without motion; tetragonidia present.
This group contains a single order Dictyotaceae comprising 2 few genera.
RHODOPHYCEAE
Red or violet algae; chromatophores contain chlorophyll and red coloring
matter (phycoerythrin and rhodophyll) ; reproduction sexual and asexual; most-
ly marine. The red sea weeds are divided into several classes and numerous
orders. The subclass Florideae contains most of the species. Food is ob-
tained from several species and the carrageen is furnished by Chondrus cris-
pus, agar agar is obtained from Gracilaria lichenoides found in the Indian
Ocean. The Gloiopeltis coliformis and other species are used by the Japanese
as food. Many of the species are pretty and are much gathered on the sea coast.
Fig. 37. Red Sea Weed, Nemalion multifidum. 1. Branch with carpogonium and
antheridium. 2-4. Different stages of development. 5.. Lejolisia mediterranea with antheridi-
um, carpogonium and spores. o—antheridia, c and o—carpogonia, ‘—trichogyne, s—sperm
cells, e—spores, f—fruit. After Thuret and Bornet.
EUTHALLEPHY TA—EUMYCETES—FUNGI 195
EUMYCETES
Parasitic or saprophytic plants with one or more cells, chlorophyll absent
with apical growth; mycelium usually evident; reproduction sexual and asexual,
generally the latter; asexual by the formation of zoospores, conidia or spores.
PHYCOMYCETES
Thallus generally of a single branched tubular thread; septa in connection
with the reproductive bodies only; threads containing many nuclei; reproduc-
tion sexual and asexual, in the latter the spores generally in sporangia (Mucor) ;
conidia in chains (Albugo), or at the end of the hyphae (Plasmopara); re-
production sexual by copulation forming zygospores (Mucor) or oospores in
Plasmopara and Albugo.
ZYGOMYCETES
Parasites or saprophytes; mycelium branched not septate, or septa in con-
nection with the formation of the reproductive bodies; reproduction sexual by
endospores, acroconidia, or chlamydospores. A group of fungi represented by
the Fly Fungus (Empusa) and Common Black Mould (Mucor).
MUCORACEAE
Sporangia with columella, many spored, zygospores between the threads of
the mycelium. Few species have the two sexes united on the same plant; gen-
erally they are on the separate individuals. According to Blakeslee, Sporodinia
contains both sexes (homosporangic, homosporic, homophytic and homothallic).
Phycomyces is dioecious, the zygospores producing at germination but one kind
of germ tube which gives rise to a sporangium containing both male and female
spores, (homosporangic, heterosporic, homophytic, heterothallic) Mucor mucedo
has sexes separated on different individuals but two different kinds of germ
tubes are formed by the germination of the zygospores, (heterosporangic, heter-
osporic, heterophytic, and heterothallic). Zygorrhynchus is heterogamic. The
same author* has recently reviewed the literature.
About 85 species widely distributed. The Phycomyces was first found in
oil kettles, and not infrequently in oil cakes. Sporodinia are parasitic on larger
fungi. Pilobolus crystallinus is common on horse manure, the conidiophore
being enlarged. The sporangia look like “fly specks” on the wall. This fungus
is not injurious.
Mucor (Micheli) Link. Mucor. Mould
Mycelium creeping, conidiophores simple or branched; sporangia spherical
or pear-shaped; columella well developed, wall of sporangium mucilaginous, in
some cases chlamydospores, or forming small chains or “cysts”; zygospores
produced by the fertilization of two gametes.
A genus of wide distribution of 50 species. The life history of a common
species, the Mucor stolonifer (Rhizopus nigricans) found on bread and de-
cayed fruits is as follows. The gray felted mycelium spreads through the
substratum, and on the surface small black bodies, the sporangia, are produced.
The conidiophore arises from the felted mycelium and bears an enlarged spher-
ical head, the sporangium, within which, occur the spores. On adding water
* Bot. Gazette 1909:418. Reprint.
196 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
— A)
cl
@ =.
NS
iW TAA
tue
‘p his
a9, CAT.
rt oae,
Fig. 39. Black Moulds. Zygomycetes. 1-5. Mucor mucedo. 1. Mycelium and young
sporangium x 25. 2. Ripe sporangium x 100. 3. The same in optical view x 100. 4. In
process of fertilization x 80. 5. Zygospore (s), greatly magnified. 6-7. Chaetocladium
Jonesii. 6. Conidia x 150. 7. Zygospores. 8-9. Fertilization and formation of zygospores
in 9. 10. Conidiophores of Syncephalis intermedia x 100, 11-13. Fertilization and forma-
tion of zygospores in S. cornu x 300. 14. Conidiophore, gelatinous enlargements and black
sporangium of P lolobus crystallinus x 30. 15. Fertilization of Mortierella Rostafinskit x 300.
1-7, 14-15 aiter Brefeld, 8-13 after Van Tieghem.
EUTHALLEPHYTA—EUM YCETES—MOULD 197
to the specimen, the wall of the sporangium collapses and the end of the stalk,
known as the columella, turns back, giving it something of the appearance of
an umbrella. The columella, before it collapses, projects into the sporangium.
Fig. 40. Mucor Rouxti. Conidio-
phore. 2. Gemmae. 3. Chlamydo-
spores. All greatly magnified. 1 after
Vuillemin. 2 after Calmette. 3 after
Wehmer. (Modified by Charlotte M.
King).
The spores germinate readily when placed in a moist atmosphere. In
addition to the production of a sporangium a stalk may bend over and cause
the further extension of the fungus by producing what is known as a stolon.
In some species small, round, or elongated spores are produced in the
mycelium which are known as chlamydospores, and spread the fungus. In
addition to the formation of spores in the sporangium, zygospores are pro-
duced in some species; two threads of the mycelium lie in proximity and nearly
parallel, each produces a tube; these meet, the walls are absorbed, and, just
back of the meeting point, a cell is cut off. The contents from the old cells
pass into the newly formed cell. We also observe that the cell of one arm is
somewhat smaller than that of the other. This spore is a resting spore or zygo-
spore. It lies dormant for a period, then germinates by forming directly a con-
iodiophore wiih its sporangium containing the spores.
Prof. Blakeslee has shown with reference to the fertilization of some of
the species of Mucor that it requires a male and a female plant. In speaking
of Mucor mucedo he says:
Mucor mucedo has the sexes separated on different individuals as in Phycomyces, but two
different kinds of germ tubes are formed by the germination of its zygospores. While some
198 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
germ tubes are male and produce only male spores, others are female and produce only
female spores in the germ sporangium. ‘The sporophyte as well as the gametophyte, there-
fore is unisexual.
“Raggi,” used in the manufacture of Arrack, contains Mucor Oryzae
(Rhizopus) which transforms rice starch into dextrose, the latter being then
fermented by yeasts forms blackish brown sporangia and has a pear-shaped
columella. Mucor Rouxii of Calmette is commonly grown in China, where it is
found on rice husks and is made from these into Chinese yeast. It changes rice
starch into sugar and has been used to some extent for manufacture of alco-
holic drinks.
AM. racemosus, common in decaying fruit, produces alcoholic fermentation.
Mucor fusiger is parasitic on species of Collybia; M. Melittophtorus was found
Fig. 41. Common Black Mould (Mucor stolonifer or Rhizopus nigricans). 1. Sporangia
and method of spreading by stolons. 2. Same, showing rhizoids, conidiophore, columella,
sporangium and spore. 3. Zygospore, showing method of conjugation. 4. Zygospore
germinating; k, conidiophore.
in the stomachs of bees; M. nigricans was found by Neumann (1892) and later
by Artanet (1893) in the eye of poultry but Barthelat does not consider it
pathogenic.
Mucor corymbifer, F. Cohn.
Delicate, white mycelium spreading over the surface of the substratum;
conidiophores appressed, spreading; branched sporangia in umbellate clusters,
the lower sporangia smaller than the upper, the latter 70, diameter; wall
EUTHALLEPHYTA—EUMYCETES—MOULD 199
Fig. 42. Mucor corymbifer after the bursting of the sporangium. After Lichtheim.
colorless, smooth, collapsing; spores colorless, small 2 x 3 y.; columella club-
shaped, brownish frequently papillate.
Distribution. Probably tropical, found in tropical drugs, in Europe and the
United States.
Pathogenic properties. Lichtheim recognized this species as pathogenic.
It grows better at a temperature of blood. When introduced into the circula-
tion of guinea pigs, it produces death in 48 to 72 hours. Mycelium is found in
kidneys, spleen and Peyer’s patches of intestines which are swollen and ulcerat-
ed. Huckel found the organism in the human ear. Dr. Wolffner in Dr. Tre-
lease’s laboratory in St. Louis, Mo., cultivated the organism from the human
eye. The clinical record of this case was as follows: A farmer near St. Louis,
was cutting corn with an old fashioned corn knife. A small piece of corn
stalk flew into his eye, later inflammation set in followed by inability to see.
Dr. Wolffner found a film over the surface. This film was removed and later
Mucor corymbifer developed from it. It has been frequently found in ulcerated
portions of the lungs, intestines, nasal cavity, and in the auditory canal. Dogs
are immune.
The earliest recorded case of mucor in pneumonomycosis was made by
Furbringer, who had under observation three cases of a disease in two of which
he found a Mucor. According to Dr. H. C. Plaut, the cases of otomycosis are
not infrequent in India. According to Siebenmann it occurs in .5-1 percent in
all diseases of the ear, and males, especially farmers and gardeners, are more
predisposed than females. According to Hatch and Row, ear mycosis is com-
mon in India, they having observed 22 cases in one month. The most common
fungi found in the ear are Verticillium graphti, Aspergillus fumigatus, A. niger,
and A. flavus. A. nidulans is somewhat rare, as is Mucor septatus, The
Aspergilli will be treated more at length in another connection.
200 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Fig. 43. Black Mould, Mucor’ rhizopodiformis.
Branched conidiophores, large columella and discharged
spores around the same. After Lichtheim.
Mucor Trichisi, Lucet and Costantin
This differs from M. corymbifer in a few characteristics of sufficient im-
portance to cause Lucet and Costantin to consider it a distinct species, M.
Trichisi having larger spores which are 4 «# in diameter and sporangia 35 #
in diameter. It was isolated from epidermal scabs appearing on a horse affected
with tinea, produced by Trichophyton minimum. The M. Regnieri described
by the same authors is similar to the preceding.
Mucor rhizopodiformis, F. Cohn
Mycelium at first snow-white then gray, conidiophore single or clustered,
brownish, 125 » long, small rhizoid processes, columella broad, constricted at
the base; sporangia spherical, at maturity blackish, spores spherical colorless,
5-6 » in diameter. Closely allied to M. stolonifer or M. inaequalis.
Distribution. Not uncommon on bread in Europe.
Pathogenic properties. Pathogenic like the preceding. When introduced
into the circulation of guinea pigs it produces inflammation and the tissues of
the spleen, liver and intestines are found to contain the mycelium of the fungus.
The animal becomes inactive, lies on its side and drops its head. Small masses
of the mycelium may be found in the kidneys.
Mucor pusillus, Lindt.
Mycelium spreading, with numerous chlamydospores which are capable of
germination; conidiophores generally branched; sporangia spherical, brownish,
30-40 » in diameter; spores ellipsoidal or spherical, 5-8 » long, 3-5 » in diameter ;
columella pear-shaped; zygospores seldom produced, spherical, 70-84 » in dia-
meter, roughened, chlamydospores abundantly produced: species capable of
changing cane sugar into invert sugar, producing the ferment invertase.
Distribution, and hosts. Widely distributed in both Europe and North
America, occurring on various decaying objects.
EUTHALLEPHYTA—EUMYCETES—MOULD 201
|
Fig. 44. Mucor racemosus. Frag- Fig. 45. Mould. Mucor race-
ment of mycelium, which has under- mosus. 1. Branched sporophore or
gone conversion into chains of oidia conidiophore x 80. 2. Optical sec-
x 120. After Brefeld. tion of sporangium x 300. After
Brefeld.
Pathogenic properties. Said to be pathogenic for various birds but Pierre
Savouré, after some extensive experiments thinks that it plays no part in
disease. It was not pathogenic for rabbits and guinea pigs. Bollinger states
that it occurs in the respiratory tract of birds where it produces mucormy-
cosis. It has been observed in cutaneous lesions in cavalry horses in France,
although culture did not yield this fungus but yielded a trichophyte instead.
Mucor ramosus, Lindt.
Mycelium spreading in the substratum, small, branched, at first white then
becoming grayish-white; sporangia black, spherical with marginal spines 60-80
in diameter; columella ovate, light brown, 50 # wide; spores somewhat spheri-
cal, 3-3.5 » in diameter, colorless.
Distribution and Habitat. Found in Europe, not abundant.
Pathogenic properties. Pathogenic for birds. Grows only at a temperature
of blood, minimum 20-25° C., maximum 50-58°, optimum 45°,
Mucor ramosus, Lindt
Mycelium branching, abundant in the substratum and superficial conid-
iophores 5-15 « wide; sporangia blackish, membrane but slightly colored, 70 »
in diameter; columella rounded at the end or blunt; spores colorless, with
delicate membrane, smooth, 3 to 4 u x 5-6 m. This resembles M. corymbifer
except in the character of the spores.
Pathogenic properties. Pathogenic for guinea pigs, death occurring in 30 to
36 hours.
202 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS ‘
Mucor septatus, Siebenmann.
Mycelium at first white, later grayish; sporangia light yellowish brown,
sporangia small; colmuella colorless; conidiophore branched; spores small 2.5
in diameter.
Distribution and Habitat. Found in Europe.
Pathogenic properties. Pathogenic for human beings, found in the ear.
Mucor equinus. (Costantin and Lucet), Pammel
Mycelium branched, at first white or whitish, floccose with simple pedicels
withous rhizoid processes, erect or suberect, becoming fascicled, hyphae 8-12 #
in diameter; columella spherical or subspherical 20-50 in diameter; spore
roundish or slightly angular smooth 4 u in diameter, chlamydospores numerous
especially at blood temperatures.
Distribution. First found in Europe.
Pathogenic properties. Found in horses. Guinea pigs and rabbits inoculat-
ed peritoneally die on the 5th or 6th day.
Mucor parasiticus (Lacet and Costantin), Pammel.
Mycelium spreading, branched, brownish fawn color producing stolons and
rhizoids; sporangia-bearing peduncles branched; conidiophores 12 to 14 » wide
1-2 cm. long; columella ovoid pyriform slightly brownish 7-30 « high; sporangia
8 to 37 w; lateral sporangia similar but smaller. Grows readily in nutrient
media. ‘The rhizoids sink into the substance, the simple conidiophores rise from
the rhizoids. Lucet and Costantin placed this species in a new genus Rhizomucor.
Pathogenic properties. It is essentially parasitic and was isolated from
Fig. 46. ntomopthoraceae. 1-6. Empusa sphaerosperma. 1. Larvae of Cabbage But-
terfly. 2. Sectional view. 3. Conidiophores and conidia x 300. 4. Conidium, x 600.
5. Mycelium with zygospores x 350. 6. Single zygospore x 600. 7-12. Conidiobolus
utriculosus; found on the gelatinous fungi like the Jew’s Ear (Auricularia). 7. Conidio-
phore x 80. 8-9. Same, much enlarged. 9. Discharging conidium .10-12, Fertilization
and forming zygospore. After Brefeld.
RUTHALLEPHYTA—EBUMYCETES—MOULD 203
the sputum of a tubercular patient. It is pathogenic for rabbits and guinea
pigs when inoculated. Lucet and Costantin think that cases of mucormycosis
are more frequent than generally supposed. Meyer seems to have made the
first observation of a Mucor in animals having observed it in the lungs of a
jay. Heisinger in 1821 found a Mucor in the lungs of a goose.
Fig. 47. Fly Fungus. Empusa Muscae. 1. Empusa on fly surrounded by a halo.
2. Part of body of fly; general fructifying part (t); conidia (c) and secondary conidia
x 80. 3. Fuliy formed conidiophore with conidium (c) and vacuole (v) x 300. 4. Tubular
conidiophore projecting a conidium (c) surrounded by part of the plasma (g) of the con-
idiophore. 5. Conidium (c) with a secondary conidium (sc). 6. Conidium (c) forming a
mycelium tube 300. 7. Secondary conidium (c) germinating x 300. & Part of chitin-
ous integument of fly with conidium (c) penetrating the integument x 500. 9. Fatty bodies
of fly containing mycelium of parasite x 300. 10. Yeast-like sprouting cells (c) from the
fatty bodies of a fly x 500. After Brefeld.
204 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
ENTOMOPH THORACEAE
Mycelium abundant, generally parasitic on living insects; multi-nucleate,
non-septate or may become septate; asexual reproduction by means of conidia
which are cut off from the end of the sporophore; conidium with one or many
nuclei; conidia forcibly ejected; sexual reproduction by means of zygospore;
azygospores without fertilization also frequent. One of the most common
species of this family is the House Fly Fungus Empusa Muscae. Empusa
sphaerosperma is found on the larvae of Cabbage butterfly; &. Grylli is on the
Rocky Mountain Locust and the Macrospora cicadina is found on the Cicada.
Basidiobolus ranarum occurs on frog excrement.
Fig. 48. Peronosporaceae. White Rust. Albugo canida. 1. Inflorescence of Shepherd’s
Purse with fungus. 2. Mycelium with haustoria (h) x 390. 3. Conidiophores and conidia
(spores) in chains x 400. 4 and 5. Formation of zoospores in conidia x 400. 7. Oogonium
(0) and antheridium (a) attached, mycelium shown below. 8. Oospore with thick wall.
9. Germinating oospore forming a zoosporangium. 10. Zoospore. 7-10x400. 6. Ger-
minating Zoospore. After DeBary.
OOMYCETES
Mycelium occasionally sparingly developed, tubular, asexual; reproduction
by swarm spores or conidia; sexual by the formation of oospores in the
Peronosporaceae and Saprolegniaceae.
Synchitrium has a much reduced mycelium. Sexual reproduction found
only in some of the genera of the family Chytridiaceae. ‘The non-septate
mycelium is reduced to a single sac shaped cell forming a kind of gall in the
host plant. One species of Synchytrium, the S. decipiens, occurs on the Hog-pea
(Amphicarpaea monoica).
The family Pythiaceae contains a destructive parasite of seedlings, the
Pythium DeBaryanum and the P. proliferum upon dead insects in water.
ALBUGINACEAEK AND PERONOSPORACEAE
Mycelium generally well developed. Reproduction sexual and asexual; in
sexual reproduction oogonia and antheridia; asexual spores, conidia, or zoo-
spores.
EUTHALLEPHYTA—EUM YCETES—OOMYCETES — 205
Many members of this group are destructive parasites to cultivated plants
like the potato rot fungus (Phytopthora infestans), the onion mildew (Peron-
ospora Schleideniana), the lettuce mildew (Bremia Lactucae), the mildew of
the sunflower (Plasmopara Halstedii), the Clover mildew (Peronospora tri-
foliorum) which may be injurious to animals, the millet mildew (Sclerospora
graininicola) which may also be injurious. As a type of this family the
downy mildew of the grape (Plasmopara viticola) may be taken. It appears
during the early summer and continues till frost. Leaves, berries and stem
are affected. The upper surface of the leaf shows yellow patches, underneath
a white frosty mould. A section through the leaf will show the mycelium
vegetating between the cells. The mycelium gives rise to the fruiting branches
of the fungus, the conidiophores, which pass out through the stomata. The
conidiophores are dichotomously branched, and at their ends bear the conidia.
When these conidia are placed in water they begin to change, at the end of an
hour, they swell and the contents divide. According to Dr. Farlow “at the
expiration of an hour and a quarter the segments had resolved themselves into
a number of oval bodies” which before long succeeded in rupturing the cell-
wall and making their escape from the mother cell. Each of these zoospores
is provided with two cilia. In some, zoospores are not produced, but the whole
mass passes out, which soon produces a tube. The zoospores produce germ
tubes which probably pierce the leaf of the grape. The temperature most favor-
able for germination is between 25° and 35° C. Inoculation experiments with
the grape vine mildew show that on the second day the disease appears. Sexual
method of reproduction takes place later in the season and occurs in the leaf.
A slight swelling appears at the ends of the branches of the mycelium, which
is spherical in shape, the cell-wall being thick and pale yellow in color. The
whole rounded mass is called the oogonitm. The central part is the oosphere.
A small-body is developed from another (or the same thread) which lies along-
i Fig. 49. 1. Downy Mildew. Peronospora calotheca. Mycelium between the cells send-
ing haustoria into the cells, x 390. 2. Potato Rot Fungus (Phytophthora infestans),
conidiophores, conidia horne on the branches. 3. Single conidium forming, zoosporangium
and the zoospores. 4. Discharge of zoospores. 5. Single ciliated zoospore. 6. Oogonium
(0) and antheridium (a). 7. Oospore and antheridium (a) of Peronospora alsinearum x 390.
s. Conidiophore and conidia of Basidiophora entospora found on leaves of Erigeron x 200.
9. Germinating conidia of Bremia Lactucae (the Lettuce Downy Mildew). 10. Conidium
of Peronospora leptosperma germinating x 300. 1-7 9-10 after DeBary, 8 after Cornu.
206 MANUAL OF POISONOUS: PLANTS
side of the oogonium; the antheridium. This pierces the oogonium and the
protoplasm of the antheridium passes into the oosphere.
In the species that have been studied like Peronospora parasitica, and Al-
bugo candida, the oosphere or egg cell contains a single nucleus, situated about
at the center, the remaining nuclei having passed into the peripheral layer of the
protoplasm of the periplasm.
A single male nucleus passes from the antheridium into the egg cell and
fuses with the nucleus of the egg cell. Numerous investigations in this line
have been made by Stevens,* Berlese,t and Wager.t It is probable that the
course of reproduction is similar for other species.
In fertilization karyokinetic changes occur. The protoplasm surrounding
the oosphere is used to build up the wall of the oospore. Germination of
oospore probably takes place in the spring. In Albugo or Cystopus the conidia
are borne in a moniliform chain.
Fig. 50. Downy Mildew of Clover (Peronospora
trifoliorum). a. Conidiophore. c. Stoma. b. Con-
idium; common in Europe on Red Clover, may be in-
jurious to animals. After Smith
* Bot. Gaz. 28:149; 23:77; 34:420.
+ Jahrb. f. wiss. Bot. 31:159.
Annals of Bot. 4:127; 14:263.
—
Pe
EUTHALLEPHYTA—EUMYCETES--OOMYCETES 207
Fig. 51. At the left, leaf of Green Foxtail (Setarta viridis),
containing the oospores of Sclerospora graminicola, a single spore
at a. After Trelease. At the right, spike affected by the same
fungus; b spikelet enlarged. The figure at the right, oospores from
Hungarian grass; oog—Oogonium, oos—oosphere; oo—Oospore.
The middle figure, Halsted; the right hand, Charlotte M. King.
208 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
In some forms the oospores are rare, and in the potato rot fungus they
have apparently not been found. In some members of this group oospores are
formed without fertilization, (Parthenogenesis).
Dr. G. P. Clinton,* who has made a careful study of the Lima Bean Mil-
dew (Phytopthora Phaseoli) and the potato rot fungus (Ph. infestans) has
been unable to find that the mycelial thread of the antheridium had the same
origin as the one which bears the oogonium. It is possible that the fertiliza-
tion is accomplished in a manner similar to that given for some of the Mucors.
He says in a discussion of the potato rot fungus, “All of these facts are now in
favor, rather than against distinct mycelial strains (heterothallic forms) except
the last, which might indicate a homothallic form, one which contains both
antheridia on the same mycelium.”
SAPROLEGNIACEAE
Hyphae, long branched, undivided; zoosporangia cylindrical oospores pro-
duced from sexual organs, terminal cells are cut off and converted into either
Fig. 52. Saprolegniaceae. Water Mould. 1-3. Saprolegnia Thureti x 200. 1. Zoo-
sporangium before the discharge of spores. 2. Same with biciliated spores being dis-
charged. 3. The large spherical body, an oogonium and many oospores. 4._ Dictyuchus
clavatus, o—oogonium, a—antheridium. 5. Aphanes Braunii, zoosporangium with germinat-
ing zoospores. 6. Aphanomyces stellatus: o—oogonium and a—antheridium x 390. 7.-9.
Leptomitus lacteus. 7. Young zoosporangium x 200. 8. Part of older zoosporangium with
zoospores (sp) and cellulose grains (c) x 300. 9. Zoospores x 430. Fig. 1-3 after Thuret.
4-6 after DeBary. 7-9 after Pringsheim.
*Rep. Con. Agrl. Exp. Sta. 1905: 304.
SS Ss
EKUTHALLEPHYTA—EUM YCETES—OOMYCETES 209
oogonia or antheridia. The oogonia may give rise to one or many oospheres or
egg cells. The antheridia are tubular and spring from the hyphae below the
oogonia. They apply themselves to the oogonia and send out fertilization
tubes to the egg cells. The latter then develop into oospores. The asexual
method occurs as follows: An examination of the young threads of Saprolegnia
will show long filaments which in places are filled with granular protoplasm.
Some of these threads are separated from the rest of thread by a cell-wall.
Soon the protoplasm arranges itself into polygonal areas. When mature the
sporangium breaks and the zoospores are discharged into the water. When
emptied a new sporangium is formed by the filament growing up into the old
one, or in some cases a branch buds out below the oogonium.
Recent investigations indicate that the egg cell contains numerous nuclei,
but as a general thing they are all degenerate but one. The antheridia also
contain many nuclei. According to the investigations of some, one male nucleus
enters the egg cell and fuses with its nucleus.
Trow,* Davis,t and Kauffman =~ have thrown light upon the development of
the reproductive body.
Saprolegnia. Nees von Esenbeck. Water mould
Delicate branching hyphae, zoosporangia open from a terminal pore, zoo-
spores pear-shaped with 2 terminal cilia. About 11 species common on decaying
objects in water.
Saprolegnia monoica (Pringsheim) De Bary
Zoosporangia cylindrical; antheridia usually in close proximity to the
oogonia frequently originating from the same branch; oogonia from short
lateral branches; oospore spherical 16 to 22 » in diameter, germ tube formed
in germination.
Distribution. Widely distributed in North America and Europe.
Pathogenic properties. Occurs on dead insects thrown into the water, par-
asitic on living fish and crayfish. Frequently troublesome in aquaria. The S.
Thureti, DeBary and Achlya prolifera are found on sick fish and crayfish. Hoff-
mann in 1867 stated that fish in aquaria died under the influence of Mucor
mucedo and Saprolegnia.
It is doubtful, however whether the Mucor produced death.
BASIDIOMYCETES
Conidiophores arise from a many-celled, well developed mycelium, hyphae
either separate or forming masses; texture soft, powdery or leathery; the
spores various, in the most common type, the basidiospore is borne on special
structures known as basidia, from which arise little bodies called sterigmata into
which some of the protoplasm of the basidium passes. In one group the mycel-
ium consists of septate, branched threads, at maturity nearly disappearing be-
cause of gelatinization; mycelium gives rise to chlamydospores formed en-
dogenously; reproduction sexual and asexual, usually the latter; comprises
the sub-classes, Hemibasidii and the Eubasidii.
* Annals of Botany. 18:541.
7 Bot. Gaz. 353233:
t Ann. of Bot. 22:361.
210 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Hemibasidii
Mycelium, local or wide-spread, hyaline, septate, branched, becoming com-
pact and giving rise to endogenous spores; the chlamydospores; color varies,
in germination the spores produce a promycelium of terminal or lateral sporidia.
These may propagate by budding like the yeast plant. The families are Ustila-
ginaceae and Tilletiaceae.
HEMIBASIDIALES
This includes two families mentioned in the Hemibasidii.
USTILAGINACEAE, Schrot
Usually parasitic fungi in the tissues of living plants; sori usually exposed,
forming dusty masses; spores germinate by means of the septate promycelium
which gives rise to terminal or lateral sporidia. In some cases, these multiply
like the yeast plant, or else produce infection threads. The order contains about
300 species, with the following genera in North America: Ustilago, Sphacelotheca,
Melanopsichium, Cintractia, Schizonella, Mykosyrinx, Sorosporiun, Thecaphora,
Tolyposporium, Tolyposporella, Testicularia. Many plants of the order are
destructive parasites occurring upon economic plants like millet, timothy, pink,
etc., and one species, the Ustilago esculenta on Zizania latifolia is edible, being
used by the Japanese for food.
Ustilago, Pers. Smuts
Mycelium septate, branched, gelatinous, sori on various parts of the host,
at maturity dusty, usually dark colored; spores single produced in the fertile
threads of the mycelium, the latter entirely disappearing at maturity; promycel-
ium septate, sporidia terminal or lateral, producing infection threads; secondary
spores formed in the manner of yeast in nutrient solutions. The largest genus
of smuts. About 250 or 260 species. Many of them are destructive parasites
on cultivated and wild plants.
The Ustilago minima occurs upon the porcupine grass, (Stipa spartea), and
the Ustilago bromivora upon the brome grass.
Ustilago Zeae. (Beck). Ung. Corn Smut
Sori in the female or staminate inflorescence, leaves and nodes usually
forming irregular swellings of variable size; at first covered by a membrane
consisting of the gelatinized threads and tissues of the plant; soon rupturing,
which exposes the blackish or brownish spores; spores sub-globose or spherical
or irregular; echinulate 8-11 # or sometimes 15 m« long; spores germinate readily
under favorable conditions; spore consists of an outer wall, which is spiny,
and an inner more delicate, the endospore; the germ tube or promycelium as it
is called, normally bears lateral bodies, the sporidia, but under more favorable
conditions of food these may branch and bear secondary conidia. If the nutrient
material is not exhausted this process of budding may be continued for a long
time. These spores may propagate in a decoction of manure. It will then be
seen that these budding conidia may be a center of infection.
The conidia as well as the secondary conidia are blown about by the wind
and under proper conditions cause the infection of the corn plant. Several
years ago Mr. F. C. Stewart made some extended studies of the germination
of corn smut in which it was shown that the thermal death point of smut
EUTHALLEPHYTA—EUMYCETES—SMUTS 211
Fig. 53. Maize smut (Ustilago zeae). Eat affected. c. Bracts. e. Smut boils. r.
Kernels. 1. In staminate flowers. Fig. 54. Smut boil making its appearance at the nodes.
(C. M. King). 2. Foxtail Smut (U. neglecta). 3. Covered Smut of Barley (U. Hordet).
bdo
—
bo
MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
1 3
Fig. 55. 1. Maize Smut (Ustilago zeae). Cells showing thread of mycelium passing
from cell to cell; (a) thread shows through; (b) section of cut sheath and thread. 2. Corn
Smut, Spores in process of germination; each spore is sending out a tube with small lateral
bodies. 3. ‘The same, spores germinating in nutrient solution sprouting like yeast. From
U. S. Dept. Agr. 4. Kernel Smut of Sorghum (Sphacelotheca Svrehi) on Sorghum.
EUTHALLEPHYTA—EUMYCETES—SMUTS 213
spores is 15 min. 105°-106° C. in dry oven, and 52° C. when immersed in water;
and that corn is unable to come through an inch of soil after 15 minutes treat-
ment with water at 70.5° C., and in dry oven at 78° C. Brefeld found that
smut spores produced an abundance of secondary conidia when they were ger-
minated in sugar solution, but with us this has never been a very satisfactory
method of propagating them as the cultures soon became infected with bacteria
which materially check the progress of the germination of spores.
Distribution and Hosts: Corn smut is found from the Atlantic to the
Pacific wherever corn is cultivated, also in other parts of the world. In addi-
tion to occurring upon corn, it is found upon teosinte.
Poisonous properties. It has been held by many that corn smut is injurious
to cattle. This has been a common belief in some quarters. In some kinds
of smut a small amount of ergotin is found. Kedsie reports the following
composition: Moisture, 8.30 per cent; albuminoids, 13.06 per cent; carbohy-
drates, 25.60 per cent; cellulose, 24.69 per cent; sugar, 4 per cent; fat, 1.35
per cent; ash, much sand, 25.5 per cent. Professor Kedsie was unable to find
any poisonous alkaloids. In 1868, the United States department of agriculture
employed Professor Gamgee to ascertain the cause of the cornstalk disease
Professor Gamgee records his experiences as follows and concludes that smut
is not injurious:
One cow was fed thrice daily one and one-half pounds of cornmeal and three ounces
of smut, mixed with as much cut hay as she would eat. The second had the same allow-
ance, but wet. The amount of smut given in each case was increased to six ounces. The
cow fed on dry food lost flesh. Eight days later the dose of smut was increased to twelve
ounces three times a day. The cow on the wet food gained in condition, the other one lost.
In three weeks the two cows consumed the forty-two pounds of smut. ‘They had a voracious
appetite the whole time, and the only indication of a peculiar diet was a very black color
of the excrement and the loss of flesh by one animal, although liberally fed on nutritious
diet, which, however, was given in a dry state. It is evident that smut is not a very active
poison in combination with wholesome food, and especially if the animal is allowed moist food.
and plenty of water to drink.
Prof. W. A. Henry, in his work on “Feeds and Feeding” speaking of work
done by the Bureau of Animal Industry, Clinton D. Smith and Gamgee, says:
In experiments by the Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture,
Washington, corn smut was fed to heifers without ill effects. With all the trials but one
ending without disaster, it seems reasonable to conclude that corn smut is at least not a
virulent poison, if, indeed, it is one in any sense of the word. It is probable that in the
Wisconsin cases, where one cow died and the other was indisposed, the animals suffered
because of eating too much highly nitrogenous material rather than anything poisonous.
Wiorse results might have followed the feeding of the same volume of corn meal or cotton
seed meal. It would seem that there is little or no danger from corn smut unless cattle:
consume a large quantity. This is possible where they are allowed to roam through stock
fields and gather what they will. There may be cases where animals seek out the smut
and eat inordinately of it.
A few years ago Prof. Smith of the Michigan Agricultural College gave
the results of some experiments with corn smut. Varying amounts of smut were
fed to three grade Shorthorn cows and one grade Jersey. Two of the cows
were started with two ounces a day and increased to eleven pounds. ‘Two others
were started with two ounces and increased to a pound. The test lasted
forty-nine days. They appeared to relish the smut. It produced no signs of
abortion in pregnant cows, the milk yield was normal. Prof. Smith concludes
that the smut in corn fields is not likely to prove injurious.
Beal states that under certain conditions smut is likely to be injurious to
©
e
&
a8
ain
Fig. 55a. 1. Sprouting Grass Smut (Ustilago panici-miliacei) showing large swelling in
upper part of plant. C. M. King. 2. Millet smut (Ustilago Crameri). a, spores; 6, glumes
of millet grains filled with a powdery mass of spores. C. M. King. 3. Kernel of smut
corn (Ustilago Fischeri) on maize. Spores at right. Below a sectional view of an affected
kernel. Pammel and King.
cattle. The experiments made by Moore also indicate, as do those of Smith,
that smut is not injurious.
Beginning on the morning of January 17, 1894, and continuing until noon
of February 2 (sixteen and one-half days), the heifers were fed morning and
evening from two to three quarts of a mixture of equal parts by weight of cut
hay and a mixture of corn meal, middlings and wheat bran, and sixteen quarts
of smut. No injurious affects were observed by Moore. It seems reasonable
to conclude from these experiments that under proper conditions corn smut is
not injurious. In our experience no cases have ever been reported to us where
cattle were supposed to have died from eating corn smut.
Professors Veranus A. Moore and Theobald Smith after making an ex-
haustive investigation of the so-called corn stalk disease, came to the conclusion
that “corn smut is probably not very poisonous, but when fed in considerable
quantity no doubt produces injurious symptoms.” Miquel in an old work on
poisonous plants published in 1838 in Dutch regarded the smuts as poisonous.
Dr. Peters of the University of Nebraska, makes the following comments
on the subject of corn smut:
At a Farmers’ Institute at David City a gentleman stated that he had often heard his
neighbors say, and he had also read the same in agricultural papers, that cornstalk disease
was caused by corn smut. He had the opportunity to make the test for himself. He was
compelled to clear the farm he rented of the smut. His son gathered the smutty stalks
into a yard where two cows ate considerable of the smutty leaves. No bad results followed,
as witnessed by the gentleman himself and the owner of the place.
EUTHALLEPHYTA—EUMYCETES—SMUTS 205
Mr. J. J. Jolliffe in the Drovers’ Journal of February 7, 1902, says:
I have never had any bad results from smut. I have watched the stock eat ears that
seemed 75 percent smut, and they devoured them apparently with as much avidity as sound
ears, never affecting the health or appetite in the least.
We have seen cattle die in fields where there was no smut whatever on the stalks and
also in some fields that had previously been cleaned as good as one could clean them from
this smut; the cattle died in spite of this precaution. Often the owner of the neighboring:
fields, in which large quantities of smut were found, did not believe this theory and allowed
his cattle to run in the stalks promiscuously without suffering any losses.
At the Illinois Experiment Station about sixty pounds of corn smut were
fed to a grade Jersey steer, with grain and hay as follows:
From December 13, 1889, to January 2, 1890, 120 pounds of grain, 105 pounds of hay,
20 pounds of smut, and 371 pounds of water were given. From January 2 to January 24,
1890, 176 pounds of grain, 135 pounds of hay, and 39 pounds of smut were fed and 366
pounds of water given. When the experiment was begun, December 13, 1889, the steer
weighed 560 pounds. January 2, 1890, he weighed 551 pounds, and January 24, 555 pounds.
No evidence of disease was discovered.
Dr. Kilborne records two experiments to test the effects of corn smut.
In the first case the smut used came from a field in which several animals had
died within five days after they had been turned into it. Three two-year-old
steers were fed exclusively on smut-laden stalks and free smut mixed with a
small quantity of a mixture of corn meal and wheat bran, for seven days with-
out ill effects. He concludes: “It is safe to say that these animals consumed
a much greater quantity of smut than the animals which died in the fields.”
In the second case, two heifers were fed in addition to corn and hay, sixteen
quarts of smut morning and evening for sixteen and a half days. This feeding
continued for several months. The animals appeared healthy at the termination
of the experiment.
Dr. N. S. Mayo records the experience of a farmer near Manhattan, who
gathered the smut from the field and placed it within an enclosure. The cattle
broke into the enclosure one night where the smutty corn was thrown and ate
all they wished, but no injurious effects were observed.
Ustilago avenae (Pers.) Jens. Oat Smut
Sori found in the spikelets forming a dusty olive brown mass, usually
destroying the whole of the inflorescence or only a part; the spore mass at first
covered by a membrane which later breaks, thus allowing for the scattering
of the spores; spores olive brown, lighter colored on one side, spherical to sub-
spherical or somewhat angular, minutely roughened, 6-9 » in length. Spores
germinate readily in water; infection takes place at the time of germination
of the oats.
Distribution and hosts. Found wherever oats (Avena sativa) is cultivated
also on wild oats, (A. fatua).
Poisonous properties. Probably not any more injurious than corn smut.
When present in large quantities it may produce a sore throat, because of
irritation. This fact is mentioned by White. The following note from Dr.
White refers to another species found upon grass:
The inflammation affects almost exclusively the face and genitals. It begins upon the
former with a violent itching in about twenty-four hours after contact with the reeds, which
is followed by a uniform redness, especially marked about the orifices, and swelling of the
eyelids. The appearance of the patient strongly resembles that of erysipelas. Later small
vesicles develop, terminating in persistent excoriations.
Upon the male genitals it begins also with itching, followed by general swelling, with
intense redness of the scrotum, and later by vesicles filled with a yellow serum, terminating
216 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
A
Fig. 56. A. Oat Smut (Ustilago avenae). From U. S. Dept. of Agrl. B. Tall
Meadow Oat Smut (Ustilago perennans).
Fig. 56a. Porcupine Grass Smut (Ustilago hypodites) affecting parts of inflorescence
and culm; a, spores, said by Dr. White to be an irritant. C. M. King.
EUTHALLEPHYTA—EUMYCETES—SMUTS oe
in persistent and very painful erosions. The penis is sometimes affected, producing an
inflammatory phimosis.
Delicate skins are most easily affected, and a moist condition favors the action of the
parasite. Similar effects were produced upon the skin of the rabbit, by applying to it
after being shaved some of the fungus removed from the reeds.
“After reading the above, I wrote to Prof. W. G. Farlow of Cambridge, our authority
in erytogamic botany, with regard to the occurrence of this species in America, and received
the following reply:”
Your information about the poisonous character of Ustilago hypodites is something quite
new to me. I do not know of any reference to the subject in botanical books. The spores
of Ustilagineae are known to be at times irritants when they reach the air-passages, but
they are not poisonous to handle. U. hypodites, a species whose characters are not very
well marked, I may say, has been found in two places in this country. J found it at
Wood’s Holl, Mass., on Phragmites (reed). It was found by Curtis in North Carolina on
Arundinaria, the cane, and what is probably the same species occurs in Iowa on a species of
Stipa. ‘The fungus may be much more common in this country than is now supposed, as few
persons have collected fungi of this order.
Ustilago maydis, the corn-smut, grows upon our maize, and U. segetum attacks several
of our grains, wheat, oats, barley, and our grasses; but I have never heard of their pro-
ducing any irritative action upon the skin.”
Ustilago nuda (Jens.) Kell. & Sw. Barley Smut
Mycelium found in spikelets forming a dusty olive brown spore mass, pro-
tected by a thin membrane which soon becomes ruptured and allows for the
dispersal of the spores. Spores lighter colored on one side, minutely roughened,
spherical, subspherical or elongated; 5-9 » in length. Infection probably takes
place at the time of flowering of barley.
Poisonous properties. Like the preceding. Ustilago Hordei, found upon
barley, differs from the species described because of an adhering purple black
spore mass covered permanently by the lower parts of the glumes.
Distribution and hosts. Found wherever barley is cultivated in Europe and
North America.
Ustilago Tritici (Pers.) Jens. Wheat Smut
Spore masses found in the spikelets of the inflorescence forming black or
olive brown mass; usually destroying the entire floral parts, and later spores
are scattered by the wind; spores usually spherical or nearly spherical or
somewhat elongated, minutely roughened, 5-9 » in length.
Distribution and hosts. Common upon wheat wherever cultivated in Eu-
rope, Australia and North America and South America.
Poisonous properties. Probably injurious like the preceding smuts.
Ustilago Panici-glauci (Wallr.) Wint.
Sori in spikelets infecting all the spikes; spore masses enclosed by glumes,
with a rather firm membrane; soon ruptured, permitting the scattering of the
spores; spores dark brown, usually spherical or ovoid, occasionally elongated,
rather prominently echinulate, 10-14 » in length.
Distribution. Widely distributed in Europe and North America. One of
the most common smuts wherever foxtail grows.
Poisonous properties. It is supposed by some farmers to cause abortion
but there is nothing to support this view. According to Professor Power it
contains a small amount of ergotin. Possibly injurious like the other species
of smut.
18
MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Fig. 57. Smut spores of various kinds. 1. ‘Tall meadow
oat smut (Ustilago perennans). 2. Timothy smut (U. striae-
w
formis). Rye smut (Urocystis occulta). 4. Cheat smut
(Ustilago bromivora). 5. Foxtail smut (U. neglecta). 6. Mil-
et smut (U. panict miliacei). 7. Sandbur smut (U. Cesatit).
8, 9. Tilletia germinating. 10. Secondary spores from conid-
ia. 11, 12. Urocystis spores germinating. 13, 14. Mycelium
of same. h. -Suckers or haustoria. kh. Uyphae passing from
one leaf to another. 8-14 after Wolff.
EUTHALLEPHYTA—EUMYCETES—SMUTS 219
Mr. W. A. Kelty informs me that the smartweed smut (Ustilago utriculosa)
often produces severe irritation of the hands when corn is husked.
TILLETIACEAE, Schrot
Mycelium becoming gelatinized in the tissues; the promycelium gives rise to
the terminal cluster of elongated sporidia which fuse or do not fuse in pairs,
producing secondary sporidia which may be alike or unlike, or the sporidia
germinate directly into infection threads. About 150 species, of which Tilletia
is the most important genus; aside from the two species described below one
species, 7. secalis is found upon rye, T. hordei upon barley,, etc., Neovossia
Towensis on Phragmites communis, Urocystis occulta on rye, Urocystis agropyri
upon quack grass, and Entyloma ranunculi upon anemone.
Fig. 58. Wheat Bunt (Tilletia foetens). At the left, a beardless variety with bunt
kernels. At the right, a bearded variety with bunt kernels. From U. S. Dept. Agrl.
Tilletia, Tul. Bunt
Sori in various parts of the plant, usually in the ovaries, forming a dusty
spore mass; spores 1-celled, formed singly in the ends of the mycelial threads,
promycelium of germinating spore short with a terminal cluster of elongated
sporidia. 53 species are reported for the genus.
Tilletia foetens (B. & C.) Trel. Stinking Smut or Bunt
Sori in the ovaries, wheat glumes more or less spreading; spores light to
dark brown, oblong or sub-spherical, or spherical or sometimes irregular,
220 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
16-20 » in diameter; bad odor just before maturity and retaining the odor even
in stored gram.
Distribution and hosts. Common in eastern North America, also in Canada
and Manitoba.
Poisonous properties. It produces a bad odor when it occurs in flour and
also gives the same a dark color and makes it unsalable.
Tilletia Tritici (Bjerk.) Wint. Wheat Bunt.
Sori in the ovaries of wheat ovate or oblong, glumes spreading; spores
chiefly spherical or sub-spherical; 16-22 » in diameter, light to dark brown
with winged reticulations. Infection of this and the preceding smut occurs
‘at the time of germination of wheat, hence all of the stalks growing from the
single wheat kernel become infected, mycelium growing upward with the growth
of the plant.
Distribution and: hosts. Common upon wheat wherever cultivated. Re-
ported as destructive and abundant in Michigan, Montana, and Kansas.
Poisonous properties. Same as in the preceding species.
Eubasidii
Conidiophores with true basidia; reproduction generally asexual, sexual in
some cases through the fusion of nuclei; spores cut off from the ends of the
threads or borne on little sterigmata. ‘The group is divided into two divisions
according to the form of the basidia: Protobasidiomycetes, the rusts and gela-
tinous fungi; Autobasidiomycetes, toad stools, mushrooms, and puff balls.
ord
Gieebidshie
ey ah AE
rele
Fig. 59. The Gelatinous Fungi. Tremellineae. 1. Tremella lutescens on wood. 2.
Cross section through hymenium, b—Basidia, c—Conidia, sp—Basidiospores, x 450. 3. Exidia,
truncata. 4. Tremellodon gelatinosum. 5. Basidia of the same x 560. 1-3 after Brefeld.
4-5 after Mueller.
EUTHALLEPHY TA—EUMYCETES—EUBASIDII 221
PROTOBASIDIOMYCETES
Parasitic or saprophytic plants; basidia with longitudinal or cross septa;
mycelium septate, branched, either in the interior of the plant as parasites or
ramifying the substratum; spores various. The following types occur: sper-
matia, aecidiospores, uredospores, teleutospores, and sporidia; the spermatia
are always accompanied by other spores, generally with the aecidiospores; the
aecidiospores are 1-celled and occur in cups; the uredospores are 1-celled, occur
in a powdery mass, and germinate immediately; teleutospores arise from the
same mycelium that produces the uredospores, one or more cells, on germina-
tion they produce a promycelium that bears the sporidia. This group contains
the following families: Endophyllaceae with a fungus parasitic on the leaves
of spurge, stonecrop and house-leek; Melampsoraceae including several important
economic fungi; Pucciniaceae containing a large number of genera; the Auri-
culariaceae, gelatinous fungi common on decaying wood.
MELAMPSORACEAE
Teleutosori forming incrustations on the surface of leaves; uredosori
powdery; aecidia without pseudoperidium (Caeoma) or with well developed
Fig. 60. Uredineae. ‘Teleutospores of different
genera germinating. By germination originate the
promycelia which divide into cells, each of
which produces a conidium. 1. Uromyces Fabae x
460. 2. Triphragmium Ulmariae x 370. 3. Mel-
ampsora betulina x 370. 4. Phragmidium Rubi x
370. t—Teleutospore; sp—Conidium. After Tulasne.
222 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
pseudoperidium; uredospores 1-celled occurring singly or in groups with or
without pseudoperidium; paraphyses present, teleutospores 1-4-celled, closely or
loosely united in the plant underneath the epidermis; Calyptospora Goeppertiana
occurs upon the huckleberry and blueberry, (Vaccinium) connected with the
Aecidium columnare, a very troublesome parasite upon Abies. The Melampsora
populina occurs on the cotton-wood, the cotton-wood rust forming red sori on
the leaf of the cotton-wood, with waxy incrustations. The other troublesome
parasite, the Chrysomyxa Rhododendri occurs upon Rhododendrum. ‘There are
about 100 species in the family.
Coleosporium, Lev.
Teleutosori forming flat waxy masses in the leaf; teleutospores composed
of several vertical cells enclosed in a thick transparent membrane; each cell
germinates by a single undivided promycelium which produces at the end a
single sporidium; uredosorus reddish or orange, powdery; spores spherical or
sub-spherical, ovate, elliptical, oblong or cylindrical, produced in basipetal chains.
A small genus of 30 species.
Coleosporium Solidaginis (Schw.) Thiim. Golden Rod Rust
Uredosori rounded, soon pulverulent and scattered, orange spores in short
chains, spherical, oblong, or sub-cylindrical spiny, 20-35 x 15-20 “; the teleu-
tosori at first orange, becoming red, flat often confluent forming waxy crusts;
Teleutospores cylindrical or somewhat clavate generally 4-celled 60-70x15x25 »,
occasionally longer.
Distribution and hosts. Found in various Compositae, notably Solidago
canadensis, S. serotina, etc., Vernonia noveboracensis and Sonchus. Occurs in
both Europe and America.
Poisonous properties. Suspected of being injurious to horses; possibly
produces stomatitis. Referred to at length under Golden Rod.
PUCCINIACEAE
Teleutospores with a short or long pedicel; spores single or im groups;
spores one or more celled; frequently interspersed with paraphyses; spore mass
powdery or gelatinous; sporidia arising either from the promycelium or from
a similar sterigma after segmentation of the spore contents; aecidia with or
without pseudoperidia; uredospores 1-celled, arising from the conidiophores.
Includes the Gymnosporangium macropus which produces its aecidium stage
on the apple and the teleuto stage on the red cedar, the cedar apple gall with
its long gelatinous horn being characteristic; and various aecidia connected
with various rusts. Many species have a well marked alternation of generation,
an aecidium on one host and the uredo and teleutospores on another host. The
Hemileia vastatrix produces the coffee leaf disease of Asia, Phragmidium sub-
corticum, the rose rust. This large family contains 1500 species.
Recent investigations on the subject of the fertilization and reproduction
in the rusts have been made by Profs. Olive, Blackman, Christman, Holden and
Harper, and others. These studies seem to indicate that fertilization occurs,
but that this fertilization is not, as was thought by the older writers, to be com-
pared with that which occurs in some of the Ascomycetes. The older view
was that the spermogonia were male organs and form a strictly morphological
standpoint comparable to the structures of like character found in that group of
j
:
220
EUTHALLEPHY TA—EUMYCETES—RUSTS
Teleutosori of Puccinia
Sheath af-
fected with Puccinia graminis.
Fig. 61a.
coronata on leaf of oats.
Uredosori of Tickle Grass
(Puccinia emaculata).
Fig. 61.
Rust.
224 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
plants. Clements arranges the rusts with the Ascomycetes. He considers that
the apothecium is reduced.**
Puccinia, Pers. Rust
Teleutosori flat, usually powdery masses; teleutospores separate with pedi-
cels, usually consisting of 2 cells, occasionally 1-celled, or sometimes more than
2 cells; the germ pore of the upper cell, at the apex, the lower cell with the
germ pore placed laterally below the septum; the promycelium septate with
several sporidia. The teleutospores germinate immediately in some species, in
others after a period of rest. About 700 species.
Puccinia graminis, Pers. Common Grass Rust
The aecidiospores generally circular, thick swollen with reddish spots sur-
rounding the infected area, yellow below; peridia cylindrical with whitish torn
edges; spores subglobose smooth orange yellow, 15-25 » in diameter; spermo-
gonia on the upper surface consisting of small black dots, uredosori orange red,
linear but often confluent, forming long lines, powdery masses; spore elliptical,
ovate or pyriform, echinulate, orange yellow 25-38 x 15-20 mu; germ pores 2
above the center on each side; teleutosori persistent; open, generally forming
lines on the sheaths, stems and inflorescence; teleutospores fusiform clavate
constricted in the middle generally smaller below the apex, thickened, rounded
or pointed smooth chestnut brown 15-20x 35-65 m; pedicels long and persistent.
The life history of common grass rust is as follows: ‘The common rust pro-
duces three stages. One stage occurs in the barberry and is known as the
cluster cup fungus. This stage makes its appearance in the northwest some
time during the month of June, in the latitude of Ames, a little before the
middle of the month. An examination of an affected leaf will show small black
specks on the upper surface, surrounded by a yellow spot; this is known as the
* The Genera of Fungi. 5. 98.
** Christman in his studies (Bot. Gaz. 39:267; Trans. Wis. Acad. Sci. 15:517; Bot.
Gaz. 44:18.) of the common rose rust (Phragmidium speciosum) finds that the ends of
the hyphae produce a terminal sterile cell and a lower fertile one; the fertile cells fuse in
pairs with one another, the cell walls breaking down. ‘The nuclei lie side by side and
divide, two of the daughter nuclei remaining in the lower part and two passing to the
upper part of the dividing cell. ‘Then the upper portion becomes separated by a_trans-
verse wall and becomes the first spore mother cell. These fusing cells are approximately
equal. Blackman (Ann. Bot. 18:323, See also Ann. Bot. 20:35.) in his studies of
another species of the same genus, states that the fertile or female cell contains a larger
nucleus and that the male cell is reduced; that the hyphae which gave rise to an aecidium
first cut off a sterile cell, and the cell below which at first only contains a single nucleus
becomes binucleated because of the passage of the nucleus from an adjoining cell. Suc-
cessive divisions of the nuclei occur and finally we have a chain of spore mother cells;
each having a pair of nuclei.
Dr. Olive (Annals of Bot. 22:331. Bull S. Dak. Agrl. Ex. 81:119) who has made
a close careful study of Triphragmium ulmariae comes to the conclusion that two fusing
gamets as well as their nuclei are approximately equal, and that the two gamets differ
somewhat in time of development. ‘That the apparently normal and regular occurence
at the base of certain young aecidia of one to many multinucleated cells, points to the
necessity of a broader conception as to the mode of development of the aecidium-cup than
that held by either Blackman or Christman. While the part which these multinucleated
cells take in the development of the aecidium is as yet somewhat obscure, the evidence
appears to point to the conclusion that they are sporophytic structures and that they result
from the stimulated growth which followed sexual cell fusions. Should this prove true,
it is obvious that the ‘fusion cell’ does not at once function as a ‘basal cell’, at the bot-
tom of each spore-row, as maintained by Christman for this type of Rust. Further, the
occurrence of occasional instances suggesting ‘nuclear migrations,’ undoubtedly of a path-
ological nature, between the multinucleated cells of Puccinia Cirsti-lanceolati, throws doubt
on the idea as to the normal origin of the binucleated condition in the aecidium-cup by
this means.”
It may be of interest further to state that Holden and Harper (Trans. Wis. Acad.
Sci. 14:63.) have studied a species of Coleosporium and find that the fusion nucleus divides
in a manner similar to that of higher plants,
EUTHALLEPHYTA—EUM YCETES—RUSTS 2
bo
on
Fig. 62. Some Rusts. 4, B. D. E.
Puccinia graminis. A. Aecidium or
Cluster-cup on Barberry; a aecidium,
Ss spermogonia on upper surface. B.
Uredo spores; u one-celled, teleuto-
spores two-celled. C. Germination of
uredospores showing long tube. D.
Connection of stem showing two-celled
teleutospores. Be A _ teleutospore
germinating with promycelial tube (p)
and _ sporidia (sp). Be Two-celled
teleutospores of Puccinia coronata on
oat leaf. G. Teleutospores of Phrag-
midium incrassatum. All much en-
larged. A and G after Luerssen. B-
D after DeBary. E after Tulasne.
spermogonial stage; the flask-shaped bodies are called spermogonia and contain
the spermatia which do not germinate; their function is not known. A sweetish
fluid, which attracts insects, is frequently found in connection with these.
Directly opposite the flask-shaped bodies are small globular affairs, “cups,”
(aecidia), slightly irregular on the margins. Owing to their upward growth
they rupture the epidermal cells, and finally the lining layer of cells of the cups
also breaks, thus exposing a large number of 1-celled spores borne in chains.
These spores arise from short stalks contained at the base of these cups; the
cluster cup spores are known as aecidiospores and are transported by the wind
and other agencies, and have the power to germinate soon after maturity. When
the proper host —a grass, such as bent grass, oats or wheat — appears, the germ
226 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
tube enters by way of the stomata, or the so-called breathing pores. The germ
tubes produced by the spore of Aecidium berberidis are simple or branched, and
in fourteen days usually give rise to the uredo spores, which occur in definite
spots called sori. These spots occur in great numbers along the veins of the
leaves. Before breaking open, the tissues of the leaf are somewhat paler at
those places. The nourishment afforded by the host causes a vigorous mycel-
ium to form, which soon collects in places, pushes the epidermis out, and an
orange-colored pustule is formed which is known as the uredosorus.
A section through a diseased sorus shows that an abundance of the vegeta-
tive mycelium grows between the cells of the plant, and in some cases haustoria
penetrate them. This pustule contains a large number of 1-celled, round or
elliptical, spiny, orange colored spores, the uredospores. The spores have two
membranes, the outer exospore being provided with wart-like projections, while
the inner endospore is provided with several pores through which the germ
tube appears. These spores germinate in from three to four hours and can
thus start a general infection. These spores, carried by the wind, rain or in-
sects to another part of the same or another plant, germinate, the germ tubes
branch and spread over the surface, but the tube cannot enter the host—a
grass of some kind, such as wheat, oats or barley — unless it reaches the opening
of the stoma, since it cannot bore through the epidermal cells. A single sorus
contains hundreds of spores, and as a single plant may contain hundreds of
pustules, it can readily be seen that rust must become quite general.
The red rust stage is followed by the black rust stage, known as the
teleuto stage. The sori are brownish-black in color, and frequently occupy
the same place that the uredo stage did. The spores are dark brown in color,
two-celled and smooth, having attached to them a persistent stalk known as
the pedicel. The teleutospores do not germinate till the following spring, when
each cell produces a germ tube, the promycelium bearing lateral spores, sporidia.
These sporidia, when in contact with the barberry leaf, enter by boring their
way through the epidermal cells.
The barberry cluster cup fungus, and its connection with common grass
rust. It is not absolutely necessary for the common grass rust to have its first
stage on the barberry, yet experiment has shown beyond doubt that it does
occur on that plant. The theory has been advanced that appearing in one of
its stages on the barberry gives the parasite new vigor. It is not improbable
that in some places the mycelium or vegetative part of the fungus may be
perennial in the tissues of grasses, as it is with many other fungi, probably
this is true in southern localities. Beyond question this rust produces spores
during the entire year in our southern states, and on the approach of early
spring gradually moves northward. It may also be mentioned that in the west
this rust certainly does not appear before the cluster cup fungus on the barberry
appears. It is usually eight or ten days later, and then appears to a limited ex-
tent only. Rust often appears where barberry does not occur within hundreds of
miles. This was especially noticeable during the early history of grain culture
in the northwest. Rust follows a general infection.
Distribution and hosts. This fungus has been found not only upon wheat
but also upon several species of Bromus, Trisetum and Triticum spelta. Its
distribution cannot be given because in most cases the P. rubigo-vera included
this as well as the P. glumarum. It has been intimated above that the uredo-
spores make their appearance on young germinating plants in the fall, but it
EUTHALLEPHYTA—EUMYCETES—RUSTS 224
appears that the uredo spores are not common the following spring. The
investigations of the authors quoted here indicate that not in a single case was
it possible to produce uredospores in the spring from those of the autumn.
-H. L. Bolley, of Fargo, N. D., remarks in regard to several cluster
cup fungi which occur on members of the Borage family:
Several aecidia of unknown life history have been studied with reference to their
telations to the red rust of Puccinia rubigo-vera, many infection tests being made upon
young wheat and oat plants, all with negative results.
In this region Onosomodium Carolinianum bears very profusely an aecidium, which,
because of its date of appearance, was worthy of suspicion; but tests enough were made
to remove this notion.
P. rubigo-vera as well as the common grass rust, is very destructive in
England and Australia; but according to Wolf, is not so common in Germany.
A few years ago Professor Arthur investigated the subject of wheat rust in
Indiana and found that this species was much more destructive to wheat in that
state than common grass rust. The same year, 1889, the writer found that this
rust was much more common on wheat in Iowa. Carleton says he is confident
that the orange-leaf rust (P. rubigo-vera) does very little if any damage to the
grain in this country; that in all cases of serious damage to the grain by rust
the black-stem rust (P. graminis) is the real cause. In 1907, the leaf rust was
very destructive to spring wheat in Iowa.
Puccinia glumarum, Schmidt
Aecidium unknown; the uredosori occur along the veins. The diseased
leaf is frequently of irregular contour, color orange yellow, spores spherical,
or short, elliptical, spiny. Teleutosori, grayish, covered by the epidermis on
the stalks and leaves, less frequently on the flowers. Sori divided into chambers,
=
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Fig. 63. Covered Rust of Wheat (Puccinia
rubigo-vera) from wild Barley, perhaps the same as
P. glumarum.
228 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
surrounded by paraphyses. Spores with short pedicels, mostly club-shaped,
unsymmetrical; apex somewhat truncate, or with one or two projections.
Distribution. Common in Europe and probably also in this country; has
usually been referred to as Puccinia rubigo-vera. In European mycological
works, the aecidium of this fungus is said to be very common on common
speedwell (Lithospermum arvense), Echium vulgare, and Anchusa officinalis.
Fig. 64. Forms of rust on cereals. A. Common wheat rust, Puccinia gramints on
sheath of wheat, winter spores germinating. B. ‘The same, sporidia sp. C. Epidermis.
under surface of leaf with sporidium. sp. and germ tube. i. penetrating the epidermis. D.
Uredospore germinating after being in water 14 hours in E. Puccinia rubigo-vera germinat-
ing. F. Puccinia graminis. Both cells have germinated, a, sporidium germinating, magni-
oe 600. G. Crowned rust (P. coronata) from oat leaf. G after Bolley; the remainder,
eBary.
a
EUTHALLEPHYTA—EUMYCETES—RUSTS he
Common speedwell is a very common weed in St. Louis and other parts of
Missouri and southern Illinois, but so far as known, the aecidium has not
been found on these weeds.
Puccinia dispersa. Eriks, & Hen.
This species of rust is apparently very common in Europe. There are
three different stages. The aecidium stage produces circular or elongated,
somewhat swollen, spots on the leaves, petioles and stem of several members
of the borage family. The spores are between 20 to 30 » or 20 to 30 u x 19 to
22 mo in diameter. The teleuto spores long remain covered by the epidermis.
The sori are chambered, surrounded by numerous brown paraphyses; spores
are mostly club-shaped, unsymmetrical and 40 to 50 » long.
Puccinia coronata. Cda. Crowned Rust
The aecidium produces round or elongated spots with elongated, conspicu-
ous aecidia; the spores from 18 to 25 u» x 14 to 19 u; the uredosori are long,
confluent, mosily on the upper surface of the leaf; they are orange-colored, and
are soon exposed, each pustule containing a large number of 1-celled sub-
globose, roughened spores which are spherical or short-elliptical; the uredo-
spores are yellow, 20-32 u in diameter by 28-32 x 20-24 u. The teleutospores
remain covered by the epidermis, and in this respect they resemble the covered
rust of wheat (Puccinia glumarum). They usually occur on both sides of the
leaf. The spores are short-stalked, cuneate and more or less truncate above,
crowned with several projecting horns.
Distribution and hosts. Common wherever oats is cultivated and in several
of its forms it occurs upon cultivated grasses. This is a well known destructive
rust of oats and several other grasses and has received considerable attention
from early mycologists. Klebahn has recently described this rust under several
distinct forms. The P. coronata dactylidis in a narrow sense includes the rust
upon Dactylis glomerata or orchard grass, Festuca sylvatica with aecidia on
Rhamnus frangula and P. coronifera.
Ericksson and Henning distribute these forms into P. coronata I, and P. cor-
onata II. Historically this rust is of considerable importance, since Gmelin
was familiar with this disease in 1791, and described it as Aecidium Rhamni on
Rhamnus. The aecidium stage occurs on species of buckthorn (Rhamnus)
especially (R. cathartica and R. Frangula). In Iowa an aecidium is frequently
found on a native buckthorn (R. lanceolata), but its connection with this host
has not been studied. The aecidium attacks not only the leaves, but occurs
on mid-vein, petiole, pedicels and flowers. As a result of the attacks, distorted
leaves and flowers are produced.
Puccinia sorghi. Schw. Maize Rust
Uredo and teleutosori upon the leaves and bracts; the former small, light
brown sori, soon rupturing the epidermis; teleutosori dark brown; the uredo-
spores are l-celled, round or more elongated and spiny; the stalk is detached;
the spores measure 23-38.x 20-26 ; teleutosori are elongated dark brown or
black being broadly elliptical and 2-celled, 30-52 x 16-24 ; the apex may be
thickened and somewhat pointed. These spores preserve their vitality for some
time; but are dormant through the winter. In the spring each cell may germin-
ate by producing a tube, known as the promycelium, which bears lateral bodies
230 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
known as sporidia. Acording to Dr. J. C. Arthur, it is undoubtedly connected
with an aecidium on Ovalis corniculata.
Distribution and hosts. Common wherever corn is cultivated and according
or Carelton, also upon teosinte.
Fig. 66. Corn rust
(Puccinia Sorght) on
corn. Winter spores.
Uromyces. Link. Clover Rust
Aecidiospores in cup-like bodies with an evident pseudoperidium; uredo-
sori powdery; uredospores 1-celled with several evident germ pores; teleutosori
powdery; teleutospores 1-celled, separate, pedicellate, apex with a single germ
pore; sporidia flattened on one side. About 250 species widely distributed.
Many of the species produce serious diseases of cultivated plants, as Uromyces
pisi upon the pea, the alfalfa rust, (U. striatus,) and the bean rust, ( U. ap-
pendiculatus (Pers. Lev.) ‘There are many other species found upon our wild
plants. Some of these, when they occur upon forage plants, may cause mycotic
stomatitis.
Uromyces Trifolt. (Hedw.) Lev.
Aecidia in circular areas of pale colored spots; pseudoperidia short, cylin-
drical, flattish; edges, whitish, torn; spores sub-globose or irregular, finely
roughened, pale orange; 14-23 m in diameter; uredosori pale brown, round,
scattered, surrounded by the torn epidermis; spores round or ovate, roughened;
20-26x18-20 m with 3 or 4 germ pores; color brown; teleutosori small round
almost black; long covered by the epidermis; spores globose, elliptical or sub-
pyriform occasionally with wart-like swellings on the summit 15-20x22-30 4;
small dark brown in color; pedicels long.
Distribution. Widely distributed upon various clovers, especially red clover
and the white clover. So abundant is this fungus at times that the plants are
covered with the brown dusty material. Miss Howell reports it as very severe
in the state of New York at times. The writer commenting on this fungus
some years ago, said:
The fungus did not occur until August and only on the “rowen” or “aftermath.”
Later it was found quite abundantly on the campus and College Farm. So severely did
it attack some of the plants, especially the stems and leaves, that in touching the plants,
the hands became covered with brown spores.
|
ee i ea tt i in
————
EUTHALLEPHYTA—EUMYCETES—RUSTS 231
Fig. 67. Clover Rust. Uromyces Trifolii. (Hedw.) Lev. 1. Aecidium spores; above,
two cluster cups in which the aecidiospores are found. 2. White clover leaf showing the
distortions produced by the aecidium stage. 3. Red clover leaf showing clusters of uredo
spores. 4. Uredo spores. 5. Teleuto spores. 6. An uredo cluster more magnified than
in 3. Figs. 1, 2, and 3 after Miss Howell. Remainder by Miss King.
How long the fungus has affected clover plants in this country and especially
in Iowa is not known.
Poisonous properties. Clover rust has been suspected of being injurious
to cattle. Dr. John R. Mohler of the Bureau of Animal Industry, writes as
follows with reference to mycotic stomatitis:
Several attempts have been made by the writer to determine the exact cause and also
to transmit the disease to other animals by direct inoculation, but with negative results.
Suspicion, however, has been directed by various observers to the Uromyces and the red
and black rusts that occur in clovers. ‘These fungi cause very severe irritation of the
lining membrane of the mouth, producing sometimes a catarrhal, at other times an aphthous,
and occasionally an ulcerous stomatitis.
Considerable irritation of the nose and throat is experienced when rusty
oats and wheat are threshed. Virchow records a case of severe inflammation
of the nose of an old lady in which he found a great deal of Puccinia graminis.
232 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Babee cm SHEL
satel ely fe
Rial
Fig. 68. Toadstools, Coral Fungi, &c. Hymenomycetes. 1, Clavaria aurea. 2. Daedalea
quercina. 3. Marasmius tenerrimus. 4. Dry-rot Fungus (Merulius lacrimans). 5. Clavaria
argillacea. 6. Poisonous ‘Toadstool (Agaricus caesareus) a Ring; v Kellem. 7. Prickle
Fungus (Hydnum imbricatum). 8. Polyporus perennis. 8. Corticium amorphum on wood.
1-4, 6-9 after Wettstein. 5 after Harper.
EUTHALLEPHYTA—EUMYCETES—TOADSTOOLS, ETC. 233
AUTOBASIDIOMYCETES
The basidia of the hymenium more or less club-shaped, undivided; sterig-
mata usually 4, occasionally 2, 6, or 8, coming from the apex of the basidium.
The Dacryomycetineae with long club-shaped basidia and two long sterigmata.
Basidiospores large; spores divided before germination; includes the group
Dacryomycetineae, and an unimportant group, the Exwrobasidiineae, or small
gall parasites containing the Exobasidium which occurs upon the cranberry and
blueberry. The third group, Hymenomycetineae, contains a number of poison-
ous plants and will be treated more in detail.
HYMENOMYCETINEAE
Mycelium of septate hyphae, loose or delicate in texture or made up into
strands or hard masses; hymenium at the time of spore formation free; the
basidia form a definite layer or hymenium which may cover the whole surface
of the fruiting body, or may be restricted to a definite portion; the fruit is
made up of more or less closely compacted threads, hyphae, grown together,
or it may be delicate and somewhat ephemeral; the hymenium may be free
or gymnocarpous or covered from the beginning; the covering is called the
veil, which consists of a layer of threads extending from the margin of the
cap to the stem, or the veil may envelop the entire plant; the volva is an
envelope which in the young stage completely covers the plant; at maturity it
is left in the form of a cup at the base of the stem or distributed from the
cap to the base of the stem; the annulus is a ring around the stem formed by
Fig. 69A. Mushroom (Agari-
cus campestris). To the left a ma-
tured plant and to the right a young
plant. (Strasburger, Noll, Schenck
and Schimper).
Fig. 69. Cross section of Bracket Fungus.
Polyporus igniarius. h. Fungus threads, hyphae be-
tween the pores. s. Hymenium surrounding the
pores; a number of basidia with spores. After
Luerssen.
234 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
the inner or partial veil. Occasionally cystidia form in Coprinus; chlamydo-
spores are seldom produced.
POLYPORACEAE
Hymenium usually below, porous, tubular, honey-combed, reticulate or of
concentric plates; spores produced on the inner surface of the pores. A fam-
ily consisting of 2300 species, of wide distribution. Some are edible like
Boletus (Boletus edulis B. scaber) and others of this genus, as the Fistulina
(Fistulina hepatica) also known as the vegetable beefsteak, and the Sulphur
Polyporus (Polyporus sulphureus) when young. Several members are de-
structive wound parasites of trees. Among these are Polystictus versicolor;
the common Bracket fungus (Fomes applanatus), and Trametes radiciperda
found on the roots of conifers, and producing death. The dry rot fungus,
Merulius lacrymans, is widely distributed and destructive to buildings.
Boletus. Dill. Boletus
Soft or fleshy, the stratum of the tubes on the lower surface of the cap
easily separated. They are nearly all found growing on the ground and have
the stem attached centrally to the cap. Quite a number of species are edible,
some are bitter and some are poisonous. A small genus of 200 species found
both in Europe and North America. The Boletus edulis, according to European
authority, is one of the most desirable of edible fungi. Professor Atkinson
lists this as one of the edible North American species. The B. scaber, also a
North American species, is according to Professor Peck, first class, but several
species are poisonous and bitter. The B. luridus is regarded as poisonous.
The fact that a species turns blue when the plant is cut, should not be
regarded as indicative of its poisonous qualities, for this is due to the oxida-
tion process of the fat in contact with the air.
Boletus felleus. Bull
Pileus fleshy, convex above, glabrous or nearly so, grayish-brown, buff-brown, reddish-
brown or tawny, flesh, white, taste bitter; tubes long, convex in the mass in mature
plants, at first whitish, becoming pale flesh color; stem equal or tapering upwards, usually
reticulated at the top only, rarely wholly reticulated, commonly a little paler than the
pileus; spores oblong-fusiform, pinkish, .0005 to .0007 inch long.
Distribution. Widely distributed in woods and open places; found upon
decayed stumps.
Poisonous properties. Prof Peck says:
The Bitter boletus takes its name from the bitter flavor which its flesh persistently
maintains. It is a common species, and one easily recognized by its setioeianed, stem and
flesh-colored tubes taken in connection with its bitter taste.
The cap is rather thick, dry and smooth, but quite variable in color. This is generally
some shade of brown tinged with red or yellow. The flesh is white, but when cut or
broken and exposed to the air it sometimes assumes a pinkish tint.
The mass of tubes is generally somewhat convex in the mature plant, though it may
be plane in the young plant. ‘This also sometimes assumes a pinkish stain when bruised.
The stem varies greatly in length and thickness, and is sometimes crooked and deformed.
It is usually reticulated at the top only.
The taste of the flesh in this Boletus, as well as in many species of Lactarius and
Russula, is an important aid in the specific identification. In tasting fungi for this pur-
pose care should be taken to select only fresh, sound specimens, and the part tasted should
not be swallowed.
Mr. Hurd states that this species is not poisonous. No amount of cooking
according to this author, will destroy the bitter flavor.
ah, ‘ro
a , :
a ; :
‘a e
2
ri
i
: .
- «
. ’ ‘.
Honey colored Armillaria (Armillaria mellea). An edible species. (E. A. White
in Conn. St. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey).
EUTHALLEPHYTA—EUMYCETES—BOLETUS 235
Boletus satanus. Tenz
Pileus large, yellowish-brown on its upper surface; lower surface blood-
red at first, later becoming orange red; stalk yellow to reddish-purple with red
reticulate markings; spores brownish ovate. Rank and unpleasant taste.
Distribution. In Europe and North America.
Poisonous properties. Said to be extremely poisonous. The B. luridus
along with several poisonous species is eaten in Northern Russia. Ford states
that these species may occasionally be the cause of transient disturbances in
man and may occasionally cause fatal intoxication.
AGARICACEAE
Pileus generally expanded, stipe generally with central attachment, or
nearly so, lateral, or sessile; gills simple or branched or anastomosing usually
on the lower surface; lamellae folded or veined, radiating from the point of
attachment; lamellae bear the basidia which in turn bear the four spores or
rarely two, cystidia often present. A large order separated chiefly by the color
of the spores. The Melanosporeae have their spores brown, purplish brown
or black; in the Ochrosporeae spores are yellowish brown or rusty brown; in
the Rhodosporeae, spores are rosy pink; in the Leucosporeae, spores are white,
whitish or pale yellow. Many species of the family, like the cultivated mush-
room, (Agaricus campestris), the field mushroom, (Agaricus arvensis), the
shaggy-mane (Coprinus comatus, Fr.), Lepiota procera, and others, are edible.
The Rozites gongylophora of Southern Brazil, is cultivated by the leaf cutting
ants for food. No invariable rule can be laid down for the poisonous species.
Many of the Leucosporeae are edible, but many are deadly poisonous. A few
of the poisonous species are described later.
Amanita. Pers. Amanita
The young plants covered by a membrane which in the button stage is
more or less free with the surface of the pileus; later when the stem elongates
Fig. 70. Part of the hymenium of one of the
Agaricaceae. sh. Sub hymenial layer. b. Basidi-
um. s. Sterigmata. sp. Spores from basidium. pp.
Paraphyses. c. Cystid. After Bonn text book.
236 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
the volva is ruptured; stipe fleshy; volva and annulus present.
In some species the remains of the ruptured volva persist, forming a kind
of cup or sheath. In others they occur in the form of small scales or warts on
the cap.
»
EX \\l
—---—@iA*~iC
WS \ i
_ Fig. 71. Fly Agaric or Fly Amanita (Amanita muscaria). a. Mature plant. b. Top
view of cap with scales. From U. S. Dept. of Agrl.
Amanita muscaria. L. Fly amanita. Fly agaric
Pileus nearly flat at maturity, warty, slightly striate on the margins, yellow
to orange red, cap 3-8 inches broad; gills white or nearly so; stem 4-6 inches
long, % inch in thickness, cylindrical, hollow, bulbous thickened at the base,
which is more or less scaly from the fragments of the ruptured volva; spore
broadly elliptical, white. Dr. Farlow gives the following excellent description
of this fungus:
The fly agaric (Amanita muscaria), so called because decoctions of it are used for
killing flies, is in most places, at least in the northern and eastern parts of the country,
a common species—often a good deal more abundant than the common mushroom. It is
found during the summer along roadsides, on the borders of fields, and especially in groves
of coniferous trees. It prefers a poor soil, of gravelly or sandy character, and occurs only
exceptionally in the grassy pastures preferred by the common mushroom. It grows singly
and not in groups, and attains a large size, being one of the most striking toadstools. It
Tt -
een tee
Fly Amanita (Amanita muscaria). Very poisonous. (E. A. White in Conn. St, Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey).
EKUTHALLEPHYTA—EUMYCETES—AMANITA 237
differs from the common mushroom in having gills which are always white, never pink or
purple, and in having a hollow stem which is bulbous at the base and clothed with irregular,
fringy scales on all the lower part. The pileus varies in color from a brilliant yellow to
orange and a deep red, the yellow and orange being more frequent than the red. The
surface is polished and has scattered over it a larger or smaller number of prominent,
angular, warty scales, which can be easily scraped off. The gills and stalk are white, and
there is a large membranous icollar, which hangs down from the upper part of the stem.
The general appearance together with the color of the pileus and gills noted above, are
such that it is difficult to conceive how anyone who has ever seen a common mushroom or
read a description of one could mistake this fly agaric for the mushroom. Nevertheless, in
the writer’s experience, no fungus is so often collected by mistake on the supposition that
it is the common mushroom, and it is to the fly agaric that recent cases of poisoning in
Washington, D. C., were due.
Distribution. Widely distributed in Europe and North America. Professor
Coville, in speaking of this species after the death of Count Achilles de Vecchj,
and Chung Yu Ting, says:
The fly amanita is one of the largest, handsomest, and most dangerous of our mush-
rooms, and is the one whose character has been the most fully studied of all the poisoning
species. It is abundant about Washington in the fall, growing in pine woods, a favorite
situation in these woods being the vicinity of abandoned hog beds. The specimens that
caused the death of Count de Vecchj came from a pine wood about a mile west of Fort
Myer, between Balls Crossroads, and Columbia Pike.
Poisonous properties. The chief active poisonous principle of the fly
amanita is an alkaloid called muscarin, but other poisonous substances, the
chemical nature of which is not yet fully known, also occur in the plant.
Professor Atkinson, in discussing the Toxicology of the species, says as
follows:
The substance, Cholin, is of wide occurrence in the animal and vegetable kingdoms.
It has been isolated from Amanita muscaria, A. rantherina, Boletus luridus, and Helvella
esculenta. It is not very toxic, but on uniting with oxygen it passes over to muscarin.
According to Kobert the substance formed from cholin on the decay of the mushrooms
containing it is not muscarin but a very closely related alkaloid, neurin. This transforma-
tion of a comparatively harmless alkaloid to an extremely deadly one simply by the partial
decay of the plant in which the former is normally found, emphasizes very much the wisdom
of rejecting for table use all specimens which are not entirely fresh. This advice applies
to all kinds of mushrooms, and to worm-eaten and otherwise injured, as well as decayed
ones. Neurin is almost identical in its physiological effects with muscarin which is described
below.
Muscarin is the most important because the most dangerous alkaloid found in the mush-
rooms. It is most abundant in Amanita muscaria, it is also found in considerable quantity
in Amanita pantherina, and to lesser, but still very dangerous extent in Boletus luridus and
Russula emetica. It is quite probably identical with bulbocin, isolated from Amanita phal-
loides by Boudier. Muscarin is an extremely violent poison, .003 to .005 of a gram (.06
grain) being a very dangerous dose for a man. Like other constituents of mushrooms, the
amount of muscarin present varies very greatly with varying conditions of soil and climate.
This, indeed, may account for the fact that Boletus lwridus is regarded as an edible mush-
room in certain parts of Europe, the environment being such that little or no muscarin
is developed.
Cases of Mushroom poisoning are frequent in some countries. Gaillard
estimated the number of deaths in France at about 100 cases. Among the
Americans deaths are not so numerous, although Palmer of Boston, has found
33 cases with 4 deaths.
Inoko of Japan, reports 481 cases in 8 years. The peasants of the Caucasus
prepare an intoxicating beverage from Amanita muscaria from which many
individuals die.
Muscarin acts on the nerve centers, but cases seldom terminate fatally.
238 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Helvella esculenta owes its toxicty to helvellic acid C,,H,,O,, Very few deaths
have been reported in recent years.
According to Kobert, Amanita muscaria contains, besides cholin and
muscarin, a third alkaloid, fungus atropin, (pilz-atropin); this alkaloid, like
ordinary atropin, neutralizes to a greater or less extent the muscarin. The
amount of pilz-atropin present varies, as other constituents of mushrooms vary,
with varying conditions of soil, climate, etc., and it may be that in those
localities where the Amanita muscaria is used for food the conditions are
favorable for a large production of pilz-atropin, which neutralizes the muscarin,
thus making the plant harmless. Be this as it may, Amanita muscaria is deadly
as ordinarily found. It is undoubtedly used quite largely as food in parts of
France and Russia, and it has been eaten repeatedly in certain localities in these
countries without harm.
Ford suggests, on clinical grounds, that it may not be the only poison present
because even when this drug is completely neutralized by its physiological anti-
dote, atropin, the patient, who has eaten Amanita muscaria, sometimes dies.*
The alkaloid muscarin, a tasteless alkaline substance with a tobacco-like
odor, causes the contraction of pupils; amanitin C.H,,NO, is an isomer of
cholin, and yields muscarin with nitric acid and cetraric acid, OHH EN) oi
Muscarin has been obtained synthetically from cholin. It does not, however,
produce quite the same symptoms.
Amanita Frostiana. Peck
Pileus convex to expanded, bright orange or yellow, warty, sometimes
nearly or quite smooth, striate on the margin; lamellae white or tinged with
yellow; stem white or yellowish, stuffed, bearing a slight, sometimes evanescent
annulus, bulbous at the base, the bulb slightly margined by the volva; spores
globose; 7.5-10 in diameter. From the character of the poisons it is quite dis-
tinct from the A. muscaria.
Distribution. New York to North Carolina.
Poisonous properties. Professors Peck and Atkinson both list it as poison-
ous. Ford found an hemolysin of low grade intensity. Heated extracts were
without action upon animals. Schmiedeberg found a poison.
Amanita phalloides. Fr. Death Cup
Pileus smooth, fleshy, viscid, greenish, brown or olive to amber; cap 3-5
inches broad, frequently free from remnant of volva; lamellae white; stem
3-6 inches long, annulate; spores globose, white. Prof. Atkinson says: “The
presence or absence of these scales on the cap depends entirely on the way in
which the volva ruptures. When there is a clean rupture at the apex, the
pileus is free from scales, but if portions of the apex of the volva are torn
away they are apt to remain on the cap.
Dr. Farlow gives the following excellent description of this fungus:
It is rather common and grows singly in woods and on the borders of fields, rarely ap-
pearing in lawns, and is not preéminently an inhabitant of grassy pastures, like the mush-
room. It prefers a damper and less sandy soil than that chosen by the fly agaric. The
pileus is often a shining white, but may be of any shade, from a pale dull yellow to olive,
and when wet is more slimy than the mushroom or the fly agaric. It has no distinct scales
and only occasionally a few membranous patched on the pileus. The gills and stalk are
* Sci. 30: 97-108
Deadly Amanita (Amanita phalloides). A very poisonous species of toad stool, (E.
White in Conn. St. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Survey, page 239).
EUTHALLEPHYTA—EUMYCETES
AMANITA 239
Bia 73e Stinkhorn,
Phallus impudicus. Com-
Fig. 72. Death Cup (Amanita phalloides) mon in some vineyards
one-half natural size. From U. S. Dept. Agrl. and fields.
white, and the latter has a large ring like the fly agaric, and is hollow, or, when young, is
loosely filled with cottony threads, which soon disappear. ‘The base of the stalk differs from
that of the fly agaric in being more bulbous and in having the upper part of the bulb bor-
dered by a sac-like membrane, called the volva. The volva is often of considerable size, but
more frequently it is reduced to a membranous rim. In this species the stalk is longer
and slenderer in proportion to the diameter of the pileus than in either the fly agaric or the
common mushroom, and is buried rather deep in the soil or dead leaves, so that it often
happens that the bulb is broken off and left behind when the fungus is gathered.
The following differences between the edible and two poisonous species are
noted by Dr. Farlow:
(1) The common mushroom has a pileus which is not covered with wart-like scales;
gills which are brownish purple when mature: a nearly cylindrical stalk, which is not hol-
240 MANUAL, OF POISONOUS PLANTS
low, with a ring near the middle, and without a bulbous base sheathed by a membrane or
by scales.
(2) ‘The fly agaric has a pileus marked with prominent warts; gills always white; a
stalk, with a large ring around the upper part, and hollow or cottony inside, but solid
at the base, where it is bulbous and scaly.
(3) The deadly agaric has a pileus without distinct warts; gills which are always white,
and a hollow stalk, with a large ring, and a prominent bulb at the base, whose upper margin
is membranous or bag-like.
(4) Other minor points of difference are the different places in which these species
grow, and also the colors, which, although they vary in each case, are brilliant yellow or
red in the fly agaric, white varying to pale olive in the deadly agaric, and white usually
tinged with a little brown in the mushroom.
(5) A word should be said as to the size and proportions of the pileus and stalk in
these three species. In the mushroom the pileus averages from 3 to 4 inches in breadth,
and the stalk is generally shorter than the breadth of the pileus and comparatively stout.
The pileus remains convex for a long time, and does not become quite flat-topped until old.
The substance is firm and solid. In the fly agaric the pileus, at first oval and convex,
soon becomes flat and attains a breadth of 6 to 8 inches and sometimes more. ‘The stalk has
a length equal to or slightly exceeding the breadth of the pileus, and is comparatively slen-
derer than is the common mushroom, but nevertheless rather stout. The substance is less
firm than in the common mushroom.
(6) The pileus of the deadly agaric is thinner than that of the common mushroom,
and from being rather bell-shaped when young, becomes gradually flat-topped with the center
a little raised. In breadth it is intermediate between the two preceding species. The stalk
usualy is longer than the breadth of the pileus, and the habit is slenderer than in the two pre-
ceding species. All three species are pleasant to the taste, which shows that one cannot infer
that a species is not poisonous because the taste is agreeable. The fly agaric has scarcely
any odor. The two other species have certain odors of their own, but they can not be
described.
Distribution. Widely distributed in Europe and North America in woods,
groves and pastures.
Poisonous properties. Professor Peck says:
The Poison amanita is very variable in the color of the cap, and yet is so definite in
its structural characters) that only the most careless observer would be likely to confuse
it with any other species. There is, however, a sort of deceptive character about it. It
is very neat and attractive in its appearance and looks as if it might be good enough to
eat. This appearance is fortified by the absence of any decidedly unpleasant odor or taste,
but let him who would eat it beware, for probably there is not a more poisonous or
dangerous species in our mycological flora. To eat it is to invite death.
Professor Atkinson says:
Since the Amanita phalloides occurs usually in woods, or along borders of woods, there
is little danger of confounding it with edible mushrooms collected in lawns distant from
the woods and in open fields. However, it does occur in lawns bordering on woods,
and in the summer of 1899 I found several of the white forms of this species in a lawn
distant from tha woods. ‘This should cause beginners and those not thoroughly familiar
with the appearance of the plant to be extremely cautious against eating mushrooms simply
because they were not collected in or near the woods. Furthermore, sometimes the white
form of the deadly amanita possesses a faint tinge of pink in the gills, which might lead
the novice to mistake it for common mushroom. The bulb of the deadly amanita is
usually inserted quite deep in the soil or leaf mold, and specimens are often picked leaving
the very important character of the volva in the ground, and then the plant might easily be
taken for the common mushroom, or more likely for the smooth Lepiota (Lepiota nausina),
which is entirely white, the gills only in age showing a faint pink tinge. It is very im-
portant therefore, that, until one has such familiarity with these plants that they are easily
recognized in the absence of some of these characters, the stem should) be carefully dug
from the soil. In the case of the specimens of the deadly amanita growing in the lawn
on the campus of Cornell University, the stems were sunk to three to four inches in
the quite hard ground.
_ The exact chemical nature of phallin, an extremely toxic substance, is not certainly
known, but it is generally conceded to be of an albuminous nature. That it is an extremely
EUTHALLEPHYTA—EUMYCETES—AMANITA 241
~
deadly poison is shown by the fact that .0015 grain per 2 lbs. weight of the animal is
a fatal dose for cats and dogs. It is the active principle of the most deadly of all mush-
rooms, the Amanita phalloides, or death-cup fungus. We quote again from Mr. Chesnut’s
account of phallin and its treatment: ‘The fundamental injury is not due, as in the case
of muscarin, to a paralysis of the nerves controlling the action of the heart, but to a
direct effect on the blood corpuscles. ‘These are quickly dissolved by phallin, the blood
serum escaping from the blood vessels into the alimentary canal, and the whole system
being rapidly drained of its vitality. No bad taste warns the victim, nor do the pre-
liminary symptoms begin until nine to fourteen hours after the poisonous mushrooms are
eaten. There is then considerable abdominal pain and there may be cramps in the legs
and other nervous phenomena, such as convulsions, and even lockjaw or other kinds of
tetanic spasms. The pulse is weak, the abdominal pain is ripadly followed by nausea,
vomiting and extreme diarrhoea, the intestinal discharges assuming the ‘rice-water’ condition
characteristic of cholera. The latter symptoms are persistently maintained, generally with-
out loss of consciousness, until death ensues, which happens in from two to four days.
There is no known antidote by which the effects of phallin can be counteracted. The un-
digested material, if not already vomited, should, however, be removed from the stomach
and intestines by methods similar to those given for cases of poisoning by Amanita muscaria.”
Prof. Chesnut, writing in regard to the poisonous effect of this species,
says that:
The phallin spoken of is one of the toxalbumins, an extremely virulent poison found
in poisonous animals especially the rattlesnake. These toxalbumins are allied to those found
in diphtheria and other diseases produced by bacteria.
Other species reported as poisonous or probably poisonous are A. flocco-
cephala, and A. cothurnata. Ford has shown that A. spreta, and A. virosa, A.
strobiliformis, A. chlorinosma, A. radicata, A. porphyria, and A. rubescens are
poisonous. The A. verna, a small spring form of A. phalloides, is also very
poisonous.
Ford reports nearly 200 deaths since 1900 from this fungus in France,
Germany, Italy, and England. Ford gives the pathological changes described
by Maschka to be as follows:
1. Lack of post mortem rigidity.
2. Widening of the pupils.
3. Failure of blood to coagulate and a cherry-red color.
4. Ecchymoses and hemorrhages in the serous membranes and parenchy-
matous organs.
5. Dilation of the bladder with urine.
Studor, Sabli and Schéren found extensive necrotic and fatty changes in
liver, kidney, heart and voluntary muscles. The amount of fat in the liver
is nearly as great as in phosphorous poisoning.
Clinical symptoms. Often latent period of from 6 to 12 hours during
which the victims remain quite well. They are suddenly seized with terrible
abdominal pain, excessive vomiting and thirst. Diarrhoea may set in with
mucous bloody stools, or there may be constipation. The paroxysm of pain
may be so severe as to result in a peculiar hipprocratic facies. The patients
rapidly lose strength. In 3 to 4 days in children and 6 to 8 days in adults,
coma develops, from which the patients cannot be aroused. Cyanosis and
lowered temperature precedes the fatal exit. Ocular symptoms and convulsions
do not-ordinarily occur, but convulsions may be present on a terminal event.
The mortality varies from 60 to 100 per cent.
Kobert obtained from A. phalloides a substance with marked hemolytic
action, the dried extract dissolving ox blood 1 to 125,000. To this extract he
gave the name phallin, which he considered a toxalbumin.
242 MANUAL, OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Later this author * found what he thought was a poisonous alkaloid, “that
all typical forms contained an alcohol soluble poison;” that phallin was
occasionally absent.
Ford found that the extract of the fungus is a powerful hemolytic agent
and quickly destroys the erythrocytes of guinea pig, fowl, pigeon, dog, goat,
and man. This takes place at 37 degrees C., slower at lower temperatures,
The corpuscles of sheep, beef, and swine are resistent. Raw and boiled milk
act as an antidote—they are antihemolysins. Animals may be immunized by
using non-lethal doses.
Since the above has been written there have come to hand several recent
papers by Dr. W. W. Ford,! who states that he found muscarin in several
“yellow Amanitas” found in New York and Massachusetts. The aqueous ex-
tract of Amanita muscaria first agglutinated and then slowly dissolved blood
corpuscles. The agglutinin was heat resistant. The extracts produced hemolysis.
The agglutinin is a glucoside. The Amanita solitaria also contains an agglutinin,
The Amanita frostiana? contains a moderately hemolytic substance and free
from resistant toxin and muscarin. By the same author the poisonous nature of
a number of species is reported as follows. The A. phalloides produces
a chronic intoxication in guinea pig, the animal dying in twenty-five days. The
lesion is typical for amanita toxin. It is hemolytic for rabbit’s corpuscles, in
a dilution of 1-20. The poison from A. virosa has a hemolytic strength of 1-200
in two hours and in dilution 1-100 at the end of 24 hours, and when heated to
60° C. Kills guinea pigs in twenty-four hours, with signs of acute intoxication.
The A. spreta contains hemolysin and toxin but in rather a low degree. It
should be classed with the deadly poisonous mushrooms. The A. porphyria, A.
strobiliformis, A. radicata and A. chlorinosma are all poisonous and contain a
heat resistant substance which induces in animals a chronic intoxication; the A.
vittadini and A. rubescens should also be included according to Kobert.3
Dr. Ford in speaking of the poison in A. phalloides says:
“In a series of investigations published from the John Hopkins University it has now
been shown that Amanita phalloides contain two poisons which for the sake of clearness
we speak of as the amanita-toxin.4 The hemolysin is probably the same hemolytic substance
which Kobert had in his preparation of phallin and the toxin is possibly identical with
Kobert’s second poison. The hemolysin was found in every specimen of Amanita phalloides
which has thus far been examined, and when obtained from the fresh plant is the most
powerful hemolysin of vegetable origin known. Drs. Abel and Ford5 have shown that all
coagulable proteid can be removed from this substance by uranyl acetate in alkaline solutions
and by freshly prepared metaphosphoric acid, and when thus freed from proteid it continues
to act upon blood corpuscles and gives the reaction of a glucoside containing a pentose. We
have recently 6 developed a method for the isolation and purification of this glucoside which
has an activity of 1-300,000 in the pure state. Since its sensitiveness to heat and the di-
gestive ferments the hemolysin is precluded from playing any important role in human intoxi-
cation. We are inclined to believe that the amanita-toxin is the active principle, and
Schlesinger and 17 have shown that this poison can be isolated by certain well-defined
methods. It also is one of the powerful organic poisons, four-tenths of a milligram killing
* Sitzungsb. Naturforschenden Gesellsch Rostock 1899:26. Statement from Prof. Ford.
1 The distribution of Poisons in Amanitas. ‘The Jour. of Pharma. and Ept. Therapeutics,
1:275-284.
Notes on the Amanita-Toxin. Ford and Prouty. The Jour. of Pharm. and Expt.
Therapeutics. 1:389.
2 Jour. Inf. Dis. 4:437. |
8 Lehrbuch des. Intoxikationen. Ed. 2. 617.
4¥Ford. Jour. Expt. Med. 8:437, May 26, 1906.
5 Abel and Ford: Jour. Biol. Chem. 11:273, Jan. 1907. é
6 Abel and Ford: Arch, f. Exp. Path. u. Pharmakol. Supplement-Band Schmeideberg
Festschrift, 1908.
aa 7 Schlesinger and Ford: Jour. Biol. Chem. 3:279, Sept. 1907.
EUTHALLEPHYTA—EUMYCETES—AMANITA 243
a guinea-pig in twenty-four hours. The amanita-toxin contains no proteid, does not respond
to any alkaloidal reagents, and on fusion with potassium hydrate gives off idol and pyrol.
At first thought to be a congugate sulphate, I have recently found in association with Mr.
Prouty that this opinion is incorrect. We hope to ascertain the more exact characterization
of this poison shortly.”
Lepiota. Fr. Lepiota Toadstool
Plant with fleshy stem which can easily be separated from the cap; gills
usually free from the stem; in some species the top of the cap breaks from
the scales which adhere; volva absent. A small genus widely distributed.
Some species are edible; L. procera is said to be excellent as food.
L. Morgani. Pk.
A large fleshy plant, sometimes a foot across the cap, with a thick stout
stem and a ring removed a little distance from the gills; the pileus, when
fully expanded, whitish, with dark scales; the spores and gills greenish.
Distribution. From Ohio southward and westward in grassy places, some-
times forming large fairy rings.
Poisonous properties. ‘This plant is quite harmless to some people, but to
others it causes very unpleasant symptoms. It should be eaten with caution.
Russula. Pers. Russula
Cap red, purple, violet, pink, blue, yellow, or green; pileus fleshy, convex,
readily expanded and at length depressed; stem brittle, stout and smooth,
spongy within and confluent with the cap.
Russula emetica. Fr.
Pileus fleshy, quite viscid, expanded, polished, shining, oval or bell-shaped
when young, rose-red to yellow or even purple; margin furrowed, flesh white;
gills free, equal, broad, distinct and white; stems stout, solid, or occasionally
spongy; spores spherical.
Distribution. Widely distributed in North America. Found in pastures
and under trees. Readily distinguished by viscid cap and color. Mr. Hand
states that it is easily recognized by its acrid taste and free gills.
Poisonous properties. Mr. Mcllvaine says that he has repeatedly eaten
them and referred to a number of others who have also eaten them without
any bad results, but Hand thinks that their acrid taste is against their use or
rather cautions their use. Prof. Ford states that they cause profound gastro-
intestinal disturbances, such as attacks of vomiting and diarrhoea, recovery only
after thorough emptying of the stomach.
Volvaria. Fr. Volvaria
Universal veil forming a perfect volva, separate from outer part of the
pileus; stem readily separated from pileus; gills free, at first white, then pink,
and then reddish, and soft.
Volvaria bombycina. (Pers.) Fr.
This plant has a silky lustre; pileus is from 6 to 8 inches broad, globose,
becoming bell-shaped, convex and somewhat umbonate; flesh white; gills crowd
244 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
ed and flesh colored; stem is 6 to 8 inches long, tapering upward; spores rosy,
smooth in masses and elliptical; volva large and somewhat membranaceous.
Poisonous properties. According to many authorities, this plant is edible,
and it is likely that this and many other species can be eaten without serious
trouble, although Gillot,* states that several species of this genus have caused
death when eaten, though nothing is known of poisonous principle.
Inocybe Fr.
In the genus Jnocybe there is a universal veil which is fibrillose in char-
acter, and more or less closely joined with the cuticle of the pileus, and the
surface of the pileus is therefore marked with fibrils or is more or less scaly.
Sometimes the margin of the pileus possesses remnants of a veil which is quite
prominent in a few species. The gills are adnate, or sinuate, rarely decurrent,
and in one species they are free. It is thus seen that the species vary widely,
and there may be, after a careful study of the species, grounds for the separa-
tion of the species into several genera. One of the most remarkable species is
Inocybe echinata Roth. This plant is covered with a universal veil of a sooty
color and powdery in nature. The gills are reddish purple, and the stem is of
the same color, the spores on white paper of a faint purplish red color.
Inocybe infida.
This is slightly larger than Panaeolus papilionaceus, with semiorbicular cap
surmounted by a prominent nipple, which is dark reddish-brown, while the rest
of the upper surface is light tawny-brown. The upper surface also differs from
that of the non-poisonous kind in being silky-scaly and shining. The lower sur-
face differs in being much lighter, pale yellowish instead of brownish-black,
and the spore-print is about the color of oak wood.
Poisonous properties. Dr. William A. Murrill has recently contributed an
account on the poisoning from Jnocybe infida, a plant which closely resembles
the Panaeolus papilionaceus. It appears that Dr. Deming of West Chester, who
poisoned himself and other members of the family, describes the following
symptoms: ‘The fungi were gathered in the morning just before dinner. They
were stewed and served on toast at one o’clock; he ate about half a slice of
toast with mushrooms, drank some tea, and ate one-half a stuffed egg, with
lettuce and mayonnaise dressing and after dinner smoked one-half a cigarette.
Soon after he began to feel “queer,” then there followed a fullness in the head
and a rapid heart action as if he had taken nitroglycerin, this was followed by
a sweat, his clothing becoming wet, and. at the same time there was no nausea
or prostration; his mind became a little bit confused. He then washed out the
stomach, took castor oil and before the oil operated there was pressure and
almost pain in the lower bowel. By evening he was as well as ever except
somewhat exhausted. It appears that four other persons were affected with
disagreeable symptoms from the eating of the mushroom.
Dr. Deming says: “In my case the beating of the heart, fullness of the
head and sweating were very marked, though I ate about half as much as the
others.”
Dr. Murrill says that there is nothing to suggest an irritating poison and that
it is probably not narcotic.
* Etude medicale sur l’empoisonement par les champignons. lLLyon, 1900.
BASIDIOMYCETES—PHALLINEAE 245
PHALLINEAE
Mycelium consists of branched strands matted together; from this is
produced an oval body consisting of an outer wall, the peridium, and an
inner peridium; between the two is a layer of gelatinous material; the outer
portion of the oval body forms the volva; the central portion pushes through
the peridium with a long cellular stalk, the upper one bearing the cap-shaped
gleba; the spores are brown on club-shaped basidia, surrounded by a mucilag-
inous material giving off an offensive odor. This sub-order contains the
Clathraceae and Phallaceae. The Phallus impudicus and the Mutinus cani-
nus have been regarded as suspicious.
CLATHRACEAE
Receptacle latticed or irregularly branched; gleba enclosed by the re-
ceptacle. The following genera of this order are known to occur in the
United States, chiefly in the southern states: Clathrus, Phallogaster, Simblum,
and Anthurus. Dr. Farlow* is authority for the report from Gerald Mac-
Carthy to the effect that in North Carolina hogs had been killed by eating
Clathrus columnatus which a correspondent, Mr. G. W. Lawrence found
growing in oak woods near Fayetteville. The animals died within twelve or
fifteen hours after eating the fungus. According to Gillot, hogs are poisoned
by these and by Phalloideae. ©
PHALLACEAE.
Receptacle tubular or cylindrical with an external gleba. The common
Stinkhorn Phallus impudicus has a thick hollow stalk of whitish color per-
forated with pores; the upper part is honey-combed, resembling the morel.
During the early stages, an egg-shaped body may be seen coming from a mass
of white mycelium. The egg-shaped body is more or less mucilaginous and
contains the stalk and gleba, the latter becomes exposed later. Flies, attracted
by the carrion-like odor and mucilaginous material of the gleba, scatter the
spores and, apparently, are not poisoned. The fungus, however, is usually
regarded as poisonous as are several related genera and species such as Mutinus
caninus. ‘The common Stinkhorn (P. impudicus) was formerly used as a salve
in gout.
HYMENOGASTRINEAE
This contains the family Hymenogastraceae.. The sub-order Lycoperdineae
includes two families, T’ylostomataceae and Lycoperdaceae.
LYCOPERDACEAE
Fruiting bodies globular, oval or pear-shaped, solid and fleshy, often of
great size; before maturity, a dense white mass of homogenous hyphae occurs;
the fruit is surrounded by a peridium, in some cases double; the interior is
made up of branched threads called the capillitium, containing the spores;
fruiting bodies break open in various ways at maturity. This group contains
several interesting families. Many of the Lycoperdaceae are well known;
among these are the Earth-star (Geaster), the Lycoperdon giganteum and
* Farlow, W. G. Poisonous Nature of Clathrus columnatus. Bot. Gaz. 15:45-56. See
also Halsted, B. D.., Rept. N. J. Agrl. Exp. Sta., 1894:417.
246 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Fig. 74. Puff balls and their Allies. Gasteromycetes. 1. Geaster fimbriatus, p Outer
peridium, p1 Inner peridium. 2. Gautiera morchallaeformis, sectional view of fruiting body.
3. Secotium erythrocephalum. 4. Sectional view of the No. 3. 5. Bird’s Nest Fungus
(Cyathus striatus), p Peridia of spore bearing body, the outer peridium open on top showing
attachment of fruiting bodies. 7. ‘The same showing three fruiting bodies attached to wall.
8. Crucibulum vulgare showing hymenium and spores. 9. Hymenogaster tener, sectional
view of fruiting body x 3. 10. Same, natural size. 11. Basidia with spores of No. 9. x
450. 12. Puff-ball (Lycoperdon sp.), natural size. 13. Part of hymenium of L. excipuli-
forme with basidia and spherical spores. 14. Common Lead-color Puff-ball (Bovista
plumbea), natural size. 1 after Kerner, 2 after Vittadini, 3, 4, 6, 7, 9,-11 after Tulasne,
8 after Sachs, 12-14 after Wettstein.
BASIDIOMYCETES—LYCOPERDACEAE 247
Dr. Miquel lists the Lycoperdon Bovista as poisonous; this and Lycoperdon
cyathiforme are edible when fresh, but poisonous when the plants are mature.
NIDULARIACEAE
This is allied to the above and contains the Bird’s Nest fungus. (Cruci-
bulum vulgare), which occurs upon wood and manure, and the Cyathus striatus.
The false truffle (Scleroderma vulgare) belongs to an allied order.
ASCOMYCETES
Mycelium many celled, branched; reproduction both sexual and asexual;
spores known as ascospores, limited in number. Arranged in two divisions,
the Hemiasci and the Euasci.
Hemiasci
Parasites or saphrophytes; reproduction generally asexual, in fertilization,
the contents of the antheridium and the odgonium fuse.
HEMIASCALES
An unimportant group with three orders, Ascoideaceae, Protomycetaceae,
which contains some plants that are parasitic, Protomyces macrosporus, upon the
members of the carrot family.
Fig. 75. Fertilization of Pyronema confluens. 1. Three oogonia (0) with fertilizing
processes (¢) a—antheridia. 2. Oogonium after fertilization, with numerous nuclei.
Part of fruiting body, the ascogonium forming hyphae (as), (a) antheridium, (0) oogonium.
1-3 greatly magnified. After Harper.
The family Monascaceae contains one fungus which has been found in mouldy
corn and silage in Iowa, the Monascus purpurens Went. It is related to the
M. heterosporus (Harz) Shroter, which was found by Harz in a soap factory.
The coloring matter from M. purpurens, known as “ang-quac,” is used in East-
ern Asia as a pigment, being produced by the growth of the fungus on rice.
The fungus consists of a mass of septate hyphae, producing conidia and peri-
thecia with numerous asci; the ascospores are from 5-6.5m4, in diameter. The
248 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
details of the structure of this fungus have been given by Olive,t Barker,2 and
Ikeno 3 and in a paper to be published by Dr. Buchanan. Dr. Buchanan found
this species in spoiled corn silage, which was responsible for the death of several
horses in Iowa. This species possibly has been the cause of the disease, this
fungus occurring only where air had access to the silage. The fungus found
by Harz produces a mycelium similar to the preceding with thick-walled swell-
ings and color white or carmine red; conidia ellipsoidal, spherical, obovate, of
two kinds, the smaller 2.5-3 «. to 7-8 m», occurring in chains or singly, the larger
occurring singly 9-11 ms in diameter, and arising from lateral branches; spor-
angia from short lateral branches are spherical 40-53 m» in diameter, many
spored; the sporangia are surrounded by branched hyphae, ascospores spherical
or oval, colorless 4-5 » in diameter ; conidia and hyphae contain a carmine red
pigment physonvycin.
Fig. 75A. Corn Silage fungus (Monascus purpureus.)
1, 2, 3, Conidiophores with conidia; 4, germinating conidium;
5, sterile hypha covering of perithecium sending out branches,
these are sometimes tipped with conidia; 6, optical section
of mature perithecium, spores still within asci. Found in
corn silage by Dr. Buchanan.
Euasci
Asci with definite number of spores, usually 2, 4, 8, 16, 32; seldom, but
occasionally 1-celled.
EUASCALES
Contains the yeast plant, peach curl, plum pocket, ergot, blue - mould,
powdery mildews, etc.
PROTOASCINEAE
Asci single, in one group, without distinctive development of the mycelium;
in the other with a distinctive mycelium bearing the asci with their spores.
1 Annals of Bot. 17:167, pl. 12 &13.
2 Bot. Gazette. 39:56.
3 Ber. deutsch Bot. Gesellsch. 12:259.
ASCOMYCETES—EUASCI—YEAST 249
SACCH AROM YCETACEAE.
Vegetative cells single or in small groups; mycelium usually not evident,
reproduction, by budding; ascospores, usually 4, produced in the cell; occasion-
ally 8, 3, 5, or seldom 1.
The Saccharomycetes are fungi important in the process of fermenta-
tion. It is only in recent years that any parasitic species has been recog-
nized. Metchnikoff, in 1884, found a parasitic yeast Monospora bicuspidata in
Daphnids. Raum and Neumayer in 1891 declared yeasts were pathogenic.
Busse, 1894, demonstrated that certain yeasts were pathogenic. Tokishige
about the same time observed a yeast pathogenic for horses. Sanfelice isolated
from the cancerous-like growth of an ox a Saccharomyces which was pathogenic
for guinea pigs. The same author found another species in pigeons. Lydia
Rabinowitsch studied 50 species of yeasts, of which 7 proved to be pathogenic.
In 1895 Prof. Curtis found the second case of Saccharomyces in a young man;
clinically the disease resembled a myxosarcoma. It is doubtful whether these
forms are true yeasts. Some of these appear to be Hyphomycetes rather than
Saccharomycetes. I have therefore discussed these under the form genus
Oidium.
Fig. 76. Yeast. Saccharomyces mycoderma. A. Process of germination. B. Myceli-
um budding in a weak nutrient solution. C. (a) Yeast-like form budding; (b) long cells.
250 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Saccharomyces. Meyen. Yeast
Vegetative cells spherical, ellipsoidal, oval or pear-shaped, occasionally
elongated mycelial like; asci spherical, ellipsoidal or cylindrical with 1-8 asco-
spores l-celled spherical or ellipsoidal. About 40 species. The S. apiculatus,
Rees, is important in the fermentation of fruit. The S. ellipsoideus causes
the fermentation of wine. The S. mycoderna, Rees, forms a white mass on
cider, wine, cucumbers, etc., and prepares the way for the acetic acid ferment-
ation. The S. kefyr, Beyerinck, along with Bacillus acidi-lactici and other bac-
teria is found in Keyfr grains. SS. glutinus Fres., the pink yeast, is found
growing on nutrient media in laboratories.
Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Meyen. Common yeast
Vegetative cells, spherical or oval, 8-10x8-12 » singly, or in several, budding
chains with one or more vacuoles; asci spherical or short elliptical 11-14, gen-
erally with 4 ascospores tetradform. It produces a white growth on gelatine
and potato, does not liquify the gelatine; causes fermentation of grape sugar,
maltose and cane sugar. The biology of the fermentation of beer is as fol-
lows: Barley, which is ordinarily used for this purpose, is allowed to germ-
inate; during the process of germination the starch, by means of diastasé, is
converted into sugar, the sugar being afterwards removed with the water; this
sugary fluid is then placed in large vats in dark rooms at a comparatively
low temperature; the yeast plant is added and fermentation starts.
The fermentation of sugar is due to an enzyme found in the yeast plant,
to which Buchner has given the name of Zymase. This enzyme breaks the
sugar into alcohol and carbon dioxid. It is not necessary to have the living
organism present to produce this fermentation, as a quantity of the yeast ex-
tract mixed with the solution of fermentible sugar will produce at the end of
some days a small amount of alcohol. The enzyme decomposes very rapidly.
Reynolds Green, in his book on fermentation, says:
From these researches it appears certain that the production of alcohol whether in the
presence or absence of oxygen is brought about by the activity of an enzyme. Its secretion
by the cells of yeast attends the ordinary nutritive processes as well as the abnormal de-
compositions set up by incipient asphyxiation. ‘The latter condition induces its formation
in other parts of plants. The absence of oxygen stimulates the protoplasm of the cells to
secrete it, the ultimate effect of its appearance being the liberation of energy as already
stated.
Distribution. Widely distributed.
Poisonous properties. The chemical composition of alcohol is C, H, OH.
Different alcoholic drinks contain different percentages of alcohol. Ale and
beers contain from 4 to 8 per cent together with bitters and malt extract; cider
from 5 to 9 per cent; sherry from 15 to 20 per cent.
Fig. re Yeast. Saccharomyces
cerevisiae. Ascospores in cells. Spores
at f. Magn. 1000. After Hansen.
—
ASCOMYCETES—EUASCI—YEAST 251
Fig. 78. Yeast. Saccharomyces cerevisiae. 1. Single cell with vacuoles. 2. Cells
budding x 1500. 3. Numerous daughter cells x 1000. 4. Cell with ascospores x 1200.
5. S. ellipsoideus. 1-4 Modified from Iuerssen and Rees; 5 after Hansen.
Alcohol in its action is a germicide and when applied to the raw surface
or wounds it is a stimulant and local anaesthetic, while in concentrated form
it is an irritant and even caustic. When placed upon surfaces of the broken
skin it causes cooling and contraction of the superficial blood vessels. When
absorbed it hardens the tissues. Internally it causes a secretion of saliva and
the heart is stimulated by the irritative action of alcohol.. In large amounts it
destroys the peptic ferment. Dr. Winslow says:
Alcohol is essentially a heart stimulant and the most valuable one we possess. It makes
the heart beat more forcibly and rapidly, and also increases blood pressure, despite the fact
that, normally, alcohol causes dilation of the arterioles. In weakened bodily conditions,
with vascular relaxation, alcohol may increase vascular tonicity. The heart and blood
vessels are paralyzed by poisonous doses of alcohol and blood tension falls tremendously.
The local effect of alcohol upon the peripheral nerves resembles the action after ab-
sorption upon the system generally. The nervous system is affected in nearly the same
order and manner as by anaesthetics, and the same stages may be observed. The stages
include the stimulant, depressant and paralytic. The law of dissolution is demonstrated
by alcohol, as the more highly organized centres and those more recently developed in the
process of evolution are first to succumb, and in following out this order, the medulla,
the first of the higher centres to be developed, is the last to be influenced by the drug. In
accordance with this law the cerebrum is first acted upon. The period of excitement is brief
and is due in a considerable degree to the increased cerebral circulation and flushing of
the brain. It is essential to emphasize the fact that by far the most apparent and decided
action of alcohol is one of depression upon the nervous system as a whole. ‘The stimulating
influence of alcohol upon the spinal centres is more marked in the lower animals than in
man because the brain is proportionately small and poorly developed in the former. The
primary stimulating effect of alcohol is shown in man by increased mental activity and ap-
parent brilliancy, but acute reasoning and judgment are not enhanced, and in many cases
there is almost immediate mental confusion and drowsiness induced.
lo
on
bo
MANUAL, OF POISONOUS PLANTS
EXOASCACEAE
This small order contains parasitic and saprophytic species. The asci are
without perithecium, except in Gymnoascus and Ctenomyces where there is a
rudimentary perithecium. The Taphrinae are undoubtedly related to the yeasts
and by some are placed in one order known as Gymnoasceae, being represented
by Gymnoascus. The Gymnoasceae exclusive of Taphrinae are sometimes placed
with the Plectascineae, a fungus occurring on the dung of horses and producing
simple-fruiting organs, which consist of short-branched filaments arising either
from a single hypha in which a cell is cut off, or several, one being spirally
wound about the other. This becomes the ascus, which contains the ascospores.
In Eremascus the ascus-producing part resembles certain zygospores. In
Ctenomyces the ascus is surrounded by simple torulose hyphae, representing a
rudimentary perithecium. The Hidamella spinosa described by Matruchot and
Dassonville is allied to Gymnoascus. It produces numerous ovoid short stalked
asci with 8 ovate colorless ascospores. Parasitic on dog. The life history of
parasitic members of this order may be represented by Exoascus pruni. This
fungus grows on the fruit of various species of the genus Prunus, producing
in plums what is known as plum pockets or bladder plums. The fungus, when
fully developed, consists mainly of a single layer of palisade-like asci, which
produce their branching mycelium in the parenchyma of the affected part, and
later develop between the outer walls of the epidermal cells and cuticle. Here
Fig. 79. Exosceae. 1. Plum pocket (Exoascus Pruni), on Prunus Padus. a. Normal
fruit; b, abnormal fruit. 2. E. Alni-incaniae on alder (Alnus incana); scales enlarged.
3-5. E. alnittorquus; 3. Surface view, alder leaves showing hyphae (h) between cuticle
and remainder of epidermal cell. 4. Formation of asci (as). 5. Ripe asci with ascospores
x 100. 1-2 after Wettstein. 3-5 after Sadebeck.
ASCOMYCETES—EUASCI—EXOASCUS 293
they grow and spread out to the surface, forming a single layer of cells, each
cell swells, the cuticle becomes ruptured and a palisade-like layer of asci is
formed. There are eight ascospores in each ascus which escape by means of an
opening at the tip. The ascospores of Taphrina frequently germinate in the as-
cus, budding like yeast and in this budding condition they produce a small amount
of alcohol. Another troublesome species is the Peach Curl (Exvoascus deformans)
which occurs on the young leaves of peaches. The E. Cerasi is another destruc-
tive species producing the “Witches Brooms” of the cherry Prunus Cerasus.
The E. Betulinus produces the “Witches Broom” in the Birches.
PEZIZINEAE, HELVELLINEAE, TUBERINEAE, PHACIDIINEAE
Mycelium well developed; asci borne upon large fruiting bodies and a
continuous hymenium consisting of the asci, sterile threads, the paraphyses.
Contains a number of common cup fungi like the Peziza, Morchella esculenta,
and Hellvella. A Sclerotinia produces a disease on red mangolds, beans, and
hemp; Sclerotinia also occurs upon clover and the common brown plum rot,
(Sclerotinia). Helvella suspecta with a reddish brown pileus and a dirty flesh
colored stalk is suspected of being poisonous. It has a nauseous, sweetish
taste, and produces hellvellic acid, a hemolytic, or blood destroying substance.
The Gyromitra esculenta also produces helvellic acid and is regarded as
poisonous. It owes its toxicity to the blood making properties. The Hellvellas,
Morels, and Sclerotinia belong to the family, Helvellaceae. ‘Tuber produces
tuber like bodies found in the soil. The organism is parasitic on trees. The
fruiting bodies are enclosed by a peridium which consists of corrugated, smooth,
or wart-like excrescences. The hyphae are compact. The ascospores occur in
winding passages in the interior. Some of the Hellvellas and Morels are edible.
The truffle (Tuber aestivum) of the family Eutuberaceae are edible.
The family Phacidiaceae, contains one important parasite of the alfalfa,
the Phacidium Medicaginis. ‘The diseased leaves turn yellow and soon fall.
The yellow leaf, or in some cases the green leaves, contain the small blackish
or brownish specks usually upon the upper side of the leaf, the injury extend-
Fig. 80. Enlarged plum branches. Exoascus communis on Prunus maritima, projecting
beyond the mass are the asci, some of which contain the spherical ascospores. After At-
nson.
254 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Fig. 81. Tuberaceae. Truffles. 1. Tuber rubrum, Part of interior of a truffle, show-
ing hyphae, asci, and ascospores, greatly magnified. 2. TJ. aestivum, fruiting body. fh
brumale, section of truffle. 4. Ascospore of T. Magnatum. 1, 3, 5, after Tulasne. 2
after Wettstein. .
ing to the lower surface. The spot contains a small pustule called the apothe-
cium, which is cup-shaped. ‘This cup-shaped body contains the asci (sacs) in
which 8 small spores occur, the ascospores with the ascus, the two slender
threads are known as paraphyses. ‘This fungus is a serious parasitic disease
of the alfalfa. The fungus does much injury to the fodder and it is not im-
probable that at times may be injurious to animals consuming the fodder.
Fig. 82. Enlarged leaf showing spots. b. Single spot enlarged: c. Ascus with
ascospores, paraphyses coming from mycelium.
ASCOM YCETES—EUASCI—PHACIDIUM
co
3 To
LIC TS
Section through apothecium found on leaf; the asci, ascospores and mycelium.
Fig. 83.
Combs.
Conidiophore, spores in
ile
(threads hyphae) with asci and
Brefeld.
Common Blue Mould (Penicilium glaucum).
Sclerotium or hard compact mass of fungus
Asci and ascospores shown above.
\
Fig. 84.
chains. 2.
ascospores.
256 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
PLECTASCINEAE
Generally saprophytic fungi with a well developed mycelium, either buried
in the sub-stratum or superficial. Reproduction sexual or asexual; asci either
borne directly on the mycelium or in closed fruiting bodies, called perithecia.
ASPERGILLACEAE
Peridium thick; perithecia small; the sexual reproduction may be seen
from the development as it occurs in the Blue Mould (Penicillium).
Penicillium. Link
A branched septate mycelium; conidiophores with septa, numerous branches
near the apex; contains small flask-shaped sterigmata; spores borne in chains;
conidiophores sometimes in bundles, as in the old Coremium; asci develop in
poorly-lighted places in a sclerotium-like body.
Penicillium glaucum. Link. Blue Mould
At first a white mycelium spreads over the surface or through the sub-
stratum; the mycelium, through an enzyme action, undoubtedly, dissolves the
starch; raised masses are formed on the surface, which consist of masses of
mycelium thread strands; the strands send out lateral branches from the end
of which a whorl of short branches appears, which give rise to one or more
whorls; from the ultimate branches a chain of small spores is produced, the
last one on the chain being the oldest.
The ascospores have not been found in corn, but occur in poorly lighted
places and are produced in the absence of oxygen. ‘The spores produced in
chains germinate when the required amount of moisture and heat is present,
so that unlimited numbers of generations may proceed from a single spore.
These spores also preserve their vitality for a considerable length of time.
Brefeld has shown that they will germinate though kept in a dry place for
several years. ‘The organism grows at various temperatures, from near the
freezing point to a considerable heat. It also resists antiseptics. It is one of
the most troublesome fungi in stored fruit.
Penicillium glaucum is an organism which contains diastase, maltase, emulsin
and a ferment which inverts cane sugar. Calcium oxalate is deposited in the
perithecia. Under certain conditions mannite is said to be produced. When the
Penicillium glaucum occurs in grape must it delays fermentation.
Distribution. "The common blue mould is widely distributed in nature and
is contained in a large number of the spores which drop in on fruits and decay-
ing bodies and there germinate and produce fruiting bodies.
Poisonous properties. This fungus certainly is not pathogenic. It is widely
distributed on decaying fruit; it has been suspected, in several instances, of
being poisonous, but there is no evidence to support the supposition that this
is the case or that it produces toxic substances. Under certain conditions it may,
possibly, produce mycotic stomatitis. It has been found in sputum, nasal
secretions, and in the stomach, but these cases are without special significance.
Penicillium minimum. Siebenmann
Mycelium at first white, flocculent, changing to blackish green when spores
are formed; conidiophores slender, branching, bearing a chain of spores from
2-3 « in diameter.
ASCOMYCETES—EUASCI—ASPERGILLUS 257
Fig. 85. Green Mould. (Aspergillus glaucus)
on the left, A. repens on the right, both with conidia
in chains, and conidiophores. After Siebenmann.
Distribution. Found in Europe.
Pathogenic properties. Found by Siebenmann in the ear.
Aspergillus. Micheli
Parasites or saprophytes with branched septate mycelium; reproduction
sexual or asexual; in the asexual, conidiophores enlarged at the end, the en-
larged portion bearing numerous small sterigmata, or these bearing smaller
sterigmata; the conidia borne in chains; occasionally sclerotia form; perithecia
small with asci and ascospores. The ascigerous stage of a few only is known.
The life history of the common herbarium mould was first worked out by
DeBary. A little known A. sulphureus is said to cause muscular contractions,
and tubercular bodies.
Aspergillus glaucus. (\.) Link
Mycelium on or in the substratum forming a bluish green growth; conidia
spherical or somewhat elliptical, slightly roughened, 6-15 # in diameter, borne
in chains attached to a short simple sterigmata; perithecia form little yellow
masses; each ascus has 8 colorless biconvex ascospores 8-10 » in diameter.
The life history of this fungus is as follows: This species is common in
stored grain and hay. The mycelium spreads over the surface and through the
substratum; it enters the kernel because of the dissolving action of an enzyme
produced by the mycelium. From this mycelium erect threads (conidiophores
or sporophores) arise which are enlarged at the end. From the enlarged portion
of the conidiophores numerous small and radiating stalks (sterigmata) are pro-
duced, each bearing a chain of spores, the end spores of the chain being the
older. These spores germinate under favorable conditions of moisture and
heat, and again give rise to the same stage. In addition to this, the conidial
stage, a second kind of reproductive body occurs. This is produced by the coil-
ing of a branch of the mycelium having several turns. Two or three slender
branches grow from the base. One of these grows more rapidly and connects
with the top of the spiral coil formed first. The contents of those last formed
MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
258
as
3.
1. General appearance showing long conidiophore and
or Contents from an
A small part of a mycelium with conidiophore c and spore-bearing
Fig. 86. Common Aspergillus.
sterigmata on end. 2. Perithecia with one ascus and ascospores.
4.
All after DeBary except 1.
unripe perithecium.
sterigmata, young ascogonium a, s
re
fi
|
x
{
Un
2. Aspergillus.
Fig. 87. Mouldy maize kernels. 1. Aspergillus (Sterigmatacystis).
3. Rhizopus, 4. Pencillium. Charlotte M. King.
ASCOMYCETES—EUASCI—ASPERGILLUS as
ay {
fit
\}
AA
om wt
Fig. 87a. Mycotic stomatitis caused from eating mouldy hay and parasitic fungi on
forage plants. (U.S. Dept. Agrl.)
unite with the spiral known as the ascogonium. After fertilization a perithecium
is produced, which contains the asci, each ascus being surrounded by a delicate
wall and containing eight biconvex ascospores.
Asperigillus forms diastase and is capable of changing starch into dextrin
and maltose.
Distribution. Widely distributed in nature on mouldy hay, corn and other
grains.
Poisonous properties. The organism is not pathogenic but probably develops
a poisonous substance which may produce disturbance. Dr. Law mentions a
serious case, epizootic cerebro-spinal meningitis, in Pennsylvania, due to the
feeding of mouldy timothy hay, which was badly fermented. In Cairo, Egypt,
6,000 horses and mules perished from the same cause. Michener attributes
this disease to foods undergoing fermentation due to toxic fungi. Williams,
of Idaho, thought also that the fermentation of alfalfa, timothy and wild grass
hay produced the disease. Dr. Law says:
In all probability as we learn more of the true pathology of the disease, we shall come
to recognize not one, but several toxic principles, and several different affections, each with
its characteristic phenomena in the somewhat indefinite affection still known as cerebro-
spinal meningitis.
It occurs in horses, sheep, oxen, goats, and dogs, preferably attacking the
young which have not become immuned to the toxic substance. It occurs most
commonly in winter and spring when animals shed the coat. Dr. Mayo, who
investigated this trouble in Kansas, says that a disease known as “staggers,”
“mad staggers,” or, as he has termed it, enzootic cerebritis, is caused by feeding
corn which is attacked by Aspergillus glaucus. The spores of the fungus gain
entrance to the circulation, and find lodgment in the kidneys and liver. He
supports his conclusions by experiments made by him on a guinea pig and a
260 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
young colt. He also quotes Kaufmann, who was successful in producing a
disease with Penicillium glaucum and Aspergillus glaucus. There is considerable
loss in many states from cerebro-spinal meningitis. In many parts of the
country this is attributed, as I have said before, to mouldy corn. Dr. Bitting,
of the Indiana Agricultural Experiment Station, made an investigation of this
question and concludes that mouldy corn is not responsible for this disease.
Upon an examination of mouldy corn he found several moulds and a bacterium.
To test the poisonous properties of these, two horses were injected under the
skin with five cubic centimeters. Later, larger amounts were given, and each
animal was induced to eat as much as five pounds of the infected meal per day.
One of the moulds as well as the bacterium gave negative results; the Fusarium
produced a redness of the gums and some salivation. In no case did cerebro-
spinal meningitis result.
The results of the experiment show that inoculations with culture of the
bacteria and moulds were ineffective. Eating of the mushes containing pure
culture showed that only in the case of a growth of a species of Fusarium did
any intestinal disturbance follow, and that in one case the feeding of the
rotted grain produced considerable intestinal disturbance and some nervous
symptoms, but that the disturbance was light in the other.
Grawitz succeeded in producing infection by adapting the digestive tract
of the animals to an alkaline medium.
Roberts and Bitting say in regard to this trouble in Indiana:
It affects horses, cattle and sheep, but the cause is not known. ‘This disease is reported
in stables in the fall and winter. The reports indicate that about an equal number of horses
and cattle become affected, but that they rarely become affected at the same time. The
horses and cattle kept in the same barn and fed the same kind of food will not become
diseased at the same time. Most of the cases occur while feeding ensilage or shredded
fodder and thus it has come to be called ensilage disease and shredded fodder disease.
The character of the food, however, is only an incident, for cases may occur when other
spoiled or fermented foods are present, or when only the best foods are used. The
disease is often ascribed to mouldy and rat-eaten corn, but our experiments with such
foods and pure cultures of moulds from such foods were negative. Bad sanitation is also
ascribed as a cause.
In regard to Mycotic Stomatitis of cattle which they attributed to moulds:
The particular organism causing the disease, if there be one, has not been described.
It seems probable that the disease is due to more than one form of fungi which may be
present on the pasture. The animals affected are cattle of all ages above 4 months. The
disease is not contagious, but usually affects a number of animals in a given herd, and
always while in pasture. The fact of a number of animals being affected is due to similar
exposure and not to infection spreading from one animal to another. Attempts at direct
inoculation have not been successful. The disease occurs in some localities every year,
and in others seemingly under special climatic influences. I know a locaiity where it may
be developed at any time by permitting cattle to graze along the roadside. The disease
is much more prevalent on permanent blue grass than upon timothy pasture, and is of rare
occurrence upon pastures used in a crop rotation. ‘The disease develops in pastures allowed
to grow for some little time without being used. It is particularly liable to develop a few
days after a good rainfall succeeding a dry period.
The symptoms are inability to graze, saliva dribbling from the mouth, and frequent
visitations to the watering trough, holding the mouth in the water as though it were burned.
The animals appear to be hungry but cannot eat. The mouth is red and lips, gums and
tongue swell. Blisters form and these soon give way to ulcers that may remain distinct
or run together. In some of the aggravated forms the ulcers may unite so that when the
crust comes off, it will make a cast of a lip or the whole end of the tongue. The crusts
are usually from the size of a dime to that of a quarter. The tongue may swell to such
an extent as to protrude from the mouth and the animal be unable to draw it inside. The
muzzle may be increased one-half in size.
ASCOMYCETES—EUASCI—ASPERGILLUS 261
Dr. Craig, of the same state, reports somewhat similar experience.
Captain F. Smith, in his manual of Veterinary Hygiene, refers to the in-
juries from moulds, especially Penicillium and Aspergillus, calling attention
to the brittleness of hay caused by fungi, and that the spores produce irritation
to the respiratory passages. He states further that oats and bran have pro-
duced diabetes, paralysis, and subsequent death in horses. He refers to the
case mentioned by Professor Varnell in which the horse died in three days
from eating moldy oats. Professor Gamgee calls attention to the disease in
France and Scotland in the years 1854 and 1856, due to horses feeding on grass
which had become wet and musty. The animals suffered cerebral derangement,
producing stomach staggers, so-called by English writers.
Aspergillus Oryzae. Ahlburg
Rabbits inoculated showed convulsive symptoms; tubular foci occurred in
the intestines. The Aspergillus Oryzae forms maltose and diastase and in
Eastern Asia plays an important part in the manufacture of “sake” or rice
beer, which has been a national drink of the Chinese for centuries.
Aspergillus malignum. (Lindt.)
Mycelium bluish gray, conidiophores short, the end pear-shaped, 22-24 4
wide; sterigmata branching, conidia in chains 3-4 m in diameter; perithecia
40-60 », ascospores 6-8.
Distribution. Found in Europe.
Pathogenic properties. Grows best at the higher temperatures. Found by
Lindt in the human ear.
ee
Fig. 88b. Pale Mould (Aspergillus Fig. 88. Aspergillus Oryzae on rice.
flavus). Showing conidiophore and 1. Conidiophore, sterigmata and conidia
spores attached in chains. After Sie- 2. Young conidiophore. Modified by
benmann. Charlotte M. King after drawing by
Wehmer.
262 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Aspergillus flavus. Link
Hyphae arachnoid, white; the fertile erect, slightly cespitose; conidia 5-7 mu
in diameter, small, globose, vari-colored, slightly wart-like, collected about the
white sub-globose, wart-like apex; apex finally becoming yellowish; sclerotium
very small, dark.
Aspergillus fumigatus, Fresenius
Forms greenish or bluish gray masses on the surface of the substratum,
conidiophores short with a semi-spherical mass 8-204 in diameter. Sterigmata
bear the spherical conidia 2.5-3 » in diameter, which are at first bluish green
and later brown. Sclerotia unknown. Grows best at a temperature of
37-40° C.
Distribution. Widely distributed.
Fig. 89. Section of kidney of rab-
bit showing mycelium of an Aspergillus.
After Grawitz.
Pathogenic properties. It has been known for some time that several
species of Aspergillus are pathogenic for animals. In 1815 Mayer and Emmert
found the fungus in the lungs of a jay. In 1826 it was reported in the long
bones of a white stork by Heusinger, and numerous other cases in birds like
the flamingo, duck, chicken, ostrich, and turkey, have been reported, especially
in Europe. Kihn, in 1893, furnished quite conclusive evidence that certain
species of Aspergillus can produce necrosis and disease. Chantemesse, at the
tenth International Congress in Berlin, called attention to a disease of pigeons
resembling tuberculosis which he said was produced by an Aspergillus. Saxer
attributed mycosis to an Aspergillus, and, according to Sticker, the disease
may appear sporadic and endemic, the latter to persons who feed pigeons and
to the hair combers in Paris. It is spontaneous in horses, cattle, dogs, and
birds, and is sometimes quite epidemic in birds. ‘The form of the disease
when it occurs in the lung is callel Bronchopneumomycosis; it appears that
various species of Aspergilli also occur in connection with otomycosis, and oc-
casionally in the nose or the eye. A very complete history is given by Drs.
ASCOMYCETES—EUASCI—ASPERGILLUS 263
Mohler and Buckley in the report of the Bureau of Animal Industry. Hughes
Bennett reported a case in the sputum of a tubercular patient, and, in 1847,
Sluyter reported definitely on the Aspergillus in the lungs of a human being.
Virchow in 1856 reported several cases. In 1879, Leber first described a pur-
ulent keratitis due to aspergillus infection. Drs. Mohler and Buckley, in re-
ferring to the observations on pneumomycosis, say:
Dieulafoy, Chantemesse, and Widal, reported their observations and studies of pneu-
monomyccsis as it occurs in a certain class of men in Paris. ‘These men feed thousands
of young pigeons daily by taking into their mouths a mixture of grain and water which
they force into the mouths of the birds much in the same way that the old pigeons feed
their young. It had been a matter of common observation that these men were sufferers
from a severe pulmonary disorder; but when their sputum was examined, instead of finding
tubercle bacilli, only the threads of mycelia were detected. This observation was subse-
quently confirmed by Renon and other investigators. Until this time it had been held that
the presence of fungi in the lung tissue was of secondary importance, but these observations
dispelled further argument. Experiments on animals in which they were made to inhale
the spores, were successful in producing the disease; thus it was that the natural infection
was proved.
Renon, who made an exhaustive study of the subject, concludes as follows
concerning aspergillosis:
1. That aspergillosis is a spontaneous disease affecting the bronchi and lungs of birds
and animals, and creating in the animals a generalized affection similar to hemorrhagic
septicemia; that it develops in eggs in incubation and may contaminate the embryos con-
tained therein.
2. The disease may be transmitted experimentally. The botanical and cultural char-
acters of the fungus and the lesions it provokes are truly specific. In its pathogenic action
it bears a strong resemblance to tubercle bacillus.
3. In man it develops upon the cornea or skin, but has its particular evolution in the
respiratory apparatus, creating pulmonary mycosis, resembling tuberculosis, and pulmonary
gangrene, but without the fetid odor. It may coexist with tuberculosis. Occasionally it
is fatal after the formation of cavities in the lungs. It may invade the bronchial apparatus
alone, causing membranous bronchitis of special form and of long duration.
4. In all its manifestations Aspergillus fumigatus may play a primary or secondary
role in both man and animals. It is not, therefore, a simple saprophyte, but a true
parasite.
Renon points out the relation of the occupation of man to his contracting
the disease. When animals and men are kept where the mould is common, as
in hair assorting establishments where rye is used to disentagle the hair, they
become affected with the disease. The handling of dusty grain and feeds may
lead to infection from Aspergillus. Saxer also went into historical details
giving his experiments with mycosis in man. In 1857 Aspergillus was observed
by Rivolta in the pharyngeal abscess of a horse. Gotti.observed it in an auric-
ular catarrh of a dog. Pech observed mycotic pneumonia in seven horses,
where they had been fed mouldy hay. Several cases where the Aspergillus
occurred in the trachea of cows have also been reported. Pearson and Ravene!
record a case of pneumomycosis of the lung of a cow.
Infection takes place generally by the inhalation of the spores. The spores
germinate in the bronchial branches, develop a mycelium and produce conidio-
phores and spores on the surface. Drs. Mohler and Buckley, calling attention
to the various aspergilli which have been found, say:
Numerous experiments have been tried with the various fungi, especially in relation
to the best temperatures for their development and fructification, and it has been found
that, although a few are able to germinate in the bronchioles, the Aspergillus fumigatus
is about the only one which develops a vigorous growth there and fructifies, the temperature
of the human body seeming to be quite suitable for this species. Most of the other molds
develop at a much lower temperature and are therefore usually harmless even if introduced
264 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
into the lungs. But for the Aspergillus fumigatus the lungs act as a veritable propagating
house, furnishing a moist, nutrient soil upon which to grow and a congenial, warm, moist
atmosphere with a sufficient amount of oxygen for its demand to come to complete maturity
and for fructification to take place. When the fungous growth is localized in the bronchial
mucous membrane, the condition is known as bronchomycosis. It may be that the tissues
are able to forestall entrance into their substance and finally the fungi die and recovery
takes place. In birds the growth may extend to the air sacs; this condition is then called
cytomycosis. Cases of cytomycosis are very rare; and when it does occur, emaciation of
the birds is the predominating symptom. When the lung tissue itself is the seat of invasion,
the term pneumonomycosis is applied. Invasion of the lung tissue by the mycelium is the
occasion for an intense inflammatory disturbance with positive chemotaxis. However, this
tissue reaction seems to offer the most trifling barrier to the parasitic encroachment in such
weakly subjects as birds. Generali states that delicate breeds of pigeons are noticeably
susceptible to this disease.
In regard to the symptoms in birds, he says:
The birds become listless, mope, and do not follow the rest of the flock. When made
to run they soon become exhausted and fall and have great difficulty in breathing. Even
when disturbed they appear very weak and gasp for breath, extending their heads and
making movements as if choking. There is a great thirst, but a diminution or complete
loss of appetite. The birds become rapidly emaciated, the wings are pendant, the eyelids
droop, comb and wattles become quite pale, and a general dejected appearance follows.
Usually there is an intense diarrhea which weakens the bird very much. In the experimental
disease the diarrhoea is an accompaniment just as in that of a spontaneous development,
The plumage is said to appear ruffled, and the respirations become croupy, even when the
disease has not advanced very far; later they are more rapid and a rattling noise can be
heard. In the final stages suffocation is threatened.
When the air sacs are affected very few symptoms manifest themselves, though emacia-
tion is marked. As in any similar condition of the lungs, fever is high, and symptoms
that would be manifested in pneumonia of fowls would, of course, show here. ‘There is
more or less catarrh of the trachea and bronchi, and if these alone were diseased there
would probably be nothing to attract notice other than symptoms of bronchitis. Bleeding
from the nostrils has been observed in man and in animals, and it may be that this would
also occasionally be seen in birds. If the air spaces in the bones become affected, lameness
with swelling of the joints may result. The duration of the disease is quite variable and
death may take place in from one to eight weeks from asphyxia or marasmus. Duration
depends a great deal upon the portion of the respiratory apparatus that is affected; if the
aspergillar nodules were localized in the mouth, as it is sometimes in pigeons, or in the
bones or air sacs, the duration of the disease would, of course, be much longer than if in
the bronchi or lung substance.
The pathological lesions are as follows:
The actinomycotic masses are noteworthy. The fungus may frequently be-
come localized in kidneys, and muscles of heart.
The microscopic examination of these organs disclosed a picture simulating the gross
appearance of an advanced case of pulmonary tuberculosis, with the exception that the
bronchial tubes were almost completely plugged with a greenish velvety membranous
lining.
In the bronchial divisions not wholly occluded by the croupous exudate are seen the
characteristic aspergillar fruitheads in various stages of development, from that of a
slight bulging end of the hypha to those giving off their spores. Included within this
alveolar exudate are quite a few leucocytes and red blood cells, but their presence is by
no means constant. ‘The bronchial mucosa is often eroded and the lining epithelium re-
placed by a fibrinous coagula or by a membranous material composed of matted mycelial
threads from which hyphae extend into the air space, forming spore-bearing fruitheads,
owing to the presence of oxygen.
In animals in which the disease was experimentally induced by the injection of the
spores into the blood vessels or into the lung substance, miliary lesions resembling tubercu-
lar formations were quite noticeable in the lung tissues, and in these an occasional giant
cell was discovered. In the lungs of a chicken which was inoculated directly into the
lung substance, an acute miliary pseudo-tuberculosis was produced, accompanied by intense
hemorrhages into the interstitial tissues, as was also the case in intravenous inoculations.
In these tubercular nodules penetrating filaments could be made out, but the spores could
ASCOMYCETES—EUASCI—ASPERGILLUS 265
not be surely demonstrated, or at least differentiated from other cellular elements. Often
the bronchial ramifications were the seat of hemorrhage, in which a noteworthy increase
in the number of leucocytes could be observed.
In large rabbits the pathological lesions appeared to be as follows:
Rabbit No. 1008 failed to show any marked symptoms for the first two weeks after
inoculation. It then began to lose weight, and on the twenty-fifth day was chloroformed.
The postmortem examination showed an involvement of the liver, spleen, kidneys, and
abdominal serous membranes, as in the preceding rabbit, but to a less extent. The organs
of the thoracic cavity were apparently normal.
The optimum temperature of growth for the fungus is from 35°-40° C.
Ceni and Besta in their investigations isolated a toxin from two species of
Aspergillus, the A. flavus and A. fumigatus. Dogs inoculated intra-abdominally
with large doses died within a few hours, showing tetanic symptoms and gen-
eral hyperemia of all the organs. This work has not, however, been confirmed.
Drs. Mohler and Buckley did not succeed in producing serious symptoms with
the filtered product when injected into rabbits.
The Aspergilli also produce disease of the eye but, according to Plaut,
this disease is not of frequent occurrence; he discusses several cases under
the head of keratomycosis. One case described by Leber is as follows: A
farmer forty-five years of age, while threshing had the misfortune to have
some chaff of oats thrown into his eye. The sclerotic coat became inflamed,
followed by healing and total leucoma (leucom). Another case is cited where
a pear was thrown against the eye of a farmer, and another case of a fifty-
three year old patient, a miller by profession, who had a slight fever, his
right eye becoming inflamed. The conjunctiva had the appearance of trachoma.
The sclerotic coat was clouded and the surface of the eye brittle, consisting of
threads of fungi. Fuchs, who investigated this case, determined that the fungus
was Aspergillus. Aspergillus fumigatus has also been observed in the nasal
cavities where it produces necrosis and a disagreeable odor.
In a review of a paper by E. Bodin and L. Gautier * the following state-
ments are made with reference to the Toxin found in Aspergillus fumigatus.
From a study of this fungus in cultures and in experimental animals it was found
that Aspergillus fumigatus produces a toxin which may be rightfully compared with the
toxins of bacteria. For the formation of this toxin in cultures it is necessary to have a
mixture of protein, especially of the peptone type, and some carbohydrate, especially glucose
saccharose, maltose, or dextrin. The reaction of the toxin must be either neutral or
alkaline. The effects of the toxin are chiefly observed in the nervous system and are
produced more or less rapidly by the method of inoculation. The symptoms of poisoning
from the toxin are muscular convulsions resembling tetanus and leading to death within
a few hours if the animal does not recover. ‘The rabbit and dog are very susceptible to
the toxin, while the guinea pig, cat, mouse, and white rat are more refractory. The dog
and cat are naturally immune to the spores of A. fumigatus, but are quite susceptible to
the toxin produced by the fungus.
Treatment: ‘To prevent the disease, do not feed mouldy grain or fodder.
Separate at once all diseased animals from the healthy. Use only thoroughly
clean dishes; the troughs and boxes should be cleaned with formaldehyde.
Very little can be done in the way of treatment in the case of birds. Mohler
and Buckley say that if a large number of birds are affected at one time, or if
those affected are very valuable, treatment may be tried in the form of medicated
vapors, such as those generated from wood tar or sulphur. A small quantity
ot wood tar is put in a pint of water and stirred with a redhot iron. The person
doing the fumigating should remain in the room and immediately remove any
* The Ann. Inst. Pasteur, 20 (106) No. 3, of the Experiment Station Record.
266 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
birds that are overcome by the vapors. Burning sulphur or vapors of formalin
may be tried in like manner. Hydrogen peroxid, solutions of potassium iodid,
or hyposulphite of soda may be used as intratracheal injections, and in case of
local nodules in the mouth or nostrils the tincture of iodine may be applied to
them with beneficial results.
It appears from the investigations with reference to kerato-mycosis, that
infection generally occurs through the medium of feed, straw, or something
that is thrown forcibly into the eye. According to Plaut the simplest and
surest method of dealing with the disease is to use a 2% solution of salicylic
acid, three times daily, but inhalation of an atmosphere containing iodine
is recommended by some of the German investigators, or the inhalation of
etheral oils. Immunity cannot be obtained by beginning with the injection
of small quantities of spores and increasing the dose. Dogs are not immune
against aspergilli. Mice are immune.
Aspergillus niger. Van Tieghem
An abundant mycelium in the substratum and on the surface becoming
blackish; conidiophores long; sterigmata branched; conidia 34-41% m@ in diam-
eter, roughened; spherical or cylindrical sclerotia. The fungus contains diastase,
invertase, and emulsin; it breaks up tannin into gallic acid and glucose, and
converts sugar into oxalic acid.
Pathogenic properties. ‘This fungus has been found both in the lungs and
the ear, although less pathogenic than the preceding species.
Aspergillus subfuscus. Olsen-Gade
Mycelium olive yellow or brownish when mature, in and on the substratum;
conidiophores short, club-shaped; spores spherical, colorless.
Distribution. Found in Europe; closely resembles A. fumigatus.
Pathogenic properties. Pathogenic, but less so than the A. fumigatus or
A. niger.
Aspergillus nidulans. (Eidam.)
The mycelium forms greenish masses; later the mass assumes a reddish
color; conidiophores 0.6—8 millimeters long and 8-10 across, colorless,
branched; sterigmata consist of a basal branching cell and two or more branches,
each branch containing from 20 to 30 conidia; perithecia yellowish, 0.2—3
millimeters in diameter; ascospores 8.
Distribution. Found in Europe.
Pathogenic properties. 'The disease appears on the second day after
inoculation in guinea pigs and death occurs in 60 hours. Kidneys are enlarged
and show small white dots. White masses also occur in the peritoneum. It is
pathogenic for cattle and man, and is occasionally found in the human ear.
PYRENOMYCETINEAE
An important division of the fungi, containing about 10,000 species, many
of which are troublesome parasites on cultivated plants. The mycelium is
composed of delicate distinct hyphae or of closely coherent threads, frequently
forming a pseudo-parenchymatous tissue; hymenium enclosed in a subglobose
envelope called a perithecium, or with an opening at the apex, which is often
ASCOMYCETES—EUASCI_ASPERGILLUS 267
Fig. 89a. Aspergillus nidulans. 1.
Conidiophore. 2. Branch of mycelium
with asci and ascospores, magnified. 2.
Asci. 3. Cross section. Ascus. All
greatly magnified. (After Eidam.).
prolonged to form a short tube or beak; numerous transparent asci arise from
the base of the perithecium, these contain the ascospores; between the asci
slender filiform bodies, called the paraphyses. Polymorphic fungi with conidia,
spermogonia, and pycnidia, supposed to be connected with the ascigerous stage.
The formation of the ascospores is in some cases presented by the development
of sexual organs in which genuine fertilization occurs. The reproduction can
be illustrated by the manner in which it occurs in the powdery mildew of the
lilac, Microsphaera Almi.
The mycelium spreads over the surface of the lilac leaf; the fungus draws
its nourishment from its host by means of haustoria which penetrate the epi-
dermal cells; the mycelium produces erect branches which bear these spores
in a moniliform chain, the end spore being the oldest; these summer spores
germinate immediately and propagate the fungus; later two hyphae cross and
there arises an oval cell, the oogonium, which is separated from the hypha by
a cell-wall at the base; from the same hypha springs a longer and thinner cell,
also cut off by a cell-wall; this cell is above the oogonium, and is known as the
antheridium; from the base of the oogonium other cells arise which soon enclose
it; finally a brown perithecium is formed which bears dichotomously branched
appendages; the perithecium contains the asci, in which are found the asco-
spores, which germinate, probably, in the spring. ‘The accompanying figure
after Harper illustrates the development.
Another type of one of the Sphaeriaceae, the Gibbellina cerealis, is common —
on stems of wheat where it produces at first a grayish brown circular spot, the
mycelium frequently encircling the stem. The conidia are oval, the perithecia
are immersed.
268 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
ed j
SS
mr = = -
Ka
Os)
= ey
cS
Fig 90. Stem Blight (Gibbellina cerealis), one of the
Sphaeriaceae. a, general appearance. b, asci with
ascospores and paraphyses. c, stroma, mycelium, and
perithecium. After Cavara.
PERISPORIALES
Perithecia spherical, closed, or with the ostiolum obscure, coriaceous or
brittle carbonaceous, opening irregularly, generally without stroma, but mostly
seated on a well developed, superficial mycelium. This division includes the
order Erysibaceae.
ERYSIBACEAE.
Superficial mycelium, branching, septate, closely adhering to the surface by
means of the haustoria; asci arising from the base of the perithecium, delicate,
thin-walled, colorless, oblong, obovate or suborbicular, stalked, usually contain-
ing from 2-8 ascospores; perithecium spherical with appendages, without
ostiolum; conidia (Oidium) simple, colorless, cylindrical, oval or ovate, borne
one above the other on septate, colorless hyphae. Contains many important
ASCOMYCETES—EUASCI—PERISPORIALES 269
parasitic fungi, like the powdery mildew of the grape (Uncinula spiralis),
mildew of lilac (Microsphaera Alni), mildew of sunflower (Erysiphe Cichor-
acearum), mildew of cherry (Podosphaera tridactyla).
Erysiphe. (Hedw.)
Perithecium containing several asci, appendages with simple threads, sim-
ilar to and frequently interwoven with the mycelium. A small genus of 20
species of wide distribution.
Erysiphe communis. (Wallr.)
Amphigenous, mycelium abundant, persistent, or sometimes evanescent ;
perithecia variable in size and reticulate, appendages variable in length, often
long; asci 4-8 or more, ascospores 4-8.
Distribution. Found on a large variety of different hosts but common on
plants of the order of Leguminosae, especially the forage plants like the pea
(Vicia sativa), bean, clover and other members of the clovers.
ONE T
MEE
ea
CAL
Fig. 91. Powdery Mildews. 1-3. Sphaerotheca Castagnei on Hop. 1. Part of leaf
of hop with perithecia shown in the form of dots. 2. Perithecia with tortuous appendages
(ap) x 175. 3. Ascus with spores within the ascospores x 380. 4. Powdery Mildew on
Cherry (Podosphaera tridactyla), conidiophore bearing conidia (c). bere Microthyrium
microscopicum. 5. On leaf. 6. Perithecium, greatly magnified. 7. Ascus and ascospores.
1 after Wettstein. 2-4 after Tulasne. 5 after Lindau. 6-7 after Winter.
270 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Fig. 92. Powdery Mildew. Sphaerotheca Casiagnei. 1. Oogonium (0) and anther-
idium (a). 2. Separation of antheridium cell. 3. Fertilization and formation of addi-
tional cells. 5-8. Further development of cells. All greatly magnified. After Harper.
Fig. 93. Powdery Miidew of Grass (Erysiphe graminis).
A. Oidium stage and mycelium m. B. Perithecium with
appendages and mycelium m. CC. Perithecium with asci
and ascospores. After Frank.
ASCOMYCETES—EUASCI—PERISPORIALES yi
Fig. 94. Powdery Mildew of Bluegrass (Erysiphe graminis). Oidium stage; leaves at
oe sent magnified, the one above more highly, showing the powdery substance. (Charlotte
. King).
2re MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Poisonous properties. ‘The Veterinarians of Europe ascribe to these mil-
dews a form of stomatitis.
Erysiphe graminis D C.
Amphigenous, often epiphyllous, mycelium dense, felt-like, persistent, white
or gray, sometimes tinted brown; perithecium immersed in the mycelium, few
and scattered, large, about 225 », in diameter; asci 16-25 s oblong or oval,
stalked, ascospores 8 or rarely 4; appendages rather short.
Distribution and Hosts. Found on many different grasses like blue grass
(Poa pratensis), fowl meadow grass (Poa serotina), occasionally also on wheat
or orchard grass. The following rather popular account treats of this disease
as it is common in the west.
Every one who has had occasion to walk through a blue grass meadow
after a rain, especially in damp and shaded places close to the ground, must
have noticed a white mealy covering on the blades of many of the leaves. The
Germans have called this mehlthau (literally translated meal dew), which is
certainly very expressive of its appearance. An examination with a microscope
will show that this white substance is composed of spores and a mycelium.
The mycelium is cobwebby and spreads over the surface, but does not pene-
trate the leaf. In numerous places erect branches are produced, these bear
numerous spores. This stage was formerly called Oidium monilioides, being
named Oidium because the spores resemble an egg, although the resemblance
is not marked in all cases of Oidium; the species was called monilioides because
it was necklace like, referring to the manner in which the spores are borne.
Worthington G. Smith states that the spores are so small that it would take
about a million to cover a square inch.
In a powdery mildew occurring on the squirrel-tail grass, and supposed
to be the same fungus, these spores are also capable of immediate germination.
On blue grass the fungus frequently does not produce perithecia but ends its
existence with the formation of conidia. It produces perithecia abundantly on
wheat in Iowa.
These conidia or summer spores germinate, under favorable conditions,
in from ten to sixteen hours. The temperature most favorable for germination
is from 17-26° C. In a powdery mildew occurring on the squirrel-tail grass,
and supposed to be the same fungus, these spores are also capable of im-
mediate germination.
Under favorable conditions, especially moisture and damp weather, the
fungus spreads rapidly. The leaf of grass affected by this fungus soon dries,
and when the affected plants are disturbed, small clouds of dust arise, especi-
ally in shady places. The perfect stage of the fungus is not of common oc-
currence, though if careful search is made in the fall, small black specks may
be seen; these are the perithecia and contain the asci and ascospores. It is
the resting stage or winter condition of the fungus. The writer found the
perfect fungus abundant on Poa Wolfii in Colorado, and Carver found it
abundant on blue grass near Ames one season. The spores of the Oidium
stage do not retain their power of germination very long, but the ascospores
contained in the perithecium germinate the following spring, and when the
tube comes in contact with the proper host the mycelium spreads over the
surface of the leaf and causes the mealy appearance.
ASCOMYCETES—EUASCI—PERISPORIALES 273
Poisonous properties. ‘This species is abundant and often causes serious
trouble; it certainly renders the hay nearly worthless to be fed to animals.
It often, no doubt, gives rise to a stomatitis such as is described for other
fungi.
HYPOCREALES
Perithecia spherical or ellipsoidal, with an ostiolum; stroma when present
variously colored, reddish, yellow, never black or hard.
Fig. 95. Various species of Cordyceps. 1. C. ophioglossoides. 2. C. militaris, a
Stroma on a caterpillar (c). 3. Stroma on a fruiting form of Elaphomyces granulatus.
3. Ascospore x 200. 4. Conidiophore x 350. 5. Conidia of C. ophioglossoides. 6. C.
cinerea on a beetle (c). 7. C. Taylori on a caterpillar (c). a in all figures sterile, b
fertile part of the Stroma. 1 and 6 after Lindau. 3-5 after Brefeld.
HY POCREACEAE
Simple or compound; perithecia somewhat coriaceous, never black; bright
colored, opening by a subcentral ostiolum, stroma soft, waxy, or occasionally
cottony. A very numerous family containing many species. Contains the genera
Nectria, of 250 species, some being parasitic upon trees; the Gibberella and the
Hypocrea upon barks of trees, etc., Cordyceps, parasitic upon various insects,
C. militaris being found upon Lepidotera, the conidial stage of which is Jsaria
farinosa, the C. Ravenelii upon the larvae of the June beetle; Polystigma
rubrum, parasitic upon the plum; Epichloe typhina, the so-called Cat-tail
fungus found upon various species of grass, especially timothy and orchard
grass. Contains also the Gibberella Saubinetii, a parasite on wheat, which is a
stage of Fusarium roseum described later in this work.
tion of
summer
view in
ing elongated bodies in the center.
truding.
rye.
MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
ice
ose
96.—Normal ovary of rye. Fig. 2—Same invaded by Claviceps. Fig. 3—Cross-seec-
ovary showing mycelium and spores of sphacelial stage.
spores. Fig. 4—Sclerotium stage. Fig. 5—Sclerotium stage. Fig. 6—General
sphacelial stage. Fig. 7—Development of ergot in spring. Fig. 8—Cross-section of
globular head showing flask shaped perithecia. Fig. 9—Asci. A single perithecium show-
Fig. 10—A single ascus with filiform ascospores pro-
These spores (reproductive bodies) germinate and infect the young ovary of
After Tulasne. U. S. Dept. Agrl.
The round bodies are
ASCOMYCETES—EUASCI—ERGOT ps
Claviceps, Tul. Ergot.
Stroma erect, consisting of a sterile stem; subglobose, fertile head from
a subcylindrical, black, hard sclerotium; perithecium immersed in the stroma,
flask shaped; asci, clavate-cylindrical; ascospores, filiform, colorless.
Claviceps purpurea, (Fr.) Tul.
Sclerotium variable in length from % to 1 inch long or more; long
cylindrical; generally somewhat curved, wrinkled, purplish on the outside,
white within; usually several fruiting bodies from the same sclerotium; heads
spherical, tuberculose, borne on short flexuose stems; asci narrow, linear, 8-
spored, ascospores filiform, continuous, attenuated toward the end, 50-76 u
long.
Ergot is a stage of a minute parasitic fungus; although its true nature
was not known by early writers, it is mentioned by many of them. Lonicer,
about the middle of the sixteenth century, mentions its specific use. Thalius
applied the name of “ad sistendum sanguineum.”
Bauhin used the name of Secale luxurians. De Candolle called it Sclero-
tium clavus. Although other names have been applied to it, the credit of
working out the life history belongs to Tulasne, one of the most eminent of
French mycologists.
There are still many persons who believe that ergot is a degenerate
kernel of rye or wheat, but the researches of Tulasne and other mycologists
have laid at rest many of the vague theories concerning it. The black, purple,
or dark gray spurs found in the flowers of rye, wheat, and other grasses are
simply one stage of a parasitic fungus, known as Claviceps purpurea. ‘These
spurs consist of a compact mass of threads known as the sclerotium stage; it
was formerly called Sclerotium clavus.
No changes occur in ergot while it remains in the head, but the following
spring, when laid on damp earth, it produces at different points small, roundish
patches which are somewhat elevated. Soon a small white head appears which
elongates, becoming stalked, and bearing a globular head at the tip. These
heads change from a grayish yellow to a pinkish color. A cross section
shows that the central portion is made up of closely woven hyphae or fungus
threads, while the edge contains a number of flask-shaped bodies, the perithecia,
in which are found elongated bodies known as asci; each ascus contains eight
filiform spores, the ascospores. The ascospores germinate and when coming
in contact with a very young ovary the mycelium penetrates the delicate
walls of the ovary and gradually displaces it. It is quite easy to trace out
its life history by placing the ergot in damp sand and allowing it to remain
over winter.
The first indication of ergot in the summer is the formation of the so-
called honey-dew, a sweetish and rather disagreeable fluid, which is eagerly
sought by flies and other insects which feed upon it. This fluid contains
a large number of small spores so that insects can readily carry the fungus
from a diseased ovary to one not diseased. These spores germinate im-
mediately. This stage is called the sphacelia, and formerly was held to be a
distinct fungus. In this stage the mass which has replaced the ovary is soft,
but as it becomes older it hardens; ultimately a hard and compact mass, the
ergot, is formed.
276 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Distribution and hosts. Found on a large number of host plants. Rye
is more subject to it than any of the other cultivated cereals. The largest
specimens are usually produced on isolated specimens of rye coming up in
fields. It seldon happens that all of the ovaries are affected. Wheat, especial-
ly winter wheat, is subject to the disease. The officinal ergot is usually
obtained from rye. In Europe it has been reported on oats. Mr. C. W.
Warburton found it on the same host in Iowa, in 1909.
Of our native wild grasses, wild ryes (Elymus robustus, E. virginicus,
E. striatus, E. canadensis, Asprella hystrix) are most subject to the disease.
Most cases of ergotism in the United States undoubtedly result from the
ergot on various species of Elymus; in Iowa on the Elymus robustus, which
is a common plant everywhere. Agropryon occidentale, a grass not uncommon
in northwestern Iowa, and Quack Grass (Agropyron repens), are also much
subject to its attacks. Scarcely a head of the Western Wheat Grass cultivated
on the college farm could be found which did not have some ergot. This may
be for the same reason that it occurs most abundantly on rye, namely, that
the grasses occurred in isolated places. In some pastures, timothy (Phleum
pratense), is much subject to the attack of Claviceps purpurea. Thus in an
old pasture in Wisconsin I observed a large percentage of timothy which
contained many heads which were ergotized. Blue grass (Poa pratensis),
Poa annua, Calamagrostis canadensis, Agrostis alba, Glyceria fluitans, and
many others, in some seasons and localities, are diseased. Unusually large
spemimens sometimes occur on Wild Rice (Zizania) in Iowa.
It may be possible that some of the forms of ergot on grass may be
referred to other species. Halsted states, however, that ergot on Elymus
robustus is Claviceps purpurea. The Hordeum jubatum contained apparently
the same species, with some minor differences but these were due to the
nature of the host. Claviceps microcephala (Wallr.) Tul., occurs on Phrag-
mites, C. setulosa (Quel.) Sacc. with yellow stroma on Poa, and C. pusilla
Ces on Andropogon Ischaemum.
Poisonous properties. The subject of ergot and ergotism is one of con-
siderable importance to stockmen in many parts of the country. Scarcely a
year passes without some complaints being received by the state veterinarians
of the injurious effects of ergot. The writer receives several complaints of
this kind every year. But the cases of ergotism today are not nearly so fre-
quent as they were 40 or 50 years ago. We will, therefore, append here a
short history of the disease.
Epidemics of ergotism have, without doubt, been correctly referred, be-
fore the tenth century. Wood states that epidemics of ergotism or chronic
ergot poisoning have been recorded from time to time since the days of
Galen (130-200 A. D.) and of Caesar (B. C. 190-44). From the ninth to the
thirteenth ceutnry epidemics were frequent in France, and in the twelfth in
Spain. They were first called plagues but later received special names. In
1596 Hesse and adjoining provinces were visited by this plague which was
attributed to the presence of ergot in grain. In the epidemic in Silesia in
1722, the king of Prussia ordered an exchange of sound rye for the affected
grain. Freiburg was visited in 1702, Switzerland in 1715-16, Saxony in 1716,
and other districts of Germany in 1717, 1736, 1741-42. France was visited in
1650, 1670, and 1674. From 1765 to 1769 it was abundant in Sweden in rye
SSS
ASCOMYCETES—EUASCI—ERGOT 277
and barley. Linnaeus attributed it to the grain of Raphanus raphanistrum,
which occurred in France in 1816, in Lorraine and Burgundy; it was especially
fatal to the poorer inhabitants.
It has been observed that these epidemics follow a rainy season. Fleming
states that in 1041, when the weather was so unpropitious, tempests, rains, and
inundations occurring, many cattle perished from the disease. “In 1098, after
inundations amd heavy fogs, there was a general epizootic among cattle in
Germany. In the same year ergotism appeared in the human species.”
Dr. Randall, in 1849, called attention to a disease in New York, in which
the involved parts were finally invariably affected with dry gangrene. He states
that in the severe climate of New York farmers allow their cattle to winter in
fields on blue grass (Poa pratensis) which is rich in ergot. A disease known as
“hoof-ail” was correctly ascribed to ergot by James Mease, of Philadelphia, prior
to 1838. The disease was quite severe in Orange county, New York, in 1820. It
was minutely described by Arnell. In 1857, the disease was quite severe in
Portage county, Ohio. A committee appointed by the Farmers’ Association of
Edinburg reported that the disease was due to ergot contained in the hay
eaten by cattle. In recent years, epizootics of ergotism have been reported
by Law in New York, Stalker in Iowa, and Faville in Colorado. In 1884, a
very serious outbreak occurred in Kansas which was at first diagnosed as
“foot-and-mouth disease.’ Dr. Salmon found, upon examining samples of
hay from various localities in the state, that these contained considerable quan-
tities of wild rye (Elymus virginicus, var. submuticus) which in turn contained
a large amount of ergot, in one case, 12 per cent and in another 10 per cent
being found. From this he estimated that 5-6 per cent of the entire weight
of the plant must have been ergot and that a twenty-pound ration of hay
would contain four ounces of ergot.
Dr. Harshberger has called attention to an outbreak of ergotism from the
use of ergotized red top, the fungus being common on red top throughout the
United States and being one of the most common impurities in red top seed.
The ergot contains the substance leucin and the non-nitrogenous substance
ergotine, which according to the earlier investigations was regarded as the
active principle and as an alkaloid. ess to Wenzell ergot contains the
two alkaloids, ecbolin and ergotin C,,H,,N ,O, an amorphous, alkaline, feebly
bitter substance. But according to ce ee investigations these substances are
identical. Tanret isolated the crystallizable alkaloid ergotinin C,.H,,N,O,;
this is a crystalline, slightly bitter substance, subsequently Kobert found that
this substance would not produce the action accredited to it and attributed its
action to ergotinic acid and the alkaloid cornutin. The more recent investiga-
tion of Jacobi attributes the poisonous action to chrysotoxin, an amorphous
glucosidal acid. Secalinotoxin is a compound of sphacelotoxin, and secalin
ae ENO; accompanied by the harmless substance, ergochrysin. According
to Kobert cornutin is an alkaloid having a specific action on the uterus,
causing it to contract; sphacelic acid, a non-crystallizable and non-nitrogenous
substance which causes the poisoning and gangrene; ergotinic acid, a nitrogenous
glucoside without action on the uterus and narcotic in its effects. Besides
these substances it contains others, prominent among them being a sugar called
mycose, which is also present in other fungi. Ergot stimulates the involuntary
muscles of the stomach and the intestines, it causes a constriction of the arter-
278 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
ioles and veins throughout the body with an increase of blood pressure. In
toxic doses it paralyzes both the vasomotor centers and the heart muscle.
It appears from the experiments of Dale! and Barger and Carr? that
cornutin does not occur as such in ergot but is an artificial decomposition. ‘Tan-
ret discovered the first well defined crystalline alkaloid which he called ergot-
inin. "The secalin of Jacobi3 is identical with ergotinin. Barger and Carr
separate a second alkaloid which can be recognized chemically; to this they gave
the name of ergotoxin, C,.H,,O,N,. This substance is of great physiological
potency. According to Dale 4 ergotoxin produces in doses of a few milligrams
“not only the characteristic reaction of ergot described by him, but also gangrene
of the Cock’s-comb, and other ergot effects described by Kobert and others to
sphacelic acid.”
According to Cronyn and Hendersons ergotoxin is a highly active alkaloid
and has the properties of ergot most desired in medicine. It brings on long
enduring vaso-constriction, increases uterine movements when injected in-
Fig. 98.—Effects of
Ergotism: Hoofs_ of
cattle showing flesh
sloughing away. (Sal-
mon.)
travenously and the same to a less extent when injected subcutaneously, but
when given per os has very little action.
The toxicology of ergot is well described by Dr. Winslow as follows:
Enormous single doses are required to poison animals or man. When as much as
two drachms of ergot to the pound, live weight, are gtven to dogs, death is not constant.
Three ounces, however, have proved fatal to small dogs. Acute poisoning is characterized
by vomiting (in dogs), profuse salivation, dilation of the pupils, rapid breathing and
frequent pulse. The animal cries out, has convulsive twitchings, staggering gait, paraplegia,
intense thirst, and coma, terminating in death. Horses, cattle, and sheep are unaffected
by, any ordinary quantity of the drug.
Chronic poisoning or ergotism rarely occurs in animals owing to continuous ingestion
of ergotized grains. It is characterized by gastro-intestinal indigestion, with mausea,
vomiting, colic, diarrhoea or constipation, and abortion ensues in pregnant animals. In
addition to gastro-intestinal irritation the symptoms naturally assume two forms: 1. The
gangrenous form; 2. the spasmodic form. In the first variety of ergotism there are
coldness and anesthesia of the extremities, including the feet, ears, and tail of quadrupeds;
the comb, tongue, and beak of birds, — followed by the appearance of passive congestion,
blebs, and dry gangrene in the vicinity of these parts. ‘The hoofs and beaks often drop off.
1 Jour. Phys. 34:163, 1906.
2 The alkaloids of Ergot. Jour. Chem. Soc. 91:337, 1907. ‘These writers give a full
literature on the subject.
3 Arch. Expt. Path. Par 39:104.
4Jour. Phys. 34:163.
5 Jour. Pharma, and Expt. Therapeutics. Aug. 1909.
a
ASCOMYCETES—EUASCI—ERGOT 279
Death ensues from general exhaustion. In the spasmodic form are seen tonic contraction
of the flexor tendons of the limbs and anaesthesia of the extremities; muscular trembling
and general tetanic spasm, with opisthotonos, convulsions and delirium. Death also occurs
from asthenia.
Griinfeld fed various animals with sphacelic acid in food. In the cocks,
gangrene soon appeared affecting the comb; next the wattles, tongue linings,
and crop. In hogs, the ears became gangrenous and fell off. Horses and cows
fed upon grains containing ergot lose their hoofs, ears, and tails. The cor-
nutin, according to Kobert, acts through the nerve centers. Microscopic exam-
ination of the abdominal and thoracic regions shows a toxic polyneuritis.
Dr. McNeil in describing the disease says:
Ergot stimulates the nerve centers that cause the contraction of the small blood vessels
supplying the different parts of the body and cause one of the two forms of ergotism,
namely, a nervous form, and a gangrenous form.
Nervous Ergotism: In this form the contraction of the blood vessels of the brain
produces dullness and depression. ‘The anima] also suffers from gastro-intestinal catarrh,
refuses food, and gradually passes into a condition of general wasting. The nervous form,
however, may assume an entirely different aspect and the animal dies suddenly in delirium
or spasms, or gradually from paralysis.
Gangrenous Ergotism: In this common form the checking of the blood, resulting from
the contraction of the small blood vessels, causes a loss of a part or of all the limb below
the knee or hock, the tail, or the ears. This form of the disease may manifest itself
by the formation of ulcers at the top of the hoof or between the toes, and a toe may be lost
or the entire hoof shed. The affected part dries, a small furrow or line of separation
appears, completely surrounding the limb, dividing the living from the dead mummified
tissue.
DOTHIDEALES
Perithecia reduced, asci arising from the stroma and not separable from it,
stroma present, not fleshy; black or dark colored ostiolum present.
DOTHIDEACEAE
Stroma pulvinate, elongated, black or nearly black, coriaceous; perithecia
inseparable from the stroma, asci 4-8 spored; hyaline, yellowish or brown.
Phyllachora, Nitschke.
Stroma variable, elliptical, oblong or lanceolate, covered by the epidermis,
black, roughened, ascospores ovate, elliptical, or oblong, mostly hyaline. About
200 species.
Phyllachora Trifolu, (Pers.) Fckl.
Stroma on the lower surface of the leaf, gregarious, collected in small,
elongated groups extending along the nerves of the leaf, black, subglobose,
prominent, often confluent; ascospores elliptical, hyaline, continuous, 10-20
In the early part of the season small whitish or pale brown spots appear on
the leaf, which contains the mycelium of the fungus. Dr. Trelease says:
This fruits on the lower surface, producing numerous tufts of necklace-shaped threads,
each of which ends in a 2-celled, egg-shaped conidia-spore. These tufts of threads, which,
like the spores, are’of a deep brown color, are packed so closely together as to completely
cover the spots, though under a hand lens they can be distinguished as separate panules.
To the naked eye they appear dead-black. Later in the season similar spots are occupied
by small, coal-black fruits that contain stylospores. Winter spores, produced in asci, are
not known. The conidial form of this fungus is especially common on white clover, though
both forms are at times found abundantly on red clover and other species.
The Polythrincium is common on red clover and is one of the numerous
species which may be injurious to cattle. :
280 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Fig. 99. Black Spot of Grasses (Phyllachora graminis). A.
Cross section of leaf through a black mass of the fungus. P.
Perithecia. B. An ascus with ascospores. a, b. Spots on grass
leaf caused by the fungus. After Frank and Trelease.
Phyllachora graminis (Pers.) Fckl.
Stroma scattered or confluent, penetrating the leaf and more or less prom-
inent on both sides, covered by a black and shining epidermis, roughened;
ostiola obscure; asci short, stalked, cylindrical, 75-80 x 7-8 «, ascospores 8,
paraphyses present.
Phyllachora graminis, occurs on many cultivated and wild grasses; other
species occur on clover and other leguminous plants. This parasitic fungus
disease causes blackish spots on the lower or both surfaces of the leaf. The
fungus causing these black spots on grasses has been called the black spot
disease.
During August, and especially later, the coal black spots along the veins
are especially prominent; they are considerably less than one-eighth of an inch
in length and width and occur on both surfaces of the leaf, but are more
abundant on the upper. These black spots are composed of dense mycelium,
which in the green leaves bears numerous small spores which serve to proga-
pate the fungus in the summer. In dead leaves, small perithecia are found,
which contain numerous elongated bodies, the asci, within which are found eight
small, colorless spores, known as ascospores; these latter carry the fungus over
winter.
Distribution and Hosts. Widely distributed in both Europe and North
America, very common upon Quack Grass, Wild Rye, Bottle Grass, Panic
Grass, etc.
Poisonous properties. The genus Phyllachora is abundant at times and is
associated with stomatitis.
SPHAERIALES
Perithecia generally with a distinct ostiolum, of various consistency, not
reddish or membranous, brown or blackish; stroma when present dark colored
outside and whitish within. Contains the families: Sordariaceae, found upon
decaying plants and substances; Chaetomiaceae, with superficial perithecia, gen-
ASCOMYCETES—EUASCI—DOTHIDEACEAE 281
erally with short ostiolum and an apical tuft of hairs or bristles; one species
Chaetomium chartarum common on paper. Sphaeriaceae, with membranaceous
perithecia, apex perforated with a simple pore, contains a large number of
parasitic fungi like the strawberry rust or spot disease (Sphaerella Fragariae),
and the spot disease of the currant (Cercospora angulata).
FUNGI IMPERFECTI
The fungi included in this group are simply form genera, many of the
species belong to the Pyrenomycetes, some belong to the Phychomycetes, and
some to Hymenomycetes. In this connection we shall describe a few only
which may cause trouble in forage.
Helminthosporium gramineum, Rabh. Yellow Leaf Disease of Barley
Spots in parallel rows, causing the leaves to become marked with yellow
lines of pale green color; mycelium of the tissue colorless; conidiophores
brownish on the surface, spores large 3-6-celled.
Distribution. Widely distributed in Europe and North America on barley.
Helminthosporium turcicum, Pass. Leaf Browning of corn
Spots sharply limited, conidiophores brownish elongated, bearing several
brown spores. Widely distributed in Europe on corn, and also in North
America.
Helminthosporium inconspicuum, EB. & E.
Leaves dead and discolored, discoloration sometimes interrupted by spots
of various sizes; conidiophores brown with several-celled conidia.
d
_, Fig. 100. Yellow Leaf Disease of Barley (Helminthosporium gramineum). a. Hypha
arising from short cells. . Conidium and to the left a cluster of conidiophores. d.
Mycelium.
282 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Fig. 101. Spores of Yellow Leaf Disease of Barley (Helminthosporium gramineum).
a. and e. Spores germinating. d. Conidiophore. 2. Leaf browning of Corn (Helmin-
thosporum turcicum). Spore and conidiophore to the left. To the right, conidiophore
pushing through stoma.
Distribution and hosts. On corn, widely distributed in North America.
Poisonous properties. All of these fungi may be regarded as injurious,
possibly producing stomatitis.
Scolecotrichum graminis, Fuckel
Elongated brown or purplish-brown spots, the centers of which are gray
or whitish and contain minute black dots; these small dark spots contain the
tufts of brown fungus threads, which make their way out through the stomata;
the hyphae are somtimes septate and the spores are usually borne at the end
or occasionally in a lateral position; these fruiting hyphae bear small, smoky-
brown, two-celled spores; the cells of the leaf become much altered, because
the colorless threads of the fungus permeate them. On barley the disease is
marked by brown or purplish-brown spots which appear on the leaf transversely.
Distribution. Widely distributed in Europe and North America.
Poisonous properties. May possibly produce mycotic stomatitis.
FUNGI IMPERFECTI—SCOLECOTRICHUM 283
Fig. 10la. Spot Disease of Orchard
Grass (Scolectotrichum graminis). Cross-
section of leaf, general fruiting layer of
fungus with conidiophores and _ conidia. General appearance of fungus on
A, spores germinating. After Trelease. leaf of Orchard grass. After Trelease.
Polydesmus Mont. Rape Fungus
Sterile hyphae repent; fertile erect, simple or branched septate colorless
conidia, interstitial filiform, concatenate, fusiform or clavate; many septate and
opaque.
Polydesmus exitiosus Kihn,. Rape Fungus
Forming minute, punctate, elongated dark brown spots, conidia elongated or
somewhat clavate, narrowed upwardly, 18-12 septate; the septa but slightly con-
stricted, olive-brown in color, The conidia are 120-140 by 14-16 ; conidiophores
short, straight or slightly irregular, septate, making their way through the
stomata.
This fungus is widely distributed on rape and cabbage and has been referred
to as Alternaria brassicae. It is, however, thought to be a distinct fungus.
Poisonous properties. In Europe this fungus has long been associated with
mycotic-stomatitis of cattle, but mycotic-stomatitis may be produced as indi-
cated elsewhere, by other molds and fungi. This disease is characterized by in-
flammation and ulceration of the mucous membranes of the mouth. Saliva-
tion is a prominent symptom; the feet become swollen and sore. Dr. Mohler
Says:
“Superficial erosions of the skin, particularly of the muzzle, and of the teats and udders
of cows, may also be present, with some elevation of temperature and emanciation.”
The disease is not serious and in many cases recovery occurs. But where
treatment is not resorted to the disease may prove fatal, death occurring in from
6-8 days. Dr. Mohler states that in serious outbreaks it is about 0.5%..
284 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
The treatment should consist of first removing the herd from the infected
pasture or inclosure containing the fungus. They should be fed on good whole-
some soft nutritious food, plenty of cold water should be given. Dr. Mohler
recommends dissolving 2 heaping tablespoonfuls of borax or 1 tablespoonful of
potassium chlorate in each of the first two buckets of water taken during the
day. If the animals permit the mouth should be swabbed out with some anti-
septic wash, such as weak carbolic acid or creolin solution, or permanganate
of potash, or hydrogen peroxid. Mohler recommends that range cattle can be
treated by the use of medicated salt.
“This salt may be prepared by pouring 4 ounces of crude carbolic acid upon 12 quarts
of ordinary barrel salt, after which they are thoroughly mixed. The lesions of the feet
should be treated with a 2 per cent solution of carbolic acid or of creolin, while the fissures
and other lesions of the skin will be benefited by the application of carbolized vaseline or
zinc ointment. If the animals are treated in this manner and carefully fed the disease will
rapidly disappear.”
Cladosporium herbarum (Pers.) Link
This fungus and its allies are very common upon oats, sometimes very
destructive. It attacks all parts of the plant, but is especially common in the
heads. The mycelium of the fungus grows not only on the surface of the
plant but also in the interior; the conidiophores and spores are olive green,
the former pass through the opening of the stomata or break through the
epidermis; the spores are 1- to 2-celled, borne on the end or on short lateral
branches and are extremely variable in shape and size.
The general effect of the disease is to cause the kernels to shrivel. The
disease, as recorded by Cobb, occurs rather destructively on oats. Professor
Peck records the occurrence of a Cladosporium on oats, which he describes
as a new species, the Fusicladium destruens. He says in regard to oats:
“The foliage of the plants presented a singular admixture of green, dead-
brown and reddish hues, strongly suggestive of that of a ‘rust-struck’ field.”
Peck thinks this fungus inhabits the leaves of some of our northern grasses
and has escaped from them to oat fields. Giltay reports that plants are infected
in the same way as in some of the grain smuts, the spores being carried over
with the seed, and that the disease can be prevented by treatment with hot
water. A species of Cladosporium commonly affects the kernels of maize
and is at times quite troublesome.
Septoria Fr.
Perithecia imbedded in the tissues of the plant, appearing as small black-
ish or brownish spots; conidia generally multicellular and colorless; produced
from short conidiophores. A genus containing numerous species of wide dis-
tribution. Many of them like the Septoria on the black currant and goose-
berry, and the blackberry leaf spot, Septoria rubi, are troublesome parasitic
fungi of cultivated plants. All of these fungi irritate the mucous membranes
when found in abundance in the leaf.
Septoria graminum, Dem.
Spots at first yellow, then reddish-brown and finally whitish; perithecia
blackish or brownish-black; spores 50 to 60 » long and 1.5 to 2 » wide, numer-
ous, usually 2-celled.
FUNGI IMPERFECTI—SEPTORIA 285
Fig. 102. 1. Leaf of Cheat, showing numerous small secasgenens peniiees of
Wepicria: Bromi, the spores in the perithecia shown at 2, Ropar 2 Nite ig
In a somewhat extended account of this disease Cobb states that the
entire plant is not always involved. The fungus is variable, its character
depending upon the host which it attacks. On Poa annua the leaf is mainly
involved and in many cases is totally destroyed. Cavara states that the spots
on the leaves are small, elliptical, red or yellow, or the latter may be entirely
absent. The injury it does to young plants is very great; in some cases their
total destruction has been observed.
286 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Janczewski who has studied the life history of Septoria graminum states
that this represents the pycnidial stage of Leptosphaeria tritici and that the
conidial form is the Cladosporium herbarum, We have not found the Septoria
in Jowa though the Cladosporium is common.
The Septoria tritici Desm. is closely related to the above and should per-
haps be regarded as nothing more than a variable form of S. graminum.
The spots it produces are at first yellow, then reddish-brown, and _ finally
whitish. The spores are 50-60% long and 1-5 to 2 » wide and usually divided.
A Septoria on the glumes of wheat in Ohio has been reported by Selby.
Several other species of Septoria are allied to the above species, one, the
Septoria bromi Sacc. is common in Iowa on Bromus secalinus.
Diplodia, Fr.
Perithecia bursting out sub-cutaneously, sub-carbonaceous, papillate ac-
cording to type; spores ellipsoidal, ovoid or oblong, 1-celled, fuscous, per-
forated; basidia rod-like, simple hyaline. From the original genus have been
separated five genera as follows: Species with superficial perithecia Diplodi-
ella; with hirsute perithecia Chaetodiplodia; with clustered perithecia Botry-
odiplodia; with mucilaginous spores Macrodiplodia; with hyaline spores
> prs)
on
Fig. 103. Spores of Diplodia Zeae. 2. Young spores on the conidiophores with sporo-
phores attached. 3. Germinating spores. 4. Dark swollen hyphae of Diplodia.
Diplodia Zeae (Schw.) Leév.
Pycnidia black and spherical to pyriform, those forming on the husk or
stalk developing within the tissues and breaking through at maturity, the
greater number of pycnidia, however, occur between the kernels and are sit-
uated in a stroma. Conidia dark brown, cylindrical to elliptical, obtuse, straight
or usually slightly curved and 1-septate; one to several oil drops in each cell;
54 in diameter; spores germinate in 18-24 hours in 3 per cent glucose agar
at 26° C; in somewhat longer time when grown on corn agar; germ tube arises
from near distal end at each spore.*
Distribution. A serious parasitic disease generally found where corn
is cultivated, particularly in Illinois,* Iowa, and Nebraska.
Poisonous properties. This fungus is widely distributed in ears of corn and
may be responsible for forage poisoning.
* Heald, F. D.; Wilcox, E. M.; and Pool, V. W. The Life-history and Parasitism of
Diplodia Zeae (Schw.) Lév.
Pe Burrill, T. J., and Barrett, J. T. Ear Rots of Corn, Bull. Ill. Agr. Exp. Sta.
133:65-109. az pi.
FUNGI IMPERFECTI—DIPLODIA 287
my
of
732
“i
she
KY
=~ 2, ss et
DSRS ray Nc
SPSS é
SASSAVAAOMN EFF
\ as
Y
Fig. 103A. Cross-section of the pycnidium of Diplodia Zeae on a corn kernel showing
sporophores, conidia and mycelium. After Burrill and Barrett.
Although the fungus has been cultivated, the toxic substance has not
been isolated. The writer fed mouldy corn meal to cats and rabbits. It
produced injurious effects in kittens; three of these animals fed with mouldy
corn meal and milk died from the effects. Unfortunately, in this case, different
moulds, Aspergillus glaucus, Fusarium, and Diplodia, were used.
Dr. Erwin F. Smith and Florence Hedges write as follows of this fungus:
“Tt is also worthy of inquiry whether this fungus may not be the cause of the so-called
‘cornstalk disease’ prevalent among cattle in the west. It is also possible that to Diplodia
should be referred the great numbers of deaths of negroes in the south during past three
years (1906-1909) from the so-called pellagra, following the consumption of mouldy corn-
meal and mouldy hominy. This fungus is also the cause of mouldy corn in Italy. The only
other fungi we have reason for suspecting in this connection are species of Aspergillus.” *
There are striking similarities between the so-called forage poisoning of
cattle and the Pellagra disease in Italy and they are probably referable to some
of the fungi found in corn. Dr. Miquel* in 1838 suggested that a Mucor
was the cause of Pellagra.
Fusarium, Lk.
Mycelium spreading, more or less effuse; conidia spindle-shaped or sickle -
like, many-celled at maturity, conidiophores branching, conidia borne at the
apex. A genus of numerous species, many of which are of uncertain affinity,
usually found on dead organic matter but several are known to produce
diseases of cultivated plants, like F. Lycopersici, Sacc., which produces the
“Sleeping Disease” of tomatoes, the mycelium occurring in the vessels of the
roots and causing a wilting. The Fusarium limonis, Briosi, produces a mal-
di-gomma, or foot-rot, of orange and lemon trees. The Fusarium vasinfectum,
Atks., produces a disease of cotton, known as “frenching.” The cotton wilt
is caused by a species of Fusarium and the perfect form of this fungus ac-
cording to E. F. Smith is Necosmospora.
* Diplodia Disease of Maize (Suspected cause of Pellagra). Science 30:60-61.
* Die Noord—Nederlandsche vergiftige Gewassen. 43 Amsterdam 1839.
288 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Oy
Wi, td ee
Ss
&
Fig. 104. Wheat Scab (Gibberella Saubinetii), perfect form of Fusarium roseum I.
1. Wheat affected with wheat scab, upper portion destroyed. 2. Glumes covered with
perithecia. 4. Perithecia. 5. Asci from perithecia with ascospores, one of these enlarged
at 6. 7. Conidiophore and spores grown in agar. After Selby.
Fusarium roseum, Link
Mycelium whitish or varying from yellow to orange, appearing at the
time when the grain begins to turn; the head, or part of it, has a whitish
appearance and the chaff is glued together; conidiophores branched, spores
terminal or lateral, crescent shaped at first, 1-celled, finally 2 or more celled;
color of the conidia white or in masses orange or pink. According to Saccardo
the ascigerous stage is the Gibberella Saubinettii (Mont.) Sacc. with gregari-
ous perithecia, coriaceous, or somewhat membranaceous; somewhat blackish
in color, asci oblong, lanceolate, ascospores fusiform, 3-celled. Definite cul-
tural experiments have not been made in this country to determine the relation
of this fungus to the F. heterosporum.
According to Burrill and Barrett * several forms of Fusarium occur on
corn. Saccardo in a letter to the writer identified the common Iowa Fusarium
on corn as F. heterosporum.
The Fusarium heterosporum Nees, is common in parts of Germany, and
Tubeuf quotes Frank as stating that the destruction of rye is total in some
* (Bills Ns yAgrh bx. Sta. ce.
FUNGI IMPERFECTI—FUSARIUM
Fig. 105. Fusarium. 5. Macroconidia of Fusarium
with the felty mass of mycelium. Produces a deep
pink color. 6. Mycelium. 7. Corroded starch grains.
8. Conidiophores or _ sporophores. 9. Microconidia
and macroconidia of another corn Fusarium frequently
infecting isolated grains. 10. Mycelium of the same.
11. Microconidia and macroconidia of another Fusarium
on corn, which produces a dense felty mass extending
between the kernels to the cob. 13. A spore producing
hyphae in prune juice culture. 14. Germinating spores
of one of the species. 16. Hyphal branches of the
same, with microconidia and macroconidia. After Bur-
rill and Barrett.
Fig. 106. Moulds and bacteria from corn.
1 and 3. Fusarium heterosporum I Mycelium.
3. Conidia. 2 and 6. Other moutds. 4 and 35.
Bacteria. After Pammel and King.
289
290 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
places, the fungus investing the whole kernel. Rostrup mentions it as destruc-
tive to germinating barley. It also occurs upon ergotized rye and is regarded
by some mycologists as distinct from Fusarium culmorum. It is probable
that the various species of Fusarium infesting cereals should be referred to
one species.
Poisonous properties. Whether this fungus is responsible for the disease
referred to by Dr. Mayo and other veterinarians, has not been definitely deter-
mined. It is true that experiments made by Dr. Bitting, this writer, and
others, show that no doubt the Fusarium fed in considerable quantities to
cats and dogs has had an injurious effect. Cats did not relish milk in which
this material had been placed. If nothing more, Fusarium may be looked upon
as producing stomatatis. Prof. Sheldon refers this fungus to Fusarium
moniliforme. In the diseased horses reported by Dr. Peters the horses would
lose their hair and hoofs and were said to be alkalied. Cattle and hogs were
likewise said to lose their hair. Feeding experiments conducted on hogs with
this corn as well as with pure cultures reproduced the symptoms in experimental
animals. In this connection this statement of Dr. Law’s is of interest:
Fodders affected with cryptogams or bacterial ferments are undoubtedly at times the
cause of encephalitis. Veterinary records furnish many instances of wide spread attacks
of stomach staggers, abdominal vertigo, and cerebro-spinal meningitis in wet seasons, when
the fodders have been harvested in poor condition or when from inundation or accidental
exposure they have become permeated by cryptogams and microbes. Among comparatively
recent accounts of this are those of Martin and Varnell (musty oats), Lombroso, Depre,
Erbe, Pellizi, and Tireli (smuts), Bouley and Barthelemy (musty fodder), and Ray (fer-
mented potatoes). One of the most extended local outbreaks of cerebro-spinal congestion
I have ever seen, occurred in the pit mules of the Wilkesbarre coal mines, while fed on
Canadian hay which had been soaked with rain in transit and had undergone extensive fer-
mentation. It should be noted that there were the attendant factors of overwork, in antici-
pation of a strike, and a Sunday’s holiday above ground in a bright summer sunshine.
The experimental administration of moulds, smuts and microbes, have in the great
majority of cases led to little or no evil result (Gamgee, Mayo, Dinwiddie, etc.) and there
is a strong tendency to discredit the pathogenic action of these agents in reported out-
breaks. The safer conclusion perhaps would be, to recognize the fact that they are not
equally pathogenic under all conditions of their growth and administration. The oft-
recurring epizootics of brain disease in connection with wide spread spoiling of the fodders
in remote and recent times, probably imply that cryptogams or microbes and their products,
plus some condition not yet fully understood, are efficient concurrent factors. If we can
discover this as yet unknown factor and demonstrate that it operates with equal power in
the absence of cryptogams and ferments, as in their presence, it will be logical to pronounce
these latter as non-pathogenic under all circumstances. Until then cryptogams and bac-
teria must be held as probable factors.
In recognizing how much cryptogams and bacteria vary under different conditions of
life, and what various products they elaborate at different stages of their growth, we can
theoretically explain the absence of the disease at one time and its presence at another
under what seem to be identical circumstances, as also the variety of symptoms shown in
different outbreaks. While this causation cannot be said to be absolutely proved. . it is
not antagonistic to the facts in many of the best observed outbreaks, and may serve as a
hypothetical working theory until actual demonstration can be furnished. The affection
suggests a narcotic poison introduced from without, rather than a disease due to a germ
propagated in the system.
In all probability as we learn more of the true pathology of the disease, we shall
come to recognize not one, but several toxic principles, and several different affections
each with its characteristic phenomena in the somewhat indefinite affection still known as
cerebro-spinal meningitis.
The malady has been described in horses, oxen, sheep, goats and dogs, attacking by
preference the young, which are not yet inured to the unknown poison, and by preference
in winter and spring, the periods of close stabling, dry feeding and shedding of the coat.
FUNGI IMPERFECTI—FUSARIUM gH |
Dr. R. A. Craig of Indiana reports as follows in regard to interesting
experiments made at the Indiana Station:
In January, four sacks of spoiled, mouldy corn were gathered from a stalk field adjoin-
ing a field in which cattle had developed cornstalk disease. A healthy heifer weighing
three hundred and fifty pounds was fed four to five pounds (twelve to seventeen ears) of
this corn twice a day. In addition stover was fed. On the afternoon of the sixth day of
the test the heifer appeared weak, went down in the stall and was helped up twice in the
afternoon. When down she struggled some, and when helped up “shivered” as if cold. In
the evening she was still trembling and appeared weak. The weakness disappeared the
following day. A few days later a slight twitching of the body muscles was noticed.
The feeding test extended over a period of sixteen days. Her appetite remained good
throughout the test.
Dr. Craig adds the following:
During the fall and early winter of 1898-99, Bitting reported losses in horses and
cattle, supposed to have been due to feeding on spoiled corn. By feeding corn meal that
was inoculated with a pure culture of a mold (Fusarium sp.) made from the spoiled
corn, he produced salivation and redness of the gums of the two horses used in the ex-
periment. Later spoiled corn was fed. On the fifth day one horse showed a slight saliva-
tion, colicky pains and diarrhoea. On the seventh day, noticeable incoordination in mov-
ing about and stupor. For two days the animal stood with the head pressed against the
wall. A quick recovery followed and the nervous disease from which horses were reported
as dying did not develop. ‘The second horse showed nothing more than a slight irritation
to the mouth.
Because of the close resemblance between toxic poisoning from sorghum
and the symptoms of corn stalk disease, Price deemed it advisable to examine
cornstalks for the substances which produce prussic acid in plants. Samples of
stalks from fields in which cattle had died were obtained. In these samples
he discovered an enzyme which had the property of decomposing a glucoside
(amygdalin) and thereby poison as a result of enzyme was found. However,
no glucoside capable of forming this) poison as a result of enzyme action was
found. The results were not regarded as conclusive, as only a few samples
were examined, and the failure to discover a suitable glucoside did not prove
its absence in the corn plant, or in other plants in the field.
Dr. Peters says in regard to the feeding of moldy corn to horses as
follows:
Numerous reports have been received from stock owners of a disease which they call
cornstalk disease or spinal meningitis which affects horses in the stalks and also some
which have not been in the stalks.
This disease is very rapid in its course. For this reason it is sometimes difficult
to see animals alive or in the beginning stages of the disease. In the later stages the
animals are usually in such violent excitement that the symptoms have to be studied from
a distance. One peculiar feature about the disease is that it comes on without warning,
often attacking an animal while at work. One of the first symptoms noticed is the refusal
of feed. Some have observed an excessive thirst and a difficulty in swallowing. The head
is drooped in) a very peculiar manner, denoting dullness. The eyes become very dull and
later almost totally blind. This is usually followed by delirium and death. When a horse
becomes affected in the stall it sometimes presses its head against the manger or wall and
as this symptom increases in violence it is not uncommon to find the stall and manger
demolished. Another peculiarity of the disease is that just before the animal becomes
violent, one can cross its legs and the animal will remain in the position semi-conscious for
some time.
This disease has been attributed to many causes. It is practically conceded at this
time that it is due to a fungus found on the food administered. Feeding experiments with
mouldy corn at our Station and other Stations, have proven that mouldy corn is capable of
producing this disease. In March, 1902, a quantity of mouldy corn, which was taken from
cribs of a farmer at Graf, Nebr., who had lost a number of horses with this disease, was
fed to four horses. These horses were fed exclusively on this corn with a small quantity of
good hay and on April 2 two of the horses were found to be affected, the symptoms being
292 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
the same as those in animals that died in various parts of the state. The black horse,
John, was found in the afternoon of April 2 to be swaying in his gait. He refused feed,
had the peculiar dullness of the eyes, and when his limbs were crossed he remained in
that position entirely motionless for some time. The next morning the animal was very
much worse and at noon he was killed so that an autopsy could be held. The post-mortem
examination showed that all organs were practically normal except the brain which was much
softer than normal. I will quote the description of the post mortem as given by Dr. Butler,
which is as follows: “‘On removal of the brain the superior surface of the right cerebral hemi-
sphere was noticed to be slightly flattened over the anterior half. Palpation revealed a soft
spot at this place. An incision through the apparently sound gray matter revealed what
Mayo described as a sereous abscess in which floated flocculi of broken down brain sub-
stance, which presented the appearance, as one stockman said, of a mixture of vinegar
and curdled milk. This portion of softened and broken-down white brain substance is in
no sense a serous abscess. The line of demarcation between the broken-down and the healthy
brain substance was not clearly marked, but surrounding the completely broken-down por-
tion of a zone probably half an inch thick that was softer than normal and of a slightly yellow
color. The liquid in the cavity, and in which floated portions of soft and partially broken-down
brain substance, was slightly yellow, but in no instance was clotted blood or any other
microscopic evidence of a hemorrhage to be found.”
Dr. Butler and Dr. Mayo conducted an experiment with some mouldy corn
from a farmer who lost four registered Percheron horses at Wakefield,
Kansas. Four hundred pounds of the worst of this corn and fifty pounds of
the chaff and screenings were sent to the Agricultural College in Manhattan,
Kansas, and a feeding experiment was started with two colts, twenty-three
months old. The experiment began on July 16, when each colt received 1%
kilos twice daily. On July 22, they were fed 114 kilos of corn and cob meal
twice daily. On the 26th of July 134 kilos of the damaged corn, well ground,
cob and all. This was continued until August 19. One colt died August 21.
Another experiment was conducted with a two year old colt, but fed with
mouldy corn and good prairie hay. ‘The temperature of the animal varied
from 101-102° F. This colt died on July 26, the feeding experiment having
Fig. 107. Dermal mycosis associated with Sarcoptic mange caused by Fusarium equinum,
conidia and mycelium. 2-6. Conidia (macroconidia) in various stages of development.
4. Germinating. After Melvin and Mohler.
FUNGI IMPERFECTI—FUSARIUM 293
begun on June 30. It was observed that after three weeks there were no
notable changes except a gain in flesh.
It seems to me that there can be no question from these experiments that
mouldy corn is dangerous to feed to animals.
Oxen, sheep, and dogs are also affected with a form of meningitis, due
to mouldy conditions. Of course, it should be stated that in the above descrip-
tion by Dr. Law, no special mould fungus is referred to.
Fusarium equinum, Norgaard. Itch Disease of Horses
Mycelium immersed, septate and branched; conidia in cultures sickle-
shaped, segmented; in hair sacs and sebaceous glands spindle-shaped or
crescent-shaped bodies.
Drs. Melvin and Mohler supplement the above characters as follows:
The Fusarium possesses three forms of spores, the microconidia small and oval,
non-septate or two celled; the marcroconidia, large falcate, with sharp lanceolate ends, 3-5
septate, forming many aerial threads; 25-55 pw long 2%-4% yy wide; the chlamydospores oval
or oblong, thin walled, densely granular, 8-15 ,, in diameter. The macroconidia occur
during the later stage of growth. On culture media there is a white growth which becomes
slightly colored. The most favorable medium is potato and sterilized bread, but it grows
well in agar, glucose, or saccharine agar.
Distribution. North America, California to Idaho.
Pathogenic properties. In December,’ 1901, Victor A. Norgaard con-
tributed to Science an account of a disease affecting horses, said to be pro-
duced by a fungus to which he suggested that, pending investigation, the name
Fusarium equinum, nov. spec. be given. The following is an abstract of the
article in question:
An epidemic skin disease appeared among the horses on the Umatilla Indian Reserva-
tion, Pendleton, Oregon, upwards of sixty percent out of six thousand horses having been
affected. ‘The disease manifested itself through severe itching and loss of hair over almost
the entire body. Many of the animals died of starvation. An examination of samples of
the skin was made in the Pathological Division of the Bureau of Animal Industry and the
presence of Sarcoptes equi observed. However these parasites were not present in sufficient
numbers to account for the almost complete alopecia, and examination of samples almost
entirely denuded of hair failed to show their presence. Microscopic examination of sec-
tions of the skin stained with borax blue showed the presence of large half-moon, spindle
shaped bodies, deeply stained, in the hair sacs and sebaceous glands. Further culture
produced from one to five circular colonies of a fungus which grew rapidly and assumed
a salmon pink color. Cover-glass preparations made from these colonies contained numerous
sickle-shaped segmented spores, characteristic of Fusarium. Of the twenty-five known vari-
eties of this fungus, according to Dr. Erwin F. Smith, hitherto none has been known to
be pathogenic to animals.
Drs. A. D. Melvin and J. R. Mohler have given a somewhat more extended
account of this form of dermatomycosis. They found present with the disease
the Sarcoptes scabei. In 1901 the disease appeared in a very aggravated form,
some 2,500 animals were diseased out of 6,000 animals on the Umatilla Indian
reservation. It is supposed that this disease was introduced from California
in 1902 from trailed horses. It appears that the fungus apparently enters the
hair follicles, penetrates between the cells of the epidermis or abrasion of the
skin and involves the surrounding cuticle, causing irritation, followed by pruritis,
the animal attempting to rub itself against anything with which it comes in con-
tact. When the scurf is rubbed off by the finger nail there is left in its place a red
moist denuded surface. It affects almost the entire body except the knees and
hocks. The crusts are of gray color at first but turn darker. When the tissue
294 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
is examined microscopically, the spores are found to be abundant in the hair
follicle, the fungus causing the hair to drop out. The inflammatory process
spreads in the sebaceous glands causing a suppression of the excretion with
the formation of crusts anl scab. Occasionally Sarcoptes were found but
Drs. Melvin and Mohler do not believe that they were the principal cause of
the disease, although when present the animal parasite may aggravate the trouble.
All ages and breeds of horses are susceptible as are both sexes. ‘The animal
stands around the rubbing posts all day and finally dies.
Rabbits, dogs, guinea pigs are immune. Experiments with horses were
not successful, which these writers think may be because the right stage of the
fungus was not used for inoculation experiments.
Treatment. ‘The authors recommend dynamo oil and sulphur in the propor-
tion of one pound of the latter to a gallon of oil. Coal tar sheep dips have also
been used.
Fig. 108. Favus of mouse (Oospora porriginis) from a culture. a. Mycelial threads.
b. A single thread more highly magnified. After Fligge.
Oospora, Wallr.
Fungus with small tufts spreading or pulvinate, mucedinous, loose, or
somewhat compact; fertile hyphae, short, with few branches; conidia trans-
parent, usually in chains, globose or ovoid, hyaline or slightly colored.
Oospora porriginis (Mont. and Berk.) Sace. Achorion Schénleinii, Remak.
Favus, Tinea favosa. Honeycomb Ringworm
Mycelium flexuose, simple, branched, or forked, continuous conidia, ovoid,
triangular or somewhat cubical, varying 3-6 » in diameter; mycelium in masses
with granular protoplasm occasionally branched at the end, the ends swollen,
club-shaped, branches of the mycelium with lateral branches; spores oval, round
or angular, 3-8 long and 3-4 , wide, single or in chains. The threads of
the fungus are readily detected in the bulbs and the shafts of hairs when sodium
nitrate or potassium hydroxid is added, but at a distance of two inches the
fungus cannot be detected. Sections of the nail stained also show threads
FUNGI IMPERFECTI—FAVUS 295:
of the fungus. This fungus has been cultivated in ordinary agar or by Kral’s
method. It grows well at higher temperatures, and in 24-48 hours the fungus
threads appear. The spores germinate at 35° C. in 14 hours, and in 24 hours
a fine mycelium appears in the air. In nutrient media like potato, gelatin and
agar, chlamydospores and yellowish bodies appear. The organism requires
higher temperatures for its best development, the optimum is 35° C. The
organism from some of the lower animals, however, grows at lower temper-
atures.
According to Walsch the best development of the fungus in the hair is near
the upper end of the root, from here it extends upward or downward; the
mycelium may be exfollicular or on the surface of the hair.
The favus of man does not differ especially from that of animals except
in color, and in the shorter duration of the disease in animals.
Distribution. Widely distributed in Europe and North America, but,
according to Hyde and Montgomery, less common in the United States, Austria,
and England, than in France, Scotland and Poland.
Pathogenic properties. This form of dermatomycosis known as Favus was:
discovered by Schénlein in 1839. In the middle ages, it was known as Tinea,
meaning a moth or worm. Previous to the discovery of the organism by
Schonlein, various troubles were classed as favus.
Heusinger suspected the fungus nature of the disease as early as 1826.
Remak, in 1845, cultivated the organism upon apple and transmitted it to his:
arm. He named the fungus Achorion Schénleinii and in medical literature it
is frequently referred to by this name.
The favus organism of mice was discovered in 1850 by Bennett and recog-
nized by subsequent investigators like Schroeder and Simon. Favus of cats,
guinea pigs, and dogs was recognized by Saint Cyr. Gerlach found it in birds,
and Gruby, three years after the discovery of the organism by Schdénlein, found
it in hairs on the heads of children and the hairs of the beard. In recent times,
various views have been expressed with reference to the nature of favus and
trichophytosis, it being held that these diseases are produced by different fungi.
Pick in 1887, Walsch in 1896, and others considered the fungus to be poly-
morphic. Quincke distinguished three varieties but pathologists are not agreed
on this point. Plaut, in his discussion of the parasitic fungi, divides them into
the following groups: the Favus and the Trichophytic groups. According to
this view, the favus of man and that of animals are regarded as distinct fungi.
The disease in man generally appears where hairs occur, but may appear
also in other parts of the body as the eyes, nails, etc., seldom becoming general.
Favus of the nails is called Favus onychomycosis. In lower animals the disease:
may occur on the head, nose, ears, back and, more frequently, is generalized.
Formerly this disease was common among the poorer classes. Today, it is:
not common in France, Holland, Scandinavia, Germany, England, Switzerland,
Japan or America; on the other hand, it is rather frequent in Russia, Scotland,.
Italy, Spain, Asia, Austria and Egypt, young individuals being more suscep-
tible to it than are older persons, probably acquiring the disease by contact.
The disease is spread through spores of the fungus. The mycelium itself, ac-.
cording to Grawitz, is not capable of spreading the disease of animals. In
man it is recognized by the development of minute yellowish or reddish points ;
delicate vescicles may surround these spots. Later, the fungus may develop a
296 MANUAL, OF POISONOUS PLANTS
crust; the odor is very disagreeable, being compared to the odor of mice or
the urine of cats.
Mice are most susceptible to the disease, cats coming next since they
come in contact with mice which have favus, then dogs by means of the cats
and finally guinea pigs.
According to the recent investigations of Frank (1891) three different types
of fungi were isolated from mice, and Unna and Neebe in 1893, concluded that
no fewer than nine species existed, three aerophilous and six aerophobic, as
follows: Achorion eutythrix, A. didikroon, A. atkaton, A. radians, A. akro-
megalicum, A. demergens, A. cysticum, A. moniliforme, and A. tarsiferon, but
these may probably be regarded as one widely-polymorphic species.
Fig. 109. Epidermis invaded by Sporotrichum.
a—inferior portion of the stratum corneum; b—superior
portion of the rete. Both exhibit long mycelial threads,
with a few ramifications and a small number of spores.
After Kaposi.
FUNGI IMPERFECTI—SPOROTRICHUM 297
Sporotrichum, Link
Hyphae, branching irregularly and repeatedly, septate or continuous, usual-
ly equally procumbent; conidia, acrogenous at the apices of the main and lateral
branches, usually solitary beneath, ovoid or subglobose. This genus differs
from Botrytis, especially in all the hyphae being procumbent and the conidia
subsolitary; from Tvrichosporum, in never being dark colored. Very many
species, imperfectly described by older writers, show mere forms, or mycelia.
Sporotrichum Furfur. Rob
Pale yellow or yellowish brown to dark brown or brownish-red spots, vary-
ing in size from that of a lentil to that of a hand, either smooth or shining or
dull exfoliating. Found on the breast, stomach, or back. Never upon the
hands, feet, seldom on the face. Slender hyphae 3-4 » wide, 7-13 » long, vari-
able as to length and thickness. The spores are clustered resembling oil drops.
On potato a characteristic growth of yellowish, orange red brown, blackish
or greenish color. Old culture is grayish, brownish or violet color. In 3-4
days a whitish gelatinous mass forms, which in 3-4 weeks covers the whole
surface. Conidia are oidium-like, surrounded by thick hyphae, occur in scales,
4-7 uw, spherical. In cultures budding occurs.
Distribution. Common in some localities in Europe and America.
Pathogenic properties. Fehr in 1840 observed that most of the inhabitants
in a Swiss village were infected through cattle. Bazin in 1853 observed that
many cavalry men were infected through horses. Papa in 1840 observed that
this disease was frequently transmitted to men. In cities it chiefly occurs in
cats and dogs, and through these it is conveyed to men.
It is especially common in people with tender skins and in tubercular
patients, and is more common with women than men. In 1846, Eichstedt dis-
Fig. 110. Sporotrichum Furfur. After Kaposi. a
298 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
covered the cause while Robin named the fungus Microsporon Furfur. K6ob-
ner, in 1866, made the first inoculation experiments.
Grawitz, in 1876, first cultivated the organism. His work was followed
by that of such other investigators as Sehlen in 1890 and Koltjar in 1892, who
succeeded in transmitting the cultivated fungus to guinea pigs and gave it the
name Oidium minimum. It has also been named Oidium Furfur. Vuillemin
also cultivated the fungus to which he gave the name Malassezia Furfur. Pure
cultures of the organism grown on potato were transmitted to man.
Treatment. The best treatment, as recommended by Hyde and Montgomery,
is a hot bath, the skin being rubbed with soap; following this the skin is
bathed with clean water and sponged with a solution of sodium hyposulfite, 1
drachm (4) to the ounce (30).
py aee Ma ile Erythrasma Fungus. Sporotrichum
minutissimum, After Hyde and Montgomery.
Sporotrichum minutissimum (Burckhardt.) Pammel. Erythrasma
It begins as small brown or reddish patches which become confluent; these
spots may become as large as the palm of a hand and occur in the axial
region; the scales contain Leptothrox-like threads which are branched and
septate; conidia small, round or angular. It grows well on agar agar, glycerine
agar, gelatine, potatoes, and in blood serum. In nutrient media, branching,
septate hyphae 0.8-1.34 in thickness and 5-15 in length are seen; the short
hyphae break up into numerous spores.
This disease was first observed by Burckhardt in 1869 and since has been
observed by others. It occurs in the form of roundish or punctiform patches,
sharply contrasted with the adjacent tissues. The younger areas are livid
red while the older are yellowish or brownish.
FUNGI IMPERFECTI—ERYTHRASMA 299
A so-called Dhobie itch of the Philippine Islands is in part caused by this
fungus. Though Hyde and Montgomery state that there are two other types of
infection known by this name, one is trichophyton and one of bacterial origin.
Sporotrichum giganteum, (Unna). Pammel
Spores are free or in chains in nutrient medium 1.5-7 » in diameter, the
oval 4-5x5-6 #, yeast-like budding resembling Oidium lactis also occurs; ecto-
spores as well as chlamydospores present, the latter 8-12 mu in diameter with
strongly refringent bodies: in cultures ray like, the rays consisting of hyphae
and spores, in liquid media only hyphae with ectospores. In the hair, knot-like
bodies are formed with spores and hyphae embedded in mucilage.
The Colombia disease was described as Trichosporon giganteum, Unna. It
is a polymorphic fungus and the T. ovoides, Behrend is included but by some is
regarded as different. The knotty masses of hair are less thick, and the spores
are oval in shape; gelatine not liquefied. The superficial colonies resemble
Oidium lactis. Chlamydospore 4-12 in diameter.
Other species of Microsporon have been described like M. canis in dogs.
M. tigris, the M. equi, in horses and colts and another species in cattle. In calves
a similar form occurs. The sheep are said to have the disease on the neck
and breast; it also occurs in hogs, goats, and birds. These forms are said to
differ slightly clinically. Pus is formed in follicles, and the hair is especially
prone to drop out. A bad smelling liquid of a reddish color occurs. In lesions
large spores, the ectospores, occur. The Oidium chain like spores occur chiefly
in the roots of the hairs.
Pathogenic properties. The disease is especially common in animals in
which the skin is naturally fine, thin, and dry, and covered with hair sparsely,
more common in the Arabian Barb, English racer, and American trotter of
‘nervous organization than in heavier draft breeds. Old horses are more sub-
ject than young ones. Extended desquamation, excessive production of epi-
dermal scales without any elevation of the skin, scurfy products may be found
in patches scattered over the body; generalized or circumscribed as to the
head, ears, crest and tail; the hair may be pulled out with great ease. In
cattle it occurs on neck and develops in connection with anaemia, spoiled fodder,
and constitutional predisposition. Affects especially the head, neck, and back
of dogs gorged with dainties and those becoming aged. The affected parts
are covered with a floury or bran-like product lying upon a dry surface, the
affection being usually limited to certain areas more or less destitute of hair.
In the cat it may affect the whole dorsal aspect of the body, being associated
with extreme electrical susceptibility, the hair when touched, collecting in tufts.
The scaly product is abundant.
Animals are said to spread trichophytic fungi, which supposition is im-
portant from a hygenic point of view. Since the disease sometimes occurs in
school children, separate hooks for clothing and separate towels when bathing
the hands and faces are recommended. A one per cent solution of bicloride
of mercury will kill the fungus.
The disease was first described by Osorio in 1846, and was then thought to
be confined to Colombia where it was called Diedra (Stone), but later was
found in Europe, and Vuillemin reported it from Paris in 1902. Desenne of
300 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Paris discovered the hyphae of the fungus and Malcolm Morris the spore-like
bodies. Behrend in 1890 succeeded in cultivating the fungus.
Sporotrichum tonsurans. Barber’s Itch
Hyphae slender 1.5-2 » in diameter, straight, undulated, dichotomous, septate
or non-septate, penetrate the hair follicles forming a matted mycelium, small
pustules and scabs; in places devoid of hairs it forms red, scaly spots, discs
and circles. The fungus is found between the uppermost layers of the epidermis
just beneath the corneous stratum; the conidia are small, spherical or elliptical,
sharply defined 2-34 in diameter; the spore masses surround the root of the
hair and are frequently densely and closely arranged like beads; in culture
media like agar, a many-rayed fungus occurs, the color varies with the medium,
yellow, Bismark brown, cherry red, violet, rose, brown, blackish brown; gelatine
liquefied; spores swell after a few hours and produce 1-2 germ tubes from a
single spore; mycelium with occasional swellings, ectospores formed in 60-96
hours, also small, branched air hyphae; small conidia 1.5-3 in diameter borne
on short, lateral branches. The Botrytis-like spores rise on the long, thin,
curved air hyphae. Oidium budding does not occur in nutrient media. The
spores retain their vitality for six months but exposure to 45° C. for a few
hours will kill the organism; it is sensitive to sunlight and common disinfectants.
The fungus is polymorphic, one form having been classed, by Sabourne, with
Botrytis. The large-spored trichophyte found on the scalp germinates at
37° C, in a few hours; but at room temperature, a much longer time is required.
Conidia 5 “in diameter, an abundant mycelium with dust-like growths,
and, in three days, oidium-like spores, as well as ectospores, are produced on
the potato, the disease being known as Tinea Sycosis.
The 7. circumscripta produces, in animals, cherry patches each with a raised
border and scales, and is also found on the head, arms, and neck, of man. T.
disseminata produces small red pustules.
To T. tonsurans, also, is attributed Eczema marginatum which Kobner,
while making a study of trichophytic fungi in 1864, recognized as a trichophyte.
He also determined that the fungus on the nails, described in 1853 and 1855
by Baum and Meissner, was a trichophyte.
Fig. 112. Barber’s Itch.
(Sporotrichum tonsurans) Fila-
ments and spores. After Hyde
and Montgomery.
FUNGI IMPERFECTI—BARBER’S ITCH 301
Gerlach, in 1857-1859, demonstrated a trichophyte in bovine animals, and
other investigators, later, recognized the case as Herpes tonsurans. S. tonsurans
has also been described under Trichophyton tonsurans and as Oidium tonsurans.
Unna, in 1897, from twenty cultures described four species, T. oidiophora, T.
eretmorphoron, T. atractophoron, and T. pterygodes. It is probable that Sporo-
trichum tonsurans is a very variable species. Lindau places it under the genus
Oospora, but it seems preferable to call it Sporotrichum.
Distribution. Occurs in Europe, North and South America, Asia and Africa.
Pathogenic properties. In cattle, small, round, sharply defined spots oc-
cur which are covered with scabs and scales which project more or less above
the skin and vary in size, some being as large as the palm of the hand. Under-
neath the scales, is a purulent fluid with hollows that represent the empty
follicle. In man as well as in animals, the hairs can be pulled out very readily.
The eruption lasts from six to twelve weeks, outbreaks occurring from rubbing
or scratching as a relief from the itching sensation that accompanies the erup-
tion. In sucking calves it occurs chiefly about the mouth and is called “doughy
mange” and, according to Hahn, is produced by the fungus T. tonsurans.
Most of the varieties can be transmitted to guinea pigs, cats, and dogs
and have even been transmitted to man during the process of sheep shearing.
Healing takes place when the animal is inoculated subcutaneously. The large-
spored form, occurring on the scalp, forms pus and resembles moist eczema.
Children take the disease from calves and by playing with cats and dogs.
Mycosis of the beard exists in two forms; non-infectious and infectious.
In Sycosis parasitaria, the disease is accompanied by a severe inflammation of
the hairy parts of the skin leading to infiltration and suppuration. Sabouraud
classifies the parasite into a dry and a pus favus.
The Eczema marginatum supposedly caused by the same fungus was first
described by Devergie in 1854-1855; Berensprung having discovered the same
fungus in 1855. It is slightly contagious, and more frequent in men than in
women. Another form of the disease occurs in the mouth. In sheep the wool
is felted and beneath it are bran-like, scabby parts, the fleece becoming very
ragged in appearance. In poultry, it shows itself by the loss of feathers. In
horses, it occurs most often on the seat of the saddle. The spots vary in
size, and the surrounding hair can be pulled out easily. In dogs, it affects
the head and extremities. Usually the spots are round at first and sharply
defined, later becoming hairless patches; occasionally they are dirty gray scabs.
Ringworm of the body or Tinea circinata, is characterized by the occurrence
of one or more pea-shaped or large circular reddish patches which are on
about the same level as the integument and rarely 5-6 inches in diameter. In
some forms there is itching. ‘This Trichophyton was discovered by Gruby in
1844. This fungus can be readily recognized by making microscopic mounts.
The mycelium is less branched and the threads are more slender than in the
form previously described. The spores are like strings of beads.
The ringworm of the scalp, Tinea tonsurans, is a disease, chiefly, of children,
especially of those in schools. It differs from the preceding form in the fact
that the fungus makes its way into the hair follicles. The patches are, at first,
circumscribed, about the size of a small coin, covered or partly covered with
roundish patches of slate gray color or a dirty yellow. The fungus is called
Microsporon adouini.
302 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Hyde and Montgomery state that there are at least two distinct and unrelated
forms capable of producing ringworm, the Microsporon adouini, a small-spored
fungus, and the Trichophyton, or large-spored fungus. The Microsporon appears
under the microscope in the form of a large number of round spores, irregularly
grouped or massed about the follicular portion of the hair. The mycelial
threads are all within the hair proper while the spores terminate fine threads
on the other surface of the shaft. The spores of Tricophyton vary greatly in
size and are much larger than those of Microsporon. ‘They are cuboidal, oval,
or irregularly rounded. They occur in chains, up and down the hair or shaft.
The mycelium is found without, never within, the hairs. The spores may be
within (endothrix) or without (ectothrix).
Oidium albicans. (Robin.) Rees. Thrush
Forms a mould-like growth in the mouth of man and lower animals.
Vegetative cells, yeast-like, spherical, elliptical, oval or cylindrical, 5-6 »# long,
4 » wide, the elongated hyphae-like bodies variable in length; conidia elliptical
in chains; grows well in nutrient media where it produces superficial, spherical,
white, wax-like, granular colonies, varying color from reddish to white; chlam-
ydospores in nutrient media and occasionally in the epithelial layer; it does not
ferment lactose and saccharose, but ferments levulose and dextrose. According
to Brebeck and Fischer there are two morphological forms of the organisms,
a small oval and a large-spored form; however, this distinction is not generally
recognized.
Distribution. Widely distributed in the United States, also in other coun-
tries, Germany, Austria, France, Italy, and Great Britain.
Pathogenic properties. John recognized the disease in 1816, while Buchner
gave a somewhat detailed description in 1841. Langbeck and Berg dicsovered
the fungus in 1839. It was thought by them that it was the cause of typhoid
fever. Langenbeck demonstrated that the Fungus could be carried from a
child, sick with the disease, to a healthy individual. Gruby, in 1847, described
the fungus under the name of Apfpthaphyta, placing it near the fungus Spor-
otrichum, while Robin, a French author on parasitic diseases, considered the
fungus to be an Oidium, naming it Oidium albicans, a name frequently used
by authors. Rees, however, placed it with the yeasts. Monilia candida is re-
garded by Plaut and Lindau as a synonym. Grawitz, in 1877, made pure
culture of the fungus and succeeded in producing the disease in guinea pigs.
Klemperer found that when the fungus was inoculated into the circulatory
system of guinea pigs, general mycosis resulted. Limossier and Roux (1889-
1890) in their monograph, state that the mycelium occurs in the blood vessels
of inoculated animals.
The fungus is very common in some sick chambers in regions where the
disease is prevalent. It is most abundant in sucklings.
It occurs frequently in children of premature birth, and in weak children; |
the fungus is also found in aged persons, suffering from disability; it occurs
chiefly upon the mucous membrane of the mouth, pharynx, and oesophagus;
more rarely, upon that of the stomach, intestine and vagina, and upon the
nipples of nursing women and bovine animals. It has also been found in the
liver, kidneys and lungs; it penetrates the epithelium and even into the under-
lying, connective tissue; it is spontaneous in such animals as calves, birds, and
FUNGI IMPERFECTI—THRUSH 303
foals. The disease is fatal in many cases, some authors estimating the death
rate as high as 22 per cent. Inoculated guinea pigs show a rise in temperature
at first a lowering, accompanied by albuminaria, loss of flesh, and diar-
rhoea, death occurring in from 3-7 days. Immunity may be obtained in guinea
pigs by beginning with small doses, and increasing these gradually to three
times the strength. The product produced by the fungus is poisonous; 20-40 cc.
of the whole substance will kill a guinea pig weighing one kilogram.
Dr. Stuhr has contributed the following upon this subject:
Thrush is a mycosis of the mouth affecting children, calves, foals, and poultry, and
is characterized by the formation of white patches upon the mucous membrane, which vary
in size from points to large areas. It may involve the pharyngeal and laryngeal mucosae
by extension. The disease is transmissable from man to animals. Young age, a weak con-
stitution, gastric indigestion, uncleanliness, milky and starchy diet predispose. Decaying
food in the mouth offers a suitable place for the growth of the fungus.
Etiology. ‘The specific cause of thrush is a vegetable parasite, Oidium
albicans, first described by Berg in 1840. It is one of the branching fungi
closely related to the yeasts and grows readily on sour milk, in saccharine
substances, on decayed wood, and on fresh cow manure. Calves fed milk from
wooden pails which are not kept perfectly clean are particularly liable to con-
tract the disease. The fungus descends into the epithelium and sometimes into
the subjacent connective tissue, causing inflammatory infiltration and superficial
necrosis.
Symptoms. ‘The mucosa is diffusely red, swollen and tender, and shows
adherent white patches, varying in size, surrounded by a red inflammatory zone.
When these white spots are rubbed off, shallow red ulcers are exposed. When
the inflammation in the mouth is severe, or when the disease spreads to the
pharynx and interferes with deglutition the prognosis may become serious.
Usually, however, the disease is benign and yields readily to treatment.
Lesions. These are usually superficially located and rarely extend deeply
into tissues. ‘They begin with diffuse reddening of the mucous membrane and
the formation of a somewhat shining, slimy, adhesive layer of grayish-white
matter which is said to have an acid reaction. Later whitish dots appear upon
the surface and gradually spread, sometimes coalescing. These whitish patches
are false membranes composed of. detached epithelial cells with a ramifying
network of parasitic threads. The white color of the false membranes is
markedly in contrast with the congested surrounding tissue. While the lesions
are ordinarily restricted to the mouth they may involve the pharynx, oesoph-
agus, (in chickens), larynx and even the stomach and intestines. Metastasis
may occur and the fungus be carried to various parts of the body.
Treatment. This is aimed at the destruction of the fungus and for this
purpose many stbstances have been recommended. The mouth should be
cleansed at frequent intervals with solutions of borax, sodium hyposulphite,
permanganate of potash, or chlorate of potash, etc. The system should be
built up by feeding soft nutritious food, and the sanitary conditions should
be improved.
Oidium hominis. (Busse.) Pammel. Blastomycosis
Cells spherical or ovoid, variable in culture, 8 # in diameter with strongly
refringent bodies; in young cultures, nearly homogeneous and with oil drops;
in old cultures, large cells with a thin membrane; culture, at first white, then
grayish or yellowish, or yellowish-brown in plum cultures, in plum decoction
304 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
black, gas-producing in sugar medium, grows well in ordinary media but pre-
ferably in acid; grows best at high temperature. (An organism isolated by
Curtis produced white colonies with oval, or club-shaped cells, frequently pro-
ducing capsules.) Grows readily in nutrient media, does not form a pellicle
on the surface in liquid media.
Descriptions of several so-called species of Saccharomyces causing Blasto-
mycosis will be added to the above. In their development, blastomycotic fungi
resemble true hyphal fungi rather than yeasts. It is convenient to discuss
them here until their true relationship has been determined.
Distribution. Found in Europe and America.
Pathogenic properties. It was first isolated from the left tibia of a woman
thirty-one years of age, the disease having first manifested itself by a purplish-
red spot and swelling. An operation was performed, but it failed to relieve
the trouble, new foci making their appearance after the operation and finally
becoming general, being accompanied with pus formation. The patient died in
13 months, the lungs, kidneys, and spleen having become involved. There was
no oedema, the organisms found in the lungs and kidneys being marked by
small, nodular swellings.
Large amounts of culture, when inoculated into guinea pigs, dogs, and rab-
bits, produce the disease followed by death. In another case described by Curtis
in 1895, the disease occurred in a young man. The organism isolated is path-
ogenic for rats, mice and dogs.
Fig. 113. Blastomycosis of the skin show-
ing the elongated cells and budding forms. After
Hyde and Montgomery.
Ziegler, in his General Pathology, summarizes our knowledge of the path-
ogenic properties of yeast as follows:
As parasites no importance has been attached to them until very recently, but the in-
vestigations of Busse, Buschke, Sanfelice, Curtis, and others have established the fact that
there are also species of Saccharomycetes of pathogenic importance. According to these
observations, the pathogenic yeasts can multiply in different tissues, in the skin, periosteum
lungs, and glandular organs, and can excite either purulent inflammations or proliferations
of granulation tissue, which run a course similar to that of an infection with actinomycosi¢
or tuberculosis. In inflammatory foci, the yeast cells are for the most part provided with
a capsule. They may give rise to tumor-like swellings. ‘Through degenerate changes,
crescentic forms may develop from the oval yeast-cells.
In solutions containing sugar the blastomycetes form oval cells. Reproduction takes
place through budding and constriction; on any portion of the parent cell there may develop
an excrescence, which is constricted off after it reaches the size of the mother cell. Under
FUNGI IMPERFECTI—BLASTOMYCOSIS 305
certain conditions the cells may grow out into threads, but in these threads no subsequent
segmentation occurs; jointed threads arise through budding (Cienkowsky, Grawitz). A dilute
culture-medium favors the formation of threads.
Oidium granulomatogenes. (Sanfelice). Pammel. Blastomycosis
Forms nodular masses; grows in ordinary media; ferments sugar; uniform
clouding of media; colonies white; the nodules consist of the fungus, giant
epithelioid cells; causes a cheesy degeneration.
Distribution. Found in Europe.
Pathogenic properties. Pathogenic for hogs; occurs in the lungs, where it
produces nodular masses.
Oidium lithogenes. (Sanfelice.) Pammel. Blastomycosis
The fungus occurs in the cancerous-like growth of the lymphatics; is
frequently surrounded by Jime, on agar and gelatin forms white colonies; in
stick culture the growth is needle-like; sugar is changed into alcohol and
carbon dioxid. Fungus consists of spherical bodies.
Distribution. In Europe.
Pathogenic properties. Pathogenic for guinea pigs, white rats, sheep, and
cattle, producing nodular enlargements, frequently surrounded by a calcareous
capsule.
W. W. Hamburger, in a recent number of the Journal of Infectious Dis-
eases, refers to a morphological and biological study of blastomycosis as follows:
1. The strains of organisms appear nearly identical, so far as growth in test-tubes goes.
A few minor differences are summed up below.
2. The organisms grow vigorously on the usual laboratory media, with perhaps a
slightly more abundant growth on faintly acid glucose-agar.
3. Temperature is perhaps the most important factor in varying the gross and micro-
scopic morphology; room temperature favors production of mycelia and aerial hyphae; in-
cubator temperature inhibits production of hyphae and favors coherent, waxy, yeastlike
colonies (budding forms).
4. Those cultures which produce yeastlike growths at incubator temperature develop
hyphae within 24 hours when withdrawn and placed at room temperature. Likewise the
majority of yeast-like colonies will finally (in 17 to 30 days) show evidence of beginning
hypha formation even if kept at 37 degrees C.
5. Glucose-agar stabs, and broth form the most serviceable culture media if a limited
variety is at hand. Duplicates should always be made to control] differences in morphology
at room and incubator temperature.
1. Four strains of organisms isolated from four cases of generalized blastomycosis
appear identical.
2. Pronounced variations in the gross and microscopic morphology of the organisms are
produced by variations in temperature. As a routine for purposes of study cultures should
be grown at both room and incubator temperatures.
Distribution. Found both in Europe and North America.
Pathogenic properties. Dr. Harris gives the following:
Towards the lower animals pathogenic properties vary very much with the culture,
recently isolated cultures as a rule proving more virulent than older ones. Mice, guinea
pigs, and dogs are most susceptible, succumbing often te subcutaneous and intraperitoneal inocu-
lations, whilst the white rat, rabbit, sheep, and horse are more refractory; in all, the lesions
may be localized in the form of abscesses,or general infection may ensue where subcutaneous
inoculation is practised.
Dr. E. R. Le Count and J. Myers discuss the case of systemic blastomycosis
of a Polish laborer.
The first noticeable departure consisted in a feeling of discomfort involving the chest
on the right side extending through from front to back, later cutaneous lesions appeared,
306 MANUAL, OF POISONOUS PLANTS
located below the left ankle and extended down to the heel. He was obliged to stop work
in December. The patient was emaciated, pale, anemic, and weak. Marked oedema was
present in the ankles, feet, face and arms. His nails were clubbed; inguinal adenopathy
was noted. From the lesions blastomycotic fungus was isolated, the sputum also contain-
ing the organism.
Eisendrath and Ormsby described the cultures as follows:
On March 22nd pus was removed from a subcutaneous abscess on the left forearm,
which was inoculated on various media. Six days later growth was plainly visible, and
after this time the cultures grew rapidly. These proved to be pure cultures of blastomy-
cetes. . . . . In the pus they occurred as circular forms and budding forms, having a
double contour and the usual refractile capsule. On media the growth varied. It presented
a moist, pasty surface on glycerin-agar, with at times a wormy appearance or else present-
ing large folds and depressions. Microscopically, these cultures showed many oval and
circular organisms, some budding ones, and much mycelial formaticn, the latter being both
coarse and fine containing sporules. Lateral conidia occurred. On glucose-agar the growth
was more dry, white, and presented aerial hyphae; and microscopically there were fewer
circular and budding organisms and more fine mycelia. On both glucose and glycerin-agar
the media were penetrated to a considerable depth in a semi-circular manner,
Drs. Le Count and J. Myers say, as follows:
The body was examined a few hours after death and the following anatomical
diagnosis made: Blastomycotic bronchopneumonia; blastomycosis of the peribronchial lymph
nodes, of the pleura, the subpleural, and retropharyngeal tissue, the liver, the kidneys,
the colon, the spinal column (dorsal vertebrae), the external spinal dura, the cerebellum,
the left elbow, both knee and ankle joints, and of the skin and subcutaneous tissue with
ulcerations, fistulae, and scars. Fibrous pleuritis. Passive hyperemia of liver and spleen.
Serous atrophy of adipose tissue. Emaciation. Adenoma of thyroid and accessory spleen.
One notable feature of this case is the large conglomerate blastomycotic nodule in the
cerebellum. In only one other case of systemic blastomycosis, that of Curtis’, is there
any record of changes in the nervous system, and the statements in that instance are solely
clinical, death being due to meningitis. The reproduction by a process of sporulation
demonstrable in the cerebellar lesion is likewise a new feature of the changes encountered
in the lesions of this disease. The idea that in the nervous tissue the fungus may have
found favorable or different conditions of nutrition, as an explanation for this method of
multiplication, is opposed by the facts that the regions in which it was found were very
minute, that it was not generally present in the cerebellar process, and the budding was
commonly observed in the ‘‘abcesses’’ in the partitions between necrotic regions.
Highly interesting is the relationship between this case of blastomycosis and one of
coccidioidal disease described by Ophuls. Up to the present two of the chief differences
between blastomycosis and coccidioidal granuloma have been the endosporulation observed
in the tissues in the latter disease and its tendency to spread by the Imyph channels. Al-
though no widespread extension by the Imyphatics was demonstrated in the case reported
here, the extension to the tracheobronchial glands and in peribronchial lymph channels is
unmistakable; the endosporulation on the cerebellum in part also resembles the methods of
production described for the organism of coccidioidal granuloma. Taken together, these
features in this instance of systemic blastomycosis are in accord with the belief expressed
by Ophuls of a close relationship of the organisms in the two diseases.
Ricketts, in an interesting monograph on “Oidiomycosis (Blastomycosis)
of the Skin and its Fungi,” gives the clinical history, cultural characters and
histopathology of a large number of cases. The fungi are divided into three
groups, (1) Blastomycetoid or yeast-like. (2) Oidium-like. (3) Hyphomycet-
oid. He says:
There are two histological forms of the disease in the skin, the eosinophilous and the
non-eosinophilous, the former being associated with the mould type of the organism. Aside
from the infections considered in this communication, certain cases which have been
described in the literature from time to time indicate that oidium-like organisms may cause
other severe pathological conditions in man.
EUMYCETES—LICHENS 307
LICHENS
Symbiotic organisms consisting of higher fungi, chiefly of the class Asco-
mycetes, or rarely Basidiomycetes; the thallus consisting of algal cells enveloped
by the mycelium of the fungus forming a felted mass. The algae are called
gonidia and belong to the Cyanophyceae or Chlorophyceae. The reproductive
bodies consist of spermogonia, which contain the spermatia. ‘The asci contain
the ascospores, and occur in apothecia. In the Basideal lichens, spores are
borne on basidia. Lichens are sometimes divided into fruticose, crustaceous,
and foliaceous; but a more natural classification arranges the lichens into the
Basidio-lichenes and Asco-lichenes, with various families, such as the Roccel-
laceae, that contains the Litmus, Roccella tinctoria; the Lecanoraceae, contain-
ing the Lecanora; and the Cladoniaceae that contains the well known Reindeer
Lichen, Cladonia rangiferina.
Fig. 115. Ljichens, structure of Thallus and Apothecia. 1. Plectospora minutula, sec-
tion through a part of the apothecium; a (at the right, below) Gonidia, a@ (above) ascus sp
ascospores, p paraphyses; x500. 2. Section of thallus of Cladonia furcata x 330. 3. Por-
tion of thallus of Stereocaulon rumulosum; a gonidia, m hypha. 4. Isolated gonidium
(a) with attached hyphae (m) x 950. 5. Synalissa ramulosa, isolated gonidia (a) with
attached hypha (m). After Bornet.
308 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
EMBRYOPHYTA ZOIDIOGAMA
BRYOPHYTA
Seldom thalloid, generally with stem and leaves with well marked alteration
of generations. They contain antheridia and archegonia similar to those of the
ferns. The antheridia are stalked, ellipsoidal, spherical, or club-shaped; the
sperm cells are biciliated, the archegonia flask-shaped, the ventral portion with
a large center cell, the lower portion divided into an egg cell and ventral canal
cell. At maturity the new canal cells become mucilaginous and disorganized,
Fig. 114. Spermogonia of Lichen. g.
Goniodia, fungus threads below. Sp.
Spermatia. Greatly magnified. After
Tulacne.
Fig. 115b. Lichens. 1. Ochrolechia tartarea. 2. Rhisocarpon geographicum. 3.
Lecanora subfusca, on bark of tree. 4. Calicum. 5. Bacomyces roseus. 6. Lecanora
esculenta. 7. No. 6 removed from substratum. 8. Graphis scripta. 1-8 after Wettstein.
EMBRYOPHYTA—BRYOPHYTA 309
ore
ae
Gi
G/
iI
%
(S
==
=}
ah
Fig. 116. A. Lichen—Iceland Moss (Cetraris islandica). p. Paraphyses. a. Asci.
b. Ascospores. s. Subhymenial layer. g. Gonidia or alga. h. Hyphae. r. “Cortical” portion.
B. Lichen. (Synalissa symphorea) sending its hyphae into an alga Gloeocapsa. C. Archegon-
ium of fern (Poiypodium vulgare) with egg cell. b. Antheridium with sperm cells. c. Single
coiled sperm cell. D. Liverwort (Marchantia polymorpha). a. Large gemmule or bud.
b. Same section of thalloid structure bearing scales, s. G. Antheridium with sperm cells
shown at b. H. Foliaceous lichen Physcia pulverulenta. I. Section of male plant of
moss. Phascum cuspidatum. a. Antheridium. 0. Archegonium. /. leaves. p. Paraphyses.
K. Shield Fern (Aspidium Felix-Mas), pinnule bearing sori. a. Indusitum, undernearth the
sporangia. L. Sporangium of the same with ring and stalk with the spores at a. 5
Sporangium of the Royal Fern (Osmumnda regalis), No ring or mere traces. JV. Filmy
fern (Trichomanes alatum). O. Schizaea pusilla. a. Fertile pinnule with sporangia.
Single sporangivm with rir g at small end.
310 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
the mucilaginous material acting as a servant to attract the sperm cells. After
fertilization occurs, spores develop. In addition to the sexual method of repro-
duction an asexual reproduction also occurs. The gametophytic and sporo-
' phytic stage are sharply differentiated..
In the development of the sexual generation the spore germinates giving
rise to a tube which develops into a new plant, and is called protonema. There
are two divisions, the common mosses, and the liverworts. The parts of the
fruiting moss plant are as follows: ‘The calyptra or membranous cap which
covers the capsule and soon falls off, exposing the operculum, which is a kind of
lid, that is also thrown off. The peristome is developed within the operculum
and contains teeth, between which the spores are discharged. The elaters in
Marchantia are for the dissemination of the spores. The peristome differs
in different genera; this affords a convenient means of classification. The
spores are found in the capsule and running through the center is a slightly
differentiated tissue, the columella. In Funaria the reproductive organs occur
on different plants. The sexual organs are borne much like those of liver-worts
at the apex of the stem. The antheridia occur in a small rosette of leaves
and are club-shaped, the upper part consisting of a single layer of large
chlorophyll bearing cells in which small cubical masses occur, the biciliated
sperm cells. The archegonia occur in young plants and closely resemble the
archegonia of liverworts, except that they have a larger neck. The sporeg
germinate by producing a protonema which early produces a rhizoid.
The liverworts and mosses are much more highly differentiated than any
of the Thallophytes, being characterized by more or less differentiation into
tissues. Their life history presents a well marked alteration of generations.
The gametophyte is more conspicuous than the sporophyte; the germinating
spore produces the protonema, which consists of a branched filament, the cells
containing the chloroplastids. The prctonema is usually short-lived in the
Hepaticae but in the true mosses is longer-lived and may persist from year to
year. The moss plant is attached to the soil by small unicellular root hairs, or
by many curled filaments which, in mosses, are called rhizoids. The shoots of
mosses bear lateral organs known as leaves. In Polytrichum and Mnium the
leaf consists, essentially, of a single layer of cells except on the midrib. In the
leafy-stemmed liverworts like Frullania two rows of lateral leaves occur. In
Marchantia the leaves are rudimentary and occur on the under surface of the
thalloid structure in the form of small scales. The small dots on the surface
represent the stomata which are dome shaped structures consisting of a num-
ber of cells on each side. The stomata communicate with the photosynthetic
system of the plant.
Bryophytes are divided into two classes, the liverworts — Hepaticae — and
the Mosses— Musci, the latter represented by spagnum moss — Polytrichum,
Bryum, etc.
The mosses are distinguished from the thallophytes by their sexual repro-
duction, the antheridia or male organs are stalked, ellipsoidal, or club-shaped,
and enclose small cubical cells, in which the ciliated sperm cells occur. These
are ejected, float about in the water till the female reproductive organ, the
archegonium, is reached. This is a flask-shaped body containing a neck and
an egg cell. At maturity the upper part of the canal cells become mucilaginous,
the sperm cells pass down through the canal to the egg cell, where fertilization
EMBRYOPHYTA—BRYOPHYTA Sut
Py WM, ~
Y n4,
Tig. 1l6a. A. Common Polypody (Polypodium vulgare). rh. Rhizome. ss. Stipe.
f. Frond. r. Rachis. a. Part of frond with sori. c. Sporangium. d. Spores. B. Moss
(Mnium hormum). a. Inner peristome. 6. Outer peristome, two teeth. C. Juniper Moss
(Polytrichum commune). rh. Rhizoid. s. Seta or stalk. c. Calyptra or cap. o. Operculum.
D. ‘Common liverwort (Marchantia polymorpha). s. Spores. e. Elater. E. Same as D—
thalloid body with female fruiting body and cupules. F. Same more magnified. r. Rays
with the spore cases containing the spores and elaters. p. Perigynium, to the left and right
archegonia, different stages. G. Prothallus of fern with archegonia, b. and antheridia, a.
H. Fern prothallus with young fern and root at r. I. Protonema of Moss (Funaria
hygrometrica). yr. Rhizoids. b. Buds. s. Spores.
OZ MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
is brought about. After fertilization, the egg cell divides and gives rise to an
embryo. The mosses differ from the ferns and their allies in a less differentiation
of tissues and a slight development of shoot and root system. The vascular
system and leafy shoots and roots are marked in the ferns.
PTERIDOPHYTA
Spores alike or unlike microspores and megaspores developing into flat or
irregular prothallia; these bear the reproductive organs, (antheridia and arche-
gonia); flowers and seeds absent; usually a well developed vascular system.
This sub-division includes the class Filicales or ferns proper. The class
E-quisetales or horsetails; the Lycopodiales represented by the common club
moss, (Lycopodium).
Fig. 116b. Fern. A. Section through frond of As-
pidium Filix mas, a leaf-like .body with parenchyma cells,
an epidermis and vascular bundles x 100. B-J. Develop-
ment of the sporangia of Aspidium trifoliatum x 350. K.
Young sporangium of Nephrolepis exaltata in the act of
differentiating the annulus x 350. ZL. Immature sporangium
of Blechnum occidentale, seen from the back. M. Sporangi-
um with spores. N. Sporangium dehiscence at st, a jointed
ring x 120. O. Group of spore mother-cells x 350. P-R.
Single spore mother-cells in different stages of partition
x 425. S,T. Bilateral tetrads of Aspidium Filix mas. U.
Mature spores of Aspidium Filix mas x 500. V. Tetrads.
After Luerssen.
EMBRYOPHYTA—PTERIDOPHYTA 313
FILICALES
Leafy plants, fronds usually raised on a stipe; coming from a rootstock;
leaves usually rolled up in the bud, circinate; spores all of one kind and size,
produced in sporangia which occur on the back of the frond, these at maturity
break open and discharge the minute spores, which develop prothalli that bear
the antheridia and archegonia. The following sub-orders occur in the United
States: the Ophioglossaceae represented by the common adder’s tongue,
Ophioglossum vulgatum, found in moist meadows, the Moonwort, Botrychium
Lunaria and B. Virginianum; the Osmundaceae, large ferns with straight erect
rootstocks, pinnate leaves; large globose sporangia with mere traces of a ring;
the Royal fern, Osmunda regalis, Clayton’s fern (O. Claytonia), the most
common species in damp woods, and the Cinnamon Fern (O. cinnamomeay,
occurring in wet places, marshes, etc.; the Filmy ferns, Hymenophyllaceae,
represented by the Bristle Fern (7richomanes radicans) ; Cyatheaceae with such
tree ferns as Dicksonia; Polypodiaceae, Common Brake, Maidenhair fern;
Fig. 117. Marsilia (M. Fig. 117a. Club moss (Lycopodium clavatum). 1. Plant
quadrifolia), a young leaf. with fertile shoots. 2. Scale and the sporangium. 3. Spores.
s. Fruiting body. Bischoff. After Wossidlo.
314 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Fig. 119. Pteris serrulata. A _ single
Fig. 118a. Antheridium archegonium; canal and neck cells; mu-
of fern with sperm cells. cilage protruding x 350. After Stras-
After Luerssen. burger.
> ee ry
em
bis Pete 7
Fig. 120. . Prothallus of Fern. Archegonia above, an-
theridia below among the hairs. After Lwuerssen.
PTERIDOPHY TA—FERNS 315
Gleicheniaceae, some tropical ferns of few species; the Schizeaceae represented
by the Small Curly Grass (Schizaea pusilla), Climbing Fern, (Lygodium palmat-
um), sporangia ovoid or sessile provided with an apical ring, a family contain-
ing about 100 species; the Polypodiaceae the largest sub-order with 200 genera
and 3000 species; Marsiliaceae containing Marsilia a common aquatic or semi-
aquatic plant; represented by Salvinia, Azolla, also aquatic. The order Ma-
vattiales, contains the Marattia, tropical.
It is not at all strange that the ferns should be poisonous since Greshoff
and others have reported the presence of hydrocyanic acid in these plants.
Greshoff says the odor of oil of bitter almonds is especially intense in the young
leaves of Cystopteris fragilis Bernh; and there is also a trace of HCN in the
spores. He also calls attention to the presence of the same substance in the
common brake (Pteris aquilina), and states that several tropical ferns namely
Davallia braziliensis, and other species are cyanogenetic, and that one fern, the
D. pentaphylla, forms a large amount of this substance, especially the cultivated
form elegantissima. Several species of the Gleichenia contain saponin.
POLYPODIACEAE
Perennial with horizontal erect, short or elongated rootstocks; leaves
various, entire, pinnate, pinnatifid, or decompound, vernation circinate (coiled) ;
sori on the margins of the leaf or on the lower side, generally without an
indusium (covering); sporangia with a vertical many celled incomplete ring,
which on straightening out ruptures and discharges the spores. A few of the
ferns, as Male Shield fern Aspidium Filix-mas, and the A. marginale, are used
in medicine.
KEY FOR THE GENERA
MiG sitimme ADS emits. yay sans ic clsrctatas ais connie aN sean eet evaronremetn bes Cielsuslot ake Polypodium
Indusium present, evident.
Sori marginal.
Indusium with margin of frond rolled over.
Sporangia borne on a continuous marginal vein-like receptacle.
Stine: lohey COLOLEGY solace, MAMET dinar Meera Me icIote Sere aiae: ole sway ane Pteris
Sporangia on the ends of the veins. Stipe black............ Adiantum
Sori on back with special indusium covering the same.
SOrty Linear OFM ODLONG cl eete Os eure ester oered Tehebaree tele at ter oka st eka Asplenium
Sori roundish on the back or rarely the apex of the vein.
Stipe not articulated.
Indusium flat or slightly convex or round reniform, fixed by
the center, opening all round the margin.............../ Aspidium
Indusium convex, fixed by a broad base, commonly reflexed
aS the sporaneide ripen besitos eee et te eet ahs o's so =. Cystopteris
Indusium obscure, leaves closely rolled together with necklace-like seg-
108) 11 ee RU CT PN RO a Uy, Onoclea
Polypodium. \.. Polypody
Simple or pinnate fronds from horizontal rootstocks; stipes articulated
to the rootstocks; sori (fruit dots) round, naked on the back of the frond
in one or more rows each side of the midrib or scattered; indusium wanting.
About 350 species, mostly tropical. The species in the Northern United States
316 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
are P. vulgare, and P. incanum, the P. vulgare being more common northward.
The P. aureum found in Florida is a large fern.
Polypodium vulgare. WL. Common Polypody
Creeping rootstocks covered with cinnamon-colored scales; stipes light
colored; fronds 4-10 inches high, simple and deeply pinnatifid, the divisions
linear oblong, obtuse or somewhat acute obscurely toothed; sori large.
Distribution. Throughout North America, also Europe and Asia.
Poisonous properties. Used in catarrh and asthma. Supposed by some
writers to be poisonous.
Adiantum L,.
Sori marginal, borne on the under side of a transversely oblong, crescent-
shaped or roundish, margin of the frond; the sporangia attached to the tips
of the forking branched veins; stipe black, polished; leaves divided. About 80
species of wide distribution. The A. Capillus-Veneris in tropical and sub-
tropical regions.
Adiantum pedatum. 1, Maidenhair Fern
Root-stock slender, chaffy; stipe black, shining, dichotomously forked at the
summit; pinnae arising from the upper sides of two branches of the stipe;
pinnules short-stalked, numerous.
Fig. 121. Cultivated. Maiden hair fern (Adiantum).
PTERIDOPHYTA—FERNS 317
Distribution. In moist woods from Nova Scotia to British Columbia and
Alaska, California, Utah, Arkansas and Georgia, also found in Asia.
Medicinal properties. The Maidenhair Fern has a bitterish aromatic taste
and was formerly much used as a demulcent; it is probably poisonous. The
European A. Capillus-Veneris was used in catarrhal affections.
Pteris
Fronds once to twice pinnate, coming from a stout root-stock, usually large
plants; sporangia in a continuous slender line occupying the entire margin of
the fern frond and covered by the narrow edge which forms a continuous
membranaceous indusium. Pteris and Pteridium are usually separated; about
100 species in the genus Pteris.
Pteris aquilina, \. Common Brake
Frond dull green, from 2-3 feet high, ternate at the summit of an erect
stout stalk; variable in height from 1-6 feet.; stipe coming from a black root-
stock; the spreading branches twice pinnate, branches oblong-lanceolate.
re
Fig. 121b. Brake (Pteris aquilina). The roots
and stems of this plant are poisonous. The root-
Fig. 121a. Maiden fern (Adiantum pedatum). stocks contain a starch which is sometimes used as
(Am. Agriculturist). food. (Ada Hayden).
318 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Distribution. Widely distributed in North America, from the Atlantic to
the Pacific coast, also found in Europe. Probably the most common fern in the
north, especially on the Pacific coast.
Poisonous properties. ‘This plant has been reported as being an anthelmintic
and also an astringent; it is suspected of being poisonous.
Asplenium. YW. Spleenwort
Large or small ferns with entire, lobed, pinnate, leaves, 2-3 times pinnate
or pinnatifid, veins free; sori oblong or linear, oblique, straight or rarely
curved; indusium straight or curved. About 200 species of wide distribution,
several species cosmopolitan like A. Trichomanes.
Asplenium Filix-foemina. (.) Bernh. Common Spleenwort
Fronds 1-3 feet high, ovate-oblong or broadly lanceolate, twice pinnate;
pinnules confluent on the secondary rachis, oblong and doubly serrate or pin-
nately incised; sori short.
Distribution. Common in the north and especially in the dense woods, as
far south as Missouri.
=
“COONTING SYS
=! SV / |
Fig. 122. Aspidium Filix mas. Spore bearing leaf 1/6
natural size. a. A single segment showing the under side
x 10. After Lwuerssen.
PTERIDOPHYTA—FERNS 319
Poisonous properties. 'The rhizome of the root is used in medicine al-
though it is not officinal. It is supposel to possess properties the same as the
Male Shield Fern.
Aspidium. Swartz. Wood Fern
Fronds with 1-3 pinnate leaves, free veins; sori borne on the back or rarely
at the apex of the veins; indusium covering the sporangia, flat or flattish,
scarious, orbicular and peltate at the center, or round-kidney-shaped, opening
all round the margin. About 200 species of wide distribution, common in the
northern states.
Aspidium fragrans. (L.) Swartz
Fronds 4-12 inches high, glandular and aromatic, fragrant; rootstock stout,
nearly erect, densely chaffy, as are the crowded stipes and rachis. Species
found in Asia and Europe.
Aspidium Filix-mas. (\.) Swartz
Fronds large, 1-3 feet high; pinnae linear-lanceolate, tapering from base
to the apex; pinnules very obtuse, serrate at the apex and obscurely so at the
sides, the basal incisely lobed; sporangia nearer the midvein than the margin
and usually confined to the lower half of each fertile pinnule.
Distribution. Native to Europe and found in rocky woods from Labrador
to Alaska, northern Michigan, British Columbia, Greenland, Europe, Asia, and
the Andes of South America.
Poisonous properties. It is suspected of being poisonous. The rootstocks
have long been used in medicine as a vermifuge and contain the following sub-
stances: a fatty, green oil, traces of a volatile oil, resin, tannin, filicic acid,
SAEs eH @ BRR filicin, aspidin, LOSE: nl 9 a fixed poisonous oil.
Dr. Winslow says:
Large quantities of the drug cause hemorrhagic gastro-enteritis, tremors, weakness,
stupor, coma, acute nephritis and cystitis. Six drachms of the oleoresin have proved fatal
in man and sheep; five drachms in a medium-sized dog; and three ounces in a cow. Aspidium
should never be given with oil which aids its absorption.
Aspidium marginale. (L,.) Swartz
Much like the preceding, with evergreen fronds, small, thickish, ovate or
oblong in outline, and from 1-3 feet high; pinnae lanceolate, acuminate; pin-
nules oblong or oblong-scythe-shaped, obtuse or pointed, entire or crenately-
toothed; sori close to the margin.
Distribution. From Canada to Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, Arkansas, and
Georgia.
Poisonous properties. Probably has the same effect as the preceding
species. Dr. Johnson says:
Oleo-resin of male-fern is one of the best known remedies for tapeworm, and also one
of the most efficient. Doubtless much of the disappointment experienced with it is at-
tributable to inefficient preparations. Since, however, it has been demonstrated that A.
marginale is quite as efficient, and as this species is very abundant, there is now no good
reason why reliable preparations should not be the rule rather than, as heretofore, the ex-
ception.
Cystopteris. Bernhardi. Bladder Fern
Fronds growing in tufts, 2-3 times pinnate, the lobes cut toothed; stipe
slender, 2-4 pinnate leaves; sori roundish, borne on the back of the veins.
320 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
fe wt
» & Wh
, Se We
» i 88
=) CID a3 y
WY Sih, Sy
= z=,
(yy
<=
=
ZN
A)
Fig. 123. Shield Fern (Aspidium marignale).
Said to contain filicie acid. Known to be poisonous.
(Ada Hayden).
Indusium delicate arched or level-like, attached by a broad base on the inner,
partly under the sorus, opening free at the other side; veins free. A small
genus of 5 species, 2 common in the United States. C. bulbifera, long slender
fronds bearing bulblets which propagate the plant. C. fragilis, with brittle
stalk, the pinnae and pinnules ovate, lanceolate, irregularly pinnatifid or cut-
toothed.
Onoclea. I, Sensitive Fern
Coarse ferns, creeping root stocks, fertile fronds erect, rigid with con-
tracted pod-like or berry-like divisions, rolled up; sori roundish, imperfectly
covered by a very delicate hood-shaped indusium attached to the base of the
receptacle; when dry opening, allowing the spores to escape; sterile fronds
foliaceous. A small genus of a few species.
Onoclea sensibilis. I. Sensitive Fern
Slender root stock with scattered fronds, sterile long stalked 2-15 inches
high, triangular ovate, fertile fronds, contracted closely, bipinnate, pinnules
rolled up into berry-like bodies.
PTERIDOPHYTA—FERNS 321
Fig.- 124. Flowering Fern (Osmunda_ Clay-
toniana). Reported as poisonous. (Ada Hayden).
Distribution. Moist meadows and thickets from Newfoundland to Florida
and Minnesota.
Poisonous properties. Very abundant in hay from low meadows. May be
injurious.
Onoclea Struthiopteris. (.) Hoffman. Ostrich Fern
Fronds growing in a crown; root stocks stoloniferous; sterile, short stalked,
2-10 feet high, broadly lanceolate; pinnae pinnatifid, veins free, the veinlets
simple; fertile frond shorter, pinnate with pod-like or somewhat necklace-
shaped pinnae.
Distribution. Nova Scotia to Illinois, Wisconsin, Iowa and British Colum-
bia, common also in Europe and Asia.
OSMUNDACEAE
Large ferns, root stocks frequently stout and erect; leaves 1-2 pinnate,
coiled in vernation; veins free, mostly forked, running to the margins of the
pinnules or lobes; sporangia large, globose with mere traces of a ring, or
none, borne on contracted pinnae, on the lower surface of the pinnules.
Three genera.
322 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Osmunda. L,. Flowering Fern
Tall ferns growing in swamps or low ground. Fertile fronds much con-
tracted and bearing on the margins the short pedicelled, naked sporangia on
the margins of their radii like divisions without chlorphyll; sporangia thin,
reticulated, opening by a longitudinal cleft into two halves, with a few thick-
ened cells the rudiment of the ring.
There are six species in the North temperate regions, three species com-
mon in the North, the Cinnamon Fern (O. cinnamomea), clothed with rusty
wool; the Royal Fern (O. regalis), a smooth pale green fern, 2-5 feet high,
with 13-25 sterile pinnules; Clayton’s Fern (O. Claytoniana), clothed with
loose wool, but soon smooth; pinnae oblong lanceolate; some of the middle
pinnae fertile. The O. regalis is used as a tonic and styptic. By some these
ferns are regarded as injurious to stock.
EQUISETALES. Horsetails
Rush-like perennial plants, epidermis impregnated with silica; creeping root-
stocks, stem generally hollow jointed, simple or branched, striated or grooved,
provided with a double series of cavities and usually a large central one,
branches verticillate; leaves reduced to a sheath which is divided into teeth
corresponding to the principal ridges of the stem; stomata in furrows;
Fig. 125. Formation of Archegonia of Osmunda. A. Early development seen from
the surface. B. ‘The same in vertical section. C-E. Farther development. F. Opened
and closed neck. G. Neck in oblique section. J. Fertilization of the mature archegonium.
a. archegonium, h. neck of the same, c. central cell, e. egg, bc. spermatozoids, hc. neck
canal cells. B-J x 240. A. greatly magnified. After Luerssen.
PTERIDOPHYTA—HORSETAIL 328
sporangia l-celled clustered underneath the shield-shaped scale of the cone;
spores all alike, two thread-like elastic filaments (elaters) are attached to the
base of the spore which roll around it when moist and spreading when ripe;
prothallus green formed upon damp ground, usually dioecious. One order,
Equisetaceae, and one genus, consisting of 40 species. Fossil horsetails numer-
ous.
EQUISETACEAE
Equisetum. LL. Horsetail
Perennial jointed plants with creeping root-stocks, dull and blackish in color,
often bearing tubers, roots in whorls from the nodes, stems usually erect, simple
or branched, jointed cylindrical, the surface striated, the stomata occur in grooves
either in rows or in bands, the nodes bearing a whorl of reduced leaves joined
by their edges into cylindrical sheaths, the tips consist of presistent or deciduous
teeth; branches when present in the form of whorls from the nodes; fruit
consisting of a terminal cone containing the sporangia in which occur the green-
ish spores; each spore provided with four hygroscopic bands, the elaters;
spores produce two kind of prothalli, one male the other female; the male con-
taining the antheridia, the female the archegonia. A small genus commonly
called rushes or horsetails. Some ten species in eastern North America.
Equisetum arvense. \. Common Horsetail
Perennial with annual stems, stomata scattered; fertile stems unbranched,
destitute of chlorophyll, 4-10 inches high, soon perishing; sheaths distant,
8-12 toothed; the sterile slender 1-2 feet high, 10-14 furrowed producing simple
or sparingly branched, 4-angular teeth, herbaceous, triangular lanceolate.
Distribution. Abundant in sandy fields along roadsides and railroads, es-
pecially northward from Newfoundland to Virginia, California and Alaska.
Also occurs in Europe and Asia.
Equisetum hyemale. L,. Scouring Rush
Stems all alike, slender, rather stiff, evergreen, from 1%-4 feet high,
8-34 grooved. Stem rarely producing branches which are usually short and
sometimes fertile; stomata arranged in rows, rough ridges with 2 indistinct
lines of tubercles, the central cavity large, sheath rather long, cylindrical,
marked with a black girdle, their ridge obscurely carinate; spikes persistent.
Equisetum hyemale. \. var. robustum, (A. Br.) A. A. Eaton
Stem perennial, tall and stout, 8-10 feet high, sometimes an inch thick,
occasionally branched; 20-48-grooved, the ridges roughened with lines of trans-
versely-oblong tubercles; sheaths rather short with a thick girdle at the base
and a black limb; ridges of sheaths carinate.
Distribution. In wet places, from Ohio, Iowa, to Louisiana, Mexico, Cal-
ifornia, and British Columbia, also in Asia.
Poisonous properties. ‘The rushes have long been recognized in Europe
as being injurious to horses, and there are records of their poisonous proper-
ties in American Agricultural Literature.
A writer in the American Agriculturist, many years ago, described accu-
rately a disease which might be called equisetosis, and which was produced by
poisoning from these rushes.
324 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Mr. H. Lawrence of Spencer, Iowa, recently sent me a specimen of the
last species mentioned above, writing that:
“The cattle staggered and had the scours. One man lost 10 head of young animals.”
Friedberger and Frohner state that the symptoms of poisoning by this
rush are as follows:
At first, excitement and anxiety; the sensorium remaining unaffected; later, un-
certainty of movement, reeling and staggering; at least, paralysis of hinder limbs, tumbling
down, general paralysis, insensibility to external irritants, unconsciousness and coma.
Pulse accelerated, appetite at first normal, but in course of time great disturbance of
nutrition; sugar in the urine. Course sometimes very acute, death occurring in a few
hours, but sometimes protracted (two to eight days), and at times chronic (ong to several
weeks). In cattle, after excessive eating continuous diarrhoea becomes a prominent char-
acteristic along with the paralytic symptoms; while, if the food be persisted with, cachexia
and hydraemiea, combined with weakness bordering on paralysis, make their appearance,
Autopsy reveals: hyperaemia, oedema, dropsical effusions on the brain and spinal cord,
especially on cerebellum; in cases of longer duration, hydraemia. Sometimes inflammatory
changes in the mucous membrane of stomach and bowels. ‘Therapeutics: change of fodder,
purgatives and stimulants, especially camphor; blisters along the spine.
Mr. P. J. O’Gara says of this plant:
It has been found growing along roadsides and railroad tracks, but its occurrence in
serious amounts is apparently confined to low moist meadows which are more or less sandy.
As before indicated, it is confined mostly to the Missouri bottom. A thorough examination
of several meadows in this region has shown that this plant often constitutes one-sixth or
more of the bulk of the hay. ‘There is no doubt that this plant causes a great deal of
trouble, but to what extent is not known as many of the haystacks which were carefully
examined contained the Rattle-box in considerable amount. Horses eating this hay suf-
fered the combined effects of both poisonous plants.
Prof. Jones and Dr. Rich state:
The first evidence of the trouble is more or less unthriftiness, the horse appearing
thin and the muscles wasted. In from two to five weeks, according to the age of the
horse and the manner- of feeding, the animal begins to lose control of its muscles, sways
and staggers like a drunken man, although its eye looks bright, it eats well, and may even
try to caper and play. After muscular symptoms become pronounced many cases refuse
to lie down, standing until thrown down by disorderly muscular contractions. If it con-
tinues to eat the plant the horse in any case soon loses power to stand and goes down,
after which it becomes very nervous and struggles violently to get up, the legs become more
or less rigid, and at times all the muscles of the body seem convulsed. Even in this
condition one well nursed patient lived two weeks. The horses are generally willing to
eat, although unable to rise, but become sore and tired from struggling, finally dying from
exhaustion. Life is much prolonged by turning from side to side three or four times in
twenty-four hours; thus preventing gravitation congestion of the lungs and kidneys. The
pulse becomes slow until toward the end when it is rapid and weak. Temperature is be-
low normal until the animal goes down, after which some fever develops in consequence
of the nervous excitement and violent struggling. ‘The extremities are usually cold, and
in the winter horses suffering from Equisetum poisoning suffer severely from the cold,
presumedly because of diminished oxidation and consequent low body temperature. The
visible lining membranes of mouth, nose, eye, etc., become pale.
Conditions Influencing the Effect of the Poison.
Age of the horses.—Young animals develop symptoms much more quickly and succumb
to the Equisetum poisoning sooner than older ones. In one case under observation a mare
eating Equisetum hay did not show symptoms until after four weeks, while her colt by her
side developed typical symptoms of horsetail poisoning and died in ten days. Nine out of
fourteen horses on one farm, all fed alike upon good hay, were bedded with swale hay
containing large quantities of this weed. ‘They ate this bedding freely and within three
weeks all nine showed symptoms of poisoning, the remaining five bedded with straw kept
perfectly well. ‘The youngest, a three-year-old, was down and died a few days later. The
oldest, an old brood mare, showed but slight symptoms, while the other seven, of inter-
mediate ages, all staggered and reeled, although they recovered.
TFeed.—Grain-fed horses resist the action of the poison much longer than those not
grained. Horses seem to develop a depraved appetite for the weed. In the last mentioned
Fig. 125a. a. Scouring Rush (Equisetum hyemale var robustum); b. Horsetail (E.
arvense), futile branch; c. Sterile branch of E. arvense; d. E. hyemale. Said to be poison-
King).
ous to horses. (C. M. Ki
PTERIDOPHYTA—EQUISETACEAE 325
case, though all were fed good, clean timothy hay, they seemed to prefer the horsetail
bedding, and even left their grain to eat it.
Condition of the plant.——Wle have no evidence that horses grazing upon the green
plant are poisoned thereby. It may be that the plant is less poisonous in the early stages
of its growth than when mature, or the laxative effect of the grass eaten with it may
prevent the cumulative action of the poison. Moveover the plant rarely occurs in as large
quantities in pastures as in meadows and apparently rarely need cause apprehension. If,
however, it is abundant, close watch should be kept upon horses pasturing where it
occurs that the animals may be removed at the earliest symptoms of trouble.
Treatment.—In the way of treatment, the first and most important thing is to stop
immediately the feeding of the Equisetum hay. Our practice further than this has been
to give a purgative pill consisting of one ounce of Barbadoes aloes, one or two drachms
of ginger, and sufficient English crown soap—soft soap—to make a ball or pill. This is
put down the horse’s throat, at one dose, and following this we have usually given bran
mashes night and morning until the digestive tract is entirely cleared of the poisonous plant.
In case aloes cannot be easily obtained a quart of raw linseed oil will be very well. After
the physic has operated, a teaspoonful of powdered nux vomica is added to each grain
feed, three times a day. This tends to relieve the muscular incoordination. When poison
symptoms are severe and especially when staggering is very profound, slings should be
used to support the animal for when once down it is very difficult to make it stand
again even with the aid of slings. If, however, the above treatment is begun before the
horse loses the power to stand and it can be kept on its feet, its life can be saved in
practically all cases.
Stebler & Schréter in their work on the weeds of meadows mention this
same plant and several other species as being injurious to stock, not only to
horses, about which there is a difference of opinions, but to cattle. In the latter
it produces diarrhoea. Cows become poor and the milk flow ceases or is checked.
That this disease is similar to one produced by mouldy corn is shown by
the following quotation from Dr. Peters:
It is also known that certain weeds commonly called horsetail have a faculty of pro-
ducing a disease almost identical with this one. The experiments conducted by Dr. Rich
of the Vermont Station show that that weed is capable of producing similar symptoms.
EMBRYOPHYTA, (SIPHONOGAMA, OR
SPERMATOPHYTA)
Plants producing seeds which contain an embryo with 1 or more cotyledons,
a stem caulicle, a radicle, and a plumule, these parts, occasionally not dif-
ferentiated before germination; microspores, equivalent to pollen grains borne
in microsporangia; ovules (macrosporangia) borne on a modified leaf called
the carpel, containing 1 macrospore, equivalent to the embryo sac which de-
‘ velops the minute female prothallium, an archegonium; the egg cell in the em-
bryo sac is fertilized by means of a sperm cell in the pollen tube; the male
prothallium generally but slightly developed. The Spermatophyta contain
two main divisions based upon the character of the ovules.
GYMNOSPERMAE
Ovules naked, not enclosed in an ovary, attached to scales or wanting;
pollen grains develop into the pollen tube; the male prothallium contains the
sperm cell and fertilizes the egg cell in the ovule. The Gymnosperms are di-
vided into six classes.
1. Cycadales. These include the Cycas circinnalis well known in cultiva-
tion, an important plant of the tropics. The C. media of Australia produces
rickets, a Macrozamia causes the same disease. Dr. Stafford states that C.
326 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Fig. 126. (Ephedra nevad-
ense). A shrub in Southwest-
ern United tSates.
circinnalis, known as the “Fadong” in the island of Guam, is poisonous, but
the poisonous properties of the seeds are removed by soaking and repeatedly
changing the water. He says also that the seeds when fresh are so poisonous
that the water in which they are steeped is fatal to chickens. The group also
includes the Dioon the seeds of which furnish a starch which is an article of
food. The species of Zamia, a member of this group, are native to tropical
Florida.
2. Bennettiales, A fossil group.
3. Cordaitales, A fossil group.
4. Gingkoales. These include the Gingkoaceae, of which the Ginkgo biloba
is well known and is frequently cultivated as an ornamental plant in the United
States. Long avenues of these trees are planted in Washington. The fruit
of the Gingko has a very disagreeable odor. The tree was common in the ter-
tiary age.
5. The Coniferae.
6. Gnetales. This group is represented in the United States by Ephedra,
shrubs with horse-tail like branches, small leaves and buckwheat-like seeds.
The Welwitschia of the above group is found upon stony ground in the trop-
ical Old World.
SPERMATOPHY TA—GYMNOSPERMS 327
WV
NA
WGA
Z
iA \
I \\2
ZN \\\ : ZN
WP
G:
Fig. 127. Hemlock (Tsuga
canadensis). A common forest
tree of Northern North America.
Contains resin and the usual
principles found in these resins.
Said to be injurious.
CONIFERAE
Resinous trees or shrubs generally evergreen leaves, entire or scale-like;
wood consists mostly of tracheids marked with large depressed disks; tracheae
only present near the pith and in the leaves; perianth none; flowers monoecious ;
stamens several, together, subtended by a scale; anthers 2-7 celled; pollen grains
frequently of three cells, one fertile and two inflated; ovules with two coats,
borne solitary or together on the surface of a scale, straight or partly inverted;
fruit a cone, usually papery, but in some instances fleshy, sometimes berry-like;
seeds winged or wingless; endosperm abundant, fleshy or starchy; embryo
straight and slender; cotyledons 2 or more. About 25 genera and between 275
and 300 species. They include the Podocarpus of the tropical regions, the Taxus
or Yew, the Norfolk Pine (Araucaria excelsa and A. brasiliana), frequently
cultivated, the White Cedar (Cupressus Lawsoniana) of California, the Cupress-
us nootkatensis of the northwest coast, the White Cedar (C. thyoides) which
occurs in swamps, in the East; the genus Picea consisting of the spruces, Nor-
way Spruce (P. Engelmannii), Tideland Spruce (P. sitchensis), one of the larg-
est trees in Oregon and Washington; the Douglas Fir (Pseudotsuga Douglasit),
one of the most valuable of the North American conifers, found in Washington,
Oregon and California and in the Rocky Mountains; the Hemlock (Tsuga
canadensis), abundant in North America, and the source of Canada or Hemlock
Pitch, the bark containing an abundance of tannin; the leaves are said to be
abortive; the 7'suga heterophylla of the Pacific coast which produces a valuable
lumber; the Balsam Fir (Abies balsamea), which furnishes a kind of balsam
that contains four acid resins and a volatile oil; the Black Fir (Abies concolor),
328 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
a large forest tree of the Pacific coast and the Rocky Mountains; the Sandarac
tree (Callistris quadrivalvis), which furnishes not only the sandarac gum used
in making varnish, but also a dark-colored, fragrant wood capable of high
polish and used in ornamental work; the Arbor Vitae, or White Cedar (Thuja
occidentalis), which contains fenshoe, thujone, thujin, and the bitter glucoside
pinicrin, its leaves being irritating to the skin, sometimes producing blisters;
the Norway spruce (Picea excelsa), which contains resins and volatile oils and
is the source of Burgundy pitch; the Black Spruce (P. mariana), from the
young branches of which an essence is prepared that is used in the preparation
of spruce beer; the White Spruce (P. canadensis), which, with the preceding
species furnishes much of the wood pulp used in the manufacture of paper;
and the Pines.
Taxus. (Tourn.) L. Yew
Flowers generally dioecious or occasionally monoecious, axillary from
scaly buds; sessile or nearly sessile, from small staminate catkins of a few
scaly bracts; 5-8 stamens; anthers 4-celled; fertile flowers solitary, erect, sub-
tended by a fleshy cup-shaped disk; fruit consisting of a fleshy disk which be-
comes cup-shaped and red and encloses the bony seed.
Distribution. About 6 species native of the north temperate regions. One
upon the Pacific coast, Taxus brevifolia, is a tree. The European Yew (Taxus
baccata), a well known poisonous plant, is frequently used for ornamental pur-
poses in this country.
Taxus canadensis. Willd. American Yew
A low shrub, straggling over bushes, with linear leaves, green on both sides.
Distribution. In the woods from Newfoundland to New Jersey and Vir-
ginia, west to Wisconsin, Iowa and Minnesota.
Poisonous properties. One species is known to contain the alkaloid taxin,
C,,H,,NO,,. Dr. Johnson says, concerning the poisonous properties of the
American Yew:
This plant, a variety, only, of the European yew, cannot be said to have, as yet,
a place among medicines. It is believed, however, to possess poisonous properties, and
is perhaps worthy of investigation. Regarding the poisonous properties of the berries,
the author can state that he has eaten them without deleterious effect, but whether because
the quantity was insufficient or not, is an open question. Cases of fatal poisoning from
eating the berries of the European yew are on record, and therefore our variety is cer-
tainly open to suspicion.
Chesnut refers to the poisonous nature of the yew as follows:
The common yew, or ground yew of the northeastern United States is called poison
hemlock in some places. ‘The leaves of this shrub are probably poisonous to stock, as
are those of the European yew. ‘This species is more accessible to stock than are those
of the western yew (Taxus brevifolia), which grows only in deep canyons.
Dr. Otto Lehmann * in his treatise on poisonous plants, states that older
naturalists regarded the yew as one of the most powerful of poisonous plants.
Modern testimony is conflicting, but he regards the branches and leaves as
poisonous for animals. Friedberger and Frohner give the symptoms of poison-
ing from yew as follows: “Death may be sudden, resembling apoplexy; it
may be preceded by staggering and convulsions; cases of long standing show
gastro-enteritis. Give purgatives as remedies.”
* Giftpflanzen. 121. Hamburg. 1882.
SPERMATOPHYTA—GYMNOSPERMS 329
Pinus. (Tourn.) L,.
Evergreen trees with short scale-like leaves and longer leaves in bundles;
the ordinary foliage leaves linear, in bundles varying from 2-5, rarely 1; sta-
mens in catkins, borne at bases of shoots; filaments short; anthers longitud-
inally dehiscent; pistillate, bearing aments, solitary or clustered on the twigs
of the preceding season consisting of numerous imbricated bracts, each with
an ovule-bearing scale; fruit a large cone; seeds 2 at the base of each scale;
winged above. About 75 species of wide distribution. Of these the more im-
portant are: White Pine (P. Strobus), one of the most valuable of North
American Pines; Sugar Pine (P. Lambertiana) of California and Oregon; Aus-
trian Pine (P. Laricio), furnishing Austrian turpentine; the Long-leaved Pine
(P. palustris) of the South, the most important source of turpentine, which
Fig. 128. White Pine (Pinus Strobus). 1. Branch bearing staminate flowers. 2.
Branch bearing pistillate flowers and young cones. 3. Anther, enlarged. 4,5. Scales of
pistillate flower, enlarged. 6. Autumn branch bearing young cones. 7. Fruiting branch
with young cone. 8. Scale of cone with seeds attached. 9. Seeds with wings attached.
10. Seeds, enlarged. 11. Seedling plant. 1, 2, 6, 7, 8, 9 one-half natural size. (S. B.
Green).
330 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
in this tree amounts to 70-80 per cent., resin, 15-30 per cent, volatile oil and
some pinene C,,H,,, 2 very important constituent; P. sylvestris, the source of
Russian turpentine; P. pinaster, supplying the French turpentine; P. heterophylla
and P. echinata, also turpentine trees; Loblolly Pine (P. Taeda) also containing
pinene; the Western Yellow Pine (P. ponderosa) occurring from mountains of
Colorado westward, a large tree 120 or more feet high, 4 or 5 feet in diameter,
branching widely, spreading or drooping, bark light red, leaves in 3’s or rarely
2’s, cones stout, dense, heavy, ovoid-conical, each scale with short recurved
prickle; the variety scopulorum of the last named species, found in the front
Rockies, a smaller tree with shorter leaves; and Lodge Pole Pine (Pinus con-
torta), a tall straight tree, 80-120 feet high, and from 12 inches to 3 feet in
diameter, with conical head, thin, light grayish-brown bark, leaves 1-3 inches
long, light green, rigid, often persistent cones. This last named species occurs
from Colorado, Wyoming and South Dakota to the Pacific coast and is closely
related to the Jack Pine (P. Banksiana).
Phenol and creosote oil are obtained from Pinus palustris and P. Taeda.
Poisonous properties. Cattle and sheep do not usually graze upon the
leaves of conifers, but when forced to do so because of scarcity of fodder,
sheep will eat the leaves, which may produce injurious symptoms. According
to Friedberger and Frohner, plants containing turpentine are poisonous. Cho-
bert, in 1787, observed gastro-enteritis complicated by nephritis as a result of
grazing on leaves of conifers. ‘The first named authors find symptoms of
haematuria, constipation, evacuation dry, and irritation of the kidneys.
Juniperus, (Tourn.) LL. Juniper
Flowers dioecious or monoecious, in lateral catkins, staminate catkins
small, fertile catkins consisting of 3-6 fleshy scales; fruit appearing like a
berry; color of fruit bluish-black or blackish, frequently with white bloom;
seeds 1-3, wingless and bony. The J. Orycedrus of the Mediterranean region
produces “oil of cedar.”
Juniperus communis. L. Common Juniper
A shrub or small tree with spreading or pendulous branches; leaves rigid,
spreading; berries dark blue. ‘The variety alpina, Gaud. is a low, decumbent,
or prostrate shrub with shorter, less-spreading leaves. It contains pinene and
cadinene. ‘The oil and fruits are used in the manufacture of gin.
Distribution. From Nova Scotia to British Columbia, to Pennsylvania,
Wisconsin, Michigan, Nebraska, and in the Rocky Mountains to New Mexico;
occurs also in Europe and Asia. The variety alpina is common in the mountains
of New Mexico northward, not, however, as widely distributed as the species.
Juniperus virginiana. L, Red Cedar
A shrub or tree extremely valuable, frequently from 60-90 feet high; pyra-
midal in form; leaves scale-like, obtuse or acutish, dimorphic, the leaves of
young plants being more or less flattened, spiny, and awl-shaped, while those
of the stem are scale-like and appressed; catkins terminal; berries on straight
peduncles; cones light blue or glaucous. The Platte Cedar (J. scopulorum)
differs from the other in the development of the seeds.
Distribution. The Red Cedar occurs from New Brunswick to British
SPERMATOPHYTA—GYMNOSPERMS 331
Columbia, south to Florida, Texas, New Mexico and Arizona, also the West
Indies. The Platte Cedar occurs from Nebraska westward and is common in
the foothills of the Rockies.
Poisonous properties. According to Dr. Halsted it poisons goats which
orowse on it.
Fig. 129. Red Cedar (Juniperus virginiana). To the left
a branch from an old tree; to the right juvenile shoots, spiny.
The plant is poisonous and injurious.
Juniperus occidentalis. Hooker
A shrub or small tree, with bark in shreds; leaves pale in color, closely
appressed, obtuse or acutish; berries 4-5 lines in diameter.
Distribution. Northwest along Pacific Coast.
The variety monosperma, Eng., shows stunted trees, frequently 2 or more
feet in diameter, attaining an age of 1200-1300 years; leaves scale-like; berries
rere
Fig. 130. Savin, Juniper (Juniperus Sabina).
Fruiting branch. Known to be poisonous. (After
Strasburger, Noll, Schenck and Schimper).
332 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
smaller than the above, frequently copper-colored; generally with one seed or
sometimes more. ;
Distribution. Found from Colorado to Western Texas, Arizona, Cali-
fornia, and Wyoming.
Several allied species have been described, among them J. Knightii by
Nelson, and another by Sudworth, which occurs in the southwest.
Juniperus Sabina, L. Savin, Juniper, Swedish Juniper
A prostrate shrub with appressed leaves in pairs; margin slightly or in-
distinctly denticulate; berries on short recurved peduncles; 3-4 lines in diam-
eter, 1-3 seeds. It contains the substance sabinol. It is officinal.
Distribution. Along the Atlantic coast, from Massachusetts westward to
New York, Minnesota, Montana, and British Columbia, also in Europe and
Asia.
Poisonous properties. The wood of Red Cedar is extensively used in the
manufacture of lead pencils and was formerly also employed in making cigar
boxes. The fruit of the common Low Juniper (J. communis) is used for
flavoring gin. Red Cedar contains a fragrant volatile oil consisting of cedrol
and cedrene. Cases of poisoning from this genus have been reported.
ANGIOSPERMAE
Ovules enclosed in an ovary.
MONOCOTYLEDONEAE
Embryo with a single cotyledon, first leaves of germinating plantlet alter-
nate; stems endogenous, consisting of an outer part, an inner mass of cells
the parenchyma, and the bundles distributed through the mass; no distinction
into pith, wood, and bark; leaves generally parallel veined, usually alternate
and sheathing at the base; flowers generally on the plan of 3. This group
of plants includes the palms, grasses, lilies, duckweeds, etc.
PANDANALES
Marsh plants, herbs or trees with linear leaves; flowers in spikes or heads;
perianth of bristles or of chaffy scales; ovary 1, 1-2 celled; endosperm mealy
or fleshy. This order includes the Cat-tail (Typha latifolia), Screw pine
(Pandanus), and the Bur-reed (Sparganium). The ripe fruit of the Pandanus
fragrans is used as a relish in the Philippine Islands.
The Cat-tail is reported as poisonous. It is common across the continent
and is found in swamps.
HELOBIAE
Aquatic or marsh herbs, leaves various; flowers perfect, monoecious or
dioecious; perianth present or absent; stamens 1-numerous; carpels 1 or more,
mostly distinct; endosperm none or little. ‘This order includes the Pond
Weeds (Potamogeton), of which there are many species, which float in the
water and often give trouble in ponds of parks; fresh water eel grass (Vallis-
neria spiralis), water weed (Elodea canadensis), a troublesome weed in the
canals of England and Europe. All of these plants are abundant in our fresh
waters and afford food for crustaceans, which in turn are used as food for fish.
SPERMATOPHY TA—ANGIOSPERMS—HELOBIAE 333
Fig. 131. Pond-weed (Potamogeton natans). 1.
Apex of flowering shoot. 2. Flower viewed from
above. 3. Flower viewed from side. 4. Diagram
of flower. (After Wossidlo).
Hig. 132. Pond weed (Potamogeton). Common in fresh water
ponds.
334 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Fig. 133. Bur-reed (Sparganium).
Fig. 134. Cat-tail (Typha latifolia). A common
weed along shores of lakes and streams.
SPERMATOPHY TA—ALISMACEAE 335
ALISMACEAE. D. C. Water-Plantain Family
Aquatic or marsh herbs, generally with smooth, sheathing leaves; flowers
perfect, monoecious or dioecious; sepals 3, persistent; petals 3, the larger,
deciduous, imbricated in the bud; stamens 6 or more; anthers 2-celled, extrorse;
Fig. 135. Water Plantain (Alisma Plantago). A common marsh plant.
J
pistils numerous or few, usually with a single ovule in each cell; fruit an
achene; seeds small, erect. About 70 species of wide distribution in swamps.
The Water Plantain (Alisma Plantago) of Europe and North America is com-
mon in the northern states. Several species of Arrowheads (Sagittaria) are
used as food by the Indians and Chinese.
Sagittaria L. Arrowhead
Perennial with tuber-bearing root stocks and milky juice; basal leaves long-
petioled, scape sheathed at the base; flowers monoecious or dioecious, borne
near the ground in whorls; sepals persistent in pistillate flowers, reflexed or
spreading; petals 3, white, deciduous; stamens indefinite; pistillate flowers with
distinct ovaries; ovule solitary; fruit an achene in dense clusters; seed erect,
curved.
Sagittaria Engelmanniana, J. G. Sm.
Perennial with stoloniferous roots; leaves very variable; scape 1-4 feet
high, angled; lower whorl fertile; pedicel of fertile flowers, at least half the
length of the sterile one; filaments smooth; achenes obovate with a long
curved or horizontal beak.
Distribution. “Across the continent and in Europe.
Poisonous properties. "The tuberous stolons are eaten; if there is any
poison contained in the raw state it is probably removed by methods of prepara-
tion for food.
336 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Fig. 136. Arrowhead (Sagittaria Engelmanniana). Com-
mon in low grounds. Some species supposed to be poisonous.
(After Miss G. E. Johnson, Rep. Mo. Bot. Garden).
GLUMIFLORAE
Endogenous plants mostly herbaceous; stems (culms) narrow or without
leaves; leaves usually narrow and elongated; entire or serrulate; flowers small,
generally perfect, in the axils of dry chaffy scales, called glumes; arranged in
spikes or in panicles consisting of spikelets.. 2 families, Gramineae and Cyper
aceae.
crit, A: CALVODSIS jie hte hse ois sie vaieiee'n Sas, ne Wn 0 eae Nia Aeterna 1 Gramineae
Fer iit SAM CHEM ©) Sidec Ge one < ua fatsacid incl bip sive ls Qooisiely em mR Drain tae an 2 Cyperaceae
I. GRAMINEAE. Grass Family
Fibrous-rooted annuals or perennials, rarely woody, generally with hollow
stems; alternate 2-ranked leaves, sheaths split or open on the side opposite the
blade; flowers consisting of 2-ranked glumes, forming a 1-many-flowered
spikelet; flowering glumes enclosing a small bract called the palet; stamens
1-6, usually 3; anthers versatile, 2-celled, stigma hairy.
SPERMATOPHY TA—GRAMINEAE—GRASSES 37
338 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
ao
—
PA a
Ae ies
—
HD
SA
WM...
wy) Wyiheth Z
NOUN
Wyse
(a
i
Fig. 137a. Rice-cut-grass (Leersia lenticu- Fig. 137b.
laris). The sharp edges of the leaf of this grass oides).
Porcupine grass (Spartina cynosur-
often cut the flesh of animals.
The sharp edges of this leaf cut like a knife,
often wounding animals.
A large order of about 3500 species, many of which are very important
to man. Among them are the wheat, oats, rye, corn, wild rice, sorghum, and
sugar cane, the two latter being the sources of some of the sugar of com-
merce. Many grasses, also, are important forage plants, among which may
be named blue grass, timothy, brome grass, and red top.
Some grasses are
used in medicine.
The Bamboo, native of the tropics, is valuable, being used not only for
building purposes, but also in the manufacture of household furniture and in
other ways.
Very few of the grasses have deleterious properties. A few, such as
sleepy grass and millet, the latter of which is injurious to horses, are known
to be poisonous. Some grasses, because of their stiff awns, penetrate the skin
and even perforate the intestines, inflicting dangerous wounds. Needle grass
and squirrel tail grass, or wild barley, are known to inflict injuries by lodging
between the teeth, thus causing pus infection.
h
&
giaquca.
.
i a
——
SPERMATOPHY TA—GRAMINEAE—GRASSES 339
grostis major).
Fig. 137c. Spikelets of various grasses. 1.
‘ommon blue grass (Poa pratensis).
: . Setaria
3. Spikelet of blue-stem grass. 4. Bristly
fox-tail (Setaria verticillata).
A great many grasses, because of their sharp edges on the leaf, inflict
injuries by cutting the flesh. Of these we may mention the rice-cut-grass,
(Leersia), and porcupine grass, (Spartina cynosuroides).
Holy grass (Hierochloe odorata) is sweet scented and contains coumarin.
Indians use it to weave in baskets, mats, etc. Job’s Tears, Coix lachryma, is
used for rosaries.
KEY FOR GENERA OF GRAMINEAE
Spikelets jointed upon the rachilla below the glumes, 1-2 flowered.
Rachis bearded, spikelets spicate in pairs................. 2. Andropogon
Rachis not bearded.
Pedicels: bristle Pearse. os) sae Wotan tern (alelel ace atave late) Akl aln 4. Setaria
Pedicels not bristle bearing.
Spikelets: enclosed) bya BGr ss oo. lc/ern oarnmeisicians me 5. Cenchrus
Spikelets plano-convex, not enclosed by a bur........ 3. Paspalum
Spikelets in pistillate flowers, borne on a cob............ hy Zea
Spikelets not usually jointed above the persistent lower glumes.
Spikelets 1-flowered.
Arn sinaples | twisted | oho 8S) die). al ciattte dia sudiventstatarcher sy «lot taie « haale 7. Stipa
eS POUL | ha sso teste ac 8 NAS ave te seats iain Cie ae 6. Aristida
Spikelets more than 1-flowered.
Spikelets 2-several flowered, rachis often bearded, flowering glume
AMAL Ree SUIS SEY aim TTP Rs) MEA 5 hls cl cenng a Sivad didn) abe yan ate 8. Avena
Spikelets 1 or more-flowered with a zigzag jointed rachis, channeled.
Spikelets solitary at the notches.
Fig. 137d. Scent glands of stink grass (Era-
340 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Flowering glumes with the backs turned to the rachis.........
I ete us pawa tec wives oia:sie wins e'sce sip oid» de acale aff 'e;> ole aie Rann
Flowering glumes with their sides turned to the rachis.......
tee 5 inle ois! ¢ e's uidswixTwipie is yw Slelnye ie Fm = ate ioe lh pe een a el
Spikelets 2-6 at each joint of the rachis.............12. Hordeum
hachisunopschanneled> 04. ihn Nea eae tars 5 SA eC 9. Bromus
Fig. 138. Spikelets of tall-meadow-catgrass (Arrhenatherum elatius). 1 & 2. Sta-
mens. 3. ‘The lower flower with protruding styles; upper flower with protruding stamens.
The lower scales are called sterile glumes. Each flower consists of a palet and flowering
glume, stamens and pistil.
1. Zea: Mays. i,
Spikelets unisexual, monoecious; the staminate 2-flowered, in pairs, one
sessile, the other pedicellate, arranged in terminal branches of a terminal pan-
icle; the pistillate 1-flowered, sessile crowded in several rows, along the much
thickened continuous axis arising from the lower leaf-axil and closely en-
veloped by numerous large foliaceous bracts; glumes 4, awnless; those of the
staminate spikelet acute; those of the pistillate very broad and obtuse or
emarginate; grain hard, only partially enclosed by the fruiting glumes. This
well-known, tall, and striking annual grass has erect stems and broad leaves;
SPERMATOPHY TA—GRAMINEAE—GRASSES 341
Fig. 139. Vanilla grass (Hierochloe odor-
ata). a. Spikelet with nearly equal lower glumes;
b, with lower glumes removed, showing third and
fourth scabrous glumes; c, palea with stamens;
d, pistil. (Div. of Agros. U. S. Dept. of Agric.).
the terminal, staminate inflorescence forms the “spindle” and the long, pro-
jecting styles of the pistillate flowers constitute the “silk”; the cob is formed
by the union of the axes of several female spikes into a much thickened body.
The 1 or 2 species are of American origin, presenting many varieties in
cultivation known as corn, Indian corn or maize (Zea Mays). Dr. Sturtevant
has arranged cultivated corn into the following groups:
Pod-corn, Zea tunicata.
Pop-corn, Zea everta.
Flint-corn, Zea indurata.
Dent-corn, Zea indentata.
Soft corn, Zea amylacea.
Sweet corn, Zea saccharata.
Starchy sweet corn, Zea amiyleasaccharata.
The so-called species and groups of Dr. Sturtevant are hardly to be re-
garded as varieties. Some of the forms under conditions of culture and
climate, revert to the original type.
342 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
A plant cultivated for so long a time by the Indians and civilized man has
naturally given rise to diverse forms which we regard as nothing more than
races of the very polymorphic species Zea Mays.
Some years ago Dr. Watson obtained from Moro Leon, through Prof.
Duges, some corn which he considered a new species, calling it Zea canina.
He says:
The natural supposition was that we had here at least the original wild state of our
cultivated maize. A careful comparison of the two, as thorough as the material at hand
of the cultivated forms would permit, has led me first to doubt the probability of this, and
now to consider the form in question a distinct species. The differences upon which this
conclusion is based are in the habit of growth, the arrangement of the staminate spikelets, and
the nervation of their glumes, the form of the glumes of the pisttillate flowers, and the
ready disarticulation of the ripened ear.
Dr. Harshberger, who is certainly a most careful observer, and who car-
ried on some most interesting experiments on hybrids, considers our maize
of hybrid origin and Zea canina is a hybrid of corn and Euchlaena. He says:
Maize relates itself botanically to a native Mexican grass, teosinte (Euchlaena mex-
icana); and the fertile hybrids of this grass and maize are known, producing a plant
described by Watson as Zea canina. From the peculiar behavior of these hybrids, the
writer has suggested that our cultivated maize is of hybrid origin, probably starting
as a sport of teosinte, which then crossed itself with the normal ancestor, producing our
cultivated corn. ‘This is speculative, but there cannot be any doubt that the close relation-
ship of maize and teosinte points the way to the determination of the botanical characters
of the original wild corn. Recently, Montgomery has suggested a theory as to the
mature of the maize ear, in which, in conclusion, he states that corn and teosinte may
have had a common origin, and that in the process of evolution the cluster of pistillate
spikes in teosinte were developed from the lateral branches of a tassel like structure,
while the corn ear developed from the central spike. It is probable that the progenitor
of these plants was a large, much-branched grass, each branch being terminated by a tassel-
like structure bearing hermaphrodite flowers.
Corn holds the first place in the list of crops produced in this country,
and North America produces four times as much as the remainder of the
world. According to C. P. Hartley, Europe stands second, South America
third, and Africa fourth. As a corn-producing country the United States has
no rival; Argentina stands second, Hungary third, and Italy fourth. The
average corn yields in four central states for five years, 1902-1906, were as
follows:
State. Bushels.
BRP GOES, cee ahd Whe rs ree Cle ee a ETER Ree 342,115,835
TOW) CR ek Sead a aR NC ot 8 1 a A SU 301,666,176
Nebraska. seg esate siciys /mabalators rie tatal aes Getler terete 239,835,262
MiSSOUTI, AO e ccs ois Reece ne Gene VAT a eee Ieee 210,082,426
Maize is one of the most important cereals of North America, being used
as a food for man and stock, in the manufacture of starch and glucose, and in
medicine, the corn silk being used as a mild stimulant and diuretic. The oil
from the embryo is a yellow viscid transparent liquid having a peculiar odor
of corn meal. The silk contains maizenic acid.
Injurious properties. In many sections of the country where corn is grown
and cattle allowed to feed on corn stalks, a disease occurs which has been
called the corn stalk disease. This has been attributed to various causes such
as corn smut, a bacterial disease, nitrate poisoning, bacterial poisoning, and
impaction of the stomach. Corn stalks are not easily digested and it is not to
be wondered at that impaction should occur when cattle do not have access to
plenty of water.
SPERMATOPHYTA—GRAMINEAE—GRASSES 343
This same disease goes under other names, and it may be that there are
several distinct types of diseases due to the feeding of corn stalks. Dr. Bit-
ting describes a Septicaemia hemorrhagica which is caused by an organism,
the cocco-bacillus. The symptoms of this disease are as follows:
The symptoms depend upon the point of attack. If the respiratory system be attacked,
there will be a rapid rise of temperature, difficult and rapid breathing, standing with the
feet wide apart as in pneumonia, short coughing, the tongue protruded, and eyes prominent
and congested. The animal will move only when urged to do co The attack lasts for
only a few hours. If the pneumonia be of less severe type the kidneys and bowels may
show some affection before death.
If the bowels be the seat of attack, there will be bloating colic, noisy intestinal move-
ment, straining and diarrhea. ‘The bowel movements are soft, fluid, and foul smelling,
and may be blood stained. The urine will also be blood stained. If the infection take
place from a superficial abrasion, the part will swell rapidly, become very large, be hot and
painful, does not pit upon pressure, and does not crepitate. The swelling extends rapidly
and if in the region of the neck, will cause suffocation. The course is short and generally
fatal.
Dr. Bitting states that this disease must be differentiated from the corn
stalk disease due to poisoning and that post mortem must be the means of
separation in some instances. The only remedy is a change of pasture, as little
can be done otherwise.
Recently much interest has been attached to the disease known as Pellagra,
which has been treated elsewhere in this volume, but in this case it may be of
interest to know that the disease has made its appearance in several of the
southern states, notably Alabama and South Carolina; cases have also been
reported in Maryland and Massachusetts, and a number of them in the Insane
Hospital in Illinois. It is believed by the experts who have investigated this
question that it is in some way associated with corn. For instance, Dr.
Lavinder who investigated this disease with Assistant Surgeon-general Wyman,
cites the case of the disease on the Island of Corfu, where an epidemic followed
when the people began to use an inferior imported quality of maize. Previous
to this they had used their own maize which was carefully selected and pre-
pared. There can be no question according to Lavinder that the introduction
of maize collected in Spain, France, and Italy, with unsanitary conditions and
the use of poor maize greatly influence the spread of this disease in those
countries. It is practically unknown in those countries where maize is not a
staple article of food.
Dr. Arlsberg, of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, in a discussion of
this disease before the American Society of Tropical Medicine, states that
corn is one-fifth of the food of the Tennessee and Georgia mountaineers and
one-third of the food of the negroes. Under the present conditions this corn
is collected before maturity and often is shipped to distant points in poorly
ventilated cars which makes it possible for moulds of different types to develop.
Furthermore, the same person is authority for the statement that, in ten gen-
erations the fat content of corn has increased from less than 5% to 7 1/3%
and that toxins are found to be related in quantity to the oil produced in the
seed. Then, too, the weather conditions in this southern corn region have
been extremely favorable in the last ten years for producing corn which would
be immature and subject to moulds when transported.
Now it is a well known fact that for many years throughout the south
they have had trouble with the so-called forage poisoning affecting live stock
which had been fed corn, especially when mouldy. It seems to the writer that
344 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
there is some relation existing between Pellagra in man and forage poisoning
in horses and cattle. Both are essentially produced by some toxic substance.
In this connection, the bulletin on the Grand Traverse or Lake Shore
Disease, as investigated by C. D. Smith,* C. E. Marshall and Dr. Ward Giltner,
is interesting.
2. Andropogon. (Royen.) UL. Beard Grass
Tall annual, or perennial grasses with spikelets in pairs upon each joint
of the slender rachis; usually narrow leaves; terminal and axial racemes, one
of them sterile, the other sessile, 1-flowered, and fertile; lower glume the
larger, coriaceous and nerved, the second acute; stamens 1-3, grain free.
About 150 species widely distributed in tropical and temperate regions.
Some of the species of the Andropogon L. are excellent grasses for forage
purposes. Quite a number of them produce valuable oils like Pamorusa oii,
obtained from Andropogon Schoenanthus, lemon grass oil from Andropogon
b Pe
Fig. 140. Johnson-grass (Andropogon halepensis).
a, spikelet; c and d, glumes; e, f, g, parts of the
flower.
* Sp. Bull, Mich. Agr. Exp. Sta. 50: 10.
SPERMATOPHY TA—GRAMINEAE—GRASSES 345
citratus, and citronella oil from A. Nardus. The fibrous roots of the aromatic
Cuscus grass of India (A. muricatus), produce a substance used mainly as
sachet powder; the fibres of the plant are used extensively by the natives in
making mats.
Andropogon halepensis. Brot. Johnson Grass
A stout perennial with smooth, erect, simple culms, 3-5 feet hight; and
strong creeping rootstocks; panicle open, 6-12 inches long; the 3-5 flowered
racemes clustered toward their extremities; outer glume coriaceous, second
glume equaling the first and convex below, the third glume shorter than the
outer ones, membranaceous, palet broadly oval; fourth glume ciliate awned;
palet shorter than the glumes; nerves ciliate.
A troublesome weed throughout the Southern States. First introduced as
a forage plant.
Andropogon Sorghum. Brot. Sorghum
An annual with long, broad, flat leaves and ample terminal panicle; spike-
lets in pairs at the nodes, larger and rounder than in the preceding; rachis
i
i)
w
4
OVARY
Fig. 141. Sorghum (Andropogon Sorghum). 1. Kaffir corn; 2, Jerusalem corn;
3, Ambersorghum. (Kansas State Board of Agrl.).
not articulate; sessile spikelet with 4 scales, the outer hard and shining, the
inner hyaline; the fourth scale on and subtending a small palet and perfect
flower, or occasionally the palet wanting.
Sorghum is contained in a number of cultivated plants which are class-
ified by Mr. C. R. Ball under (1) Broom Corn, (2) Shallu, (3) Durra, (4)
Sorghum and (5) Kaffir. Broom Corn used for the manufacture of brooms,
is grown chiefly in the central Mississippi Valley, Kansas, Oklahoma, and the
Panhandle of Texas. The Shallu, also known as Egyptian wheat, is culti-
346 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
vated extensively in India. The Durras have been cultivated for centuries in
Egypt, and other countries of Africa, and in India for human and animal food.
They are now cultivated in the United States, chiefly from Kansas to Texas.
The Kaffir, native to eastern Africa from Abyssinia to Natal, was introduced
into this country in 1875, and is grown chiefly in the semi-arid regions for
forage. Sorghum is grown largely for fodder. The pithy juice contains cane
sugar in variable amounts, and is used both for sugar and in the making of
syrup, although the growing of sorghum for syrup seems to be on the decline.
According to the census of 1890 the production was 24,000,000 gallons; in 1900,
17,000,000.
Poisonous properties. Sorghum has long been recognized as poisonous.
Mr. C. W. Warburton in Bailey’s Encyclopedia of Agriculture, says:
Sorghum makes excellent pasture for hogs, but in many sections it must be pastured
sparingly, if at all, by sheep and cattle. After periods of extreme drought, or when growth
is stunted from other causes, the leaves of the sorghums often contain a large amount
of prussic acid. A small quantity of this poison is fatal to stock, and death frequently
results soon after the sorghum is eaten. Normal growth seldom contains prussic acid in
appreciable quantities, and it largely disappears in curing, so that cured sorghum may be
fed with little danger. There is also some danger from bloating; cattle and sheep should
not be turned on sorghum pasture when hungry or when the plants are wet. With the
exercise of care, however, the crop can usually be pastured with safety. It should be
at least two feet high before stock are turned on it; for cattle, sheep and horses it
may be much more matured than for hogs’
Frosted cane is said to be especially injurious. Dr. R. H. True, of the
U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, in commenting on the poisons from sorghum, says:
This office has from time to time received communications from stockmen, especially
in the lower part of California, Arizona, and adjacent territory, expressing a suspicion
that the eating of the Johnson grass had caused the death of stock with rather sudden and
violent symptoms. There has seemed to be little ground in poisonous-plant literature to
support such an explanation. ast summer, however, convincing observations were reported
from California by a stockman who had lost heavily, and a supply of the grass in question
was obtained. The result of the study of this material was positive.
Mr. A. C. Crawford, who investigated some cases, says:
It has been noted that deaths in cattle frequently occur when, on account of the failure
of rain, the plants which have reached a certain size become stunted and withered. ‘The
toxic principle appears simultaneously over a wide area, but soon disappears if a rainfall
occurs. The deaths of cattle have been attributed by some to an insect living upon the
plant, and in Australia it is the belief thatSorghum vulgare which also yields hydrocyanic
acid, becomes more poisonous when attacked by an insect during a drought. A similar
observation has been made with Sorghum vulgare in the Sudan. Balfour found that one
specimen of the plant which harbored aphids yielded more hydrocyanic acid than a second
one without parasites. Pease has lately claimed that the deaths from Johnson grass in
India were really cases of nitrate poisoning, as he found 25 per cent of nitrate of
potassium in the stem of the plant and was able to produce somewhat similar symptoms in
animals by feeding them this salt. Johnson grass is being introduced into Australia as
a fodder plant, but as yet no reports of its poisonous action there have been noted by
the writer.
Dr. George H. Glover of Colorado, also reports large loss of cattle in that
state from eating Kaffir corn. ‘Twenty-one head out of thirty-two cows died
within an hour after first being placed upon the feed. Dr. A. T. Peters of
Nebraska, investigated the subject of poisoning from sorghum and Kaffir corn.
He states that in most cases where death of animals occurred, the animals
did not regularly pasture upon sorghum, but broke into the fields from ad-
jacent pastures or as they were being driven past fields of sorghum. The
investigations proved that the animals did not die from bloat as had been re-
SPERMATOPHYTA—GRAMINEAE—GRASSES 347
ported. Dr. Peters speaks with authority as he examined the cases at first
hand:
In response to one of these calls, I reached the farm of Mr. Bert Foss, near Aurora,
at 7:30 A. M., on August 3, 1901. Two days previous, fifteen head of his cattle had broken
into a sorghum field, where they had remained twenty minutes. They were then driven
into another field and were not seen again for several hours. When seen, three were
sick, all of which died within a few hours. The symptoms were drowsiness, running at
the eyes, twitching of the muscles, numbness of the limbs, staggering gait, inability to
stand, involuntary passing of urine. On August 2d, two more cows broke through the
fence and were on the sorghum field five minutes. One hour later, one of these animals,
a four-year-old cow was very sick, but finally recovered.
We turned a small yearling steer on the sorghum at 8:30 A M., August 3d, but
he refused to eat any sorghum, and after thirty-five minutes, two more were turned into
the sorghum, where they remained until 10:00 A. M., when only one, a small, red steer,
had taken any sorghum, and he had eaten only a _ few leaves. They were then
turned back with the herd. At 10:35 A. M. the small, red steer acted somewhat drowsy,
but soon recovered.
At 11:00 A. M. we turned one red heifer and one yearling steer on the sorghum.
The heifer was the only animal that ate any quantity, and, as subsequent examination
showed, she ate only one and one-half pounds of green sorghum. At 11:10 this animal
dropped to the ground. Upon examination it was found that she had stopped chewing
her cud and there was a peculiar twitching of the muscles of the nose and head and
also of the body. The animal was very dull. At 11:15 A. M. she was taken out of the
sorghum field and allowed to lie in a stubble field. When lying down her head was
turned toward the abdomen, presenting the symptoms shown by a horse having the colic.
The eyes seemed dull and gave off a water discharge. There was a partial paralysis
of the tongue and great quantities of saliva ran from the mouth The limbs and ears
were cold. The pupils of the eyes dilated, pulse not perceptible, mucous membrane
of the rectum protruding, involuntary discharge of urine and faeces. Upon pricking
the animal with a knife on the lower limbs it showed no feeling. The animal was
closely watched in the field by Mr. Foss and myself and we observed that she did not
take any weeds, but simply a small amount of sorghum, eating only the tops of the
leaves. At 1:30 P. M. the animal was still lying on its right side; all the muscles
of the head were contracted and showed involuntary twitching. The limbs were paralyzed
and the animal was unconscious; the mucous membrane of the mouth was of a salmon color.
At 2:35 P. M. the animal was in great pain, and it was apparent that she would not
recover. At the suggestion of Mr. Foss the animal was killed in order to hold a post-
mortem examination.
Post-Mortem Examination—Animal still warm. The bowels were opened
and contents of paunch carefully noted; there was in all one pound and a half
of sorghum leaves to be found in the paunch. No sourness of the contents.
The same was immediately put up in Mason fruit jars with clean water and
brought to the laboratory. The mucous membrane of the intestines normal,
all other conditions of the animal normal.
In regard to the Colorado disease, the following statement is made:
The cattle died on August 20th last. We lost 21 head out of 32 head which had been
turned on the corn. Eleven head lived, but 4 of the 11 head had violent spasms, but
recovered. The other 7 head were not affected. They were only on the corn 5 or 6
minutes. The first cow died in 15 minutes; nearly all within an hour. One yearling
lived over 6 hours I gave it several doses of aconite, thinkng possbly one poison would
counteract the other, but it died in great agony. The cattle seemed to all go crazy at
once, then stagger like a person intoxicated, fall in all directions, and die where they fell.
I stuck all of them with a knife, the same as in alfalfa bloat, but there wasn’t any gas
in them. The Kaffir corn was planted on sod ground above irrigation. It was from
6 to 15 inches high and was burnt brown from the drouth.”
Shortly after the poisoning, Dr. Glover visited the field and collected
samples, which he generously placed at our disposal. These samples yielded
prussic acid in greater amounts than any yet examined in Nebraska.
It appears more than probable that the sorghum plant under different cli-
348 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
matic conditions and different conditions of growth may produce varying
amounts of prussic acid. I was told in Texas that the sorghum most poisonous
to live stock is the second growth.
In regard to the chemistry of the subject, Dr. S. Avery says:
In 1886 Berthelot and Andre ascribed the cause to excessive amounts of potassium
nitrate (salt peter). Williams of the U. S. Department of Agriculture also suggests
saltpeter as a cause of the trouble. MHiltner has shown that the amount of nitrate in
Nebraska fields was too small to produce fatal results. This writer suggests that the
plant under certain conditions develops a highly poisonous chemical compound. Slade
in the Annual Report of the Station for the present year (1902) put forward the
theory that such a compound might be produced by the action of an enzyme upon a
glucoside found in the plant through a process of abnormal growth. On June 27th of the
present year the Chemical News of London contained an article on Cyanogenesis in
Plants by Dunstan and Henry. ‘This article, which finally confirms Slade’s prediction.
was not known to Mr. Slade or to the writer till October 10th. In brief, the English
Chemists isolated from Egyptian Sorghum vulgare a glucoside capable of liberating prussic
acid. In the meantime Mr. Slade had detected Prussic acid in fatal sorghum grown in
western Nebraska, determined the per cent, and secured strong evidence in favor of the
glucoside theory.
During the first two weeks in September, the writer discovered that Prussie acid
could be obtained from leaves of healthy sorghum in the fields about the Station.
As the past season was abnormally wet, nearly all of the fields had made a vigorous growth.
By distilling water from a sufficient quantity of leaves, determinable amounts of Prussic
acid were evolved in all cases, though the amount was well below the danger line.
Of the common Nebraska forage plants, sorghum and Kafr corn alone yield Prussic
acid
The substance dhwrrin C,,H,,NO, occurs according to Dunstan and Henry
in young plants of A. Sorghum. A glucoside resembling that found in almonds
also occurs; it differs however but is capable of being converted into hydro
cyanic acid, HCN. The investigations made at this station show that the
prussic acid is not present as such, but that it is liberated from a glucoside,
(1) by an enzyme in the plant as in the case of sorghum poisoning, and (2)
by the action of boiling water on the plant. Glucosides of this sort are in
themselves harmless and are dangerous only when they liberate prussic acid.
The experiments mentioned above also showed that even dried plants may con-
tain a very large amount of combined prussic acid. We should expect that
such a fodder would be as fatal to stock after curing as when standing in the
field. Experience, however, seems to prove the contrary. Enzymes rapidly
become inactive when dried in the presence of protein substances, according to
Dr. A. F. Woods, Chief of Division of Plant Pathology.
Antidotes. Prussic acid has a tendency to unite with certain carbo-
hydrates, forming additional products. ‘These compounds are much less poison-
ous than the free acid. Both glucose and milk sugar unite with Prussic acid
to some extent even in dilute solutions. Aside from this action these carbo-
hydrates retard the action of the enzyme in liberating Prussic acid. These
facts suggest that, in case the animal is not in such a conditon as to render
medical treatment out of the question, the following may be affective:
A strong solution of glucose, which nearly every farmer has at hand in the
form of “corn syrup” or molasses, may be administered.
Large quantities of milk have in a number of instances been administered
apparently with good effect.
In all cases the animal should have as much fresh air as possible.
SPERMATOPHYTA—GRAMINEAE—GRASSES 349
3. Paspalum, L. Paspalum
Spikelets spiked or sometimes racemed, in 2 to 4 rows on one side of the
flattened or filiform rachis, awnless, 1-flowered; glumes 3, rarely only 2, 1 glume
flowering; flower coriaceous, orbicular or ovate; stamens 3; spikes 1 or more at
or toward the summit of an elongated peduncle.
Species about 160, chiefly in warm temperate regions in both hemispheres.
In South America they constitute an important part of the plants of the Pampas.
One species is used in medicine and several species are excellent forage plants
for the South. One species is troublesome as a weed in the Southern States.
The Koda Millet (P. scrobiculatum) known to be poisonous and injurious to
animals and man in India is used during times of scarcity of food and causes
poisoning. The seed, especially the testa and pericarp, contains a narcotic
poison which causes delirium and vomiting. Cattle should not be allowed to
feed on it when it is ripening.
Fig. 143. Corean Foxtail Millet (Setaria).
Fig. 142. Corean Foxtail (Setaria italica.) U. S. Dept. Agr.
350 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
4. Setaria, Beauv.
Spikelets jointed upon the pedicels, panicle densely racemed or spiked, sur-
rounded at the base by a few or many persistent awn-like bristles, which rise
below the articulation of the spikelet.
Species about 10, in temperate and tropical regions. Some species are used
as food, especially in China, Japan and India. Several are important forage
plants, like the broom corn millet, and Hungarian grass. Three species are
weedy in eastern North América.
Setaria italica, Beauv Italian Millet or Hungarian Grass
A stout, erect, somewhat glaucous annual, 3-8 feet high, with broad leaves;
large, dense, compound, spiciform panicles 3-8 inches in length; nodes bearded,
with short, appressed hairs; leaf-blades lanceolate, narrowed at the base, long-
acuminate, 8-16 inches long, % to 1% inches wide, scabrous; panicles dense,
cylindrical, % to 1% inches in diameter; rachis densely villous; setae 1-3, green
or purplish, retrorsely scabrous; spikelets elliptical, strongly convex, 1% to 2
lines long, obtuse; second and third glumes about equaling the flowering glume,
5-7-nerved; flowering glume glossy, nearly smooth. Widely cultivated. Quebec
to Minnesota, south to Florida and Texas.
Setaria germanica, Beauv. German Millet
A caespitose annual, from 1-3 feet high, with narrow panicles, about %
inch in diameter, and long, usually purple setae; some forms approaching Setaria
viridis.
This form is usually regarded as only a variety of the Italian Millet, and
is found in cultivation only or perhaps springing up from seed on land cul-
tivated the preceding season. The German Millet differs from the Italian in
having a more dense or compact, and usually erect panicle or “head.” Widely
cultivated in most parts of the world.
Poisonous Properties. Numerous complaints have been made from time to
time with reference to poisoning from millet.
Dr. Hinebauch states in regard to this trouble that in the winter of 1891
and 1892 a disease commonly called millet disease was prevalent to a consider-
able extent in North Dakota and that this disease was attended by a death
rate of 7-10 per cent. It received the name of millet disease from the fact that
from 95 to 98 per cent of the animals that were affected had been fed on millet.
He says:
“When millet is fed in considerable quantities it stimulates the kidney to
increased action. The urine is light colored and the bladder evacuated every
two or three hours, large quantities of water being passed at each time. At
the time the first symptoms of lameness were noticed, the kidneys had almost
ceased to act.” .
And then he goes on to say:
“When the cause was kept up a sufficient length of time for the reaction
to set in, the material which would under normal conditions be secreted by the
kidneys was allowed to remain in the system and produce deleterious effects.”
Apparently the condition of the millet had little to do with this action.
In a later bulletin on the same subject Dr. Hinebauch reports a more extended
investigation, giving considerable experimental data as well as urinary analyses.
SPERMATOPHYTA—GRAMINEAE—GRASSES San
The post mortem examinations revealed some interesting facts. The cartilages
on the ends of the long bones show deep furrows running in a direction parallel
with the motion during flexion and extension.
Both grooves of the astragalus were partially denuded of cartilage, so that
the corresponding elevations of the tibia which articulate in the grooves did
not have cartilage interposed between them. The whole general appearance,
instead of being of a white, glistening color, was of a dark, dull color border-
ing on brown. The fluid which escaped from the joint when opened, instead
of being a yellow, amber color, was brown and contained red blood corpuscles,
indicating that inflammation was present. The joint fluid was brownish black
in color and contained red blood corpuscles.
In conclusion we would say that our experiments here have thoroughly demon-
strated that millet, when used entirely as a coarse food, is injurious to horses. (1)
In producing an increased action of the kidneys. (2) In causing lameness and swelling
of the joints. (3) In producing infusion of the blood into the joints. (4) In destroying
the texture of the bone, rendering it softer and less tenacious, so that contraction causes
the ligaments and muscles to be torn loose. The experience of many farmers with whom
I have talked confirms the above conclusion, and we could multiply case after case
showing that the above conditions are the results of feeding millet.
Fig. 143. Sandbur (Cenchrus tribuloides).
. spiny bur enclosing spikelets; b, section of
che same; c, lateral view of a spikelet. U. S.
Dept. Agrl.
352 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
The North Dakota Station has published the results of further experiments
on the subject of feeding millet. Two tests were made. In the first trial two
geldings in good health were fed hay and grain for about two weeks. Millet
was then substituted for hay for about ten days. These experiments confirmed
those made previously.
Ladd has isolated a glucoside from the aqueous extract of millet hay, which,
when fed in small quantities, gave the characteristic symptoms.
From the experiments made by Dr. Hinebauch and others, it would appear
that feeding millets alone as coarse fodder is injurious to horses. It produces
an increased action of the kidneys and causes lameness and swelling of the
joints. It causes an infusion of blood into the joints and destroys the texture
of the bone, rendering it soft and less tenacious, so that the ligaments and
muscles are easily torn loose.
5. Cenchrus, L Sand Bur
Annual or perennial grasses; flat leaves; spikelets surrounded by a spiny in-
volucre which becomes coriaceous and forms a deciduous, hard, rigid bur which
falls away at maturity; glumes 4, the 2nd and 3rd membranaceous, the 4th
hard; the palea enclosing the perfect flower; stamens 3; styles united below.
Species about 12 in tropical and warmer temperate regions. One widely
distributed from Maine to New York, Florida, Texas, California and the
Dakotas.
Cenchrus tribuloides, Ll. Sand Bur
An annual with erect culms a foot or more high; flat leaves about 6 inches
long; burrs of the involucre with strong, barbed spines; 2-flowered.
Distribution. Common in sandy fields and waste places; a weed along rail-
roads and in sandy soil.
Injurious Properties. This plant frequently inflicts mechanical injuries.
entering the flesh and thus causing serious inflammation. This applies to man
as well as to lower animals.
Aristida, L.. Triple Awned Grass
Perennial or annual grasses; narrow, often involute leaves; spikelets nar-
row, l-flowered; outer glumes unequal, often bristle pointed; flowering glume
tipped with 3 awns; palet small, 2-nerved; stamens 3; styles distinct; grain free,
linear, enclosed in the scale; callus variable, often sharp-pointed and rigid.
About 100 species in warmer regions of both hemispheres but of very little
economic value, the majority being found in dry sterile soil; several species,
like the Purple Aristida, however, are common in dry soils of the West. The
latter is of little value for forage purposes. The awns of Aristida hygrometrica
of Queensland bore into the skin of animals and occasionally reach the intes-
tines, thus causing death.
None of our species produces serious trouble except, possibly, the Long-
awned Poverty Grass.
Aristida tuberculosa, Nutt. Long Awned Poverty Grass
A rigid, much-branched annual, 12-18 inches high, with nearly simple
panicles, 4-7 inches long; branches erect, rather distant, the lower in pairs, one
short and few-flowered, the other elongated and many-flowered; empty glumes
SPERMATOPHY TA—GRAMINEAE—GRASSES 353
Pa
Z 2
Sa
et A
Fig. 144a. Long-awned Poverty Grass
(Aristida tuberculosa). a, Spikelet with lower Fig. 144b. Short-awned Poverty Grass. (A.
glume; b, flowering glume with divergent long basiramea). Occurs in sandy and gravelly soils.
awns. (U. S: Dept. Agri.). (UStSS Dept. Agri.)
nearly equal, 12 lines long, awn-pointed; flowering glume about 10 lines long,
twisted above to the division of the awns, and with a densely barbate sharp-
pointed callus; awns nearly equal, divergent or reflexed, 144-2 inches long, dis-
tinctly articulated with the glume.
Injurious properties...The sharp pointed callus slightly injurious in the
same manner as Stipa.
7. Stipa, L.
Perennial grasses with 1-flowered spikelets, flower falling away at maturity
from the membranous, persistent, lower glumes, fertile glumes coriaceous,
cylindrical, involute, and embracing the smaller palet and cylindrical grain; a
long twisted or spiral awn jointed with the apex, the base consisting of a beard
and sharp pointed callus; stamens generally 3; stigmas plumose.
354 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
About 100 species found in temperate and tropical regions. The Stipas
often produce injurious effects upon animals.
Injurious properties. It has long been known that Stipa capillata, L., in-
digenous to Russia, and the Stipa spartea, Trin., and S. avenacea, L., native to
North America, as well as Aristida hygrometrica Br., native of Queensland,
Fig. 145. Esparto Grass (Stipa tenactssima). Used for mak-
ing paper, ropes and mats. It is not known whether this species,
like the St. inebrians and the S. sibrica, acts like a narcotic on ani-
mals. (Baillon Dict.).
and Heteropogon contortus, L., native of New Caledonia, frequently bore into
the skin and intestines of lower animals where they cause fatal inflammation
and peritonitis. Prof. Blanchard in a recent number in “Archives de Parasit-
ologie” calls attention to injurious properties of Stipa Neesiana which is found
in Uruguay and other countries of South America. In this case the needles
injure the eyes producing in intense keratitis often followed by inflammation
of the cornea. Sheep become blind and thus are unable to get food, hence
SPERMATOPHY TA—GRAMINEAE—GRASSES 355
die from hunger and thirst. An instance is also recorded of a case where so
many of these needles had accumulated among the feathers of an American
Ostrich as to cause extensive ulceration which finally resulted in the death of
the bird. The old world S. inebrians acts very much like our sleepy grass.
Stipa comata, Trin. and Rupr. Western Stipa. Needle Grass
A rather stout, erect, caespitose perennial, 114-4 feet high, with mostly in-
volute leaves; loosely-flowered panicles, 8 to 12 inches long; spikelets with
nearly equal, long-attenuate-pointed, empty glumes about 12 lines long, and thinly
Fig. 146. Western Stipa or Needle Grass(Stipa comata).
pubescent flowering glumes about 6 lines long; awn slender, 2!4-3 inches long,
strongly flexuose or variously curled and twisted. Distributed in western Iowa,
Nebraska, Utah, Oregon, California and Arizona.
Stipa spartea. Trin. Porcupine Grass
A stout, erect perennial, with simple culms 3 to 5 feet high; long, narrow
leaves and contracted, few-flowered panicles, 4 to 8 inches long; spikelets
356 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
larger; empty glumes subulate-pointed, 12 to 18 lines long, slightly unequal;
flowering glume 8 to 10 lines long, including the barbed and very sharp-pointed
stipe or callus, sparsely pubescent below and crowned with a few short hairs;
Fig. 147. Needle or Porcupine grass (Stipa
sSpartea). a, a single spikelet; b, floret more
highly magnified, with sharp pointed bearded
callus. (Div. Agros. U. S. Dept. Agrl.).
palea nearly as long as the glume; awn stout, 3 to 6 inches long, twisted below
and twice geniculate above. June to August. Common on dry, gravelly roads
and high prairies. }
Distribution. North America. From Wisconsin, Illinois to Missouri, Kan-
sas, Nebraska, Dakotas and Minnesota to New Mexico, Manitoba to British
Columbia.
Injurious properties. Dr. M. Stalker says the fruits of the porcupine grass
are a frequent source of inconvenience and injury to living animals,
In many of the northwestern counties of Iowa this grass grows in the greatest
profusion, and during the latter part of June, the season for maturing and consequent
falling of these spines, they are the occasion of much annoyance and in some instances
the death of domestic animals. Only such animals as are covered with wool or a
SPERMATOPHY TA—GRAMINEAE—GRASSES oon
thick growth of long hair are seriously inconvenienced. Sheep suffer most. ‘The
spines readily find a lodgment in the wool, and after burrowing through it frequently
penetrate the skin and bury themselves in the flesh. A large number of these barbs
thus entering the tissues of the body produce an amount of irritation that is sometimes
followed by death. I have seen large numbers of these imbedded in the skin and
muscular tissues of shepherd dogs that were covered with a thick growth of soft hair.
These sagacious animals frequently exhibit the greatest dread at being sent into the
grass during the season of danger.
Professor Bessey in his inquiries into the structure ‘and nature of this
plant received several responses, one of which, from Professor King, formerly
of the University of Wisconsin, was as follows:
In connection with the two notes relating to the fruit of the porcupine grass, it
may not be without interest to say that while engaged in geological work in Dakota,
north of the Northern Pacific railroad, we were much annoyed by the fruit of this grass.
Indeed, I found the only way to walk with comfort through this grass was to roll my
pants above my knees and my socks down over my shoes. I also observed, on several
occasions, these seeds planted two inches deep in the soil with the awns protruding
from the ground. It is plain that with the point of one of these fruits once entered
below the soil, the swelling and shrinking, due to varying amounts of moisture, would
work the seeds directly into the ground.
The Stipa comata, or needle grass of the west, which is common through-
out the Dakotas, and throughout west Dakota, Nebraska, Wyoming and Colo-
rado, is common in prairie hay, and Prof. Thomas A. Williams mentions that,
though a forage plant, and not cut until the needles have fallen so that the
stock may not be injured, the fruit of this plant often injures stock to a con-
siderable extent. During the past summer in Alberta, Canada, the writer suf-
fered some inconvenience from the penetration of the fruit through the clothes.
Stipa robusta, Vasey. Sleepy Grass
A large grass from 4-6 feet high growing in dense clumps; leaves involute,
setaceous, large, flattened, 1-2 feet long; panicle 1-1%4 ft. long; spikelets 4-5
lines long, on short pedicels; empty glume nearly equal 3-5 lines long; variable
in length up to 1% inches, slender flexuous; palet about % length of glume.
Distribution. From Colorado to Texas and Mexico.
Poisonous properties. This is the grass which is properly called Sleepy
Grass and is poisonous. Dr. Vasey says the variety in parts of Texas and
Mexico is known as Sleepy Grass, so called for its intoxicating and narcotic
effect upon horses or cattle which feed upon it.
In the west this species of grass has received the common appellation of
sleepy grass. It has long been regarded by range people as poisonous. Dr.
Palmer, who found this grass in Coahuila, observed that it was poisonous to
cattle, horses, and sheep, causing them temporary sleepiness. Later Dr. Havard
states that in 1888 he reecived from Dr. M. E. Taylor, of Stanton, N. M., a
grass with the following statement:
Hereabouts grows a grass— the eating of which by horses will, within a few hours,
produce profound sleepiness or stupor, lasting twenty-four or forty-eight hours, when
the animals rally and give no evidence of bad effects. It is known among cowboys as
“Sleepy grass’? and dreaded by them on their ‘round ups” as their horses are liable
to eat it and cannot then be kept up with the herds. The tradition is that horses
that have once eaten of it will not touch it again.
To quote from Dr. Havard:
From the same gentleman I received a letter in 1890, in which he says: ‘‘Since
I corresponded with Dr. ‘Taylor it has been brought to my notice that cattle are
affected in a similar way to horses, and that the curious properties which so affect animals
are contained in the blades Quite a number of our horses have been ill this spring:
358 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
after having eaten it. It usually takes them about a week to recover, during which time
they are unfit for work, and especially so during the first three days.”
Captain Kingsbury, of the Sixth United States cavalry, under date of March, 1890,
wrote me from Fort Stanton that the sleepy grass affected nearly all his horses at two
camping places. it was hard work to make them walk.
The similarity of symptoms, whether observed in Coahuila or in New Mexico, is
certainly remarkable, and furnishes strong evidence of the substantial accuracy of the
observations as reported. It would seem, then, reasonably established that this plant
possesses narcotic or sedative properties, affecting principally horses, but also cattle and
probably other animals; that animals are not fond of it but eat it inadvertently or when
under stress of hunger; that cases of poisoning occur especially in the spring, when the
radicle and lower blades first come up, and that the active principle resides in these
blades, and perhaps only during that season.
8. Avena, L.,Oats
Annual or perennial grasses, usually with flat leaves and panicled spikelets ;
spikelets 2, many-flowered, or rarely 1-flowered; lower flowers perfect, the up-
per staminate or imperfect; empty glume unequal, membranaceous and _ per-
Fig. 148. Wild Oats (Avena fatua). ae
empty glumes; b, flowering glumes. (U. S. Dept.
Agrl.).
SPERMATOPHY TA—GRAMINEAE—GRASSES so
sistent; flowering glume deciduous, generally bearing a twisted awn on the
back between the two acute teeth at the apex; rachis and base of flower often
bearded; stamens 3, style short and distinct; grain oblong, linear, grooved on
one side invested by the palet. About 50 species in temperate regions. The
cultivated Oats (Avena sativa) is the best known representative of the genus
and has long been used for food for man and animals. Several native species
produce good forage.
Avena fatua L. Wild Oats
An erect, glabrous annual, 3-5 feet high, with flat leaves and spreading
panicles of large, nodding spikelets; spikelets 2 to 4-flowered, with empty glumes
34-1 inch long and pubescent; flowering glumes 6 to 9 lines long; awns nearly
twice as long as the spikelets. Wild oats is highly esteemed as a forage plant
on the Pacific Coast, especially California.
Distribution: Native to Europe but now abundant in grain fields of the
Rocky Mountains, the Dakotas, Minnesota, and the Pacific Coast.
Injurious properties. Bezoars are sometimes produced by the common oat
and Dr. Harz thinks it is a dangerous food material because it favors the
development of these “hair balls.’ The barbed and awned seed of the wild
oat may probably sometimes also lodge in the mouth and produce inflammation
or other results of mechanical injuries.
Avena sativa, L. Commen Oats
A well known erect annual, 2-4 feet high, with flat leaves and expanded
panicles of rather large, pendulous, and, usually, 2-flowered spikelets. Lower
florets sometimes awned.
Distribution. Widely cultivated in Europe, North America, Asia, and in
all temperate regions. Commonly cultivated in Northern United States, Can-
ada, and the Pacific Coast. The species is native to eastern temperate Europe,
and western Asia, although the wild form has not been found. According to
some authors, cultivated oats originated from wild oats Avena fatua. This
is very doubtful.
Injurious properties. Harz reports the occurrence of phytobezoars in horses
which had been fed oats straw. These bezoars in their origin and structure
are similar to those occurring from feeding on cacti and the crimson clover
referred to elsewhere.
9. Bromus, LL.
Spikelets 5 to many-flowered, panicled; glumes unequal, membranaceous ;
lower glume 1-5 nerved; flowering glume either convex on the back or com-
pressed-keeled, 5-9-nerved, awned or bristle-pointed from below to the groove
of the oblong or linear grain; stamens 3; styles attached below at the apex of
the ovary. Coarse grass with large spikelets at length drooping on pedicels
thickened at the apex. About 40 species, of which Beal lists 27 as either native
or introduced into the U. S.
Bromus tectorum, l. Awned Brome Grass
A slender, erect, leafy annual, 7-25 inches high, with narrow, softly
pubescent leaves and open, nodding panicles, 3-7 inches long; spikelets each 5-8
flowered, with unequal, acuminate-pointed, hairy, empty glumes, and rough or
360 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Fig. 149. Common Oats (Avena sativa), sometimes the cause of phytobezoars in
animals. (Ia. Seed Co.)
hairy glumes 4-6 lines long; awns 6-8 lines long; blooming period from June
to August. First introduced into the United States from Europe, it is without
forage value, and, while not greatly troublesome in Iowa or eastward, has be-
come a serious pest farther west, in Utah and Colorado.
Poisonous properties. This plant produces injuries similar to those caused
by Squirrel-tail grass, the awned glumes working in under the teeth causing
inflammation and suppuration. Animals eating this grass may lose their teeth
as a consequence.
SPERMATOPHYTA—GRAMINEAE—GRASSES 361
Fig. 150. Awned Bromegrass (Bromus tect-
orum). a. Sterile or outer glumes. b. Spike-
let. U.S: Dept.’ Agr:
10. Lolium, L. Darnel and Rye Grasses
Annual or perennial grasses with flat leaves and terminal spike; spikelets
many-flowered, solitary on each joint of the continuous rachis placed edge-
wise; empty glumes except in the terminal spikelets; only one flowering glume,
rounded on the back, 5-7 nerved, palet 2-keeled; stamens 3; grain adherent te
the palet, 6 species, 2 more or less naturalized in the eastern states. Natives
of the Old World. Two species, the Italian rye grass and the common rye grass,
are valuable forage plants. Darnel is a troublesome, poisonous grass.
Lolium temulentum, L. Darnel, Poison Darnel
An annual with smooth stout culm, 2-3 feet high; leaves with scabrous
sheaths and short ligule; spike 6-12 inches long; spikelets 5-7 flowered; empty
glumes sharp pointed, as long as the spikelets; flowering glume awned or awn-
less. Commonly found in grain fields.
Fig. 151. Darnel (Lolium temulentum). b. Spike-
let. a. Empty glume. U. S. Dept. Agr.
Distribution. Naturalized in eastern North America and abundantly so
on the Pacific Coast.
Poisonous properties. It is a well known fact that a number of grasses
are poisonous. It was well recognized by the ancients that darnel (Lolium
temulentum) was poisonous, for it is written: “But while men slept, his
enemies came and sowed tares among the wheat.”
Darnel, when ground up with wheat and made into flour, is said to produce
poisonous effects on the system, such as headache and drowsiness. This poison-
ous property is said to reside in a narcotic principle, lJoliin, a dirty white,
amorphous, bitter substance yielding sugar and volatile acids, which, according
to Hackel, “causes eruptions, trembling and confusion of sight in man and
flesh-eating animals, and very strongly in rabbits, but it does not effect swine,
horned cattle or ducks.” Lindley states that the grain is of evil repute for
intoxication in man, beast and birds, and brings on fatal convulsions. Haller
SPERMATOPHY TA—GRAMINEAE—GRASSES 363
speaks of it as communicating these intoxicating properties to beer. It acts
as a narcotic, acrid poison. Darnel meal was formerly recommended as a
sedative poultice. In Taylor’s work on poisons, the statement is made that the
seeds, whether in powder or in decoctions, have a local action on the alimentary
canal and a remote action on the brain and nervous system. He states further
that no instance is reported of its causing fatal injuries to man, and as much
as three ounces of a paste of the seeds have been given to a dog without caus-
ing death. Then he goes on to cite the experience of Dr. Kingsley, in which
several families, including about thirty persons, suffered severely from the ef-
fects of bread containing the flour of darnel seed. These persons had staggered
about as if intoxicated. It is claimed by some investigators, however, that this
plant is not poisonous. One writer claims to have made bread from flour said
Fig. 152. At left, a hypha from
Jeaf base of seedling of ‘‘Darnel’’ Fig. 153. ‘“Darnel’ (Lolium temulentum).
(Lolium temulentum). At right, hy- Section of outer part of a grain which has been
phae in the starch endosperm of a ‘n a germinating chamber 24 hrs. J], pale. %.
seed. hk. hyphal layer of grain nu- aericarp, 1, crushed integuments, 0, outer row of
cellus, st, starch cell, w, wall of starch nucellus cells, b, cavities with nucellus (probably
cell, a, knot formation in an_ inter- ~Ild cell lumina), h, hyphae, a, aleurone, c, stareb
cellular space. After Freeman, re- -ndosperm. After Freeman. redrawn by Char-
drawn by Charlotte M. King. lotte M. King.
to contain considerable darnel and experienced no injurious effects. When
mixed with flour and water the dough is foamy and narcotic in its action.
There are other grasses which produce similar narcotic effects. Quite recently
it has been claimed by several European investigators that the fruit of Lolium
temulentum contains a poisonous fungus. Guerin states that the hyphae of a
fungus constantly occur in the nucleus of the seed and the layer of the caryop-
sis lying between the aleurone layer and the hyaline portion of the grain or
nucellus. He also thinks that the toxic action of the Loliums is due to this
particular fungus hypha. The threads were also found in L. arvense and L.
linicolum; but, as yet, have not been found in L. italicum and but once in L.
364 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
perenne; the fungus is allied to Endoconidium temulentum, which has been
found on rye.
The Lolium fungus, according to Guerin, lives symbiotically in the matur-
ing grain and is therefore not a parasite, but Freeman has observed that oc-
casionally it is injurious although it is generally stimulating. Nestler, who made
an examination of L. perenne, L. multiflorum, L. remotum, and L. festucaceum,
found nothing comparable to the fungus mycelium which occurred in L.
temulentum. He also succeeded in demonstrating the presence of the mycelium
of the fungus as indicated by Guerin. According to Nestler, the Fusarium
roseum is identical with the fungus occurring in L. temulentum found by
Guerin, but this has not been confirmed and seems very improbable. Hanausek
considered the fungus to be related to the smuts, but Freeman found no evi-
dence of spore formation; the septa are infrequent and the intercellular course
different from that for smuts. The subject has, in recent years, been in-
vestigated by Prof. Freeman who, in a general way, confirms the reports of
previous investigations and says:
The probabilities of relationship with the ergot of L. temulentum are very interesting.
The frequency of occurrence of ergots of Lolium in England is strangely coincident with
that of the fungus in the grain, e. g., most abundant in LL. temulentum, less so in L. per-
enne and exceedingly rare in L. italicum.
It is certainly not one of the rusts and the Ustilagineae are the closest
affinity, perhaps, the fungus is carried from one generation to another by the
sterile mycelium; when the embryo of the grain pushes out during germination,
the hyphae, being in the “seed” keep pace with its growth and can be detected
in the growing point throughout the life of the plant. Prof. Freeman says:
The hyphae sometimes penetrate the aleurone layer at any point and invade the starch
endosperm. ‘There exists in the nucellus, at the base of the scutellum and at the lower end
of the inner groove of the grain, a layer of hyphae which lies directly against the embryo,
constituting an infective layer.
11. Agropyron, Gaertn. Quack or Wheat Grass
Annual or perennial grasses, with flat, or involute leaves; spikelets 3-many-
flowered, compressed, 2-ranked, alternate on opposite sides of the solitary,
terminal spike, 1 at each joint, or, occasionally, all, or the lower in pairs, sessile,
with the side against the axis; glumes transverse, nearly equal and opposite,
lanceolate; flowering glumes rigid, rounded at the back, 5-7 nerved, pointed
or awned from the tip; palet flattened, bristly, ciliate on the nerves, adherent
to the grain.
About 40 species, in temperate regions. The root of quack grass is used
in medicine; several species, like western wheat grass (Agropyron occidentale)
and slender wheat grass (A. tenerum) are valuable for forage purposes. Quack
and western wheat grasses are also good soil binders.
Agropyron repens, (L,) Beauv. Quack Grass
Perennial, 1-3 ft. high, from a creeping, jointed rootstock: sheaths usually
smooth, scabrous, or pubescent above; spikes 3-10 inches long, erect; spikelets
4-8 flowered; empty glumes strongly 5-7 nerved near the apex, awnless or
sometimes short awned.
Distribution. Widely naturalized, a good forage plant and also a bad weed.
In eastern North America, it occurs in cultivated fields and by roadsides and
is a troublesome weed.
SPERMATOPHYTA—GRAMINEAE—GRASSES 365
LEY
~~
Fig. 154. Quackgrass (Agropyron repens). The “roots”
(rootstocks) used in medicine. The roots contain considerable
of a nutritious carbohydrate. (C. M. King.)
Medicinal properties. Quack grass is not known to be poisonous. The
ancients since the time of Pliny have used the drug in medicine and it was also
used by the Germans in the 10th century. The root stock is officinal. Gerard
ascribed to the root diuretic, lithontriptic virtues or properties. The root con-
tains considerable sugar and a substance called triticin, an amorphous, gummy
substance easily transformed into sugar. It is found useful in the mucous dis-
charge from the bladder. Quack grass and Western Wheat Grass frequently con-
tain ergot.
366 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
12. Hordeum, L. Barley.
Annual or perennial grasses with flat leaves; cylindrical spikes; spikelets 1-
flowered, with an awl-shaped rudiment on the inner side, 3 at each joint of
the rachis of a terminal spike, the lateral ones usually imperfect or abortive
and with a short stalk, empty glumes side by side in front of the spikelets,
forming a kind of involucre; flowering glume and palet herbaceous, the former
long and awned from the apex; stamens 3; styles very short; grain usually
oblong and adherent to the palet; spike often separating into joints.
About 20 species widely distributed in both hemispheres. Of the Barleys,
the 2-rowed barley (Hordeum distichum) and the 4-rowed barley (H. vulgare)
are well known in cultivation, being used for malting purposes and occasionally
in medicine. The awns of cultivated barleys produce mechanical injuries to
stock. Several members of the genus are very troublesome weeds. ‘
Four-Rowed Barley. Annual, 2-3 feet high, smooth; leaves linear-lanceo-
late, keeled, nearly smooth; sheaths striate, smooth, auricled at the throat;
ligule very short; spikes 3-4 inches long, somewhat 4-sided; rachis flattened,
pubescent on the margins; spikelets with 1 perfect floret; empty glumes, narrow-
ly linear, pubescent, terminating in a slender awn; flowering glume 5-nerved,
scabrous near the apex, long-awned; awn flattened, keeled, somewhat 3-nerved,
serrulate on the margins.
The cereal is without doubt one of the most ancient of cultivated plants.
It is supposed to have originated from H. spontaneum Koch, which grows wild
in Asia Minor and Caucasian countries to Persia and Beloochistan as well
as in Syria and Palestine.
Hordeum jubatum, L. Squirreltail Grass
An annual or winter annual from 6 inches to 2 feet high producing fibrous
roots, forming solid and compact bunches; leaves not unlike those of blue
grass, but paler in color, from 2-4 inches in length, margins scabrous; flowers
in dense spike from 2-4 inches long, pale green or purplish in color, consisting
of a number of 1-flowered spikelets, 3 occurring at each joint, 1 being perfect
(bearing stamens and pistil), 2 others awl-shaped, and borne on short stalks,
1 sterile spikelet occurring on each side of the perfect flower which bears a
long awn; at each joint will be found 6 empty, long-awned glumes, spreading
at maturity which give to the plant its bristly appearance; when mature, the
spike breaks up into joints consisting of the rudimentary spikelets and a perfect
flower, so that each joint has 1 “seed,” the number of seeds in the spike varying
from 35 to 60. A single cluster of plants may therefore produce from 300 to
2000 mature seeds. The plant has a wonderful capacity for “stooling.” From
a single plant as many as forty spikes may be produced and the number often
no doubt exceeds this.
Distribution. It is found in marshes, in moist sand along the sea shore,
and near the northern lakes. Its present distribution is from Nova Scotia to
New Brunswick, along the Atlantic coast, Maine to Maryland and westward to
the region of the Great Lakes, Minnesota, Saskatchewan and the Mackenzie
river, the Dakotas, Iowa, Nebraska and the Rocky Mountain region, south to
Texas, California and southern Mexico. It is also reported from Europe and
Siberia.
Originally it was chiefly distributed in the Rocky Mountain region occur-
SPERMATOPHYTA—GRAMINEAE—GRASSES 367
ring in the saline soils of the plains, the great lakes and along the seacoast
extending far northward. Its extension eastward and westward has taken place
in the more recent times.
Hordeum secalinum, Schreb. Little Barley
An erect annual from 4-10 inches high, more or less geniculate at the lower
end; sheaths smooth or upper often inflated; leaf blade 1-3 inches long; spikes
narrow; empty glumes rigid, those of the central spikelet scarcely lanceolate,
all awn pointed; flowering glume of the central spikelet awned or nearly so.
Distribution. Common and troublesome especially as far east as Missouri,
Nebraska, British Columbia, and California.
Hordeum murinum, L. Wild Barley
An annual from 1-2 feet tall; erect or geniculate at the base; leaves rough;
spikes from 214-5 inches long; spikelets usually in 3’s; scales awned, the empty
glumes awnlike and scabrous, the second scale of the lateral spikelets not ciliate,
the flowering glumes scabrous at the apex, bearing an awn about 14%4-1% inches
long.
Common on the Pacific coast and the dry regions of Utah, New Mexico,
Arizona, and occurring on ballast in the Eastern states.
Mechanical injuries. It has long been known that the barbed awns of barley,
wild barley and other plants act injuriously in a mechanical way. In the west
this is especially true of wild barley (Hordeum jubatum).
Dr. S. H. Johnson, of Carroll, states in the Carroll Herald, that this grass,
when found in hay and allowed to ripen, if in any quantity, is very injurious
to horses’ mouths. He says:
The small awns seem to work in and cause deep ulcerating sores, which form under
the tongue and lips. The writer has seen a large number affected and made a careful
examination, and found the awns deep in the flesh, where they had remained for three
months or more. I have seen lips eaten completely through and tongues eaten almost off
by the grass. As to cattle, I have seen some affected, but not to any extent, because
the mucuous membranes are much thicker. The sooner the grass is eradicated the
better.
Professor Nelson, who has carefully studied this question, says on the injury
to stock:
The awned heads, when taken into the mouth ,break up into numerous sections,
scatter within the mouth and everywhere adhere to the mucous membrane, which soon
becomes pierced with the long stiff awns. As the animal continues to feed, more awns
are added, and those already present are pushed deeper into the flesh. Inflammation soon
results and leaves the gums of the animal in condition to be more easily penetrated.
The awns are particularly liable to be pushed down and alongside and between the
teeth. As the swelling and festering progress the awns are packed in tighter and pushed
deeper and cause suppuration of the gums as well as ulceration of the jaw bones and
the teeth. Through the absorption of the ulcerated sockets and roots the teeth become
loosened and even drop out, but the animal, impelled by hunger, still endeavors to eat
such hay as may be offered.
The above statements apply largely to H. jubatum, but are equally true of
all other species given above.
2. CYPERACEAE. Sedge Family
Grass-like, or rush-like herbs. Culms slender, solid or rarely hollow, frequent-
ly triangular, terete, quadrangular or flattened; roots fibrous and, frequently,
creeping rhizomes, leaves narrow, sheathes closed; flowers perfect or imperfect,
368 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
LZ.
ANS
x
Fig. 155. Wild Barley (Hordeum
jubatum.) Produces mechanical in- Fig. 156. Common Little Barley (Hordeum
juries to animals. (U. S. Dept. secalinum). Causes mechanical injuries. (Charlotte
Agrl.) M. King.)
arranged in spikelets, 1 or 2 in the axil of each glume, spikelets, 1- many-
flowered; scales 2-ranked, or spirally imbricated, persistent, or deciduous; peri-
anth free, composed of bristles, scales or rarely wanting; anthers 2-celled; ovary
I-celled, ovule 1, erect style 2 or 3-cleft; endosperms mealy; embryo minute.
A large family of comparatively few genera (65) and 3,000 species of wide
distribution. Carex is found in colder regions, while Cyperus is in warmer
SPERMATOPHY TA—CY PERACEKAE—SEDGES 369
regions. About 600 species of Cyperus, 200 of Scirpus, 200 of Rynchospora and
1,000 of Carex. The Papyrus (Cyperus Papyrus) of Africa and Sicily was
used by the ancients as writing material. Common rush (Scirpus lacustris),
a cosmopolitan plant found in water and marshes, is used for making mats
and baskets. The rhizome of Carex arenaria is used in medicine.
Fig. 157. Sedge (Carex arenaria). 1. Flower-
ing plant. 2. Staminate flower with glume. 3.
Pistillate flower. 4. Pistil. 5. Bract of pistillate
flower. 6, 7. Staminate and pistillate flowers of
C. hirta. (After Wossidlo.)
PRINCIPES
Woody or herbaceous plants with endogenous stems; flowers in spikes,
generally on the plan of 3, free, regular or slightly irregular; stamens 3-9 or
numerous but generally 6; ovaries, free, 1-7-celled usually; fruit dry or a
370 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
fleshy drupe. Contains the family Palmae, a large family of 1,000 species, of
which the most important palms are as follows: ‘The date palm (Phoenix
dactylifera) of Asia and North Africa, now cultivated in warmer regions of
Europe, California and Arizona, and an important article of commerce in
North Africa; the Corypha which furnishes sago, fiber, and a seed which is
used as a substitute for coffee; and the Washingtonia of Southern California,
frequently cultivated. Vegetable wax is derived from Copernicia cerifera.
The wine palms (Raphia vinifera and R. pedunculata of eastern Africa),
furnish raphia fiber. The Metroxylon Rumphii of the South Sunda Islands
furnishes sago. The betel-nut palm (Areca Catechu) is much used as a nar-
cotic, the poison derived from this being known as arecain, half a grain of
which is sufficient to kill a rabbit in a few minutes. It acts upon the heart and
influences respiration causing tetanic convulsions; it also causes a contraction of
the pupil of the eye. It is used to some extent as a vermifuge and in India
and the Islands of the Pacific it is applied as an external remedy. The nut
contains the alkaloids, arecolin, arecain, arecaidin, and guvacin, which are used
as vermifuges for dogs. The orange colored fruit is about the size of a hen’s
egg. When the nut is wrapped in quicklime and used, it imparts a red color
to the saliva; it injures the teeth, and eventually destroys them. The resinous
exudation from dragon’s blood (Daemonorops Draco) of the East Indies is
used in the manufacture of paints and varnishes. The oil from the oil palm
(Elaeis guineensis) of West Africa and eastern South America is an important
article of commerce. The cocoa-nut palm (Cocos nucifera) in tropical countries,
especially the Islands of the Pacific, is an important article of food. The milk
is the endosperm. The juice in the nut before maturity is unwholesome, being
strongly diuretic and likely to cause serious results when taken into the sys-
tem. A fermented drink is made. from the juice of the plant which causes
obesity and premature old age. A fiber known as ceir is made from the husks.
Vegetable ivory (Phytelephas macrocarpa) of tropical countries, is a well known
article of commerce. “Tuba” or Philippine toddy is made from the sap of
the flowering spadix of Nipa fruticans. Toddy is also made from the juice of
Arenga pinnatus, a plant which also furnishes an almost imperishable fiber.
The “Royal Palm” is the “Yagua” (Roystonca borinquena) of Porto Rico, the
sheathing bases of the leaves of which are used in thatching and siding the
houses of the poor. An oil is produced from the husk and nut-like seeds of
the Acrocomia or corozo palm which is distributed through tropical America
from Mexico and Cuba to Paraguay.
SPATHIFLORAE
Mostly fleshy herbs with endogenous stems, or thalloid floating plants;
flowers generally in a fleshy spadix subtended by a spathe or naked, or a few
solitary flowers on the margin or back of the thalloid structure.
ARACEAE. Arum Family
Herbs with pungent juice; leaves with long, slender petioles and abounding
in raphides; flowers borne in densely-flowered fleshy spadix, subtended or en-
closed by the spathe; rootstock tuberous; floral envelopes none or of 4-6 sepais;
stamens 4-10; filaments short; anthers 2-celled; ovary 1-several-celled; ovules
l-several in each cell; fruit a berry; seeds various, with 2 coats, the outer
fleshy; endosperm abundant or none. About 900 species of wide distribution.
SPERMATOPHY TA—ARACEAE—AROIDS 371
Many of the plants, as the skunk cabbage, Symplocarpus foetidus, possess
acrid and noxious qualities. This is a native herb which is acrid and has a
disagreeable odor. The fleshy spadix of Monstera deliciosa of the Mexican
Fig. 158. Common European Arum, Cuckoo-pint, or Wake-robin
(Arum maculatum). lWeaf; spadix; longitudinal section of ovary; germina-
tion; longitudinal section of seed; embryo. (After Faguet.)
Cordilleras is edible. The vegetable calomel (Acorus Calamus) is used in
medicine and contains the bitter principle acorin and an alkaloid. The sweet
calomel is poisonous, under some conditions, causing disturbed digestion, and,
in severe cases, gastro-enteritis, persistent constipation, followed by diarrhoea
and passage of blood in the feces.
The Calla palustris, a marsh plant, has acrid properties and is used in
Lapland with bread. The bulbs of Amorphophallus are rich in starch and are
edible. The Richardia africana is frequently cultivated and used as food, a
starch being also made from it. The poisonous substances contained in it are
removed on roasting and boiling. In some of the fruits of aroids, like Arum
italicum, saponin has been found, also needle-like crystals of oxalate of lime.
A. maculatum is poisonous and causes severe dermatitis, paralysis, and, in the
S72 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
case of children, even death. The Thomsonia napalensis of India, according
to Major Kirtikar, is an acrid poison but its deleterious properties may be
removed by roasting. The arrow arum (Peltandra virginica) of eastern
North America is an irritant.
Arisaema. Mart.
Perennial herbs with tuberous rootstock or corm, having acrid properties;
leaves simple or compound, scape simple; spathe convolute, generally arched
above; spadix with flowers near the base; floral envelopes none; flowers mon-
oecious or dioecious; stamens 4; anthers 2-4-celled; pistillate flowers with a
2-celled ovary containing many ovules; fruit a globose, red berry; seeds with
copious endosperm. About 50 species found in temperate climate.
Arisaema triphyllum. (L.) Schott. Indian Turnip
Corm turnip-shaped, farinaceous; leaves generally 2, divided into 3-foliate
' leaflets, ovate; spadix mostly dioecious,
club-shaped, much shorter than the arched
spathe, which is green and purple striped:
ovules 5-6; berries ‘shining, forming a
dense head. ‘The dragon head (A. Dra-
contium) with solitary leaf pedately di-
vided into 7-11 oblong lanceolate leaflets,
and spadix tapering to a long slender
point, is common in rich woods from
Minnesota and Towa, eastward.
Distribution. The Indian Turnip occurs
in moist woods from Kansas and Minne-
sota to Nova Scotia and Florida.
Poisonous properties. The corm of In-
dian Turnip is so extremely acrid that a
decoction made from it has been used to
kill insects.
The family Lemnaceae is allied to the
Araceae. It contains the Duckweeds,
(Lemna).
FARINOSAE
Fig. 159. Indian Turnip (Arisaema Herbs with endogenous stems and most-
triphyllum). A common plant of our 1y narrow leaves; flowers usually complete,
woods. Corm contains an acrid id F i 5
poison. parts usually in 3’s or 6's; corolla reg-
ular or nearly so; ovary compound, superior; endosperm of the seed mealy.
This series contains the Xyridaceae, of which the yellow-eyed grass is an
example; the Eriocaulaceae, of which the pipewort (Eriocaulon septangulare )
of the Atlantic seashore is a good illustration; the pine-apple family (Bromeli-
aceae) of 350 species, in tropical and warmer regions, represented in the south
by the Spanish moss (Tillandsia usneoides) which hangs in long festoons
SPERMATOPHYTA—FARINOSAE 3/3
from trees, and by the pine-apple (Ananas sativus), a well known fruit now
cultivated extensively in Florida; from which has been isolated the enzyme,
bromelin, a powerful ferment capable of rapidly digesting vegetable and animal
albumen. It acts in the presence of either acid or alkaline carbonates and is
related to trypsin and pepsin. In the same family is the pinguin (Bromelia
Pinguin) or wild pine-apple, the slightly acrid pulp of which is edible and the
fiber valuable. The plant is armed with stout spines which made the passage
of troops difficult in the late Spanish war.
In the same order are the Spiderworts belonging to the family Commelin-
aceae. The common blue spiderwort (Tradescantia virginiana) of sandy and
Fig. 161. Common Rush (Juncus
tenuis). A weed with tough stems,
along beaten paths and roadsides. (Char-
lotte M. King.)
374 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
gravelly soils, has mucilaginous stems, blue ephemeral flowers, and is common
everywhere in eastern North America. Several species of Tradescantia, like
the wandering Jew (T. Zebrina), are commonly cultivated. Another family
of the order is the Pontederiaceae, containing the pickerel weed (Pontederia
cordata) and the Eichornia speciosa, which is frequently cultivated in green-
hoses and has become a very troublesome weed in the rivers of Florida and
elsewhere in warm countries.
LILITFLORAE
Herbs or occasionally shrubs with endogenous stems and monocotyledon-
ous seeds; perianth generally well developed; flowers generally regular and
complete, their parts in 3’s and 6's; ovary superior, or inferior compound;
endosperm horny or fleshy. This series contains the family Juncaceae, called
rushes, some of which,
like wire-grass (Juncus
tenuis), are troublesome
weeds. Lusula is com-
mon at high altitudes
and in northern states.
The Dioscoreaceae, or
Yam Family, contains
but few species in the
United States. To this
belong the wild yam
root (Dioscorea villosa)
of our woods, the Jap-
anese yam (D. divari-
cata) and the air po-
tato (D. bulbifera) of
Asia, sometimes culti-
vated in the Gulf States
for its large tubers.
Yam starch is obtained
from several species, the
most important of which
are D. alata, D. sativa,
D. japonica, and OD.
aculeata.
The family Taccaceaz
contains Tacca pinnati-
Fig. 160. Flowers, fruit and leaves of Yam (Dioscoreah 4 the roots of which
villosa). A common plant in thickets. are the source of the
Tacca starch of Tahiti
and the neighboring islands. The plant is grown also in Brazil and India.
FAMILIES OF LILIIFLORAE
Ovary mostly superior.
Perianth segments distinct or partly united, the inner, petal-like;
fruit-a capsule” Or VDE. oii sic Walsie USES En asel ne Tolls eee tale erenede Liliaceae
_ Fig. 161. Wake Robin (Trillium nivale); Canada Lily (Lilium Canadense). The
Trilliums are considered poisonous. (C. M. King).
B. Greasewood and Tetradymia. (LL. H. Pammel).
A. Yueca (Yucca angustifolia). An ornamental plant thought to
contain a poisonous alkaloid. (I. H. Pammel).
ae
“eS
SPERMATOPHYTA—LILITFLORAE oA
Ovary inferior, at least in part.
Stamens 3, opposite the inner segments.................--- Haemodoraceae
Stamens 6.
Erect perennial herbs; flowers. perfect................ Amaryllidaceae
Stamens'3, opposite’ the outer ‘Segments... ). 2.) aeadaatedeee.o. Iridaceae
I. wimtacEAE. Lily Family
Herbs or rarely woody plants with regular, symmetrical flowers; perianth
not glumaceous; 3 sepals; 3 petals; 6 stamens; ovary 3-celled; fruit a pod or
berry; embryo enclosed in the hard albumen. A family of about 1,600 species,
including among others, several ornamental plants like the lily, lily of the
valley, and yucca; some medicinal plants like squill, aloe, and false hellebore;
and several poisonous plants like death camas and colchicum, the latter, native
to Europe and Africa. The fatal poisonous nature of Colchicum was familiar
to the ancients, it being known to contain several poisons, such as the alkaloid
colchicin C,,H,,NO,, an amorphous, yellowish white gum, chiefly an alkaline
bitter substance, which, on boiling with acids, yields colchicein C,,H,,NO,,
and a yellowish green resin.
Animals that eat the plant suffer with acute gastro-enteritis, coma, stagger-
ing, weak pulse, and increased urination. ‘The family also includes several
economic plants like the onion (Allium Porrum); garlic (Allium sativum) ;
chives (A. Schoenoprasum); shallot (A. ascalonicum) ; hyacinth (Hyacinthus
orientalis); New Zealand flax (Phormium tenax), native to New Zealand
where it occupies much of the country, and is now used in large quantities for
making ropes and mats; (Yucca filamentosa) and (Y. augustifolia), the former
a well known plant of the South and the latter a well known plant of the
West, both species frequently cultivated for ornamental purposes, a large
number of other species of the genus Yucca being also found in the Southwest.
The day lily (Funkia subcordata), several species of the tulip (7ulipa), and
several species of Lilium are cultivated. Perhaps the most common in the old
gardens is the tiger lily, (L. tigrinum). Several species of the aloes are com-
mon in cultivation in greenhouses. They are also medicinal, containing the
substance aloinum, a neutral principle, which yields barbatorin C,,H,,O. Aloes.
are cathartic. The California or Mariposa lily belongs to the genus Calochortus.
The asparagus (Asparagus officinalis) is cultivated and is a well known
vegetable. The cultivated smilax (Asparagus medeoloides) is a native to the
Cape of Good Hope. The dragon-tree (Cordyline terminalis) is frequently
cultivated. Some of the species of the latter like “Ti” of the Sandwich Islands
are of economic importance. The roots of “Ti” contain a saccharine matter,
from which the natives extract sugar; they also bake the roots and eat them.
The remarkable dragon-tree of the Canaries is noted for its large circumfer-
ence and comparatively low height. The Botany Bay resin (Xanthorrhoea
hastilis) is chiefly used as a shellac for making colored varnishes.
Yucca leaves contain salicylic acid. Several investigators have reported
saponin in the roots of Yucca filamentosa, Y. augustifolia, and Y. imperialis
contain the alkaloid imperialin C,,H,,NO,. In the former, Dr. Helen Abbot
Michael reports the presence of several resins, the amount varying from 8-10
per cent in the root. She regarded the saponin as a constructive glucoside
which served to unite what are known as the Saponin groups. Saponin occurs
in many different plants, especially in the Sapotaceae.
KYA) MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Fig. 162. Colchicum (Colchicum an- Fig. 163. Camas plant or Death Camas (Zygadenus
tumnale). Flowering plant and _longi- venenosus). A western plant, extremely poisonous to
tudinal section of stem and bulb. Faguet. sheep.
The fly poison (Amianthium muscaetoxicum) is a smooth plant with
simple stems from base; broadly linear leaves; white flowers in simple racemes;
widely spreading perianth without claws or glands. Occurs from Long Island
to Florida to Arkansas. It is a well known fly poison of the south. It is
related to Veratrum and Melanthium.
The Bulbine bulbosa, of Australia, is poisonous to cattle, sheep and horses,
which, after eating it, display such symptoms as lying down, rolling continually,
having scours and a mucous discharge from the nose. The tuberous herb, |
Gloriosa superba, of India, according to Major Kirtikar, is a violent emetic;
SPERMATOPHYTA—LILIACEAE 377
the roots of this, when eaten, produce death in four hours. It is said to con-
tain the bitter principle superbin (C,,H,,N,O,,), perhaps identical with scillo-
toxin. The leaves and roots of Paris quadrifolia of Europe have a bitter taste.
The berries are said to poison chickens and to produce gastro-enteritis in man.
The Aloe succotrina contains from 4-10 per cent of a bitter principle aloin,
also some emodin. Representatives of the genus Scilla and Urginea yield scilli-
picrin, scillin, and scillotoxin, the latter of which resembles digitoxin; the first
of these acts upon the heart; where used as an emetic, it has proved fatal be-
cause of its irritant action on the intestines. The seeds of Sabadilla officinalis
are used as a parasiticide. They contain cevadin C,,H,,NO,,, cevadillin
C,,H,,NO,, and are the principal source of veratrin C,,H,.NO,,, and the
glucoside scillain or scillitin. According to Friedberger and Frohner animals
poisoned with “rat poison” (squill) had cerebral convulsions and erysipelas.
The rhizome of Solomon’s Seal (Polygonatum giganteum) has an acrid bitter
taste.
Chickerinchee (Ornithogalum thyrsoides) is reported by Dr. Liautard (1)
to have been the cause of acute gastro-enteritis in horses in South Africa.
The species O. Muscari may possibly be poisonous since it is allied to the above
which an African veterinarian reports to be poisonous. The Star-of-Bethlehem
(O. umbellatum) which is a pretty cultivated garden plant in the northern
United States has become an escape in Kentucky and is regarded as a rather
troublesome weed. The Tulip and Fritallaria are also poisonous.
GENERA OF LILIACEAE
Perianth bell-shaped, gamophyllous.
TENGE AS MHELL Ys: AMM NA. Webs e cds neato eiad Cae ld /er enue treet aaaus 5. Convallaria
Perianth cleft or divided.
PEATE ch, PETE Ys svn oe ward Sree a ieee al dha UL a he cE ay EE eta gat 6. Trillium
Fruit a capsule.
‘With sCarious /MEactSun wii oe & data sue cniee eae eed teraie eth 4. Allium
Without scarious bracts.
Roots! DUlbOWS ee EN RIED ae Te Cierra te 1. Zygadenus
Roots not bulbous.
Sepals with claws, free from the ovary......... 2. Melanthium
Sepals without | ela wis ese) Sous | Cea RE alse) 3. Veratrum
1. Zygadenus. Michx. Camas
Smooth, erect, perennial herbs from bulbs or rootstocks; leaves linear;
greenish or white flowers in panicles; stamens free from perianth segments;
capsule 3-lobed and 3-celled. A small genus of about 8 species, native to North
America and Mexico.
Zygadenus venenosus. Wats. Death Camas
A pale green, slender perennial, 6 inches to 1% feet high, from small
coated bulb; leaves rough, somewhat shorter than the stem; flowers borne in
a raceme, yellowish or yellow, polygamous; segments of the perianth ovate or
elliptical, free from ovary, bearing a roundish gland; capsule much larger than
the perianth.
.
(1) Am. Vet. Rev. 30:298.
378 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Distribution. From South Dakota to Nebraska, Colorado, Utah, California,
Montana and British Columbia.
Zygadenus chloranthus. Pursh. Smooth Zygadenus
A glaucus perennial 1-3 feet high, coming from an elongated bulb; leaves
flat; flowers borne in racemes, few flowered, greenish; segments of the peri-
anth oval or obovate, united below and adnate to the base of the ovary; capsule
longer than the perianth.
Distribution. Common especially northward in Iowa and Minnesota to
Alaska, in the Rocky Mountains to New Mexico and east to Missouri. It
may also be poisonous.
Poisonous properties. Mention of the poisonous nature of the various
species of Zygadenus has frequently been made, especially by the early ex-
plorers, the poisonous bulbs encountered by them being referred to as poison
camas or poison sago, so called to distinguish them from the edible Quamasa,
which is commonly called kamas. These species bear essentially the same name
today, except that in some places they are also called Lobelia. The bulbs are
apparently much more poisonous than the leaves, but if the ground is very
dry, sheep are less likely to pull them up than when the ground is moist. After
rains, however, or early in the spring it is possible that some of the bulbs may
be pulled up and thus eaten by sheep. In Montana, according to Chesnut and
Wilcox, large numbers of sheep are killed by eating death camas. These
authors state that in one band two thousand were poisoned and one hundred
of these died. In another band two hundred were poisoned and ninety died.
Prof. Hillman reports that the wild sago (Z. paniculatus) is probably
responsible for the death of a considerable number of cattle in certain alkaline
districts in Nevada. Dr. S. B. Nelson, in experimenting with this species had
wholly negative results. He fed one pound of the plant in blossom and fruit
to sheep. Dr. Wilcox and Prof.’ Chesnut made tests on rabbits and sheep
with extracts and fresh plants, and in every instance obtained positive evidence
of poisoning. In these instances the plants were not in flower. Prof. Chesnut
says stock is poisoned while pasturing by eating the bulbs along with the leaves
or the leaves alone, or by the seeds when present in hay, as they sometimes
are. Stock, especially sheep, are usually killed by eating the plant before it has
blossomed in the spring. Cases of poisoning are so common in Oregon and
Nevada that the term “lobeliaed” has been used to indicate the result from this
kind of poisoning.
According to Chesnut and Wilcox the symptoms of poisoning are re-
markably uniform:
The first signs of poisoning are a certain uneasiness and irregularity in the move-
ments of the sheep These irregularities rapidly become more and more pronounced,
accompanied by incoordination of the muscular movements, spasms and rapid breathing.
Although sheep are highly excited under the influence of Zygadenus poisoning, the
cerebral symptoms seldom constitute a condition of frenzy. It was readily observed that
until a few minutes before death ewes were able to recognize their lambs, and indicate
in other ways that they were not in any sense crazed. The later symptoms were those
of complete motor paralysis, combined with an exceedingly rapid and sharp breathing
and a frequent weak pulse. The duration of these different stages of poisoning varies
to a considerable extent, and depends entirely upon the amount of death Camas which
the sheep had eaten.
Death Camas (Zygadenus venenosus). A poisonous plant of the western United States.
(Nev. Agr. Exp. Sta.)
.
SPERMATOPHYTA—LILIACEAE 379
Postmortem examinations made show that in every instance the lungs
were congested with blood, being a hepatized condition. There were no lesions
in the membranes of the brain. In cases of adult sheep the effect upon the
digestive organs was not marked. There were usually to be noticed an in-
creased salivation and continued regurgitation through the mouth and nostrils.
“Symptoms produced experimentally by feeding the death camas to sheep were
the same as those characterizing natural poisoning by this plant.
The toxic substance has not been isolated. Chesnut and Wilcox observed
that the ground material macerated with luke warm distilled water produced
a substance that had a decided soapy feeling, and that the pure juice was
distinctly irritating when left on the hands for several minutes. The physio-
logical action of the Veratrum is somewhat similarly caused by the active
poisonous principle in camas. It is probable that many of the Melanthaceae
have similar properties. Dr. Wilcox recommends, in case of poisoning by
death camas, the hypodermic injection of strychnin in 1/20, 1/10 and 1/5 grain
doses, the hypodermic injection of atropin in 1/60 and 1/30 grain doses, and
solutions of potassium permanganate and aluminum sulphate. From 5 to 10
grains of each of these compounds are dissolved in water and given as a drink
to adult sheep. Hogs take the same doses as sheep, horses from 15 to 20
grains, and cattle from 30 to 50 grains. Occasionally the material is injected
directly into the stomach, but ordinarily the more convenient method is to
allow the animals to drink it. The substances veratalbin, sabadin and sabadinin
have been obtained from Z. venenosus.
2. Melanthium. L. Bunchflower
Perennial tall leafy herbs with a thick rootstock; leaves linear to oblance-
olate; flowers on large panicles, monoecious or polygamous, greenish yellow;
perianth of 6 widely spreading segments raised on slender claws free from
the ovary; stamens shorter than the perianth; pistil with 3 styles; capsule
3-lobed and 3-celled. A smail genus of 4 species, in eastern North America.
Melanthium virginicum. L. Common Bunchflower
Tall leafy stemmed plants 3-5 feet high; leaves linear, the lower sheathing,
the upper similar and sessile; flowers in an ample panicle, fragrant; perianth of
flat segments, greenish yellow; styles persistent, capsule 3-celled; 8-10 seeds
in each cavity.
Distribution. In low meadows and prairies from New England to Iowa
river basin to Minnesota to Texas and Florida.
Poisonous properties. Several correspondents in Iowa have attributed
poisoning of horses to this plant. Several related plants of the Melanthaceae
like Zygadenus and Veratrum are known to be poisonous.
Mr. J. R. Campbell, of Blockton, Iowa, writes us the following:
The specimens I sent you, and which you have identified as Melanthium virginicum,
have been the reputed cause of a number of cases of poisoning here this summer. The
veterinarian here pronounced it aconite poisoning as the symptoms are similar, but he
decided this weed caused it as it has been found present in every case. In the first
cases that he noticed here nearly all the horses in the livery barn were attacked after
partaking of hay which contained an abundance of the matured seed pods of this plant.
None of the animals died. The liveryman then had his men pick out all the weed,
and he has not been troubled since. Several cases have occured at different places since
then, all traceable to this weed.
380 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
DW
\
Nv
Seo Nau
Ae
\Y
i)
2)
Ss
SY
B
‘S
Vis \
Fig. 164. Bunch flower (Melanthium
virginicum). Common in low meadows
Eastern Iowa and southward. Often
mixed with hay and causes poisoning
of horses. (Charlotte M. King.)
At the place where I obtained these specimens the owner said he had cut the meadow
and fed hay off it for fifteen years and never had any trouble until this year. Hay cut
last fall seems to contain the poison; seed heads were fully mature; meadow is low
and wet.
The following are the symptoms as described by the veterinarian: Heart fast and
very weak; respiration shallow and labored; great muscular weakness; retching, consider-
able slobbering, some sweating; temperature was normal. ‘The effect lasted three or four
hours, and the animal was stupid and lacked appetite for one or two days afterwards.
The disease stopped when a ration of hay containing none of this weed
was fed. Since writing the above, Dr. Blanche, a veterinarian in Belle Plaine,
this state, found that horses fed with hay containing this plant “became ill
and acted as if they were crazy. The symptoms were much like those from
aconite poisoning.” ‘These bunchflowers have long been used to poison flies,
and Hyams, of North Carolina, says that they are poisonous to crows. The
M. latifolium and M. pariflorum have similar properties. According to
Chesnut the Indians of Mendocino County, California, use the soaproot or
Yuki (Chlorogalum pomeridianum) to stupify fish. This plant is closely re-
lated to Melanthium.
Wild Indian Corn: Swamp Hellebore (Veratrum californicum). Reported to be poison-
ous to cattle and horses. (Bull. Nev. Agr. Exp. Sta. 51).
SPERMATOPHY TA—LILIACEAE 381
3. Veratrum (Tourn.) L.
Perennial herbs; leaves broad, clasping, veined, and plaited; flowers in
large panicles, greenish, polygamous or monoecious; perianth in 6 parts,
spreading, greenish or brownish, without glands or nearly so, and not clawed;
stamens short and free, ovary with 3 persistent styles, capsule 3-lobed, 3-celled
and several-seeded. A small genus of 10 or 11 species distributed in north
temperate regions. One species used in medicine; all are poisonous.
Veratrum viride, Ait. American White Hellebore
A stout, leafy perennial from 2-7 feet high, with fleshy root, 1-3 inches
long; flowers in ample, dense, spike-like racemes; it blooms from May to July.
Distribution. Common in swamps and wet woods, especially in eastern
North America, west to Wisconsin, south to the mountains of Georgia, and
north to Alaska.
Veratrum californicum, Durand. California Hellebore
A stout perennial from 2-8 feet high, fleshy root, flowers in a large loose
terminal panicle; perianth segments whitish with long and narrow floral leaves.
Distribution. Common in the mountains of California and the Rocky
Mountains as far north as British Columbia, south to New Mexico.
Poisonous Properties. Prof. Chesnut says:
Cases arise mainly from overdoses in medicine, but instances of accidental poisoning
are reported for man and for various animals and birds. In one case all the members
of a household were poisoned by eating the young leaves, which were mistaken for those
of marsh marigold (Caltha palustris) and prepared for food. Animals do not relish
the plant, which is acrid and burning in the fresh condition, but young aimals some-
times eat it with fatal results. The roots are not often mistaken for those of edible
plants, but being fleshy and especially rich in- alkaloids, they are somewhat dangerous.
The seeds have been eaten by chickens with fatal results. The general effect is very
much like that of aconite (Aconitum Napellus), being directed chiefly against the action
of the heart and spinal cord, both of which tends to paralyze.
The symptoms of the poison are burning in the throat with increased
salivation, producing a weak pulse, labored respiration and profound prostra-
tion. The root was used by the Indians in making snuff. Dr. Halsted at-
tributed deaths of human beings as well as of cattle in New Jersey to this
plant. ©
The number of poisonous substances found in hellebore is quite large.
Of these so-called veratrin, C,,H,,NO,,, of earlier writers, has an alkaline
reaction, and a burning taste; it produces violent sneezing and dilates the pupil.
However, later investigators, have separated this into the following bases: the
very toxic cevadin, C,,H,,-09, veratridin, GH NG. «amd sabadillin
INO.
Veratrum album, L., V. lobelianum Bernh., V. viride, Ait., also contain
in addition to the bases named above, two other bases, sabadin, C,,H.,NO,,
and sabadinin, Cat NO; and also the following substances: jervin C,,H,,NO,,
a pure alkaloid rubijervin C,,H,,NO,, pseudojervin C,,H,,NO,, protoveratrin
382 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
» C,,H,,NO,,, protoveratridin C,,H,,NO,, and the bitter glucoside veratamarin.
Jervin is a powerful depressant to the heart muscles and vaso motor centers;
large doses therefore weaken the pulse. It depresses respiration and death oc-
curs from asphyxia. Dr. Winslow, in speaking of the toxicology, says:
The symptoms exhibited in Veratrum viride poisoning are: salivation, vomiting, or
attempts at vomiting, purging, abdominal pain, muscular weakness, difficulty in progression,
loss of power and general paralysis, muscular tremors and spasms, and, occasionally,
convulsions. The pulse is unaltered in rate at first, but later becomes infrequent and
compressible and finally rapid, threadlike and running. The respiration is shallow, the
temperature is reduced, the skin is cold and clammy; there is semi-consciousness, loss of
sight, and death from asphyxia. Treatment should be pursued with cardiac and respira-
tory stimulants, as amy] nitrite (by inhalation), alcohol, strychnin and atropin; tannic
acid as a chemical antidote; opium to subdue pain, and demulcents to relieve local irrita-
tion of the digestive tract. Warm water should be given the smaller animals to wash
out the stomach and to asist vomition, and quietude should be enforced. In man, fatal
poisoning is rare, since the drug is spontaneously vomited. ‘The same would probably apply
to dogs. Recovery has ensued in horses after injection of two ounces of veratrum
album root.
Fig. 1642 American White Hellebore (Veratrum viride). A poisonous plant of Eastern
North America,
SPERMATOPHYTA—LILIACEAE 383
4. Allium (Tourn.) L. Onion, Garlic and Leek
Perennial bulbous plants, bulb solitary or clustered, leaves generally linear,
a few lanceolate or oblong; stem simple or erect; flowers in umbels subtended
by bracts; perianth white, purple or pink, the parts distinct cr united at the base
often becoming dry; the 6 filaments awl shaped, ovary 3-celled or incompletely
so; capsule with 1-2 black seeds in each cell. About 275 species of wide dis-
tribution; contains a number of important economic plants, among them garlic
(A. sativum), garden leek (4. Porrum), chives (4. Schoenoprasum), shallot
(A. ascalonicum), onion (A. Cepa), and the golden garlic (A. Moly), cultivated
for ornamental purposes.
Allium vineale, L. Field Garlic
A slender scape, naked from an ovoid membranaceous bulb; 1-3 feet high;
terete and hollow leaves, channeled above, frequently densely bulbiferous ;
flowers greenish or purple.
Distribution. Common in meadows and wheat fields of Virginia, and east-
ern states from Connecticut to Virginia and Missouri. Naturalized from Europe.
Allium tricoccum Ait. Wild Leek
Scape naked, 4-12 inches high from an ovoid bulb; leaves fibrous articulated ;
leaves oblong, lanceolate or elliptical, few, appearing long before the flowers
in spring; flowers in umbels numerous, greenish white, one ovule in each cav-
ity; capsules strongly 3-lobed; seeds black and smooth.
Distribution. Common in the woods from western New England to Min-
nesota and Eastern and northern Iowa, especially in the low damp grounds.
Allium canadense . Wild Garlic
Scape 1-2 feet high, coming from an ovoid bulb, the outer coats fibrous
reticulated; leaves narrow linear; flowers in an umbel frequently with small
bulbs; flowers pink or white.
Distribution. Common in meadows or low grounds in New England to
Minnesota and Iowa, south to the Gulf.
Injurious Properties. In parts of the country where these onions grow
there is frequent complaint of milk taking the flavor of onions where cattle
feed upon them. Chesnut and Wilcox do not mention any species of the genus
Allium, except some of the species found in Montana, which may impart to milk
a disagreeable flavor. Friedberger and Frohner state that onions produce
slavering.
Prof. A. Liautard * has prepared an abstract of a report by Dr. W. W. Gold-
smith in the Journal of Comparative Pathology and Therapeutics upon onion
poisoning in cattle. Briefly it is as follows:
Loads of onions partly started to shoot and partly decayed, were unloaded in a
meadow where nine head of cattle were grazing. After a week the cattle seemed sick
* Amer. Vet. Review. 36:63
384 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
and one died, displaying the following symptoms: Intense onion odor, tucking up of
flanks; constipation in some; purging freely in others; one vomited abundantly; another
very ill, grunted, was much constipated, staggered in walking, was very tender in loins,
temperature 103°, urine dark and smelling of onions. Treatment: Feeding with soft
food and hay. Large doses of linseed oil. One animal that was very ill got also extract
of belladonna and carbonate of soda. All but one of the animals recovered. At the
autopsy of the dead one, the rumen was found inflated and also the bowels. Liver enlarged
and of light color. Kidneys dark green and with offensive edor. Rumen contained
large quantity of onions and grass. ‘The whole carcass and organs smell of onions.
5. Convallaria L. Lily of the Valley
A low smooth herb with horizontal root-stocks; flowers white in a one
sided raceme; stamen 6; ovary 3-celled; berry globose. A genus with one
species.
Convallaria majalis, L. Lily of the Valley
A smooth perennial herb with horizontal root-stocks and 2 or sometimes 3
oblong leaves; flowers in racemes; perianth bell shaped, white, 6-lobed, stamens
6, inserted on the base of the perianth; ovary 3-celled, 4-6 ovules in each cell;
Fig. 165. Lily-of-the- Valley ~ \
(Convallaria mayjalis). A well
known cultivated plant possessing
poisonous properties similar to Fig. 166. False Aloe (Agave
those of Foxglove. U. S. Dept. virginica). A plant of the South-
Agr. ern United States. ‘
SPERMATOPHYTA—LILIACEAE 385
berry roundish, red and few-seeded. The species is native to Europe, Asia,
and the Alleghanies, and is widely cultivated as an ornamental plant. .
Poisonous properties. The plant contains two glucosides; one, convallamarin
C,,H,,O,,, an extremely poisonous crystalline compound with a bitter sweet
taste, with a physiological action on the heart like digitalin, a substance found in
the common foxglove, and convallarin C,,H,,O,,, which is crystalline, has
a sharp taste and is purgative in its action. Chesnut says: “The amegative
and purgative actions of the lily of the valley are quite marked.” The action
of the heart is infrequent and irregular, and finally death occurs from paralysis.
Trillium \,. Birthwort
Herbs, with naked stem from a short, horizontal root stock, netted veined,
simply whorled leaves, in 1 or 2 whorls; colored flowers, 3 green persistent sepals ;
3 colored petals which wither with fruit; stamens 6, hypogynous; linear, adnate
anthers on short filaments; sessile stigmas 3; ovary 3-celled; fruit a berry.
The principal species of the United States are: the wake-robin (T. nivale),
which flowers very early in the spring, is from 2-4 inches high and is common
northward and eastward; the sessile-flowered wake-robin (7. sessile) which
bears sessile dull purple flowers with narrow sepals and petals, and leaves that
are often blotched and occurs from eastern Jowa southward; prairie wake-
robin (7. recurvatum) of the west, which has dull purple petals but differs
from the preceding in having narrow leaves; large white-flowered wake-robin
(T. grandiflorum) which bears a large white flower raised on a peduncle later
recurving from the erect, the flowers becoming purplish, and rounded, ovate,
sessile leaves; and birthwort (7. erectum) much like 7. grandiflorum except
that the flowers are not so large and are unpleasantly scented. Both of the two
last named are found in the eastern and central states.
Poisonous properties. ‘Trilliums have long been considered poisonous. All
species are emetic. Lindley states that the roots have a violent emetic action.
The fruit should be regarded with suspicion.
HAEMODORACEAE. Bloodwort Family
Prerennial herbs with fiborous roots; leaves, narrow, lanceolate and some-
what erect; small perfect flowers which are woolly or scurfy on the outside;
flowers in panicles; perianth 6-parted or 6-lobed adnate to the ovary ;stamens 3,
opposite the 3 inner segments of the perianth; stigmas 3; fruit a 3-vaived
capsule, seeds few or numerous. A small family of 9 genera and 35 species
mostly native to Africa, Australia and tropic America.
Lachnanthes. L. Red-Root
A stout herb with short rootstock; red, fibrous, perernial root; leaves,
equitant and sword shaped, crossed at the base and scattered on the stem;
flowers, numerous, borne in a woolly, cymose panicle; perianth, 6-parted, the
outside segments smaller than the inner; stamens, 3, opposite the 3 inner divi-
sions; pistil with 3-celled ovary few ovules in each cavity; seeds few, flattened
nearly orbicular, fixed by the middle. A species of a single genus native to
southeastern North America and western India. (Gyrotheca).
386 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Lachnanthes tinctoria, (Walt.) Ellis.
A stout, tall herb with numerous yellow flowers, 6-parted perianth and few
seeds.
Distribution. In salty swamps near the coast in southeastern Massachusetts,
Rhode Island and New Jersey to Florida. This plant is commonly called the
pink-root of the Atlantic coast.
Poisonous properties. Prof. Chesnut says that throughout the South,
white hogs are supposed to be particlaraly subject to the poison contained in
this plant. Dr. Halsted says “Throughout the southern states, this plant
abounds and the preponderance of black over white-skinned hogs is claimed to
be due to this paint-root. White hogs with free access to the plant are soon
killed off, while black ones are not.
This is not the only case of the color of animals seeming to have an in-
fluence upon their distribution. Thus, white horses in Prussia, it is claimed,
are injured by eating milkweed, while dark horses are not. In Sicily, there
are black sheep, only, as white ones are killed off by a species of St. John’s
wort (Hypericum).’ While the claim of the immunity of black pigs from the
effects of paint-root seems to be a common belief, further investigation should
be made before this should be assured definitely as a fact.
Family Amaryllidaceae. Amaryllis Family
Mostly_ perennial herbs with bulbs, rootstocks or corms; scapose flowers
regular or nearly so; perianth 6-parted or 6-lobed, the lobes or segments
distinct, united below into a tube, adnate to the ovary; stamens 6; style single;
capsules several, many seeded. About 800 species, chiefly native of tropical or
warm regions, a few in temperate regions. Some well known representatives are
daftodil, (Narcissus Pseudo-Narcissus); Polyanthus, (N. Tazetta); poet’s
Narcissus, (N. poeticus) producing intense gastro-enteritis ; Jonquil, (NV. Jonqutl-
la); snowdrop, (Galanthus nivalis) ; amaryllis, (Amaryllis Belladonna) ; tuber-
rose, (Polianthes tuberosa), the latter widely cultivated; the American aloe
or agave, the most common species in cultivation being the century plant (Agave
americana) native to Mexico and Central America, the Mexican drink, pulque,
being made from the sweet liquid obtained from this plant at the time of flower-
ing. Several species are used for the manufacture of fibre, the best known being
the sisal, (Agave rigida). The mauritius hemp, (Furcraea gigantea),
is native to Mexico and has been introduced into Zanzibar. Many members of
the family haye acrid properties and some of them are poisonous. Buphane
disticha is used by the Hottentots to poison their arrows. Poet’s narcissus
contains pseudo-narcissin; Amaryllis Belladonna contains belladonin; and Spre-
kelia formossissima contains amaryllin, a belladonna-like alkaloid. The Lycoris
species contain lycorin, an alkaloid with the formula C,,H,,N,O,, and a second
alkaloid kisanin, C,,H,,N,O,. Agave heteracantha contains agavesaponin. Dr.
MacDougal states that the sharp pointed leaves of Agave Schottii often pene-
trate leggins and leather shoes inflicting painful injuries.
Zephyranthes. Herb
Smooth herb with coated bulbs; narrow leaves; flowers scapose, large
erect, pink, white or purple;perianth funnel-form from a tubular base; the 6
divided petals are united below into a tube subtended by an entire or 2-cleft
SPERMATOPHYTA—AMARYLLIDACEAE 387
Fig. 167. Saffron (Crocus sativus). The flowers furnish the
saffron of commerce, (Faguet).
bract; ovary 3-celled; style long, filiform, 2-cleft at the summit; ovules numer-
ous; capsules membranceous; seeds flattened, blackish; small genus of 30
species, native to America.
Zephyranthes Atamasco (U.) Herb. Atamasco Lily
Leaves bright green and shiny from an ovoid bulb; scapes erect; bracts 2-
cleft; perianth white, pinkish or light purple; segments shorter than the two
stamens.
Distribution. In moist places from eastern Virginia to Florida and Ala-
bama.
388 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Poisonous properties. Prof. Chesnut, in speaking of this plant, says that the
Atamasco of the southeastern United States is supposed by some persons to
cause the disease in horses known as “staggers.”
Fig. 168. Atamasco’ Lily
(Zephyranthes atamasco). A
plant of the southeastern United
States, supposed to cause “‘stag-
gers’ in horses.
Fig. 169. Blue Flag (ris versicolor). The rootstock
is poisonous. The plant grows in low grounds. (After
Johnson.)
Family IrmAceaAr. Iris Family
Perennial herbs, frequently with bulbs, corms or tubers; leaves equitant,
erect, 2-ranked; perianth of 6 segments or 6-lobed, its tube adnate to the
ovary; stamens 3, adnate to the ovary; anthers: facing outward; ovary infer-
ior, mostly 3-celled; style 1 or 3-cleft, stigmas 3, opposite the three stamens;
ovules generally numerous in each cell; embryo small; endosperm, fleshy, or
horny.
About 1000 species, of wide distribution. Common native plants of the
family are the blue flag (/ris versicolor), growing in low grounds of the North;
SPERMATOPHY TA—IRIDACEAE 389°
the Carolina blue flag (J. carolina) of the South, blue eyed grass (Sisyrinchium
angustifolium). Many species of the exotic blue flags, Iris like the dwarf gar-
den iris (J. pumila) and the common flower-de-luce (J. germanica), the common
crocus or saffron (Crocus vernus) used for coloring, freesia (Freesia refracta),
tritonia and gladiolus are cultivated for ornamental purposes. The orris root
(Iris florentina, I. pallida and I. germanica) is an article of commerce used for
perfume and tooth powders. It contains myristic acid. A substitute for saffron
is obtained from the flowers of the South American saffron (Crocosmia aurea).
Fig. 169a. The petaloid bilobed stigma and
stamen of Iris. (Kerner).
Iris (Tourn) L,
Herbs with creeping or horizontal root stocks, and erect stems with equi-
tant leaves; flowers large, regular, panicled; perianth of 6 segments united below
into a tube, the outer dilated, spreading or reflexed; the 3 inner, smaller; stamens
inserted at the base of the outer perianth; ovary 3-celled; fruit a capsule;
seeds numerous. About 100 species in the North Temperate regions. The
Iris florentina contains the glucoside irigenin C,,H,,O,. This is derived from
irisin.
Iris versicolor, L,.
Root stock fieshy; stem roundish; leaves erect, leaves shorter than the
stem; flowers bluish, perianth deeply 6-parted, the 3 outer divisions reflexed,,.
the 3 inner smaller, erect; stamens distinct, covered by the petaloid stigmas.
Distribution. In marshes, thickets, and wet meadows from Newfoundland
to Manitoba, south to Florida and Arkansas.
Poisonous properties and uses. The root contains the substance irisin,.
or iridin. The acrid resinous substance, irisin, acts powerfully upon the gas-
tro-intestinal tract, liver and pancreas, causing a burning sensation and conges-
tion. That the root is poisonous may be seen from the following statement
made by Dr. Rusby:
Another rhizome whose acrid taste is likely to prevent ingestion in poisonous quantity,
is that of the common Iris versicolor, \L,. Still, because this is commonly known as the
blue flag, there is some danger that it might be eaten in mjstake for calamus, which is
commonly known as sweet-flag. If so, it would prove seriously, if not fatally poisonous.
390 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
as its well-known emetic-cathartic properties, even when toned by drying and keeping, are
powerful, and in a fresh state would be decidedly violent.
Dr. Johnson says:
Iris, in full doses, is an active emeto-cathartic, operating with violence, and producing
considerable prostration. Its effects upon the liver appear to be analogous to those of
podophyllum. In sick headache dependent upon indigestion, small doses, frequently re-
peated, often act most happily. It has been largely used by eclectic practitioners, and is
highly esteemed by them as a hydragogue cathartic, an alterative, sialagogue, vermifuge,
and diuretic.
One case of poisoning has been recorded in this state. Other species of
Iris of which we have quite a number in the U. S. must be looked upon with
suspicion. Mention may be made here of the Jris missouriensis and I. caro-
lina. The root stocks of our cultivated species like J. pumali and J. sibirica
must be looked upon with suspicion. The South African Homeria collina natur-
alized in Australia, according to Maiden, is poisonous to cattle browsing on
the plant.
SCITAMINEAE.
Large herbs with endogenous stems and monocotyledonous seeds; flow-
ers very irregular; ovary inferior, composed of several united carpels; seeds
Fig. 170. Ginger (Zingiber officinale).
a. Entire plant. ob. flower. (Charlotte
M. King, after Strasburger, Schenck, Noll
and Schimper.)
SPERMATOPHYTA—SCITAMINEAE 391
with endosperm. ‘This order contains the important family Musaceae in
which is found the banana (Musa sapientum), well known as an article of com-
merce. It is extensively cultivated in the tropics and one of the most important
food plants in all warm countries. The fruit is eaten fresh when ripe; a kind
of flour is also made from it. M. textilis is an important fiber plant being the
source of Manilla hemp, large quantities of which are imported from the
Philippines. The ravenala or traveler’s palm also belongs to this family. It
has an oily, edible, arillus which is bright blue. The family Cannaceae con-
tains the Indian shot (Canna indica), frequently cultivated for ornamental
purposes in this country; in tropical regions, however, a starch is made from
the rhizome of this species and from C. edulis. C. flaccida is a native of the
southern United States and has a pretty blue flower. The family Maran-
taceae contains the West Indian arrowroot (Maranta arundiacea). The fam-
ily Zingiberaceae includes ginger (Zingiber officinale) which contains gingerol
and is used as a condiment and stimulant. The ginger of commerce is derived
from the fleshy rootstock, the plants grown in Jamaica being considered most
valuable. These are cultivated in regions having an altitude of 2000 feet.
Malabar cardamon (Elettaria Cardamomum) round cardamon (Alpinia striata),
bastard cardamon (Amomum -xanthioides), Bengal cardamon (A. subulatum)
and Java cardamon (A. maximum) also belong to this order. The Kaemp-
feria rotunda of India, is a bulbous or tuberous rooted biennial which accord-
ing to Major Kirkitar, causes profuse salivation and vomiting when administered
internally. The rhizome of K. Galanga furnishes a perfume.
Arrowroot comes from Curcuma leucorhiza, and turmeric from Cur-
cuma longa. The tuber of the latter, when powdered, is used as a yellow dye-
Fig. 172. Banana Fruit (Musa_ sapien-
Fig. 171. Canna (Canna flaccida). A tum). A well known tropical fruit. W.
native American Canna. S. Dudgeon.
392 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
stuff, in making turmeric paper, as a condiment, especially in curry powder,
and as an aromatic stimulant. The zedoary, (C. Zedoraia), is used in Himala-
yan India, where it is native, in place of turmeric. Galangal is the root of
Alpinia officinarum which grows on the Chinese coast. Another species, A.
-Galanga is used on the island of Java.
MICROSPERMAE
Herbs with endogenous stems, flowers very irregular or in a few cases
regular, generally complete and perfect, and parts in 3’s or 6's; ovary inferior
compound; seeds small, numerous, without endosperm.
‘ Family Orcumacear. Orchid Family
Perennial herbs with corms, bulbs or tuberous roots; perfect and irregular
flowers; perianth of 6 divisions in 2 sets, the 3 outer similar in texture
to the 3 inner petals, one of the 3 inner, different in form and is called the lip;
in front of the lip is a column composed of a single stamen, or in Cypripedium
of two stamens, and a rudiment of the third; pollen in 2 or 8 pear shaped
sacs called pollinia which are united by little threads. Stamens variously united
with the thick, fleshy style into a column; ovary 1-celled with many ovules on a three
parietal placentae; capsule 1-celled, 3-valved, seeds numerous. A large order
of about 5000 species of wide distribution, most abundant in the tropics. Many
of the plants like the Cypripedium, Angrecum and the Catasetum are culti-
vated for ornamental purposes.
The salep of commerce is obtained from the Orchis masculata. The
flavoring material, vanilla, is obtained from Vanilla planifolia, native to
Mexico and widely distributed by cultivation; this plant contains from 1% to
3 percent of vanillin C,H,O,. Other species of the genus Vanilla also fur-
nish vanilla but in smaller quantities; these are V..Pompona, V. guianensis,
and V’. palmarum. Vanillin is also made from coniferin and eugenol, and
occurs in other orchids as Spiranthes and such plants as Spiraea Ulmaria
and Lupinus albus. It is used for medicine.
Orchids contain some alkaloids; for example, Phalanopsis amabilis con-
tains a tonic alkaloid, according to Boorsnis, which is closely related to comi-
ferin, C,H,,O,.
Cypripedium I.
Tufted roots; perennial, glandular, pubescent herbs; leaves large, many
nerved; flowers solitary or few; sepals shiny, spreading, 3 distinct or 2
of them united into one, under the lip; petals spreading, resembling the sepals;
lip of large inflated sac, column declined with a fertile stamen on each side;
a sterile petaloid stamen above, which covers the summit of the style; pollen
granular, stigma broad, obscurely 3-lobed, moist and roughish. About 40
species, mostly tropical.
Crypridium parviflorum, Salisb var. pubescens (Willd) Knight. Yellow Lady
Slipper
Perennial, with leafy stem, 2 feet high, pubescent; leaves oval, or ellip-
tical, acute; sepals ovate, lanceolate, usually larger than the lip, yellowish or
greenish; petals narrower, usually twisted; lip flattened laterally, pale yellow
with purple lines.
SPERMATOPHYTA—ORCHIDACEAE 393
Fig. 173. Fig. 174.
Fig. 173. Smaller Yellow Lady Slipper (Cypripedium parviflorum, var pubesceus). A
beautiful flower of early summer, seen in the woods of eastern Iowa. C. M. King.
Fig. 174. Glands of several species of Moccasin flower, which are said to contain the
toxic substances. 1. Hair gland of Cypripedium pubescens. 2. Hair gland of Cypripedium
hirsutum in water. 3. Hair gland of Cypripedium Calceolus in water. (Charlotte M.
King, after Nestler.)
Distribution. In woods and thickets, chiefly east of central lowa, and Min-
nesota to Nova Scotia; occasionally in Colorado, Nebraska and Alabama.
Cypripedium candidum Muhl. Small White Lady Slipper
A slightly pubescent perennial; leaves lance-oblong, acute; petals and
sepals greenish, purple spotted; sepals ovate-lanceolate, lips white striped
with purple inside, flattened laterally, convex above.
Distribution. In bogs and meadows from New York to Minnesota, Iowa,
Nebraska and Missouri.
Cypripedium hirsutum Mill. Showy Lady Slipper
A rather stout, downy perennial 2 feet or more high; leaves ovate pointed;
sepals round ovate, or orbicular, longer than the petals, which are obovate;
lip inflated, white, pink purple stripes.
Distribution. In woods and swamps from Nova Scotia, Ontario and Geor-
gia west to Minnesota and Jowa.
Poisonous Properties. Dr. Babcock, many years ago, found that the sev-
eral species of Lady’s Slipper produced dermatitis. Years ago the writer
heard of a case of poisoning where a young man carried a large bunch of
394 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Fig. 175. Showy Lady _ Slipper
(Cypripedium hirsutum). A plant
thought to cause dermatitis. C. M.
King.
:
’ Fig. 176. Flower of another orchid (Habenaria).
Showy Lady Slipper and became poisoned very much as if it were by poison
Ivy. Prof. Chesnut in referring to the poisoning from these plants says:
The poisonous character of these plants was not suspected prior to 1875, when
Prof. H. H. Babcock, of Chicago, who had annually been suffering, supposedly from
recurrent attacks of ivy (Rhus) poisoning, discovered that the affection was most probably
caused not by the ivy, but by the two species of Lady’s Slipper named above (C. parvi-
florum, var. pubescens and C. hirsutum) instances were afterward reported, but the
facts were not positively ascertained until 1894, when an investigation was made by
Prof. D. T. MacDougal of the University of Minnesota. It was discovered that these
plants are provided with glandular hairs which cover the surface of the stem and leaves
and contain a poisonous oil which is especially abundant at the fruiting season. Its
action on the skin is very similar to that of toxicodendrol, the active constituent of poison
Ivy (Rhus Toxicodendron), but its exact chemical nature could not be ascertained on
account of the small quantity obtainable. Experiments with the stem and leaves upon
individuals showed that over half of them were affected by the first two species, and that
the last was also poisonous, but in a minor degree. No accidental cases have been recorded
against it. No specific antidote has been suggested.
SPERMATOPHYTA—ORCHIDACEAE 395
Dr. MacDougal * made a personal experiment with a mature specimen of
C. hirsutum on which there were newly formed seed pods. This plant was
broken off near the base of the stem and the leaves brushed lightly over the
arm.
A slight tingling sensation was felt at the time, and, fourteen hours later, the arm
was greatly swollen from the shoulder to the finger tips. The portion covered by the
plant — covering an area of 50 sq. cm.—was violently inflamed and covered with
macules, accompanied by the usual symptoms of dermatitis and constitutional disturbances.
By treatment of the most approved kind, the arm was reduced to its normal size in ten
days, but the effects were perceptible a month later.
Nestler discovered that the secretion contained in these hairs was a fatty
acid readily soluble in alcohol and benzol and producing a mildly acid reaction.
He also states that his results with C. pubescens were negative but that with
C. spectabile (C. hirsutum Mill.) he secured positive results, producing a derma-
titis, the action, however, not being so pronounced as that reported by Mac-
Dougal. He also found that, as stated above, the maximum poisonous effect
was during the formation of seed capsules and that the poison was in the
hairs of the plant as is the case in the Primrose. Nestler did not succeed in
producing dermatitis with C. parviflorum, C. acaule, C. macranthwm, C. monta-
num, or Calceolus. As some of these species produce an abundance of
raphides in the stem, it is evident that dermatitis is not caused by these crystals,
but rather by a substance found in the stem. Dr.MacDougal suggests that
the raphides may serve the plant as a protection from animals.
Nestler also asserts that the Cypripedium may contain an additional sub-
stance myelin which Senf has found in Ginkgo seed, and Nestler} himself ob-
served in the fruit of Capsicum annuum. It is not a cardoi.
From the root of Cypripedium a substance is obtained which is sometimes
administered to children as a substitute for opium. It contains a bitter glu-
cosidal principle.
Class, DICOTYLEDONEAE
Stem usually oxogenous with pith, wood and bark (endogenous in a few
plants) ; the woods traversed by medullary rays; leaves usually pinnately or
palmately netted-veined; embryo of the seed with 2 cotyledons or occasionally 1;
parts of the flower usually in 5’s, rarely in 3’s or 6's.
Archichlamydeae
Petals separate and distinct from each other or wanting. Includes many
plants classed as Apetalae and Polypetalae. In some orders, as Legumunosae,
the lower petals are more or less united and joined at the base.
VERTICILLATAE
Contains a single family Casuarinaceae of 20 species, mostly Australian,
with monoecious flowers. The Casuarina equisetifolia of the tropical Old World
furnishes a hard wood known as iron wood and in Egypt the trees are used as
a shelter belt for bananas.
* Minn. Bot. Studies. 1894:32-36. spa
1 Das Sekret der Drusenhaare der gattung Cypripedium mit besonderer Berticksichtgung
seiner hautreizenden Wirkung. Nestler. Ber. der Dent. Bot. Gesell 25:554-567.
396 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Fig. 177. Black Pepper Plant (Piper-nigrum). 1. Part of shoot with young
fruit. 2. Tip of fruit spike. (After Wossidlo.) ;
PIPERALES
Herbs with exogenous stem, with neither petals nor sepals; flowers in
spikes, bracteolate. Largely tropical and includes the family Saururaceae or
Lizard’s tail; the peppers, Piperaceae, including black pepper (Piper nigrum)
a well known condiment of the tropics containing the alkaloid piperin C,,H,,NO,
and a volatile oil C,,H,,, cubebs (P. Cubeba) containing cubebin C,,H,,O,
and the oil of cubebs, kava-kava (P. methysticuwm) native to the Pacific Islands,
containing methysticin C,,H,,O,, which is used to make stimulating drinks,
P. longum of India, P. chaba of India and the Philippines, the Betel Pep-
per (P. Betle) of the Malay Islands, the berries of which are chewed with the
Betel Nut, and the Matico, er the Soldier’s Herb (P. angustifolium) of South
America, the hairy leaves of which are used as a styptic. The South American
Peperomias are well known greenhouse plants. Other species of peppers are
used in medicine. The so-called “caisimon” (P. peltutum), according to Mr.
Combs, is a powerful diuretic. “Matico de Peru” (P. angustifolium) is an acrid,
bitter plant containing a green volatile oil.
SALICALES
Trees or shrubs with simple flowers, imperfect catkins; perianth wanting;
fruit a many-seeded capsule; seeds with a tuft of hair at one end. This series
contains only one family the Salicaceae.
Salicaceae. Willow Family
Dioecious trees or shrubs, alternate stipulate leaves, the stipules often
minute and soon falling; staminate and pistillate flowers borne in catkins, one
to each bract, without calyx or corolla; staminate flowers with 1-numerous
SPERMATOPHYTA—SALICACEAE 397
eon)
ES
SNC
ve
a
ie
Tuy
>
Fig. 178. Peach-leaved Willow (Salix amygdaloides). 1. Flower-
ing branch of staminate tree. 2. Same of pistillate tree. 3. Staminate
flower, with scale, enlarged. 4. Pistillate flower enlarged. 5. Fruiting
branch. 6. Summer branch. 7. Bud and leaf scar. 1, 2, 5, 6, one- _
half ‘natural size. M. M. Cheney.
stamens, subtended by a cup-shaped disk; pistillate Aowers with a 1-celled
ovary, stigmas 2-4, simple or 2-4-cleft; fruit a 1-celled and 2-4 valved pod
bearing numerous seeds provided with long silky hairs. There are only two
genera and about 200 species, found in temperate and Arctic regions. The bark
of some species of the family is used in medicine because of its astringent
properties. The willow contains the glucoside salicin C,,H,,O,. Poplar con-
tains populin C,,H,,O,. The Balm of Gilead (Populus candicans) may cause
blistering, and the European P. balsamifera causes colic.
Myricaceae. Sweet Gale Family
Monoecious or dioecious shrubs with alternate, coriaceous, aromatic leaves;
flowers in short scaly catkins; staminate flowers with 2-16 but usually 48
stamens; ovary with 2-8 scales and 2 linear stigmas; fruit a small 1-celled
398 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Fig. 179. Pistillate and stam-
inate flower of willow. n.
nectar gland. ob. scale.
Fig. 180. Leaves of Cotton-
wood (Populus deltoides). pieeeie se see eae 1. Cannabis.
‘Trees; ‘staminate flowers ‘ racemose... . 2s eve alee tee acres 4. Maclura.
1. Cannabis, Tourn. Hemp
Dioecious herbs with tough fiber to the inner bark; greenish flowers; sepals
5 in the staminate, 1 in the fertile flower; achene, crustaceous.
Cannabis sativa, L.
Stem from 4-8 feet high with broad, divided leaves, the linear-lanceo-
late segments sharply and closely serrate; greenish flowers with narrow stam-
inate panicles and erect pistillate spikes, the sterile with 5 sepals and 5 stamens,
fertile flowered spiked, with 1 sepal; fruit hard ovoid, achene oblong.
Distribution. Native to Europe and Asia and in waste places from New
Brunswick to Tennessee, Kansas and Minnesota.
Fig. 191. Hemp (Cannabis sativa). Staminate and pistillate
flowering branches; fruit; longitudinal section of fruit. (After
Faguet.)
SPERMATOPHYTA—URTICACEAE 4)}
Poisonous Properties. ‘The resinous secretions of this plant possess very
powerful medicinal properties which, however, are said not to be produced
by the plant when grown in temperate climates.
Indian Hemp (Cannabis indica) is probably not essentially different from
the common hemp and has been used in medicine for a long time. According
to Dr. Houghton and Mr. Hamilton the American grown product is equal to
the Indian Hemp.
The use of hemp seems to have spread through India, Persia and Arabia
during the early middle ages. ‘The Hashishin, a sect of the Moravians, killed
a large number of the Crusaders during the 11th and 12th centuries by the
use of hemp as an intoxicant. The drug is largely grown in India and Turke-
stan. The form of hemp commonly reached by commerce is called Bhang
or Hashish and consists of dried leaves and small stalks frequently mixed
with fruits. This is smoked in India with or without tobacco. Ganjah is
obtained from the flowering shoots of the female plant or stalk, a stiff woody
stem several inches long which is pruned to produce flowering branches.
The tops of these are collected then pressed by being trodden by the feet.
From this mass comes the drug known as ganjah. It grows in an altitude of
six thousand feet. The other forms of the plant consumed in India are Bhang
and Charras. Subjee or Bhang is used for smoking. The narcotic ingre-
dient found in majun and charras is undried resin which is obtained by the
natives who, when passing among plants wear rubber aprons to which the
resin adheres, after which the product is scraped together. The principal con-
stitutents of hemp are resin and a volatile oil. The oil or amber colored sub-
stance has an oppressive hemp-like smell, and furnishes a resinous substance,
cannabin which crystalizes in needles and acts like strychnin. Cannabinal, with
intoxicating properties, is obtained from cannabin and is a product from the
glands of Cannabis. Cannabin hybrid (C,,H,,) is a substance with the coniin-
like odor; it is antispasmodic and soporific, and anodyne and a nerve stimulant.
Dr. C. F. Millspaugh referring to the products of plants affording this oil
concluded from experiments made, that this drug causes depression, epilepsy,
vertigo, congestion, followed by cephalalgia, ear-ache, tooth-ache, dryness of
mouth, throat, lips and lids; it produces nausea, vomiting after coffee, pal-
pitation of the heart, weakness of the limbs and dreaminess during sleep.
It produces the same symptoms in animals.
The stem of hemp is used by the Mohammedans who smoke it in combina-
tion with other substances. They also smoke the sun-dried leaves. It is
intoxicating and restful to the smoker and alleviates pain, increases the appe-
tite, causes sleep, and induces cheerfulness. It also produces violent coughing
and nose bleed.
Hemp is most important in China, and other Asiatic countries, for the
manufacture of cordage. The growing of hemp for the same purpose is also
carried on to some extent in Nebraska and Kentucky. The seeds of the
plant furnish food to birds.
2. Urtica (Tourn.) L. Nettle
Herbs with stinging hairs; flowers greenish, monoeciotis or rarely dioe-
cious, clustered; staminate, with 4 stamens; fertile, with 4 sepals in pairs;
fruit an erect, ovate, flattened acheme. A small genus of 30 species.
412 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Urtica gracilis Ait.
A perennial from 2-6 feet high, sparingly bristly; leaves ovate, lanceolate
with slender petioles; long, accuminate, sharply serrate, 3-5-nerved, the slender
petioles sparingly bristly; flowers dioecious or with staminate and _ pistillate
clusters. The stinging hairs of this and other species of the genus contain
formic acid. A common weed in dry or moist ground along fence rows
from Canada to British Columbia, Kansas and North Carolina.
Poisonous properties. The nettle and some other plants produce what is
commonly called “urticaria” or nettle rash. It is an inflammatory disorder
with a burning and itching sensation. It may come out in large or small
patches, remaining for a few minutes or several hours and may disappear
as abruptly. It usually leaves no trace behind. The nettle is supposed to con-
tain an irritant toxic principle, formic acid, but recent studies seem to indi-
cate that the urticaria is probably caused by one of the toxins.
The following species of the genus have urticating properties: Urtica
membranaceae, U. spatulata and U. pilulifera.
Way, Rhy
\Gy i Wy
NO ee wey
189
Fig. 192. Stinging Nettle (Urtica
urens). (From Darlington’s Weeds
and Useful Plants.)
Urtica urens L. Small Stinging Nettle
An annual from 1-2 feet high; stem 4-angled, tough, branching with a
few stinging virulent hairs; leaves elliptical or ovate, serrate or incised, with
scattered stinging hairs; flowers loose or in racemose spikes; sepals 4 petals
4; fruit straight, ovate, flattened achene.
SPERMATOPHYTA—URTICACEAE 413
Distribution. From New Foundland to Florida and also on Pacific Coast.
Poisonous properties. This nettle has been used in medicine but it is
not officinal. Formerly it was used for flagellation of the skin.
Urtica holosericea Nutt
A tall perennial with stinging hairs; leaves thick, oblong, ovate or ovate-
lanceolate; flowers in open panicles.
Urtica dioica L. Stinging Nettle
An erect perennial; leaves and stems beset with stinging hairs; leaves thin,
ovate, long petioled, acute or acuminate at the apex, cordate at the base, sharply
serrate; flowers in large clusters, cymose-paniculate, often dioecious.
Distribution. Native to Europe but largely naturalized in North America
from Atlantic coast to Minnesota and Missouri.
Poisonous properties. Poisonous like the preceding
3. Laportea Gaudichaud. Wood Nettle.
Perennial herbs with stinging hairs; flowers monoecious or dioecious in
loose cymes, the lower mostly sterile; staminate flowers with 5 imbricated sepals;
5 stamens and a rudimentary ovary; pistillate flowers with 4 unequal sepals;
stigma elongate, awl-shaped; achene ovate flat; endosperm scant or obscure.
About 25 species in warm countries.
s a
Yi sy
oe 4
A Ve 4 -~
ye Bp ss. aif —S
xy ay :
Sy
S
Fig. 193. Common Nettle (Urtica dioica).
Sometimes causes urticaria. (From Johnson’s Med.
Bot. of N. A.)
414 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Laportea canadensis Gaudichaud. Wood Nettle.
Perennial stem 2-3 feet high; leaves ovate, pointed thin, long-petioled,
sharply serrate; fertile cymes divergent; achene smooth, as long as the calyx.
Distribution. In rich woods from Nova Scotia to Minnesota and Kansas
and south to Florida.
Poisonous properties. It acts similarly to nettle, the poisonous action being
even more pronounced. JL. crenulata, L. gigas, and L. stimulosa also possess
similar properties.
Maclura Nutt. Osage Orange.
Tree with milky juice; leaves alternate, pinnately veined; stipules cadu-
cous; stout, axillary spines; flowers dioecious, staminate in loose, short racemes
with 4-parted calyx and 4stamens; pistillate, capitate with a 4-cleft calyx
enclosing the sessile ovary and long exserted style; fruit an achene surrounded
by a fleshy calyx; endosperm none; embryo curved; it contains a single species
named Toxylon by Rafinesque.
Maclura pomifera (Raf.) Schneider. Osage Orange
A tree 30-50 feet high; leaves ovate to oblong, lanceolate, pointed, mostly
rounded at the base, green and shining; the syncarpous fruit is globose, yellow- -
ish green 2-4 inches in diameter; the wood is hard and tough and is used in the
manufacture of wagons for paving, fencepost, etc. The tree is extensively
planted as a hedge plant.
Fig. 194. Wood Nettle (Laportea
canadensis). A common wood
plant causing urticaria. Car
King.)
SPERMATOPHY TA—URTICACEAE 415
Distribution. In rich woods from Missouri to Kansas to Texas; widely
cultivated in the north from southern Nebraska to southern Iowa, Illinois and
eastward.
Poisonous properties. This species is listed as poisonous by Professor
Bessey in Nebraska. Dr. Halsted notes that a friend of his while working
in Osage Orange hedges suffered considerably because of inflamation following
the piercing of the thorn. The writer had a similar experience.
Dr. Bessey says: “The Osage Orange (Maclura pomifera) which has been shown
by Dr. Halsted to be more or less harmful as an external poison, is very commonly
grown in the southern portion of the state, and it thus adds another to the plants
to be avoided by some people. Although I am quite sensitive to some of the external
poisons, I have myself never experienced any bad effects from handling the leaves or
fruit of the Osage Orange.”
PROTEALES
The proteales include one family, the Proteaceae, with nearly 1000 species,
native to the tropics, mostly of the southern hemisphere.
SANTALALES
Herbs or shrubs generally parasitic; flowers solitary or clustered without
corolla; calyx present, imperfect or perfect; pistil 1. Of the two families in
the United States, the Loranthaceae contains the Southern mistletoe (Phoran-
dendron) parasitic upon various decidious trees like the oak and elm; the
Arceuthobium of Europe, and the Rocky Mountains; species parasitic upon coni-
fers, one also occuring on spruce trees in eastern North America. Hyams is
authority for the statement that the berries of Phcradendron flavescens are
poisonous to children. Several deaths have been attributed to them. Santala-
ceae contains the fragrant sandalwood (Santalum album) of the Indian-Malayan
region which contains an oil used in medicine for venereal diseases and for
Fig. 195. Wild Ginger (Asa-
rum canadense). Wild ginger is
used in medicine. The roots are
spicy fragrant; some plants re-
lated to it are poisonous. (W.
S. Dudgeon.)
416 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
perfumes. The bastard toadflax (Comandra umbellata) of our northern woods
is parasitic upon the roots of flowering plants. The family Balanophoraceae
consists of chlorophylless parasitic plants with twining or acaulescent stems,
and is native in tropical woods and savannas of Java, India and Australia.
ARISTOLOCHIALES.
Plants with twining or acaulescent stems; leaves cordate or reniform;
flowers perfect; calyx inferior, the tube adnate to the ovary or partly so;
corolla none; ovary generally 6-celled. There are only three families, one of
which occurs in North America. The Aristolochiaceae includes the wild ginger
of the North (Asarum canadense) which is more or less purgative and prob-
ably also to be regarded as suspicious; its rhizome furnishing the substance
asarin and a volatile oil which is used in perfumery; the A. europaeum, listed
by Lehmann as poisonous because of its purgative action and blistering proper-
Tig. 196. Southern Mistletoe (Phora-
dendron flavescens). ‘The berries of this
plant are said to be poisonous. S.
Dudgeon.)
SPERMATOPHY TA—ARISTOLOCHIALES 417
ties; the Dutchman’s pipe (Aristolochia macrophylla) frequently cultivated and
hardly as far north as Minnesota and Wisconsin; the gooseplant (Aristolochia
grandiflora) of Brazil whose flowers emit an offensive odor, but in spite of this
fact the plant is cultivated in greenhouses; Virginia snakeroot (Aristolochia
Serpentaria) the root stock of which is used as a tonic and contains a volatile
oil borneol, a bitter poisonous principle aristolochin C,,H,,N,O,, and the alka-
loid aristolochinin. The European (A. Clematitis) produces colic and other
gastric disturbances and is listed among the pungent narcotic poisons. The sub-
stance asarin when heated is irritating.
K\ZZA.
(apo
RC
Fig. 197. Dutchman’s Pipe (Aristolochia macrophylla). Leaf and
flower. dehiscent fruit. (After A. Faguet.)
Several species of the genus Aristolochia are used as antidotes against
snake-bites and this use is clearly indicated in some of the specific names,
as in Virginia snakeroot (A. Serpentaria). Other plants of the genus are said
to be poisonous, A.grandiflora being an example of this. The Arabs use A.
sempervirens and A. indica as snake poison antidotes. According to R. B.
White, the Guaco (A. mexicana) is a cure for snake-bites. Many other
plants are used for the same _ purpose, several composites being
well-known remedies. Among the latter are Liatris squarrosa, Cacalia tuberosa,
and Prenanthes alba. Other plants having the same qualities belong to the
families Ranunculaceae, Orchidaceae, Violaceae, Polygalaceae, Liliaceae, Um-
belliferae, Filices, and Palmae. One has only to look through such werks .as
_the Robinson and Gray’s Manual, or Britton’s Manual, or various old medical
works for the common names of plants with the word snake attached tothem, to
understand how prevalent was the belief that these plants were antidotes against
the bite of venemous snakes.
POLYGONALES
Herbs, shrubs, or trees, often climbing vines; leaves alternate or occasion-
ally opposite; jointed stems; flowers small, regular, dioecious, monoecious or
polygamous; calyx 2-6 cleft or parted, inferior; stamens 2-9, inserted near the
418 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
_ Big. 198. European Aristolochia (Aristolochia Clem-
atts). Flowering stem. Listed as a narcotic poison.
(After Faguet.)
base; pistil | with superior ovary; fruit an achene; endosperm mealy. Con-
tains a single family (Polygonaceae).
PoOLYGONACEAE. Buckwheat Family
Herbs, shrubs, or trees, often climbing; jointed stems; stipules in the form
of sheaths; juice often acrid or acid; leaves alternate or occasionally opposite ;
flowers small, regular, mostly perfect; calyx more or less persistent; ovary
i-celled, bearing 2-3 styles or stigmas and a single erect ovule; fruit an
achene, 3-4-angled or winged, invested by the calyx; embryo curved or nearly
straight; endosperm mealy, copious. About 800 species. Of economic import-
ance are the pie plant (theum Rhaponticum); and rhubarb (R. officinale) of
Thibet, the root of which contains cathartic acid and is a powerful cathartic;
it also contains chrysophan C,,H,,O,,, emodin C,,1,0,(0H) g rhein
C,,H,O,(O0H), and chrysophanic acid C,,H,O,(O11),. It is purgative and
astringent. ‘The canaigre (Rumex hymenosepalus) produces a thick root valu-
able for tanning leather. It is a native of the southwest. The tannin is the same
SPERMATOPHYTA—POLYGONACEAE 419
as that found in rhubarb, and rheotannic acid. The patience dock R. Patien-
tia), pale dock (R. altissimus) and curled dock (R. crispus) are troublesome
weeds; French sorrel (R. scutatus) is cultivated in Europe and used as a salad.
The presence of the silver plant of the west (Eriogonum umbellaium) is said
to be indicative of gold and silver. Muehlenbeckia platyclados of the Samoan
Islands is frequently cultivated in greenhouses. The mountain sorrel (Oxyria
digyna) is used as a salad plant.
Genera of Polygonaceae
Bepais Os slipsias FFT). Noho ree eee Se OS eT ee Bae 2 Rumex.
Sepals 5, occasionally 4, erect in part.
Achenes triangular or lenticular.
Embryo slender curved around one side of the endosperm 3 Polygonum.
Broad cotyledons of embryo twisted and plaited......... 1 Fagopyrum.
1. Fagopyrum (Tourn.) L. Buckwheat
Annual or perennial; somewhat fleshy, smooth, leafy herbs with erect
stems; leaves petioled and alternate; hastate or deltoid flowers, small, white,
or greenish, paniculately-racemose, perfect; calyx 5-parted, persistent, the divi-
sions like petals; stamen 8; ovary l-celled, 1 ovule, style with 3 divisions;
fruit an achene, 3-angled; endosperm mealy; cotyledons broad. About 6 species
native to the old world.
Fagopyrum esculentum Moench. Buckwheat
Smoothish plants; leaves hastate, abruptly narrowed above the middle;
sheath half-cylindrical; racemes somewhat panicled, many flowered; sepals
white, fragrant, with 8 honey-bearing yellow glands situated between the stamens.
Distribution. A common escape in eastern North America. Native of
Eastern Europe and Western Asia.
Fagopyrum tataricum (L.) Gaertn. India-wheat
Annual, similar to the above species; leaves deltoid, hastate ;flowers smaller;
pedicel short.
Distribution. In waste places from eastern Canada to New England. Na-
tive to Asia.
Poisonous properties. Fagopyrum contains the glucoside indican C,,H,,NO,,
found also in Nerium and other plants. The plant produces bloat especially
if consumed before bloom.
Several years ago the writer received a complaint from a farmer stating
that the feeding of buckwheat had produced a rash upon his hogs. Feeding of
buckwheat and the eruptions or urticaria following are well known to veter-
inarians.
Dr. Millspaugh says of buckwheat:
Many individuals cannot partake of pancakes mace from the flour of the seeds without
experiencing a severe itching especially observed about the large joints. A peculiarity of
this itching is that it occurs after the removing of the clothing and .when first retiring
at night. The eruption incident to and following this itching takes the form of vesicles
which degenerate into dry, dark colored scabs. Another symptom arising is a glutinous
condition of otherwise natural feces, making expulsion qu‘te difficult, Increased urinary
discharge is also present in many cases.
420 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
2. Rumex. I,. Dock
Coarse herbs, with small, mostly green flowers, which are crowded on gener-
ally whorled, panicled racemes; petioles partly sheathing at base; 6 sepals; 3
outer herbaceous, sometimes united at base, spreading n fruit; 3 inner larger,
slightly colored, enlarged after flowering and convergent on 3-angled achene,
veined, often bearing a grain-like tubercle on the back; stamens 6; styles 3;
stigmas tufted; embryo lying along one side of the albumen, slender, and
slightly curved.
It has been claimed by some that the seeds of P. Acetosella poison horses
- and sheep.
Rumex altissimus Wood. Pale Dock.
A tall perennial from 2-6 feet high, glabrous with erect stem, simple or
branched above; leaves ovate or oblong; lanceolate, long, acute. pale green,
veins obscure; racemes spike-like or somewhat interrupted below, spreading
A B
: Fig. 199. ‘Two weeds of the smartweed family. A. Sourdock (Rumex crispus). B.
Sheep sorrel (Rumex Acetosella). Both have been suspected. ‘They contain a great deal
of oxalate of lime. (U. S. Dept. of Agr.)
4
Pennsylvania Smartweed or Persicaria (Polygonum pennsylvanicum). Common in the
North. Smut found on this. plant is very irritating. (Ia. Geol. Sur., p. 421).
SPERMATOPHYTA—POLYGONACEAE 42]
in fruit; pedicels nodding, shorter than the fruting calyx; valves broadly ovate
with a conspicuous ovoid tubercle. ial
Distribution. Common throughout the northern part of the Unitec States.
Rumex crispus L. Curled Dock
A smooth perennial from 3-4 feet high; leaves with strongly wavy and
curled margins, lanceolate and acute; in the lower leaves bases are somewhat
truncate or inclined to be ear-shaped; flowers collected in dense whorls, extended
or prolonged into racemes, entirely leafless above, but below with small leaves;
flower consists of 6 sepals, fruiting pedicels as long as the calyx wings; wings
heart-shaped, erose dentate, each showing a tubercle; achene 3-angled, smooth.
Poisonous properties. ‘The docks contain rumicin CeO which is a
tasteless, golden-yellow substance, slightly soluble in hot water. It acts as a
rubefacient and discutient and is used for destroying parasites of the skin.
Rumex has found a place in Pharmacopoea and is also used in medical
practise. It causes nausea, watery brown faeces, copious urination, a dry spas-
modic cough, and perspiration. The Rumex orbiculatus, Great Water Dock,
according to Dr. Johnson, is tonic, astringent, and slightly laxative.
Medical properties. It is used as a stimulant and diuretic.
3. Polygonum L. Smartweed
Annual or perennial herbs, occasionally woody; stem erect, climbing or
floating; leaves alternate, entire, ochreae cylindrical, often fringed; flewers
mostly perfect, green white, pink, or purple; calyx 4-5 parted or cleft; st»mens
5-9, filaments filiform or dilated to the base; style 2 or 3 parted o1 cleft;
achene lenticular or 3-angled, rarely 4-angled; endosperm present. Ab-ut 200
species of wide distribution. The P. tinctorium of China furnishes the Chinese
indigo. The Saghalen knotweed (P. sachalinense) was widely advertised as
a forage plant a few years ago and is used in Japan and Manchuria as we use
asparagus. The prince’s feather (P. orientale) is cultivated for ornamental
purposes. The tanweed (P. Muhlenbergii), smartweed (P. Persicaria), knot-
grass (P. aviculare) and black bindweed (P. Convolvulus) are troublesome
The Pennsylvania persicaria (P. pennsylvanicum) is a valuable honey plant and
its seed is a common impurity in clover.
Polygonum Persicaria L. Lady’s Thumb
A nearly smooth and glabrous annual from 12-18 inches high; leaves lanceo-
late or linear, marked with a lunar blotch near the middle, acuminate ochreae
somewhat bristly; ciliate spikes ovoid or oblong, erect; stamens mostly 6;
style 2-3 parted; achene lenticular.
Distribution. Across the continent in moist places; naturalized from Eur-
ope.
Poisonous properties. None of the species is relished by stock; the P.
acre and P. Hydropiper are very acrid and produce gastro-enteritis and ery-
thema, like that caused by buckwheat. The following species produce simi-
lar troubles.
Polygonum acre H.B.K.. Water Smartweed
A nearly smooth perennial; stems rooting at the decumbent base; leaves
linear-lanceolate; ochreae strigose, fringed with long bristles; spikes erect,
422 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
panicled; flowers whitish or flesh colored; stamen 8; achenes 3-angled or 4-
angled, smooth and shining.
Distribution. Common southward from Missouri to Louisiana, Texas and
Mexico.
>
No
yy, a
4 = V9)
< .
bay
,
Fig. 200. Ladies’ Thumb (Polygonum Persicaria).
Common in moitt places. (Charlotte M. King.)
Polygonum hydropiperoides Michx. Wild Water Pepper
A smooth, branching perennial, slightly or not at all acrid; 1-3 feet high;
the narrow sheaths hairy, leaves narrowly lanceolate or oblong-lanceolate;
spikes erect, slender, sometimes filiform; flowers small, flesh colored, or nearly
white; stamens 8, style 3-parted to below the middle; achene 3-angled, ovoid
or oblong, smooth and shining.
Distribution. In swamps or wet soils across the continent from New
Brunswick to California, Florida and Mexico.
Polygonum Hydropiper Ll. Smartweed. Water Pepper
Smooth, erect annual, 1-2 feet high; stem often reddish; leaves linear-
lanceolate, or lanceolate; spikes, nodding, usually short or interrupted; flowers
SPERMATOPHYTA—POLYGONACEAE 423
179
Fig. 201. Water Pepper (Polygonum Hydro-
piper). Troublesome to sheep. (After MHoch-
stein.)
mostly greenish; stamens 4 or sometimes 6; ochreae cylindrical, fringed with
short bristles; style short, 2-3 parted; achene lenticular or 3-angled, dull,
granular.
Poisonous properties. ‘This species and the door yard knot weed (P. avi-
culare) are said to be troublesome to sheep
CENTROSPERMAE.
Herbs mostly with perfect flowers; calyx present; corolla, when present,
polypetalous; ovary superior; perisperm present; embryo coiled, curled or an-
nular; fruit not an achene. Generally fleshy plants, many found in saline soils.
It includes the families Chenopodiaceae, Amaranthaceae, Nyctaginaceae, Phy-
tolaccaceae, Caryophyllaceae, Portulacaceae and others. The last named contains
the garden pussley (Portulaca oleracea), the moss pink ( P. grandiflora), and
the bitter root (Lewisia rediviva). The family Aizoaceae also of this order,
contains the New Zealand spinach (Tetragonia expansa), and the ice plant
424 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
(Mesembryanthemum crystallinum). The family Basellaceae another of this
same order contains the Madeira vine (Boussingaultia baselloides) commonly
cultivated. The seeds of some species are edible.
Families of Centrospermae
Fruit an utricle.
Flowers bractless or occasionally with bracts.
sepals. green ‘or ereetiish: < yc wee ae uee cs ee eels elie Chenopodiaceae.
Flowers bracted.
Sepals generally with scarious bracts.................4 Amaranthaceae
Pineie Heshiy, la\ DENY. c/s seins eng cates Bete iate any tema cimsera heen ee oe Phytolaccaceae.
Fruit indurated into a nut-like pericarp, base of calyx constricted. . Nyctaginaceae.
Fruit a capsule, dehiscent by teeth or valves.
Sepals 5 or 4: distinctlor wmited. 20.2). eho i ee es Caryophyllaceae.
CHENOPODIACEAE. Goosefoot Family
Annuals or perennials, frequently succulent herbs, or rarely shrubs; alter-
nate leaves without stipules; flowers small; greenish; petals absent; calyx free,
stamens as many as the lobes of the calyx or fewer and inserted opposite them
on their base; ovary 1-celled; fruit a 1-seeded, thin utricle or rarely an achene;
endosperm mealy or wanting; embryo coiled.
About 500 species of wide distribution, common’ in arid regions. Some of
the economic plants of this family are sugar beet (Beta vulgaris), a maritime
plant of Europe, and spinach (Spinacia oleracea) from the orient. The beet
is one of the most important plants of the family, being largely cultivated in
Europe as a source of cane sugar although as late as 1800, its use in that capac-
ity was of little extent. It is also an important plant for stock food and for
human food. Spinach is used extensively for greens but, in Utah, is somewhat
of a weed. The Australian saltbushes are well known forage plants. Indigo
is derived from A. hortensis, a native of Tartary. The strawberry blite (Chen-
opodium capitatum) is cultivated in Europe for its leaves. The shrubby salt-
wort (Suaeda fruiticosa) is burned in the south of Europe for Barilla. The
Russian thistle (Salsola Kali. var. tenuifolia) is used in much the same way.
The Spanish wormseed (S. Webbii) contains an oil much like that found in
Chenopodium ambrosioides. The tumble-weed (Cycloloma atriplicifolium) is
common on the plains. The white sage (Eurotia ceratoides) is an excellent
forage plant of the west.
Poisonous properties. ‘The use of the beet leaves for fodder has some-
times caused bloat. It has been known for some time that the feeding of roots
to animals causes the formation of renal calculi. These calculi consist of a com-
bination of uric and phosphoric acid with lime. An experiment conducted by
Prof. W. J. Kennedy and Mr. E. J. Robbins at the Iowa Experiment Station
in codperation with Prof. L. G. Michael indicated that sugar beets fed to rams
will produce renal calculi. Prof. Michael says* in regard to the effect of man-
gels and sugar beets on the kidney:
Both roots seem to affect the kidney similarly.
A small calculus was found in one kidney of Ram VI. This ram was fed sugar
beets. The membrane about the calculus and extending down into the urethra was
pigmented, a decided black.
* Biennial Rept. Iowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts 23:142.
SPERMATOPHYTA—CHENOPODIACEAE 42
vu.
Fig. 202. Salt Bush (Atriplex canescens). A
common plant of saline soil in the west. (U. S.
Dept. of Agrl.)
In the kidney of Ram III the same kind of pigmentation occurred as in Ram VI.
Ram III was fed Mangels. No calculus was present.
Miss S. Hartzell, who investigated the chemistry, reports as follows:
A post mortem examination of several valuable animals which the Experiment Station
lost showed that renal calculi were present. This resulted in the metabolism experiment
which was conducted by the Animal Husbandry Section in co-operation with the Chemical
Section of the Experiment Station.
Thus far 42 rams have been used in the experiment, of which 11 were fed hay and
corn; 9 were fed hay, corn and ensilage; 11 were fed hay, corn and mangels; 11 were
fed hay, corn and sugar beets. In the case of those which were fed hay and corn, and
also of those which were fed hay, corn and ensilage, the bladders and kidneys were normal
while the results were the reverse in the case of those which were fed sugar beets or
mangels along with the hay and corn. The sugar beets and mangels had the same effect.
The kidneys were larger than normal, the gall bladders were distended, the bladders were
enlarged, often very much so, and in several cases the heart was enlarged. The kidneys
in all cases were of a pale color. Three animals died during the experiment. ‘The bladder
of one was highly inflamed while in the other two the bladders contained calculi which
were too large to pass thru the urethra. The kidneys of two of the animals were broken
426 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
down while the third was much enlarged, and calculi were present. In one of the animals
which was slaughtered the following conditions existed: bladder enlarged; ulcerated between
ureters; kidney surface mottled; kidneys enlarged; cortex discolored; calyces full of
calculi; gall bladder much enlarged; other organs normal.
According to Greshoff the leaf of Kochia scoparia contains saponin, as do
the seeds of this species and of K. arenaria. A species of Atriplex native to
China causes a skin disease known as “atriplicimus.”
Genera of Chenopodiaceae
Pe Spiny SHOUD {505 .ds soe eta cae a | eee Cab eeeee sensor, SAPCORAERE
FJeshy herbs.
Embryo coiled into a spiral; calyx horizontally winged.......... 3. Salsola.
5
325
Fig. 203. Common Pigweed (Chenopodium album). Young shoots some-
times used in place of spinach. (Charlotte M. King.)
SPERMATOPHY TA—CHENOPODIACEAE 427
Seed with utricle; embryo coiled; calyx not horizontally winged..........
edie sistord law alata erat aternady stan aete Mattern bret tiahd canis Siar dis Bele 1. Chenopodium.
Chenopodium 1, Pigweed. Goosefoot. Lamb’s quarter
Annual or perennial herbs usually covered with a white mealy substance;
flowers inconspicuous, in sessile, small clusters, collected in spikes or panicles,
perfect; calyx 5-, rarely 4-parted or lobed; stamens generally 5; styles 2, rarely
3; ovary l-celled, becoming a 1-seeded, thin utricle; embryo coiled around the
mealy endosperm.
A small genus of about 60 species of wide distribution in saline soil, around
dwellings and in manured soil. Several species like the common pigweed (C.
album), the Australian spinach (C. auricomum), and the English Good King
Henry (C. Bonus-Henricus), are used as a substitute for spinach. The quinoa
(C. Quinoa) is an annual, native to Peru, which produces its flowers in dense,
erect panicles. It is cultivated in Chili and Peru for its seeds, which are said
to be very strengthening. It was the principal meal food of the Peruvians be-
Fig. 204. Good King-Henry (Chenopodium
Bonus-Henricus). Used as a substitute for
spinach. (From The American Agriculturist.)
428 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
fore the conquest by Spain. An oil is obtained from the wormseed (C. am-
brosioides). Several species of the genus like Chenopodium album and C. hy-
bridum are weedy.
Chenopodium Botrys . Jerusalem Oak
A more or less glandular, pubescent, aromatic annual; leaves with slender
petioles, oblong, obtuse, sinuate, pinnatifid, flowers in leafless racemes; calyx
2-3 parted, dry in fruit, only partially enclosed.
Distribution. Naturalized from tropical America. Common in eastern North
America to Oregon.
Chenopodium ambrosioides I. Mexican Tea. Wormseed
A smooth annual; leaves slightly petioled, aromatic, oblong, lanceolate,
toothed or nearly entire; flowers in spikes, leafy or intermixed with leaves;
calyx 2-3 parted; fruit dry, enclosed by the calyx.
Distribution. Naturalized from tropical America. Common in eastern North
America to California. The fruit is officinal in the U. S. Pharmocopoeia.
Chenopodium ambrosioides \, var. anthelminticum (\.) Gray. Wormseed
An annual or perennial weed, glandular pubescent; leaves lanceolate, or
ovate-lanceolate, acuminate at the apex and narrowed at the base, the lower
176
Fig. 205. Wormseed (Chenopodium am-
brosioides). Fruit officinal. (From Darling-
ton’s Weeds and Useful Plants.)
SPERMATOPHY TA—CHENOPODIACEAE 429
laciniate pinnatifid; flowers in spikes without bracts, or the lower spikes leafy
bracted.
Distribltion. Naturalized from Europe in waste places, from Massachusetts
to Ontario and from Wisconsin to Mexico.
Poisonous properties. Several species of the genus contain volatile oils.
The C. ambrosioides, var. contains the volatile oil of wormseed. ‘This oil has
a peculiar, strong, offensive odor and a pungent disagreeable, but aromatic
taste. It is said to contain chenopodin, C,H,,NO,. In the case of a man
who took about one half an ounce of a soluble oil of wormseed, Dr. Mills-
paugh says that the symptoms were those from a narcotic, acrid poison, af-
fecting the brain, spinal cord and stomach. The patient was insensible, con-
vulsed and foamed at the mouth. In another case a man who had taken a con-
siderable quantity displayed hilarity and made futile attempts at talking like a
drunken man. Death followed later. C. mexicanum contains saponin.
2. Sarcobatus Nees. Grease-wood
An erect, branched shrub with spiny branches; leaves alternate; linear,
fleshy ; flowers dioecious or monoecious; the staminate in terminal clusters with-
out a calyx; the pistillate solitary in the axils with compressed calyx, adnate to
the base of the papillose stigmas; in fruit a membranous horizontal wing; seed
vertical; embryo green, coiled into a flat spiral. Species 1.
Fig. 206. Grease wood (Sarcobatus Max-
imiliana). A plant growing in alkaline soils
in the Western United States. Poisonous to
sheep. The sharp spines cause mechanical
injury. (U. S. Dept. Agrl.)
430 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Sarcobatus Maximiliani Nees, Torr. Grease-wood
A glabrous perennial with succulent foliage and spiny branches. Wood
hard.
Distribution. In dry, alkaline soil from western Nebraska to New Mexico,
Nevada, and Montana; most abundant west of the front Rockies.
Poisonous properties. Prof. Chesnut says:
A correspondent in New Mexico states that on one occasion he counted as many as
one hundred sheep that had been killed by eating the leaves of this plant. It is claimed
that cows are not affected by eating it at any time and that sheep can eat it quite freely
in winter. Death is perhaps due more to the bloating effect than to any poisonous sub-
stance which the plant contains.
It might be noted also in this connection that the sharp spines on the plant
often inflict serious injuries to persons who come in contact with it and also to
animals, setting up inflammation and causing the formation of pus. It is used
as a forage plant.
3. Salsola L. Saltwort
Bushy branched herbs, succulent when young, but rigid at maturity; leaves
terete, prickly-pointed and sessile; flowers sessile and axillary; calyx 5-parted,
persistent, enclosing the depressed fruit, the divisions horizontal, winged on the
back, enclosing the utricle; stamens 5; ovary depressed; style 2; embryo coiled
in a conical spiral. About 40 species of wide distribution, saline soils.
Salsola Kali \., var. tenuifolia G. 'T. W. Meyer. Russian Thistle
An herbaceous, smooth or slightly pubescent annual, diffusely branched
from the base; from 1% to 3 feet high, spherical in the mature form; leaves
fleshy, alternate, succulent, linear, subterete, 1-2 inches long, pointed in the
older specimens; upper leaves in the mature plant persistent, each subtending
2 leaf-like bracts and a flower; stem and branches red; apetalous flowers soli-
tary and sessile; calyx consisting of 5 persistent lobes, enclosing the dry fruit
which is usually rose colored, about 1-12 of an inch long; 5 stamens, nearly as
long as the calyx; pistils simple with 2 slender styles producing a single ob-
conical depressed seed, dull gray or green, without albumen; embryo spirally
coiled. The plant flowers in July or August.
Distribution. Common from Minnesota to Kansas, west across the con-
tinent, Illinois and Kansas to New Jersey.
Injurious properties. ‘The Russian thistle not only clogs the harvesters
and harrow, injures horses legs so that boots have to be put on them but is
equally disagreeable to come in contact with, to man. On this point, Prof.
Dewey Says:
The sharp spines on the plants not only irritate and worry both horses and men,
but often, by breaking under the skin, cause festering sores on the horses’ legs, so that
in many localities it has been found necessary to protect them with high boots or
leggings. In handling grain or flax, in the processes of hauling and threshing, the sharp
spines cause considerable irritation and consequent loss of time.
AMARANTHACEAE. Amaranth Family
Herbs, or in some cases, shrubs; leaves simple, mostly entire; flowers small,
green or white with bractlets, usually in terminal spikes or heads; petals none;
calyx herbaceous or membranous, 2-5 parted; segments distinct or united;
SPERMATOPHYTA—AMARANTHACEAE 431
Fig. 207. Russian Thistle (Salsola Kali, var. tenuifolia). Causes
mechanical injuries to man and stock. (Charlotte M. King.)
stamens 1-5, mostly opposite the calyx-segments; ovary 1-celled; ovules solitary;
fruit an utricle; circumscissile, irregular or indehiscent; seed generally smooth;
endosperm usually copious and mealy. About 425 species in tropical countries
mostly. Several like Celosia cristata are cultivated for ornamental purposes and
several are weedy. Among the latter are the tumble-weed (Amaranthus graeci-
sans), pig-weed (A. retroflexus), and prostrate pig-weed (A. blitoides). The
leaves of several species are used as food.
Amaranthus (Tourn.) L. Pig-weed. ‘Tumble-weed
Annual, branching or erect herbs, smooth or pubescent leaves, simple; small
flowers, monoecious, dioecious, or polygamous, green or purplish, generally with
3 bractlets; in spikes or axillary clusters; sepals 3-5, distinct; stamens 2-5;
styles 2-3; fruit oblong, utricle. About 50 species of wide distribution, mostly
of southern states.
432 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Amaranthus retroflexus L. Pig-weed. Red Root
Roughish, slightly pubescent, annual with stout stems 2-4 feet high; leaves
ovate or rhombic ovate; upper lanceolate, acute or acuminate at apex; flowers
in dense spikes; bractlets about twice as long as the 5 scarious mucronate-tipped
sepals ; stamens 5; seed black.
Distribution. Naturalized from tropical America; found throughout the
United States, especially on waste ground far northward. Also naturalized in
Europe.
Amaranthus hybridus l. Slender Pig-weed
Similar to the preceding but with darker green or purple foliage; stem
more slender, erect; leaves ovate or rhombic ovate, smaller than the preceding;
Fi
bloat.
208. Prostrate Pigweed (Amaranthus blitoides). A common weed. May cause
Charlotte M. King.)
g.
(
spikes linear-cylindrical, forming dense terminal panicles; bfacts subulate, twice
as long as the acute or cuspidate sepals; stamens 5; utricle but slightly wrinkled.
Distribution. Species naturalized from tropical America but rare or local
in places; common southward.
Amaranthus spinosus . Spiny Amaranth
Stout, branched stem, leaves ovate, rhombic-ovate or lanceolate, acute at
both ends with a pair of rigid stipular spines; sepals mucronate-tipped 1-nerved;
utricle scarcely circumscissile.
Distribution. In waste or cultivated ground as far north as Massachusetts,
Illinois and common in Missouri and Southward. Naturalized from tropical
America.
Poisonous properties. The spiny amaranth sometimes produces mechanical
injuries. Mr. O’Gara calls attention to the injurious properties of the first
species in Nebraska. He says that it doubtless causes a great deal of trouble in
some parts of that state. Mr. C. C. Palmer near North Platte lost 5 head of
cattle in his pasture. In all cases they were very much bloated and a post-
mortem examination revealed a good deal of pig-weed in the stomachs. The
animals in question had been accustomed to prairie grass pasture and broke into
a field containing considerable of this pig-weed, some Russian Thistle and
SPERMATOPHYTA—AMARANTHACEAE 433
Fig. 210. Spiny Araranth (Amar-
Fig. 209. Pigweed (Amaranthus retroflexus). anthus spinosus). Sometimes produces
A cause of bloat in cattle. (From Darlington’s mechanical injuries. (From Darlington’s
Weeds and Useful Planfs.) Weeds and Useful Plants.)
lamb’s quarter. After the death of the animals the fence was replaced and no
further trouble was noticed. An experiment with animals carried on by Mr.
O’Gara proved negative. Many families in the vicinity of North Platte regard
the weed as a bad bloater, by some considered as serious as green clover and
alfalfa.
PHYTOLACCACEAE. Pokeweed Family
Generally herbs, a few tropical species, trees or shrubs; leaves alternate,
entire, without stipules; flowers regular, perfect, polygamous or monoecious ;
calyx petal-like, of 4 or 5 sepals, or 4-5-parted; stamens 5-30 alternate with the
segments of the calyx or with the sepals, of the same number or more numerous ;
ovary several-celled; ovules solitary.
434 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
A small family of about 85 species, mostly tropical. The juice of the berries
of the Umbra tree (Phytolacca dioica) of South America, now naturalized in
Europe and other warm countries, is used to color wines. Other plants of the
family, like bloodberry are frequently cultivated. The latter produces small
spikes of white flowers, followed by red berries. Strong drastic substances
occur in P. littoralis and Anisomeria drastica, natives of Chili. P. abyssinica,
Villamilla peruviana and our native pokeberry contain saponin and red color-
ing matter.
Phytolacca (Tourn.) L. Pokeweed
Tall, stout, perennial herbs with large petioled leaves; flowers borne in
racemes; calyx of 5 petal-like sepals; stamens 5-30, ovary of 5-12 carpels united
to form a ring, 5-12 celled, with a single seed in each cell; embryo around the
endosperm.
Phytolacca decandra l. Pokeweed, Garget
A tall, glabrous, perennial herb, 6-9 feet tall, with strong odor; large poison-
ous root; leaves oblong-lanceolate, acute, or acuminate; flowers perfect; calyx
white; stamens 10, shorter than the sepals; ovary green, 10-celled; berry dark
purple, filled with crimson juice.
Poisonous properties. The young shoots of this plant may be boiled and
eaten, the acrid property being dissipated in boiling. The leaves are eaten by
the natives of the island of Guam. A tincture of the plant is used for rheu-
matism. ‘The root is alterative, emetic, cathartic, and narcotic. Prof. Ches-
nut, in speaking of its poisonous nature, says:
Fig. 211. Pokeweed (Phytolacca decandra). _The
root of the plant is very poisonous. (C. M. King.)
Most instances of poisoning arise from an overdose when the plant has been used as
a medicine, but there are also accidental cases due to eating of the root, which has been
variously mistaken for that of the parsnip, artichoke and horseradish. A few fatal cases
of poisonoing of children have been attributed to the fruit, but whether death was really
due to the seed or the pulp is soméwhat uncertain. The evidence is chiefly against the
SPERMATOPHY TA—PHY TOLACCACEAE 435
seed, for it is known to contain a poisonous substance. Pokeweed is a violent but slow-
acting emetic, vomiting beginning only after about two hours. It also effects the nerves
and muscles, producing retching, spasms, severe purging and sometimes convulsions. Death
is frequently due to the paralysis of the respiratory organs.
Dr. Guttenberg makes a similar report in regard to effects of poisoning by
pokeweed, adding that death often is a result.
The roots of pokeweed are often mistaken for other fleshy roots, such as
horse-radish. ‘The leaves, as has been said, are harmless when boiled, somewhai
resembling spinach, but the root is very poisonous. The poke root was used
by the Indians in medecine. Dr. Millspaugh, who values the plant not only as
an emetic, but also as an efficient remedy, says:
In certain forms of rheumatism, the root with lard was found to be an excellent
ointment as a cure for many forms of skin diseases; psoriasis, eczema, capitis, and tinea
circinata, also in syphilitic ulcers.
Dr. Millspaugh says:
The fresh root, gathered late in autumn or early in spring, is chopped and pounded
to a pulp and weighed. ‘Two parts by weight of alcohol are taken, and after thoroughly
mixing the pulp with one-sixth part of it, the rest of the alcohol is added. After having
stirred the whole, pour it into a well-stoppered bottle, and let it stand eight days in a
dark, cool place. The tincture is then separated by decanting, straining, and filtering.
Thus prepared it has a light straw-color by transmitted light, at first a stinging, soon
followed by a decided bitter taste, and a very slight acid reaction.
He adds:
I noted in my readings several years ago that the berries had been used for pies by
frugal housewives, and often since have half determined to try poke-berry pastry; dis-
cretion has, however, always overruled valor, and the much-thought-of pie is still unmade
and uneaten. The young shoots, however, make an excellent substitute for asparagus,
and I much prefer them, if gathered early and discriminately.
The acrid alkaloid phytolaccin, according to Dr. Edmond Preston, occurs
in the root of this plant; also phytolaccic acid and an amorphous yellowish
brown, transparent substance, very soluble in water and alcohol. Nagi reports
a toxic substance phytolaccotoxin C,,H,,O,. The berries have been used for
coloring, but this is not entirely successful, because no mordant will fix the
color. The juice of the berry is a delicate test for acids when lime water is
added to it.
Dr. Johnson says:
All parts of the plant possess acrid and somewhat narcotic properties. The juice
of the fresh plant, or a strong decoction of the root, applied locally, may strongly irritate
the skin, especially if tender or abraded. ‘Taken internally it causes nausea, vomiting,
and purging, and, in overdoses, acro-narcotic poisoning. It has been employed with more
or less satisfactory results in a great variety of cutaneous affections, and in rheumatism,
especially when chronic or of a syphilitic origin. There is little doubt that, in view
of the uncertainty which at present exists regarding it, this plant would well repay
further careful experimentation.
Nagi reports that phytolaccotoxin resembles picrotoxin and cicutoxin. A
glucoside has also been found in common poke; saponin also occurs.
CARYOPHYLLACEAE. Pink Family
Herbs with opposite entire leaves, frequently swollen at the nodes; flowers
perfect or rarely dioecious; sepals 4 or 5, persistent separate or united with the
calyx tube; petals of equal number; styles 2-5, or rarely united into 1; ovary
usually 1-celled, occasionally 3-5-celled; ovules attached to a central column;
seeds several or many; small coiled or curved embryo, with a mealy albumen.
A large family of about 70 genera and 1500 species, widely distributed,
most abundant in the northern hemisphere. Many of the plants of this family
436 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Fig. 211a.
Fig. 21la. Flowers of Soapwort or Bouncing Betty (Saponaria officinalis), Calyx, Corolla,
Stamens and Pistil. (C. M. King).
are cultivated for ornamental purposes. Of these we may mention the hardy
pink (Dianthus barbatus) and carnation (D. Caryophyllus). The spurrey (Sper-
gula arvensis) is occasionally cultivated as a forage plant in Europe and some-
times in this country, but is a weed of grain fields in Europe. A few species
like Saponaria officinalis and the catchfly are medicinal. A red dye is obtained
from a species of Coccus found on Scleranthus perennis. The leaves of Parony-
chia argentea are used as a substitute for tea. The stitchwort (Alsine crass-
ifolia) of Europe and some parts of the United States is poisonous to horses.
The European sandwort (Arenaria serpyllifolia) common eastward in sandy
waste places is said to cause salivation in horses. Several species of the family
like Saponaria officinalis, Gypsophila Struthium of Spain, Agrostemma, Lychnis,
and Hermaria contain saponin.
Genera of Caryophyllaceae
Sepals united into a tube or cup.
Calyx ovoid or sub-cylindrical, 5 angled; not prominently nerved. .5. Saponaria.
Calyx 5-toothed, prominently nerved.
SHEVIES” Sek ihe chatet a ains Be ae a 8 TRL ee Vee Rn ec ke 2. Silene.
Styles 5 or 4, alternate with petals....02....6..5.0 0.08 3. Lychnis.
Styles 5 or 4, opposite petals, silky plants.......... 4. Agrostemma.
DbylES12 hg 5 asl i Te eee hls RPE LEE sv ere Ok SLI > ee 1. Gypsophila.
Sepals GiStiMel 16s. aia He siaatdiapiecaueia ce Mite hel loner ase cteear ao aM MOR ee 6. Stellaria.
1. Gypsophila L. Gypsophyl
Glabrous and glaucous herbs; leaves narrow; flowers small, in paniculate,
axillary clusters; calyx cylindrical, 5-toothed, 5-nerved without bractlets; petals
5 claws, narrow; stamens 10; styles 2. About 50 species native to Europe; 2
species introduced to North America.
Gypsopliila paniculata I, Tall Gypsophyl
A glabrous or pubescent perennial, from a simple fusiform root; leaves
lanceolate, narrowed at the base; flowers in panicled cymes; calyx campanulate;
SPERMATOPHY TA—CARYOPHYLLACEAE 437
segments with scarious margins; petals white or pink, slightly emarginate, larger
than the calyx.
Distribution. Native to Europe and Asia. From Manitoba to Nebraska.
Poisonous properties. Used in medicine as a detergent. An allied G. Stru-
thium contains Sapotoxin and the glucoside saponin. It is an acrid poison.
2. Silene L. Catchfly
Herbs with pink or white flowers, solitary or borne in cymes; calyx more
or less inflated and five-toothed; petals 5, narrow and clawed; stamens 10;
styles 3, rarely 4 or 5; ovary 1-celled or incompletely 2- to 4-celled; pod 1-celled,
dehiscent by 6, apical teeth; seeds roughened.
About 250 species of wide distribution. Several like sweet William (S.
Armeria) are cultivated for ornamental purposes. The starry campion (S. stel-
lata) of our prairies and thickets might well be cultivated more than it is.
Silene latifolia (Mill.) Britten & Rendle. Bladder Campion
A branched perennial, a foot or more high, with opposite glaucus ovate
lanceolate leaves; flowers in loose cymose panicles; calyx bladdery, inflated;
petals 2-cleft, white; seed roughened.
Bigy 2s: Night flowering
Catchfly (Silene noctiflora).
(After Fitch.)
Fig. 212. Deptford Pink (Di-
anthus Armeria). Frequently
cultivated for ornamental pur-
pose. (Charlotte M. King.)
Fig. 214.
eantirrhina).
(Charlotte
438 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Distribution. Native to Europe. Common in fields and along roadsides
from New England to Illinois and Iowa.
Silene antirrhina L. Sleepy Catchfly
A puberulent annual with glutinous nodes and slender stem; lower leaves
spatulate or oblanceolate, petioled; upper leaves linear to subulate; flowers small
in cymose panicles; calyx not inflated, but expanded by the opening pod, ovoid;
petals pink, obcordate, minutely crowned, seeds small, roughened.
Distribution. Common in sandy fields, gravelly soils, and in waste places
from New England and Florida to Mexico, north to aoe Columbia, and east
to Ontario.
Silene noctiflora L. Night-flowering Catchfly
A viscid hairy annual, from 1-3 feet high; lower leaves obovate or oblance-
olate; the upper sessile and lanceolate; flowers few, in a loose panicle, white or
,
(\/)
()
‘i
|
A
WW)
Sleepy Catchfly (Silene e ; i ‘ ;
A weed of sandy fields. Fig. 215. Night-flowering Catchfly (Silene noctiflora).
M. King.) poisonous. (Charlotte M. King.)
Possibl
SPERMATOPHY TA—CARYOPHYLLACEAE, 439
pinkish, fragrant, opening at night, calyx tube elongated and enlarged by the
ripening pod; petals 2-cleft and crowned; seeds small blackish, roughened, kidney
shaped.
Distribution. Native to Europe. Common in waste places from New Bruns-
wick to Florida, Kansas and Iowa to Manitoba.
Poisonous properties. According to Stebler and Schroéter, the leaves of
Silene latifolia are eaten by stock and it is regarded as of some value for for-
age purposes; but Prof. Schaffner, in his “Poisonous and Other Injurious Plants
of Ohio,” suggests that the sleepy catchfly may be poisonous.
3. Lychnis (Tourn.) L. Campion
Erect herbs, with ovoid tubular oblong or inflated calyx 5-toothed, 10-nerved,
occasionally with leaf-like lobes; petals 5, or rarely 4; styles 5, rarely 4, alternate
with the often appendaged petals; seeds numerous, globular or kidney-shaped
pod opening by as many, or twice as many valves. A small genus of about 40
species native to the cooler regious. Several species cultivated for ornamental
purposes. The scarlet lychnis (L. chalcedonica) is frequently cultivated in old
gardens.
Lychnis Flos-cuculi L. Ragged robin
A downy, branching, pubescent annual, or viscid above, from 2-3 feet high;
leaves lanceolate or linear lanceolate; flowers in loose panicles, red, bluish, or
whitish; calyx glabrous, short, petals cleft into 4 lobes; capsule globose.
Poisonous properties. It contains a form of saponin called lychnidin.
Lychnis dioica L. Evening Lychnis
Biennial, usually dioecious, viscid, pubescent; leaves ovate-oblong or ovate-
lanceolate; flowers few, loosely paniculate, white or pinkish, opening at evening;
calyx tubular, becoming swollen with the ripening fruit; styles 5.
Distribution. Native to Europe, common in eastern and middle states. In
the West it is not uncommon in clover fields, where it is introduced with clover
seed.
4. Agrostemma Linn. Corn Cockle
* Calyx ovoid, 10-ribbed; teeth elongated, longer than petals; stamens 10;
styles 5, opposite unappendaged petals; leaves linear. Tall annual or biennial
plant. ]
Agrostemma Githago . Corn Cockle
A hairy annual weed; leaves linear-lanceolate, acute or long-acuminate ;
flowers perfect, long-peduncled, calyx lobes long, linear, surpassing the purple
red petals, capsules 1-celled; large with numerous large seeds which are rough-
ened and black.
Distribution. This plant is widely distributed from Nova Scotia to Quebec,
south from New England to the southern states, and westward and northward,
generally in wheat growing regions. Difficulty in screening wheat by ordinary
methods has caused this weed to be generally scattered in wheat growing regions.
These screenings are much used in feeding stock in some places. The farmer
often sows cockle with his wheat.
440 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Fig. 216. Meadow Lychnis
(Lychnis Flos-cuculi). Con-
tains saponin. (After Fitch.)
Fig. 217. Corn cockle (Agrostemma Gith-
ago). a, sprays showing flowers and seed
capsule, one-third natural size; b, seed, nat-
ural size; b’, seed, four times natural size.
(U. S. Dept. Agr.)
Poisonous properties. According to Kruskal, the seeds contain githagin
2(C,,H,.0,,). The ripe dried seeds are broken into a coarse powder and used
in medicine. Dr. Millspaugh gives the proportions as follows: “Five parts by
weight of alcohol are poured upon the powder, and the whole allowed to stand
eight days in a well stoppered bottle in a dark cool place, shaking thoroughly
twice a day.” The tincture is somewhat acrid. The seeds of the cockle are
frequently used to adulterate cheaper grades of flour in Europe. Dr. Millspaugh
gives a case in which death followed where two 14% oz. lots of wheat flour
containing respectively 30% and 45% of these seeds were fed to two calves.
This amount of cockle caused severe cramps of the stomach within an hour,
followed by diarrhoea and finally death. Where ducks and geese ate the seeds,
death followed when sufficient was taken, and the post-mortem showed inflamma-
tion of the bowels. Prof. Pierce states that this is especially true when the
seeds are crushed. A large amount of screenings are sold for chicken feed,
and frequently complaints are made of poison, or at least that chickens will not
eat the screenings.
In describing symptoms indicative of poisoning by corn cockle, which, Dr.
Allen says, place the seeds among the cerebro-spinal irritants, he agrees es-
sentially with Dr. Chesnut.
Se eee
SPERMATOPHYTA—CARYOPHYLLACEAE 441
Dr. Chesnut says:
The poisonous constituent, saponin, is a non-crystalline powder, very freely soluble
in water, and possessing a sharp, burning taste. It has no odor, but when inhaled in the
smallest quantity it produces violent sneezing. When briskly shaken with water it froths
like soap. The poison is found in nearly all parts of the plant, but mainly in the kernel
of the seed. Cases of poisoning have been noted among all sorts of poultry and household
animals, but are rarely due to any portion of the plant as found growing in the field.
The poisoning is generally produced by a poor grade of flour made from wheat containing
cockle seeds. Machinery is used to remove these seeds from the wheat, but the difficulty
of separating them is so great that the result is not entirely accomplished. The quantity
remaining determines the grade of flour in this particular regard. It sometimes amounts
to 30 or 40 per cent, but this quality is sent out only by ignorant or unscrupulous dealers
or is intended for consumption by animals only. Flour containing a smaller amount has
often been made into bread and eaten, sometimes with fatal results, the baking not always
being sufficient to decompose the poison. The effect may be acute, or, if a small quantity
of the meal is eaten regularly, it may be chronic. In the latter case it is sometimes
known as a disease under the name of “githagism.’”’ The general symptoms of acute
poisoning are the following: Intense irritation of the whole digestive tract, vomiting,
headache, nausea, diarrhoea, hot skin, difficult locomotion, and depressed breathing. Coma
is sometimes present, and may be followed by death. Chronic poisoning has not been
closely studied in man, but experiments upon animals show chronic diarrhoea and gradual
depression, the animal losing vigor in breathing and in muscular movements until death
ensues. The action is antagonized by the use of digitalin, or of the simple extract of
digitalis (Digitalis purpurea) a dangerous poison, which should be given only by a physician.
The more prominent symptoms as recorded by Friedberger and Fréhner
are, briefly, colic, vomiting, slavering, paralysis, stupor, hyperaemia of brain
and spinal cord. .
Dr. Chesnut also adds:
Corn cockle meal is easily detected in second and third class flour by the presence
of the black, roughened scales of the seed coat. ‘These are sure to occur if the flour has
not been well bolted. Its presence is otherwise detected by the peculiar odor produced
when the meal is moistened and by chemical tests with iodine. Wheat containing corn cockle
seeds should be rejected for planting.
It has been asserted in Europe that corn cockle is injurious in flour and
bread stuffs. Dr. Chesnut says:
A person eating 1200 grains of bread made from flour containing only one-half per
cent of corn cockle seed would consume six grains of cockle seed, an amount which the
author believes beyond a doubt to be poisonous in its effects.
The poison in corn cockle is sapotoxin C,,H,,0,, and is partially decom-
posed while baking, but nevertheless some of it remains and the use of flour
which contains corn cockle should be forbidden. It has long been suspected of
being poisonous. Mr. John Smith in his Domestic Botany, says:
It being difficult to separate the seeds from the grain, the value of the latter is
deteriorated, and the flour is rendered unwholesome.
5. Saponaria Linn. Soapwort
Calyx ovoid to sub-cylindrical, 5-toothed, obscurely nerved, terete or 5-
angled, smooth; stamens 10; styles 2; pod 1-celled, or sometimes 2-4-valved, and
4-toothed to apex. Coarse annual or perennial with mucilaginous juice, hence
common name of soapwort because of the property of forming a lather with
water.
Saponaria officinalis L. Bouncing Bet
Perennial herbs with large flowers in cymose clusters; calyx narrowly ovoid
or oblong, five toothed; petals clawed or unappendaged, stamens 10, styles 2,
pod 1-celled or incompletely 2 to 4-celled and 4-toothed at the apex. About
442 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
40 species in Europe, Asia, and Northern Africa. Saponaria officinalis is fre-
quently cultivated in old gardens. The mucilaginous juice forms a lather with
water and is valuable for taking grease spots out of wollen cloth.
Saponaria Vaccaria lL. Cow herb
A glabrous annual from 1-2 feet high with opposite ovate lanceolate leaves ;
flowers in corymbed cymes; calyx 5-angled, enlarged and angled in fruit; petals
pale red. Cow herb is another important constituent of “cockle” in wheat
screenings, and like the preceding weed has been largely spread by means of
wheat culture.
Distribution. Common in Europe; found in wheat fields of the east and as
far west as Missouri, Kansas, the Rocky Mountain region, and Pacific Coast,
and wheat regions of the northwest.
According to Sohn, it contains the substance saponin, C. Ge a neutral
sharp, amorphous substance, having a burning taste and producing a violent
sensation. ‘The toxic substance is partially removed by baking.
Fig. 218. Bouncing Betty
(Saponaria officinalis). A
branch with flowers. The
double flowered form is some-
times cultivated for orna-
mental purposes. (Charlotte
M. King.)
6. Stellaria L. Chickweed
Tufted herbs with white flowers in cymose clusters; sepals 4-5, deeply 2-
cleft, sometimes none; stamens free, 10 or fewer; styles 3, rarely 4 or 5; capsule
ovoid 1-celled, several to many seeded.
Stellaria media (1,.) Cyrill. Common Chickweed
A nearly smooth annual or winter annual, decumbent or ascending; leaves
ovate or oval, the lower on hairy petioles; flowers white in terminal leafy
cymes or solitary in the axils; sepals oblong, longer than the 2-parted petals;
stamens 2-10.
——
443
SPERMATOPHY TA—CARYOPHYLLACEAE
plant is common in
seed of this
(U. S. Dept. Agrl.)
Eee one
ous,
ia Vaccaria
e€ poison
supposed to be p
nd
Fig. 219. Cow-herb (Saponar
ings and is
wheat screeni
444 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Distribution. A weed in waste places, lawns and fields, very troublesome in
lawns. Naturalized from Europe. Extends from New England and Canada
across the continent.
Poisonous properties. The seeds of common chickweed are used as food
for cage-birds and are also readily eaten by chickens, but, according to Mr. Wm.
Carruthers, they cause disorder to the digestive system when eaten by lambs in
large quantities.
i
f 4
’
al
pay
®
Ve, i
Zo ZA
Fig. 220. Chickweed (Stellaria media). Seeds said to be
injurious. (Charlotte M. King.)
RANALES
Herbs, shrubs or trees; calyx usually of separate sepals; corolla usually
present and of separate petals; ovary or ovaries superior, free from the calyx;
carpels 1-many; stamens mostly hypogynous and more numerous than the sepals.
Contains the families Nymphacaceae, Ceratophyllaceae, Ranunculaceae, Berber-
idaceae, Menispermaceae, Magnoliaceae, Calycanthaceae, Anonaceae, Myristica-
ceae, and Lauraceae. ‘The Nymphaeaceae are aquatic perennial herbs. The
rhizome of water chinquapin (Nelumbo lutea) of the Mississippi Valley and
introduced into Massachusetts by the. Indians, was used for food. The sacred
bean or lily (N. nucifera) cultivated for ornamental purposes produces an edible
seed and rhizome rich in starch. The pods of wokas (Nymphaea polysepala) are
'
j
7
4
i
SPERMATOPHY TA—RANALES 445
used as food by the Indians in the northwest. The blue flowered Nymphaea
stellata of tropical Africa and the Egyptian lotus (N. Lotus) are frequently
cultivated, as are the Victoria regia of the Amazon region and Euryale ferox of
eastern Asia. The water lilies (Castalia odorata and C. tuberosa) are pretty
water plants of North America. The family Ceratophyllaceae contains the
water-weed (Ceratophyllum demersum) of North America, troublesome also in
Europe. The family Myristicaceae contains the nutmeg (Myristica fragrans)
of which mace is the aril; the oil contains myristicin. Prof. Cushny in an ad-
dress before the Royal Society of Medicine in London, referring to Nutmeg
poisoning, says that the symptoms are drowsiness, stupor, and diplopia (‘seeing
double’). Delirium is frequently present, and sometimes the first symptom is
burning pain in the stomach, with anxiety or giddiness. The symptoms generally
resemble those resulting from Cannabis indica (hashish). One fatal case oc-
Fig, 221. Yellow Water Lily (Nymphaea poly-
sepala). (W. S. Dudgeon.)
curred in a boy who had eaten two nutmegs. From experimental work Prof.
Cushny has come to the conclusion that the symptoms are to be attributed to
the action of the oil of nutmeg on the central nervous system. This is de-
pressed; but there are some signs of stimulation in the form of restlessness,
slight convulsive movements, and tremor. The oil has also a marked local ir-
ritant action, whether given by the mouth or hypodermically. Several other
species like M. succedanea and M. fatua, are used by the natives where these
plants are indigenous.
Families of Ranales
Stamens numerous sepals distinct, petals absent or present.
Receptacle hollow enclosing the numerous pistils and achenes; leaves
SPOS, foo eS ire eR A Ae UR ree geen eA SUL 5 Calycanthaceae
446 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Receptacle not hollow; flowers generally perfect.
Fruits cohering over each other, cone-like.............. Magnoliaceae
Fruits not cohering over each other, separate.
Anthers not opening by uplifted valves, pistils usually more than 1.
Sepals 3; petals 6; shrubs or trees........0...000 Anonaceae
Sepals 3-15; petals when present about as many.. Ranunculaceae
Anthers opening by uplifted valves except Podophyllum; pistil
| RAR PR AGA Os IL An Seb Tt de ty | Berberidaceae
Dioecious climbing vines; simple leaves........ Menispermaceae
Stamens 9-12 in several series; anthers opening by uplifted valves; petals ab-
Jc A Re OR ee AE OMe Resce M ERED a Ale eC eS Lauraceae
RANUNCULACEAE. Crowfoot Family
Herbs or a few woody plants with acrid juice; flowers polypetalous or apetal-
ous, regular or irregular; calyx free, often colored like the corolla; sepals
3-15; petals 3-15 or absent,stamens numerous; pistils few or numerous, distinct;
fruit a dry pod, berries or achene seed-like; embryo minute, albumen present.
A rather large, widely distributed family of plants many of which like
aconite, larkspur, and marsh marigold, are poisonous. Many, such as virgin’s
bower (Clematis virginiana), C. Jackmanni and other species, are cultivated
for ornamental purposes; the C. Jackmanni being especially desirable. The
columbines, like the European columbine (Aquilegia vulgaris), the Rocky Moun-
tain columbine (A. caerulea), and our eastern columbine A. canadensis), the
paeonies (Paeonia officinalis and P. Moutan), and the larkspurs (Delphinium)
are also cultivated for ornamental purposes, the most familiar of the latter
being the garden annual, Delphinium Consolida. Several perennial species of
Delphinium are also very showy. The seeds of stavesacre (D. Staphisagria),
native to southern Europe and the Levant, contain an alkaloid delphinin
C,,H,,NO, which is a powerful and acrid poison.
Nigella is said to contain an alkaloid, nigellin; N. damascena contains the
alkaloid damascenin C,H,,NO,. In 1872, a German chemist found an alkaloid
in Isopyrum thalictroides, the so-called isopyrin C,,H,,NO,. Thalictrum ma-
crocarpum contains the alkaloid thalictrin. Aquilegia is said to be free from
alkaloids.
Glucosides have also been found in some of the members of this family, .
as adonidin C,,H,,O, in Adonis amurensis.
The European Adonis aestivalis and A. vernalis are recorded as poisonous
by Lehmann. ‘The black cohosh (Cimicifuga racemosa) is also somewhat acrid.
Many of the plants of the family contain anemonin C,,t1,O, and some are
used for medicinal purposes.
Among these are aconite (Aconitum Napellus), crocus, Pasque flower, pul-
satilla Anemone patens var. Wolfgangiana (Bess) Koch. and yellow puccoon
(Hydrastis canadensis). ‘The black roots of black hellebore (/elleborus niger)
are used in medicine, as a purgative, being poisonous in overdoses. The tuber-
ous roots of one of the crowfoots (Ranunculus Ficaria) resemble grains of wheat
and are sometimes boiled and eaten but they have a sharp acrid taste and are
known to produce blisters. ‘The water crowfoot (R. aquatilis var. capillaceus)
is apparently harmless and is used as forage in England and on the Continent.
SPERMATOPHY TA—RANUNCULACEAE 447
Fig. 222. European Columbine (Aquilegia vulgaris). Flowering
Bench: flower; longitudinal section of fiower; pistil and stamens. (After
aguet.)
According to Greshoff Clematis Fremonti; C. integrifolia; C. lanuginosa;
C. orientalis; C. pseudo-flammula contain HCN. He also states that saponin
is of widespread occurrence in this genus and that he found it in the leaves of
€, Pitcheri, and C. recta and in the leaves of Trollius pumilus, and T. chinensis.
Genera of Ranunculaceae
Flowers regular.
Sepals 3-20 apetalous.
MET ETOCS) FettleCds 23: Va tecrath ithe Yar kiove tablets cavialats: tatiana el aer ae a ele ap alare Sareea 5 Clematis
Achenestnot: tailed) 'gcoe ioaita adele cies oetalen ata nredacaelercisia es davene 4 Anemone
Print ay follicles, sepalotyellowaytwie sass aouldwes ve seeene 1 Caltha
Blawers solitary }sepals' Svs Grays iyo eee vk ares 9 Hydrastis
Petals and sepals present.
Petaise5, yellow’ ore white! 54 195 Sao 0 ye aes Shen 6 Ranunculus
Petalsusmall)” tubular) 2Z-lippedesss waacacssdes cco semeae 2 Helleborus
Petalstsmallstamen=lkeseis shel e soe iaheiet ee nekiatre ates 8 Actaea
448 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Flowers irregular. os
Lipper sepalspurred }petats 4:25, ¢%. cu ckiteees eer bene cee 7 Delphini 1m
Upper sepal hooded.......... ga ails Sse orb le @PEDS RR te rea to 3 Aconitur
1. Caltha L. Marsh Marigold
pink; sepals large, 5-9, petal-like; petals none; stamens numerous; pistils 5-10;
styles nearly wanting; pods follicles, spreading, many seeded; marsh plants of.
temperate and colder regions. About 8 species; 3 species native to Eastern No th
America, and 1 species common in the Rocky Mountains at high altitudes.
Fig. 223. Black Hellebore (Helle- *,
borus niger). Entire plant. The roots
contain a purgative substance that is 4
poisonous in over-doses,. (From Vesque’: BA ¢
Traité de Botanique.) ‘
Caltha palustris l,. Marsh Marigold
A stout, glabrous perennial with a hollow stem from 1-2 feet high; the
basal leaves on long petioles, leaves reniform; upper leaves shorter, petioled
and sessile; flowers with yellow sepals.
Occurs in swamps and meadows.
Poisonous properties. ‘The marsh marigold or cowslip is regarded as poison-
ous in Europe. In this country, however, it is frequently used as a pot herb.
The flower buds are sometimes pickled. Coville says:
By many it is considered superior to any other plant used in this way. There is
no doubt that boiling dissipates the active principles found in the plant.
Stebler and Schréter say that it is poisonous in a green state, and Rusby
states that when fed with hay it produces diarrhoea and stoppage of the
flow of milk. According to Lloyd, it contains a small quantity of an acrid
substance identical with the acrid oil of Ranunculus. Cattle and sheep refuse
SPERMATOPHY TA—RANUNCULACEAE 449
to eat the plant. Marsh marigold is known to contain an alkaloid which is said to
be identical with nicotin but it has not been isolated.
Dr. Millspaugh in speaking of the uses of this plant, states that it is exten-
sively gathered in early spring and cooked for greens, making one of our most
excellent pot-herbs. Rafinesque asserts that cattle browsing upon it die in con-
sequence of an inflammation of the stomach produced by it. According to Freid-
berger and Frohner it causes haematuria.
2. Helleborus ,. Hellebore
Erect perennial herbs, with large, palmately divided leaves; flowers large,
white, greenish or yellowish; sepals 5, petal-like; petals small, tubular; stamens
numerous; carpels generally few; fruit several-seeded follicles. A small genus
of about 10 species, natives of Europe and Western Asia.
Helleborus viridis I, Green Hellebore
Basal leaves smooth, consisting of 7-11 oblong, acute, sharply-serrate seg-
ments; flowers large.
Distribution. In waste places from Long Island to Penn. and W. Va.
Poisonous properties. Black Hellebore is.said to be a drastic purgative
when used for domestic animals. The plant contains the glucosides, helieborin
_ C,H,,O, which is a highly narcotic, powerful poison, helleborein C,,H,,O,,
which is slightly acid and heleboretin C,,H,,O,.
; The symptoms from poisoning are: Stupor followed by death with spasms.
H. foetidus is also poisonous.
a 3. Aconitum L. Aconite
By Perennial herbs with palmately lobed or divided leaves; flowers large,
irregular, showy, paniculate or racemose; sepals 5, irregular, petal-like, the
upper helmet-shaped or hooded, prolonged into a spur; petals 2, small, con-
cealed under helmet, spurred, 3 lower absent or very minute; pistils 3-5 forming
follicles, several seeded.
About 60 species. Native of the North Temperate regions. One species,
the A. Napellus, used in medicine, is the source of aconite. One western species
is poisonous to live stock.
None of the species of this genus is weedy in Eastern North America.
The three species, A. noveboracense Gray, A. uncinaium L. and A. reclinatum
Gray, occur in Eastern North America but are very local. None of these seems
to be very poisonous, but the roots of A. uncinatum are bitter, even in a dry
state. The exotic A. Lycoctonum and A. Fischeri are employed to kill wild
animals.
Aconite is derived from the European Aconitum Napellus which produces
not only poisonous stem and leaves, but also a very poisonous tuberous root
which is from 2-4 inches long and sometimes an inch thick. The Indian aconite
is obtained from Aconitum ferox, a plant growing from 3-6 feet high and bear-
ing large dull-blue flowers; it is found in the Alpine regions of the Himalayas,
and is used as an arrow poison. Among other equally poisonous species
mentioned by Fliickiger and Hanbury, is A. wncinatum growing in Eastern
North America. ‘They also state that the root of another species of Aconitum,
A. heterophyllum, with large ffowers of dull yellow, and purple, or blue, is poison-
450 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
ous. This root contains the chemical substance atisin C,,H,,NO,, an intensely
bitter alkaloid. The European aconite contains aconitin C,,H NO,,, pseudo
aconitin C,,H,,NO,,, and aconin H,,C,,NO,,. The North American species
A, septentrionale contains, according to Rosendal, the following alkaloids:
lappakonitin, C,,H,,.N,O,, a crystallized form; septentrionalin C,,H,,N,O,, and
synaktonin C,,H..N,O,,.
Blyth who has collected records of poisoning in Europe by aconite states
that there have been two cases of murder, seven suicidal, seventy-seven more or
less accidental; six were from the action of the alkaloid, ten from the root,
and in two cases, children ate the flower, in one case, the leaves of the plant
were cooked and eaten by mistake, in seven cases, the tincture was mistaken
for brandy, sherry or liquor, in the remainder of the cases the tincture, the lini-
ment or the extract was used. The Indian species are much used, especially A.
ferox, which is applied to poison stock and arrows, the latter to destroy the wild
animals. It is a common practice to mix a decoction of the root with water or
food.
Dunstan and Anderson * summarize the alkaloids obtained from Aconitum
as follows:—‘“The first, a toxic group, of which the type is ordinary aconitin,
contains alkaloids which are diacyl esters of a series of poly-hydric bases con-
taining four methoxyl groups, the aconines.”
“The members of this group are :—
Aconitin from Aconitum napellus.
Japaconitin from Aconitum deinorrhysum,
Bikhaconilin from Aconitum spicatus.
Indaconitin from Aconitum chasmanthum.,”
These are all highly poisonous.
The second group is the atisin group which contains atisin from A. hetero-
phyllum and palmatin from A. palmatum, These are non-poisonous alkaloids.
Aconitum columbianum Nutt. Western Aconite
An erect, stout perennial, 3-6 feet high, more or less pubescent above, with
short, spreading or viscid hairs; divisions of the leaves broadly cuneate and
toothed, lobed; flowers purple or white, in a loose terminal raceme; hood vari-
able in breadth and length of beak.
Distribution. Grows at an altitude of 5000-10,000 feet in low grounds,
near brooks and springs, from Montana, Wyoming and Colorado to the Sierras.
Poisonous properties. The chief effect of aconite results from’ its in-
fluence over the heart and blood vessels. It decreases the force and frequency
of the cardiac pulsations. After long continued use, aconite affects the nervous
system causing the loss of sensation; bodily temperature is also reduced after
medicinal uses of the drug. Dr. Winslow, in his Veterinary Materia Medica
and Therapeutics, speaking of its toxicology says:
The minimum fatal dose of aconite is about 3i. for the horse; gr. xx. for medium sized
dogs; and gr. v.-vi. for cats. The smallest fatal dose recorded in man is a teaspoonful of
tincture of aconite, equivalent to about gr. xxx. of the crude drug. The minimum lethal
quantity of aconitin is gr. 1/10 for man, and about the same for cats. For dogs it is from
gr. % to gr. %. The writer has found that cats will live from fifteen minutes to half an
hour after receiving the smaller deadly doses under the skin, but large doses produce death
immediately by paralyzing the heart. Large therapeutic doses cause, in horses, restlessness,
pawing the ground, shaking of the head, champing of the jaws, increased secretion of sali-
vary mucus, and attempts at swallowing, probably owing to the peculiar sense of irritation
*Trans. Jour. Chem. Soc, 1905: 1650. See Blyth Poisons: ‘Their Effects and Detection,
SPERMATOPHYTA—RANUNCULACEAE 451
Fig. 224. Aconite (Aconitum Napellus).
The source of the aconite of commerce.
Stem, leaves and root are poisonous.
(After Faguet.)
452 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
ZR
TESS
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=
of 2D
a
ey
Fig. 226. Western aconite
(Aconitum uncinatum). A poison-
ous plant in Eastern North Amer-
ica, from Pennsylvania to Iowa.
Fig. 225. Aconite (Aconitum columbian- 9s) Ea
um). a, flowering plant; b, seed capsule —
both one-third natural size. A poisonous plant
of the Western U. S. (U. S. Dept. Agr.)
produced by the drug in the throat. Nausea and retching are observed in all animals, while
vomiting occurs in dogs and cats. The pulse and respiration are weakened and generally
retarded. After lethal doses these symptoms are intensified. We observe violent retching,
frequent and difficult attacks of swallowing, ejection of frothy mucus from the mouth, in
horses copious sweating; pulse first weak and infrequent, later rapid, running and almost
imperceptible; respiration slow, interrupted, and shallow, and reduction of temperature.
Death is preceded by muscular twitchings, in the horse, and loss of strength so that the
subject falls and is unable to rise; or in the case of cats and rabbits, the animals jump
vertically into the air, topple over backwards and go into convulsions, lying helpless on their
side. The labial muscles are retracted and the lips drawn back, showing the teeth covered
with foam. The face is anxious, the eyeballs are retracted or protruded, and the pupils
more commonly dilated. Death takes place usually from asphyxia, occasionally from syn-
cope. The post mortem appearances are simply those resulting from asphyxia.
The western aconite is bitter and retains its bitterness even on drying.
It also benumbs, according to Lloyd, just as does the European aconite. The
Lloyds quote Prof. Power in asserting that it contains some alkaloids, one
probably aconitin, and several other poisonous principles. According to Dr.
SPERMATOPHYTA—RANUNCULACEAE 453
Bartholow of Jefferson Medical College, it is a paralyzer of mobility, but does
not impair the contractility of muscles or the irritability of the motor nerves.
Death is caused by paralysis of respiration, the heart continuing its action some
time after respiration has ceased. The Aconitum Napellus, affects the heart
in opposite ways. Prof. Chesnut says in regard to the poison of this plant:
All of the parts of the west American aconite are poisonous, but the seeds and roots
are the most dangerous. The active principle is not well known, but chemical and phys:
iological experiments point to the existence of one or more alkaloids which resemble
aconitin. The effect of the poison is characteristic. There is first a tingling sensation on
the end of the tongue which gives rise shortly to a burning sensation, and is rapidly
followed by a very pronounced sense of constriction in the throat. The choking thus pro-
duced is made the more alarming by the retarding effect which the poison has upon the res-
piration. The tingling and prickling over the entire body is also characteristic. Besides
these symptoms, there are generally severe headache, abdominal pains, confused vision,
vomiting, and diarrhoea. Delirium is usually absent. Death ensues from a stoppage of the
respiration in from one to eight hours.
Mr. R. Schimpfky, in his Important Poisonous Plants of Germany, makes this
statement upon the authority of a physician: He tried the nectar of the
European aconite by chewing the flower. After chewing a little while, the same
was thrown away and an hour later, he felt upon the end of the tongue, a dull
pain as though he had burned it. This sensation remained for three days.
In Europe it is not unusual to mix the leaves of this with other salad plants.
Frequently the plant is cultivated to be used in destroying insects.
Dr. Chesnut says:
No specific antidote is recognized, but physicians have used atropin, of digitalis and
nitrite of amyl, with good effects. The ordinary emetics and stimulants must be given.
Artificial respiration should be maintained for a couple of hours, if necessary, and a re-
cumbent position must be maintained throughout the treatment.
Acomtum uncinatum I, Wild Monkshood
Plant smooth; stem slender and somewhat reclined; root thickened;
leaves 3-5 lobed, petioled, lobes ovate-lanceolate, with. coarse teeth; large blue
or pale flowers with erect helmet; found in rich shady woods along streams.
Distribution. Eastern North America extending into Iowa.
Poisonous properties. Contains the same active principle as the other
species of aconite.
4. Anemone
Erect perennial herbs; root leaves lobed, divided or dissected; stem leaves
forming an involucre either remote or near the flower; sepals few or many,
4-20 petal-like; or in one section, petals stamen-like; stamens numerous; pistils
numerous; achene pointed or tailed, flattened; single seeded. About 80 species
in temperate regions. Several as Pulsatilla are medicinal.
Anemone patens \,. var. Wolfgangiana (Bess.) Koch
A perennial herb, with radical leaves, appearing after the bluish or purplish
flowers have blossomed, villous with long silky hairs; flowers erect, coming from
a simple stem, which is naked except for the involucre; petals wanting, or abor-
tive, stamen-like; sepals petal-like, about 1%4 inches long; leaves ternately di-
vided with the lateral divisions 2-parted; stamens numerous; pistils numerous
in a head with long, hairy styles, in fruit forming feathery tails.
454 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Distribution. Illinois and Nebraska, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Missouri, N. W.
Territory, Rocky Mountains to Texas, British Columbia. Known as the pasque
or sand flower, but very commonly and incorrectly called the crocus.
Poisonous properties. A very poisonous plant. The allied European Anem-
one Pulsatilla is also regarded as poisonous. The different parts of the plant
are extremely acrid and when applied to the skin cause irritation and vesi-
cation. The acridity of the plant is due to the presence of a crystalline sub-
stance called anemonin C,,H,O, which when heated with acids.forms anemonic
acid C,,H,,O,. Lloyd states:
All parts of fresh Anemone patens are acrid and very irritating. Dr. W. H. Miller
informs us that his hands have been very badly blistered, in consequence of the juice havy-
ing spattered over them while pressing the plant. ‘The vapors evolved from the fresh juice
are of such an acrid nature as to have inflamed the eyes, and have closed them temporarily.
For this reason, persons refuse to work with the fresh herb, and botanists have been
known to severely irritate their hands simply from contact with the recent plant.
The only demand for this plant is by Homeopathic physicians. All portions
of the European Anemone patens are very acrid, but the dried plant is merely
an astringent. The plant evidently contains a volatile acrid substance, which
is given off when heat is applied. Our sand flower was one of the chief
medical plants of the Indians of Minnesota. The plant is still used, when in
a fresh condition by the Indian. Dr. Millspaugh gives the following method
for preparing it:
The whole, fresh, flowering plant is chopped and pounded to a pulp and weighed.
Then two parts by weight of alcohol are taken, the pulp thoroughly mixed with one-sixth
t
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ind
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yt
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: Fig. 228. Pasque Anemone
Fig. 227, European Anemone (Anemone (Anemone patens, var. Wolfgang-
Pulsatilla). A poisonous plant with acrid jana). ) endospernn fleshy) 0) sce eNO Papaveraceae.
Sepals or divisions 4-8; endosperm none.
Capsule 2-celled; sepals and petals 4, flowers regular, stamens, usually
iusioereKoniaakehan Ve) CCL MAAC EN PbA Gham ma NAL SCO AMUAMLL alan AIO AIG REGS iI Cruciferae.
Capsule l-celled; sepals and petals 4, flowers regular or irregular
AU ANRIE ROLES 3 Uso We Nh a NE BURA MCI TE RNY Ip CMR NTR a a Capparidaceae.
PAPAVERACEAE. Poppy Family
Annual or perennial herbs, with milky or colored juice; leaves alternate,
stipules none; perfect, regular, or irregular flowers; sepals 2, occasionally 3,
falling when the flower expands; petals 4-12, spreading, soon falling; stamens
inserted under the pistils, distinct; pistil 1, many ovuled, chiefly 1-celled; fruit
a capsule containing numerous oily seeds. Genera 24-26, species about 200.
Widely distributed chiefly in north temperate zone.
Comparatively few of the plants of this family are weedy and quite a num-
ber are medicinal and poisonous. The common poppy (Papaver somniferum)
is used in medicine. It is found as an escape near buildings, especially in sections
where Germans have settled, undoubtedly due to the fact that they cultivate it
for its beauty as an ornamental plant, and use the seeds in culinary operations.
The poppy is largely cultivated in China, Smyrna, Joppa, and several countries
of Europe and India, for the opium. Opium yields a large number of alkaloids.
The more important of these are morphin, and codein. A perfectly harmless
oil equal to olive oil is obtained from the seed. The seed is also fed to birds.
The red poppy (Papaver Rhoeas) is sometimes cultivated. A syrup is made
from the petals, and also a coloring matter used in red ink. The California
poppy (Eschscholtzia californica) is a valuable soporific, and analgesic “free
from the disadvantages of opium.” The Indians, according to Chesnut, use it
to stupify fish. Celandine (Chelidonium majus) native to Europe, has been
naturalized in places in the East and is occasionally somewhat weedy. The
juice of this plant is yellow, while that of the common cultivated poppy is
white, and that of the blood root (Sanguinaria canadensis) is reddish. The
480 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Fig. 250. California Poppy (Esch-
scholtzia californica). a, flower; b, fruit
before, and, ¢, after dehiscence. The juice
of this plant is a valuable soporific. (After
Strasburger, Noll, Schenck and Schimper).
rhizome of the blood root is used in medicine and contains an alkaloid sanguin-
arin and a dye. The corydalin is found in a species of the genus Dicentra
The bleeding heart (Dicentra spectabilis), native to China, and the climbing
fumitory (Adlumia cirrhosa) are frequently cultivated for ornamental purposes.
According to Blyth, the root of the tuberous-rooted corydalis (Corydalis
tuberosa) contains eight alkaloides; of which corydalin C,,H,,NO, is the most
important, since, when taken in large doses it may cause epileptiform convul-
sions, death taking place from respiratory paralysis. The C. lutea contains
corydalin. Schlotterbeck and Watkins found 5 alkaloids in the American
celandine (Stylophorum diphyllum) among them chelidonin C,,H,,NO,+H,O.
The alkaloids stylopin C,,H,,NO,, protopin Coorg Gas and sanguinarin,
have been in part found in other plants in the family.
Genera of Papaveraceae
Petals 8-12; pod 1-celled 2-valved.
Petals twhites rootstock ysontared ere. ete: cites cite rteiretate 3 Sanguinaria.
Petals 4; pod 2-valved or more.
Flowers pay cllow sactsiith- cate oarst'y yaiotelole arty ke seep oe 4 Chelidonium.
Pod 4-20 valved.
Ovary | inconipletely ‘many’ celled: .\fo2.:.-, Viv. Henke ens eee 1 Papaver.
Stigmas andimlacentas 4-Oy%. (i Gist cls onion tenet one 2 Argemone.
1. Papaver. Poppy
Plant with milky juice, leaves lobed or dissected, alternate, flowers and
buds nodding; sepals 2 or occasionally 3; petals 4-6; stamens numerous, ovules
numerous; stigmas united into a persistent disk; capsule globose, obovoid or ob-
long; seeds small, with minute depressions. About 25 species, natives mostly of
SPERMATOPHYTA—PAPAVERACEAE 481
the Old World. P. nudicaule is found in high mountains in the Rockies and in
the Alpine regions of Europe and Asia.
Papaver somniferum L, Garden Poppy
An erect glaucous herb; leaves clasping, large, oblong, wavy, lobed or
toothed; flowers broad, bluish-white with purple centre; filaments somewhat
dilated, capsules smooth.
Distribution. Native to Asia, but widely naturalized in Europe, and ex-
tensively cultivated in China, India, and Smyrna. Occasionally found spon-
taneous around gardens in North America.
Poisonous and medical properties. From the milky exudation that comes
from making an incision in the unripe capsule, opium is obtained which yields
not less than 5 per cent of crystallized morphin and occasionally as high as 22
per cent in Turkey opium, the usual yield being between these two extremes. The
chief markets for opium are Turkey, Asia Minor, India, and Egypt, that of
Smyrna being considered to be the best although good opium has been grown
in the United States. This opium has a sharp, narcotic odor, and a bitter taste.
Opium has been a fruitful source of a large number of alkaloids. Fliickiger
and Hanbury enumerate the following: “Hydrocotarnin, morphin, pseudomor-
phin (C,,H,,NO,),+H,O, codein, thebain C,,H,,NO,; protopin, laudanin
C,,H,,NO,; codamin, papaverin C,,H,,NO,; rhoeadin, meconidin, cryptopimn,
laudanosin, narcotin C,,H,,NO,; lanthopin, narcein Ci. NOHO:
gnoscopin.” The most important of these are morphin C,,H,,NO,+H,0.
a colorless or white and shining, odorless substance with a bitter taste; and
codein C,,H,,NO,+H,O, a nearly transparent odorless substance with a faint-
i 3
eZ)
— = =
pz
Bs
Fig. 252. Garden Poppy (Papaver sominferum). Flower and
capsule. Opium is made from the milky juice exuding from the
unripe capsule. (Faueg).
482 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
ly bitter taste which occurs in amounts varying from 0,.5-2 percent. Narcotin
is found in quanties varying from 0.75-9 percent.
It may be of interest in this connection to state that the German chemists
Wolfgang, Weichardt, and Stadlinger found toxins in opium. These writers
expressed the opinion that the complex physiological action is due to these
substances.
In regard to the properties of opium, Fliickiger and Hanbury speak as
follows:
Opium possesses sedative powers which are universally known. In the words of
Pereira, “it is the most important and valuable medicine of the whole Materia Medica;” and
we may add, the source, by its judicious employment, of more happiness and, by its abuse,
of more misery than any other drug employed by mankind.
There are occasionally cases of poisoning from the poppy plant. Certainly cases from
overdoses of opium are frequently recorded in the annals of medical jurisprudence.
Opium may be absorbed to a slight extent by the unbroken skin, according to Winslow,
and causes a mild, anodyne action. Opium diminishes the two principal activities of the
digestive organs, namely, secretion and motion. The action upon the alimentary tract in
lessening secretion, is partly a local one and partly constitutional, following the absorption
of the drug. The mouth is made dry, thirst is increased and appetite impaired. Opium
is absorbed rather slowly from the stomach and bowels, and stimulates the splanchnic nerve
centre of the sympathetic system, which inhibits the movements of the stomach and in-
testines, and thus lessens peristaltic action of these organs. Opium is directly opposed
to belladonna in this respect, as the latter drug paralyzes the intestinal inhibitory apparatus
(splanchnic endings), and so increases peristalsis.
The most important action of opium is upon the nervous system, and its influence is
more powerful upon man than upon lower animals. At first, opium exerts a stimulating
influence upon the spinal cord. Ruminants are comparatively insusceptible to opium. Dr.
Winslow says: “Ounce doses of the drug cause, in cattle, restlessness, excitement, hoarse
bellowing, dry mouth, nausea, indigestion and tympanites. Sheep are affected in much the
same manner. One or two drachms of morphine have led to fatality in cattle. Fifteen to
thirty grains of the alkaloid comprise a lethal dose for sheep. Swine are variously in-
fluenced, sometimes excited, sometimes dull and drowsy.
According to the same authority, its action on horses causes drowsiness,
sometimes, and at other times produces no visible effect,
Four to six grains, given in the same way, cause restlessness, a rapid pulse, and moist-
ure of the skin. The animal paws the ground and walks in a rhythmical manner about
the stall. The pupils are dilated. Large doses (12 grains) are followed by increased ex-
citement, sweating, muscular rigidity and trembling; while still larger doses (four drachms
of the extract of opium) cause violent trembling, convulsions, insensibility to pain and
external irritation, without coma; or (morphine, gr. 36 under the skin) stupor for several
hours (3 hours), dilated pupils and blindness, followed by delirium and restlessness, con-
tinuing for a longer time (7 hours) and ending in recovery. Horses have recovered from
an ounce of opium, but 2% ounces of the drug, and 100 grains of morphine have proved
fatal.
Dr. Winslow is here quoted upon the toxicology of opium:
The symptoms of poisoning have already been sufficiently described in previous sec-
tions. The treatment embraces irrigation of the stomach, or the use of emetics, as apo-
morphine hydrochlorate under the skin, and the subcutaneous injection of strychnine and
atropine sulphate in the first stages, and enemata of hot, strong, black coffee; leading the
animal about slapping him, or using the faradic current. Dr. Moor, of New York, has
apparently found in potassium permanganate the most efficient antidote for opium and
morphine. ‘Ten to fifteen grains, dissolved in eight ounces of water, should be given by
the mouth, to large dogs. One to two drachms of potassium permanganate may be ad-
ministered to horses in two or three pints of water. Permanganate solution oxidizes and
destroys morphine, and should be acidulated with a little vinegar or diluted sulphuric acid,
after the ingestion of morphine salts. ‘The antidote has been recommended to be given
subcutaneously after absorption, or hypodermic injection of morphine, but this is not of
the slightest use. Hypodermic injections have not infrequently caused poisoning.
SPERMATOPHYTA—PAPAVERACEAE 483
Papaver Rhoeas l.. Corn Poppy
An erect annual with hispid spreading hairs; lower leaves petioled, the upper,
smaller, sessile, pinnatifid, lobes lanceolate, acute, and serrate; flowers scarlet
with darker center; filaments dilated; capsule smooth with 10 or more stig-
matic rays.
Distribution. In waste places along the Atlantic and Pacific coasts. It
is frequently cultivated.
Poisonous properties. Poisonous like other species of this genus.
Freidberger and Frohner give the symptoms of poisoning from this plant
as colic, constipation, tympanites in cattle, raging fit of fury in horses.
In India this species is a troublesome weed but the seeds are collected
and a yellow acrid oil obtained therefrom which is used both in medicine and
as an illuminant.*
2. Argemone lL. Prickly Poppy
Herbs with yellow juice; spiny toothed leaves and stems; flowers large;
sepals 2-3; petals 4-6; stamens numerous; styles short; stigma 3-6-radiate;
capsule prickly, oblong, opening by 3-6 valves; seeds small, numerous.
A small genus of about 8 species of the southern states, Mexico and West-
ern North America.
Argemone mexicana lL. Mexican or Prickly Poppy
A glaucus annual from 1-3 feet high, with spines or without; leaves sessile,
clasping by narrow base, glaucus, runcinate-pinnatifid, spiny-toothed; flowers
large, whitish or generally yellowish; calyx with 2 sepals, bristly pointed;
stamens numerous; stigma sessile, seeds numerous, reticulated.
Distribution. Introduced along the Atlantic coast as far north as the mid-
dle states. Native from Florida to Texas. A most common and troublesome
weed in Texas. It yields however a valuable painter’s oil.
Argenone intermedia Sweet. Prickly Poppy
A spiny, leafy, plant from 2-2%4 feet high;setose, hispid; flowers large
white, sepals green, hispid; petals obovate; capsule armed with stout spines;
horns with a terminal spine; seeds numerous, black sunken meshes.
Distribution. From Central Kansas, Nebraska, South Dakota, to the Rocky
Mountains and Texas. Common in dry soil.
Poisonous properties. The small prickles cause somewhat painful injuries
when they penetrate the skin. According to Schlotterbeck the A. Mexicana
contains fumarin C,,H,,NO, and berberin. In Mexico used in the same way
vas the poppy.
Sanguinaria L. Bloodroot
Perennial with a horizontal, thick rootstock; juice red; leaves basal, pal-
mately veined and lobed, heart-shaped or reniform; flowers white; sepals 2,
soon falling; petals 8-12, arranged in several rows; stamens numerous;
placentae 2; capsule oblong, dehiscent to the base; seeds smooth, crested.
A single species.
*D. Hooper. Agrl. Ledger 1907:35.
484 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Sanguinaria canadensis 1, Bloodroot
Calyx; sepals 2, light green, falling as the bud opens; petals 8-12 or more,
% to 1 inch long, oblong-spatulate, spreading, white or slightly rose-tinted,
increasing in size for two or three days after the bud opens, and then falling
away; stamens about 24, in several rows, much shorter than the petals, those
in the inner rows longest; anther narrow, opening longitudinally.
Distribution. In rich woods, N. S. to Manitoba, Neb., Fla. and Ark.
Poisonous and Medical Properties. Lloyd in White’s book on dermatitis,
writes:
There are two native drugs that are very irritant to mucous surfaces, so much so
that the dust is very disagreeable, and we presume that they would have a similar irritating
action on the skin: Bloodroot, and Caulophyllum thalictroides, blue cohosh or pappoose-
root.
Bloodroot has a bitter and acrid taste due to the substance sanguinarin.
In small doses, this substance exerts a tonic influence, promoting gastro-in-
testinal secretion and thus aiding digestion. On its physiological action, Dr.
Millspaugh says of sanguinarin C,,H,,.NO,: “This alkaloid is very acrid to the
taste, and toxic, and causes violent sneezing.” Millspaugh gives its physiolo-
gical action as follows:
Sanguinaria in toxic doses causes a train of symptoms showing it to be an irritant; it
causes nausea, vomiting, sensations of burning in the mucous membranes whenever it
comes in contact with them, faintness, vertigo, and insensibility. It reduces the heart’s
action and muscular strength, and depresses the nerve force, central and peripheral. Death
has occurred from overdoses, after the following sequence of symptoms: violent vomiting,
followed by terrible thirst and great burning in the stomach and intestines, accompanied
by soreness over the region of those organs; heaviness of the upper chest with difficult
breathing; dilation of the pupils; great muscular prostration; faintness and coldness of
the surface, showing that death follows from cardiac paralysis.
Rusby says:
The effects of Sanguinaria canadensis \,.,- or blood root are distinctly poisonous and
Johnson definitely records that fatal results follow overdoses. Yet the rhizome is not at
Fig. 253. Blood root (San-
guinaria canadensis). ‘The col-
ored latex contains poisonous
alkaloids.
SPERMATOPHYTA—PAPAVERACEAE 485
all liable to be eaten, on acount of its peculiar blood red color, which is forbiddingly sus-
picious, and more especially because of an exceedingly acrid taste which would render the
chewing and swallowing of a poisonous quantity an act of heroism. It is exceedingly com-
mon throughout the northeastern United States, and in a number of localities within a
few miles of this city. Thé root also contains chelerythrin, homochelidonin and protopin.
4. Chelidonium I,
Erect branching herbs, with alternate deeply pinnatifid leaves; yellow
juice and flowers; 2 sepals; 4 petals; stamens numerous; distinct styles;
capsule linear, dehiscent to the base; seeds smooth, shining, and crested.
Distribution. A genus of one species, native to Europe, but widely natural-
ized in North America.
Chelidonium majus 1. Celandine
Flowers consisting of 2 sepals which are ovate, yellowish, soon falling;
corolla 4 petals, contracted at the base; stamens numerous, shorter than the
petals.
Poisonous and Medical properties. ‘The alkaloid chelerythrin C,,H,,NO,
is identical with the sanguinarin of the last plant. Chelidonin, C,,H,,NO,
H,O, an alkaloid existing particularly in the root, is colorless and _ bitter.
Homochelidonin, consisting of three basic substances is found in Bocconia, San-
guinaria, Adlumia etc. This plant produces congestion of the lungs and liver;
it is also an excessive irritant, and has a narcotic action upon the nervous system,
in its action resembling gamboge. On this point Dr. White says:
Mr. Cheney informs me that he has known the plant to poison the skin, if handled so
as to crush the leaves or stem. To indicate this extent to which it is used in medicine,
it may be stated that a collector in North Carolina offers fifteen hundred pounds of the
leaves for sale.
CruciFERAE. Mustard Family.
Herbs or rarely woody plants with acrid, watery juice; alternate leaves
without stipules; flowers in racemose or corymbose clusters, cruciform of 4
deciduous sepals and 4 petals, placed opposite each other in pairs, spreading and
forming a cross; stamens 6, 2 shorter; 1 pistil, consisting of 2 united carpels;
fruit a pod either much longer than broad (silique), or short (silicle), or in-
Fig, 254. Common Celandine
(Chelidonium majus). Poison-
ous to the skin. (After Fitch).
486 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
dehiscent, separating into joints; seeds without endosperm; seed coat frequently
mucilaginous; embryo large. About 1500 species of wide distribution.
The cabbage (Brassica oleracea), native to Europe, has long been culti-
vated; cauliflower, brocoli, and brussels sprouts also belong to the same species.
Rape, a well known forage plant, the turnip, the Swedish turnip, and ruta-
baga (B. campestris) are native to Europe. The Chinese cabbage (B. Pe-
Tsai) is commonly cultivated in China. Black mustard (B. nigra) and white
mustard (B. alba) are extensively cultivated for their seeds, which when ground
make the commercial mustard. The radish (Raphanus sativus), cultivated for
the root, is native to Europe. Water cress (Radicula nasturtium-aquaticum) is
much used as a salad plant in colder regions. Horse radish (R. Armoracia)
the well known condiment is native to Europe. European pepper grass (Lepidi-
um sativum) is cultivated as a salad plant, while the seeds of our pepper
grasses (Lepidium apetalum and L. virginicum) are used as bird food. Sea-
kale (Crambe maritima), native to Europe, has also been introduced into this
country as a vegetable. The Pringlea antiscorbutica of Kuerguelen’s Land
resembles the common cabbage and is used by sailors as a vegetable when they
touch that country. The Rose of Jericho (Anastatica hierochuntica) of North
America and Syria is regarded as sacred by the natives. Many plants of this
family are cultivated for ornamental purposes; among the most familiar are
the candytuft (Jberis), stock (Matthiola incana), sweet alyssum (Alyssum mari-
timum), and wall-flower (Erysimum asperum). Dyer’s woad (Isatis tinctoria)
of China was formerly cultivated for a dye obtained from the leaves. The
characteristic odor of plants of this order when crushed or when mustard
seed is ground in water is due to an enzyme myrosin, discovered by Bussey
in 1839. This same ferment occurs in the families Cruciferae, Capparidaceae,
Resedaceae, Tropaeolaceae, Limnanthaceae, Papaveraceae.
It occurs in special cells known as myrosin cells which give a marked pro-
tein reaction. The contents are finely granular, free from starch, chlorophyll,
fatty matter, and aleurone grains. These cells become red with Millon’s
reagent, and when heated become orange red, and a violet red color when treated
with copper sulphate and caustic potash. The subjcet is treated fully by Rey-
nolds Green in his work on “The Soluble Ferments and Fermentation,” and in
Effront and Prescott’s “Enzymes and their Applications.”
Some of the European plants of the family like (Erysimum crepidifolium)
cause staggering in animals. The Cheiranthus Cheiri contains a glucoside which
acts on the heart. Rape under some conditions is poisonous. Several corres-
pondents in Breeders’ Gazette (Chicago) have ascribed poisoning where rape
was frozen, or when the plants were wet with dew.
Genera of Cruciferae
Pod terete or turgid or 4-angled.
Pod Obovoid; flowers yellow) oouc i ster aeeun OneR enero 5. Camelina
Pod linear or oblong.
Cotyledons accumbent.
Pod short; fiowers yellow or white................-. 3. Radicula
Cotyledons incumbent.
Pod angled or terete; flowers yeliow or white..... 1. Sisymbrium
Cotyledons conduplicate; flowers yellow or white.......... 2. Brassica
SPERMATOPHY TA—CRUCIFERAE 487
Pod short.
Pod many or few seeded; obcordate-triangular.
Pod many seeded, obcordate-triangular.................. 4 Capsella
Pod few seeded, orbicular, obovate or obcordate........ 7 Thiaspi
Pod'!2-seeded) flat; (motelted Wai eho see Pie 6 Lepidium
1. Sisymbrum (Tourn.) L.
Annual or biennial herbs with usually simple spreading pubescent, hairs
occasionally forked or stellate; leaves entire, oblanceolate, divided, pinnatifid,
or runcinate; flowers in racemes; calyx open, greenish, of 4 sepals; corolla
white, yellow or yellowish, or rarely pink, small; pistils terete, flattish or 4-6-
sided; small entire stigma; seeds small oblong; cotyledons incumbent.
A small genus of 60 species. Found in temperate regions of both hemis-
pheres. Several species are well known troublesome weeds.
Sisymbrium officinale Scop. Common Hedge Mustard
A slender erect annual or winter annual, 1%4-21%4 feet high; lower leaves
divided, runcinate, pinnatifid, upper entire or hastate at base; flowers small,
yellow, borne in spike-like racemes; seeds small, brown; cotyledons incumbent.
Fig. 255. Tumbling Mustard (Sisymbrium altissimum).
Common in Canada and from Minnesota to Washington.
(Dewey, U.S. Dept. Agrl.)
488 MANUDAT, OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Distribution. A very common weed along railroads, door yards, and
fields from Canada south to Florida and west to Illinois, Wisconsin, Minne-
sota, Missouri, Dakotas, Nebraska and Kansas, and Pacific North coast. Com-
mon hedge mustard is a naturalized weed from Europe. It occurs throughout
Europe, Russia, Germany, Great Britain, France—except Northern Scandinavia.
Sisymbrium atlssimum L. Tumbling Mustard
An erect, much branched annual from 1-4 feet high, lower leaves runci-
nate pinnatifid, irregular toothed or wavy margined; upper leaves smaller, thread-
like; after flowering, leaves drop, leaving the stem and pods; flowers pale
yellow, rather large; sepals 4, green; corolla of pale yellow petals; pods narrow-
ly linear, divergent; seeds small, longer than broad, generaly oblong in outline
with rather blunt ends; radicle usually very prominent and straight, curved
spirally around the cotyledons.
Distribution. This weed has spread with considerable rapidity in the
Northwest. Dr. Robinson states that it was once scarcely more than a bal-
last weed about the large cities of the Atlantic seaboard, and records its oc-
currence sparingly in southern Missouri (Bush). It is common now, however,
from the Mississippi Valley northwest to the Pacific Coast. One of the most
common weeds of Montana, Idaho, Eastern Washington, Oregon, and native to
British Columbia. Found also along the Atlantic seaboard,
Poisonous properties. This plant has properties somewhat similar to those
described for Mustard; therefore may produce deep ulcers which are difficult to
heal.
Brassica (Tourn.) Ll. Mustard, Turnip, Rape
Annual or biennial branching herbs, basal leaves pinnatifid, flowers yellow,
racemose, pods elongated nearly terete or 4 sided; seeds spherical, 1 row
in each cell; cotyledons conduplicate. About 85 species of Europe, Asia, and
North Africa, introduced in North and South America, Australia. The black
mustard (B. nigra) and charlock (B. arvensis) common in grain fields and
waste places across the continent.
Brassica nigra Koch. Black Mustard
A tall, coarse, much branched annual, 2-5 feet high; hairy or smoothish,
somewhat bristly, at least on the veins; leaves variously divided or deeply cut,
and sharp toothed;—large terminal lobe; the upper leaves small, simple,
usually linear; flowers yellow, smaller than in charlock; pods smooth, about %
inch long, 4-cornered, tipped with a slender beak; seeds black or reddish brown,
smaller than in charlock; cotyledons conduplicate.
Brassica arvensis (1,.) Ktze. Mustard or English Charlock
Branching annual from 1-3 feet high, hispid or glabrate; lower leaves
petioled with 1 large terminal lobe, and several small lateral lobes, with the
divisions unequal; upper leaves barely toothed; flowers yellow, large and very
fragrant; pods 1-2 inches long, irregular in outline, appearing somewhat nodose,
3-7 seeded, or more occasionally; the upper part of pod forms the beak;
seeds round, brownish black, darker than in B. nigra, and more minutely pitted.
When moistened, the seeds become mucilaginous.
Distribution. It is a common and troublesome weed in cultivated ground
from Mass. to Oregon. ‘The most troublesome weed in grain flelds of the
Northwest,
CRUCIFERAE—BRASSICA 489
Fig 256. Charlock (Brassica arvensis). U. S. Dept. Agrl. Fig. 256a. Common Black
Mustard (Brassica nigra). U. S. Dept. Agrl.
Medicinal and Poisonous properties. White mustard contains a glucoside
also found in other members of the family sinalbin, C,,H,,N,S,O,,+H,O, and
in addition, the ferment known as myrosin which converts the sinalbin into an
active principle, oxy-benzyl-thiocyanate (a very acrid volatile body) sinapin
sulphate and glucose. ‘The following formula represents the change that occurs:
€. EN. 5, 01, —C Fh © CH O-NCe++C; Ha NO.-HSO::
Oxy-
Sinalbin Glucose benzyl-thio- Sinapin sulphate
cyanate
Black mustard contains the glucoside sinigrin, and a ferment, myrosin,
which produces the following reaction:
C,H ANES,O.,. == /C HiGNS) Cen Oe) =. KHSO,,.
Sinigrin Sulpho-cyanate Glucose Hydrogen
of allyl Potassium sulphate
(Essential oil of Mustard)
White Mustard seed when reduced to a powder and made into a paste
with cold water, acts as a powerful stimulant. Large doses cause vomiting.
Intestinal secretion is increased by the use of mustard, which is rarely used,
however, as an emetic because of its pungency. It is extremely valuable for
relieving pain or congestion. It is a splendid emetic for dogs in the spoonful
doses, given in warm water. Dr. Millspaugh states that in the case of black
490 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
mustard, no specific toxic symptoms have been noted, but in speaking of white
mustard, he states that the essential oil of mustard is a virulent, irritant poison,
causing, when ingested, severe burning, followed by increased heart action. and if
pushed to extremes, loss of sensibility, paralysis, stupor, rigors, and death. It
causes immediate vesication, followed by deep ulceration, which is difficult to
heal.
Dr. White in his Dermatitis Venenata, says:
The action of the sinapism is well known. In a few minutes after its application the
skin begins to feel warm, and by the end of a half-hour, if the patient bear it so long,
this sensation has increased to an intolerable burning. ‘The changes in the cutaneous tissue
are, within a few minutes, a considerable degree of hyperaemia, which, after a time, increases
to an intense redness, which persists for a day or two, and often leaves behind it a per-
sistent pigmentation, at times of a dark brown color, to mark the seat of the sinapism. On
this account one should never be applied upon the upper chest or other part of a woman
which the dress will not always conceal. If the action be continued beyond its legitimate
rubefacient effect, a period which varies greatly in persons, it may produce vesication, or
even deep suppuration, effects at times very intractable under treatment. It is stated that
the addition of vinegar to a mustard poultice greatly lessens its activity.
Sarepta mustard (B. Besseriana) much resembles black mustard and is
used in the same way. Sarson or Indian colza (B. campestris var. Sarson) is
used in India in place of white mustard and oil cakes made from it serve as
stock food. A brown variety (B. Napus var. dichotoma) is grown both as
an oil seed and as a vegetable. Another variety, Indian mustard (B. juncea)
is also known as of economic importance.
The mustards of India are not always easy to distinguish. They have been
carefully studied by Col. Prain.
Brassica Rapa causes inflammation of the bowels, tympanites, constipa-
tion, diarrhoea, some brain irritation, and haemorrhagic enteritis. The disease
is more common in Europe where rape seed is used as stock food.
3. Radicula (Dill.) Hill
Annual, biennial or perennial, usually glabrous herbs of pungent quali-
ties, pinnate, entire, or pinnatifid leaves; flowers yellow or white; calyx with
spreading sepals; pistil with short or slender style and 2-lobed, or entire
stigmas; pod usually short, varying from oblong-linear to globular-terete; seeds
numerous, small in 2 rows in each cell; cotyledons accumbent. About 25 species
of wide distribution.
Radicula Armoracia (1,.) Robinson. Horse radish
A stout perennial with long deep roots; leaves large, on thick petioles,
oblong, crenate, or pinnatifid, glabrous; stem leaves lanceolate, or oblong cordate;
flowers with 4 green sepals and 4 white petals, not common; pods short, globular,
but fruit seldom found.
Distribution. It is native to the eastern part of Europe, Turkey, Greece,
and the Caspian Sea through Russia, Poland and Finland. In Germany,
France, Sicily, Norway, and Great Britain, it has escaped from cultivation,
Common in Northern United States.
Radicula palustris (1,.) Moench, var. hispida (Desv.) Robinson. Marsh Cress.
An erect annual, or biennial, pubescent herb, from 1-2% feet high; leaves
pinnately cleft or parted, or occasionally the upper laciniate; the lobes toothed ;
CRUCIFERAE—RADICULA 491
Fig. 256b.. Horse radish. (C. M. King).
upper leaves nearly sessile; pedicels as long as the small flowers, generally
longer than the pods; pods ovoid or oblong; styles short.
Distribution. Common in northern portions of United States, to the Gulf
and west to the coast; also Canada. Native to Europe.
Medical and poisonous properties. It is certain that horse radish and other
members of this genus have properties somewhat similar to those of the mus-
tards mentioned above. Horse radish contains both sinigrin and myrosin, Dr.
Rusby mentions that it may produce serious trouble. He says:
The common horse radish, likewise, loses its irritating properties when heated or dried.
These are almost identical with those of mustard, and while it would not generally be re-
garded as a poisonous article, yet used in excess it may become so through its powerful
irritation of the urinary organs, by which it is excreted. Johnson gives a case in which
this result was extreme and serious. It may therefore be borne in mind that it should not
be consumed in inordinate quantity. This result, should it occur, would be found ex-
cruciatingly painful.
Dr. Johnson in his Manual of Medical Botany of North America, writes
as follows:
The acrid principles of these plants appear, clinically, to be eliminated by the kidneys,
and hence, incidentally, they produce a decided diuretic effect. The urine is not only in-
creased in quantity, but partakes also of the acrid character of the plant employed. In one
case that came under the author’s observation, the individual, though in perfect health, so
far as the genito-urinary tract was concerned, suffered extremely from vesical pain and
irritation for hours after using horse-radish as a condiment. In animals it produces a
violent colic.
492 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Tig. 256c. Shepherd’s Purse (Capsella Bursapastoris). U. S, Dept. Agrl.
CRUCIFERAE—CAPSELLA 493
4. Capsella, Medic. Shepherd’s Purse
Annual or winter annual, erect herbs, pubescent with more or less branched
hairs; flowers in racemes, small, white; basal leaves tufted; pistils with short
styles; pods obcordate, triangular, compressed at right angles to the partition;
valves boat-shaped; seeds numerous, small, without margins; cotyledons accum-
bent. A small genus of 4 species, 2 in North America.
Caspella Bursa-pastoris (1,.) Medic. Shepherd’s Purse
An annual or winter annual, 1% feet high, root leaves clustered, lobed,
pinnatifid, or merely toothed, stem leaves sessile, lanceolate, auricled; flowers
small, white; pods triangular, truncate, or emarginate, many seeded; seeds light
brown, elongated with a prominent ridge; seeds mucilaginous when moistened
with water; cotyledons incumbent.
Distribution. One of the most common weeds everywhere in eastern North
America from Nova Scotia to Florida, west to Texas and the Pacific Coast,
from Eastern Canada to Manitoba to Vancouver in B. C. Cosmopolitan, as
common in Europe as in the United States. Naturalized from Europe.
Poisonous properties. It produces the same symptoms as other members
of the family only somewhat less severe.
5. Camelina, Crantz. False Flax
Erect, annual herbs, sparingly branched; leaves entire, lanceolate, or
pinnatifid; flowers racemose, yellow; sepals 4, green; petals 4, yellow small;
pistil with stigma entire, style slender; pod obovoid or pear-shaped; flattish;
seeds small, numerous; cotyledons incumbent. The 5 species are native to
Europe and Asia.
Camelina ‘sativa (.) Crantz. False Flax
An erect, glabrous annual with simple or sparingly branched stem, 1%
feet long, smooth, or slightly pubescent, hairs stellate; leaves erect, lanceolate
or arrow shaped, entire or nearly so; flowers small, yellow, pedicels in fruit
spreading; pod obovoid or pyriform, smooth reticulated, margined; seeds light
brown 1 line long, minutely pitted, cotyledons incumbent, caulicle prominent,
running lengthwise. On the addition of water, the seeds become mucilaginous.
Distribution. It is common in Manitoba, south to Minnesota, Northern
Iowa, and the Dakotas, where it is a well known and a troublesome weed, in
flax and grain fields from Ontario to the Middle States across the continent.
Poisonous properties. ‘The plant has a disagreeable sharp odor and causes
counter-irritation.
6. Lepidium (Tourn) L. Pepper Grass
Erect or diffuse, annual, biennial or perennial herbs; leaves entire, or
pinnatifid; flowers racemose, white; petals small or none; stamens 6 or fewer;
pod roundish, flattened contrary to the partition, winged or wingless; seeds
solitary in each cell; cotyledons incumbent or rarely accumbent. About 65
species in temperate regions. The European L. campestre, native to Europe
cultivated for salad purposes, is occasionally spontaneous. The seeds of two of
our native species are used for bird food.
494 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
ASF GE
Yh ged:
LK Ne
24|
Fig. 256c. False Flax (Camel-
ina sativa). Seeds become mucilag-
inous on addition of water. (After Fig. 257. Small Pepper-grass (Lepidium apetalum).
Hochstein). Causes sinapism. (Charlotte M. King.)
Lepidium virginicum L. Large Pepper Grass
Pod circular or oval with a little notch at the upper end; seeds light brown,
elongated, with a prominent ridge on one side, on the addition of water they
become mucilaginous; cotyledons accumbent.
Lepidium apetalum Willd. Small Pepper Grass
Seeds light brown, elongated, with a prominent ridge on one side. Seeds
become mucilaginous when moistened with water. Cotyledons incumbent.
Distribution. In nearly all parts of the United States.
Poisonous properties. Pepper grass produces counter-irritation.
7. Thlaspi L. Field Pennycress
Low plants with undivided root leaves, stem leaves arrow-shaped and clasp-
ing; flowers small, whitish or purplish; pod orbicular, obovate or obcordate;
seeds 2-8 in each cell; cotyledons, accumbent.
CRUCIFERAE—THLASPI 495
Thlaspi arvense, Field pennycress, Frenchweed or Stinkweed
A smooth annual with small white flowers; pod, broadly winged, about
¥Y% inch in diameter, deeply notched at top. Commonly naturalized in some
places; becoming more abundant in the Northwest. A common weed in grain
fields. It is common in the Canadian Northwest and not infrequent in Iowa
and Minnesota, abundant in the Dakotas.
Poisonous properties. Probably causes counter-irritation. In the Canadian
Rockies the weed is carefully avoided by stock because of its pungent properties.
Fig. 258. Field Pennycress
(Thlaspi arvense). (After
Fitch).
CAPPARIDACEAE. Caper Family
Herbs, shrubs or, occasionally, trees; alternate leaves and cruciform flowers;
sepals 4-8; petals 4 or none; stamens 6-numerous, not tetradynamous; fruit
a l-celled pod or berry with 2 parietal placentae; seeds similar to those of the
Cruciferae, but with the embryo coiled. An order of about 35 genera and
400 species. Generally found in warm regions, few in the United States.
The plants are often acrid or pungent; the flower-buds of one, the Caper
(Capparis spinosa), are pickled. Several of the species like the Rocky Moun-
tain bee plant are cultivated for ornamental purposes. A few of the plants are
weedy.
Capparis contains the coloring matter rutin.
Genera of Capparidaceae
Plants clammy pubescent. ~
Stamens | O) OF WNOTE. 122. io. hue a eoclacopla eae ee oe eee aeons 2 Polanisia
Plants not clammy pubescent.
Stamens pod few seededes 124 55.4 25s. Gadaees chee ne oes 3 Cleomella
Stamens 6)podvinany stededscck ivy ae de weer sae deen ae 1 Cleome
1. Cleome UL.
Glabrous annuals; leaves trifoliolate or simple; flowers in leafy bracted
racemes; petals entire, with claws; stamens 6; pistil with a 1-celled ovary;
~
496 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
pod linear with a long stalk (stipe) many seeded; the receptacle bearing a
gland beyond the stipitate ovary. A small genus of about 75 species, mainly
tropical.
Cleome serrulata Pursh. Rocky Mountain Bee Plant
An annual, from 1-3 feet high, with digitate, 3-foliolate leaves and leafy,
bracteate racemes; calyx 4-cleft, petals 4, cruciform, short clawed, and rose-
colored; pods linear, many seeded.
Distribution. Widely distributed west of Missouri, from the Canadian
Rockies to Kansas, Mexico, Arizona and Utah, eastward occasionally from
Minnesota to Illinois. The plant is regarded with great favor as a bee plant.
Cleome lutea Hook. Yellow Cleome
This plant is like the preceding, but the leaves are 5-foliolate or the
upper 3-foliolate, leaflets oblong or oblong-lanceolate, entire, stalked or sessile;
flowers yellow; pod linear, stipe longer than the pedicel.
Distribution. In dry soil from Nebraska to Washington and Arizona. The
former species is particularly conspicuous west of the 100th meridian.
Poisonous and Medical properties. ‘These plants are not generally placed
with the poisonous plants, although they contain the same pungent principles
that members of the Mustard family have. They are seldom eaten by stock.
\
v/ GZ
OV GE:
A
Fig. 259. Rocky Mountain Fig. 260. Yellow Cleome
Bee Plant (Cleome serrulata). (Cleome lutea). Common in
A plant with pungent proper- the West. (Ada Hayden).
ties. (Ada Hayden),
CAPPARIDACEAE—CLEOME 497
2. Polanisia Raf.
Clammy herbs with whitish or yellowish flowers, palmately compound or
simple leaves; flowers produced in racemes; sepals 4, deciduous; petals with
claws and notched at the apex; receptacle not elongated, bearing a gland at the
base of the ovary; stamens 8-numerous, unequal; pod linear or oblong, turgid,
many-seeded, seeds reticulated. About 14 species in tropical and temperate
regions. Annuals, with glandular hairs; common in sandy soils or on railroad
embankments.
Polanisia graveolens Raf. Clammy-weed
The near relative of the Rocky Mountain bee plant is a clammy weed with
loose racemes of conspicuous flowers; petals with claws; stamens 8-32; pod linear
or oblong, turgid, many-seeded.
Poisonous properties. The same may be said of this as of Cleome. It
is a clammy, pubescent weed with very pungent properties.
3. Cleomella DC.
Annual herbs with 3-5 foliolate leaves, calyx of 4 sepals; flowers generally
in racemes; petals 4, entire, without claws; receptacle short; stamens 6, in-
serted on the receptacle; ovary short, long-stalked; pod linear to oblong, many-
seeded. About 75 species, found chiefly in southwestern North America and
Mexico.
Cleomella angustifolia Torr
A glabrous annual from 1-2 feet high, leaflets 3, linear lanceolate or linear
oblong, bracts simple; flowers small, yellow; pod rhomboidal, raised on a
slender stipe, but shorter than the pedicel, few seeded.
Distribution. From Nebraska and Kansas to Texas, New Mexico and
Colorado. Abundant in waste places.
SARRACENIALES
Carnivorous plants secreting a viscid liquid; radical leaves; scapose flowers;
corolla choripetalous; sepals generally distinct; stamens usually free; ovary
compound superior. Contains the families Droseraceae, Sarraceniaceae and
Nepenthaceae; the genus Sarracenia has 6 species in eastern North America;
S. purpurea, found as far west as Minnesota, contains the alkaloid Sarracenin.
Darlingtonia californica occurs in California and Oregon. WHeliamphora is
native to Guiana. The family Nepenthaceae with 40 species is found mostly in
the India-Malayan regions; some species being frequently cultivated in green-
houses. The plants of these orders are insectivorous, capable of digesting in-
sects.
DROSERACEAE
Perennial or biennial glandular pubescent bog herbs or somewhat shrubby
plants; leaves mostly from the hase with tentacles, which secrete a viscid sub-
stanre to catch insects; circinnate in the bud; flowers perfect, racemose; calyx
sersistent, 4-8 parted, or the sepals distinct; petals 5 free; stamens 8-20; ovary
free, 1-3-celled; styles 1-5, simple 2-cleft; capsule 1-5-celled. A small order of
125 species of wide distribution. The most important genus is Drosera, com-
monly called sundew, the tentacles of which secrete a viscid fluid which catches
498
Fig. 260a. Various insectivorous plants: 1, Sarracenia variolaris; 2, Darlingtonta cali-
fornica; 3, Sarracenia laciniata; 4, Nepenthes vitliosa.
insects and clings to them. The D. rotundifolia is commonly found in our
northern bogs. The Drosophyllum lusilanicum is found on the sandy hills of
Portugal. The Venus fly-trap (Dionaea muscipula) of the Carolinas grows
on the sandy barrens and feeds on insects. These plants are somewhat rare.
Poisonous properties. According to Dr. Schaffner, the common sundew
is poisonous to cattle. From one species of Drosera two pigments have been
isolated, the red having the formula C,,H,O, and the yellow, CGO
Plants of the family in Australia are said to be poisonous to sheep.
According to Greshoff the leaves of Drosera binata contain hydrocyanic
acid. D. rotundifolia, and D. intermedia, were also found to contain a little
HCN. ‘The leaves of Dionaea muscipula contain the same substance.
ROSALES
Herbs, shrubs or trees; flowers usually polypetalous; stamens mostly peri-
gynous or epigynous; sepals chiefly united or confluent with receptacle; carpels 1
or more, distinct or sometimes united into a compound ovary. The order in-
cludes the families Podostemonaceae, Crassulaceae, Cephalotaceae, Saxifragaceae,
Pittosporaceae, Hamamelidaceae, Platanaceae, Rosaceae, Connaraceae, Legu-
minosae and other small families. The family Saxifragaceae includes the red
currant (Ribes vulgare), black currant (R. nigrum), the Missouri currant,
Fig. 260b. The Venus Fly Trap (Dionaea muscipula) showing the rosette arrangement and
with some of the traps closed and others opened to catch the insects. (Kerner-Oliver, Dept.
Ent. Univ. of Minn.).
Fig. 260c. Insect Traps. 1, Dionaca; 2,Section through folded leaf; 3, One of the Spines.
4, Leaf of Aldrovanda; 5, Section of closed leaf; 6, Glands upon trap; 7, Glands in the wall
of trap of Sarracenia. (Kerner. Dept. Ent. Univ. of Minn.).
500 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Fig. 261. Common Sun- Fig. 262. Missouri Currant (Ribes
dew (Drosera rotundiflora). aureum). ‘The flowers are spicy frag-
Poisonous to cattle. (After rant. It is a well known shrub. (W.
Fitch). S. Dudgeon).
(R. aureum), the Crandall, a well known cultivated form; the cultivated goose-
berry (R. Grossularia), Missouri gooseberry (R. gracile); the cultivated
hydrangeas (Hydrangea paniculata); the wild hydrangea (H. arborescens) ;
used as a diuretic; the mock orange (Philadelphus coronarius), and P. grandi
florus; Deutzia scabra, the Astilbe japonica and the alum root (Heuchera
americana) a powerful astringent. Several members of this family are poison-
ous; the western Jamesia americana, a pretty shrub of the Rocky Mountains
with white flowers, contains an appreciable amount of HCN, according to Gres-
hoff. The same substance also occurs in the garden Hydrangea hortensia, H.
arborescens, an American species of the southern region. The H. Thunbergii;
H, Lindleyana and H. involucrata all contain HCN. The HCN, however, is
in a transitory stage. Greshoff states that the leaves of Philadelphus coronarius,
P. Lemoinei and P. microphyllus, and the seeds of P. grandiflorus contain sap-
onin, as do the leaves of Deutzia staminea. The family Hamamelidaceae includes
the witch hazel (Hamamelis virginiana) containing a bitter principle; the storax
(Liquidambar orientalis) of the Old World which contains two resin alcohols,
storesin and ester, and red gum (L. Styraciflua) a common tree of moist
woods of the South supplying a well known commercial wood; it is also an
ornamental tree, the leaves of which, when bruised, are fragrant. The family
Platanaceae contains the sycamore (Platanus occidentalis), a large tree which
furnishes valuable wood and is also used for ornamental purposes. According
to Greshoff the leaves of Platanus acerifolia, P. cuneata, P. occidentalis and P.
orientalis contain HCN. The young leaves are poisonous.
Families of Rosales
Calyx free from the ovary, wholly superior.
Simple. L-celled otc WV leses oe OR Ss RATT te PRE EN bee Leguminosae.
Ovaries 2 or more compound; stamens twice as many as the pistils
Ee A ET YY a Re he cgi ghee Eo, Crassulaceae.
ROSALES 501
Stamens inserted\on ‘the; calyx) stipulate... 0... eden ces eee Rosaceae
Calyx more or less coherent with the compound ovary...... Rosaceae (Pomeae)
tig. 251. Red Gum (Liquidamber Styraciflua). Furnishes a commercial
wood.
CrASsuLACEAE DC. Orpine Family
Succulent herbs; leaves generally sessile without stipules; flowers small,
symmetrical, usually cymose; petals and sepals equal in number, from 3-20;
stamens as many or twice the number; pistils distinct, fewer than the sepals;
receptacle usually with small scales 1 back of each carpel; fruit a dry dehiscent
follicle; usually many seeded. This is a small family of about 50 species, many
being found in dry soils, rocks, etc. in North Temperate regions. A few of the
species are cultivated for ornamental purposes, among these being the Rochea
coccinea of the Cape of Good Hope, whose flowers have narcotic properties ;
poisoning sometimes resulting from smelling them. Some of the Crassulaceae
contain crassulacic and malic acids. The Cotyledon ventricosa of South
Africa is said to produce the Nenta disease of that region, although this is
usually ascribed to some members of the Pulse family and is probably identicai
with loco disease. ‘The leaves of wild tea (Catha edulis), according to Bull.
Miscellaneous Information of Kew Gardens, when chewed are said to have
great sustaining powers.
Sedum (Tourn.) L. Stone Crop
Fleshy, smooth herbs, mostly perennials, with alternate leaves; flowers
cymose, perfect or dioecious; calyx 4-5-lobed; petals 4-5, distinct; stamens 8-10,
perigynous; pistils 4-5, distinct or united at the base; styles short; follicles
many-seeded. About 150 species, mostly of temperate and cooler regions of the
northern hemisphere. A few are cultivated for ornamental purposes. There
are several somewhat weedy species as S. purpureum and mossy stone crop (5S.
acre), the latter native to Europe but escaped to roadsides in the East. It has
acrid properties, which is also true of the live-forever, a plant of the Rocky
Mountains,
un
=}
bo
MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Sedum purpureum Tausch. Live-forever
A stout perennial 2 feet high with fleshy oval or obtuse, toothed leaves;
and flowers in compound cymes; corolla purple, with oblong-lanceolate,, purple
petals; stamens perigynous; pistils with a short style; fruit a follicle with a
short pointed style. ,
Distribution. Native to Europe, frequently escaped from cultivation and
found around dwellings and in cemeteries.
Sedum acre Ll. Mossy Stone Crop
A moss-like plant spreading on the ground; leaves small, alternate, ovate
thick and fleshy; flowers yellow, perfect, in spike-like clusters, cymose; the
central flower with 5 sepals, 5 petals, and 10 stamens, the others with 4 sepals,
4 petals and 8 stamens; follicle spreading, tipped with a slender style.
Distribution. On rocks and along roadsides from New Brunswick to New
York and Pennsylvania. Native to Europe.
Fig. 263. Common Live-
for-ever (Sedum purpure-
um). A plant with acrid
properties. (Fitch).
Fig. 264. Live Forever (Sedum stenopetal-
um). Common in the Rocky Mountains; a plant
with acrid properties. (W. S. Dudgeon).
CRASSULACEAE—SEDUM 503
Poisonous properties. Sedum acre, according to Dr. Schaffner, produces
inflammation and vesication when applied to the skin; it is used to remove
the false membrane in diptheria. Dr. White, in his “Dermatitis Venenata,”
says with reference to the Sedum acre: “Wood states that the whole plant
abounds in an acrid, biting juice. Oesterlen says that it is sharply irritative
to the skin. The National Dispensatory states that the juice is capable of blis-
tering the skin, and that it is used upon corns and warts to soften them, and
upon swollen glands as a resolvent. Mr. Cheney, a wholesale dealer in vegeta-
ble drugs, informs me that the juice of the green plant is poisonous to the skin
of many persons.” ‘This plant, however, is not common in the United States.
RosacEAk. Rose Family -
Herbs, shrubs, or trees; leaves alternate or some opposite, stipulate, fre-
quently falling soon after the leaves appear; flowers regular; stamens generally
numerous, distinct, inserted on the calyx; petals as many as the sepals or rarely
wanting; pistils 1-many, generally distinct, except in Pomeae, where the pistil
is united to the calyx; fruit various, achenes, follicles, drupes or pomes as in
the apple; seeds 1-many, without albumen; embryo straight, with large cotyledons.
The order contains about 90 genera and 1500 species of wide distribution; in
temperate and tropical regions, some boreal. But few of the plants are nox-
ious or have noxious qualities.
The several cherries, like Prunus serotina and P. virginiana are known to
cause stock poisoning, and the seeds when eaten likewise produce fatal results
in man. The P. serotina or wild black cherry, is used in medicine, under the
name of P. virginiana. The choke cherry (P. virginiana) is also used in med-
icine. The bark of the wild black cherry is officinal. It contains tannic and
gallic acids, and a volatile oil resembling the volatile oil of bitter almonds. It
is used as a tonic and astringent. The leaves of the laurel cherry are used
for making cherry laurel water which is a sedative narcotic. From Prunus
Amygdalus, var. amara, native to Asia, is obtained the amygdalin of bitter
almonds, which is converted into hydrocyanic acid. This acid is deadly poison,
and is obtained from a great many different plants. The leaves of the laurel
cherry also contain the same substance. HCN has been found in Prunus
paniculata, P. pendula, P. Pennsylvanica; Pyrus Aria, P. pinnatifida, P. japon-
ica; Crataegus orientalis; Cotoneaster integerrima; Nuttallia cerasiformis;
Amelanchier alnifolia; Chamameles japonica. According to Greshoff the leaves
of Kageneckia angustifolia contain hydrocyanic acid. The same writer reports
this substance in the mountain mahogany (Cercocarpus parvifolius) of the Rocky
Mountains. It must be regarded as poisonous. In laurel cherry, it is largely
derived from the decomposition of laurocerasin. This species also contains
prulaurocerasin. Several species of other orders also might suitably be mentioned
here as containing substances capable of being converted into hydrocyanic acid.
In this class are the toadstools (Agaricus oreades), bitter cassava (Manihot
utilissima) and sorghum (Andropogon Sorghum).
According to Greshoff Cornus foliolosa, Spiraea japonica and many other
plants of the family contain saponin.
The same substance is obtained from other plants of the genus Prunus.
Oil of roses is obtained from the Rosa damascena, Miller, var. The mucilaginous
seeds of the quince (Pyrus Cydonia) have been used in medicine for a long
time.
504 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Fig. 265. Wild Red Cherry (Prunus
pennsylvanica). It contains the glu-
coside amygdalin. (Ada Hayden).
Many plants of the family are cultivated for ornamental purposes and some
are economic. In the first class is the laurel cherry (Prunus Lauro-cerasus), a
handsome fragrant shrub of the Caucasus to northern Persia, cultivated in the
southern states and very common in the Mediterranean regions of Europe. The
Mayday tree of Europe (Prunus Padus), as well as numerous species of the
genus Spiraea, like Spiraea Douglasti, S. salicifolia, S. japonica, S. Thunbergi;
the nine-bark (Physocarpus opulifolius), species of the genus Rosa, such as
the prairie rose (Josa setigera), sweetbrier (Rosa rubiginosa), dog rose (Rosa
canina), R. rugosa, R. gallica, and the cinnamon rose (FR. cinnamonea) are
frequently cultivated. Kerria japonica, Rubus odoratus, Pyrus coronaria, P.
japonica, P. Aucuparia, P. americana, Crataegus mollis and C. punctata are also
cultivated.
The family contains a large number of valuable fruits; of these we may
mention the service berry (Amelanchier canadensis and A. spicata), the apple
(Pyrus Malus), the pear (Pyrus communis), the quince (P. Cydonia), straw-
ROSACEAE 505
berry (Fragaria vesca, F. virginiana, var. Illinoensis), the F. chiloensis, native
to Chili and the Pacific coast (the common garden strawberry is a modified
form of the Chilian strawberry), and the Indian strawberry (Duchesnea indica).
We may also mention the wild northern plum (Prunus americana), the Chick-
asaw plum (P. angustifolia), European garden plum (P. domestica), sand
cherry (P. pumila and P. Besseyi); the cherries, English cherry (P. avium),
naturalized in the southern states, especially in Virginia and Maryland, the sour
cherry (P. Cerasus), also naturalized in the East and extensively cultivated, the
wild red cherry (P. pennsylvanica), commonly used in the north, the Japanese
plum (P. triflora), the apricot (P. armeniaca), peach (P. persica), almond (P.
Amygdalus) flowering almond (P. nana), wild red raspberry (Rubus idaeus
var. aculeatissimus), black raspberry (R. occidentalis), garden raspberry of Eu-
rope (R. Idaeus), salmon berry (R. parviflorus), dewberry (R. cuneifolius)
and the wineberry of Japan (R. phoenicolasius). The fruit of the Icaco plum
(Chrysobolanus Icaco) of tropical America is edible. The wood of the wild
black cherry (P. serotina) takes an excellent finish, and therefore is highly de-
sirable for cabinet making and for interior finishing of houses. The wood of
other species of the genus is used in the manufacture of pipes and furniture.
Most of the plants of the order contain no injurious substances. Malic acid
C,H,O,. occurs in the fruit of the cherry (Prunus Cerasus), plum (P. domes-
tica), the apple (Pyrus Malus), the strawberry (Fragaria virginiana), (F.
vesca), etc. Salicylic acid C,H,O, occurs in the fruit of the strawberry, citric
acid in Rubus, the strawberry and Prunus domestica. The Quillaja Saponaria
contains saponin, the bark yielding 2 per cent. Kobert distinguishes two sub-
stances quillajic acid C,,H,,O,, and sapotoxin C,_H,,O,,.
The glucoside amygdalin was first obtained in 1830 by Robiquet and Boutron
from the seeds of the bitter almond. Liebig and Woehler named the substance
which converts the amygdalin into the so-called essence of bitter almonds, emul-
sin. They found that through the action of emulsin, sugar and prussic acid
were formed. The name synaptase was given to emulsin.
Ctls, NOP Nae aE ©) vane CHO) 45 FIGis Zee Or
Amygdalin Benzoic Prussic Glucose
aldehyde acid
Emulsin can also convert salicin, helicin, phlorizin, and arbutin. ‘The change
in arbutin is as follows:
C,,H,,0, a8 H,O0 =F C,H,O, We C,H,,0,.
Arbutin Hydroquinon Glucose
In the cherry leaves emulsin occurs 1n the leaves and younger branches. Emulsin
also occurs in Penicillium glaucum and Aspergillus niger.
The Kooso (Brayera anthelmintica) is a large dioecious ornamental tree
from Abyssinia. The drug comes from the pistillate flowers which have a tea-
like,odor but a bitter, nauseous taste and contain cuscotoxin which is a muscle
poison, protocosin and cosin which is bitter and acrid. In medicine it is used
as a taeniafuge but in large doses produces vomiting and colic.’ Agrimoma
gryposepala, Gillenia stipulacea, and Geum urbanum are used as astringents.
The roots of the water avens (Geum rivale) are tonic and powerfully astringent.
The soap-bark (Quillaja Saponaria) of Peru and Chili is used as an expectorant
and is an irritant poison. According to Schneider who investigated a great
many of the saponins which occur injuriously in about fifty families, they act
506 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
poisonously by dissolving the blood corpuscles. Cholesterin contained in the
body acts as a natural antidote against them.
Several plants of the order produce members of the terpene group; rose oil,
contains rhodinol C,,H,.O, supposed to be identical with geranium oil; and a
second terpene, roseol, C,,H,,O,. Many fruits of the order, especially Pomeae,
contain mannite and sorbite. The arbutin, C,,H,,O, obtained in many plants
also occurs in some plants of this order; the glucoside hydrochinon, C,H,,O,
occurs in the buds of pears. Quercetrin C,.H,,O,, derived from a glucoside,
is found in the flowers of haw (Crataegus), the bark of apple trees and of
Prunus instititia. Amygdalin C,,H,,NO,,, occurs in the seeds of many plants
of the family, especially in Pomeae and Pruneae; also in the bark of Prunus
Padus, P. serotina, etc., and in the seeds of Pyrus Aucuparia.
Fig. 266. Kooso (Brayera anthelmintica). Flowering branch. Contains a muscle poison.
(After Faguet). Fig. 266a. Common Wild Plum (Prunus americana). (C. M. King).
Genera of Rosaceae
Ovary inferior or enclosed in the calyx tube.
Carpels. namerous; fruit'an-achene si iG vids Seva hivea ses vee bee os) eROSEs
Carpels few, fruit not an achene.
Garpels cartilaginous? Irth ia pomesein vee ee ceinine ee sim eels 4. Pyrus.
Carpels bony; ‘dripe-like, 2) oes Sa Vee a aw vs oon 6. Crataegus.
Ovary superior not enclosed in calyx tube.
Calyx deciduous; fruitia drupe sees ti ev see 5. Prunus.
ROSACEAE 507
Calyx persistent.
Pistils: ntumerous $7 Frist Artapelers 05 acie chacittie's dedargiokioevaie 6 a4 1. Rubus.
Pistils ntimerous sy, Lose am aCHeme a uly Vee sinieasae eleeais des 2. Fragaria.
1. Rubus. Raspberries and Blackberries
Perennial herbs, shrubs or vines; viné prickly, with alternate leaves, 3-7
foliolate or simple; flowers terminal; axillary or solitary, white reddish or pink,
usually perfect; calyx 5-parted, petals 5, deciduous; stamens numerous; achenes
usually many, inserted on the receptacle, which is either fleshy or dry; carpels
forming drupelets. About 200 species chiefly Northern.
Rubus Idaeus . var. aculeatissimus (C. A. Mey.) Regel & Tiling. Wild
Red Raspberry
Stems biennial, upright shrubs covered with straight, stiff bristles, some
hooked, and glandular hairs; leaflets 3-5, oblong, ovate, pointed, whitish, downy
underneath; petals as long as the sepals, whitish; fruit light red. Spreads by
suckers.
Distribution. The species is native to the Appalachian Mountains as far
south as the Carolinas; common at high altitudes in the Rockies. Frequently
Fig. 268. Wild black cap rasp.
Fig 267. Wild Red Raspberry (Rubus Idaeus, var- berry (Rubus occidentalis). This
aculeatissimus). The prickles of the red raspberry produce plant has thorns which are irritat-
mechanical injury. (Ada Hayden). ing. (Ada Hayden).
508 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
troublesome in fields for several years in the north and persists for a long time
in gardens. A common native of the north.
Rubus occidentalis L. Black Raspberry, or Black-cap Raspberry
Stems biennial, glaucus, recurved, beset with hooked prickles; rooting at the
tip; leaves pinnately 3-foliolate, or rarely 5-foliolate; leaflets ovate, coarsely
doubly serrate, whitish underneath; flowers corymbose clusters; petals shorter
than the sepals; fruit usually purplish-black, occasionally white.
Distribution. Quebec to Georgia, to Missouri, to Minn. Like the preced-
ing species, often troublesome in fields and gardens.
Rubus villosus Ait. High Bush Blackberry
Shrubs 1-6 feet high, upright or reclining, armed with stout recurved
prickles, branchlets and lower surface of leaves glandular; leaflets 3-5, ovate,
pointed, terminal one stalked; flowers in corymbose clusters; petals white; fruit
not separating from the juicy receptacle, blackish.
Distribution. From Nova Scotia to Georgia, Missouri, Kansas, to Minn.
Troublesome like the black-cap Raspberry.
Injurious properties. No species of the genus Rubus is known to be poison-
ous, but the bristles and spines on various species frequently inflict injuries
Numerous cases of inflammation, and later pus formation, are reported from
the prickles found on the common red raspberry. ‘This is especially true of
the larger prickle of the black raspberry and the dewberry. The bark of the
blackberry contains villosin. The leaves are said to cause an irritation of the
skin of berry pickers or others who walk among the bushes.
Fig. 269. Common Blackberry (Rubus villosus).
The common blackberry produces prickles which act in
juriously in a mechanical way. (Ada Hayden).
ROSACEAE—FRAGARIA 509
2. Fragaria l.. Strawberry
Perennial stemless herbs; leaves petioled, stipulate, 3-foliolate; flowers white,
in clusters, polygamo-dioecious; calyx persistent, with 5 bractlets, deeply 5-lobed;
petals 5; stamens numerous; carpels or pistils numerous; the receptacle elongat-
ed, which become fleshy in fruit. A small genus of about 25 species contain-
ing the common cultivated strawberry (F. chiloensis) of the Pacific coast, our
wild strawberry (F. virginiana), the European strawberry (F. vesca) and the
Indian strawberry (F. Indica or Duchesnea indica).
Fragaria vesca ly. European Wood Strawberry
A perennial with ovate leaves, dentate, thin; flowers white, racemose recep-
tacle, elongate, fruit with achenes, seeds free above the receptacle. It is very
different from our common wild strawberry, in which the achenes are sunken
in the flesh.
Poisonous properties. Few people would suspect that the seeds of the straw-
berry are injurious, but I have known people who have found that the eating
of the common cultivated strawberry is injurious, and it is known that the
European strawberry (F. vesca) produces a rash that sometimes resembles that
produced by scarlatina. Dr. Millspaugh, in speaking of the European straw-
berry, says of a lady coming under his care who had consumed the fruit of the
strawberry grown in Florida:
In the afternoon of the same day the skin was hot and swollen, the patient thirsty
and restless, and little sleep was gained that night; the next day the eruption began to fade,
the appetite returned, and restlessness ceased. On the third day exfoliation began and was
very profuse, the skin appearing quite similar to the condition existing after a severe attack
of scarlatina.
Fig. 270 . Fig. 270a
Fig. 270. Wild Strawberry (Fragaria virginiana). (Ada Hayden). Fig. 270a. Wild
Strawberry (Fragaria vesca). (Willis).
510 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
: HP
mY
ih, CA
aN | G) Ny
4 | Ae if
SY, af f
Pe \
NN Lae p ie
ad PN iy
= WS
saa Seas
A gS
Fig. 271. European Wood Strawberry (Fragaria
vesca). This plant occurs in fields and along road-
sides. Sometimes causes dermatitis. (W. S. Dudgeon).
Prof. Prentiss * reports the case of a man who, at the age of 14, had become
quite ill from eating strawberries and forever afterward could not eat them
without becoming ill.
3. Rosa L,.
Erect or climbing shrubs, with prickly stems, alternate leaves adnate to
the petioles; flowers showy, corymbose, or solitary; calyx urn-shaped; stamens
and carpels numerous; achenes, enclosed in a berry-like calyx tube. Several
species of the genus Rosa are more or less troublesome in fields. The Rosa
centifolia, used for preparing rose water contains a volatile oil. A confection is
made from the hips of Rosa canina. R. gallica contains a volatile oil and a
yellow crystalline glucoside quercitin.
Rosa pratincola Greene. Prairie Rose
An erect perennial shrub with densely prickly stems bearing slender bristles ;
narrow stipules, more or less glandular, toothed; leaflets 7-11, broadly elliptical
to oblong-lanceolate, sessile or nearly so; flowers corymbose or rarely solitary,
pink; sepals lanceolate, somewhat glabrous; fruit smooth.
Distribution. Common on prairies of Wisconsin, Iowa to Texas, New Mex-
ico and Montana. In Iowa, Missouri and parts of Minnesota and Arkansas, it
is most troublesome.
Rosa blanda Ait. Smooth Rose
An erect shrub with few straight prickles or wholly unarmed; from 1-3
feet high; leaflets 5-7, short stalked; oblong-lanceolate ; cuneate; stipules dilated,
naked or slightly glandular-toothed; flowers usually large, corymbose or solitary.
Distribution. From Newfoundland to Ontario and Illinois.
* Bot. Gazette 13:19.
ROSACEAE—ROSA i
Rosa Sayi. Schw. Say’s Rose
A very prickly shrub with low stem, 1-2 feet high; leaflets 3-7 broadly ellip-
tical or oblong, lanceolate, glandular, ciliate and resinous; stipules dilated;
flowers large, solitary or rarely more; outer sepals usually with 1 or 2 narrow
lateral lobes.
Distribution. From northern Michigan, Northwest Territory to Colorado.
Tae
“
A
NN
Fig.| 272. Arkansas Rose (Rosa pratincola). A native rose.
(Ada Hayden).
Rosa Woodstu Vindl. Wood’s Rose
Stems usually low; 6 inches to 3 feet high with slender, straight or recurved
spines and scattered prickles, or unarmed above; leaflets 5-7 obovate to oblong
or lanceolate, more or less toothed; flowers corymbose or solitary; sepals naked
or hispid; fruit globose.
Distribution. Prairies of Minnesota and from Montana to New Mexico and
Texas.
Mechanical injuries. The prickles inflict injury to cattle, and are especial-
ly troublesome in grain fields. Before the binder came into use men were
5) MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
injured by the prickles and spines of the rose which produced inflammation and
caused the formation of pus.
4. Pyrus L.
Trees or shrubs; simple leaves; flowers in cymose clusters, white or pink;
calyx urn-shaped, 5-lobed; petals 5, short-clawed; stamens usually numerous;
styles mostly 5, distinct or united at the base; ovules 2 in each cavity; carpels
leathery; fruit a pome. About 37 species of wide distribution, chiefly in the
North Temperate region. The following species of the genus are cultivated
for their fruits; quince (P. Cydonia), pear (P. communis), Japan or sand pear
(P. sinensis), apple (P. Malus), Old World crab apple (P. baccata), mountain
ash (P. americana), ( P. sitchénsis P. sambucifolia), European mountain ash (P.
Aucuparia).
The fresh bark of the wild mountain ash is used in medicine; it is known
to produce irritation of the alimentary mucous membranes, and a reflex nervous
irritation.
Pyrus coronaria I, Wild Crab Apple
A small tree with petioled or ovate to triangular-ovate leaves, sparingly
pubescent beneath; sharply serrate and often lobed; flowers rose-colored, frag-
rant; calyx slightly pubescent; pome fleshy, fragrant, greenish-yellow, acid.
Two other species are found in eastern North America, namely, P. angustifolia,
with small leaves and few flowers, and P. ioensis, with firm leaves, narrowed at
the base, and pubescent calyx, chiefly west in the Mississippi Valley, P. rivularis
Dougl., occurs from California to Alaska.
Distribution. Our Eastern wild crab is found from Ontario to Michigan
and South Carolina; in the west it is replaced by the P. ioensis.
Poisonous and medicinal properties. All the species of the genus Pyrus
contain the glucoside amygdalin, C,,H,,NO,,, which is converted by the action
of the ferment into hydrocyanic acid. The bark also contains citric acid,
C,H,O,, and malic acid, C,H,O,, both of which appear in the fruit of the ap-
ples. There may be occasionally cases of poisoning where animals are allowed
to browse upon the wilting leaves of the apple.
Fig. 273. Common apple (Pyrus Malus). ‘The well known cul-
tivated apple. (W. S. Dudgeon).
ROSACEAE—PYRUS a Jie:
gun JL
RGN!
ne es Ypp_ oy
Aer. / 4
zs
(y
Fig. 274. Iowa Crab (Pyrus ioensis). 1. Flowering branch.
2. Longitudinal section of flower with petals removed, natural
size. 3. Fruiting branch. 4. Longitudinal section of fruit. 5.
Summer branch. 1, 3, 4, 5, one-half natural size. (M. M. Cheney).
Crataegus L. Hawthorn. White Thorn
Shrubs or small trees, usually spiny; leaves petioled; flowers in corymbose
clusters, white or pink; calyx-tube urn-shaped; limb 5-cleft; petals 5, roundish;
stamens numerous or few; styles 1-5; fruit a pome, containing 1-5 bony, 1-seed-
ed stones. About 75 species, although the number is sometimes estimated as
high as 125. Some species, like C. punctata, and C. mollis, are ornamental.
Crataegus mollis Scheele
Shrub or small tree; shoots densely pubescent; leaves large, slender-petioled,
cuneate, truncate or cordate at base, usually with acute lobes; more or less
densely pubescent beneath; flowers large, 1 inch across; fruit bright scarlet with
a light bloom.
514 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Distribution. Common in thickets from Eastern Canada to Iowa and Kan-
sas, and Texas.
Poisonous properties. Large numbers of haw fruits are eaten, and several
deaths due to the eating of Crataegus have been reported in Iowa. ‘These were
probably largely due to strangulation or indigestibility of the stony “seed.”
The flesh is said to be indigestible as well.
aoe
SSNS
fi
—
SS
Fig. 275. Common Red Haw (Cratcegus mollis). (C. M. King)
5. Prunus Ll. Plum and Cherry.
Shrubs or trees with alternate petioled leaves and small stipules; flowers
variously clustered, mostly perfect; calyx inferior, free from the ovary, with a
bell-shaped or urn-shaped tube and 5 spreading lobes; falling after flowering;
petals white or pink; spreading stamens 15-20 or more, distinct, inserted on the
throat of the calyx, perigynous; pistil solitary; style simple; stigma capitate;
ovary 1-celled, 2-ovuled; fruit a drupe; seed usually one; embryo large, cotyle-
dons fleshy, endosperm absent. Species about 90, of the north temperate regions,
tropical America and Asia. The sweet cherry (Prunus avium), sour cherry (P.
Cerasus), native plum (P. americana), Chicksaw plum (P. Chicasa), European
plum (P. domestica), Japan plum (P. triflora), the flowering almond (P.
triloba), peach (P. persica), and apricot (P. armeniaca) are all well known in
cultivation.
Prunus virginiana I, Choke Cherry
A tall shrub or small tree, bark gray; leaves thin, oval, oblong or obovate,
acuminate at the apex, smooth or slightly pubescent, sharply serrate, teeth
large; often doubly serrate; flowers white in rather loose racemes, terminating
leafy branches; petals roundish, fruit red, turning dark or crimson. Astringent.
Distribution. Forming thickets from New Foundland to Manitoba to Texas
and Georgia.
Wild Cherry (Prunus demissa). Common shrub of the Rocky Mountains. (Photo by
Colburn),
ROSACEAE—PRUNUS | 515
Prunus demissa Walp. Western Wild Cherry or Choke Cherry.
A shrub or small tree; leaves thick and oval or obovate, acute or more or
less obtuse at the apex; teeth rather short; flowers white in dense racemes,
terminating leafy branches; fruit dark or purplish black, less astringent than
the preceding.
Distribution. Dry soil, common in thickets and woods from Dakota to
Kansas, New Mexico to California and British Columbia.
Prunus serotina Ehrh. Wild Black Cherry
Large tree with reddish brown branches, reddish wood; leaves thick, oblong,
or lanceolate-oblong, taper pointed, serrate, with short teeth shining above;
flowers in elongated spreading or drooping racemes; petals obovate; fruit
purplish black, and slightly astringent.
Fig. 276. Black cherry (Prunus serotina). 1. Flowering branch.
2. Longitudinal section of flower, enlarged. 3. Fruiting branch. 4.
Cross section of fruit. 5. Longitudinal section of fruit. 6. Winter
branchlet. 1, 3, 6, one-half natural size. 4, 5, natural size. (M. M.
Cheney in Green’s Forestry in Minnesota.)
516 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Distribution. From New England to Ontario, to Florida and Texas,
Kansas, Dakota and Minnesota.
Prunus pennsylvanica L,. Wild Red Cherry
A small tree 20-30 feet high, light brown bark; leaves oval or lanceo-
late, acute or acuminate, finely and sharply serrate, glabrous, with slender
petiole; flowers white in corymbose clusters; fruit small, globose, light red
hue and sour.
Distribution. In rocky woods. New Foundland to the Rocky Mountains
to Georgia.
Poisonous properties. Many cases of poisoning have been recorded from
eating the seeds of peach and bitter almonds. They contain a highly poisonous
Fig. 277. Wild Red Cherry (Prunus pennsylvanica). 1. Flower-
ing branch. 2. Longitudinal section of flower. 3. Fruiting branch.
4. Longitudinal section of fruit, slightly enlarged. 5. Cross section
of fruit. 6. Embryo enlarged. 7. Axil of leaf, showing stipules.
8. Winter branchlet. 1, 3, 7, 8, one-half natural size. (M. M.
Cheney.)
ROSACEAE—PRUNUS 517
substance from which prussic acid is obtained. Mr. Chesnut says in regard to
the black cherry:
The fruit is rather agreeable, being but slightly bitter and astringent in taste. In
some localities it is much used to flavor liquor. Poisoning is frequently caused by cattle
eating the wilted leaves from branches thrown carelessly within their reach or ignorantly
offered as food. Children occasionally die from eating the kernels of the seed or from
swallowing the fruit whole.
Prof. Chas. D. Howard, of the New Hampshire Station, says:
The poisonous property of all species of cherry leaves is due to hydrocyanic acid,
popularly known as prussic acid. This compound does not exist as such in the growing
leaf, but is derived from a class of substances called glucosides, of which amygdalin is the
type peculiar to the cherry. This, or a closely allied body, is to be found not only in the
leaves and bark, but especially in the stones of cherries, peaches and plums, and the seeds
of the apple. By the action of moisture and a vegetable ferment called emulsin, which
exists in the plant, a complex chemical reaction takes place, that begins in the leaf the
moment connection with the circulatory system is cut off. The three products of this re-
action are hydrocyanic acid, grape sugar and benzaldehyde, or bitter almond oil.
There is a popular opinion that the leaves of the cherry are poisonous only when cut
and in the wilted condition; that cattle may safely nibble them from the growing shrub
without danger of injury; and that they are quite harmless when dried. Our observations,
however, prove these views to be but partially correct. As a matter of fact, distillations
of samples, made within twenty minutes of cutting, show that the freshly cut leaves yield
nearly as much acid as the wilted ones do when calculated on the weight of fresh material
taken, and when eaten fresh, the character of the juices within the animal stomach is such
as to render that organ a most favorable place for the conduct of the reaction in which
prussic acid is liberated.
On the other hand, while it is true that the thoroughly dried leaves yield a comparatively
small amount of acid, still they may always produce some, and as ordinarily dried in the
hayfield, they may be capable of generating a considerable quantity of the poison. The
desirability of carefully excluding them from all hay is therefore apparent.
One hundred grams of bitter almonds (Prunus amygdalus communis), in the form of
pulp, yield 250 milligrams prussic acid; the same amount of kernels from cherry stones
yields 170 mgs.; leaves of the cherry laurel (Prunus Laurocerasus), occurring in Europe
and Mexico, 39 mgs.; kernels of peach, 164 mgs.; apple seeds, 35 mgs. The stones of all
these species must therefore be regarded as dangerous; the fruit, in every case, so far as
can be ascertained, is harmless.
The leaves of the wild black cherry are the most poisonous of the three species in-
vestigated, though all are dangerous.
Both the wilted leaves and fresh leaves are poisonous, while the dried are to be re-
garded with suspicion.
Vigorous, succulent leaves from young shoots, which are the ones most liable to be
eaten by cattle, are far more poisonous than the leaves from a mature tree or stunted
shrub.
Leaves wilted in bright sunlight to about 75 per cent original weight, or until they
begin to appear slightly limp and to lose their gloss, yield the maximum amount of prussic
acid.
I have seen cattle browse on the leaves of Prunus demissa in the Rocky
Mountains. It is believed by stockmen to be poisonous. Probably the danger
is not so great because the leaves are eaten direct from the tree and not wilted.
The Bureau of Forestry has shown that much loss occurs which can easily be
prevented by changing the trail.
It has been known for a long time that seeds of the various members of
the genus Prunus contain poisonous properties. The bark of several of our
wild cherries is also known to contain a poisonous principle, a ferment known
as emulsin, which in the presence of water acts on the glucoside amygdalin
C,,H,,NO,,, and produces hydrocyanic acid, a powerful poison; it is a clear,
colorless liquid of a characteristic taste and odor, resembling that of a bitter
518 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
almond. Externally, hydrocyanic acid produces a paralytic effect. When taken
internally, it acts as a sedative upon the mucous membrane. Prof. Winslow
gives the following characteristics of poisoning:
In poisoning, the blood becomes first a bright arterial hue, and later assumes a dark,
venous color. The first condition is due to the fact that the blood does not give up its
oxygen for some reason. Brunton suggests that it is because the blood is hurried so rapidly
through the dilated peripheral vessels that it does not have time to yield up its oxygen.
The dark color of the blood is probably owing to asphyxia and accumulation of carbonic
dioxide, following the paralytic action of prussic acid upon the respiratory centre.
Prussic acid has an essentially depressing action upon the nervous system as a whoie.
The brain, cord and nerves become paralyzed by large doses.
The spinal cord is paralyzed at a period after coma and convulsions have appeared.
The peripheral nerves and muscles are paralyzed directly by toxic doses, and not through
the mediation of the central nervous apparatus.
Inhalation of the pure acid will cause death in a confined atmosphere, and even in-
halation of the medicinal solution will induce the physiological symptoms of the drug.
He also says of the toxicology of prussic acid:
Prussic acid is one of the most powerful poisons in existence. Death may be in-
stantaneous, or life may be prolonged for over an hour after lethal dose. More commonly
the animal survives for a few minutes, and we observe the following symptoms in dogs:
The animal falls, froths at the mouth, the respiration is of a gasping character and occurs
at infrequent intervals. There is unconsciousness, the pupils become dilated, there are
muscular tremblings, and clonic or tonic spasms. Defecation and micturition occur, and
erections often ensue in the male. Respiration ceases before the cardiac pulsations.
Three stages may be distinguished in fatal poisoning. First: a very short period
elapses before the symptoms appear. There are giddiness, difficult breathing, and slow
pulse in this stage. Second: the pupils dilate, vomiting may occur, and the animal utters
loud cries. Spasmodic defecation, micturition and erections may be present, with con-
vulsions and unconsciousness. ‘Third: the last stage is characterized by collapse, spasms,
general paralysis and death. The subacute form of poisoning may ensue and prove fatal,
or, owing to the volatile character ot the drug, complete recovery may take place within
one-half or three-quarters of an hour. Occasionally dogs continue to be paralyzed for several
days and get well. The minimum fatal dose recorded in man is 9/10 of a grain of pure
acid, or about 50 drops of the medicinal solution. Four to five drachms of the diluted
acid frequently, but not invariably, cause subacute poisoning and death, in horses, within
an hour. One to two drachms of the pharmacopoeial preparation usually kill dogs within
ten minutes.
Prussic acid is commonly used to destroy the domestic animals. Two to four drachms
of the medicinal acid are to be given to dogs and cats of the ordinary size, and certain,
painless, and rapid death will occur if a fresh preparation of the drug can be obtained.
The unopened, half-ounce vial, kept by druggists, is recommended. Big dogs, horses, and
the other larger animals are not killed rapidly, nor sometimes at all, by great quantities
of the diluted acid. Hence, shooting is a more humane and preferable mode of death for them.
In the experience of the writer, one to two drachms of prussic acid saturated with potassium
cyanide, failed to kill a horse, when injected directly into the jugular vein. The odor
of the acid lingers about the animal for a few hours after death; the eyes are fixed and
staring; the pupils dilated; the teeth are clinched tight and covered with froth, while the
blood is of a very dark color. ‘The treatment embraces emptying the stomach by large
doses of promptly acting emetics, or by the stomach tube, or pump; atropin, ether, and
brandy subcutaneously, and inhalations of ammonia, together with artificial respiration,
and hot and cold douches upon the chest.
Hydrocyanic acid is produced by a number of other plants referred to in
another connection.
Wild cherry bark (Prunus serotina) and leaves by distillation yield a vola-
tile oil resembling that of bitter almond. ‘The same is true of the P. virginiana.
Hydrocyanic acid is formed only by the action of a ferment upon amygdalin
which is present in all plants of this sub-order. Fresh leaves are generally
considered harmless, but Chesnut says that cattle are frequently poisoned from
—.
ROSACEAE—PRUNUS 319
eating the wilted leaves. He also adds that the seeds of all varieties of cherries
and plums, both native and introduced are subject to suspicion. The flesh of
none of the species is in any way poisonous. Chesnut also says in another
contribution, that no cases are on record where stock have been poisoned by eat-
ing the leaves of any species, while still on the tree. It is only after they
have been cut off and are partially wilted that they are considered dangerous.
The reason for this is that during the process of wilting, prussic acid is formed
from non-poisonous constituents which are always present in the leaf and bark.
The wilted leaves have the characteristic odor of prussic acid. The amount
of amygdalin contained varies from 3.6 to 4.12 per cent and yields from 0.23-
0.32 hydrocyanic acid. Recent studies indicate that an amydonitril gluco-
side occurs in young leaves of both Prunus Padus and P. serotina.
Ss. £4/"
5d
Fig. 278. The European May Day
tree (Prunus Padus), poisonous. ‘This
frequently cultivated. (Ada Hay-
en.)
LEGUMINOSAE
Herbs, shrubs, trees, or vines with alternate, mostly compound, stipulate
leaves, papilionaceous or sometimes regular flowers; calyx 3-6, or 4-5 cleit;
stamens 10, rarely 5 and sometimes many, monadelphous, diadelphous or distinct ;
pistil, simple, free, becoming a legume in fruit or sometimes a loment; ovules
l-many; seeds generally ex-albuminous or nearly so or, in some, with copious
albumen. About 6500 species of wide distribution, but most abundant in the
tropics.
520 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Economic plants
The order contains a large number of economic plants, especially food
plants. The common bean, (Phaseolus vulgaris), was originally found in the
southwestern United States, but is now cultivated in all civilized countries.
Common string and golden wax beans are types of the last named. The
scarlet runner, (P. multiflorus), generally cultivated for ornamental purposes
is also used as food, although the ripe beans are unwholesome and sometimes
poisonous. The three-lobed kidney bean, (P. triJobus), is commonly cultivated
in India. The lima bean, (P. lunatus), also native to America, supposedly
Brazil, is not known in a wild state. The seed of the Adzuki bean, (P. Mungo,
var. glaber), is used as food in Japan. The soy bean, (Glycine Soja and G. hispi-
da), of which there are many varieties, is native to China and Japan and is used
in large quantities by the Japanese and Chinese for food, but is little used in the
United States, being here cultivated as a forage plant.
Soy beans can only be fed in moderate amounts to cattle because of their
purgative properties. A loss of a considerable number of cattle occured in Eng-
land recently where soy bean cake had been used. When fed mixed no teouble
was caused, but when fed alone it caused poisoning.
The cow-pea, (Vigna Catjang), native to China, has been cultivaied for
centuries by the Chinese and extensively used for food. It is also used in
many other warm countries, especially the southern states, not only for human
food, but also as one of the best forage plants, for which purpose it is now
Fig. 279. Soja Bean (Glycine hispida),
used both as a food and as a forage plant.
(U. S. Dept. Agr.)
LEGUMINOSAE 521
cultivated as far north as Minnesota; it is also a soil renovator. The Dolichos
Lablab is used for food in the tropics. The yam bean, (Pachyrrhizus angula-
tus), in some countries, forms a resource as food in case of the failure of the
usual crops. The garden pea, (Pisum sativum), probably originated in west-
ern Asia along the foothills of the Caucasus. It has, however, long been culti-
vated in Europe. Some authorities believe that it may have originated
from the field pea (Pisum arvense). The pea is extensively cultivated in
Europe and Canada as a forage plant. The chick pea, (Cicer arietinum), is
a native to Caucasus and the Caspian Sea region and has been cultivated since
: Wy
Fig. 280. Garden pea (Pisum sativum),
a valuable food plant. (U. S. Dept. Agr.)
remote times in northern Africa and other Mediteranean countries. In the
United States, it is cultivated chiefly in the arid regions both for stock and for
human food. The lentil (Lens esculenta) has been cultivated in the Mediter-
ranean region for centuries but its original home is not known. It is grown and
used now from Central Europe south and east to India, as food for both men
and stock. The peanut (Arachis hypogaea), probably native to Brazil, was
cultivated by the ancient Peruvians but is now widely scattered in all warm
countries. The nut (seed) is used as food and a fine oil is extracted from it.
A plant allied to the peanut (Voandesia subterranea) is used as an article of
food in western and southern Africa. The pigeon pea (Cajanus indicus) is
an important article of food in the tropics, especially in India, and is also used
as a fodder plant. The sword bean (Canavalia ensiforme) and the Jackpea
(C. obtusifolia), cultivated in the tropics are used as food, the skin having been
522 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
"4
NOES
)
vi
Fig. 282. Broad Bean (Vicia Faba). Culti-
vated both as a food and as a_ forage plant.
(From the American Agriculturist.)
LEGUMINOSAE 523
first removed. The broad bean (Vicia Faba) is much cultivated in Europe
for both animal and human food. The seeds of Paprika africana are used as
food by native Africans and in Abyssinia and in the Indian Archipelago are
esteemed as a good substitute for coffee.
The Australian wattles (Acacia), of which there are many species, vary
greatly in size. The bark of some of these is used for tanning purposes. ‘The
wood is valuable and takes a fine polish, A. Gerrurdi being an example of
this class. From A. Farnesiana is derived the oil of cassia, much used in per-
fumery. It is prepared by macerating the flowers in olive oil. Cassia pomade
is prepared from fatty substances to which the cassia flowers have been made
to impart their perfume. C. occidentalis is used as a substitute for coffee.
Many of the legumes produce important gums. From the Algarrobe, or locust
tree of Jamaica (Hymenaea Courbaril) is produced a gum said to be superior
to shellac; the sweet pulp of the fruit is edible. The gum Kino (Pterocar-
pus Marsupium) is a native of India and yields a gum that is used both for
tanning and dying and as an astringent. Kino contains from 40-80 percent of
tannin and kino red. P. tinctorius produces a valuable wood, and a related
species (P. Dalbergioides) produces a wood similar to mahogany. The Tonka
bean or Tonquin (Dipteryx odorata) of Guinea contains the substance cumarin
and is used as a snuff and as a scent in cigars. Cumarin is widely distributed
in the plant kingdom, especially in such Leguminosae as Dipteryx, Melilotus,
and Myroxylon. It occurs in species of other families, as the palm, vernal
Fig. 283. Axwort (Coronilla varia). A poison:
ous plant of Europe—adventitious in the U. S.
(From Strasburger, Noll, Schenck and Schimper.)
524 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
grass, madder, rue, and orchids, in such composites as Tvrilisa, in the root-
stock of Vitis sessilifolia and in Prunus Mahaleb. It is most easily detected
when the plant begins to wilt or after it is dead. Pseudocumarin C_H,O,,,
is like the odorous substance found in Coronilla scorptoides. The seeds
of Mucuna giganteum and of M. pruriens are used for various purposes ag
watch charms, or as other ornaments.
Some species of the family which contain a good fiber are applied in weaving
cloth. A species of Crotalaria, C. juncea is cultivated in India for its tough
fiber, and is used for making ropes and bags. Sesbania aculeata, a branched
annual, is also cultivated for its fiber. The stems of Shola (Aeschynomene
aspera) native to India are used for making hats. Blue indigo dyes come from
Indigofera Anil of the West Indies. The Genista tinctoria or Dyers’ Broom
SS, s
AZ Zils :
fa
GS
‘:
t
Maw
Pr: f wat
Fig. 284. Wairy Vetch (Vicia villosa). Cultivated as a forage
plant. (U. S. Dept. Agr.)
LEGUMINOSAE 525
of Europe and Asia, and naturalized in the U. S. contains a yellow coloring
principle. The seeds of Entada scandens are used in the Samoan Islands in
playing games. The Pithecolobium dulce contains a pulpy pod which is
eaten. The plant is good fodder. Guava (Jnga vera) is grown as a shade tree
and as a substitute for coffee. It is not to be confused with the fruit producing
guava (Psidium guajava). Important forage plants not previously mentioned
are red clover (Tvifolium pratense), native of Europe and used extensively
in northern United States; alsike clover (7.. hybridum), white clover (T.
repens), well known as a forage plant and a good honey plant, T. alexandrinum
the great forage crop of Egypt, known as the Beresem, Japan clover (Lespedeza
striata) a well known forage plant of the South, French honeysuckle (Hedy-
sarum coronarium) an ornamental plant, native to Spain, also used as a for-
age plant of Europe and Western Asia, Desmodium triflorum used as a forage
plant in the tropics, Florida beggar weed (Desmodium tortuosum) of India,
alfalfa (Medicago sativa) of Europe and Western Asia, the vetches (Vicia
villosa and V. sativa), lupines (Lupinus albus) cultivated for forage pur-
poses, besides many valuable native forage plants like the Hosackia Purshiana,
the wild pea (Lathyrus venosus) etc.
Fig. 285. Dyer’s Broom (Gentsta tinctoria). Contains
a yellow coloring matter. (After Faguet.)
526 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Prof. N. E. Hansen through his exploration has brought into prominence
the yellow-flowered alfalfas from Siberia, Medicago ruthenica and M. platy-
carpa, and some of the hardy alfalfas are apparently hybrids between M. sativa
M. falcata. C. V. Piper * calls attention to a number of valuable leguminous for-
age plants that should be cultivated in this country, such as the Lyon bean
(Stizolobium Lyoni). The Kudzu (Pueraria Thunbergiana) a woody native
of Japan, is much used as a forage plant in that country and has been culti-
vated in Florida. The Guar (Cyamopsis tetragomoloba) is an East India
annual legume and is said to be very drouth resistant. Tangier pea (Lathyrus
tingitanus) is a native of Northern Africa. It is excellent and said not
to be poisonous like the other species. The moth bean (Phaseolus aconiti-
folius) is used for food in India and is said to be a_ splendid
forage plant. The Adzuki bean (Phaseolus angularis) native of
southern Asia is used for food in China, Japan and India, and is said
to possess vaulable qualities as a hay plant. The Kulti (Dolichos biflorus)
native to India is said to give promise in the semi-arid regions in Texas as
a valuable forage plant. Under the Vetches the more recent introductions
that give promise are the scarlet vetch (Vicia fulgens) ot Northern Africa,
the black purple vetch (V. atropurpurea) of Algeria and the woolly pod
Fig. 286. Carobtree, or St. John’s Bread (Ceratonia
siliqua). ‘The fruit is edible and is supposed to be
the “locust” of Biblical history. (After Faguet.)
* Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agr. 1908-245.
eo
LEGUMINOSAE 527
vetch (V. dasycarpa) of the Mediterranean region, the Carob tree or St. John’s
bread (Ceratonia siliqua) is a small tree of the Mediterranean region, the
pods of which contain much mucilage of a sweet nature from which syrup
was made, and is supposed to be the locust which John the Baptist lived upon in
the Wilderness and is used as food; and cattle also relish it. Manna (Alhagi
maurorum) is a dwarfed, thorny, shrubby plant which produces a kind of
manna. ‘The locust trees of the West Indies, or Courabaril (Hymenaea Cour-
baril) produces a hard timber. The pods contain bean-like seeds embedded
in a white spongy mass. The Zamang (Pithecolobium Saman) is a large
tree of Venezuela which produces thick, flat pods, containing a sweet pulp
commonly used by cattle and horses for food but which are liable to cause
internal disorder. The honey locust of eastern North America (Gleditschia
triacanthos) produces a hard wood. The pod contains a gummy sweetish
substance much relished by stock. The pods of the mesquite tree (Prosopis
juliflora), native to Texas, are used by stock. The Kentucky coffee tree
(Glymnocladus dioica) is native to the Mississippi Valley and it produces a
broad, tough pod which contains large, hard seeds. The pod contains a sweetish,
disagreeable and nauseating material more or less poisonous. The hard wood
is durable. The seed of hairy vetch (Vicia hirsuta) is a common impurity
in grain seed. The plant is used for forage. ‘The seeds of Castanospermum
australis are used in New South Wales in the production of starch. The
seed of the coffee astragalus (A. baeticus) is said to produce, when roasted,
the true coffee flavor, and is much used in Sweden.
Many of the species of the order are ornamental, among which may be
named the Judas tree or red bud (Cercis Siliquastrum) ; the Caraganas, shrubs
with beautiful yellow flowers; the broom (Cytisus scoparius) of Europe
naturalized along the sea coast, also used in medicine; the black locust (Robinia
Pseudo-acacia), commonly planted as an ornamental tree. The laburnum
(Laburnum anagyroides) is an ornamental tree with poisonous seeds and hard
wood, used for turned work. The wisteria (Wisteria speciosa) a hardy spec-
ies of the southern states and W. Chinensis of China, are cultivated as far
north as central Iowa. The seeds of several species of the order are used
for making necklaces, among these are the red seeds of the coral tree (Ery-
thrina Corallodendron) of the West Indies, the crab’s eye (Abrus precator-
ius) and the Ormosia dasycarpa. The Jequirity seed (Abrus precatorius) is
used as a weight in India, according to Dr. Spafford, each seed weighing ap-
proximately 1 gram.
Medicinal Plants. Of the medicinal plants, in this family, the most important
only will be mentioned here. The broom (Cytisus scoparius), native to Europe,
is used as a diuretic and purgative. Fenugreek (Trigonellu Foenum-graecum)
was formerly used in medicine, but the powdered seeds are now used as an in-
gredient of curry powder and also in the preparation of stock foods; they
have a characteristic odor and bitter taste. Licorice root (Glycyrrhiza glabra
and var. glandulifera (Russian), native to the warmer regions of Europe and
extending eastward into Central Asia, is made into extract of licorice which
is used to cover the flavor of nauseous medicines and contains the glucoside
glycyrrhizin. Cowhage (Mucuna pruriens) is a lofty climbing plant with dark
purple flowers of the size of the sweet pea; pods from 2-4 inches long, covered
with rigid, pointed, brown hairs, which if touched, enter the skin and cause
528 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
itching. The plant is used for the expulsion of intestinal worms, the hairs
being mixed with honey and molasses. The young pods are used as food.
The Calabar or ordeal Bean (Physostigma venenosum) is a climbing peren-
nial plant resembling the scarlet runner and is native to tropical western Africa.
It was formerly used by the natives to produce poisoning and is also an anti-
dote against strychnin poisoning. The seeds contain several poisons, among
them the alkaloids physostigmin C,,H,,N,O, which contracts the pupil of the
eye, calabarin a tetanizing principle, and eseridin Cita Op a purgative.
The wood of Araroba (Andira araroba) is very bitter and is used in oint-
ments. Balsam of Tolu (Myroxylon foluiferum), a native of Veneuzela and
New Granada, is used as an ingredient in lozenges and contains a volatile oil
tolene C,,H,,.
Logwood (Haematoxylon campechianum) is a spreading tree, native to
Central America and Honduras, the bark of which is used for dyeing and
staining, also for domestic purposes, such as in chronic diarrhoea, and contains
heamatoxylin C,,H,,O, and heamatein C,,H,,O,- Senna leaves are derived
from the leaves of Cassia (C. acutifolia and C. angustifolia), the former being
found in Nubia and the latter in southern Arobia and India. Senna leaves are
used in medicine as a purgative and contain cathartic acid, chrysophan and two
bitter principles sennacrol and sennapicrin. Several of our native species of Cas-
Sa EY SS SRE MALS 251:
D Ze WYRE RSAY lh fe
Y Goon as
Rey Go” NG PA
Ch 6 ee
Tig. 287. European Licorice (Glycyrrhiza giabra).
(After Faguct).
LEGUMINOSAE
Cyt
&
wy
y
WALD.
tf,
VL Tir y
oat)
ses f 2
SSeS}
ss
Fig. 288. Acacia (Acacw arabica). Flowering and
fruiting branch. The source of gum arabic. (After
Faguet.)
sia like the partridge pea (C. Chamaecrista), produce scours in sheep because of
their purgative properties. The purging cassia (C. Fistula) is a tree indigenous
to India. The pulp of the pod is a mild laxative. Clitoria ternaica of the Pacific
Islands is a powerful cathartic. Tamarind (Tamarindus indica) a large, hand-
some tree indigenous to tropical Africa, is now widely distributed in other
tropical countries. The fruit is used in medicine as a mild laxative and also
in making a drink. It contains citric, tartaric, and other organic acids. The
pulp and seeds are also eaten; the latter, when boiled, make a tenacious glue.
The leaves and flowers are used as mordants in dyeing. Copaiba balsam
(Copaifera officinalis) is a native to South Africa. The balsam is collected
by Indians and used because of its stimulating action on the mucous mebmrane.
It contains several acids, among them copaibic acid, C,,H,,O0,- Gum Arabic
is obtained from Acacia arabica, the finest product coming from several species
of the genus Acacia (A. Senegal), a plant well known to ancients. It possesses
no real medicinal value. Catechu (Acacia Catechu), a small tree with thorny
530 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
branches, found in tropical eastern Africa, is used in medicine as an astringent.
Under another name, Cutch, it is used in medicine because of its astringent
properties. The resin from Cutch is made into cakes used for dyeing
and tanning. Cutch contains catechol C,H,O, and catechutannic acid.
Fig. 289. Copaiba Balsam (Copaifera officinalis). Used medicin- (f° "" 2
ally. (After Faguet.)
Gum tragacanth (Astragalus gummifer) native to western Asia, is a spiny
shrub with yellow flowers and is used to give consistency to lozenges; it con-
tains traganthin, C,H,O, and arabin.
Poisonous and medicinal plants. Most of the substances occurring in the
poisonous plants are mentioned under the species described. Many of the
Leguminosae contain alkaloids; few of these are, however, found in Mimoseae,
although alkaloids have been found in Acacia tenerrima, Albizzia lucida, and
Pithecolobium Saman which are Mimosae. Of the Papilionaceae, the Sophoreae,
Podalyrieae and Genisteae frequently contain alkaloids. Ulexin, found in seed
of the Ulex europaeus, sophorin, in Sophora speciosa, and baptitoxin are identical
with cytisin. Matrin C,,H,,N,O, an alkaloid, resembling /upanin occurs in the
root of Sophora augustifolia Anagyrin C,,H,,NO,, and cytisin, both occur in
the seeds of Anagyris foetida, Baptisia and many other genera.
LEGUMINOSAE 531
Fig. 290. ‘Tamarind (Tamarindus indica). Fruit, flow-
ers and leaves. Fruit used in making a refreshing drink;
seeds furnish a glue. (After Faguet.)
Retamin C,.H,,NO,,, is obtained from the young branches of Genista
sphaerocarpa. The seed of Trigonella Foenum-Graecum contains trigonellin
C,H,NO,; the same alkaloid is said to also occur in the pea, hemp and oats.
Physostigmin CH Neo or eserin occurs in the ripe seed of Physostigma ven-
enosum. ‘The so-called calabrin is a secondary product; Robinia Nicou is said to
contain nicoulin. Pancin C,,H,,N.O, is found in the fruit of Pentaclethra
macrophylla.
Quite a number of the Leguminosae also contain glucosides. One of the
earliest discoveries made in connection with glucosides was of glycyrrhyzin
found in some species of Astragalus, Abrus prectorius, and the root stock of
Polypodium vulgare and other plants. The root of our wild licorice also con-
tains a glucoside to the extent of 8.53 per cent. Glycyrretin, found in licorice,
has the formula C,,H,,O,.
Ononis spinosa contains a glucoside ononid and a second glucoside, ononin,
C,,H,,0,,. Lupinin, C,,H,,0,,, is a glucoside found in the seedlings of
Lupinus luteus, which through hydrolysis forms lupigin, C,,H,,O,. Gastrolo-
bin is found in the leaves and young branches of Gastrolobium bilobum; bap-
532 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Fig. 291. Purging Cassia (Cassia Fistula). Flowering and fruiting branch. The
pulp of the pod is a mild laxative. (After Faguet.)
Fig. 292. Cow Pea (Vigna Catjang).
A well known forage plant of the South.
To the right a legume; to the left a
flower and a part of a branch in the
lower left hand corner. (W. S. Dud-
geon.)
LEGUMINOSAE 593
tisin, C,,H,,O,,, occurs in Baptisia; and tephrosin, a poisonous substance in
Tephrosia toxicaria. A very toxic unnamed glucoside, C,,H,,O,,, occurs in
the bark and root of Derris elliptica, Mundulea suberosa, and Lonchocarpus
violaceus. Power, however, failed to find this glucoside in Derris uliginosa.
Turboin, C,,H,,O,,, occurs in Tephrosia toxicaria. Gallotannic acid, C,,H,,O,
+,H,O so called, occurs in the pod of Caesalpinia coriaria. The bark of cer-
tain species of Acacia contains 30 per cent of tannic acid. The wood of 4.
Catechu is colored red by catechin, a crystallizable substance.
Lindley in the earlier edition of his Vegetable Kingdom, states, that the
plants of this family are on the whole wholesome and nutritious, and later de-
clares that the family must be considered poisonous. The species used as food
must be considered an exception.
In Australia there are several members of this family that are poisonous.
Dr. Gray in an American Agriculturist of Oct., 1878, says:
What a pity that our cattle are not better acquainted with the corrected rule. In
Europe and in the Atlantic States, no harm is known to come to cattle from want of
proper discrimination. But when European flocks were taken to Australia and to pastures
and forage almost wholly new, thousands of sheep perished in the Swan River Valley
Colony in consequence of cropping the leaves of some leguminous plants to which they
were attracted. What made the matter worse for the botanists, was that the very plants,
which did the mischief had been recommended by one of them (Mr. Preiss, a German) as
the best thing the Agricultural Society could cultivate, as artificial food for stock. But
another botanist, Drummond, a canny Scotchman, made some experiments, that proved
that the people were right in charging the damage to these very species (of Gastrolobium)
which the German botanist, on general principles, expected to be innocent and useful.
The Australian Gastrolobiums are all more or less poisonous, Baron Miiller
having long ago reported Gastrolobium grandiflorum as poisonous. ‘The G.
calycinum known as the York road poison has a toxic base cygnin, cygnic acid
C,,H,,O, which decomposes and forms gastrolobic acid C,H,,O,H,O. The
following species are recorded as poisonous by Maiden in Australia: G. trilo-
bum, G. polystachyum, G. grandiflorum, poisonous to sheep and goats, the seeds
being especially toxic but not to pigeons. The diseased animals have difficulty
in breathing, then they stagger and die, death occurring in from 3-6 hours. The
poison enters the circulation, stops the action of the lungs and heart. The raw
flesh is said to poison cats, and the blood, dogs. The boiled or roasted flesh is,
however, eaten by the natives and is not injurious. The blossoms are very
poisonous. The Mirbelia racemosa is also poisonous to sheep, cattle, and goats.
Two species of Goodia, according to Maiden, are poisonous, the G. lotifolia and.
G. medicaginea. ‘These plants produce what locally goes by the name “black
scours.” ‘The animals become weak, emaciated, and die. The Gastrolobium and
Crotalaria are stock killers in Australia though used as forage in South Aus-
tralia. Maiden reports that the bean tree (Castanospermum australe) is poi-
sonous to stock, especially the beans; when cooked, however, they are eaten by
the Abyssinians. The box poison (Oxrylobium parviflorum) is said to be a very
poisonous plant to stock. The Gompholobium uncinatum is very injurious to
sheep in New South Wales. The Swainsona Greyana and S. coronillaefolia are
poisonous. Sheep that eat them are called indigo-eaters. Both species act much
like the loco weeds of the United States, “sheep go wrong in the head;” horses
also act strangely. “The eyes stand out of their heads.” This disease is identical
with the “Nenta”’ disease of South Africa and the “Pea eating” disease of
Australia. The South African disease is produced by Lessertia. The symptoms
534 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
from Astragalus mollissimus, Gompholobium, Sophora secundiflora, Cytisus pro-
liferus, are all cerebral. Mac Owen regards them all as belonging to the same
category and that Lathyrism caused by Lathyrus sativus is allied to them. That
the well known forage plants Lotus corniculatus, and L. australis, of excellent
repute, are often injurious to stock, but perhaps only from causing indigestion,
as stated by Maiden, is worthy of note in this connection. Moussu and Desaint
report the deaths of a flock of 54 sheep due to poison resulting from eating an-
other plant of this order, Galega officinalis; 80 others in the same flock were
badly affected. Ecchymoses were found in the walls of the alimentary tract and
in the fatal cases a large amount of serum had collected in the pleural cavity.
In subsequent experiments, it was found that 3 kg. of G. officinalis was sufficient
to poison a sheep; the plant, however, seems not to be poisonous to rabbits.
It is of interest to note that the genera Robinia, Indigofera, Wisteria; Caragana,
Colutea, Swainsona, Galega, Lessertia, Astragalus, and Sesbania, all of which con-
tain poisonous species, many of which are exceedingly toxic, belong to the tribe
Galegeae of this family. Glychyrrhiza of the same tribe is not poisonous nor
are all of the species in genera like Astragalus, Caragana, etc.
The Erythrophlaeum guineense contains an alkayoid erythophlein which
acts like digitalin and picrotoxin. The Indigo of Australia (Indigofera aus-
tralis) is regarded as poisonous in Australia. The Lathyrus sativus, L. cicera,
and L. clymneum are poisonous but the active principles have not been isolated.
Of other poisonous genera Robinia, Baptisia, Gymnoclcdus, Thermopsis, may be
mentioned, but the treatment will be given more at length in another connection.
According to Dunstan and Henry, Lotus arabicus, when moistened with
. water and crushed, produces prussic acid. The glucoside lotusin is converted
by the enzyme lotase into prussic acid. We may mention here that many of
the spiny Acacias (A. palleus) of Australia may be injurious in a mechanical
way.
The poisonous substance of Jequirity (Abrus precatorius) is a toxalmumin
called abrin (found also in Cassia hispidula of Mexico) which is easily de-
composed by heat. Behring has produced an antitoxin against the abrin or A.
precatorius. ‘The beans when cooked are eaten in Egypt.
A poisonous resin has been found in Wisteria chinensis, and a glucoside
wisterin; Colutea arborescens, a well known southern European ornamental
plant is poisonous, the leaves being so strongly purgative that they are frequent-
ly substituted for the genuine Senna. European authors list it among the
poisonous plants.
The Tephrosia purpurea of Australia is poisonous to stock, and is used to
stupefy fish. A large number of other plants of the order are used as fish
poisons. Mention may be made of Derris, Abrus and Clitoria; others are men-
tioned in Part I. Some like Afzelia and Pithecolobiun are used as arrow poi-
sons. ‘The seeds of the jequirity plant (Abrus precatorius) are much used in
India for the purpose of poisoning especially in criminal cases of cattle poison-
ing, less than 2 grams of the powdered seed causing death in 48 hours. The
usual method of the “Chamar” or “Skinner” caste is to prepare small spikes,
first soaking the seeds in water, then pounding them, and drying them in the
sun; they are then sharpened upon a stone attached to a handle, and driven under
the skin and left there. Daggers are rendered poisonous by being dipped into
the powdered seed.
‘
LEGUMINOSAE 535
According to Greshoff the leaves and also the seeds of Cassia marylandica
contain saponin; leaves of Prosopis juliflora, Galega officinalis, Psoralea mac-
rostachya as well as the seeds contain saponin. P. tenuiflora is regarded as
poisonous and is avoided by cattle.
Corolla not papilionaceous or only slightly so, endosperm copious.
Flowers perfect; leaves abruptly pinnate (16004... 6 3.02 0iie bie. 1 Cassia.
Flowers polygamous or dioecious....................+++.2. Gymnocladus.
Corolla papilionaceous without or with endosperm; stamens usually 10, usually
diadelphous or monadelphous.
Stamens 10, distinct.
Leaves palmately 3-foliolate.
Pod: inflated ts 32 Sea eas See Cee ee SS eae 4. Baptisia.
1 20.6 U5 1 oe get PRR ONG apo el om LE a a 3. Thermopsis.
RBA VeS PEMA Ces ye hse gis Alas crs itte NUL co cy arahe valetpetied a arranh ate oem 5. Sophora.
Stamens monadelphous, diadelphous, or rarely distinct.
Anthers of 2 forms, stamens monadelphous.
Leaves simple.
Pod pintlate de... ce tes are rs acters ate ep ee Se Gee eete ae 6. Crotalaria.
Pod flat.
Iwedwes: i -s2talWolate ti. 0.) seo Paes ule pc aedes 8. Cytisus.
Leaves usualy. 7-El) foliolate mn ei. e eek 7. Lupinus.
Anthers all alike.
Leaves generally 3-foliolate.
Flowers in racemes; pods coriaceous............ 9. Melilotus.
Flowers in heads; pods membranous......... 10. Trifolium.
Flowers in spikes or heads ;/pods curved......... 10. Medicago.
Leaves pinnately foliolate.
Leaves not tendril bearing; plants not climbing.
Herhs with glandular dots 20.02.) Oe ek 12. Psoralea.
Herbs without glandular dots; pods flat.
Leaves odd pinnate.
Herbsee@lowers: larsec: jialhioe bas wmaaios Gewese 13. Tephrosia.
AN c= flee Sec) 9 br hs ERO REE at ER OMAR Lan Res ita SAU 12. Robinia.
Medvesweverllivaapinmatenws ascites Steeler ne eiaemiaie tte 15. Sesbania.
Pod turgid inflated.
Leaflets not toothed, or only at the apex.
Keel tipped with an erect point........ 17. Oxytropis.
Keel not tipped with an erect point..... 16. Astragalus.
eatlets toothed: allt ovtncdaty |e sui tere aoa ete 20. Cicer.
Herbaceous plants; leaves with tendrils or climbing.
Leaves with tendrils; style bearded at the apex......... ISiiaVicial
Style. bearded down. one, side) .0.sicie geek sores 19. Lathyrus.
Herbaceous climbers; not tendril bearing........................ 21. Phaseolus.
1. Cassia L.
Herbs, shrubs, or in tropical regions, trees, with abruptly pinnate leaves;
calyx of 5 sepals united at the base; petals 5; somewhat unequal, spreading,
imbricated, and clawed; stamens usually 10, or 5, often unequal, and some im-
perfect; anthers all alike, or the lower larger, opening by 2 pores at the apex;
536 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
ovules numerous. About 270 species, mostly in warm and temperate regions.
A species well known in medicine is Senna (C. acutifolia and C. angustifolia)
with leaves which are laxative.
Cassia Chamaecrista . Partridge Pea
An annual, spreading, 1 foot long; leaves with a sessile gland on the petiole;
leaflets of 10-15 pairs; flowers large, showy; petals yellow, with a purple spot
at the base; anthers 10, elongated, and unequal, 4 yellow, the others purple.
Distribution. In dry or sandy soil from Maine to South Dakota, Texas to
Florida.
Fig. 293. Pea Partridge (Cassia Chamaecrista). c. Pod.
a. Pistil. b. Stamens. (C. M. King)
Poisonous properties. ‘This plant is common in hay and when the seeds
are consumed in large quantities, has a cathartic action. Cases of mild poison-
ing to sheep have been reported to the writer. C. marilandica, a plant with
curved pods that are somewhat hairy at first, possesses similar properties. C.
hispidula contains abrin.
2. Gymnocladus, Lam.
Trees with large, bipinnate leaves, and showy, white, dioecious or irregular,
polygamous flowers; calyx elongated-tubular below; 5-cleft, the lobes narrow,
nearly equal; petals 5 (rarely 4), oblong or oval; stamens 10, distinct, short,
LEGUMINOSAE 537
Fig. 294. Wiuld Senna (Cassia Mary-
landica). 1. Flower. 2. Pods. A plant
growing in the Eastern Atlantic States as
far south as North Carolina. Laxative
like the Common Partridge pea. (Selby,
Ohio Agrl. Exp. Stat.)
inserted on the petals; ovary rudimentary, or none in the staminate flowers,
sessile and many-ovuled in the pistillate; pod oblong, thick, large, and coriace-
ous.
Gymnocladus dioica (L..) Koch. Kentucky Coffee-tree
A large tree with rough bark; leaves large and ample, 2-3 feet long; 7-15
leaflets, ovate or acute; glabrous or pubescent on the veins beneath; racemes
many-flowered; flowers slender-pedicelled; seeds hard, %4 inch across, imbedded
in a sweet, but disagreeable, and somewhat mucilaginous, material.
Distribution. From Western New York to Pennsylvania, Kastern Nebraska,
and Arkansas.
Poisonous properties. Cases of poisoning are not uncommon. The alkaloid
cytism C,,H,,N,O, a crystalline, rather bitter, and caustic substance which
causes dilation of the pupil, is reported to have been found, according to Ches-
nut, in the leaves and soft pulp of the fruit of the coffee bean. The pulp
has long been used, when mixed with milk, to poison flies. In speaking of the
symptoms and treatment, Prof Chesnut says:
Few accidental cases of poisoning arise, but the pulp, in one instance, caused severe illness
in a woman who ate a small quantity, mistaking it for that of the honey locust (Gleditsia tria-
canthos), which is frequently eaten by children. The symptoms were not fully noted at
the time, but are described from memory as conspicuously narcotic. The effect began
within five minutes and lasted several hours. ‘The treatment should probably be the same
as that for laburnum, viz., emetics, stimulants, injections of coffee, and an alternately hot
and cold douche to the head and chest. ;
538 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Fig. 295. Kentucky Coffee Tree (Gymnocladus dioica). . Inflor-
escence from staminate tree. 2. Pistillate flower. 3. Diagram of
flower. 4. Longitudinal section of staminate flower. 5. Pistillate
flower with a portion removed. 6. Pistil with a section of ovary
removed. 7. Portion of branch bearing a single fruit, showing seed
and embryo. 8. Cross section of seed. 9. Portion of leaf. 10.
Portion of winter branch. 1, 2, 7, 8, 9, 10, one-half natural size.
(M. M. Cheney in Green’s Forestry in Minnesota.)
3. Thermopsis R. Br.
Perennial with finely oppressed pubescence, 2-3 feet high; leaves rhombic-
olate leaves and foliaceous stipules; flowers large, yellow or purple, borne in
racemes; calyx bell-shaped or short-turbinate, with equal and separate lobes
or the upper united; standard nearly orbicular, as long as the oblong wings and
the keel; stamens 10, separate and in-curved; pistils sessile or short-stalked,
frequently flat, linear, oblong or curved, ovules numerous. A small genus of
about 15 species of North America and Asia.
Thermopsis mollis (Michx.) M. A. Curtis. Alleghany Thermopsis
Perennial with finely appressed pubescence, 2-3 feet high; leaves rhombic-
lanceolate, 1-3 inches long, entire and nearly sessile; stipules ovate or lanceolate;
LEGUMINOSAE—THERMOPSIS 539
racemes chiefly terminal; flowers yellow, pod short-stalked and narrow and some-
what curved.
Distribution. In the mountains of Virginia, North Carolina and Tennessee.
Thermopsis rhombifolia Richards. Prairie Thermopsis.
An erect perennial from 1-2%4 feet high, appressed, silky pubescent; stem
angular; leaves with broad conspicuous stipules; leaflets obovate, at length
nearly glabrous, bracts oval; flowers yellow, in a rather short raceme of few
flowers; pod linear and curved, spreading, several seeded.
Distribution. In sandy soil and foot hills of the mountains from Manitoba
to South Dakota, Nebraska and Kansas, west to the Rocky Mts., and in Utah,
Wyoming and Montana.
Poisonous nature. This plant is very common in the foot hills, and is sup-
posed to produce poisoning of stock. It is often consumed by sheep. It is said
that the seeds of the plant are poisonous and the Canadian Department of Agri-
culture reports several cases of poisoning to children where the seeds were
eaten. 7. montana is a species occurring from western Nebraska anl Kansas
to the Pacific Coast. Species of Thermopsis are said to contain cytisin.
4. Baptisia Vent.
Perennial herbs with palmately 3-foliolate, or rarely simple leaves; basal
sheathing scales; flowers large, in racemes; calyx 4-5-toothed; corolla with a
Fig. 296. Yellow-flowered Bitter weed
(Thermopsis montana). Plant is exceedingly
bitter. (From U. S, Dept. Agr.)
540 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
large standard, but not longer than the wings; stamens 10, distinct; pods stalked,
roundish, oblong, inflated, and many-seeded; seeds often spreading and rattling.
About 16 species in Eastern North America.
Baptisia australis (L.) R. Br. Blue False-Indigo
Tall, smooth, stout perennial 4-5 feet high; leaves short-petioled; leaflets
oblong or oblanceolate, obtuse; stipules conspicuous, persistent ; racemes terminal,
loosely flowered; 1-2 feet long, erect; flowers blue.
Distribution. From Western Penn. to Arkansas and Kansas to Ga.
Baptisia tinctoria (L.) R. Br. Yellow or Indigo Broom
A smooth, slender perennial herb 2-3 feet high; leaves nearly sessile; leaflets
obovate or oblanceolate, sessile or nearly so; racemes few-flowered; flowers
yellow. 4
Distribution. In dry soil from Maine to La., west to Minn.
Poisonous properties. Baptitoxin which is probably the same as cytisin oc-
curs in Baptisia tinctoria. The glucoside baptisin C,,H,,O,, occurs in some
species of the genus.
Dr. Millspaugh states that disturbances produced by taking considerable
quantities of the tincture are:
Vertigo; dull, heavy headache with weakness ee weariness of body, and tendency
to delirium; soreness and lameness of the eyeballs, with hot, flushed face; tongue coated
white, yellow, or yellowish-brown; loss of ‘appetite; nausea, and burning in the stomach;
Fig. 297. Wild Indigo (Baptisia bracteata). Said
ot be poisonous. (Ada Hayden.)
LEGUMINOSAE—BAPTISIA 541
dull pains in the region of the liver, especially at the site of the gall-bladder; face sallow,
with burning cheeks; constant pain and aching in the abdomen, followed by marked dis-
tention, and soreness on pressure.
According to Dr. Hughes, Baptisia excites true primary pyrexia in the
human subject. This pyrexia is very much like that of the early stages of
typhoid.
Baptisia leucantha 'T. & G. Large White Wild Indigo
A smooth, erect perennial herb, petioled leaves; leaflets obtuse, rounded, or
sometimes slightly emarginate; stipules deciduous; racemes lateral; flowers
white or cream color. Prairies and alluvial soils, Ont. to Minn., to Fla. and La.
Poisonous properties. According to Hyams it is a violent emetic and
cathartic when taken in large doses and in small doses a mild laxative.
Baptisia bracteata (Muhl.) Ell. Large-bracted Wild Indigo
Perhaps more common in sandy soil in the west than B. leucantha. It is
also shorter and flowers earlier in the season. Prairies, Mich, to Minn., La., Tex.
Poisonous properties. Dr. Schaffner states that the blue wild indigo and
the yellow wild indigo are emetic, and that the latter species is regarded as
Fig. 298. Wild Indigo (Baptisia leucantha).
This plant is a native of prairies and alluvial
soils. Said to be poisonous. (Ada Hayden.)
542 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
poisonous. The taste of the plant is rather disagreeable, and it is not generally
eaten by stock.
5.. Sophora L.
Shrubby or herbaceous perennials ; leaves odd pinnate with numerous leaflets ;
flowers white, yellow or violet in terminal racemes or panicles; calyx bell-
shaped, with short teeth, standard rounded or obovate; wings obliquely oblong;
keel oblong, nearly straight; stamens all distinct or nearly so; pistil short-
stalked; style incurved; pod stalked and terete, constricted between the seeds.
About 25 species, of warm and tropical regions.
Sophora sericea Nutt. Silky Sophora
A low perennial herb from 6-12 inches high, more or less silky canescent;
stipules subulate, deciduous, leaflets about 21, elliptical or cuneate oval; flowers
in short terminal racemes; nearly sessile; corolla white, pod dry, leathery, finely
pubescent and few seeded.
Distribution. ‘The prairies of Nebraska and Colorado to Texas and Arizona.
Poisonous properties. Mr. Chesnut says of this plant:
The silky sophora, of the Southern Great Plains region, has been somewhat vaguely
reported as one of the plants that “loco” horses in that region. The seeds contain a very
poisonous alkaloid.
Fig. 299. Silky Sophora (Sophora
sericea). A plant of the plains and
thought to be poisonous. (Charlotte
M. King.)
Sophora secundiflora DC. Coral Bean
A stout shrub or small tree, with deep green leaves of about 9 elliptical,
oblong, obtuse, coriaceous leaflets; terminal racemes of showy violet, fragrant
flowers; and large, woody pods 3-5 inches long, containing 3-4 round red beans
as large as small marbles.
LEGUMINOSAE—SOPHORA 543
Distribution. Common from the Gulf Coast to the Pecos and less abundant
in mountain canons to New Mexico. It is mostly shrubby, but becomes a tree
30 feet high and forms groves in the vicinity of Matagorda Bay.
Poisonous properties. Mr. Chesnut says:
The beautiful bright red berries of the Frijolillo or coral bean of southern and western
Texas contain a powerful poisonous alkaloid. ‘The plant is said to have poisoned stock in Texas
and in northern Mexico.
It contains sophorin, an amorphous alkaloid, which, according to Czapek, is
probably identical with cytisin, The beans are somewhat used by the Indians
to produce intoxication.
6. Crotalaria (Dill) L. Rattle-box
Herbs or occasionally somewhat woody plants, with simple or 3-7-foliolate
leaves; yellow flowers borne in racemes; calyx 5-cleft, somewhat 2-lipped,
standard large, heartshaped; wings oblong or obovate; keel curved, stamens mon-
adelphous, with anthers of 2 forms; pod inflated like the pea, but shorter and
many-seeded. About 250 species found chiefly in the tropics.
Crotalaria sagittalis I, Rattle-box
Annual from 3 inches to a foot high, with a small straight root; stem
branched, villous, terete or wing margined; leaves oval or oblong-lanceolate,
Fig. 300. Rattlebox (Crotalaria sagtttalis).
a, whole plant; b, cross section of seed pod—
both one-third natural size. The cause of
crotalism in horses. (U. S. Dept. Agr.)
544 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
from 1/2-1/3 of an inch wide, edge of the leaf entire or somewhat wavy and
hairy; stipules united and decurrent on the stem, inversely arrow shaped;
peduncles few-flowered; flowers yellow, about % of an inch in diameter; calyx
5-cleft, standard of the flower large, heart-shaped; keel scythe-shaped; stamens
monadelphous, anthers of 2 sizes, 5 smaller and roundish; pod large, inflated,
bears a close resemblance to the garden pea, greenish at first, becoming black-
ish; seeds from 1/10-1/12 of an inch in diameter, flattish, kidney-shaped, which,
when mature, break away from the point of attachment and rattle in the pod,
hence the name “rattle-box.” ,
Distribution. This plant is common in sandy soil from Maine to Minnesota,
South Dakota, Iowa, Nebraska, and Northern Texas. The plant is extremely
common on the sandbars of the Missouri river, where it may be collected by the
wagon load. .
Poisonous nature. 'The earliest mention of the poisonous nature of the
weed was made by Drs. Stalker and Bessey. Dr. Stalker who performed some
experiments with the plant gives the following symptoms:
The disease had been known in this region for three or four years, but had not until
the present summer (1884) prevailed to such an extent as to attract generally public at-
tention. But now the loss in horse stock on some farms was not to be counted by hundreds,
but by thousands of dollars. The disease proved to be one that had not hitherto come
within the range of my experience, nor had I any information of anything exactly identical
with it. I spent several days among the farmers on the Iowa side of the Missouri river,
taking careful notes of the symptoms, and gathering the history of the progress of the
disease. On some farms I found almost all the horses affected, and on others but a few
individuals. Deaths were an almost daily occurrence, and the farmer who owned a large
stock of horses did not know today whether he would have teams for his farm work a week
later. ‘The disease in most cases is very slow in its progress, but proving almost uniformly
fatal after a number of weeks or months. ‘There is a general decline of bodily vigor
throughout this period, and the only abnormal symptom in many cases is that of marked
emaciation and consequent weakness. Horses that have been kept at pasture through the
summer, without work, and where the grass grew in greatest abundance, were so thin in
flesh that they walked with the greatest difficulty. A critical examination of many of
these patients revealed nothing more than the condition resulting from starvation. This
was not uniformly the case. In a number of instances there was marked. coma or stupor,
the animal often falling asleep while eating. In some instances the animal would remain
standing for a whole week, sleeping much of the time with head resting against some
object. In a few instances the animal lost consciousness, and broke through fences and
other obstructions. A number of the diseased animals were placed at my disposal, and
assisted by Dr. Fairchild and Dr. Milnes, I made post mortem examinations of five sub-
jects with the most perfect uniformity as to the lesions presented. In every instance there
were marked haemorrhagic effusions into the fourth ventricle, the liver and spleen were
abnormally dense, the walls of the intestines were almost destitute of blood, and the
stomach enormously distended with undigested food. The stomach with its contents in
some instances weighed as much as seventy pounds. ‘These post mortem conditions, to-
gether with clinical symptoms, led me to believe the animals were obtaining some poisonous
principle with their food. ‘The symptoms in some cases bore such a resemblance to those
produced by eating Astragalus mollissimus, or ‘loco plant’? of the Western plains, as to
direct my investigations to that family of plants. A careful examination of the meadow
and pasture lands was not rewarded by the discovery of a single “loco plant.”
It took but little investigation, however, to find a closely related plant growing in
great abundance, both in the meadows and pastures. ‘This was the Crotalaria sagittalis, or
rattle-box. This is also known as the wild pea, and is accounted by many farmers as the
best of forage plants. Knowing the bad reputation of some of its near relatives, I de-
termined to make some experimental tests with the plant. I employed a boy to collect
about thirty pounds of the green plants, which I brought with me on my return to the
college. I procured a strong young horse, affected with incurable catarrh, and attempt
to induce him to eat the plant. This he persistently refused to do, though I ‘taco .
LEGUMINOSAE—CROTALARIA 545
Fig. 300a. White Lupine (Lupinus albus). A forage plant introduced from
the Mediterranean region. Seeds contain a bitter alkaloid. U. S. Dept. Agr.
his appetite by a protracted fast. It is a matter of common observation that animals eat
it with the greatest relish in localities where it grows. Failing to induce the animal to
take the plant voluntarily I prepared a strong infusion, and by means of the stomach
pump gave the preparation obtained from about ten pounds of the plant. In twenty
minutes stupor began to ensue, the eyes were closed, the head was rested against the
side of the box, the breathing became stertorous, and all the symptoms developed that
were to be seen in the patients previously examined. At the end of six hours the stupor
began to disappear, the eye began to regain its brightness and in another hour the horse
began to eat. The following day, when he had apparently recovered from its effects, he
was given half the quantity of the drug as on the previous day. In this instance the
symptoms were developed much more rapidly, the animal became unconscious in a short
time and died in an hour and a half. The post mortem revealed the same condition of the
brain as in the cases examined in the Western part of the State. I now resolved to make
a second experiment, in which the animal should receive a small quantity for a number
of days in succession. Having procured another subject for experimentation, and a
bushel of mature fruit, or pods of the plant, I commenced on Sept. 5th, to give daily the
infusion obtained from about one quart of the pods. On the fifth day of the experiment
the characteristic stupor came on. ‘The animal rested its head against the box and slept
while standing. The symptoms grew more marked till the thirteenth day of the experi-
ment, when the animal died. The post mortem showed the same as in the other cases.
These experiments leave no doubt in my mind that the trouble along the Missouri river
is occasioned by the animals’ feeding on this little plant. It is from eight inches to a
foot in height, with branching stems bearing yellow flowers in July and developing large
pods resembling the pea, but containing a number of black, hard seeds. It grows on
sandy bottom land, and is very abundant in the meadows and pastures in portions of the Missouri
bottom. It is seldom seen among the tame meadow grass in any considerable amount. It
thrives best among the wild grasses. Animals, doubtless, eat it much more than formerly,
when the wild pasturage was better than at present. Cattle sometimes, though not often,
suffer in the same way as horses.
546 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
The disease is also known as the Missouri Bottom disease. Hundreds of
horses in the Missouri Bottom in Western Iowa and Eastern Nebraska die from
eating this weed, it being most common in unbroken fields. Horses should be
kept from all suspected fields. Only cultivated grasses and forage plants should
be grown. Some doubt has been expressed that this plant is the cause of the
trouble. The writer a number of years ago, in collaboration with Dr, Miller,
investigated an outbreak near Council Bluffs. This disease occurred only in
the bottoms, where the weed was common, and a large number of horses die
from it annually. No other injurious plants could be found except some ergot
on wild rye. A decoction of the weed found here was fed by Dr. McNeill to
a horse but no injurious symptoms followed. A decoction of the seeds was
fed to a guinea pig without any serious symptoms. Dr. F. B. Power however
found a small amount of an alkaloid in the seeds which caused slight illness in
a kitten. From all of these experiments we may conclude that rattle box is in-
jurious under some conditions.
7. Lupinus (Tourn.) L. Lupine.
Herbs or rarely shrubs with generally palmately compound leaves; stipules
adherent to the base of the petiole; flowers showy, in long, dense racemes;
calyx deeply toothed and 2-lipped; corolla with an orbicular or ovate standard
with margins reflexed; wings oblong, or obovate, lightly cohering, and enclos-
ing the keel, which is incurved or beaked; stamens monadelphous, anthers of
2 forms; pistil with an incurved style and sessile ovary; pod flattened, somewhat
constricted. About 100 species of temperate regions, or a few in warm regions.
The North American species are chiefly west of the 100th meridian. The
Lupinus perennis occurs in sandy soil from New England to Minnesota and
Louisiana; ZL. albus, L. luteus and L. angustifolia are cultivated for forage in
Europe, the seeds being used as a substitute for coffee.
Lupinus argenteus Pursh. Hairy Lupine
A much branched perennial, slightly shrubby, from 2-3 feet high, silky
pubescent hairs appressed, leaves with small stipules; petioles equalling or long-
er than the leaves; leaflets sessile, narrowed at the base; flowers in rather dense,
terminal racemes, purple; pod silky, pubescent, generally 3-5 seeded. A very
variable species.
Distribution. Prairies of South Dakota to Western Nebraska to New
Mexico, Utah, and from Arizona to Montana. Abundant in the foothills.
Lupinus perennis lL, Wild Lupine
Perennial, somewhat hairy; erect stems, 1-2 feet high; leaves compound;
7-11 oblanceolate leaflets; flowers showy, purple-blue, in a long raceme; pods
broad, very hairy, 5-6-seeded.
Distribution. Sandy soil from New England to Minnesota, Missouri, and
the Gulf region.
Lupinus plattensis Watson. Nebraska Lupine
Somewhat like the preceding, with appressed silky-villous hairs, and a glau-
cous hue; leaflets spatulate; flowers in loose and short peduncled racemes; petals
pale blue.
(Bull. Nev. Agr. Exp. Sta. 55).
Lupine in flower (Lupinus sp.) On the western ranges.
LEGUMINOSAE—LUPINUS
G fi \ PA)
d, Gn *
CoE NSS
\ {
ne { (
- SS I
\ i’ | GW, f WI,
\
he \ y
S> La ’ ~
\N ——————— y
: N
y
Fig. 301. Wild Lupine (Lupinus Plattensis). Causes lupinosus. Charlotte M. King
‘
548 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Lupinus leucophyllus Dougl.
Leafy, densely silky-tomentose perennial; compound leaves; 7-10 oblong-
lanceolate leaflets; flowers in sessile racemes, densely flowered; petals blue or
pink.
Distribution. Rocky Mountains, Colorado to Washington, and Northern
California.
Lupinus holosericeus Nutt
A perennial, shrubby plant with silvery-canescent leaves; 12-20 inches high;
compound leaves; 5-9 lanceolate leaflets; flowers in whorls or scattered; calyx
bracteolate, the upper slightly 2-cleft; petals bright blue. i,
Distribution. Oregon to California. i
Lupinus species. There are many other species of Lupinus in the Rocky
Mountains and along the Pacific Coast. A great many of these have been looked
upon with suspicion.
Poisonous properties. European white lupine, Lupinus albus, L. luteus, and
others contain the glucoside lupinin C,,H,,O,,, a crystalline substance with a i
bitter taste and a fruity odor; lupinidin C,H,,.N, a pale yellow, heavy, oil with F
a pungent, bitter taste; lupinin C gig NG: also bitter with an apple-like odor; j
Lupinus angustifolius contains lupinin C,,H,,N,O, an intensely powerful alka-
line substance. The substance arginin C,H,,N,O,, found in the etiolated coty-
ledons of the lupine and the Soy bean, is a proteid. Prof. Chesnut says in regard
to the Lupinus leucophyllus Dougl.:
The above species is very abundant in Montana, where it is said to have caused the
death of a very large number of sheep. ‘There is some question whether the animals were
killed by a poisonous constituent of the plant or merely by bloat. The seeds of all the
lupines are probably deleterious in the raw state. In Europe, however, the seeds of
Lupinus albus, after the bitter taste has been removed by steeping and boiling, are eaten
by human beings as well as by cattle.
The so-called ictrogen obtained by European chemists from some of the
lupines can be extracted by weakly alkaline water and is to be regarded as an
active poisonous principle. Some European investigators, however, think that
the alkaloids are not the cause of the poison. To the above poisonous species
we may add L. linifolius, and L. hirsutus. The disease caused by these has
long been known in Europe and has received the name of lupinosis. It is com-
mon where lupines are used for forage purposes. According to Friedberger
and Frohner from one-half to three-fourths of the animals perish. According
to Arnold and Schneidermuhl! the disease can be produced experimentally with
lupinotoxin in sheep, horses, goats, and pigs. This substance occurs chiefly in
seeds and pods. Dry heat does not destroy it but steam under pressure does.
There is a probability that the poison is produced by metabolism.
Chesnut and Wilcox, in their paper on Stock-poisoning Plants of Mon-
tana, make the following statement in regard to the Lupine poisoning of Mon-
tana:
So far as we have been able to observe, lupines are not very extensively eaten by
sheep during the spring and summer. This statement is at least true for normal conditions
where sheep are acquainted with the range and are not being trailed or driven. Horses
and cattle take kindly to lupines and eat them in large quantities during their immature
stages. When sheep are being trailed through strange country, or when they have just
been unloaded from cars, and are in a hungry condition, they eat lupines ravenously in
any stage of growth. ‘The lupines are not considered valuable as forage plants for sheep
until after early fall frosts, or until other forage plants have become dry and uninviting as
Great Basin Lupine (Lupinus holosericeus). Ripened pods of this are probably
poisonous. (Bull. Nev. Agr. Exp. Sta. 62).
LEGUMINOSAE—LUPINUS . 549°
fodder. In late fall, and especially after early snowstorms, the lupines constitute one of the
chief forage plants on some of the mountain ranges. It should be remembered that the
leaves of lupines remain green and the plants offer slightly succulent forage after other
plants have become dry.
The first case of poisoning from lupines which was brought to our attention occurred
in August, 1896. A band of sheep, while being moved from one range to another was
driven rapidly, and was constantly in a very hungry condition, when it was allowed to
feed in a field of lupine for a short time. Within two hours after beginning to eat the
lupine a number of sheep manifested violent symptoms of poisoning, and a few died within
one hour after the appearance of the first signs of poisoning. Of the 200 sheep in the band
100 had died before the following morning. The season of 1896 was rather late and at
the time when the poisoning occurred the lupine pods were fully formed, but the seeds
were not quite ripe. In this case the sheep were driven away from the lupine as soon as
the first symptoms of poisoning had been noticed and some of the sheep had eaten only
small quantities of the plant.. About 150 out of the 200 were affected, and as only 50 of
these ultimately recovered it will be seen that the death rate was very high.
The owner of these sheep, during the same season cut a quantity of lupine hay during
the second half of July. In the winter of 1897 a band of 150 bucks belonging to the same
sheep raiser were kept in a covered corral and were fed on cultivated hay. On one after-
noon during the winter these bucks were given a liberal quantity of the lupine hay. About
three hours after feeding this hay a noisy disturbance was noticed among the sheep. Upon
investigation the owner found the sheep in a frenzied condition, and during the night
about 90 of them died. No more lupine hay was fed and no more trouble was experienced.
They state further that the lupine poisoning occurred in various parts of
the state, in 1898 about 2,000 having been poisoned. 1,150 sheep died out of a
single band of 2,500 sheep. They also state that one sheep raiser in Deerlodge
Valley lost 700 sheep from the poisoning of lupine. They report another case
which occurred on June 28, 1900, near Livingston, in two bands of sheep, each
numbering 3,000, which were being trailed westward from Livingston. The
sheep were liberally salted before being started on the trail; the first day they
traveled about 5 miles, and camped on opposite sides of a small stream. After
watering, one band was driven across the creek and camped on a bench about
30 feet higher than the stream. On the following morning, the sheep which
had been driven across the stream manifested symptoms of poisoning; ultimately
1,900 died. This poisoning is referred to as lupinosis, a disease of which in
Europe both acute and chronic forms are recognized, but in the United States the
chronic form only has been recognized. The marked symptoms of poisoning
are acute cerebral congestion, and great mental excitement. The sheep rush
about in different directions, often running against the herder or other persons.
The first stage of frenzy is followed by a second stage in which there is pro-
nounced irregularity of movements and violent spasms, and falling fits. In
many cases death occurs in from 1 to 1% hours. The pulse during the attack
is strong and regular. Lower animals are attacked by convulsions, and these
convulsions resemble those caused by strychnine poisoning. ‘The excretion of
the kidneys is increased, and sometimes it is bloody. The post mortem condi-
tions are described by Chesnut and Wilcox as follows: |
Post mortem examinations of the sheep poisoned by lupines revealed conditions very
similar to those found in the acute cases of loco disease, already described above, with the
exception that in loco disease the kidneys were not affected. ‘The lungs were slightly con-
gested, but this condition was not so pronounced as in cases of larkspur poisoning. The
cerebral membranes were in all cases congested. In the more violent cases small blood
vessels had been ruptured in various parts of the body, which may have been due either
to increase of blood pressure or to the struggles of the animal.
In regard to the treatment, Dr. Wilcox recommends as follows:
No remedies have been tried in cases of stock poisoning from American species of
lupine. From our general experience with potassium permanganate it seems reasonable
550 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
to suppose that this substance would probably destroy the lupine alkaloids in the stomach
if administered promptly after the first signs of poisoning. In the main, however, reliance
should be placed upon prevention. With regard to the use of lupine hay, our experience
and observations indicate that this is always dangerous for sheep if cut at a time when the
seeds are retained in the hay. Since the limit of the period during which lupines are not
poisonous can not be determined for the present with any certainty, it seems advisable to
abandon entirely the use of lupine hay for sheep, except after a preliminary test in feeding
large quantities of the hay to one or two sheep. If it should prove to be non-poisonous,
it may then, of course, be fed with safety.
The poisonous principle in all plants which have been fully investigated varies in
quantity according to the stage of growth of the plant, and is located more abundantly in
one part of the plant than in another. These facts seem to be strikingly true of lupine,
since, as already indicated, the plants are sometimes eaten in large quantities with impunity,
while at other times the plants cause extensive losses, especially among sheep. ‘The evidence
thus far collected regarding this matter indicates that the seeds are the most poisonous part
of the plant.
Mr. O’Gara of Nebraska, in speaking of the Lupine says this:
There are three species of Lupines in the western part of the sand-hill region and
throughout the foot-hills, which are worthy of attention. So far as can be learned, cattle
and horses either do not eat them or are not harmed by them, but sheep men say that they
are extremely poisonous to sheep when eaten after the pods have formed and have begun
to ripen. Many sheep owners are very careful to avoid patches of Lupine in driving their
sheep from one range to another, and never trust the flock to a green herder who is un-
acquainted with the range.
The three species common to the regions mentioned are the Nebraska Lupine (Lupinus
Plattensis S. Wats.), the Silvery Lupine (Lupinus argenteus Pursh.), and the Low Lupine
(Lupinus pusillus Pursh.). The last named is a small hairy plant four to eight inches
high, much branched near the root, bearing commonly five leaflets at the end of the leaf-
stalk. The densely clustered blue flowers are borne on a stalk four to eight inches long.
The pod is finely-hairy and is three-fourths to one inch long.
Dr. Nelson conducted some experiments in poisoning from three species
of Lupinus: L. ornatus, L. sericeus, L. leucophyllus; from which the following
results were obtained with reference to the effect of feeding quantities of these
plants. In regard to the first of these species, negative results were obtained
in part; to sheep fed as early as May 30th, June 8th, July 14th, July 31st, and
August 2nd, partly in the year 1898, and partly in 1901, these experiments be-
ing made in 1898 and 1901. In 1904 experiments were made with two sheep
fed between November 16th, and December 22nd, receiving 274 pounds of this
hay. This hay was eaten fairly well, and the sheep were given no other food
except the lupine, and had constant access to water.
Some loss of flesh occurred in both sheep and one of them became affected, December
28th, with an attack of stomatitis with quite well developed ulcers in the mouth. He
practically recovered by January lst. No other untoward symptoms were manifested
during the course of the experiment.
In regard to Lupinus sericeus, the results were in part negative, but June
28th, 1899, a sheep was fed 2 pounds of lupine that was in full bloom and par-
tial fruit, gathered a few days previous. On the morning of the 29th, the sheep
was drowsy, and kept a recumbent position. In the afternoon the comatose con-
dition was more marked; he walked with an unsteady gait and pressed his head
against the fence when he happened to reach it, showing a partial paralysis.
The animal died on June 30th, slightly bloated.
The ventricles of the heart were partially and the auricles completely filled with a
black coagulated blood. ‘The lungs were congested, the stomach filled with partially digested
food, otherwise apparently normal.
The experiments with Lupinus leucophyllus were negative.
LEGUMINOSAE—CYTISUS 55h
8. Cytisus L,.
Shrub with trifoliolate or unifoliolate leaves; showy flowers, chiefly in
terminal racemes; calyx 2-lipped, with short teeth; standard ovate or orbicular ;
keels straight or curved; anthers large and small; ovary with many-ovuled, and
incurved style; pod flat, oblong or linear. About 40 species, natives of Europe,
Western Asia, and Northern Africa.
Cytisus scoparius (.) Link. Broom
A stiff, nearly glabrous shrub; elongated, straight, angled branches; lower
leaves 3-foliolate, obovate; leaflets which are mucronate-tipped; upper leaves
sessile, often unifoliolate; flowers bright yellow, in elongated leafy racemes.
Distribution. Along the seacoast of Nova Scotia to Virginia, and very com-
mon along the Pacific Coast.
Poisonous properties. The Scotch Broom (Cytisus scoparius) common on
the Pacific and Atlantic coast but naturalized from Europe, contains the alka-
loid cytisin C,,H,,N,O and is poisonous. Blyth records 400 cases of poison-
ing from this. ‘The symptoms in stock are slavering, vomiting, staggering, and
general paralysis. Cytisin, occurring in many of the Genisteae, was found, in
1818, in Laburnum anagyroides and since then, has been found in many other
species of the genus Cytisus and in Ulex europaeus, Sophora sp., Thermopsis
sp., Baptisia tinctoria, Anagyris foetida, Lotus suaveolens, Colutea cruenta, and
Euchresta Horsfieldii, Some species of the genera Genista and Cytisus do not
contain cytisin. Cytisus scoparius also contains a volatile alkaloid spartein
C.H.,N.. a single drop of which, according to Blyth, killed a rabbit that
showed symptoms similar to those of nicotin poisoning.
9. Melilotus Tourn
Annual or biennial herbs with trifoliolate leaves; small white or yellow
flowers in racemes with the odor of cumarin; teeth of the calyx short and
nearly equal, shorter than the pod; corolla deciduous with obovate or oblong
_ Fig. 302. Flowers of Sweet Clover (Melilotus alba). 1, Standard above. 2, Showing
wings and keel. 3, Showing stamens and pistil in keel.
552 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
standard, obtuse keel, free from the stamen tube; stamens diadelphous; pod
wrinkled, straight, ovoid or globose—1-2-seeded. A small genus of 20 species,
native to Europe, Africa and Asia. 3 species naturalized, found in North
America, 2 of them quite weedy.
Melilotus alba Der. Sweet Clover
An erect annual or biennial from 2-4 feet high; rather distant, compound
leaves, leaflets obovate, oblong, obtuse, serrate, narrowed at the base, truncate,
emarginate or rounded at the apex; flowers with white petals, small, fragrant;
pod ovoid, reticulated and smooth.
Distribution. Abundant in waste places in the eastern and Atlantic states,
also in the southern states and throughout the Mississippi valley, the Rocky
Mountain region and the Pacific coast. Sweet clover is one of the most common
weeds in pastures, and along roadsides.
Melilotus officinalis (L.) Lam. Wild Yellow Sweet Clover
An upright, yellow flowered herb from 1-4 feet high; leaflets oblong, or
oval, the apex more or less obtuse; corolla yellow; pod with irregularly reti-
culated veins.
Distribution. Common in waste places in the irrigated districts of the west,
becoming more or less common in the Mississippi Valley and along the Atlantic
Coast.
Melilotus indica (\.) All. Sweet Clover
An upright annual like the preceding, but with much smaller yellow flowers.
Distribution. Native to Europe, introduced in ballast along the Atlantic
coast and abundant on the Pacific coast.
Poisonous properties. ‘The sweet clovers contain the substance cumarin
C,H,O,, which is found in the Tonka bean, sweet vernal grass, vanilla grass,
etc. In Europe the sweet clover is suspected of being poisonous. ‘This plant is
used as a forage plant in the South, and Mr. Cohagen of Iowa, has had ex-
cellent results in feeding this plant to stock. Its protein content is equal
to that of alfalfa. It is probable that some forms are entirely inert. Some
years ago, the writer conducted an experiment in feeding considerable quanti-
ties of sweet clover, but without any injurious symptoms resulting. A tincture
prepared by mixing the fresh flowers with alcohol has a vanilla-like odor, and
a bitter taste. Dr. Millspaugh states that in large doses, cumarin causes nausea,
vomiting, vertigo, great depression of the heart’s action, and cold extremities.
Dr. Schaffner states that both of the sweet clovers are objectionable in wheat,
because of the foul odor the seed imparts to the flowers. According to Fried-
berger and Fréhner sweet clover causes paralysis of the muscles. Dr. MacOwen
states that in New South Wales, the M. indica is said to cause paralysis of
horses.
10. Medicago L.. Medick, Alfalfa
Herbs with pinnately 3-foliolate leaves; leaflets dentate toothéd; flowers
small, yellow or violet in axillary racemes or heads; calyx teeth short nearly
equal; standard obovate or oblong; stamens diadelphous; ovary 1-ovuled; pod
curved or spirally twisted, indehiscent 1-few seeded. About 50 species native
to Europe and Asia. Bur clover (Medicago hispida) and hop clover or black
—* toe
——_
LEGUMINOSAE—MEDICAGO BS,
medick (M. lupulina) are used as forage plants on the Pacific coast but east-
ward are regarded as troublesome weeds, the former injurious to wool.
Medicago sativa L. Alfalfa
An upright, smooth perennial; leaflets obovate, oblong, toothed, obtuse
emaginate or mucronate; stipules entire; flowers in a short raceme violet;
pod spirally twisted. A valuable forage plant.
Distribution. Common in the irrigated districts of the West, also frequent
eastward, but common southward; spontaneous from New England to Minne-
sota, Kansas, northward and westward; native to Europe and Asia.
Poisonous properties. A large amount of the green fodder is said to pro-
duce tympanites, but alfalfa is, however, one of the best of forage plants.
Fig. 303. Flowers of Red Clover. 1, a, Calyx. c, Standard. 2, f, Wings, h, keel, 4, 5,
Wings, 6, keel.
11. Trifolium (Tourn.) L. Clover
Herbs; leaves mostly 3-foliolate, palmately or pinnately; stipules united
with the petioles; leaflets usually toothed; flowers in dense heads or spikes; calyx
persistent; lobes 5, nearly equal, corolla withering or persistent, claws alternate
to the stamen tube; stamens diadelphous or the tenth one separated for a part
of its length; pods small and membranous, indehiscent or dehiscent, 1-6 seeded.
A large genus of about 250 species mostly in the northern hemisphere.
Many are valuable forage plants, among these are red clover (T. pratense),
alsike clover (T. hybridum.) and white clover (7. repens). Several are weedy as
yellow hop clover (T. agrarium), low hop clover (T. procumbens), and stone
clover (T. arvense).
The alsike clover (T. hybridum) and red clover (T. pratense) occasionally
produce bloat.
Dr. Jacob Moses and A. M. Harcourt have recently described a disease
sometimes caused by alsike clover.t
1 Bull. Tenn. Agr. Exp. St. 18:28 (1905).
554 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Fig. 304. Alfalfa (Medicago sativa). a, b,
seed pod; c, seed. An excellent forage plant, some-
times causes bloat. (U. S. Dept. Agr.)
“The cause of this trouble among horses and mules is not positively
understood. Whether the toxic effect is due to the plant itself, which possibly
undergoes some change within the digestive tract and subsequently liberates
a poison, or whether it is due to the presence of a mould in connection with
alsike clover, is still undetermined. The mould has been strongly suspected.
To determine this point will require further investigation. It is known, how-
ever, that the principle lesions are produced on the skin and mucous membranes.
“The symptoms of this disease vary to some extent, depending upon the
location of the lesions and the length of time the animal remains on the alsike
pasture after the symptoms begin to develop. The cases which came under
observation in Marshall County showed marked similarity of symptoms, involv-
ing principally the skin, the mucous membranes of the mouth, and the eyes.
“The prevailing symptoms of the disease are as follows:
On the skin are inflamed areas, appearing at first as more or less rounded
vesicular swellings, varying from one-half inch to five or six inches, or more,
in diameter. The hair over the affected areas stands erect, and‘has a dull
appearance, indicating loss of vitality. Later the skin becomes hard and puffed
out, as the result of the formation of pus underneath. Finally, the deadened
skin is cast off, leaving a deep, raw, angry-looking ulcer, which eventually
heals, with the formation of a conspicuous scar, covered with more or less
white hair. ‘These changes in the skin may occur on any part of the animal,
tiene nee
LEGUMINOSAE—TRIFOLIUM 555
but especially on the limbs, body and croup. The eye symptoms consist of
a marked conjunctivitis, with swelling of the eyelids, sensitiveness to light,
and a watery discharge from one or both eyes. The mucous membranes of
the mouth become inflamed (stomatitis), ulcers form, and the animal slobbers
and refuses to eat. The advanced cases are frequently accompanied by emacia-
tion. The tongue is usually affected, and the inflammation may extend through-
out the entire digestive tract. The functions of the liver may be disturbed,
and a yellowish (jaundice) coloration of the tissues follows. In such cases
symptoms of colic are not uncommon, and the respiratory tract may become
involved and pneumonia develop. Some observers in other countries have
noticed marked nervous symptoms, such as excitement, convulsive movements,
staggering gait, and paralysis of the throat, with inability to swallow, the
paralysis at times becoming generalized, the animal getting down and being
unable to rise. In the cases observed in this state, the nervous symptoms,
except the general depression, were not very noticeable.
“The outcome of the disease depends upon the location and extent of
the lesions upon the horse or mule affected. If they are situated on the ex-
terior the animal will readily recover as soon as removed from the alsike
pasture. If the vital organs are involved, such as the brain, lungs and liver,
the disease may readily produce death. Among those cases occuring in this
State, not a single fatality has been heard of at the Station. But even though
the death rate is small where the ordinary precautions are taken, the disease
Y
DS
USS
H
—>.
Ly
iff
UZ)
Fig. 305. Red Clover (Trifolium pra-
tense). Occasionally the cause of bloat.
(U. S. Dept. Agr.)
556 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
has considerable economic importance, since it leaves the animal more or less
disfigured by the formation of scars, which materially depreciate his market
value.
“The treatment is comparatively simple. As soon as the disease is recog-
nized the animal should be removed from the alsike clover pasture and the
wounds subjected to ordinary antiseptic treatment, such as frequent washing
with 5 per cent solutions of carbolic acid or creolin, and the application to
the ulcers on the skin of drying powders, consisting of boric and tannic acids
in equal amounts.”
The so-called clover sickness is supposed to be caused by the clover rust
which has been described elsewhere. No doubt some of the trouble arising
from feeding clover hay is caused by moulds found on the hay. Dr. W. D. Gil-
christ says that he has observed several cases of the kind in this state. The
animals showed extreme restlessness followed by coma, bloody discharge
from faeces iollowed by diarrhoea, weakness and debility. Change in fodder
caused the trouble to cease.
I have recently received a similar complaint from Dr. C. J. Scott of Knox-
ville, Iowa, three animals having succumbed.
Trifolium incarnatum . Crimson Clover
A soft pubescent, slightly branched, annual; leaves long petioled ;broad
stipules; leaflets nearly sessile, obovate or obcordate cuneate at the base,
Fig, 306. Crimson Clover (Tri-
folium incarnatum). Sometimes
produces phytobezoars, which may
cause death. (U. S. Dept. Agr.)
LEGUMINOSAE—TRIFOLIUM 557
denticulate; tlowers in elongated, oblong or ovoid, heads, sessile; calyx hairy,
lobes plumose pointed, corolla crimson.
Distribution. Used as a cover crop and a forage plant in the south
and east. Found on ballast from Maine to Pennsylvania. Native to Europe.
Injurious properties. According to Prof. Coville it produces phytobezoars
and ocasionally causes death in animals.
Trifolium repens L. White Clover
A smooth perennial with slender creeping and spreading stems; leaflets
inversely heart-shaped or notched, obscurely toothed; stipules narrow; peduncles
very long, flowers in small loose heads reflexed when old; calyx shorter than
the white corolla; pods 4-seeded.
Distribution. In fields and waste places throughout eastern North America,
the Northwest and the Rocky Mountains.
Poisonous properties. Said to cause tympanites in cattle and slobbering
in horses.
Psoralea \,. Psoralea
Perennial herbs, usually sprinkled with glandular dots; leaves generally
3-5 foliolate; flowers spiked or racemed, white or mostly bluish-purple; calyx
5-cleft, persistent; stamens diadelphous or occasionally monadelphous; pods
about as long as the calyx, 1-seeded.
>!
Fig. 307. White Clover (Trifolium
repens). Occasionally the cause of
tympanites in cattle. (Lamson-Scribner,
U. S. Dept. Agr.)
558 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
About 100 species of wide distribution, many native to the plains, the roots
of some being tuberous and farinaceous. The Indians used the tuberous roots
of the P. esculenta, known as Pomme Blanche, or Pomme de Prairie, of
the voyageurs for food. The roots of P. hypogaea and P. cuspidata were also
used.
Psoralea argophylla Pursh. Silver-leaf Psoralea
Densely silvery, pubescent with appressed hairs; stem zig-zag, divergently
branching, from 1-3 feet high; leaflets elliptical-lanceolate; flowers spicate, in-
terrupted, blue; pod oval, membranaceous, plant seldom seeding.
Distribution. From Wisconsin to Kansas and New Mexico to the North-
west territory.
Poisonous properties. ‘This plant was suspected of being the cause of a
severe case of poisoning in Story County, Ia., two years ago. This is the first
time the writer has known plants of this genus to cause poisoning, but he has
had some correspondence with the parties concerned and thinks there can be
no doubt that the poisoning was caused by the plant in question. A child was
seriously poisoned by eating the seeds of this plant, but she finally recovered.
It was thought this poisoning might have been caused by Astragalus caryocarpus
but the plant sent me was the above.
13. Tephrosia Pers. Hoary Pea
Herbs or somewhat shrubby plants; odd-pinnate compound leaves; flowers
in racemes or short clusters, red or white; stipules small; calyx 5-cleft;
petals 5; standard roundish, usually silky outside, turned back, about
as long as the coherent wings and keel. About 120 species, native of warm
and tropical regions, a few are found in the United States.
Tephrosia virginiana Pers. Goat’s Rue. Catgut
Perennial with villous or silky and whitish hairs; stem erect and simple,
1-2 feet high; leaflets 17-25, linear-oblong; terminal oblanceolate, narrowed
to cuneate at the base; emarginate at the apex; flowers yellowish purple in
long, dense racemes.
Distribution. In dry and sandy soil from Maine to Louisiana, west to
Minnesota and Eastern Iowa, to Mexico.
Poisonous properties. ‘This species, along with others, was formerly used
to poison fish. The Mexican species, T. toxicaria, gets its name from its sup-
posed toxic properties, and in South America, one species is commonly employed
by the natives to poison the fishing streams.
The root is also poisonous to frogs and guinea pigs.
Tephrosia toxicaria contains the glucoside tephrosin. Several active sub-
stances have been obtained by Hanriot * from one species, Tephrosia Vogelii.
Three substances were isolated; one, tephrosal C,,H,,O is toxic especially
to fish; a second toxic substance is tephrosin CEO)
14. Robinia lL. Locust ‘Tree
Trees or shrubs; stipules often prickly or spiny; leaves compound, odd-
pinnate; the oblong leaflets with short stipules; flowers showy in axillary race-
* Compt. Rend. 1907; 498-651. Journal Chemical Society Abs. 92:386, 1907.
LEGUMINOSAE—ROBINIA 559
Fig. 308. Black Locust (Robinia Pseud-acacia). 1. Flowering
branch. 2. Flower. 3. Tube of stamens. 4. Longitudinal section
of pistil. 5. Diagram of flower. 6. Legumes. 7. Pod open, showing
seed. 8. Seed. 1, 2, 6, 7, 8, one-half natural size. (M. M. Cheney
in Green’s Forestry of Minnesota.)
mes; calyx short, 5-toothed, and slightly 2-lobed; standard large, about as
long as the wings and equal; stamens diadelphous; pod flat, several seeded and
margined. A small genus of 6 species, native of North America and Mexico.
Several species are cultivated for ornamental purposes, like the Robinia
viscosa, which is native from Virginia to North Carolina and Georgia, and the
Robinia hispidia, native to the mountains of Virginia and Georgia. The R.
neo-mexicana, with purple flowers, native to S. Colorado and New Mexico,
is frequently cultivated.
Robinia Pseudo-acacia I, Locust Tree, False Acacia or Black Locust
A large tree with rough bark, spiny stipules; 9-19 stalked leaflets, obtuse,
emarginate, or mucronate; flowers in loose drooping racemes, white, fragrant;
pods smooth; standard yellowish at the base.
560 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Distribution. Widely planted as an ornamental tree. It produces valuable
timber which is extensively used for posts. This species is, however, badly
infested with the borer.
Robinia viscosa Vent. Clammy Locust
A small tree with rough bark; stipules short, occasionally spiny; twigs and
petioles glandular; leaves 11-25, stalked; leaflets obtuse and mucronate; nearly
smooth; racemes dense; flowers in rather dense racemes, pinkish, not fragrant;
pedicels glandular, hispid; pod hispid.
Distribution. Southwestern Virginia to Georgia, occasionally escaped from
cultivation northward.
Poisonous properties. The bark and leaves of this species contain a power-
ful poison which has proved fatal to persons eating them. Children have been
poisoned by eating the roots. It is true, however, that the flowers of the plant
are often eaten with impunity and that bees collect from them large quantities
of nectar. Dr. Rusby states that the occasional poisonous properties of honey
are due to its origin in these flowers, though there are gool theoretical reasons
for doubting this. The bark of young twigs is sometimes pounded to a pulp,
and used to make a tincture which is used in medicine as a tonic and cathartic,
while the medicinal use of the flowers is mildly narcotic. It contains the sub-
stance robinin C,,H,,O,, an aromatic glucoside which resembles the glucoside
quercetrin, and is found chiefly in flowers, also the substance obigenin C,,H,,O,
-+H,O. The seeds are also poisonous, and Dr. Millspaugh quotes Dr. Shaw
as follows, in regard to the symptoms produced by poisoning from eating the
seeds: “Inability to hold the head upright, nausea and attempts to vomit, with
a tendency to syncope, when in an upright position; voice, respiration and
heart’s action feeble, as from exhaustion, a painful paralytic condition of the
extremities, which become shrunken on the fifth day. All the symptoms seemed
like those produced by a long-continued diarrhoea, though in this case purg-
ing was not present.” Dr. Johnson states that the symptoms of poisoning are
those of Belladonna poisoning, a fact also noted by Dr. Waldron in the case
of a horse that had eaten the bark; Friedberger and Froéhner state that the
animals have colic, tympanites and paralysis.
Dr. Rusby comments upon the poisonous character of the common black
locust as follows:
Of this Dr. Johnson records that by eating the roots children are poisoned with
symptoms like those of Belladonna poisoning, and that the bark and leaves are emetic.
Prof. F. W. Power has experimented upon himself with the stem bark of this tree, proving
the very serious effects which it produces, and he has examined its composition with the
result of showing that the poisonous constituent is an albuminous substance, thus confirm-
ing the general character of that family, the Leguminosae. ‘The most positive and prom-
inent case recorded in regard to this article is that of Dr. Z. P. Emery. In the latter
part of March, 1887, thirty-two boys, inmates of the Brooklyn Orphan Asylum, were poisoned
at one time by eating a bark which was being stripped in the vicinity for the making of
fence posts. None of the cases terminated fatally. The prominent symptoms, stated in
the order of their occurrence, were the vomiting of a ropy mucous, flushing of the face,
dilated pupil, dryness of the throat, feeble pulse, extremities cool, face pale, vomiting of
blood, cold extremities, heart feeble and intermittent, face deathly pale and stupor. The
symptoms as I have named them are seen to be progressive. A rash similar to that’ of
Belladonna poisoning was also present, but very fleeting. In the beginning there was a
high fever. Treatment consisted of sinapisms over the stomach, subcarbonate of bismuth,
camphor and brandy.
LEGUMINOSAE—ROBINIA 561
A farmer in Dallas County, this state, informs me that sometimes the leaves
are macerated in water and used to kill flies.
A case of poisoning to a horse was recorded in Breeders’ Gazette in 1909. In
this case the horse had eaten some of the bark of a tree. The symptoms were
similar to those recorded by Dr. Waldron.
15. Sesbania. Scop. Sesban
Tall, smooth, branching herbs or shrubs with pinnate leaves and yellow
flowers in axillary or compound racemes; calyx bell-shaped, obliquely truncate,
5-toothed; standard short, orbicular; wings oblong; keel blunt; stamens diadel-
phous; style short, incurved at the apex; legume oblong, stalked, compressed,
the endocarp membranaceous, at length separating from the coriaceous epicarp
and enclosing 2 seeds. A small genus of 15 species of warm or temperate
regions.
Sesbania platycarpa Pers.
A tall, smooth, branching annual vine; leaflets 10-35 pairs, mucronate,
pale beneath; racemes shorter than the leaves; corolla yellowish purple spotted,
with membranaceous sacked pods.
Distribution. From the Carolinas to Florida, Missouri, and ‘Texas.
Poisonous nature. In 1897, Dr. A. P. Anderson sent this to the writer with
a letter from some stockmen from South Carolina, who stated that it was sus-
pected of poisoning his cattle. Mr. Chesnut records a similar statement as fol-
lows:
In 1897, the United States Department of Agriculture received from South Carolina
the seeds of this plant, which were found in the stomachs of cows.
)
wy Ww
= eS a
ian SZ SS
ae SZ vel>
——a te] AAW
s TENN
Sa IND. K PE teh habia
LTeR ARI i A
Hf ry
g Ponre MISS.I ALA. GA.
TEX. 4 ; 7
'
Fig. 313a. Map showing distribution of stemless loco weed (Oxytropis Lamberti). The
plant reaches western Iowa on the loess bluffs where it is abundant. ‘The disease however has
seg pera reported so far as I know from this section of the state. Map after Marsh, U. S.
ept. Agr.
oe
Marsh thinks, will help to keep the weed in check if the insect will not lose its
efficiency in the course of a few years.
18. Vicia (Tourn.) L. Vetch or Tare
Herbs, generally of trailing or climbing habit, with pinnate tendril bearing
leaves; flowers generally racemose; calyx 5-cleft or 5-toothed, divisions nearly
equal; corolla with the standard clawed and the wings adherent to the keel;
stamens diadelphous or monadelphous; pod flat, 2-valved with several seeds;
seeds globular; embryo with thick cotyledons. About 120 species, widely distrib-
uted. Some species used for forage, especially in Europe. The hairy vetch
(V. villosa) has been widely distributed in the west because of the drouth re-
sisting qualities. Our most common native species is the American vetch (V.
americana) which might well be introduced as a forage plant.
Vicia sativa L. Common Vetch
A smooth or slightly pubescent annual from 1-2% feet high with simple
stem; leaflets 5-7 pairs, obovate-oblong to linear, notched or mucronate at the
tip; the 1 or 2 nearly sessile flowers are borne in the axils of the leaves;
flowers bluish purple; calyx teeth about as long as the tube; pod linear, several
seeded, seeds black.
Distribution. From eastern Canada to Northwest Territory, New England
to the Carolinas, west to Missouri and northward, generally in the wheat grow-
ing sections of the northern and western states. This is another weed commonly
found in wheat screenings, abundant in the northwest.
Poisonous properties. In Europe it is the cause of tympanites. Dr. Schaffner,
in The Ohio Naturalist, states that caution must be observed in feeding this
plant to pigs. It is not injurious to cows. ‘The seeds of this Vetch are often
LEGUMINOSAE—VICIA
al
i
314. Common Vetch (Zathyrus silvestris). The seed of
Fig.
this plant p
oisonous to stock. Charlotte M. King
o/1
572 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
found in screenings and fed in large quantities to cattle. As far as the writer
knows, there are no cases of poisoning recorded from eating the screenings of
this seed. The substance vicin C,H,,.N,O, has been found in the seeds of
this species. Convincin C,,H,,N,O,+H,O also occurs in this species and in
V. Faba. Citric acid C,H,O,+H,O is found in V. sativa.
19. Lathyrus (Tourn.) L. Vetchling. Everlasting Pea
Mostly perennial, herbaceous vines although there are a few erect herbs,
generally smooth, with pinnate, usually tendril-bearing leaves; flowers in racemes
or solitary; calyx oblique or gibbous at the base, upper teeth sometimes shorter
than the lowér; corolla larger than that of Vicia, wings adhering to keel; style
dilated and rather flat above, hairy along side next to free stamen; stamens
10 (9 and 1, or monadelphous below) ; ovules numerous; pod flat, sometimes
terete, 2-valved, continuous between the seeds, dehiscent.
About 100 species are distributed throughout North America and a few
others are found in South America and the mountains of tropical Africa. One
species, L. sylvestris, is considered poisonous, in its native home in the Car-
pathian Mountains. It contains certain alkaloids which, by the process of cul-
tivation have become eliminated so that in many localities at the present time
it is considered a good forage plant and is relished by horses. In the western
United States, the prairie vetchlings L. ornatus and L. polymorphus, and the
marsh vetchling L. palustris are considered valuable forage plants, the latter
‘forming a very important part of the hay and adding materially to its feeding
value. L. venosus and L. ochroleucus occurring in similar localities are much
less valuable. A form of intoxication, known as Lathryism, is said to be caused
by different species of Lathyrus.
In Dr. Wilson’s “American Text-Book of Therapeutics,’ Victor C. Vaughan
translates the following account of Lathyrism from Kobert’s work “Intoxika-
tionen :”
By Lathyrism we mean an intoxication that was known to the contemporaries of
Hippocrates, and which was caused by the seeds of at least three species of vetch, Lathyrus
hirsutus, the red vetch, Lathyrus sativus, the German vetch, and Lathyrus Clymenum,
the Spanish vetch. In Spain, France, Italy, and in certain parts of Africa and India there
have repeatedly appeared, from the eating of the seed of the vetch, epidemics of a dis-
ease that especially affects males and which induces a transverse myelitis with motor
and sensory paraplegia. The paralytic symptoms gradually disappear, but there remains
spastic tubes with heightened tendon-reflexes attributed by Proust to secondary degeneration
of the lateral columns, while Striimpell considers the case a typical spinal paralysis. How-
ever, the symptoms may wholly disappear and recovery be apparently complete. Men and
animals, especially horses, are affected in the same manner. Duvernoy described the dis-
ease in 1770; Doir saw it follow the eating of vetch-bread in 1785; Despranches observed
it in France in 1829, and Pellicotti in the Abbruzzo mountains in 1847. Reports of the
disease were made by Irving, in India, in 1861 and 1869, and by Bourlier in Africa in
1882. In 1883, Marie published in Le Progrés Medical a review of the literature of the
subject and more recently Schuchardt has done the same. . . . . .- Hogs are killed
quickly by the vetch. Horses suffer from paralysis of the recurrent laryngeal nerve,
necessitating tracheotomy. More chronic poisoning causes paralysis of the posterior ex-
tremities, and death. Méricourt believes the disease beri-beri is due to a similar intox-
ication, but this is denied by Marie and others. In horses there is atrophy of the muscles
of the larynx, especially of the cricoarytenoideus posticus and lateralis, also of the
thyroarytenoideus. The left recurrent laryngeal nerve is much wasted. Microscopic exam-
ination shows the muscle greatly atrophied, without striation, and undergoing fatty
degeneration. In the central nervous system one finds atrophy of the ganglion-cells in
the vagus center and of the multipolar ganglion-cells in the anterior horns of the cord.
LEGUMINOSAE—LATHYRUS 573
Attempts to isolate the poison have not succeeded. ‘'eilleux found an acid that induced
typical effects upon rabbits. Bourlier found an active alkaloid in the alcohol-ether ex-
tract of the seeds, and poisoned birds with it. Astier isolated a volatile alkaloid by the
Stas method, and he thus explains the fact that long-continued heating at a high tem-
perature renders the seeds inert.
20. Cicer L. Chick pea
Calyx tube oblique or gibbous posteriorly; lobes nearly equal or the two
upper somewhat shorter, conniving; standard ovate or nearly orbicular, nar-
rowed into a broad claw; wings obliquely obovate, free; keel somewhat broader,
incurved, dilated; anthers uniform; ovary sessile 2-8 ovuled; style filiform, in-
curved or bent, beardless; stigmas terminal, legume sessile, ovoid or oblong,
turgid, 2-valved; seeds sub-globose or irregularly obovoid; funiculus scarcely
dilated, hilum small; cotyledons thick; radicle short, slightly incurved or nearly
straight.
Cicer arietinum Ll, Chick pea
Annual herbs, or perennial often glandular-pubescent; leaves pinnate, petiole
terminating in a small tuft of spinescent hairs or in an odd leaflet; leaflets
dentate or incised without stipels; stipules foliaceous oblique, often dentate or
incised; flowers white, blue or violet; solitary pedunculate, or few pedicelled;
bracts small; bractlets 0. About 14 species, especially in the eastern Mediter-
ranean and in Central Asia—extending westward.
Distribution. Cultivated in the Rocky Mountains and in the Southwest.
Also extensively in Southern Europe and tropical Asia. Considered an excellent
food plant.
Chick pea (Cicer arietinum).
Fig; “305.
(After Faguet).
574 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Poisonous properties. Friedberger and Froéhner in Veterinary Pathology
give the symptoms from Cicer poisoning:
In horses roaring and difficult breathing, owing to paralysis of the laryngeal muscles;
paralysis, weakness in the loins, suffocation. Post-mortem reveals nothing of moment.
Therapeutics: Change of fodder; tracheotomy.
1
21. Phaseolus I, Bean
Usually vines with pinnately 3-foliate leaves, stipules and racemose fiwers;
calyx 5-toothed or 5-cleft, the upper teeth more or less united; standard orbicular
recurved, spreading; keel spirally coiled enclosing the stamens and _ style;
stamens diadelphous, 9 and 1; style bearded; pod linear 2-valved, several seed-
ed; seeds with large embryo. About 170 species mostly of tropical regions; 12
species native to southern states. The common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris),
native to tropical America is widely cultivated. The scarlet runner (P. multi-
florus) is widely cultivated as an ornamental plant and is said to be poisonous.
The P. Mungo is cultivated in the tropics.
Phaseolus lunatus . Lima Bean
A twining plant with racemose flowers shorter than the leaf; pod broad and
curved, scimitar shaped; seeds few, large and flat; some dwarf, some with long
twining stems.
» Distribution. Widely cultivated, native to South America.
Poisonous properties. Several cases of poisoning from the use of lima beans
are reported. L. Guignard, according to an abstract in the Experiment Station
Record, has determined this to be due to hydrocyanic acid. He says: “A num-
ber of forms that have been described as distinct species are by the author be-
lieved to be varieties or cultural forms of P. Iunatus. ‘Those principally studied
were the white and colored Java beans, Burma or white Indian beans, Sieva
beans, Cape beans, which are extensively cultivated in Madagascar, and Lima
beans. ‘These different varieties are widely cultivated and extensively used
as food, although a number of fatalities have been attributed to their use.
Descriptions of the different varieties and detailed reports of the chemical
studies are given.
Practically all varieties of P. lunatus, whether wild or cultivated were found
to contain the principle which when acted upon by an enzyme yields hydro-
cyanic acid. ‘The proportion of hydrocyanic acid varied from almost inap-
preciable amounts in some of the more improved forms, like the Lima bean, to
as much as 60 to 320 mg .per gm. dry weight in certain varieties of Java beans.
It was found impossible by cooking to remove all the cyanogenetic compound
in Java beans. Prolonged boiling extracts the greater part, but it is merely
withdrawn and not destroyed, and if the water is absorbed it presents the same
danger as the beans themselves, since either in the alimentary tract or in the
blood are sufficient ferments to act upon the dissolved glucoside, resulting in the
liberation of hydrocyanic acid.
GERANIALES
Herbs, shrubs or trees; petals usually present and generally polypetalous ;
sepals mostly distinct; stamens few, rarely more than twice as many as the
sepals, opposite them when as many; compound ovary superior. Contains the
GERANIALES 575
families Geraniaceae, O-xalidaceae, Tropaeolaceae, Linacece, Erythroxyiaceae,
Zygophyllaceac, Rutaceae, Simarubaceae, Burseraceae, Meliaceae, Malpighiaceae,
Polygalaceae and Euphorbiaceae. The family Tropaeolaceae contains the nas-
turtiums (Tropaeolum majus and T, minus) frequent in cultivation, the fruits
of the species being used for pickles. 7. Lobbianum is a showy greenhouse
plant. The 7. tuberosum of Peru produces a tuberous root used for food in
Bolivia, cooking dispelling the unpleasant flavor.
Dr. Halsted states. that some persons have suffered from an inflammation
on the hand caused by handling the garden nasturtium.
T. majus contains glucotropaeolum, similar to the essential oil of mustard.
The family Burseraceae contains Commiphora abyssinica furnishing myrrh, and
Almacigo (Bursera simaruba) the most characteristic tree of Porto Rico and
one which furnishes a resin known in commerce as “chibon.” The family Meli-
aceae includes mahogany (Swietinia Mahogoni) a valuable timber tree of the
Antilles; myrtle (Melia Azedarach), widely cultivated in the South as an orna-
mental plant, the fruit of which contains mangrovin and is said to be poisonous,
the West Indian cedar (Cedrela odorata), which furnishes a valuable wood
used for furniture, cigar boxes, shingles, etc.; and Trichilia emetica, which
yields an oil and tallow. The carapa oil made from the seeds of Carapa procera
is toxic for insects. The family Zygophyllaceae furnishes lignum-vitae (Guaiacum
officinale), a heavy wood used in machinery and casting work.
The ratsbane, broken-back or mendis (Chailletia toxicaria) of the family
Chailletiaceae is much used in Sierra Leone country of Africa for
poisoning; it is placed in water to poison enemies and live stock. According
to Dr. Renner “No one in this colony, it would appear, dies from natural causes.”
Dr. Renner found the cause of this mysterious trouble to be due to poisoning
from ratsbane poison. In one case, a laborer was poisoned from “having eaten
some fish on which the ground fruit of Chailletia toxicaria had been strewn
for the purpose of killing rats.” This shrub and an allied species are common in
Upper Guinea and Senegambia. Drs. Frederick B. Power and Frank Tutin who
made chemical and physiological examination of the fruit of Chailletia toxicaria
found that the fruit contained neither an alkaloid nor a cyagenetic glucoside
although a glucoside of this character is said to occur in South African C.
cymosa. ‘The ratsbane contains a resinous substance which is extremely poison-
ous, but a toxin could not be isolated. The syrup prepared from the resin
when given to a dog caused delirium and epileptiform convulsions soon followed
by death. Drs. Powers and Tutin found that the fruit of this plant contains
two active principles, one of which causes cerebral depression or narcosin and
that the poison which causes convulsions is cumulative in its effect.
To the family Erythroxylaceae belongs coca (Erythroxylon Coca) which
contains a number of alkaloids as follows: cocain C. HIN@ cinnamylcocain
C,,H,,NO,, iruxillin (a) (CH SWNO)). truxillin (b) CORN SEN LO nN ben-
zoylecgonin C,,H,,NO,, tropa-cocain CEL NG, hygrin CB NO; cusoyhgrin
CR NO: The injurious effects of cocain are well known. Dr. Winslow
Solutions of cocain (4.10 per cent), applied to mucous membranes, produce perfect
local anaesthesia by paralyzing the sensory nerve endings. Cocain exerts a local anaesthetic
action upon the gastric mucous membrane, and in this way lessens the appetite and sometimes
stops vomiting. Intestinal peristalsis is increased by moderate doses, but is decreased and
destroyed by the paralytic action of large doses. The action of cocain upon the heart and
576 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Fig. 316. Coca-tree (Erythroxylon coca). Furnishes the coca of
commerce. (After Faguet). :
vessels is not very marked, except in poisoning. The alkaloid is, however, a slight cardiac
stimulant in moderate doses, increasing the pulse-rate and tension. ‘The action upon the
heart 1s caused by depression of the cardio-inhibitory centres, and sometimes as well by
depression of the cardiac inhibitory ganglia. Vascular tension is increased because of stim-
ulation of the medullary vasomotor centres, smooth muscle of the walls, and because of
the increased action of the heart. On the other hand, both minute and large doses may
diminish the pulse rate.
Cocain is a respiratory stimulant’ in medicinal doses, but a paralyzant in toxic amounts.
The respiratory centres are first stimulated and the breathing is made deeper and quicker.
Depression and paralysis of the respiratory centres follow; cyanosis supervenes, and the
respirations are shallow and irregular. Death occurs from asphyxia. In man, an amount
of cocaine exceeding gr. 3% should not be employed under the skin, or upon mucous mem-
branes, and death has occurred in susceptible patients from even smaller doses. ‘The most
powerful action follows the use of cocain in very vascular parts, as about the face. One
half a grain of cocain given subcutaneously to a girl eleven years o!d, was followed by a
fatal result in 40 seconds, and the writer has seen violent convulsions produced by the in-
stillation of a few drops of a 2 per cent. solution into the eye of a man. On the other hand,
spontaneous recovery has obtained in the human subject after the ingestions of 22 grs. of
the alkaloid. In the horse, the toxic dose of cocain causes restlessness and excitement.
dilated pupils and salivation, culminating within an hour in a state of acute mania and
intense excitement. These symptoms are followed by gradual recovery after a lapse of a
few hours. Three grains of cocain given under the skin, will sometimes induce nervous
excitement in susceptible horses. The treatment of dangerous forms of cocain poisoning,
with respiratory and heart failure, consists in the use of rapidly acting stimulants,—as
nitroglycerin upon the tongue, and strychnin, atropin and brandy subcutaneously.
Families of Geraniales
Flowers regular or nearly so, petals present usually as many as the sepals;
flowers perfect; leaves not punctate.
GERANIALES 577
Herbs.
Capsule splitting into 5 carpels; leaves 3-foliolate or dissected..........
oi als bhai Neda ROR ORAS RCo aR aay Nana Ce LS armel Geraniaceae.
Capsule 2-5 celled not splitting into carpels.
Stamens 2-3 times as many as the petals.
Leaf, Sfoliolateye ie oe Ce eae Choa eed wiaha dl Oxalidaceae.
Stamens’ as: manywas the, petals oreeie sia stane yee sle sieiaiee.e ate Linaceae.
Trees or shrubs with compound leaves; leaves often punctate.
Reaves: punctate’: fala camete sy iaerue aM oluurengie Wie cipe atl arty ataprarale Rutaceae.
Reaves Moe- pumictaten, Sit, soci ue cratered ae i a ee eel ale Simarubaceae.
Flowers irregular; petals 3, stamens diadelphous or monadelphous. . Polygalaceae.
Flowers regular generally apetalous, monoecious; carpels mostly 3; generally
herbs. with. mally (juiced 3 | Se ees ee teat aha pene Euphorbiaceae.
Fig. 317. Nasturtium (Tropaeolum majus). Flowering
branch. (After Faguet).
GERANIACEAE
Herbs with alternate or opposite leaves; flowers perfect, regular, 5-nerved,
hypogynous; stamens as many or twice as many or more than the petals; ovary
1, usually 5-lobed; ovules 1-2 in each cavity; fruit capsular. About 450 species
of wide distribution. Native to the tropics and temperate regions of both
hemispheres. Many plants of this order are frequently cultivated; among these
are the South African pelargonium, commonly called the geranium, which con-
tains geraniol C,H, ,0: The sharp points of the fruit of some are injurious.
578 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Fig. 318. Cultivated Geranium (Pelar-
gonium zonale). 1, 4, Flower; b, c, d,
Stamens; a, Stigmas.
frequently entering the flesh and in some cases this mechanical injury has pro-
duced death in sheep, just as in the case of Stipa. The Geranium Robertianum
has a disagreeable bitter taste.
Erodium L/Her. Storksbill
Herbs with opposite or alternate stipulate leaves; flowers nearly regular,
axillary or umbellate; sepals 5, imbricated; petals: 5, hypogynous, the upper
slightly smaller; glands of the disk 5, alternate with the petals; stamens 10;
anther bearing 5, and as many sterile filaments; ovary deeply 5-lobed and 5-
celled, beaked by the united styles, 5 in number; lobes of the capsule 1-seeded;
the style when mature breaks away elastically and is coiled spirally; tails of
carpels hairy on the inside; seeds not reticulated. The 65 species found in tem-
perate and warm regions. Some species have become widely distributed because
the seeds cling to the fleece of animals. Some species are troublesome in
western United States.
Erodium cicutarium T/Her. Alfilaria or Storksbill
A hairy, tufted annual with low spreading stems; plant viscid or sticky;
leaves pinnate or once to twice pinnatifid; flowers in umbel-like clusters, purple
or pink; fruit hairy on the inside and spirally twisted when ripe. The &.
moschatum is a stouter plant which occurs occasionally eastward.
Distribution. This plant is common upon the Pacific Coast especially
California, occurring in grain fields and waste places. It is also abundant in
dry soils in the Salt Lake basin and from Colorado to Texas; occasionally found
in the eastern states and Manitoba. Native to the Old World. The weed is
commonly scattered by animals. It is injurious to wool.
GERANIACEAE—ERODIUM 579
Injurious properties. Species of Erodium, like those of Stipa, have in some
cases sharp pointed calluses which bury themselves in the flesh and inflict
injuries to animals. Our common species is but slightly troublesome in this
way. The carpels of the Erodium get into the fleece of sheep and thus the
wool is rendered somewhat less salable.
E. moschatum is injurious.
i
we 5)
Fig. 320. Musk Erodium
(Erodium moschatum). (After
Fitch).
Fig. 319. Hemlock Stork’s Bill (Erodium
crcutarium). This widely distributed plant
sometimes causes mechanical injuries in ani-
mals. (Charlotte M. King).
OXALIDACEAE
Generally herbs, frequently with bulbs; acid juice; leaves palmate, with ob-
cordate leaflets; flowers regular, 5-merous; stamens 10-15; ovary 5-celled; car-
pels with few or many ovules, loculicidal. A small order of 250 species chiefly
tropical.
Oxalis I, Sorrel, Oxalis
Annual or perennial herbs with sour juice; often bulbous with alternate,
digitately compound leaves of 3 leaflets; flowers in umbel-like clusters, solitary
or several flowered, regular, often dimorphic or trimophic; sepals 5; petals 5;
580 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
stamens 10; pistil 1; ovary 5-celled; ovules several in each cell; 5 separate
styles; pod 5-celled, opening loculicidally; seeds 2 or more in each cell, the outer
coat dehiscent; embryo large, endosperm present. The 250 species chiefly found in:
the tropics. The Oxralis violacea with violet corolla is a common plant in woods.
and prairies. The O. corniculata, a yellow flowered species, occurs from Penn-
sylvania to Illinois. ‘The fresh juice of this is said to be an antidote against
poisoning from the seeds of Jimson weed. Several South American species:
like O. flava and O. Ortgiesi are cultivated indoors. The O. tetraphylla and
O. lasiandra with their crimson flowers are also handsome for indoor cultivation.
The O. crenata of Peru is cultivated for its tuberous roots.
O-xalis violacea I, Violet Wood Sorrel
Perennial with brownish bulb and ciliate scales; leaves smooth; leaflets.
obcordate, the midrib sometimes sparingly hairy; flowers in cymose clusters ;
sepals 5; petals 5, violet purple; capsule ovoid; seeds flattened, rugose-tuber-
culate. .
Distribution. New England to Florida and New Mexico.
Poisonous properties. Dr. Schaffner notes a case of poisoning as follows:
“A case is recorded of a boy being thrown into violent convulsions by eating
a considerable quantity of the leaves.”
Prof. Hyams states that children have been known to die from constantly
eating the raw herbs of O. grandis.
LINACEAE. Flax Family
Herbs, rarely shrubs; stipules small or none; flowers regular and symmet-
rical, hypogynous; sepals 5, rarely 4, imbricated and persistent; petals 5, or
rarely 4, convolute; stamens 5, monadelphous at the base, alternate with the
petals; pistil 1, 2-5-celled; styles 2-5; fruit capsular; seeds 1-2 in each cavity;
cotyledons large, flat, withottt endosperm or with a small amount. A small.
order of 4 genera and 90 species, mostly in the genus Linum.
Linum (Tourn.) lL. Flax
Herbs, sometimes with a woody base with tough fibrous bark; leaves sessile;
stipules wanting or a pair of glands; flowers in cymes, racemes, or panicles ;
sepals 5; petals 5, soon falling; stamens 5; pistil 1; ovary 4-5-celled or becoming
divided by false partitions, making 10 cells; seeds shining with a mucilaginous
coat; large cotyledons. Several species commonly cultivated for ornamental
purposes. ‘The blue-flowered L. perenne of the Rocky Mountains, and the:
red garden flax (ZL. grandiflorum) a hardy annual from North Africa, are
cultivated.
Linum usitatissimum \. Flax. Linseed
Annual; stem corymbosely branched at the tip; acuminate sepals; flowers:
broad; petals large, blue. Widely cultivated in the North and frequently spon-
taneous.
Poisonous properties and uses. The blue-flowered annual (L. usitatissimum )
has been cultivated for centuries. ‘The fiber has been found among the remains:
of the Swiss Lake dwellers. ‘The ancient Egyptians as well as the Greeks and
Romans also used the fiber for the manufacture of cloth. It is extensively cul-
tivated in various European countries, fine fiber being produced in Belfast, Ire—
LINACEAE—LINUM 581
land; Brussels, Belgium; in Russia, and the Nile region. ‘The seeds are also used
extensively for making linseed oil. The chief regions where it is cultivated in
North America are the Dakotas, Minnesota, Nebraska and Manitoba. Russia
also cultivates the plant for the oil. The seed contains linolleic acid C,,H,,O,,
and is rich in oil. The compressed refuse is manufactured into oil cake, which
is used for cattle food. The flax oil found in the seed of the plant is about one-
third of its weight. Commercially, between 20 per cent and 30 per cent are ob-
tained. When fresh it is without color and has little taste. The commercial
oil is yellow and has a repulsive taste. On exposure to the air after having
been heated with oxide of lead, it dries up to a transparent varnish consisting
chiefly of linoryn C,,H,,O,,. In medicine the flax seed is used in the form
of a poultice, which is made of the pulverized seed. When oil cake or oil meal
is fed in concentrated form it produced digestive trouble to hogs, frequently
resulting in death. Dr. Schaffner states that it causes death to cattle, probably
due to the prussic acid evolved from the plant when wilting. This substance
has been reported.
Friedberger and Frohner state that it causes violent colic, inflation, diarrhoea,
staggering, palpitation, death with convulsions; autopsy shows gastro-enteritis
and signs of axphyxiation.
Linum rigidum Pursh. Large-flowered Yellow Flax
An herbaceous glaucus or slightly puberulent annual with rigid angled branch-
es from 1-2 feet high; leaves narrow, erect, usually with stipular glands; flowers
large ,yellow; sepals acute or awn-pointed, glandular, serrulate; petals cune-
ate-obovate longer than the sepals; styles separate only at the summit; capsule
5-valved and ovoid.
Distribution. Loess soil of western Iowa to Missouri, Texas, Mexico
to Arizona and Manitoba.
Poisonous nature. According to Chesnut the plant is reported as poison-
ous to sheep in the Pecos Valley, Texas.
Rutaceak. Rue Family
Trees, shrubs, or herbs with simple, compound, alternate or opposite leaves,
glandular, with punctate dots without stipules; flowers mostly in cymose clusters,
polygamo-dioecious hypogynous, or perigynous; sepals 4-5; petals 4 or 5; stam-
ens of the same number or twice as many, distinct, inserted on the receptacle; pistils
2-5, distinct or one compound ; 2-5 carpels raised on an annular disk; embryo large,
curved or straight; endosperm fleshy or none.
About 875 species, mostly in tropical regions of Seni Africa and Australia.
Few representatives in North America. ‘Two species of prickly ash (Zanthoxy-
lum americanum Mill and Z. Clava-Herculis L.) and our hop-tree (Ptelea tri-
foliata) are common in the United States. The fruit of the hop-tree is sed
in Russia as a substitute for hops. A bitter alkaloidal principle occurs in Yan-
thoxylum, ‘The gas plant (Dictamnus albus) a viscid glandular plant with strong
aromatic scent is commonly cultivated. The common rue (Ruta graveolens),
a native to Europe, is sometimes cultivated in country gardens. It has a strong
disagreeable odor, and is so acrid that it will even blister the hands. It con-
tains an acrid narcotic poison. The cork free (Phellodendron amurense) from
the Amur region, is occasionally cultivated. The most important genus of the
582 MANUAL, OF POISONOUS PLANTS
order is Citrus. The orange (Citrus Aurantium) is extensively cultivated in
California and Florida. C. Aurantium var. vulgaris is the bitter orange which
has run wild in Florida and other parts of the world. It is used in the manu-
facture of candied orange peel. The citron (C. Medica) produces the oil of
citron, the thick peel being used to make the citron of commerce. The lemon
(C. Limonum), wild in northern India, introduced into Europe by the Crusaders,
is now well known in cultivation in California. The lime (C. Limetta) is cul-
tivated in all tropical countries, and with the lemon is used to make lime juice.
It is a refreshing drink and on sea voyages is used as an antiscorbutic. The
lemon and lime are forms of C. Medica. The mandarine or tangerine (C.
Aurantium) having a small flattened fruit with a thin rind and rich fruit,
is grown in California and China. It is hardier than the orange, but probably
a form of it. The shaddock or grape fruit (C. decumana) with large and some-
what bitter fruit, is native to Polynesia, and in recent years has become much
better known in the United States. The kumquat (C. japonica), native to
Japan and China, produces a small and pleasantly flavored fruit. The Aegle
sepiaria (C. trifoliata) hardy as far north as Washington, is a spiny shrub
producing a many-seeded, yellow, austere fruit. Hybrids of the species and C.
Aurantium with better and larger fruit, have been produced by Webber. The
sour orange or Naranja (C. Bigaradia) of Porto Rico and Florida is used for
stocks in all plantings on moist lands because it resists the foot-rot which affects
other varieties. ‘The Beal fruit (Aegle Marmelos), native of India, with fruit
about the size of an orange, produces a delicious fragrant material used in
medicine. Jaborandi (Pilocarpus pennatifolius) native to Brazil contains the
alkaloid pilocarpin C,,H,,N,O, and is a powerful diaphoretic. The adminis-
tration of more than 5 ers. of the alkaloid is dangerous to horses when given
subcutaneously. Atropin is an antidote. The alkaloid jaborin C,,H,,N,O, re-
sembles atropin, also the alkaloid pilocarpidin, The bark of angustura (Cus-
paria febrifuga) native to Venezuela contains cusparin C,,H,,NO, three other
alkaloids and the bitter principle angusturin. The C. toxicaria of Brazil is poison
Fig. 321. Orange (Citrus Aurantium). 1. Flowering
branch. 2. Jongitudinal section of flower. 3. Longitudinal
section of fruit. 4. Seed. (After Wossidlo).
RUTACEAE 583
ous. Lunsia amara contains a toxic glucoside. Citric acid is found in fruits
of lemons, lime and other members of the genus Citrus. The glucoside hesperi-
din C,,H,,O,,4H,0 occurs in ripe and unripe fruits of Citrus; the resinous
principle naringin C,,H,,O,, in C. decumana. The essential oil of lemons is
one of the terpens C,,H,,; the oil of bergamot similar to the preceding is
from Bergamot; limettin C,,H,,O, is the bitter principle of Citrus Medica—
C. Limetta. The leaves of Buchu (Barosma crenulata) act as a mild diuretic.
It contains a volatile oil of which 30 per cent is disophenol, also a crystalline
glucoside (diosmin). The Commiphora abyssinica contains a volatile oil con-
sisting of cuminol and eugenol. Aurantiamaric acid occurs in several species
Of Ciirus:: .
SIMARUBACEAE. Ailanthus Family
Trees or shrubs with bitter bark; leaves pinnate, alternate, without punctate
dots; stipules minute or none; flowers in axillary panicles or racemose clusters ;
regular, dioecious or polygamous; calyx 3-5 lobed; petals 3-5; stamens of the
same number as the petals or twice as many; pistils 2-5 and 1-5 celled; disk
elongated or annular.
A small family of 125 species of warm or tropical regions. The most
widely known member of the family in the United States is the tree-of-Heaven
or Chinese sumac (Ailanthus glandulosus). 'The quassia(Q. amara) of Guiana
is used in fevers and as a substitute for hops to impart bitter flavor to beer.
It contains quassin C,,H,,O,, a bitter principle. The bark of other plants of
the order is bitter, like the sitmaruba bark. The cedron (Simaba Cedron) of
Central America is used in the tropics for snake bites. The bitter fruit of
Simaba valdivia contain a gulcoside C,,H,,O,,.
Ailanthus Desf.
Large trees; leaves compound, odd-pinnate; flowers in panicles, greenish
white; calyx short, 5-cleft; 5 spreading petals; disk 10-lobed; 10 stamens of
the staminate flowers inserted at the base of the disk; ovary of the pistillate
flowers deeply 2-5 cleft, 1-celled; stamens 2-3; winged fruits 2-5. Three species
native of China and Eastern Asia.
Ailanthus glandulosus Desf. Tree-of-Heaven
A tall tree with ample leaves, smooth or slightly pubescent; 13-41 stalked
leaflets; ovate or ovate-lanceolate flowers, greenish pedicelled, the staminate
ones badly scented.
Distribution. Commonly escaped from cultivation, along roadsides from
Southern Ontario to Kansas, Southeast Iowa, hardy as far north as Central
Towa.
Poisonous properties. The bark is known to be poisonous. Dr. White,
in his Dermatitis Venenata states that he read an account in some medical
journal of the suspected poisoning by this tree during its flowering season,
and the statement was made that a case of marked dermatitis of the face, had
been attributed to the emanations of a tree of this species, growing very near
the sleeping-chamber of the patient. He records a case where a lady was.
poisoned by contact with it. Dr. Halsted states that when the flowers are
handled they produce an irritation of the skin.
584 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
In the Medical and Surgical Reporter of Philadelphia for 1872, this state-
ment is quoted by Dr. Rusby in regard to the poisoning coming from the roots
of this plant.
A case in which four persons were apparently poisoned by this root. They were mem-
bers of one family and were successively, that is, at intervals of a few days, attacked,
with no other possible cause than their drinking water which they took from the well of a
neighbor. ‘They all drank water exclusively, except the husband, who was the last to be
taken. Others who drank of this water occasionally suffered similarly but to a slight ex-
tent. All immediately began to recover as soon as the drinking of this water was stopped.
The symptoms, which had been slight for many weeks, appeared in a violent form in
November, at which time an Ailanthus tree growing in the vicinity of the well must have
shed its leaves, and to a great extent its fruit also, if a pistillate tree, which fact was not
stated. On examination the soil all about the well was found to be thickly permeated with
the roots of this tree, and these were also supposed to extend into the water, though an
investigation regarding this was apparently not made. Inasmuch as the symptoms had
existed in a mild form before the fall of the leaves, it is fair to assume that the roots
had contributed toward the result, while the violent out-break in November would seem to
indicate a sudden increase in the cause due to the accumulation of the leaves in the well.
The symptoms were jaundice, a dingy aspect of the face and eyes, countenance fixed and
anxious, pulse frequent and soft, yellowish fur on tongue, except on the tip and edges,
tenderness over the liver, and most important, a persistent pain over the stomach with
paroxysmal vomiting, pain in the back, difficult urination and obstinate constipation. ‘The
symptoms were thus apparently to a great extent those of chronic gastritis.
Dr. Schaffner says that cows will not eat grass near the young shoots.
Quercetiin occurs in the leaves. They also contain the bitter principle linuttin.
PoLYGALACEAE. Milkwort Family
Herbs or rarely shrubs; stipules none; flowers perfect; sepals 5; petals
3 or 5, free; stamens 4-8, monadelphous, or diadelphous; anthers 1-celled, open-
Fig. 322. Tree of Heaven (Ailanthus glandulosus).
The bark is supposed to cause dermatitis. (Ada Hayden).
POLYGALACEAE, 585
ing at the top by a pore; ovary 2-celled; ovules 2; fruit a 2-seeded pod. A
small order of about 700 species, found chiefly in the tropical and temperate
regions. Some species of the order produce a strong fiber.
Polygala (Tourn.) L. Milkwort
Herbs or shrubs; simple entire, dotted leaves without stipules; flowers
perfect, irregular, occasionally cleistogamous; calyx of 5 sepals, the 2 iateral
known as wings, large, colored, the other small, greenish; petals 3, free, connected
with each other and the stamen tube; stamens 6 or 8, filaments united below
or in 2 sets; pistil 1; ovary 2-celled; ovules 1 in each cell; fruit mainly capsu-
lar; seeds with a caruncle, anatropous; embryo large; little endosperm. About
250 species, of wide distribution, chiefly of warm regions. A genus of little
economic importance.
Polygala Senega l. Seneca Snakeroot
Plants clustered, several from a woody and knotty rootstock, simple 6-12
inches high; leaves lanceolate or oblong-lanceolate with rough margins; dense
spike, long peduncle; flowers white, none cleistogamous; wings round-obovate;
crest short; seeds hairy.
Distribution. In rocky woods or clay soil. New Brunswick to Minnesota,
Central Iowa to the Rockies in Canada.
Poisonous properties. ‘The dried root is gathered when the leaves are dead,
Fig. 323. Seneca Snakeroot (Polygala
Senega). Dried root is made into a
powder which is very ei (From John-
son’s Med. Bot. of N. A.).
586 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
and made into a powder and a tincture prepared. This tincture has a peculiar
-acridity. Dr. Millspaugh says: ‘
After tasting the tincture or chewing the rootlets, a very peculiar sensation of acridity
and enlargement is felt at the root of the tongue, which, once recognized, will always men-
tally associate itself with this plant. The root contains polygalic acid C,,H,,0,,. It is a
white, odorless, acrid, amorphous powder.
This acid forms a frothing, saponaceous solution in boiling water, and
breaks up into sapogenin and amorphous sugar, to which the name senegin has
been given, which by some has been regarded as identical with saponin. Accord-
ing to the author quoted above, in doses of 10 minims of the tincture to a
scruple of the powdered root, it produces:
Anxiousness, with dullness of the head and vertigo; aching and weakness of the eyes,
with Jachrymation, pressure in the ball, flickerings, dazzling vision, and contracted pupils;
sneezing; ptyalism; inflammation of the fauces and oesophagus, with thirst with anorexia;
nausea; mucous vomiting; burning in the stomach; cutting colic; roughness and irritation
of the larynx, with orgasm of blood to the chest, accompanied by constriction, aching, sore-
ness, and oppression; general debility; restless sleep; and profuse diaphoresis.
Senegin resembles other saponins. Recent investigations indicate that the
plant also contains quillagic acid C,,H,,O,, sapotoxin and two senega saponins.
The saponin of Polygala virginiana has the formula C,,H.,O,,. Other species
of Polygalaceae like P. venenosa contain saponin. ,
EUPHORBIACEAE. Spurge Family
Herbs, shrubs or trees usually with a milky acrid juice, opposite alternate
or verticillate leaves; monoecious or dioecious flowers, much reduced, sub-
tended by bracts resembling a calyx or corolla; ovary usually 3-celled; ovules
2 in each cell, pendulous; stigmas as many or twice as many as the cells; styles
generally 3; fruit a capsule, separating elastically into a 2-valved capsule;
fleshy or oily endosperm; seeds with flat cotyledons.
A large family of 4000 species, chiefly tropical, many of which possess
noxious qualities. Some species of the genus Manihot found in tropical Amer-
Fig. 324. Manchineal Tree (Hippomane Mancinella). Furnishes
an arrow poison. (From Vesques’ Traité de Botanique).
EUPHORBIACEAE 587
ica are poisonous. The fresh juice of bitter cassava administered to dogs and
cats causes death in twenty minutes. The starch from this is used for sizing.
Cassava (Manihot utilissima) is extensively cultivated in tropical America
and to some extent also in Florida. The sweet cassava roots are used as
food for cattle and man. ‘Tapioca is the starch which settling from the water
used to wash cassava meal, is afterward dried. An intoxicating drink is made
from cassava bread. Rubber plants of the order are the Hevea, Micrandus and
Manihot. The manchineal tree (Hippomane Mancineila), the celebrated poison
tree of tropical America furnishes an arrow poison. The fruit, though temp-
ting, contains an acrid poison, which causes blisters to form. The poisonous
properties are said to rival those of the deadly Upas tree (Antiaris toxicaria).
The following is an extract from “West India Sketches”:
The branches contain a milky juice which will certainly blister the skin ,and it has
been a common trick among the negroes to apply it to their backs in order to excite the
compassion of those who might mistake it for the effects of beating.
Kingsley, in his charming “At Last,” writes of it:
We learnt to distinguish the poisonous manchineal, and were thankful in serious earnest
that we had happily plucked none the night before, when we were snatching at every new leaf;
for its milky juice by mere dropping on the skin burns like the poisoned tunic of Nessus,
and will even, when the head is injured by it, cause blindness and death.
Dr. White in his Dermatitis Venenata, speaks of the use of the plant in
the West Indies as follows:
This large family of Euphorbiaceae contains some of the most poisonous plants. One
of the most virulent is the manchkineal, a small tree, bearing fruit resembling an apple,
which grows in Southern Florida.
Loudon states that it abounds in a white milk which is highly poisonous,
and so very caustic that a single drop placed upon the skin instantly causes
the sensation of a hot iron, and in a short space of time raises a blister. It
is a common belief that to sleep under it causes death. Whole woods on the
seacoast of ‘Martinique have been burned in order to clear the country of such
a dangerous pest. The fruit is highly poisonous.
Mr. Combs in his paper on Cuban Medical plants, states that its poisonous
effects may be overcome by the use of Tecoma leucoxylon or Jatropha gossy-
pifolia. The uncooked rhizome of Maranta arundinaceae is sometimes used for
the same purpose. The latex of the sandbox tree Hura crepitans is also very
poisonous and when applied to the skin, causes eruptive pustules resembling
those of erysipelas. It also produces injuries to the eyes. It contains a
sharp acrid poison. When taken internally it produces vomiting and diarrhoea.
The seeds are used as emetic.
The Nigeria species of Mahogany (Ricinodendron africanus) also produces
a valuable wood.
The tallow tree (Sapium sebiferum) is cultivated in tropical countries for
wax found on the fruit, which is made into candles.. The candlenut tree (Aleu-
rites triloba) is cultivated on the islands of the Pacific Ocean for oi! found in
the seeds, which is made into candles, soap, etc. The seeds of A. moluccana
are roasted and eaten. The Kalo Nut (A. Fordii) according to Holmes * is
poisonous having produced toxic symptoms in five children. It is the source
of tung or Chinese wood oil. The seeds of pinhoen oil (Jatropha Curcas) are
eaten. They are nutty and have a pleasant flavor, but when eaten in excess,
produce serious trouble and death often results. The drastic principle of Croton
* Pharm, Jour. 4:25, 231, 241. Brit. Yearbook of Pharm. 1908:240.
588 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Fig. 325. Sandbox Tree (Hura crepitans). 1. Flowering and
fruiting branch. 2. Part of a large branch. Latex causes dermatitis.
(From Vesque’s Traité de Botanique.)
oil (Croton Tiglium) has not been definitely determined, but it has been refined
to a dark brown oil known as crotonol. The plant contains tiglinic acid C-H,O,.
Crotinic acid C,H,O, and Croton oil are derived from the Croton Tiglium, that
is cultivated in southern India. This plant is a drastic purgative, capable, when
given in excessive doses, of causing death. The resin produces vesication.
The seeds, according to Blyth, are very poisonous. The fixed oil has the
formula C,H, ,O,.
The bark of Cascarilla (Croton Eluteria), native to the Bahamas, is used
as a tonic and contains cascarillin C,H,O,. The milky juice of Euphorbia
resinifera of Morocco is used as a purgative and is so intensely acrid that people
in collecting it are compelled to tie a cloth over their nostrils and mouths.
It contains the substance euphorbon C,,H,,O,, which has a burning taste.
The milky juice of agallocha (Excoecaria Agallocha) of tropical Asia is very
acrid and blisters the skin. It is said that if the juice drops into the eye as
sometimes happens to the woodcutter, blindness may be caused. E-xcoecaria
glandulosa contains excoecarin C,,H,,O,. The Homalanthus Leschenaultianus
is said to be poisonous. The fruit of Hyaena poison (Toxicodendron capense)
of South Africa is very poisonous, and is used to destroy beasts of prey. Gum
elastic or Para rubber is derived from the South American Hevea brasiliensis.
Other plants of the family yield caoutchouc, which contains hydrocarbons that
are readily soluble in chloroform. ‘The alkaloid drumin occurs in Euphorbia
Drummondii. Several species of Euphorbia like Poinsettia (Euphorbia splen-
dens) and E. heterophylla are cultivated for ornamental purposes. From the
EUPHORBIACEAE 589
Fig. 326. Croton (Croton Tiglhum). Flowering and fruiting
branch. The source of croton oil. (After Faguet.)
glands and hairs covering the fruit of kamala (Mallotus philippinensis) a dye
is made. The fruit is also used as a vermifuge; it contains rottlerin C,,H,,O,
and isorottlerin. Many species of the genus are regarded as poisonous. Maiden
states that the E. Drummondii is poisonous to stock in New South Wales. It is
known as the milk plant and is especially troublesome to sheep. It causes the head
to swell to an enormous size so that the animal cannot support its head.
Suppuration frequently follows. EE. alsinaeflora is also poisonous to sheep in
the same country. E. eremophila is another suspect in that country. E£.
heptagona is an arrow poison. Some species of this genus are used as fish
poisons. Emanations of &. characias at one time were supposed to cause
malarial fever which, however, was an erroneous assumption. Lehmann, a
German writer on poisonous plants lists the following species as poisonous:
E. Lathyris, E. Heliscopia, E. platyphylla, E. Esula, E. Cyparissias, E. palustris, E.
Peplus, E. exigua. The E. antiquorum of the East Indies, E. canariensis of the Ca-
nary Islands,and &. Reinhardtiiof the Transvaal contain a milky acrid poisonous
juice.* The resin from Euphorbia produces sneezing, irritation of face and
skin, vomiting and diarrhoea and when used in large doses, death. Where the
drug is manufactured, workmen must protect themselves; but, even then, head-
ache, dizziness and weakness follow. To poisoning from members of the genus
Euphorbia, Friedberger and Frohner ascribe such symptoms as constipation,
severe and bloody diarrhoea, feeble pulse and tympanites.
* Bull. Misc. Inf. Roy. Gard, Kew, 1908: 154.
590 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
vl, Y
NY WP
b Yi be
WA aw
_ Fig. 326. Caper spurge (Euphorbia Lathy-
ris). a, upper half of plant, one-third nat-
ural size; b, seed capsule, natural size. Listed
by Lehmann as poisonous. (Chesnut, U. S.
Dept. Agr.)
According to Greshoff the leaves of Andrachne cordifolia and other members
of the family contain hydrocyanic acid.
Key for genera of Euphorbiaceae:
Flowers without a calyx inclosed in a cup-shaped involucre. 5. Euphorbia.
Flowers with a calyx; involucre absent.
Flowers apetalous in panicles; stamens 10.
Calyx corolla-like; plant with stinging hairs. 4. Jatropha.
Flowers in terminal racemes or spikes covered with scurfy or stellate
hairs, glandular.
Flowers spiked or glomerate; ovary usually 3-celled. 1. Croton.
Flowers in axillary spikes or paniculate; stamens 8 or more.
Fertile flowers in the axils of leafy bracts; stamens usually 8.
7. Acalypha.
Flowers in interrupted axillary spikes; stamens 8-20. 6. Mercurialis.
Flowers paniculate; stamens very numerous; filaments branched.
3. Ricinus.
Flowers apetalous in racemes or spikes; stamens 2 or 3 style simple.
Flowers racemose, hirsute or pubescent. 2. Tragia.
Flowers spicate, glabroid. 8. Stillingia.
EKUPHORBIACEAE—CROTON 591
1. Croton L,.
Stellate, pubescent herbs or shrubs; leaves generally alternate, occasionally
with glands at the base of the blade; flowers spicate or racemose, the stamin-
ate above; calyx 4-6 parted; petals usually present, small or rudimentary, alter-
nating with the glands; stamens 5 or more; pistillate flowers with calyx 5-10
parted; petals usually wanting; ovary mostly 3-celled, with a single ovule in
each cell.
Croton capitatus Michx. Hogwort
An annual, dense, soft woolly herb, somewhat glandular, from 1-2 feet
high, occasionally branched; leaves entire, lanceolate oblong, with long petioles;
sterile flowers with 5-parted calyx and as many glands alternating with the
obovate lanceolate petals which are fimbriate; fertile flowers several, capitate
or crowned; calyx 7-12 parted; 5 petals wanting; styles twice or thrice forked;
seeds gray, smooth.
Distribution. A common weedy plant from Missouri to Texas; from New
Jersey to Georgia, Iowa and eastern Kansas.
Fig. 327. Hogwort (Croton capitatus). Suspected of
being poisonous. (After A. M. Fergusonn, Rep. Mo. Bot.
Garden)
a2 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Croton texensis Muell
A branching annual from 1-2 feet high, covered with close stellate pubes-
cence; leaves narrowly oblong-lanceolate to linear; dioecious; calyx lobes 5,
unequal; petals none; staminate spikes short; stamens 10 or more; style 2 or
3 times dichotomously 2-parted; capsule stellate, tomentose and roughened;
seeds ovoid or oval.
Distribution. From South Dakota to Colorado, Texas, Mexico, Missouri and
Alabama.
Poisonous properties. Several species of the genus Croton are used in
medicine. The Croton Tiglimm contains an oil which given internally is a
powerful cathartic, but when applied externally, is a rubefacient. Loss of the
hair follicles and of hair may occur. When gently rubbed into the skin, it
produces, after a short time, a considerable degree of itching, redness, and burn-
ing, and within a few hours small red papules may develop. If more of the
oil is applied the papules are more abundant and are often surrounded with
a bright red halo. They often become pustular and scars fill the pustules.
Fig. 328. Texas Croton (Croton texensis). Some-
times causes irritation of the skin. (After Mrs. M. H. D.
Irish, Rep. Mo. Bot. Garden.)
EUPHORBIACEAE—CROTON 593
Croton oil contains several fatty acids, such as stearic, palmitic, myristic and
lauric acids. The volatile part of the acids contains an acid called tiglinic
C.H,O,, which is the same as angelic acid. The drastic principle of Croton
oil has not been definitely determined, according to Fliickiger and Hanbury.
Crotonol C,,H,,O,, is a non-purgative body causing irritation of the skin.
According to Winslow, in h’s Veterinary Materia Medica and Therapeutics,
“10 drops of croton oil will kill a dog unless vomiting occurs. 30 drops prove
fatal to a horse, intravenously. The treatment of poisoning includes the use
of emetics or stomach tube, demulcents and opium.” None of our native
species is mentioned as poisonous by Dr. Schaffner or Prof. Chesnut, but a few
years ago I had a query through the Wallace Farmer in Des Moines, from a
correspondent in Western Nebraska who suspected that the Texas croton was
poisonous. The writer has eaten a few seeds of our southern Croton capi-
tatus with slight uneasiness. On the other hand, a few seeds of the Texas
croton produced powerful irritation which lasted for an hour, and then disap-
peared. It is listed by Bessey and O’Gara as possibly poisonous in Western
Nebraska. Prof. Chesnut states in his paper on Plants used by the Indians
in Mendocino county, California, that the bruised leaves of Croton setigera
are used to stupefy fish. The common name, fish soap-root, indicates its use.
The bark of the cascarilla (Croton Eluteria), native of the Bahama
Islands is used as a tonic.
Tragia L. Tragia
Monecious herbs or shrubs, usually armed with stinging hairs; leaves alter-
nate; flowers in racemes with bractlets, apetalous; sterile flowers with a 3-5
cleft calyx; fertile flowers with a 3-8-parted calyx, divisions entire or pinnati-
Fig. 329. Spurge Nettle (Tragia
urens). This spurge is common in
some places in the South and has hairs
that are irritating like those of the ’com-
mon nettle. (Charlotte M. King.)
594 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
fid; styles 3; capsule 3-lobed, separating into three 2-valved carpels. A small
genus of 50 species.
Tragia urens Ll, Common Nettle or Tragia
A dull green, pilose plant with pilose or hirsute hairs; erect, branched
stems; leaves obovate, or ovate-linear; short, petioled, pistillete flowers, several
at the base of the racemes, with a 5-6 lobed calyx; capsule short-pedicelled.
Distribution. From Virginia to Florida and Texas.
Tragia nepetaefolia Cav. Tragia or Nettle.
A somewhat hispid, erect, or slightly twining plant, bearing stinging
hairs; leaves ovate, or triangular-lanceolate; base cordate or truncate; short
petioled; racemes many-flowered; pistillate flowers with a 5-lobed calyx; seeds
chestnut brown.
Distribution. From Kansas to New Mexico.
Poisonous properties. ‘The hairs have the same stinging property as those
of the common nettle.
3. Ricinus (Tourn.) L. Castor Oil Bean
A tall, stout herb or tree in tropics; glabrous and glauctis; large, alternate,
peltate leaves; flowers in large, panicled clusters; the fertile above, the staminate
below; calyx 5-parted; stamens numerous; styles 3, united at the base, each
2.parted, red;capsule subglobose, or oval, separating into 3, 2-valved carpels;
cotyledons large; endosperm fleshy and oily. A single species naturalized in
warm countries, probably native to Asia.
Ricinus communis I, Castor Oil Plant
A tall, smooth, branching herb with palmately-lobed leaves ; seeds oblong,
shining, variegated with white.
Distribution. Widely cultivated as an ornamental plant, and an escape from
cultivation trom New Jersey to Texas.
Poisonous properties. The seeds furnish the well known castor oil, which
is a mild and safe purgative. It contains ricinolein, or ricinoleic acid glycerid,
CH ACH Os), 3 aul acrid principle; also palmitin, stearin, and myristin,
The purgative principle found in it is unknown. Castor oil is not poisoncus,
‘but the pulp contains an acrid, albuminous substance, ricin C,H.N,O,. Br
Winslow, in speaking of the poisonous character, says, the seeds “contain 50
percent of oil, and an acrid, poisonous substance. Three seeds have caused
death in man,, and they are ten times more purgative than the oil.” A few seeds
eaten entire by a child might produce serious symptoms. According to Ches-
nut, the seed eaten accidentally by horses has caused death. They are used also
to poison sheep, according to the same authority. The oil cake is said not to be
poisonous to poultry and cattle. A case is known of a young lady whose eyes
became inflamed when in contact with a mere trace of the material in the
laboratory. The toxin is very poisonous, but animals may be rendered immune,
and the seeds then fed to them. Behring has produced an anti-toxic serum
against the ricin or toxin of the castor oil bean.
Lol
Ne}
ul
EUPHORBIACEAE—RICINUS
, see
Leap aul
Slag S
Fig. 330. Castor Oil Plant (Ricinus communis). Furnishes the well
known castor oil of commerce. (After Faguet.)
The symptoms of poisoning are vomiting, gastric pain, bloody diarrhoea
and dullness of vision.
Stillmark1 states that the toxalbumin of castor oil bean, when injected into
the circulation is more poisonous than strychnin, prussic acid, or arsenic.
Quite recently Dr. W. N. Bispham? reported on several cases of poisoning
in Cuba from eating the seeds of the Castor oil plant. Some persons showed
peculiar susceptibility ; in one case poisoning occured from eating a single seed,
while in another a good many were eaten; in both cases the seeds caused
nausea, vomiting, and purging of a violent nature.
Toxic substances similar to ricin occur in the following plants. Abrus
precatorius (abrin), Jatropha curcas (curcin), Croton Eluteria (crotin), Robinia
Pseudo-Acacia (robin), Brayera anthelmintica (costoxin). According to Ceni
and Besta a toxin also occurs in Urtica, Viscum seedlings, Aspergillus flavus,
and A. fumigatus.
1 Dorpat. Arch. 3: (1889).
2 Am. Jour. Med. Sci. 126: 319-321.
596 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
4. Jatropha l.. Spurge Nettle or Bull Nettle
Monoecious, or rarely dioecious, perennial herbs, with bristly hairs, entire
or lobed leaves; flowers in cymes; calyx colored like petals in sterile flower,
mostly salver-shaped, and 5-lobed, enclosing 10-30 stamens; pistillate flowers
in the lower forks of the cymes; capsule ovoid or subglobose, separating into
2-valved carpels. A small genus of 4 or 5 species.
Jatropha stimulosa Michx
A branching, perennial plant with a stout root, 6-12 inches high, and sting-
ing hairs; leaves round, heart-shaped, 3-5 lobed or variously cleft; calyx of
the staminate flower salver-form, white or pinkish; stamens 10, filaments almost
separate; seeds oblong-ovoid, smooth and mottled.
Distribution. In dry sandy soil from Virginia to Texas.
Poisonous properties. Mr. John Smith says that a plant growing at Kew
was placed on his wrist, and produced in a few minutes, serious symptoms ex-
tending to the upper part of his body; the lips became swollen, and the whole
of a livid red, fainting coming on in ten minutes. The writer was told of numer-
ous instances of poisoning in Texas where it is much dreaded.
Jatropha urens, known as the Brazilian stinging nut, is considered to be one
of the most poisonous plants known. The Cuban physic nut (Japtropha Cur-
cas) is used as a purgative.
Vig. 331. Spurge Nettle. Lois Pammel.
Fig. 332. Spurge nettle (Jatropha stimulosa).
The Jatropha has stinging hairs that produce in-
juries similar to those produced by nettle but much
more powerful. (After Hochstein).
1
EUPHORBIACEAE—JATROPHA 597
5. Euphborbia L. Spurge
Monoecious shrubs or herbs with alternate or opposite, verticillate leaves;
flowers involucrate, involucres resembling a calyx or corolla, bearing a large
thick gland in the sinuses; staminate flowers consist of a single jointed stamen
on a filament-like pedicel; pistillate flower solitary at the bottom of the involucre
consisting of a 3-lobed and 3-celied ovary; capsule at maturity breaking into
3-lobed 1-seeded carpels; seeds frequently caruncled, smooth, variously pitted.
About 700 species, chiefly in warmer regions. A few are weedy, some poison-
ous and some planted for ornamental purposes. The milky juice of the Brazil-
ian E, heterodoxa produces a ferment which acts much like papain.
Euphorbia Presilii Guss. Large Spotted Spurge
An ascending, erect annual from 1-2 feet high, opposite oblique leaves, which
are ovate, oblong or oblong-linear, falcate, serrate, usually with a red spot
or red margins; stipules triangular; flowers collected in a loose terminal cyme;
appendages entire, white or red; pod smooth, angled; seeds small, blackish,
ovate, obtusely angled, wrinkled, and tubercled.
Distribution. Common in eastern North America west to the Rocky Moun-
tains.
Euphorbia maculata 1, Spotted Spurge
A prostrate spreading, hairy annual; leaves oblong-linear, pubescent or
smooth, oblique at base, serrate above, small brownish spots on leaves; stipules
lanceolate, fimbriate; flowers monoecious, included in a 4-5-lobed involucre;
glands of the involucre minute; peduncles as long as the petioles, in dense
clusters; pods minutely pubescent; seeds sharply 4-angled, having 4 shallow
grooves, whitish.
Uy
(
a@P
Zee
| NN
l,
me
7
Y Wy)
aN al
NF,
7 Nie
y, Af
OK
BY,
_ Fig. 333. Spotted Spurge (Euphorbia maculata). Common roadside plant. Probably
poisonous. (C. M. King).
598 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Distribution. Common along roadsides, walks, etc., from New England to
the Rocky Mountains and the Gulf States.
Euphorbia marginata Pursh. Snow on the Mountain
An erect, stout annual from 2-3 feet high; stem hairy or somewhat smooth;
leaves sessile, scattered, ovate or oblong, entire; deciduous stipules; uppermost
leaves opposite or whorled with conspicuous white petal-like margins; involucre
bell-shaped in umbels; glands of the 5-lobed involucre with broad and white
appendages; seeds ovoid, globose, terete, dark ash colored, reticulate.
Distribution. Frequently cultivated in gardens from whence it has escaped.
Found in Ohio, Illinois and Indiana. Native from western Minnesota, Iowa to
Colorado, and Texas.
Euphorbia corollata ,. Milkweed or Flowering Spurge
Perennial with a long, stout rootstock, glabrous or sparingly hairy; leaves
ovate, lanceolate, or linear, obtuse, short-petioled, or sessile; inflorescence in
umbel-like clusters; involucre long peduncled with white conspicuous ap-
pendages; seeds thick, ovoid, slightly pitted, ash-colored.
Distribution. In rocky or sandy soil, Mass. to New York, New Jersey,
Florida, Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Texas.
Fig. 334. Common Flowering
Spurge (Euphorbia corollata). A
plant with milky juice which has ir-
ritating properties. common in sandy
fields. It has white bracts. re-
sembling flowers. (Charlotte M.
King.)
EUPHORBIACEAE—EUPHORBIA oe
Euphorbia Lathyris L. Myrtle Spurge
A glabrous annual or biennial, simple below, branched above, from 2-3
feet high; leaves thick, linear or oblong, scattered, the upper lanceolate
Fig. 335. Snow on the mountain (Euphor-
bia marginata): a, whole plant, one-third nat-
ural size; b, seed capsule, natural size. Cul-
tivated in old gardens. (Chesnut, U. S. Dept.
Agr.)
or linear-lanceolate; inflorescence umbel-like, bearing 4 crescent-shaped glands,
prolonged into horns; seeds oblong-ovoid, terete, usually wrinkled.
Distribution. In waste places. New Jersey to North Carolina, Iowa, and
California. Native to Europe.
Euphorbia Ipecacuanhae 1,. Wild Ipecac
Perennial from 5-10 inches high; long perpendicular root; entire, smooth
leaves, varying from obovate or oblong to narrowly linear, nearly sessile; in-
volucres long peduncled and 5 transversely elliptical or oblong green glands;
seeds smooth, ovate, white, pitted, and obscurely 4-sided.
Distribution. In sandy soil from Connecticut to Indiana and Florida.
600 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Fig. 336. Wild Ipecac (Euphorbia Ipecacuan-
hae.) Plant that possesses irritating proper-
ties and is also a purgative. (Millspaugh and
Charlotte M. King.)
Euphorbia heterophylla . Cruel Plant
An erect, smooth annual from 1-3 feet high; leaves alternate, petioled, linear
lanceolate to orbicular, undulate, entire or toothed; the upper leaves usually
fiddle-shaped, with a red base; involucre in terminal clusters, 5-lobed, with a
single or a few almost sessile glands; seeds nearly round, transversely wrinkled
and tubercled.
Distribution. From Illinois and Missouri to Nebraska.
Euphorbia Cyparissias 1, Cypress Spurge
A bright green perennial from 6-12 inches high with running rootstocks;
stems clustered, occurring in patches; stem leaves linear, entire, densely crowded,
those of the flower heart-shaped and entire; flowers in umbellate clusters, umbel
many-rayed, glands crescent-shaped; pods granular; seeds oblong and smooth.
Distribution. Native to Europe, but widely scattered in eastern North
America. First introduced as a cultivated plant in North America.
Poisonous properties. All of the species are more or less irritating and in
drying give off very disagreeable odors. Many of the species of the genus are
used by quacks to remove warts and freckles; the juice produces an erysip-
elatous-like inflammation, and in one case mentioned by Dr. White, the whole
abdominal wall became gangrenous.
The milky juice of the plant causes itching and inflammation. The general
effect is very much like that of poisoning from the poison ivy. In Texas, accord-
ing to Chesnut, the juice of E. marginata is used to brand cattle. The honey
:
EUPHORBIACEAE—EUPHORBIA 601
Fig. 337. Yellow Flowering or Cypress
Spurge (Euphorbia Cyparissias). A branch
with large bracts and small flowers. (Stras-
burger, Noll, Schenck and Schimper.)
obtained by bees from the plant is poisonous and is rendered unfit for use.
The acrid properties of this species were described some years ago by Dr.
Schneck. The juice of E. corollata, according to Dr. Halsted and many other
observers, is acrid, and, on the authority of Dr. Bigelow, formerly was used for
blistering purposes. ‘The bruised root will vesicate the skin. According to Dr.
J. C. White, the dust of this species produces painful swelling and vesicles
upon men who handle the plant. It is used as an emetic, and is troublesome to
those who collect it.
The Euphorbia pilulifera is used as a sedative in spasmodic conditions of
the respiratory apparatus. It produces dermatitis. Dr. White, in his Derma-
titis Venenata, has this to say of the species of the genus:
More than one hundred species of Euphorbia, or spurge, grow in the United States, either
indigenous or immigrants from Europe. Of every species Loudon says the juice is so acrid
as to corrode and ulcerate the body wherever applied; and of 4H. resinifera, from which the
official euphorbium is obtained, Pliny-and Dioscorides, according to the Dispensatory, describe
the method of collecting juice, so as to prevent irritation of the hands and face. ‘This sub-
stance is used as a plaster to prolong suppuration.
Van Hasselt states that the juice of several species is used by quacks to remove warts,
freckles, as depilatory, etc.; and that the application of the juice, powder, and extract produces
not only erysipelatous, pustular, and phlegmonous inflammation, but even gangrene. In one
case mentioned the whole abdominal wall became the seat of gangrene.
602 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Of our native species, Bigelow says that the juice of several was used in his day to de-
stroy warts. and Gray describes them all as containing an acrid, poisonous juice The most
active of them are &. corollata, E. Ipecacuanhae, and E. Lathyris. Tue first of these, com-
monly called snake-milk, according to Bigelow, has been used for blistering purposes, and the
Dispensatory states that the bruised root will vesicate the skin.
Mr. Cheney informs me that the juice of E. Ipecacuanhae is quite troublesome to many
who collect and handle it; and Bazin states that the dust of E. Lathyris, growing both in
Europe and in this country, causes redness, painful swelling, and vesicles upon the workmen
employed in handling it.
With reference to the poisonous nature of the juice of the several species,
nothing very definite is known. Euphorbon C,,H,,O, has been found in Eu-
phorbia Ipecacuanhae. ‘This euphorbon acts as an irritant to the mucous mem-
awl |
SV,
t,
Uj
ay
Fig. 338. Large Spotted Spurge (Euphorbia Preslii). Sup-
posed to cause ‘‘slobbers” in horses. (Charlotte M. King.)
branes throughout the alimentary tract. The caper spurge (Euphorbia Lathy-
ris) is poisonous, and the following physiological actions are described by Dr.
Millspaugh:
Brilliant, staring, wide-open eyes, dilated pupils; death-like pallor of the countenance;
retching and vomiting; violent purgation, stools frequent, copious, and in some cases bloody;
irregular pulse; whole body cold and rigid, followed by heat and perspiration. M. M. E.
Sudour and A, Caraven-Cachin state that emesis always precedes purgation, and that the seeds
have an irritating action upon the mucous membrane of the intestinal canal, principally in the
larger intestines. They divide the effects into three stages: a, the cold stage, including vomit-
EUPHORBIACEAE—EUPHORBIA 603
ing and diarrhoea; b, the stage of excitation, including nervousness, vertigo, and delirium;
y, the state of reaction, including heat and copious sweat.
With reference to the physiological action of the common spurge (Eu-
phorbia Preslii), the following statement is made by Dr. True:
Headache with frontal fullness and heat; heat about the eyes; languor and drowsiness;
oppression of the stomach; and constipation. ‘The juice applied to the eyes causes severe
irritation, with smarting and burning, lachrymation, and momentary blindness; this we have
experienced twice while gathering the plant. It is supposed that this species causes the affec-
tion in horses called “‘slobbers.”’
6. Mercurialis 1, Mercury
Annual or perennial herbs; with opposite pinnately veined leaves; flowers
dioecious or monoecious in interrupted axillary spikes, apetalous; calyx small,
green, 3-parted; capsule 3-lobed.
Mercurialis annua 1, Annual Mercury
A leafy stemmed, erect, annual herb; leaves lanceolate or ovate-lanceolate,
crenate serrate; carpels hispid; indigenous to Europe, found in waste places
from Nova Scotia to Ohio, and South Carolina, The M. perennis differs from
M. annua in having a creeping perennial root, and hairy leaves.
Poisonous properties. Both species are acrid and poisonous.
7. Acalypha L. ‘Three seeded Mercury
Herbs or shrubs, leaves alternate, petioled; flowers stipulate in spikes or
spike-like racemes or solitary; calyx of staminate flowers 4-parted; calyx of
Fig. 339. Annual Mercury (Mercurialis annua). Staminate and pistillate branches. An
acrid, poisonous plant. (After Faguet.)
604 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
the fertile flower 3-5 parted, subtended by a foliaceous bract; petals wanting
in both staminate and pistillate flowers; stamens 8-16 united at their bases;
capsule consisting of 3 globular 2-valved carpels, each 1-seeded. About 250
species chiefly tropical, 3 species in the central and eastern states. A. gracilens
has smaller leaves than A. virginica. A. ostryaefolia has echinate fruit and oc-
curs from New Jersey to Texas and Kansas.
Acalypha virginica L. ‘Three-seeded Mercury
A smoothish or hairy annual from 1-2 feet high often turning purple, es-
pecially in the autumn; leaves ovate or oblong ovate, sparingly serrate, long
petioled; sterile spike few-flowered; pistillate flowers 1-3 at the base of stam-
inate peduncle; capsule 3-lobed subglobose; seeds ovoid, reddish striate.
Distribution. From Nova Scotia to Florida, Texas, Kansas and Minnesota.
Poisonous properties. This has been sent to me several times as supposedly
poisonous. It is distasteful to cattle and they refuse to eat it in the pasture.
8. Stillingia I.. Queen’s Root
Smooth upright herbs or shrubs; leaves alternate or rarely opposite, fre-
quently with 2 glands at the base; flowers in spikes, apetalous; calyx 2-3 cleft
or parted; staminate flowers, several together in the axils of the bractlets,
stamens 2 or 3 pistillate flowers solitary in the axils of the lower bractlets;
capsule 3-celled and 3-seeded. About 15 species of tropical America and the
Pacific Islands.
Stillingia sylvatica I, Queen’s Delight
A bright green herb 1-3 feet high; leaves nearly sessile lanceolate or ellip-
tical, 2 glandular base; flowers lemon-colored subtended by small bracts with
saucer-shaped glands; calyx cup-shaped; capsule depressed; seeds ovoid, light
gray, minutely pitted and a flat base.
Distribution. From Virginia to Florida, Texas and Kansas in light sandy
soil.
Poisonous properties. 'This plant is commonly used in medicine. It is said
to be an efficient alterative. It contains an acrid resin sylvacal and an acrid
fixed oil.
SAPINDALES
Trees, shrubs or herbs; petals usually present and separate; sepals usually
distinct; stamens rarely more than twice as many as the sepals or fewer; op-
posite or alternate; ovary superior, compound; ovule pendulous. Contains many
tropical plants, some with milky juice. In the family Buzxaceae is the common
box (Buxus sempervirens) which is used as a hedge plant and furnishes the
best wood for wood engraving. ‘The plant is an acrid poison. It is sometimes
substituted for hops in the manufacture of beer and thus becomes the occasion
of serious accident. The edible crowberry (Empetrum nigrum) belongs to the
family Empetraceae and occurs far northward in America and Europe. The
bladdernut (Staphylea trifolia) of Atlantic North America belongs to the family
Staphyleaceae. 'The family Sapindaceae contains the balloon vine (Cardio-
EUPHORBIACEAE—ACALY PHA 605
Fig. 340. Three-seeded Mercury (Acalypha virginica). Sup-
posed to be poisonous to cattle. (Ada Hayden.)
606 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
spermum Halicacabum), a well known ornamental climber, but a weed in the
South. A refreshing drink is made fom the seed of guarana (Paullinia
Cupana) of South America; it contains caffein, saponin and an acrid green
fixed oil. The fruit of Sapindus Saponaria contains a great deal of saponin
and is used as a substitute for soap. The soapberry tree (Sapindus marginatus)
is used as a shade tree in the South where it is a native. A shellac is derived
from the Indian Schleichera trijuga and marcassa oil is obtained from the
seeds of the same plant. The Indians of Brazil use the honey collected by
wasps from the flowers of Serjania lethalis to poison their arrows. It is also
used as a fish poison and contains a narcotic principle which causes death.
Another fish poison is furnished by the black seeds of S. curassavica of Brazil.
The natives use the same substance for criminal purposes on man. The nectar
obtained from the flowers is also poisonous. Lehmann lists as poisonous 5S.
nodosa, which is used by the natives of Brazil as an arrow poison. The fruit
of S. trifoliatus of India contains saponin. ‘The same substance occurs in other
Fig. 341. Common Box (Buxus sempervirens). The
plant is acridly poisonous. (After Faguet.)
SAPINDALES 607
species, notably in the seeds of the Brazilian Magonia. Narcotic principles oc-
cur in the following genera: Serjania, Nephelium, Magonia and Harpullia.
The fruit of the litchi (Nephelium Lit-chi), a native of China and the Philip-
pines and cultivated in the tropics, is something like a plum and is eaten fresh
or dried. The Blighia sapida of West Africa is cultivated for its edible arillus;
the Koelreuteria paniculata of China is cultivated as an ornamental plant.
The family Coriaceae contains the genus Coriaria. The leaves and bark of
the C. myrtifolia of southern Europe contain much tannin which is used in
dyeing. The C. ruscifolia of New Zealand contains a black dye. The fresh
leaves are used in making an intoxicating drink. C. myrtifolia and C. thymt-
folia of Mexico contain a toxic principle known as coriamyrtin which resembles
picrotoxin. Many species of the genus are poisonous. Coriaria sarmentosa, C.
arborea, and the tree-toot (C. Tutu) of New Zealand are poisonous. Easterfield
& Ashton * have isolated a crystallin glucoside called twtin C,,H,,O, which ap-
pears to be closely allied to coriamyrtin C,,H,,O,. Tutu plants are highly
toxic to animals that have not become immune by first becoming accustomed to
small quantities. Blyth says:
For the native cattle in the Tutu districts apparently consume moderate amounts of the
shrubs with impunity, whereas other cattle become seriously ill. Both cortamyrtin and tutin
belong pharmacologically to the picrotoxin group of substances. Tutin is somewhat less toxic
that coriamyrtin. There is first depression, followed by salivation; the pulse is slowed, the
respirations increased in frequency, and finally, clonic convulsions occur: 129 mgrms. killed a
kitten weighing 1 kilogramme in 40 minutes; 1 mgrm. induced in a cat, 2 kilogrms. in weight,
a convulsive seizure, and the animal did not recover for 24 hours.
Other important families of this order will be described farther on.
Families of Sapindales
Flowers regular.
Ovary d-celled-stnuttiea, drupes ca iiaaacen sara ecae ee eee Anacardiaceae.
Ovary 2 or more celled.
Leaves simple.
Seed with’ an, aril, so o.5e4 Re G2 CRN ot AN Celastraceae.
DECU PWAEMOUC a AEH Wists. om Se uictune teeta ost alae Aquifoliaceae.
Leaves simple, palmately veined or compound.
Weaveswoppositen rats Seka a ks eke eee Vegas) eCrACeae.
Flowers irregular.
Leaves palmately compound; fruit a leathery capsule.
TESS OLA SUEUDS asl err eee ore mee ieloiiee Ga roar es Hippocastanaceae.
Succulent herbs; capsule elastically dehiscent.......... Balsaminaceae.
ANACARDIACEAE. Cashew Family
Trees or shrubs with acrid properties, milky or resinous juice; alternate
Or opposite leaves; flowers small, frequently polygamous, regular; calyx 3-7-
cleft; petals of the same number; stamens as many or twice as many as the
petals, inserted at the base of the disk; ovary 1 or sometimes 4 or 5-celled, and
1 ovule in each cavity; styles 1-3; fruit generally’ a small drupe; endosperm
scanty; cotyledons large.
There are about 500 species in temperate and tropical regions. The cashew
(Anacardium occidentale) is much cultivated in the tropics. According to
Dr. Cook, the fleshy receptacles of the fruit are used in the West Indies in
* Jour. Chem. Soc. Trans. 1901.
608 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
preparing conserves and have an acid flavor which is very palatable; the peri-
carp, howéver, contains an irritant substance cardol CG, H,,O. which is
black, acrid and vesicating, and is used to protect books and furniture from
insects; cashew oil, equal to the finest almond oil and superior to olive oil,
is also a product of the plant. The juice of the shell of the nut produces poisen-
ing similar to that of poison ivy. The kernels of the cashew may be eaten
raw or roasted like chestnuts, but the fumes coming from the roasting nuts
are very caustic. The pistachia nut (Pistacia vera) produces a fruit about
the size of a plum, which contains a seed much prized for eating. The mango
(Manygifera indica) a native of India, is now cultivated in most warm countries
for its fine edible fruit. The bark of many species, like the smooth sumac
(Rhus glabra) of the North, and the European R. Coriaria, contains a valu-
able tanning material. The smoke tree (Rhus Cotinus) and the stag horn sumach
(Rhus tyvphina) are frequently cultivated for ornamental purposes. The fruits
of Spondias dulcis, S. purpurea and S. lutea are edible, the last of these is
called the hog plum, being so named because the hogs are fond of it. The
juice of another member of the family (Comocladia) causes an eruption similar
to that from poison ivy.
Tannic and pyrogallic acids are derived from the Chinese Indian Rhus semi-
alata. Chios turpentine (Pistacia Terebinthus) well known to the ancients,
produces red galls that are used for tanning morocco leather. The mastic
(Pistacia Lentiscus) native to the Mediterranean region, was formerly used
for making varnishes.
The Querbrachia Lorentzii and Q. Balansae of Argentine and Paraguay
produce a very hard red wood which contains a great deal of tannin and gallic
acid, ‘The fruit of Dracontomelon mangiferum of the Sunda islands is used
much like lemons. The ink tree of India (Semecarpus Anacardium and Holi-
garna ferruginea) contain cardol.
The pepper tree (Schinus Molle) cultivated in California, is a native of
Peru. The saw-dust of sneezewood (Ptacroxylon utile) produces sneezing.
Rhus I. Sumach
Trees or shrubs with alternate, simple trifoliolate or odd-pinnate leaves;
small polygamous flowers in panicles; calyx deeply 5-parted; petals 5, spread-
ing; stamens 5, inserted below the flattened disk, fruit small, l-seeded. About
120 species in the temperate regions common in southern Africa. Some species
are poisonous. The Japanese Rhus vernicifera and R. succedanea are culti-
vated in Japan for the lacquer which is taken from incisions made in the trees.
Dr. White states that some of the embossed Japanese papers which are used
in houses have caused severe inflammation, and according to Dr. H. N.
Allen, natives as well as Europeans in the East are often affected with “varnish
poisoning”
Rhus Toxicodendron \. Poison Ivy. Three Leaved Ivy
A climbing or trailing shrub, sometimes erect, with 3 leaflets; plant erect
or climbing by means of its aerial rootlets; flowers inconspicuous, polygamous
in loose and slender axillary panicles; fruit globular, glabrous, whitish and
waxy, frequently remaining on the plant until late spring.
ANACARDIACEAE—RHUS 609
Distribution. This plant is distributed from Nova Scotia to Wisconsin,
Utah, Arkansas and Florida.
Rhus Vermx L,. Poisonous Sumac or Dogwood
A shrub or small tree with pinnately compound leaves; leaflets 7-13, cbo-
vate-oblong entire, smooth, or somewhat pubescent; flowers polygamous in
loose slender axillary panicles; drupe white, globose, oblong.
Distribution. Found in the swamps from New England to Ontario to
Minnesota, Missouri, to Louisiana and Florida.
Fig. 342. Poison ivy (Rhus Toxicodendron). a, spray showing aerial rootlets and leaves;
b, fruit—both one-fourth natural size. (Chesnut, U. S. Dept. Agr.)
Rhus diversiloba Torrey and Gray. California Poison Ivy ise
Nearly glabrous, erect or climbing shrub; leaflets 3 or rarely 5, obtuse or
deeply pinnately lobed; flowers in loose axillary panicles; drupes subglobose.
Distribution. Common on the Pacific Coast from California to Washington.
Poisonous properties. All three species are poisonous to many persons,
some persons being much more sensitive to irritation from the plants than
others Dr. J. C. White describes the effect of poison oak and poison ivy. He
had collected freely of the plant for many years without any disturbance.
Specimens were picked on September 28th, Oct. 6th, and Oct. 10th. He felt
610 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
KG
=
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ee
i
eo
rRNA
COB
Fig. 343. Poison Sumac (Khus Vernix), show-
ing leaves, fruit and leaf-scars, one-fourth natural
size. (Chesnut, U. S. Dept. Agr.)
a sensation of irritation about the eyes and throat from the specimens of
poison oak collected on the first named date, while working with the plants
under an Argand gas burner, but nothing further was noticed. No unpleasant
symptoms were observed from the poison oak (R. venenata—R. Vernix) col-
lected Oct. 6th. From that collected Oct. 10, he experienced symptoms similar
to those observed Sept. 28th. On Oct. 12th a single vesicle with a peculiar
thick cover appeared; the next day another and larger appeared on the wrist;
two others came on the fourth day; others continued to appear up to Nov.
3rd, after which data the effervescences gradually subsided and were no longer
perceptible. In another case described by Dr. White, the head was greatly
swollen and features greatly disturbed. The skin of the face and neck was
deeply oedematous and largely covered with vesicles of all sizes “many of which
were seated on an erythematous base, others being still in their papular stage
ANACARDIACEAE—RHUS oll
of development.” There were also large excoriations from which fluid was
exuding freely, which on drying formed small crusts. The hands were also
covered. “The subjective symptoms were great retching and burning of the
parts affected, with the feeling of local discomfort, consequent upon so great
swelling of the features. The eyes were nearly closed. There was a slight
general febrile action.” Dr. White also reports the death of a child from a
severe case of poisoning from poison ivy. The child though healthy was not
robust. A recent case was reported from Packwood, Iowa, where a fourteen-
year-old girl died after terrible suffering from the effects of coming in con-
tact with the ivy; her face alone showing the eruption from the poison.
Hundreds of persons are poisoned every year from the three species.
Dr. White says:
Fig. 344. Poison oak (Rhus diversiloba),
showing leaves, flowers, and fruit, one-third
natural size. (Chesnut, U. S. Dept. Agr.)
Taking the simple vesicle, with scarcely any erythema surrounding it or any very per-
ceptible infiltration of the underlying tissues, as the type of the eruption, whether occurring
singly or in groups, we may have in a small percentage an abortive attempt at vesiculation,
and an arrest of the development at the papular stage—a failure, that is, of the free exudation
to force apart the layers of epithelial cells; or a considerable infiltration into the papillary
layer may elevate a cluster of the vesicles noticeably above the general surface. or they may
be surrounded by a well-defined erythema or congestion of the tissue immediately surrounding
them, in consequence mainly of the scratching and itching, which are the only subjective
symptoms present.
In the severe cases, we have greater areas of simple erythema, a multiplication of the
number of vesicles—either single or massed in close contiguity, and covering large surfaces,
or by fusion forming blebs—a greater infiltration into the underlying corium, with propor-
tionate distension of the capillaries and external redness, and a free exudation of serum into
612 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
the cutis. The overfilling of the vesicles causes a rupture of some of their epidermal cover-
ings, and the discharge of their fluid contents upon the surface, forming moist, excoriated
surfaces, covered in part with crusts.
With reference to a sequelae question of duration, there is a diversity of
opinion. There is a popular belief that within a year after the first attack there
will be a repetition of the original manifestations upon the skin which may
be repeated for several seasons. Dermatologists think that a variety of cutane-
ous affectations are developed in consequence of the action of the Poison
Ivy. Dr. White considers that there are good grounds for this belief and in
referring to his exhaustive researches on the subject, states that he was unable
to find a single instance on record of the poisonous Rhus on the lower animals.
After placing a notice in the “Spirit of the Times,” a physician wrote him that
once or twice while hunting where ivy abounded, his dog’s eyes had been closed
by swelling which he attributed to the action, but he had never observed any
eruptions. ‘The poisoning has been attributed to toxicodendrol C,,H,,O,,1+
41,0.
Remedies. The most popular remedy is to wash with sugar of lead (ace-
tate of lead). Prof. Chesnut says:
In practise it is not desirable to use strong alcohol, which is apt to be too irritating to a
sensitive surface, but a weaker grade of from 50 to 75 per cent should be preferred. ‘To this
the powdered sugar of lead is to be added until no more will easily dissolve. he milky fluid
should then be well rubbed into the affected skin, and the operation repeated several times
during the course of a few days. ‘The itching is at once relieved and the further spread of
the eruption is checked. ‘The remedy has been tried in a large number of cases and has al-
ways proved successful. It must be remembered, however, that the lead solution is itself very
poisonous if taken internally.
Much has been said in regard to the relative poisonous character of these three plants.
It has been generally claimed that the poison sumac is the most poisonous, and after it comes,
first, the poison ivy and then the poison oak. ‘These conclusions were arrived at from the
occasional experience of individuals who were poisoned by handling one species when sup-
posedly immune to others. Experience teaches, however, that immunity is somewhat variable
in the same individual, and therefore these general statements can not be accepted without
more careful experimental evidence.
Annie Oakes Huntington in her recent book on Poison Ivy and Swamp
Sumach says regarding the treatment:
Soap, water, and a scrubbing-brush seem altogether too simple a method of treatment to
advise for the painful eruption brought on by handling these two poisonous plants. Yet, if we
begin with this old-fashioned country remedy and study the various methods of treatment from
one generation to another, we return at last, through the most recent scientific investigations, to
our original starting-point. ‘The only effective measures are preventive ones; the only remedy
is a wash which mechanically removes the poisonous oil from the skin. In this lies the sum
and substance of the entire method of treatment.
She made an experiment in which it was shown that oily preparations spread
the poison and that constant washing with soap and water removes the poisonous
oil which causes the trouble. The toxic principle is soluble in alcohol and this
may consequently be used. A weak solution, 50 or 75% is advisable, but the
treatment must be renewed. One part of hyposulphite of soda to 3 parts of
water is another good solution recommended by her.
Syme in Dr. Remsen’s laboratory, has come to the conclusion that the
active principle of Poison Ivy is a glucoside and not an unknown volatile oil,
as stated by Pfaff. The glucoside as determined by Syme, is a compound of
rhamnose, gallic acid, and fisetin. It can be precipitated by a lead acetate.
Syme tested the toxic action of the various fractions upon himself and was able
to determine the chemical nature.
ANACARDIACEAE—RHUS 613
In a recent paper by Dr. Ford there seem to be some evidences for conclud-
ing that immunity may be obtained. That such immunity exists may be taken
from the clinical symptoms that different persons are sensitive to even small
amounts of the poison and in other cases persons who have been poisoned be-
come accustomed to it. Syme in his experiments upon himself found that after
four or five months he was no longer susceptible to the poison.
The experiments performed by Dr. Ford are of interest. The experimental
material was obtained in the alcoholic fluid extract of the native plant pre-
pared by Parke, Davis & Co.
It had already been shown by Pfaff that the internal administration of his non-volatile
oil produced definite lesions in rabbits, the animals dying of an acute nephritis at the end of
14 to 15 days. Occasionally the rabbits died in acute convulsions without any microscopic
brain lesions. The subcutaneous administration of the fluid extract of Rhus Toxicodendron
produces the same effect upon rabbits as those described by Pfaff. Rarely, the rabbits die in
convulsions within 24 to 48 hours, but the majority of inoculated animals succumb in from
8 to 15 days. In addition to the nephritis an extensive necrosis and slough is found at the
point where the poison is introduced beneath the skin. Following the inoculation we have
a fairly long latent period during which the weight of the animals remains stationary. After
seven or eight days in a typical case, the animal loses weight rapidly, the necrosis and slough
develop, and the animal dies of the nephritis after the lapse of about two weeks. At times
the skin lesions are less marked, the damage to the kidney being the important change; an
intraperitoneal inoculation seems able to produce these kidney changes more rapidly than
does the subcutaneous method. In addition to rabbits we have found that,» guinea-pigs are
susceptible to the drug, the lesions being produced with greater certainty and regularity.
With these animals the necrosis and slough at the point of inoculation are more extensive,
while the animals die of the kidney changes in about the same time. The fatal dose of the
poison can be estimated for both animals with tolerable accuracy. For guinea-pigs of 250
gram weight, 0.25 c.c. of the alcoholic extract always represents a fatal dose; and a guinea-pig
of 350 gram weight practically never survives a dosage of 0.5 c.c.
The fatal dose for rabbits of 800 grams is 1 c.c. Certain rabbits of this weight die from
smaller doses, but not regularly and larger animals show greater resistance. Animals of 1,800
to 2,000 gram weight occasionally survive 2 to 3 c.c. doses, but not more than this amount.
Experiments were made to determine whether animals which had withstood
some doses of the poison were susceptible to the amounts of poison capable
of killing untreated animals. ‘he experiments were made with four guinea pigs,
varying in weight from 450 to 900 grams and on rabbits varying in weight
from 800 to 2800 grams. The initial doses were small; when the animals
regained weight larger doses were given. It was found that the serum of im-
munized animals contained substances neutralizing the poisonous glucoside
when both were injected into susceptible animals. Goats have been immunized
and it is probable that immunity may be obtained in other animals.
How to Treat the Poison Ivy Patch. Various methods of treating the
poison ivy have been tried. The iron sulphate, 100 pounds to a barrel of water,
is only partially successful. Covering with tarred paper creosoted below is
effective according to Dr. G. E. Stone. This writer has also shown that
sodium arsenate (commercial) at the rate of 2 pounds to 10 gallons of water
poured around the roots is effective.
Rhus glabra L. Smooth Sumach
A low shrub from 2-12 feet high, stems with large pith, brownish bark;
compound leaves 11-31; leaflets pointed serrate, whitish beneath green above;
flowers borne in a large panicle, greenish, polygamous; calyx small 5-parted:
petals 5; stamens 5, inserted under the edge of a flattened disk; pistil with a
l-celled and 1l-ovuled ovary; styles 3, terminal; fruit red, small 1-seeded.
614 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Distribution. Common in Northern United States to Florida, Mississippi,
Arizona, Utah, British Columbia to Nova Scotia. A troublesome weed at times
in rocky soils.
Poisonous properties. ‘There is a popular impression that the red drupes
of this species are poisonous, but I know of no record where the eating of
this fruit has produced poisoning. The fruit is decidedly acid.
AQUIFOLIACEAE. Holly Family
Trees or shrubs with small, simple, mostly petioled, alternate leaves;
flowers in axillary clusters, chiefly polygamo-dioecious; calyx minute, free;
petals 4-8 or more; stamens free, as many as the petals; pistil 1, ovary super-
ior, 48 celled; ovules 1-2 in each cavity; fruit a small berry-like drupe; seeds
with small embryo; endosperm present.
A smali order of 160 species. The American holly (Ilex opaca) from Maine
to Florida, Missouri and Texas, is much used for Christmas decoration. The
European holly (IlexAquifolium) is used for a similar purpose. The berries
of this species, though eaten by birds, are said to be poisonous. Whether the
seeds of the American species are poisonous is not known although it contains
the principle ilicin. The Ilex Cassine, which ocurs from southern Virginia to
Florida and Louisiana along the coast, was used by the Indians during their
religious ceremonies to make what they called their “black drink,” an emetic
intended to clear the head and stomach. It contanis caffein. ‘The yerba or
maté (llex paraguensis), native to southern Brazil and Argentine Republic
is used like the Chinese tea and is stimulating. Properly the term “maté” is
applied to the drinking cup made from a small gourd. Yerba is an important
article of commerce in South American countries. The leaves contain the
same active principle, caffein, that is found in the tea. Two other species
I. theezans and Symplocos lanceolata also furnish the maté. The wood of the
larger trees of the genus, like Jlex opaca and Ilex Aquifolium is white and is
used by cabinet makers. :
CELASTRACEAE. Staff-tree Family
Shrubs, or trees, with simple leaves; stipules small or absent; flowers
regular, usually perfect; calyx 4-5-lobed; petals 4-5; stamens inserted on a
flat or lobed disk; pistils with 3 or 5-celled ovary; ovules 2 in each cavity;
fruit 2 to 5-celled, fleshy; seeds with an aril, embryo latses and fleshy endos-
perm. About 350 species of wide distribution.
The burning bush or waahoo (Euonymus atropurpurens) is a well known
native, frequently cultivated and is a most desirable shrub..The Catha edulis
of Arabia is extensively cultivated and is used as coffee by the Arabs. The
leaves are also chewed by the natives, having a stimulating effect similar to that
of cocain. \It contains the alkaloids cathin and celastrin. The Elaeodendron
australe of New South Wales is used for cabinet work. ‘The genus Pachi-
stima is represented in the Rocky Mountains by Pachistima Myrsinites, and in
the Alleghany Mountains by Pachistima Cambyi both of which are pretty shrubs.
Celastrus I. Staff-tree. Bitter-sweet
Mostly climbing shrubs; leaves thin; flowers racemose or paniculate; poly-
gamo-dioecious; calyx 5-lobed; petals 5, crenulate, inserted under the disk;
AQUIFOLIACEAE—CELASTRUS 615
Fig. 345. Waahoo (Enonymus atropurpureus). 345a. Bitter sweet (Celastrus scandens).
pod globose, orange color, 2-4-celled dehiscent into as many valves; seeds en-
closed in a scarlet aril; endosperm fleshy. About 30 species.
Celastrus scandens I, Shrubby or Climbing Bittersweet
_ Chiefly climbing shrubs with alternate leaves; flowers small, polygamo-dioe-
cious; calyx 5-lobed; petals 5; stamens 5, inserted under the 5-lobed disk;
capsule globose, orange-colored, 3-celled and 3-valved; seeds 1-2 in each cell,
enclosed in a pulpy aril. About 30 species. The C. articulatus and several
other species are commonly cultivated and are hardy. Several species are
natives of the Cape of Good Hope.
Distribution. From Quebec to Manitoba in Canada, and from Kansas to
Indian Territory, New Mexico and the Carolinas.
Poisonous properties. ‘The aril of “Bitter-sweet” has a sweetish, somewhat
disagreeable taste. The leaves of the plant are said to be poisonous to horses.
The plant Euonymous contains the amorphous bitter, odorless substance, euony-
min, which acts as a powerful heart poison. The waahoo acts as a drastic
purgative. The symptoms are those of deathly nausea, vertigo, prostration and
cold sweat.
ACERACEAE. Maple Family
Trees or shrubs with opposite, simple or compound leaves; flowers poly-
gamous or dioecious in cymose or racemose clusters; calyx 5-parted; petals
of the same number or none; stamens 4-12, inserted on a fleshy disk; ovary
2-lobed and 2-celled; styles 2, fruit a samara, exalbuminous; cotyledons thin,
folded. There are 3 genera and about 100 species most of them in the genus
Acer, the maples being widely distributed in temperate regions. The maple,
(Acer) is commonly used for the manufacture of furniture and for inferior
finishings, floorings, etc. The most highly prized are the hard maples (Acer
nigvum and A. saccharum). Sugar maple is also derived from these species.
Curly maple is only a form of wood of these and of the A. macrophyllum of the
Pacific Coast, which is also much prized for cabinet work. The maples, in-
cluding the box elder (Negundo aceroides or A. Negundo), are also used for
shade trees. The silver maple (A. saccharinum) is widely distributed in the
United States. The red maple (A. rubrum) is less commonly used. The bark
of A. rubrum was used by the Indians as a remedy for sore eyes.
616 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
HIppocaAstANACEAF. Buckeye Family
Trees or shrubs; leaves opposite, petioled, digitately 3-9-foliolate; flowers
in terminal panicles, irregular and polygamous; calyx 5-lobed or 5-cleft; petals
4-5, unequal, clawed; disk entire; stamens 5-8; ovary sessile, 3-celled; ovules
2 in each cavity; style slender; capsule leathery, smooth or spiny, 1-3-celled;
seeds large shining; cotyledons very thick. Only 2 genera and 15 species in —
America and Asia.
Fig. 346. Sugar maple (Acer saccharum). 1. Branch bearing
staminate flowers. 2. Branch bearing pistillate flowers. 3. Fruiting
branch. 4, Staminate flower, enlarged. 5. Longitudinal section of stam-
inate flower, enlarged. 6. Pistillate flower, enlarged. 7. Longitudinal
section of pistillate flower, enlarged. 8. Longitudinal section of fruit.
9. Longitudinal section of seed, enlarged. 10. Embryo, enlarged. 11.
Winter branchlet. 1, 2, 3, 8, 11, one-half natural size. (M. M. Cheney
in Green’s Forestry of Minn.) '
Aesculus L. Buckeye
Trees or shrubs with opposite petioled digitately 3-9-foliolate leaves; flowers
in panicles, irregular, polygamous; calyx 5-lobed, lobes unequal; petals 45, .
unequal, clawed, stamens 5-8; filaments long, often unequal; pistil with 3-celled
‘
~~ ee ee
HIPPOCASTANACEAE—AESCULUS 617
ovary and two ovules in each cell; capsule leathery ; seeds large with shining coat;
cotyledons thick and fleshy. A small genus of 15 species native of America
and Asia. The horse chesnut (Aesculus Hippocastanum), escaped from culti-
vation is planted for ornamental purposes, as are others of the genus, like
the species described below and A. parviflora, a small shrub. By washing and
boiling, the starch in the seed may be vtilized, and this is done in France with
the horse chesnut. The wood is light and brittle. The wood of the Ohio
buckeye is used for making violins.
Aesculus glabra Wiild. Ohio Buckeye
Trees with long-petioled leaves; rough and fetid bark; flowers pale yellow,
in large panicles, polygamo-monoecious; calyx bell-shaped; stamens exserted,
curved; petals unequal; fruit slightly prickly when young, smooth when old.
Distribution. Western Pennsylvania to Central Iowa, Kansas and Indian
Territory.
Aesculus Pavia . Red Buckeye
Shrubs with 5-7 digitate, nearly smooth, leaflets, acute or short acuminate,
pubescent when young, becoming smooth; flowers in loose peduncies; calyx
tubular, bright red; petals bright red.
Distribution. In fertile valleys from Virginia to Florida, Arkansas and
southern Missouri.
Aesculus Californica Nutt. California Buckeye
Usually a shrub from 10-15 feet high, or occasionally a tree from 25-40
feet high, 3 feet in diameter; leaflets 4-7, usually 5, smooth, oblong-lanceolate,
acute, petiolate; flowers in a close panicle; calyx 2-lobed; petals somewhat un-
equal, white or pale rose, % inch long; stamens 5-7; ovary densely pubescent;
fruit usually 1-seeded.
Distribution. In California.
Poisonous properties. The leaves and fruit of the above species are re-
garded as poisonous. Many farmers claim that this is true only at certain
seasons of the year. The seed produces sneezing and enters into the manu-
facture of snuff. The California species, according to Chesnut, causes abor-
tion in cows. Dr. Rusby states that in southern states the seeds are crushed
and thrown into water to stupefy fish just as the bark and roots of the relatives
are in the tropics. Fatal cases of poisoning of children are reported from Texas.
Suspicion has been attached to the common horse chesinut. The European
chestnut is said to be useful in affording food for live stock, especially sheep
and goats. This species contains aesculin C,,H,,O,+H,O, a _ glucoside
found in the bark of many trees of the order Sapindacae; also the gluco-
side aesculetin C,H,O,; and paviin C,,H,,O,,; the testa of the seed contains
quercetrm C,,H,.0,,5 argyraescin, an acrid, amorphous glucoside; aphrodae-
scin, also an acrid, amorphous principle; and saponin C,,H.,O,,, a glucoside
which is also found in the roots of Polygala Senega, and other plants. Dr.
Millspaugh states that the horse chestnut causes inflammation of the mucous
membranes of the respiratory and digestive tracts, and especially of the rectum;
constant burning in the stomach and epigastrium, followed by nausea, retch-
ing, and violent vomiting with great tenderness and colic throughout the ab-
618 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Fig. 347. Horse Chestnut (Aesculus Hippocastanum). Flowering
branch. Entire flower. Stamen. Pistil. Entire seed and longitudinal sec-
tion. Wood used in making violins. (After Faguet.)
domen, are markedly present. The buckeye is an irritant of the cerebro-spinal
system, the more prominent symptoms being confusion of mind, vertigo, stupe-
faction and coma.
BALSAMINACEAE. Balsam Family
Succulent herbs; leaves alternate; thin, petioled; flowers axillary showy, ir-
regular; sepals 3, the two lateral small, green; the posterior large and petal-
like, spurred; petals 3 or 5, some 2-cleft; stamens 5; ovary oblong 5-celled;
style short or none; stigma 5-toothed or 5-lobed; ovules several in each cell;
fruit a capsule in Impatiens, coiled elastically, expelling the seeds; seeds
BALSAMINACEAE 619
Fig. 348. Ohio Buckeye (Aesculus
glabra). Causes irritation of the cerebro-
spinal system. (Lois Pammel.)
Fig. 349. Red Buckeye (Aesculus Pavia): a,
flowering branch; b, seed; both two-ninths natural
size. (Chesnut, U. S. Dept. Agr.)
ridged; embryo straight. About 200 species mostly of tropical Asia. One
genus with 2 species is native to eastern North America. The Balsam (Impatt-
ens Balsamina) is frequently cultivated. The sap of some species contains
a dye.
Impatiens L. Jewel Weed
Succulent herbs with simple, thin, petioled leaves; sepals 3, the 2 alternate
small, green, the posterior one largest, and forming a spurred sac; petals 5,
or 3, with 2 of them 2-cleft into dissimilar lobes; stamens 5, short; ovary oblong,
5-celled; fruit an oblong or linear capsule, dehiscent elastically into a coiled
valve, scattering the seeds; endosperm none; embryo nearly straight; cotyle-
dons fiat.
620 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Impatiens biflora Walt. Spotted Touch-me-not
A glabrous annual from 2-4 feet high; leaves ovate or elliptical, pale and
glaucous beneath; flowers orange-color, thickly spotted with brown; peduncles
2-4 flowered.
Distribution. In moist grounds from Eastern Canada to Florida, to Kan-
sas and northward to Oregon and Alaska.
Poisonous properties. Dr. Schaffner states that the plant is emetic and sus-
pected of being poisonous to stock.
RHAMNALES
Shrubs, vines or small trees; leaves generally alternate; flowers small reg-
ular; sepals generally more or less united; petals distinct or wanting; stamens
as many as the calyx lobes and alternate with them, opposite the petals when
present; ovary superior, compound; ovules erect. They contain two families,
the Rhamnaceae and Vitaceae. The genus Vitis embraces 40 species found in
warm and temperate regions. The European grape (Vitis vinifera) native from
Eastern Europe to Central Asia is now widely cultivated in California, Spain,
Germany, the Cape region and elsewhere. The Worden and Concord grape
(V. Labrusca) of eastern North America are also widely cultivated. Other
species are, the small grape (V. aesiivalis), the wild blue grape (V. bicolor)
native from New York to Wisconsin, the southern fox grape (V. rotundifolia)
with musky flavor, cultivated in the South, the cultivated northern fox grape
(V. riparia) with very fragrant flowers. Improved forms are the Janesville
and Clinton. The fruit of the mustang grape (V. candicans) of Texas is very
acrid. The Virginia creeper (Psedera quinquefolia) is a well known orna-
amental climber. The Boston or Japan Ivy (P. tricuspidata) native of Japan,
is a handsome climber scarcely hardy north. The P. heterophylla, another or-
namental from China and Japan is a hardy plant with small blue berries. It
does not cling. The Vitis inconstans of Japan contains toxicodendrol and is
poisonous.
RHAMNACEAE. Buckthorn Family
Shrubs, often climbing; or trees, often thorny, with astringent or bitter
qualities; leaves chiefly alternate; stipules small, deciduous; flowers in cymes
or panicles, small, regular; calyx perfect or polygamous, 4-5-toothed; petals
4.5, inserted on the calyx, or none; stamens 4-5, inserted on a disk which lines
the calyx tube, which is often united with the single 2-5-celled ovary; ovules
1 in each cell; fruit often mucilaginous and drupaceous. A small family of
550 species, of temperate and warm regions.
The supple-jack (Berchemia scandens) is a pretty climber of southern
woods. The buckthorn (Rhamnus cathartica) is frequently cultivated for
hedges in the north. The juice of the unripe drupe was formerly used for stain-
ing maps and the ripe drupe is the sap green of painters. The sap has strong
purgative properties. This and R. Frangula are local irritants. This plant con-
tains rhamnetin, C,,H,,O,, the rhamnin of earlier authors, a glucoside found
in the berry. Dyes are obtained from R. infectoria and a dye for silks from
R. lahurica and R. tinctoria. The R. Frangula contains frangulin and is an
ornamental shrub, the charcoal from which is used for making gun powder.
Probably all are more or less injurious. Cascara sagrada is obtained from R.
BALSAMINACEAE—IMPATIENS 621
Purshiana, a shrub or small tree native to the Pacific coast which contains
purshianin and is an excellent laxative. The Paliurus australis contains oil of
wintergreen. The jujube (Zizyphus sativa) is used as food in South Europe
and Western Asia. The Chinese Z. Jujuba is extensively cultivated in India
and China. The fruit of Z. Lotus is made into a kind of bread, used by the
natives of West Africa, but the ripe fruit is said to be injurious. The root of
the New Jersey tea (Ceanothus americanus) is used as an astringent and ex-
pectorant and is also said to have been used in place of tea during the Revolu-
tionary war. According to Greshoff the seeds of Ceanothus americanus, and
Ceanothus ovatus contain a small amount of saponin. It is therefore not strange
that some members of the family are poisonous. The genera Zizyphus, Tapura
and Gouania furnish fish poisons. Saponin occurs in Gouania tomentosa of
Mexico. Colubrina fermenta is used as a substitute for hops. The wood of
Colletia spinosa of South America contains a bitter principle.
The brownish-black berries of coyotillo (Karwinskia Humboldtiana) of
Texas are said to be very poisonous and Dr. A. Mitchell of San Antonio writes
me that the plant is poisonous to goats.
MALVALES
Herbs, shrubs or trees; leaves simple, generally alternate; flowers regular,
usually perfect; sepals separate or more or less united; corolla polypetalous
or rarely wanting; stamens usually numerous; ovary superior compound; .-
placenta axial. The more important families of this order are Tiliaceae, Mal-
vaceae, Bombaceae and Sterculiaceae. The first family contains the basswood
(Tilia americana), a well known timber and ornamental tree of North America,
used for making boxes, lumber, excelsior, etc. TJ. cordata is also frequently
eultivated under the name of Linn tree. The inner bark of this produces an
elastic fiber. Several species of the genus Grewia are used as fish poisons.
Jute is derived from Corchorus capsularis of the East Indies and is a valuable
fiber. The broomweed (C. siliquosus) of the West Indies furnishes a substi-
tute for tea. The fruit of Apeiba is edible. Corkwood (Ochroma Lagopus)
of the family Bombaceae is used by the fishermen of Trinidad on their nets
in place of cork and is one of the lightest of all woods. The monkey-bread
tree (Adansonia digitata) produces valuable fiber in its bark. The silk cotton
or kapok tree, (Eriodendron anfractuosum) furnishes a soft fiber used in up-
holstery. The seed known as “kapok” seed is used in the Celebes as food and
in making oil cake, and according to Reinders and Kobus, is an adulterant of
linseed. The Durio zibethinus of the Malayan region produces a large edible
fruit. The family Sterculiaceae of tropical countries includes the cacao (Theo-
broma Cacao) which produces the well known cacao beans. Cacao is a nutrient
food and contains the alkaloid theobromin, C,H NO. a caffein alkaloid. The
cola nut (Cola acuminata) of West Africa is a stimulant. The negroes of
Brazil used large quantities because of its stimulating properties. It is also
used for similar purposes by the negroes of the south ,and the “Cola habit” is
increasing among the negroes of that region. It is probable that the cola is
frequently adulterated with injurious ingredients. It is a muscle stimulant
used by the Alpine climbers of Europe. Fresh cola nuts do not contain caffein,
but a glucoside kolanin which is converted into kolarea Ci, (OR). An
622 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Fig. 350. Jute Plant (Corchorus capsularis). A valuable fiber
plant from the East Indies. (From American Agriculturist.)
oil is manufactured from Sterculia foetida. The Abroma augusta yields a fine
fiber.
To the family Elaeocarpaceae of the same order belongs the Echinocarpus
Sigun, a poisonous plant which contains hydrocyanic acid. Several members
of this family are economic plants. The maqui fruit is obtained from Aristo-
telia Macqut, native to Chili. ‘The seeds of Sloanea dentata are eaten like
chestnuts. The seeds of Muntingia are edible.
MA.vAceAr. Mallow Family
Herbs, shrubs, or, in tropical countries, trees, with mucilaginous properties,
tough fibrous bark and stems; leaves alternate and small; stipules small, decid-
uous; flowers regular and generally perfect; sepals 5, usually more or less
united; petals 5, hypogynous; stamens numerous, monadelphous, several-celled ;
pistils several; styles united, projecting beyond the stamens above; ovary sev-
eral celled; seeds nearly exalbuminous; embryo curved. A family of about 800
species of wide distribution and of great economic importance. The cotton
plant is the most important member of the family and comprises several species,
the most important in the United States being Gossypium herbaceum, which
MALVACEAE 623
Fig. 351. Cacao Tree (Theobroma Cacao). 1. Branch with flowers and fruit.
2. Flower cut through longitudinally. 3. Seed. 4. Fruit with a portion of pericarp re-
moved. The beans are well known articles of commerce. (After Wossidlo).
is cultivated for its fiber. The cotton fibers are plant hairs coming from the
seed. Cotton seed is used to manufacture an oil serving in place of olive oil,
and cotton seed meal, the latter a valuable stock food. ‘The refuse material is
used as a fertilizer. The highly explosive gun cotton is made by soaking cotton
in sulphuric and nitric acids. Other cottons are Sea Island cotton (G. barba-
dense) and tree cotton (G. arboreum). The bark of cotton root has very active
principles. Marsh mallow (Altheae officinalis) used in medicine as a stim-
ulant and in confectionery, contains asparagin CHINO OHO and bassorin
EAs EN Oe
Okra or gumbo (Hibiscus esculentus) is extensively cultivated in the
south and in Europe for the young mucilaginous pods which are edible. The
H. ficulneus is used in a similar way. The fleshy red calyx of the Jamaica
sorrel (H. Sabdariffa) is used in making jellies and sauces; the fiber makes
good cordage material.
The wood of the Cuba bast (Hibiscus elatus), native to the West Indies,
produces a timber of greenish color used in cabinet work. The lace-like inner
bark is used for wrapping and is known as lace bark. From the fiber of H.
tiliaceus a strong paper can be made very cheaply. This is also used by the
natives of the Pacific Islands in making ropes.
Fibers are obtained from Hibiscus tiliaceus, H. cannabinus, Arena jobata,
Abutilon indicus, Sida retusa and Napaea laevis. A beautiful wood is derived
from the magar (Thespesia grandiflora) of Porto Rico, the color being red
when fresh, black when dry. The hollyhock (Althaea rosea) is well known in
624 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
cultivation, as are some species of the genus Abutilon and the poppy mallow
(Callirboe involucrata and C. triangulata).
Chorisia of eastern South America furnishes a soft fiber. The seeds of
Pachira macrocarpa indigenous to Brazil contain a valuable oil resembling that
found in cacao; kapok oil is obtained from the seeds of Eriodendron anfractw-
osum. Musk seed is obtained from Hibiscus abelmoschus of the East Indies
and is used in perfumery. The Malva moschata of Europe produces a similar
odorous product. The cheeses or dwarf mallow (M. rotundifolia) is a trouble-
some weed in gardens, waste places and barnyards. Saponin is found in the
roots of Sida jamaicensis and Hibiscus Sabdariffa. The Sida paniculata is used
as an anthelmintic. The ripe capsules of Queensland hemp (Sida rhombifolia)
causes the death of fowls that feed on it.
Big. 352: Dwarf Mallow
(Malva_ rotundifolia). (After
Fitch.)
Key for Malvaceae
Flowers involucrate.
Flowers small; seed solitary and not covered with cotton...... 2 Malvastrum.
Flowers large; seed covered with cotton..................6- 1 Gossypium.
lowers: mot “involuctatey \fcititesn asuntio pe etete creas ec eeee oene 3 Abutilon.
Gossypium L. Cotton
Herbs, shrubs, or rarely trees from 2-10 feet high; leaves alternate, palmately
veined, and lobed, stipulate; involucre of 3 heart-shaped leaf-like bracts; flowers
large, regular, white or whitish; sepals 5; petals 5; stamens numerous; anthers
borne along the outside of the tube of the filaments; ovaries 3-5-celled, as many
as the cells of the pod; seeds numerous bearing cotton. The description of one
species only is given below, the Sea Island cotton (G.barbadense), cultivated
in Florida and along the Gulf Coast. Tree Cotton G. arboreum is cultivated in
the tropics. The fiber is long, silky and an inch or more in length. But little is
produced, its use being restricted, it is said, to making thread for turbans for the
priestly class.
MALV ACEAE—GOSSY PIUM 625
Gossypium herbaceum 1, Common Upland Cotton
An annual, 3-6 feet high; leaves with 5 short and roundish lobes; flowers
large, pale yellow, turning rose color; seeds covered with cotton. Prof. L. H.
Dewey thinks that our upland cotton should be referred to G. hirsutum (G.
herbaceum), which is a native of Mexico.1 The crop in India, according to
Dr. H. J. Webber is derived chiefly from G. herbaceum, and in Egypt, the crop
is obtained chiefly from G. barbadense. In warm climates, cotton is a peren-
nial. Cotton was cultivated long before the Christian era. It is one of the
most important crops of the world. Dr. Webber states that in 1792 the crop
was 60,000 bales; in 1820, 6,000 bales; in 1860, the product increased to 4,483,311
bales, reaching 8,547,468 bales in 1892, and in 1904, 13,693,279 bales. In a single
century, from 1804 to 1904, the crop increased from 130,000 bales, valued at $13,-
000,014, to 13,693,279 bales valued at $557,147,306. In the early history of cotton
cultivation, the seeds were not valued at all. Growers were troubled to know
how to get rid of them. But in 1904 the seeds alone were valued at $90,258,-
227.86, making the total value of that year’s crop, unmanufactured, $647,405,-
534.51.
Fig. 353. Cotton (Gossypium herbaceum): he
a plant with flowers and leaves; 2, a cotton boll; 3,
seed. (Strasburger, Noll, Schenck and Schimper.)
Distribution. Commonly cultivated in the Southern States.
Poisonous properties. The root is commonly used in the south and tropical
countries to produce abortion. Dr. Johnson says:
Cotton acts as an abortifacient. Its action upon the uterus is similar to that of ergot,
and it is used instead of the latter in cases of uterine inertia during parturition, and in
amenorrhoea, dysmenorrhoea, and scanty menstruation. Whether its action upon the system
at large be similar to that of ergot is unknown but worthy of investigation.
* As to the botanical statues of the different species of the genus Gossypium, the following.
papers should be consulted: IL. H. Dewey Cyclopedia of Agrl. 2: 281; Advance article on
cotton by Webber in an earlier part of the same work; G. Volkens, Die Nutzpflanzen Togos
Notizblatt Konig], Bot. Garten Berlin, App. 22, No. 2, p. 60; O, F. Cook, Origin of the
Hindi Cotton Cir. Bur. Pl. Ind. 42. (This last paper gives some of the literature); Watt. St.
George, The Wild and Cultivated Cotton Plants of the World, London, 1907.
626 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
The fact that the bark of cotton root should be possessed of such active properties is am
interesting and suggestive one, for it affords the only instance of specific virtues attributed to a
plant of the order Malvaceae. It will be noted that it is only the bark of the rcot that
possesses these properties, all of the other parts of the plant partaking of the bland character
of the order—the seeds especially, which not infrequently possess the most active principles
of plants, in this instance yielding a bland oil which is largely used as an adulterant of olive
oil. Now in an order of plants of such strongly marked characteristics as the Malvaceae, the
discovery of striking properties in any individual should stimulate investigation of other re-
lated individuals, for it may reasonably be assumed that investigation which starts with a
rational clue will be more fruitful in results than if conducted entirely in a haphazard manner.
Cotton seed is often injurious to animals.
fn Friedberger and Froéhner’s Veterinary Pathology, Capt. Hayes writes
as follows:
Only young animals are usually affected. They display disorder of digestive and urinary
apparatus: tympanites, diarrhoea (afterwards bloody), haemorrhage from the urinary organs,
albuminaria, strangury and paralysis of the bladder. Duration is variable. Autopsy reveals
in the acute form haemorrhagic gastro-enteritis, opaque swelling of ‘the liver and kidneys,
oedema of the lungs, dark red urine, collection of liquid in the cavities of the body. There is
no enlargement of the spleen.
The liver is opaque and swollen. In chronic cases only, one finds general
emaciation and dropsical phenomena. In dairy cows it induces garget and
mammitis. Cotton seed oil cake contains a poisonous principle ricin.
The investigations Prof. M. B. Hardin of South Carolina made in 1892 in-
dicated the presence of meta and pyrophosphoric acid in cotton seed meal. He
suggested that these acids are poisonous. Dr. Crawford of the U. S. Dept. of
Agrl. has recently investigated the subject and concludes that the pyroprosphoric
acid is toxic. The seed from upland cotton is more toxic than the Sea Island.
The toxic effect may be increased by heating; when the temperature rises high,
this is due to the corversion of the orthophosphoric acid into the pyro form. The
investigations of Dr. Crawford are very important.
Malvastrum Gray
Herbs with entire cordate or divided leaves; flowers solitary or racemose,
short pedicelled; involucrate, or none; calyx 5-cleft; petals 5, notched at the
end or entire; styles 5 or more; stigmas capitate; carpels indehiscent or imper-
fectly 2-valved:; seed kidney-shaped. About 75 species, natives of America and
South Africa.
Malvastrum coccineum (Pursh.) Gray. False Mallow
A low hoary, perennial herb, with dense silvery stellate pubescence; lower
leaves pedately 3-5 parted: flowers small, red, in dense, short racemes, usually
without bractlets; calyx lobes shorter than the pink-red petals; carpels 10 or
more, indehiscent, rugose, and usually 1-seeded.
Distribution. From South Dakota to Texas, New Mexico to British Colum-
bit.
Poisonous properties. Was been suspected of being poisonous, but there is
no evidence to support this view. Profs. Chesnut and Wilcox regard the plant
as non-poisonous. Some ranchers consider that it may be the cause of loco
poisoning.
Abutilon (‘Tourn.) Mill. Indian Mallow
Herbaceous or shrubby plants, or in the tropics, trees with soft, pubescent
leaves and stems: involucral bracts none; calyx 5-cleft; petals 5; styles 5 or
MALVACEAE—ABUTILON 627
more; carpels 2-valved, 2-9 seeded; seeds reniform. About 90 species in trop-
ical or warm temperate regions. Many of the species are under cultivation.
Abutilon Theophrasti Medic. Velvet-leaf
A stout, strongly-scented annual, 2-4 feet high, with tough, fibrous stems;
leaves roundish, heart-shaped, tapering to a point, velvety; peduncles shorter than
the petioles; flowers yellow; carpels 12-15, pubescent, opening at the apex; each
valve beaked by a slender awn.
Distribution. Common in the northern states. Naturalized from India.
Poisonous properties. It is reported as poisonous; the strong odor is so
very objectionable that it is not likely that much of the plant will be consumed
by stock,
PARIETALES
Herbs, shrubs, or trees; flowers generally complete, perfect and regular
or in some cases irregular; sepals distinct or united, imbricated or convolute;
petals nearly always present and distinct; stamens mostly numerous; ovary com-
pound superior or inferior in some; placentae mostly parietal. The order in-
cludes a number of important families. Caricaceae contains the pawpaw (Carica
Papaya) the edible fruit of which is from 6-10 in. long; of yellow color and
contains the alkaloid carpain C,,H,.NO,, acting similarly to digitalis, and a
glucoside caricin; it also contains the enzyme papain, which resembles trypsin
in its proteolytic action, converting animal proteins into proteoses forming pep-
tones. This does not occur in vegetables. These changes do not go on in
acid, and alkaline substances, but act best in a neutral medium. The most active
changes occur best when the medium is from 53 to 40 degrees C. A _ similar
ferment occurs in the leaves of Carica quercifolia of Argentina. Caryocaraceae
includes gamboge (Garcinia Hanbury) a cathartic; the mammey apple (Mammea
americana) cultivated in the West Indies; the Calophylluim Calaba which fur-
nishes the Calaba balsam, the.-mangosteen (Garcinia Mangostana) of the Moluc-
cas, widely cultivated in the tropics. The Dipterocarpaceae includes the genus
Dipterocarpus, which furnishes resin, and shorea, furnishes Chalia resin. “Piney
resin” is obtained from Vateria and is used as a substitute ‘for dammar. ‘The
Tamaricaceae contains the ornamental Tamarix gallica, an excellent honey plant;
the Tamarix mannifera from which a manna-like sugar is derived; the Fou-
quiera splendens of Mexico frequently cultivated and producing the ocotilla wax;
and the Myricaria germanica, the twigs of which are used as a substitute for
hops. Cistacae includes the rock rose (Helianthemum canadense), the pinweed
(Lechea minor) and the Cistus polymorphus furnishing laudanum.
The Begoniaceae includes the commonly cultivated genus of Begonia with
550 species. The Bixaceae includes Bixa Orellana which furnishes the Annatto
used to color butter, silks, etc. In the Canellaceae, is Canelia alba, from which
is obtained the Canella bark of commerce, often called wild cinnamon and which
is used as a condiment in the West Indies and Florida where it is a native.
The family Flacourtiaceae of the tropics includes a number of plants like
Gynocardia odorata of India, Hydnocarpus venenata and the Kiggelaria africana
of Ceylon, the seeds of which contain hydrocyanic acid. The cocos oil is obtained
from Myroxylon and is used in perfumery. The Casearia esculenta of Asia and
Australia is a purgative. The family Turneraceae contains a few medicinal
628 - MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
plants. A variety of Turnera diffusa furnishes a laxative. The Datisca canna-
bina of Southern Europe belongs to the family Datiscaceae and furnishes the
yellow coloring matter datiscin used to dye silk; some members of the family
Dilleniaceae are cultivated for their beautiful flowers. The Marcgraviaceae are
occasionally cultivated and the Marcgravia umbellata is used in medicine; the
family also contains the “Bitter-sick tree” Datisca glomerata which is used, ac-
cording to Chesnut, by the Indians of California to poison trout.
Families of Parietales
Calyx gamosepalous.
Thisoat, of ‘the ‘calyx with a fringed ;crown. .200020 5. 0-24.50 Passifloraceae.
Throat Of calyx: without! a scrowan sacs iceiies sees lee aes teeien ee ee Loasaceae.
Calyx with sepals; sepals generally distinct and persistent.
Flowers itregular. 6. Oove Ae eee eee ae oe ee Violaceae.
Flowers regular.
Trées or shrubs; leaves alternate: .:. 42.257. 5s). se eee Theaceae.
Herbs or shrubs; leaves opposite or whorled......... Hypericaceae.
THEACEAE. ‘Tea Family
Trees or shrubs with alternate simple leaves without stipules; flowers large,
showy, regular, hypogynous, mostly axillary; sepals 5, or rarely more, often with
2 bracts; petals 5 or rarely more; stamens more or less monadelphous; anthers
2-celled; ovary 2-5-celled; ovules 2 or more in each cell; fruit a woody capsule;
embryo large; endosperm scant. A small order of 160 species, mostly native
of warm regions. The tea plant (Camellia Thea) is native to Assam, and ex-
tensively cultivated in Japan, China, and India. The Thea sinensis with the
varieties viridis and bohea furnish tea. Successful attempts at cultivation have
also been carried on in South Carolina. The black and green teas come from the
same species. ‘Tea is an important article of commerce in all civilized countries,
Russia, England and the United States using large quantities.
The active principle found in tea is caffein or thein C,H,,N,O,, a feebly
alkaline, bitter alkaloid which is a cerebral and cardiac stimulant. ‘Thea also
contains the alkaloid caffeidin C,H,,N,O; theophyllin C,H,.N,O,+H,O; theo-
bromin C,H,N,O,, which is a bitter alkaloid having a physiological action sim-
ilar to that of thein. The principle alkaloid thein, or caffein, as it is known, is a
feebly basic, proximate substance, obtained from the tea plant, from the dried
seeds of coffee, and from some other plants. This alkaloid has no particular
action upon the digestive tract, unless it is used in large quantities, when it
may cause gastro-intestinal irritation. Caffein increases the blood pressure,
causing the heart to beat more forcibly and rapidly. It is a certain and direct
stimulant. It produces wakefulness and restlessness and stimulates the reason-
ing and imaginative faculties in man. In the lower animals, according to Dr.
Winslow, it often causes “the most intense cerebral excitement and mania
when given in large doses, — produces restlessness, increased reflex excitability
and convulsions in the lower animals.” Dr. Winslow states further that caffein
is a spinal and muscle poison to the frog, and tetanic convulsions occur in the ba-
trachian similar to those produced by stryclinin, but there is also muscular rigid-
ity. The symptoms of poisoning in dogs, cats, and mammals generally, are rest-
lessness, occasionally vomiting in dogs, rapid breathing, primary reduction fol-
lowed by rise in temperature, clonic or tonic convulsions, muscular weakness, and
THEACEAE—TEA 629
general paresis. Tea contains some saponin, but it is found especially in Thea
Sassanqua of China and Japan and a saponin-like substance called assamin oc-
curs in 7. assamica; the flowers of the former species are used to flavor tea.
The flowers and leaves of 7. Kissi are used as an insecticide.
The Camellia (C. Hongkongensis) is a well known evergreen shrub culti-
vated in green houses. ‘Two east North American genera of the order are
Stuartia and Gordonia.
The leaves of many plants are used as substitutes for tea, among them are:
Gromwell (Lithospermum officinale), Willow herb (Epilobium angustifolium),
Willow (Salix), Ash (Fraxinus sp.), European Mountain Ash (Pyrus Aucup-
aria), Mulberry (Morus alba and nigra), Coffee (Coffea arabica), Camellia
(Camellia hongkongensis), Cherry (Prunus spinosa), Rose ( Rosa canina),
Strawberry (Fragaria vesca and virginiana), Meadow Sweet (Filipendula ulmma-
ria), Wistaria (W. chinensis), Hydrangea (H. Hortensia), Boxelder (Negundo
aceroides), Oak (Quercus), Akebia (A. quinata), Blueberry (Vaccinium Myrtil-
lus). In Russia the leaves of Vaccinium and Arctostaphylos are made into tea.
In North America, in addition to plants previously named, the leaves of Labrador
tea (Ledum latifolium), New Jersey tea (Ceanothus americanus), Oswego tea
(Monarda didyma) and Mexican tea (Chenopodium ambrosioides), are fre-
quently used.
In South America the following are tea substitutes: Lippia pseudcothea,
Stachytarpheta jamaicensis, Psoralea glandulosa, Myrtus Ugni, Symplocos Al-
stonia, Capraria biflora, Angraecum fragrans, and Eritrichium gnaphaloides.
In China Sageretia theezans is used as a tea substitute, and in Australia
various species of Myrtaceae are used for the same purpose.
HyYPERICACEAE. St. John’s-wort Family
Herbs or shrubs or occasionally small trees with opposite entire punctate,
dotted leaves, without stipules; flowers solitary or cymose, paniculate, perfect
and regular; sepals and petals 4 or 5, sepals persistent; stamens numerous, hy-
pogynous in 3 or 5 sets; ovary 1-7-celled, and as many styles; pod 1-celled with
2-5 parietal placentae; seeds numerous, small; endosperm absent. About 275
species, some cultivated for ornamental purposes. Kalm St. John’s-wort (H.
Kalmianum) of the lake region, shrubby St. John’s-wort (H. prolificum)
and the great St. John’s-wort (H. Ascyron) are desirable species for orna-
mental planting. The H. perforaium and other species yield a yellow dye. The
Vismia viridiflora of Guiana yields a resin called American gamboge.
Hypericum (Tourn.) L. St. John’s-wort
Herbs or shrubs with opposite punctate leaves; flowers borne in cymose
clusters; sepals 5; slightly unequal; petals 5, yellow; stamens numerous, distinc:
or somewhat united in sets; fruit a capsule 1 to 5-celled; s2eds numerous.
About 200 species, of wide distribution.
Hypericum perforatum L. Common St. John’s-wort
A perennial, much branched herb, with numerous sterile shoots at the base;
leaves sessile, oblong or linear, black, punctate dots; flowers borne in cymose
clusters, yellow sepals shorter than the yellow and black-dotted petals; stamens
many in 3-5 clusters.
630 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Distribution. Common in the eastern states, rare west of the Mississippi and
in the southern states.
Hypericum punctatum Lam. Spotted St. John’s-Wort
Herbaceous, perennial, 1 or more feet high; copiously marked with Llack,
pellucid dots; leaves sessile, oblong or ovate-lanceolate; cymes terminal, many-
flowered; flowers crowded; petals pale yellow, large, longer than the oblong
sepals; styles mostly not longer than the pods.
Distribution. In moist soil, Maine and Ontario to Minn., Florida, Kansas
and Texas.
Fig. 354. St. Johns-wort (Hypericum
perforatum). Flowering branch, fruit,
section of fruit, part of leaf. Contains
an oil and an acrid resin. (From Ves-
que’s Traité de Botanique.)
Hypericum Ascyron 1, Great St. John’s-wort
Large stems, from 2-5 feet high, branched, 2-4-angled; leaves oblong, partly
clasping; petals narrowly obovate; cymes terminal, few-flowered; flowers large,
bright yellow; stamens in 5 sets; styles 5, united below; capsules ovoid, 5-celled ;
seeds small, numerous.
Distribution. From Vermont, Canada and Manitoba to Kansas, Illinois,
eastward, also found in Europe and Asia.
Poisonous properties. It is believed that, where the plant is common, it is
poisonous. It is said to cause eruptions on cows’ udders and on the feet of
white-haired animals. A writer in Breeders’ Gazette reports the former species
as poisonous. Prof. Chesnut says:
This species and the spotted St. John’s-wort (H. masculatum, H. punctatum), were
brought into the Department by Dr. G, W. Bready, from Norwood, Md., who stated that five
horses were poisoned in May, 1898, by eating meadow hay which contained nearly 50 per cent
of these plants. One horse died from the effects of the poison, and two were killed to prevent
their further suffering.
HY PERICACEAE—HYPERICUM 631
The oil of Hypericum is obtained from the European St. John’s-wort (/7.
perforatum) and is apparently found in the black dots of the petals and fruits.
The resin, however, found in the plant, is acrid and slightly bitter. The physiolog-
ical action of the St. John’s-wort is: mental depression and exhaustion; vertigo
and confusion of the head; dilation of the pupils, and increased heart action.
Fig. 355. Great St. John’s-wort (Hypericum
Ascyron). (Charlotte M. King.)
VIoLACEAE. Violet Family
Usually herbs or rarely shrubs or trees, caulescent or acaulescent, with al-
ternate, simple, entire or lobed leaves with stipules; flowers mostly irregular ;
sepals 5; corolla of 5 petals, 1-spurred, hypogynous; stamens 5, short, fila-
ments broad and flat, often cohering with each other around the pistil; ovary
simple, 1-celled, with 2 parietal placentae; fruit a capsule; seeds anatropous.
About 300 species, of wide distribution. The best known is the pansy (Viola
tricolor) running into numerous varieties, native to the Old World. It is some-
times used in skin diseases. The fragrant violet (VY. odorata) is also frequently
cultivated. Some of our native species are very handsome. Among these are
the bird-foot violet (V. pedata), common in gravelly soils from Maine to Flor-
ida, west to Minnesota and Iowa and the lV. pedatifida from Illinois to Kansas
and Minnesota. Our most common eastern yellow violet is V. pubescens; the
V. Nuttallii, also yellow, occurs from central Kansas westward. The white
Canadian violet (V. canadensis) is common in the north and in the mountains.
V. striata is common from the New England states to Minnesota and Missouri.
The white-flowered violet (V. blanda) occurs in swamps. Brazilian ipecac is.
632 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Fig. 356. Pansy Violet (Vola
tytcolor). Possesses emetie quali-
ties. (After Fitch.)
Fig. 356a. 1-2, Yellow violet (Viola pubescens). 2, Spurred
petals. 3-4, Pansy. c, Caylx. p, Pistil. a, Another spur.
derived from Hybanthus Ipecacuanha. The sweet pulp of the fruit of the
Leonia glycycarpa of Peru is eaten by the natives; the fruit being about the size
of a peach. We shall describe only a single species characteristic of the order,
viz., the common pansy, which is a common weed in the South.
Viola L,.
Acaulescent or leafy-stemmed herbs; annual or perennial; flowers solitary
or rarely 2, smaller than the cultivated pansy; sepals 5; petals 5; unequal, the
lower spreading at the base; stamens 5; anthers erect, united; in many of the
species early blossoms are conspicuous, the later being cleistogamous. :
Viola tricolor I,. Heart’s-ease.
Plant usuaily smooth; stem angled, branched; leaves roundish, or the lower
oval, often heart-shaped; petals variable in color or variegated, yellow, whitish,
violet-blue, and purple.
Distribution. Common in dry or sandy soil from New England to Kansas,
especially southward. Also common on the Pacific Coast.
Poisonous properties. ‘The substance violin, an acrid, bitter principle, has
been extracted from the above species, and also is found in some of our native
varieties. It is a pale yellow, bitter powder. ‘The substance violaquercitrin
C,,H,,0.,4 1s a coloring matter which is found in the pansy. The emetic ef-
fect of violets is well known and is supposed to be due to the presence of violin,
Dr. Millspaugh states:
The most characteristic symptom of its action is an offensive odor of the urine, like that
of the cat. The pains caused by this drug are of a stitching character, while its action seems
spent almost entirely upon the skin, and the male sexual organs. On the skin it causes burn- |
ing, stinging, and itching, followed by breaking down of the tissues into either squamous
spots, or any grade of incrusted eruptions; the eruption pours out a thin yellow fluid.
Dr. Schaffner states that the sweet violet is somewhat poisonous, the under-
ground parts being emetic and cathartic.
VIOLACEAE—VIOLA 633
Dr. Rusby says:
Many violets are noted for their ipecac properties, yielding a glucoside called violin long
confused with the emetin yielded by ipecac. They may be classed among the emetico-cathartics,
and a large quantity might easily be productive of serious results to a child.
According to Spatzier, the seeds of violet contain myrosin and a glucoside.
PASSIFLORACEAE. Passion Flower Family
Shrubs or herbs climbing by axillary tendrils; leaves alternate, simple, gen-
erally 3-lobed; flowers perfect, regular, axillary; calyx tube persistent; petals
usually 5, inserted on the throat of the calyx tube, which is fringed with a crown
of a double or triple row of long, slender fringe; stamens 5, monadelphous, en-
closing the stipe of the ovary; pistil 1; ovary with 3-5 parietal placentas; styles
1-5; fruit a berry or capsule, usually many-seeded.
A small family of about 300 species of warm and tropical regions. The
common blue passion flower (Passiflora caerulea) of South America is fre-
quently cultivated. The P. edulis, native of the West Indies, about. the size of
a hen’s egg, is eaten; the grandilla (P. quadrangularis) producing a fruit 6
inches long, often weighs 3 pounds. The common maypop of the South (P.
incarnata) with a fruit about the size of a hen’s egg, is eaten. This species and
the P. lutea are sometimes weedy. The Tacsonia yields hydrocyanic acid.
LoAsAcEAE. Mentzelia Family
Herbs with rough, often stinging hairs, leaves without stipules; flowers reg-
ular, perfect, whitish, yellow or reddish; calyx tube adherent to the ovary, lobes
4-5; petals 4-5, inserted on the calyx; stamens numerous; pistil 1, usually 1-
celled, with 2 or 3 parietal placentae; fruit a capsule, 1-celled with the persistent
lobes of the calyx; endosperm scant.
About 200 species, nearly all native to North America. The Kissenia, how-
ever, being found in Africa. Species of the genus Blumenbachia (B. grandi-
flora) produce pretty flowers and are cultivated in greenhouses. The Ment-
zelia gronoviaefolia, from Mexico and Texas, is also cultivated. The leaves of
Mentzelia ornata and other species produce hooked hairs which are often annoy-
ing to man.
Mentzelia (Plumier) I. Mentzelia
Herbs with erect stems, alternate leaves with barbed hairs; flowers usually
showy, terminal, solitary or clustered; calyx tube cylindrical or club-shaped,
lobes persistent; petals 5-10, regular, spreading, falling, usually turning black in
drying; stamens numerous, inserted on the throat of the calyx tube; styles 3,
more or less united; capsule dehiscent at the summit, many-seeded; seeds flat.
About 50 species, American, chiefly west of the Mississippi river.
Mentzelia ornata Torr. and Gray. Showy Mentzelia
A rough herb from 1-2 feet high; leaves oblong-lanceolate, deeply toothed
er pinnatifid; flowers solitary, much larger than the lanceolate calyx lobes;
petals 10, yellowish-white, 2-3 inches long; capsule 114-2 inches long; seeds
numerous, with narrow margin.
Distribution. Northwestern Iowa to Dakotas to Central Kansas and Texas.
Injurious properties. The hooked hairs of the plant cause the leaves to
stick to sheep, clothing, etc. Prof. Goodale of Cambridge, Mass., is quoted by
634 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Dr. White, in his Dermatitis Venenata as saying: ‘‘Mentzelia has grown in our
garden, and has always been amazingly irritating to us all. Some species are
even said to have stinging hairs.” The writer has had considerable experience in
collecting these species in the West, and he has learned from experience that
the barbed hairs are quite irritating. Dr. Halsted states that 47. oligosperma
has the same properties. This plant is frequently cultivated.
OPUNTIALES.
Fleshy plants, usually spiny with jointed stems; leaves small; flowers mostly
solitary, regular; calyx tube adnate to the ovary with a many lobed limb; sta-
mens numerous, inserted on the throat of the calyx; filaments filiform; ovary
l-celled; ovules numerous; fruit a berry. Contains the important family Cac-
taceae.
Fig. 357. Showy Mentzelia (Ment-
zelia ornata). The hispid hairs of
this plant produce mechanical injur-
ies. (Charlotte M. King.)
CacrackAk. Cactus Family.
Fleshy plants, leafless or with small leaves; stems flattened, columnar or
globular, generally abundantly spiny; flowers solitary, sessile, perfect; calyx
tube adnate to the ovary, limb many lobed; petals numerous, imbricated in
several rows, mostly distinct; ovary 1-celled; ovules numerous, anatropous, borne
on several parietal placentae; fruit a l-celled berry or a dry fruit; endosperm
wanting or copious.
ee
OPUNTIALES CACTI 635
About 1000 species, chiefly in the regions west of the Missouri river. Many
species occur in the arid regions of the southwest. One of the most interesting
is the giant cactus (Cereus giganteus) of Arizona, with fluted columns 50 or
60 feet high. The common night blooming cereus (C. grandiflorus), with white
flowers opening at night, is well known in cultivation. ‘The most commonly
cultivated species is C. speciosissimus, with crimson red flowers that open dur-
ing the day. The old man cactus (C. senilis) is cultivated because of its long
white hanging hairs. Species of the genus Echinocactus, with stem of many
ribs, are often cultivated, the most common being EH. fesrensis of southern Texas
and Arizona and the —. Ottonis of Brazil. A very good quality of leather
has been produced from E. Wislizeni and Cereus giganteus. Species of Mamii-
laria with tufted stems covered with nipple-shaped tubercles, are often found
in cultivation. The Epiphyllum truncatum, from Brazil, with flattened, leaf-
like stems and flowers 2-3 inches long, and the Phyllocactus, native to South
America and Mexico, are also cultivated. The large genus Opuntia, of over
150 species, is entirely American. The O. vulgaris, Mill, naturalized in southern
Europe, extends from southern New England west and south; O. Rafinesquii
extends from Michigan west; and O. polyacantha from Wisconsin westward.
Several Mexican species are cultivated. The Indian pear or prickly pear (O
Ficus-Indica) of the West Indies and South America, produces an edible fruit.
Extensively naturalized in North America, South Europe and Asia and as
hedge plants. It grows on the lava siopes of Mount Aetna, converting the lava
into soil. The cochineal plant (Nopalea coccinellifera) a native of Mexico, is
cultivated as the host of the cochineal insect, from) which a scarlet carmine
dye is obtained. O. Tuna, O. Dillenti and Pereskia also act as hosts of the
same insect. The fleshy stem of some Opuiiias, after the spines are removed,
are used as siock food. The berries of some species like Opuntia Larreyi
which belongs to the O. Ficus-lidica group, O. Striptacantha and Echinocereus
stramineus, etc., are eaten. A recent paper by Hare and Griffith described many
details of their uses. The Mexicans call them tunas; an alcoholic drink is also
made from the fruit. Some spécies are used as soil binders in Texas and else-
where.
Injurious properties. ‘The barbed trichomes penetrate the flesh and are diff-
cult to remove. Death of animals has been caused by “hair balls” phyto-bezoars
from them being formed in the stomach. Dr. William Trelease, who had occa-
sion to examine the “hair balls’ produced in some Mexican animal, gives the
following account of this phytobezoar: ;
“The hair balls were a little over 3%4 inches in diameter and weighed 7%
ounces. One ball was probably 4 inches in diameter.” It was stated by the phy-
sician who sent them to Dr. Trelease that 16 such balls had been taken from the
stomach of a bull at the Hacienda de Cruzes; it appears that the chief food of
cattle at this time of the year consisted of Opuntias, and that the particular
animal in question being allowed to roam at large, sought such food as could
be found. These phyto-bezoars were brown in color, “and in appearance some-
what suggest felt or rubbed sole leather, and on examination prove to be com-
posed, aside from the small nucleus at the center, of the barbed hairs with
which the pulvini of the Platopuntias are armed. To the barbs with which these
hairs are covered is due their power of felting together, and there is every
indication that, starting about some small nucleus of vegetable fiber, they have
been compacted into the dense, felty texture by the visceral movements of the
636 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
animal, to which, causing friction against one another, their perfectly round form
is attributable.” As is well known, the Opuntias produce spines and two kinds
of trichomes. In the Cylindropuntias, each spine is invested by a deciduous
sheath, “which is downwardly barbed, so that a person or animal brushing care-
lessly against a plant is certain to remove some of the barbed sheaths.” In the
Platopuntias, to which the ordinary flat-stemmed prickly pears belong, the spines,
when present, are destitute of such a sheath. The protection to the plant is af-
forded simply because of their rigidity and pungency. The spines have their
origin in pulvini, and in this particular genus of cacti are coated with delicate
flexible hairs, divided into partitions. These hairs are lightly attached to the
epidermis of the plant, so that when the pulvinus is touched they are almost
certain to be removed in considerable numbers. The points of the stiffer hairs
penetrate the skin, the barbs with which they are closely beset preventing their
ready withdrawal. Dr. Trelease, in summing up the injurious effect of cacti,
says:
It is a frequent practice in Texas to cut the branches of cacti which are fed to stock into
half-inch lengths. In this way, every one of the obliquely set longer spines of Opuntia Engel-
manni (and of some other species which are so used) is almost certain to be cut off, so that the
danger from the spines is removed. This treatment, however, does not destroy the barbed
hairs of the pulvini, of which the bezoars under consideration are composed. It is also the
practice, in some places, to roast the fragments as a means of completely removing the spines
and barbed hairs, but this is objected to by some feeders, because the roasting has been as-
serted to add to the laxative properties of the cactus. Where some such treatment has not
Fig. 358. Prickly Pear (Opuntia Engelmannt),
from the barbed trichomes of which phytobezoars
are sometimes formed. (U. S, Dept. Agr.)
MYRTIFLORAE — MYRTLES 637
been resorted to, injury to the animals not infrequently results; and in the bulletin referred to,
Dr. Vasey gives a number of instances in which cattle have died from an accumulation of
spines in the mouth and stomach, an effect somewhat comparable with that caused by the awns
of Hordeum when cattle feed upon these.
The eating of the fruit of some species of Opuntia produces diarrhoea.
Under the name of Pellate (Anhalonium sp.), the Indians of the Rio Grande
Valley of Mexico have for ages used the tops of this plant which they commonly
call “mescal button” or “mescal bean.” The use has extended to Indians in
Oklahoma and Indian Territory and, it is said, to the Tama Indians of Iowa.
The Kiowa Indians use 14-15 grams (4-5 buttons) to produce the peculiar sen-
sations. The so-called mescal beans are 1-11%4 inches long and about % inch in
diameter, brittle when dry, but soft when moistened. They have a bitter, dis-
agreeable taste. Prentiss and Morgan were the first to call attention to the
character of the drug dried from Anhalonium. During intoxication, the pupils
become dilated, there is muscular relaxation, the pulse is somewhat slower, there
is loss of sense of time, partial anaesthesia, weakened heart action; in some
nausea and vomiting, and wakefulness. In man the influence has been described
as causing an incessant flow of visions of infinite beauty, grandness, and variety
of color and form. Intoxication closely resembles that produced by Cannabis
indica. Dr. Lewin found that an aqueous extract given to lower animals pro-
duced convulsions causing death by respiratory failure.
The A. Lewinii contains the alkaloid anhalonin C,,H,,NO,, mescalin C,,
H,,NO, and anhalonidin C,,H,,NO,. The A. acme contains pelloti.
Although this substance, according to some authors, is inactive, it has been
used as a calmative on insane patients and in many cases causes sleep to come
on. The cactin found in some species is a cardiac stimulant. It appears also
that in addition to the above species the same or allied substances occur in A.
prismaticum, A. Williamisii and A. Jourdanianum.
Anhalonium is closely related to the genus Cactus. It bears a dense penicil-
ate tuft of long soft hairs which persist above the apical region of the plant
as matted wool.
According to several recent investigators, especially Kauter and Heyl, alka-
loids seem to be widely present in the family Cactaceae. Pectenin is found in a
species of Cereus; pilocerein C,,H,,N,O,, occurs in Pilocereus Sargentianus ;
the alkaloid pellotin C,,H,,NN(OCH,,)OH, is found in species of Anhalon-
ium; and Lophophorin apcare in Anhalonium Lewinii and allied species. The
alkaloidal substances appear to the extent of 1.1 per cent in dried material. A.
Lewinii is a cardiac and respiratory stimulant. Saponin also is found in several
species of the family among them in Cereus gummosus. Quite a number of
other species of the family are used in medicine. The night-blooming cereus
(Cereus grandiflorus) contains a glucoside which acts much like Digitalis. The
Opuntia Karwinskiana contains an astringent principle. Several species such as
Rhipsalis and Opuntia have anthelmintic properties.
MYRTIFLORAE.
Mostly shrubs or trees. Leaves simple; flowers incomplete; calyx inferior,
4-5 lobed or entire; corolla usually wanting; stamens twice as many as the calyx
lobes or fewer; ovary l1-celled; ovule 1.
Species of the genus Cuphea of the family Lythraceae are cultivated in the
South as border plants; the cape myrtle (Lagerstroemia indica) of the East
638 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Indies, of the same family, is a handsome ornamental shrub, the seeds of which
contain a narcotic principle; Henna (Lawsonia inermis) yields a yellow dye
which is used in Egypt and Arabia as a cosmetic for the hands.
Tannin occurs in the root of Lythrum Salicaria. Cuphea viscosa of Mexico
contains a substance similar in action to Digitalis. The fresh leaves of Awm-
mania baccifera of India contain a vesicating substance.
The family Lecythidaceae contains the well known Brazil or Para nut
(Bertholletia excelsa, and B. nobilis), the Sapucaya-nut from the monkey-pot
tree (Lecythis allaria) and other species.
Narcotic and poisonous principles occur in the fruit of Planchonia valida,
native to the Molucca Islands, and in the seeds of some species of Lecythis.
The roots and fruits of Chinese and Japanese species of Barringtonia are used
as fish poisons. The family Punicaceae contains the pomegranate (Punica
granatum) from the orient, cultivated in green houses in the North and out of
doors in California and the South for its acid fruit, which is about the size of a
small apple. The bark is used as a vermifuge and is an active irritant, its
medicinal properties being due to a number of alkaloids present, of which four
_ Fig. 359. Clove Tree (Eugenia caryophyllata). oman Thymelaeaceae
Leaves. silvery, scuriy: Mseeiaer ect g. vt Rio Mte a eititue.cus «clon seven Elaeagnaceae
Herbs or rarely shrubs; calyx tube almost wholly adnate....... Onagraceae
ELAEAGNACEAE. Oleaster Family.
Shrubs or small trees; leaves silvery, scurfy; flowers perfect or dioecious;
calyx regular, simple, colored; calyx tube becoming pulpy and berry-like in fruit,
strictly enclosing the achene; seed erect, ascending. A small order of 20
Fig. 362. Sea Buckthorn
(Hippophae rhamnotdes). Pro-
duces a berry. (After Fitch.)
MYRTIFLORAE — OLEASTER 641
species and 3 genera. The buffalo berry is well known. The Shepherdia ar-
gentea is a thorny shrub from 5-18 feet high, from Western Iowa and west-
ward, the acid fruit of which was much used in early days for jams, jellies
and pies. The Russian oleaster or wild olive (Eleagnus angustifolia), a well
known ornamental shrub, adapted especially to the North West, is hardy and
handsome. It has spiny branches which bear fragrant flowers. The wood is
durable and makes an excellent post. The Goumi (E. multiflora) of Japan, pro-
duces edible fruit. The E. hortensis formerly included two species, the E.
angustifolia and E. orientalis, Prof. Hansen has introduced the edible form
of the shrub into the Northwest. The Arabs dry the berries and make a kind
of cake. The Hippophae rhamnoides, an ornamental plant from Europe, is
known under the name of sea buckthorn. It is commonly used for fish sauce
in Russia. The plant is hardy in South Dakota. Prof. Hansen says that the
berries of the tree contain a narcotic poison which is eliminated by boiling.
A
ae SFE
va aa:
cr “nat
Fig. 363. Goumi (Elaeagnus multiflora).
Cultivated for its edible fruit. (From Am-
erican Agriculturist.)
642 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
THYMELAEACEAE. Mezereum Family.
Shrubs or small trees with acrid, tough, fibrous bark, simple opposite entire
leaves; flowers in spikes or umbels, regular; calyx petal-like, tube, urn-shaped:
petals present or absent; stamens twice as many as the lobes of the calyx, and
borne on it; ovary free, l-celled and l-ovuled; fruit a berry-like drupe; embryo
straight; endosperm scanty or none.
About 400 species of wide distribution, most largely represented in Australia
and South Africa. The leatherwood or moosewood (Dirca palustris) with a
tough fibrous bark, is used by the Indians for thongs. The Mezereum (Daphne
Mezereum) with fragrant flowers and bright red berries, of Europe, naturalized
from Europe in New England, and the handsome D. Cneorum, with rosepink
flowers, are cultivated. ‘The berries and leaves of the Mezereum cause blister-
ing; it 1s an acrid poison. Bark paper (D. cannabina) native of the Himalayas
to Japan, produces a tough bark which is made into paper. Lace-bark (Lagetta
lintearia) of Jamaica, with bark that separates into layers, was formerly used
for veils, bonnets, etc. The bark of Wikstroemia viridiflora, of the Polynesian
Islands, is used for making fishing nets, ropes, etc. The bark of Funifera utilis
of Brazil, causes vesication like that produced by the Dirca palustris. Several
exotic plants of the family are poisonous like the Pimelia trichostachya of
Australia. The fruit and leaves of Gnidia carinata are emetic.
Daphne, L. Laurel
Shrubs, with alternate leaves, and small purple, pink, or white flowers in
fascicles, heads or racemes; perianth tubular, with 4 spreading lobes; stamens
8, attached to the calyx tube; filaments very short; disk none; ovary sessile;
stigma large; calyx deciduous or persistent. About 40 species, native of Europe
and Asia.
Daphne Mezereum, L. Spurge Laurel. ULady Laurel.
A small shrub with young twigs somewhat pubescent; leaves thin, oblong-
lanceolate, or oblanceolate, petioled; flowers in sessile fascicles, very fragrant;
perianth-tube pubescent, rose-purple; drupe red.
Distribution. Escaped from cultivation from Quebec to New York, native
to Europe and Asia; frequently cultivated as an ornamental plant.
Poisonous properties. Some of the European species, like Daphne Cneorum
contain acrid poisons. ‘The plant produces blisters. The bark is used internally
and in the form of an ointment. According to Loudon, in France the bark is
applied to the skin for the purposes of a “perpetual blister.” The bark, when
fresh or when soaked in water, reddens the skin, when applied to it, and at
length occasions vesicles followed by ulcers. Oecsterlein remarked that all parts
of the plant produced, on contact, irritation and inflammation. Schimpfky men-
tions this among the twenty-six important poisonous plants of Europe and
states that the bark and berries are most poisonous, and that the pleasant odor
of the flowers produces headache, for which reason, therefore, they should not
be placed in a living room, Linnaeus seems to have recorded cases of poison-
ing from this plant. Daphne contains the glucoside daphnin, C,,H,,O,,, bitter
and astringent, an acrid resin mezerein, daphnetin (C,H,O,)H,O, also with an
astringent taste, coccognin C,,H,,O,, and the glucoside aesculin, CL. ee
H,O. Friedberger and Fréhner state that animals poisoned by the Daphne
have stomatitis, slavering, colic and a feeble pulse. In Europe the fruit is
MYRTIFLORAE — THYMELAEACEAE 643
sometimes used as a substitute for pepper, in some cases with fatal results.
Blyth says: “There are a few cases of poisoning on record, and they have been
mostly from the berries. Thus, Linne has recorded an instance in which a
little girl died after eating twelve berries. The symptoms observed in the
recorded cases have been burning in the mouth, gastro-enteritis, vomiting ( giddi-
ness, narcosis, and convulsions, ending in death. The lethal dose for a horse
is about 30 grms. of powdered bark; for a dog, the oesophagus being tied, 12
gms.; but smaller doses of the fresh leaves may be deadly.”
Fig. 364. Mezereum (Daphne
Mezereum). An acrid poison.
(After Fitch.)
Dirca, WL.
A small shrub with tough, fibrous bark; short-petioled leaves; flowers yel-
lowish, in peduncled fascicles of 2-4 scaly buds at the nodes of twigs of the
preceding season; stamens 8, borne on the calyx, the alternate ones longer;
filaments very slender; perianth bellshaped, or funnelform; disk obsolete; ovary
nearly sessile; drupe red, oval, oblong. 2 species known, 1 in Eastern North
America, and 1 in California.
Dirca palustris, 1, Leather-wood.
A shrub with yellowish green twigs; leaves obtuse; bud-scales 3 or 4, oval,
with brown hairs, deciduous; style longer than the stamens.
Distribution. In woods and thickets, Eastern Canada to Minnesota, Central
Towa to Missouri and Florida.
Poisonous properties. ‘The bark is acrid, like that of the Daphne; all parts
of the plant having a nauseous, acrid taste. The principle, however, is unknown.
The fresh bark applied to the skin causes redness and vesication, the sores
thus produced being quite difficult to heal.
ONAGRACEAE. Evening Primrose Family.
Herbs or rarely shrubs, with alternate or opposite leaves, generally without
stipules, or stipules glandular; calyx adnate to the 2-4-celled ovary; petals 2-4;
stamens as many as the petals or twice as many; ovules numerous. About 300
644 MANUAL, OF POISONOUS PLANTS
species. A few of the plants are medicinal. The great willow herb (Epilobium
angustifolium) is occasionally used in medicine. The hairs of the seeds of
some species are used in the Arctics as lamp wicks. Many species of the family
are used for ornamental purposes, especially some of the western species of the
genus, Oenothera, the Clarkia elegans of the gardens and the greenhouse
Fuchsia. The genus Oenothera with many species, some southwestern and
some western, contains very pretty plants.
Fig. 365. Leather-wood (Dirca palustris). This plant 1s
well known in northern woods, especially on the banks of
streams; occasionelly found on high land. The bark is very
tough and regarded as poisonous. (Charlotte M. King.)
Gaura, Ll. Gaura.
Annual, biennial, or perennial herbs with alternate sessile leaves; flowers
white, pink or red in spikes or racemes; calyx tube narrow, prolonged beyond
the ovary, the limb usually 4-lobed, reflexed; petals clawed, unequal; stamens
usually 8, with a small scale before the filament, frequently declined; ovary
4-celled; styles declined; fruit hard and nut-like, 3 to 4-ribbed and angled.
About 18 species.
Gaura biennis, lL. Gaura.
An erect, soft, hairy or downy annual or biennial; leaves lanceolate or
oblong-lanceolate, denticulate; flowers in slender spikes, white, turning pink;
fruit oval or oblong acute at each end, 4-ribbed.
MYRTIFLORAE — ONAGRACEAE 645
Distribution. From Ontario to Georgia, Arkansas and Nebraska and Min-
nesota.
Fig. 366. Willow-herb (Ep1-
lobium augustifolium). Occa-
sionally used in medicine. (After
Fitch.)
Gaura parviflora, Dougl.
A hairy, branching, soft pubescent annual from 2-5 feet high; leaves lance-
olate or ovate lanceolate, acute or acuminate, sessile, repand, denticulate, cov-
ered with long soft hairs; the pinkish flowers about % inch long, borne in long
flexuose spikes 2-3 feet long; fruit contracted at the base, obtusely 4-angled,
glabrous.
Distribution. Common in dry soil from South Dakota to Missouri, Louisi-
ana, the Rocky Mountain region and New Mexico and Mexico. A common weed
along irrigation ditches.
Gaura coccinea, Pursh. Scarlet Gaura.
An erect or ascending, much branched, smooth or canescent herb; leaves
lanceolate, linear-oblong, repand or entire; flowers red, turning scarlet; fruit
canescent, terete below, and narrowed above.
Distribution. From Western Minnesota, Iowa, Nebraska, and Texas to
Utah, Arizona, and Mexico.
Poisonous properties. The Gauras, or at least one species, the Gaura
coccinea, have been suspected of being poisonous to live stock in the West.
This is an excellent honey plant.
UMBELLALES
Herbs, shrubs or trees; flowers nearly always with petals; divisions of the
calyx and petals usually 5; stamens 4 or 5; ovary compound inferior, adnate
to the calyx; epigynous ovule 1 in each cavity.
646 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
FAMILIES OF UMBELLALES
Fruit a drupe or berry.
Piowers umbellate: stamens 5... 02500. .2 0 os mc in cbmc sp eeree Araliaceae
Fiowers not umbellate; stamens 45.32 2.......0-. 0005.0... beans Cornaceae
Fruit dry splitting into 2 mericarps:.........-....00-2seeseeceees Umbelliferae
ARALIACEAE. Gingseng Family.
Herbs, shrubs or rarely trees; leaves alternate or whorled; flowers in um-
bels, heads or panicles; calyx tube adherent to the ovary; usually 5 petals in-
serted on the calyx; stamens as many as the petals, inserted on the disk; ovary
1 or more celled, 1 ovule in each cell; fruit a several-celled drupe.
About 50 genera and 450 species, of wide distribution. Genera common to
eastern North America, China and Japan. Some of the species are occasionally
cultivated for ornamental purposes. One of the best known of these is the
Hercules Club (Faisia horrida), native from Florida west to Missouri and
Texas, and the common European ivy (Hedera Helix) well known in cultiva-
tion.
Few of the Araliaceae have injurious properties, however, the prickly spines
of Fatsia horrida of the Pacific Coast, are quite irritating.
Several species of the genus Aralia and Panax are used in medicine. The
|
Fig. 367. Ginseng. (After Faguet.)
UMBELLALES — UMBELLIFERAE 647
most important of these is the Ginseng, (Panax quinquefolium), which is native
from eastern Canada to Alabama and in woods from Kentucky to Iowa, Mis-
souri, Nebraska and Minnesota. This species is now widely cultivated, large
quantities of Ginseng being exported to China, where the roots are in great
demand. The Chinese Gingseng is P. ginseng. Several other species are
used in medicine, among them the Spikenard (Aralia racemosa), and Wild
Sarsaparilla (Aralia nudicaulis). These plants are not officinal, but they are
quite commonly used. They have aromatic and stimulating properties. Barring-
tonin, C/E, O2(0OH) is found in Barringtonia, a Japanese Aralia, Panax,
and other genera. Araliin occurs in the roots of Fatsia horrida. The terpene,
aralien, C,.H,,. occurs in Aralia nudicaulis, Some members of this order are
occasionally weedy, especially the Sarsaparilla. Rice paper is made from
Tetrapanax papyrifera, native to Formosa. It is a small tree about 10 feet high.
The tree is cut into to obtain the pith, which is divided into thin slices and the
paper cut with a sharp knife.
UMBELLIFERAE. Carrot Family.
Herbs with alternate compound or sometimes simple leaves, petioles often
dilated at the base, rarely with stipules; flowers 1, small, in compound or simple
umbels or heads, frequently polygamous; calyx tube adnate to the ovary, limb
obsolete or 5-toothed; petals 5, inserted on the margin of calyx; stamens 5,
inserted on the disk; pistils with 2 styles; fruit dry, composed of 2 carpels;
generally spreading from each other at maturity.
About 1600 species of wide distribution in tropical and temperate regions.
A number of the plants of the family are of economic importance, among them
the carrot (Daucus Carota), native to Europe, cultivated before the Christian
Era. The thickened roots of the carrot are important as food for man and
Fig. 368. Turnip rooted Celery or Celeriac
(Apium graveolens). (W. S. Dudgeon.)
O48 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
domestic animals. Parsley (Carum Petroselinum—=—Petroselinum hortense),
native to the Mediterranean regions of Europe and Asia Minor, is used for
garnishing. Celery (Apium graveolens) is indigenous to Great Britain and
other European countries, and is found growing in low lands. There are two
types, the turnip rooted, cooked and eaten as a salad, and the blanched leaf
stalks. Celery was known to the ancient Greeks and Romans. It is said that
in a wild state the plant is somewhat poisonous. Some people are known to be
sensitive to the cultivated plant. Dill (Anethum graveolens), containing dill oil
and caraway (Carum Carvi), were known to the ancients. The essential oil of
caraway is obtained from the seed, which is used in Europe to flavor bread and
meats and contains carvol C,,H,,O. Dill (Peucedanum graveolens) is
commonly used in flavoring pickles and salads. Cummin seeds from Cuminum
sativum resemble those of caraway in odor and taste.
Many members of the order have medicinal properties. Among the more
important of these are the Indian pennywort (Centella asiatica), and poison hem-
lock (Conium maculatum), which contains the alkaloid coniin, which is deadly
poisonous. The caraway “seeds,” fennel “seeds” (Foeniculum vulgare), the
latter indigenous to the Caspian Sea regions, and yielding anethol, also contain
fenchone, trigonellin and cholin.
The anise seeds (Pimpinella Anisum), containing the oil of anise, are used
in confectionery. Asafoetida (Ferula Narthex) native to Thibet and western
Asia, obtained from the milky juice of this plant, is used in medicine, and by
the Persians as a condiment. The button snake root (Eryngium yuccaefolium),
the cow parsnip (Heracleum lanatum), and the water hemlock (Cicuta macu-
lata), are common plants in the northern states. The leaves and roots of the
fennel (Foeniculum vulgare), used in southern Europe as table vegetables, and
in Germany to flavor bread and cakes, contain phellandrene C,,H,, and chav-
icol; lovage (Levisticum officinale) is found in salt marshes along the Atlantic
coast from Labrador to Connecticut and in Europe. The Arracacia xanthor-
vhiza of Peru is much used in the Andes region. The same species, known in
Venezuela as Arracacha and introduced into’ Porto Rico, is said by Fairchild
to be one of the most important of food plants to the peon. The roots are
large and fusiform. The roots of sea holly (Eryngium maritimum) when cand-
ied, boiled or roasted resemble chestnuts in taste. Gum Galbanum is derived
from Ferula galbaniflua, and was used by the ancients for incense and per-
fumery. It contains cadinene and d-pinene. ‘This is referred to in Exodus
25:10. Coriander (Coriandrum sativum) contains coriandrol C,,H,.O. Musk
root or Sumbul (Ferula Sumbul) contains umbelliferone C,H,O, and angelic
acid C,H,O, used as an antispasmodic. The plant occurs in Asia. Sweet
Cicely (Osmorhiza longistylis) yields an oil similar to anise and contains
anethol. In the Umbelliferae the substance peucedone C,.H,,O,, occurs in the
roots of Imperatoria Ostruthium, and Peucedanum officinale; athamantin C,,
H,,O,, is found in Peucedanum Oreoselinum; laserpitin, C,,H,,O,, is from
roots of Laserpitium latifolium; pimpinellin is obtained from the roots of
Pimpinella Saxifraga. Ocenanthe crocata contains oenanthotoxin somewhat sim-
ilar to cicutoxin; thymol is found in the fruit of a great many of the Umbelli-
ferae; cumin oil is secreted from the fruits of Cuminum Cyminum and other
plants of this order, and contains cymene; anise seed or anise fruit contains
anise oil which resembles that found in star anise; the Oenanthe Phellandrium
UMBELLIFERAE, — OEKNANTHE 649
Fig. 369. Coriander (Coriandrum sativum). Flowering stem. (After Faguet)
contains phellandrene; a native lovage, Ligusticum canadense, is used to flavor
tobacco.
This family contains a large number of plants with active principles, some
of which are entirely harmless, but others must be considered among the deadly
poisons. The water drop-wort (Oenanthe crocata), with its parsnip-like roots,
and the O. Phellandrium, poisonous European plants, are Umbelliferae. Fried-
berger and Fréhner state that the former causes stomatitis and paralysis, Blyth
650 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
states that the chemistry of the plant has not yet betn worked out, but that all
parts are poisonous, the root especially deadly. Lehmann states, however,
that the first species is not as poisonous as was formerly supposed; sheep and
hogs eat it, although it is poisonous to horses. In the latter it is said to produce
paralysis of the hind legs. Berula erecta of Europe and North America is poison-
ous, especially the root. It is a smooth aquatic perennial, with compound simple
pinnate leaves; leaflets linear oblong, serrate to cut-toothed; flowers white, and
fruit globose.
In Australia according to Maiden the Apium leptophyllunt when grown in
damp soils is poisonous. The wild parsnip of that country is one of the most
poisonous plants of Australia, no antidote to it being known. The Chaerophyl-
lum temulum of Europe causes colic and stupor. The parsley is not ordinarily
considered poisonous but is said to be injurious to birds. The gum resin am-
moniac found on the stem of Dorema Ammoniacum is acrid. The resin re-
sults from the sting of an insect. The genus Ferula from which Asafoetida is
derived causes haematuria and bleeding at the nose.
Fig. 370. Creeping Water-
parsnip (Berula erecta). Very
poisonous. (After Fitch.)
Genera of Umbelliferae
BIO WOrs VEO W wis’: ol iask!d ates nieve ele euste Suge yo bce» Attn AL Pin aaa ae Sa aaa 7 Pastinaca-
‘lowers white or greenish.
Bruit: (bristly, primed 2. uc a'cnes ceeds seb sa ceetas atid eta 9 Daucus.
I'ruit, not bristly, winged.
Fruit winged, dorsally flattened.
Flowers greenish. is 6... fc ais coe Uae cote obs Bieaeee en ae heey
Flowers white.
Leaves pinnate or ternate, clustered, tuberous roots. .6 Oxypolis.
Leaves ternately-compound, root not tuberous..... 8 Heracleum.
Fruit wingless flattened dorsally or laterally................ 4 Aethusa.
Fruit ovoid or oval.
Flowers white.
Biennial! planitesigst / QR ARO ee ne ttat ata 1 Conium
Perennial, roots usually fascicled.,
UMBELLIFERAE — OENANTHE 651
. Cif tubestcotitary se te cso nee Waele er 2 Cicuta
OMA eS ss sir ae mares ae Nite crate ace nate eke le 3 Sium
Conium L. Hemlock
Smooth biennial herbs with spotted stems and pinnately compound leaves;
flowers small, white, in compound umbels; calyx teeth obsolete; petals small,
obcordate or entire; fruit glabrous, somewhat flattened laterally; carpels wavy-
ribbed; oil tubes none, two species, one in Europe and Asia, the other African,
deadly poisonous. Plant well known to the ancients.
Conium maculatum, L.
An erect, branching, smooth herb, with spotted stem and pinnately decom-
pound leaves; flowers small, white, in compound umbels; calyx teeth obsolete,
petals white; fruit smooth, ovate, flattened, with prominent wavy ribs; oil tubes
absent.
Distribution. In waste places, Canada to Indiana, California, Utah and
Mexico. Native to Europe.
Poisonous properties. The plant is very poisonous. It was used by the
ancients to poison criminals condemned to death, and it is said that Socrates
was poisoned by it. The plant is avoided by stock because of its strong odor,
but the dried plants are not so poisonous. The alkaloid contin C,H,,N is de-
rived from it. Coniin is volatile in vapor of alcohol or water, and somewhat
volatile at ordinary temperatures. It has an alkaline reaction and burning taste
and causes dilation of the pupil. Two other principal alkaloids occur, namely:
conicein C.H,.N said to be 18 times more poisonous than coniin; conydrin
C,H,,NO, pseudoconydrin C,H,,.NO and methylaconitin C,H,,N occur in
small amounts. The percent of coniin in fresh leaves is 0.095; the ripe seed
contains 0.7 percent.
Mr. Chesnut says: Recent cases of poisoning have arisen accidentally from
eating the seed for that of anise, the leaves for parsley, or the roots for par-
snips; also from blowing whistles made from the hollow stems. It has recently
been shown that some of the anise seed in both foreign and domestic markets
is contaminated with hemlock seeds, but it is not known whether serious con-
sequences have resulted therefrom.
Symptoms. The symptoms in man are due to a general and gradual weak-
ening of muscular power. The power of sight is often lost, but the mind usual-
ly remains clear until death ensues, as it soon does from the gradual paralysis
of the lungs. The poisoning differs from that of the Water Hemlock (Cicuta
maculata) in the absence of convulsions. Many domestic animals have been
killed by eating the plant, the prominent symptoms described for cows being
the loss of appetite, salivation, bloating, much bodily pain, loss of muscular
power and rapid, feeble pulse.
This plant, though called hemlock, should not be confused with the hemlock
tree, which belongs to the family Coniferae. It paralyses the ends of the motor
nerves, then trunks and lastly the motor center itself. Respiration is quickened
and pupils contracted. The fatal dose according to Blyth is 2.3 grains.
2. Cicuta Ll. Water-Hemlock.
Tall, smooth, erect perennial herbs with pinnate or pinnately compound
leaves and serrate leaflets; umbels terminal; flowers white; calyx teeth acute;
652 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
fruit ovate or oblong with solitary conspicuous oil tubes; corky ribs, the lateral
ones strong; marsh herbs. Eight species, of north temperate regions. The
European C. virosa is deadly poisonous. Hundreds of people have been poisoned
in Europe. It acts much like our native cowbane, the symptoms being violent
gastro-enteritis, dizziness, trembling, suggestive of hydrophobia, prostration, par-
alysis and convulsions.
Cicuta maculata I, Cowbane
A smooth marsh perennial from 2-5 feet tall; and with fasicled fusiform
roots; leaves pinnately compound 2 or 3 times pinnate, long petioled; the coarsely
serrate leaflets lanceolate to oblong lanceolate; stalks of the umbellets numerous
and unequal; flowers white, fruit broadly ovate to oval, small, about 1% inches
long.
Distribution. Grows in marshes and low grounds in the Dakotas, Nebraska,
the Rocky Mountain region of Colorado, Wyoming and Montana to the Uintahs,
east of New Brunswick and Florida.
Poisonous properties. The European C. virosa contains contin C,H,,N
found also in Conium maculatum, and the bitter principle cicutoxin, an amor-
phous, resinous substance with a disagreeable taste. The poison resides in the
root, stem, and leaves, but more particularly in the root. It seems to occur in
an oily aromatic fluid.
Fig. 371. Water Hemlock (Cicuta maculata),
showing section of spindle-shaped roots and lower
stem, the leaves, flowers, and fruit, one-half nat-
ural size; also fruit and cross section of seed, en-
larged five times. A very poisonous plant. (U. S.
Dept. Agr.)
ee
UMBELLIFERAE — CICUTA 653
The resinous cicutoxin, according to Boehm, is an uncrystallizable bitter
body. The fatal dose, according to Chesnut, is 50 milligrams for each kilogram
of body weight when administered through the mouth and 7 milligrams when
injected hypodermically.
Fig. 372. European Water Hemlock (Cicuta vir-
osa). A poisonous plant containing cicutoxin. (From
Vesque’s Traité de Botanique).
Mr. Chesnut says:
Its true chemical nature is not definitely known, but it is probable that it contains the
alkaloid coniin. and the bitter principle cieutoxin, the latter of which is characteristic of the
European water hemlock (Cicuta virosa). Both are powerful poisons, but the latter is the
more violent and produces most of the symptoms characteristic of the plant. The American
water-hemlock is one of the most poisonous plants native to the United States. Its victims
include both men and animals. The underground parts are the most poisonous, and are es-
pecially dangerous, because they are often washed or frozen out of the soil and thus exposed
to view.
There are quite a number of cases of human poisoning on record in Wis-
consin, Iowa, and Minnesota. Stock is also poisoned. People who are poisoned
generally mistake the roots for parsnips. In Iowa it is often called wild par-
snip. The roots of this plant are fascicled and never conical as in the true
_ parsnip. During one season five children were poisoned in the state of Iowa,
three dying, from eating the roots. Several cases of stock poisoning have
occurred in Iowa and are referred to by the writer. The following interesting
experience is related by Mr. J. A. Minteer, who says:
I have just had a strange experience with my cattle, having lost a four year old cow and
a yearling calf. I think that they were poisoned on some kind of weed root found in the
slough. I locate it on a spot where a hay stack stood about two years ago. It had been re-
moved except the spoiled hay in the bottom. Last fall being dry, I pitched it up, dried and
burned the old hay, sowed rye and timothy seed, ran the disc harrow over it several times and
noticed that we turned out lots of roots like small sweet potatoes, except that they were all
connected at the top. I thought they were the root of a weed that grows a stalk similar to a
seeded parsnip, have a straggly top similar to an elder berry when in bloom. ‘The stalk when
mature is hollow. Now I am not certain that I am right about the top as it had been mowed
before I discovered the tubers. I never thought of them doing any harm, just thought we had
torn them out so they would die and do me no harm, but as the cattle, 17 in number were
654 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
brought up Sunday evening they appeared to be all right until they came into the barn yard,
when a cow fell down and seemed to have a spasm. It only lasted a few minutes when she
got up walked about 100 feet and fell again, got up and walked about thirty rods, fell again
and died in about thirty minutes. The yearling was all right until turned into the lot. In
about 20 minutes she was taken in the same way except a little more severely, rose 2 or 3 times
and died in about 15 minutes. I was satisfied that they were poisoned, but the cause worried me
for a while then I remembered the tubers I saw in the slough, I went next morning before
turning the cattle out and found that the cow and yearling had eaten some of the roots. I
gathered up nearly one-half bushel of the tubers, turned out the cattle and have had no trouble
since. On opening the cows, I found considerable of the tubers in the stomach, and the in-
side ot the stomach was very black.
The plant above ground likewise affects horses and evidently the poison
may reside in the leaves for considerable length of time even after they are
dried. The following experience of a correspondent in Ruthven, Iowa, calls at-
tention to the danger of using hay that contains cowbane:
I mail herewith a small paper box which contains some weed, of which I sent you a speci-
men last summer. ‘This species of hemlock as you call it, I picked out of a manger of a stallion,
which took suddenly sick this morning. Sickness lasted but a short spell. Do not know
whether this had anything to do with this sickness but am terribly prejudiced against it.
Another instance a few days ago of a colt taking violently sick all at once, apparently no cause,
there being considerable of this weed in the hay, and I had two cows lose their calves a short
time ago; the cows had access to this kind of hay. This quite frequently occurs hereabouts.
On a neighboring farm where this weed abounds, they lost nearly all their calves two years
ago. Apparently no cause, but of course there is a cause somewhere. I am satisfied some
stock will eat the leaves of this weed.
Dr. Erwin F. Smith, in referring to the poisonous nature of this weed,
speaks of a case as follows:
During the warm days which melted the snow and brought back the birds and gave indi-
cation of spring time, some children of a neighborhood on the outskirts of the city gave vent
to their feelings by digging and eating some artichokes which grew upon some low ground
borderng a brook. Two of these boys were taken violently ill ,and one of them eight years
old, died, within an hour after he had eaten the root.
Dr. Smith states that upon an examination of the stomach and the root
from which he ate, it was proven beyond a doubt that Cicuta maculata was the
cause of death.
Professor A, A. Crozier calls attention to the poisonous nature of cowbane
in this state and refers to a case occurring in northern Iowa as follows:
Hon. Eugene Secor, of Forest City, this state, a member of the Board of Trustees of the
Iowa Agricultural College, brought me today a fleshy root of a plant of the Water-hemlock,
(Cicuta maculata, L.). The circumstances which brought it to his notice were as follows:
A neighbor of his by the name of Mr. Oleson, a farmer of about fifty years of age, while
dragging some potato ground upon bottom land about two weeks ago discovered one of the
fleshy roots of this plant, and supposing it to be an artichoke, ate it and gave a portion of it
to his two sons. He soon began to feel queer or “‘funny’’ as he expressed it, and went to the
house where he was taken with a spasm, followed by two or three others, when he became
unconscious and within half an hour, before a physician could be summoned from the village,
two miles distant, he was dead. ‘The children had probably eaten less of the root and being
given an emetic, recovered. ‘The plant is very common in the state and the roots are so pleas-
ant to the taste as to make it particularly dangerous. I may add that I ate a piece of the root
the size of a filbert with little or no unpleasant effect.”
One season the writer had a record of five cases of poisoning in this state.
From a press bulletin issued by the writer the following facts were given to
the public:
Ira, aged ten, and Ross, aged eight years, children of T. Y. Johnson, died last night from
eating the roots of a poisonous water plant that grows in front of their house on the Keg
Creek flat east of the Ridgeway lumber yard. A third child, John, the seven year old son of
Mrs. Amanda Kingery, also ate the root but it seems was not made so sick as the others.
Shortly before six o’clock the children came into the house showing Mrs. Johnson what
they had been eating. Not knowing what it was she had them spit it out and throw away
UMBELLIFERAE — COWBANE 655
what they had in their hands. They went out to play again, but in about twenty minutes the
two Johnson boys fell to the ground as if in a fit, soon passing into convulsions. The Kingery
lad was able to walk to his home, but was soon taken with spasms. Dr. Hester was called and
by a vomiting process in a few hours had the child out of danger.
Dr. Lyon was summoned to the Johnson home, getting there at 6:30. The little fellows
were already in terrible convulsions and nothing could be done for them, one dying at 6:45
and the other at 7:15.
Dr. Millspaugh, in his American Medicinal Plants, Fascicle 4., No. 67, has
recorded the following observations concerning the physiological action of the
Cicuta maculata:
“Many cases of poisoning from the root of this species have been reported, all showing,
by the symptoms, that Cicuta produces great hyperaemia of the brain and spinal cord. The
following case reported by letter to Dr. Bigelow* by Dr. R. Hazeltine, (1818), gives all
Fig. 373. Purple Stemmed Poison
Hemlock (Cicuta Douglasii) of the Pa-
cific Coast. It is very poisonous.
(Chesnut, U. S. Dept. Agr.)
*Bigelow, Amer. Med. Bot. Vol. III., p. 181.
656 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
the symptoms noted by other observers in various other cases. A boy had eaten of certain
tuberous roots, gathered in a recently plowed field, supposing them to be artichokes but
which were identified as the roots of Cicuta maculata. His first symptom was a pain in the
bowels, urging him to an ineffectual attempt at stool after which he vomited about a tea-
cupful of what appeared to be the recently masticated root, and immediately fell back into
convulsions which lasted off and on continuously till his death. The doctor found him in
a profuse sweat and convulsive agitations, consisting of tremors, violent contractions and
distortions, with alternate and imperfect relaxions of the whole muscular system, astonishing
mobility of the eyeballs and eyelids, with widely dilated pupils, stridor dentium, trismus,
frothing at the mouth and nose, mixed with blood and occasionally violent and genuine
epilepsy.
The convulsive agitations were so powerful and incessant, that the doctor could not
examine the pulse with sufficient constancy to ascertain its character.
At the post-mortem no inflammation was observed, the stomach was fully
distended with flatus, and contained “about three gills of muciform and greenish
fluid, such as had flowed from the mouth; the mass assumed a dark green color
on standing.”
Chesnut in his paper on Some Poisonous Plants of Northern Stock Ranges
says that Dr. Wilcox and himself observed 105 cases of water hemlock poison-
ing among sheep of which 50 were fatal, and 36 among cattle of which 30 were
fatal. The loss was $4,000, only a fraction of what occurs in Oregon.. The C.
vagans and C. Douglasii are poisonous, the latter along the coast.
Mention may be made in this connection of a series of most valuable papers
on “The Medicinal Plants of North America” by Dr. T. Holm in Merck’s
Reports.* In one paper he discusses the anatomy as well as the poisons found
in this very poisonous plant. The effect of the poison is similar to that of
Cicuta virosa and is due to a resinous substance cicutoxin and to the volatile
alkaloid cicutin, which has been obtained from the fruits.
Cicuta vagans Greene. Oregon Water-Hemlock
A smooth perennial with glaucus stem and vertical rootstock divided into
horizontal chambers; plant 2-3 feet high, with compound leaves; flowers white.
Distribution. From Idaho to British Columbia and west to northern Cali-
fornia.
Poisonous properties. Same properties as the preceding. Professor Hed-
rick estimates that 100 head of cattle are killed by it every year in Oregon. A
piece about the size of a marble of the winter rootstock is believed to be fatal
to man. Professor Hedrick says:
It is hard to estimate the number of cattle killed yearly in Oregon by eating Cicuta. One
hundred would be a low estimate in my judgment. Animals eat the underground portion of
Cicuta in getting the tops which form about the first green herbage in early spring; as they
browse the foliage, the roots, being only partly subterranean, and growing in a soft soil, are
pulled up and eaten. A piece the size of a walnut ,it is found by experiment, is sufficient to
kill a cow. It is probable that the poisonous constituent is found only in the underground
stem and the roots.
While the victims of the plant are chiefly cattle, yet they are not exclusively so. The
poisonous parts are often mistaken for Parsnips, Artichokes, and Horse-radish, and thus human
victims are not infrequent. A number of cases of poisoning from Cicuta are annually re-
ported in the United States. A writer in a local paper a few months ago, reported the case
of two cattlemen in Southern Oregon, who, after eating “Wild Parsnip,’ presumably Cicuta,
died in a few hours. Falk reports, that in Europe in thirty-one cases of poisoning from
Cicuta, 45 per cent died. :
The observations made by Prof. French and reported by Prof. U. P. Hed-
*Medicinal Plants of North America, 24; Cicuta maculata, Merck’s Rep. XVIII: 35-38,
f.1-12.. Feb. 1909.
UMBELLIFERAE — COW BANE 657
rick formerly of the Oregon Experiment Station have shown experimentally
that this species is poisonous. A bulb was cut in small pieces, mixed with a
carrot and fed to a two year old grade heifer. The animal was fed at 8:00
a. m. and at 9:30 it was dead. A post-mortem examination showed that pieces
Fig. 374. Oregon water hemlock (Cicuta
vagans): a, plant with leaves, one-sixth natural
size; b and b’, rootstock and horizontal roots,
showing section, half size; c, terminal leaflets,
one-sixth natural size; d, flowering spray. (U.
S. Dept. Agr.)
of the root occurred in the rumen, and in the reticulum or second stomach.
Only a very small portion of the root had been eaten by the animal. Two
grams were found in the stomach. The lungs were highly congested.
The following day a one year old calf was fed with the poisonous roots.
The temperature of the animal was normal, 102%4°. Two bulbs the size of an
egg were cut and mixed with carrots; this material was eaten under protest.
The roots were fed at 9:15 a. m. and at 9:40 the temperature was 103; at 10:00,
103%4°; at 10:25, 104° and the animal was trembling about the flanks, the eyes
watered freely; at 10:35 the animal was excited and the temperature was 104%4°;
at 10:45 the animal fell over on its side in a spasm. ‘The eyes were drawn and
the muscles were rigid and contracted violently.
Before death an attempt was made to revive the animal by giving it spirits
of turpentine; this caused the calf to recover its feet and walk about. A second
658 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
dose of turpentine and milk were given and the animal remained standing until
11:30, then it fell down as before. A full dose of aconite was given, but no
results noticed and then a hypodermic injection of nitro-glycerin was given.
Death occurred at 11:45 and spasms were almost continuous.
The most interesting discovery made by Prof. Hedrick was in regard to the
apparent harmlessness of the roots while growing during the summer.
Prof. Hedrick says concerning the roots fed to an animal early in May:
The bulbs were of the same lot used in the first experiments, but had been growing for
a month in a green house. It was expected that growth would remove some of the danger-
ous properties of the bulbs, but it was a surprise to find that an animal eating many times
as much of them as had killed the cows in the previous experiment suffered no ill effects
whatever. The conclusion is obvious; the bulbs are only dangerously poison when in the
dormant state, or for a short time after growth begins in the spring. Cattle are likely,
then, to be poisoned only from the first of January to the middle of May.
Cicuta Bolanderi Watson.
leaves bipinnate, leaflets narrowly lanceolate, long acuminate, acutely ser-
rate, lower leaflets petiolate and often deeply lobed; involucre of several linnear
leaflets; fruit 2 lines long, nearly orbicular, strikingly ribbed, and broad oil tubes.
Distribution. In salt marshes along the Pacific coast in California.
Poisonous properties. Like those of the preceding species.
Fig. 375. Water Hemlock (Cicuta bulbifera).
A powerfully poisonous plant. (Ada Hayden.)
UMBELLIFERAE — COWBANE 659
Cicuta bulbifera 1,. Bulbous Water-Hemlock
A slender perennial from 1-3 feet high; leaves 2-3 times pinnate; leaflets
linear; sparingly toothed, 2 inches long; upper axils bear clustered bulblets;
fruit small, ovate.
Distribution, In swamps Nova Scotia to Delaware, Indiana, Iowa, Nebraska
and Manitoba.
Poisonous properties. Very poisonous, like the other species described above.
3. Sium (Tourn.) L. Water Parsnip
Smooth perennial herbs with stem leaves pinnate, basal leaves with pinnatifid
leaflets; flowers white in large umbels; calyx teeth minute; short styles; fruit
ovate to oblong with prominent ribs; 1-3 oil tubes. A small genus of 8 species
in temperate regions. The S. latifolium is poisonous especially to cattle. It
produces stupor, excitement and gastro-enteritis.
Sium cicutaefolium Schrank. Water Parsnip.
An erect stout marsh herb from 2-6 feet high; lower leaves with long
petioles; leaflets 3-8 pairs; segments linear or lanceolate, sharply serrate;
flowers in umbels, white; fruit ovate, prominently ribbed.
Distribution. From Nova Scotia across the continent to Florida and Cali-
fornia.
Poisonous properties. The water parsnip is reported as poisonous from sev-
eral different sources. Hyams reports it poisonous in North Carolina.
4. Aethusa I, Fool’s Parsley.
Annual glabrous herbs. Leaves 2-3 ternately compound, dissected; umbels
compound without involucre; involucels long and narrow; flowers white; calyx
teeth obsolete; fruit globose, ovoid, glabrous, flattened dorsally. One species
native to Europe and Asia.
Aethusa Cynapium I. Fool’s Parsley
An erect leafy branched annual. Leaves 2-3 times pinnate; petiole dilated
at the base; umbels long peduncled.
Distribution. In cultivated grounds and waste places from Nova Scotia,
New England to Pennsylvania and New York.
Poisonous properties. Contains the alkaloid cynapin, and a coniin-like alka-
loid. One physician in England regards the plant as non-poisonous, even recom-
mending it as a pot herb or for salad uses. On the other hand numerous cases
of poisoning have been recorded. The following may serve as an illustration
which is recorded by Dr. Millspaugh from a statement made many years
ago. He records the experiments made on animals. Seven ounces of
the juicy leaves were given to a strong dog and the oesophagus tied; twenty
minutes thereafter the dog became sick. He stretched out his limbs, and lay
on his stomach and it was impossible to arouse the animal. The pupils were
scarcely dilated, the pulsations of the heart were slow and strong. The ex-
tremities were agitated by convulsive movements; the animal threw himself
from one side to the other, and died an hour after taking the poison. ‘The post-
mortem examination showed that the heart was contracted and the stomach was
found to be full of the poison. In domestic animals it causes stupor, paralysis
and convulsions. The common name indicates that it is sometimes mistaken for
parsley with injurious results.
660 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Fig. 376. Fool’s Parsley (Aethusa Cynapium). Flowering branch. Sup-
posed to be poisonous to animals. (After Faguet.)
5. Angelica l, Angelica
Stout perennial herbs with ternately or pinnately compound leaves in large
ample umbels with white or greenish flowers; involucre none or of few small
bracts; calyx teeth wanting; fruit strongly flattened with prominent lateral
wings; oil tubes solitary or several; the 30 or more species found chiefly in the
northern hemisphere and New Zealand.
Angelica atropurpurea lL. Great Angelica
A stout smooth perennial from 3-5 feet high; large ample, ternately divided
UMBELLIFERAE — WILD PARSNIP 661
leaves, pinnate segments, ovate-lanceolate and broad dilated petioles; flowers in
large umbels 9-25 rayed; fruit broadly oval, oil tubes 25-30.
Distribution. Common in swamps from Labrador, Wisconsin, Minnesota,
Illinois to Delaware.
Poisonous principles. Supposed to be poisonous. Although no cases have
been reported to the writer, it is known that the Indians of Canada used the
fresh roots for suicidal purposes. On drying, however, the roots lose their
poisonous properties. Dr. Millspaugh says that they are considered carminative,
diuretic, emmenagogue and stimulant. The dried root was often used, especially
in combination with other and better known diuretics, in anasarca and various
diseases of the urinary organs; and alone in flatulent colic and suppressed men-
struation. Dr. Schell claims that doses of 15 to 20 grains of the dried root will
cause a disgust for all spirituous liquors. The stems were often made into a
candied preserve in some sections of the country—a practice now nearly extinct.
6. Oxypolis Raf. Cobwane
Perennial, glabrous marsh herbs, with clustered tuberous roots; leaves re-
duced, pinnate or ternate; flowers white, in compound umbels; calyx teeth acute;
fruit ovate, dorsally flattened, compressed; dorsal ribs slender, the lateral broad-
ly winged; oil tubes solitary in the intervals, 2-6 on the commissure. Species
4, native to North America. Poisonous.
Oxypolis rigidior (1,.) Coult and Rose. Cowbane.
A slender marsh perennial from 2-5 feet high. Roots tuberous, clustered;
leaves simply pinnate, petioled; leaflets thick, ovate-lanceolate or oblong-entire
or denticulate; involucre of 1-4 bracts or none; flowers white; oil tubes small.
Distribution. In swamps from New York to Florida, to Missouri and
Minnesota.
Poisonous property. The roots and leaves are known to be poisonous. Said
to poison cattle.
7. Pastinaca l. Parsnip
Tall, branching biennial herbs, pinnate leaves, thick conical roots, compound
umbels with yellow flowers; involucres and involucels commonly absent; obso-
lete calyx teeth; fruit smooth, oval, flattened, the lateral ribs extending into
broad wings; oil tubes solitary, 2-4 on the commissure. Six or seven species
native to Asia and Europe.
Pastinaca sativa l. Wild Parsnip
Tall branched biennial or annual herb with thick conical roots, pinnately
compound leaves smooth or somewhat pubescent; calyx teeth obsolete; petals
yellow, fruit oval, glabrous, flattened dorsally, seeds flat.
Distribution. Common in the northern states and on the Pacific coast,
where it has escaped from cultivation.
Poisonous properties. Frequently confused with cowbane and said to pro-
duce poisoning. The writer has not received a single specimen where Wild
Parsnip was said to have produced the poisoning, that the plant did not prove
to be cowbane. The wide spread belief of the poisonous nature of the cul-
tivated parsnip running wild is entertained by a large number of people and also
to some extent by the medical fraternity. A few years ago Professor Fred-
662 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
erick B. Power and one of his pupils (Mr, J. T. Bennett) undertook some
experiments to determine whether the cultivated parsnip running wild
had any toxic properties. Mr. Bennett failed to detect the presence
of any poisonous principle in the root of the true wild parsnip
(Pastinaca sativa) and when the boiled roots were fed in considerable amounts
to a cat, no symptoms of poisoning were manifest. We may add as a further
\
\
Fig. 377. Wild Parsnip (Pastinaca sativa).
aN
a
SiOx
(ef.
7
Tig. 398. Indian Hemp (Apocynum can-
nabinum). Flowering and fruiting branches.
Bundle of fibers from stem. Section of flower.
Furnishes a good bast fiber. (Dodge, U. S.
Dept. Agr.)
Nerium. Oleander
Shrubs; leaves coriaceous, rigid, closely and transversely veiny; flowers
showy, in terminal cymes; corolla salverform or tube narrow, funnelform;
stamens attached to the middle of the tube; style 1; ovaries 2, forming pods;
seeds tufted. Native to the Levant and India. ,
694 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Nerium Oleander I,.
Leaves lanceolate; coriaceous, rigid, closely and transversely veiny; flowers
in terminal cymes, rose-color or white; anthers scarcely protruding.
Distribution. Native to the Levant, naturalized in Southern Europe, and
Southwest United States. Frequently cultivated in greenhouses.
Poisonous properties. John Smith, in his Domestic botany, says, with
reference to its poisonous properties: i
It grows abundantly in the valley of the Jordan, and when in flower is very beautiful. The
whole of the plant is poisonous, and it is recorded that soldiers in Spain were poisoned through
their meat being roasted on spits made of the peeled stem.
Prof. Chesnut states that stock are occasionally poisoned by eating the
leaves, as the plant grows wild in northern Mexico and is abundant in the
Southwest. The oleander is a heart stimulant acting like digitalis. Dr. S.
Wateff recently reported a case in which gastro-enteritis occurred; nausea,
yomiting and irritation were prominent symptoms. He also reports the odor
of the flower as poisonous.
Fig. 399. Oleander (Nerium Oleander). At the left, a stamen;
fl. thread enlarged; am, cells of anther; elongated end of connective.
At the right, flowering branch. Whole plant poisonous. (From
Vesque’s Traité de Botanique.)
Prof. F. W. Wilson of the Arizona Station! has recently brought together
the literature on the subject of oleander poisoning, also giving some of his
own experiments.
Prof. Wilson finds that both the pink and white varieties are poisonous. He
conducted some experiments with two horses, a cow, a mule, and three sheep:
1 Bull. Ariz. Exp. Sta. 59:381.
APOCYNACEAE — ASCLEPIADACEAE 695
The amount of oleander necessary to cause death in horses ranges from 15 to 20 gm. of
green leaves, and from 15 to 30 gm. of dry:leaves. This depends on the condition of the animal
at the time the poison is obtained. A full stomach will necessitate more poison. In the case
of cows it is safe to say that from 10 to 20 gm. of green leaves and 15 to 25 gm. of dry leaves
are sufficient to cause death. For sheep the fatal dose of either green or dry leaves is from 1
to 5 gm. ‘There is little danger in the bark, roots, or flowers since live stock would hardly
obtain sufficient poison in that way.
The general symptoms are increased temperature and pulse, coldness of the extremities,
warm body temperature, dilation of the pupils of the eyes, and discoloration of the mouth and
nostrils followed by sore mouth. The body becomes wet with sweat, due to the exertion caused
by the powerful heart stimulation. The animal generaliy refuses to eat or drink during the 24
hours preceding death. ‘This is usually due to soreness of the mouth and throat, making it
painful to masticate and swallow food. ‘The bowels act often and feces are usually greenish
in color. The action of the kidneys is increased slightly and color of urine is normal. ‘There
is little doubt that numerous cases of oleander poisoning have never been brought to light
because of death being attributed to other sources. It is safe to say, however, that many hun-
dreds of animals have been lost in southern Arizona from this shrub.
ASCLEPIADACEAE. Milkweed Family.
Perennia! herbs, vines, or shrubs, with milky juice and opposite or whorled
leaves, entire; flowers in umbels, regular; calyx inferior; corolla bell or urn-
shaped, rotate or funnel-form, 5-lobed or 5-cleit, the segments generally re-
flexed; a crown between the corolla and stamens; stamens 5, inserted on the
corolla; generally monadelphous; anthers connivent around the stigma or more
or less united with each other; commonly bearing an erect or inflexed mem-
brane; pollen collected in masses, generally 10, known as pollinia; ovary con-
sisting of 2 carpels, in fruit of 2 follicles; seeds flattened, usually appenduged
by a long tuft of hairs called a coma.
About 200 genera, and 1800 species, of wide distribution, many members of
the family being weedy: some are medicinal, but few are economic. Several
plants of the family are cultivated. The Periploca graeca of the Old World is:
an ornamental climber and produces granular pollen in place of pollinia. The
Stapelia, several species of which are cultivated, are natives of the Cape of
Good Hope. They produce flowers of dull purple color with transverse stripes,
exhaling a very disagreeable odor not unlike that of putrid meat.
The wax plant (Hoya carnosa), is a well known house plant of India, with
rooting stems; thick, fleshy, oval leaves; and flesh colored flowers. The l’ince-
toxicum is a European climber sometimes cultivated in the Eastern States.
Several species native from South America are sometimes cultivated for orna-
mental purposes. Some species of the order are used in medicine. The Indian
sarsaparilla (Hemidesmus indicus) growing in the Indian peninsula and Ceylon,
has a medicinal root which is used as a tonic and diuretic. The root has the
odor of the tonka bean or of sweet clover. The mudar (Calotropis procera)
also a native of India, from Ceylon and the Moluccas, is common in waste
grounds. The bark contains one bitter principle, mudarin, used as a tonic and
diaphoretic and in large doses as an emetic. It produces a strong fiber, the
silk being exported as “kapok,” or tree cotton. The Indian ipecacauanha (7 y-
lophora asthmatica) is a climbing perennial of India and Mauritius; anciently
much used by the Hindoos in dysentery. The pleurisy-root or butterfly-weed
(Asclepias tuberosa) is used as a diuretic and an emetic. A. Curassavica of
the West Indes is a vermifuge. The flowers are said to produce excellent
honey. Generally, however, honey bees are killed by becoming entangled in
the pollen masses of some of the species of Asclepias. Many other plants of
the order have an acrid poisonous juice. Two of our common species of milk-
696 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
weed (A. tuberosa) and (A. incarnata) and the (Vincetoxicum officinale)
contain the bitter glucoside asclepidin which is an amorphous, bitter, yellow —
emetic substance. The root especially, which acts as an emetic, is recorded as
poisonous in Europe and cattle and other domestic animals will not eat it.
Friedberger and Frohner state that it causes diabetes and general weakness.
The caustic bush Sarcostemma australe of Australia is regarded in that coun-
try as poisonous. The Condurango (Marsdenia Cundurango), a South Amer-
ican vine, is used as an alterative. It is bitter and acrid. The root of
Asclepias stellifera of South Africa, according to J. Burtt Davy, yields an ex-
cellent rubber.
Asclepias (Tourn.) L. Milkweed
Perennial herbs with milky juice, entire leaves; flowers in umbels; calyx
5-parted, persistent, the lobes spreading; corolla deeply 5-parted, reflexed dur-
ing flowering, deciduous; the crown consists of 5 hooded processes each con-
taining an incurved horn, enclosing the stamen tube; stamens 5, inserted at the
base of the corolla; anthers adherent to the stigma, each with 2 cells and con-
taining a pair of pear shaped masses-of pollen (pollinia) ; ovaries 2; follicles
2; the stigma 5S-angled or 5-lobed; numerous seeds with a coma. About 85
species, mostly of the new world. Several members of the order are quite
weedy, especially in grain fields and pastures.
Asclepias vestita Hook and Arn.
Densely floccose-woolly, the white wool deciduous in age; leaves from
ovate to oblong-lanceolate very acute or acuminate, often subcordate, short
petioled or the upper sessile, 4-6 inches long; umbels 1-4, the terminal usually
peduncled, the lateral all sessile; corolla greenish-white or purplish, the lobes
ovate, 3 inches long, column very short; hoods nearly erect, ventricose, slightly
surpassing the anthers, entirely at the back of the somewhat truncate summit,
auriculate extended at the inner angle, the auricles or angles involute; the crest
not horn-shaped attached up to the summit of the hood, blunt not exserted; an
interior crown of 10 tooth-like processes in pairs between the hoods; ovaries
glabrous; follicles at first canescent.
Distribution. California and adjacent regions.
Poisonous properties. Said to be poisonous. The juice of this species and
of A. eriocarpa are irritating.
Asclepias mexicana Cay.
Stem 3-5 feet high; leaves in whorls of 3-6 or uppermost and lower op-
posite, sometimes also in axillary fascicles, linear or narrowly lanceolate (3-6
inches long, 2-6 lines broad); umbels corymbose, densely many flowered, on
peduncles longer than the pedicels; flowers greenish white, sometimes tinged
with purple; corrolla lobes oblong; hoods broadly ovate, entire, shorter than
the anthers, exceeded by the stout-subulate incurved horn.
Distribution. In the southwest.
Poisonous properties. Said to be poisonous.
Asclepias speciosa Torr. Showy Milkweed
A perennial from 1-4 feet high, white tomentose or canescent; leaves thick,
broadly ovate or oval, petioled; pedicel glabrate above; flowers greenish purple,
{
.
Common Milkweed (Asclepias syriaca). Listed by Lehmann as poisonous. (Bull. Ta.
Agr. Exp. Sta. 70).
ASCLEPIADACEAE—MILKWEED 697
borne in dense umbels or rarely solitary follicles, erect or spreading on the
recurved pedicels,
Distribution. ‘This weed is found in moist soil from Minnesota and north-
ern Iowa to Kansas, in the Rocky Mountain region, common in Colorado, Wy-
oming and Utah. Troublesome not only in our meadows but occasionally also
in our grain fields and gardens.
Fig. 400. Showy Milkweed (Asclepias speci-
osa). A well known troublesome weed with
milky juice. This plant and other species are
known to be poisonous; it is common from
Western Missouri and Iowa westward. (Ada
Hayden.)
Asclepias syriaca I. Milkweed
A perennial herb with a stout stalk from 2-5 feet high, finely soft, pubescent
leaves oval-oblong, or ovate, obtuse or roundish at the base, the young leaf
somewhat pubescent above, soon becoming glabrate; petioles stout; flowers
borne in umbels, from a few to many, peduncles pubescent or tomentose;
corolla dull purple or whitish in color; follicle borne on erect or recurved
pedicels.
Distribution. This species is widely distributed in the north, occurring in
waste places from New Brunswick to the Saskatchewan, along the Atlantic
coast to North Carolina and south and west to Missouri and Kansas.
Poisonous properties. Said to be poisonous to live stock. It contains
asclepion. Bees often become entangled in the pollen manes of this and pre-
ceding species and are unable to extricate themselves. Lehmann and other
European writers list this species as poisonous.
698 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
TUBIFLORAE
Mostly herbs, rarely shrubs or trees; corolla generally gamopetalous, irreg-
ular or regular; stamens adnate to the corolla tube and generally alternate with
them; overy 1-celled, occasionally deeply 4-lobed.
Among the important families of this order are the Polemoniaceae, con-
taining the ornamental Phlox Drummondii, the perennial P. maculata, P. divari-
cata, and P. pilosa, many cultivated varieties of Phlox and of Gilia, of which G.
aggregata and Collomia gracilis are examples. According to Greshoff Gilia aggre-
gata contains saponin. It is regarded as.a poisonous plant. The order also includes
Pedaliaceae, including the sesame (Sesamum indicum) which furnishes the valu-
able sesame oil, the plant being indigenous to the East Indies; the Orobauchaceae
which contains the troublesome broom rapes, (O. ramosa and O. minor); the
Gesneriaceae containing the Gloxinias, native to Mexico but cultivated in this
country as greenhouse plants; the Lentibulariaceae which includes the
bladderwort (Utricularia vulgaris) and other insectivorous plants which are
sometimes destructive to fish, and the butterwort (Pinguicula vulgaris) found
in northern regions, the leaves of which are used by the Lapps to curdle rein-
deer’s milk and also to thicken fresh warm milk so that it will neither curdle
nor form cream afterward but makes a palatable tenacious mass, a small por-
tion of which will act similarly upon another quantity of fresh milk; and the
Acanthaceae containing several plants cultivated as ornamentals like the
Thunbergia alata and the Ruellias. The Ruellia ciliosa is used as a substitute
for Spigelia and is common in the central states to Iowa and Southward. The
Barleria Prionitis of Siam is used for snake bites. The Strobilanthes callosus,
a shrub found in India, is an irritant poison, according to Major Kirtikar, these
irritant properties being due to hairs on the leaves.
FAMILIES OF TUBIFLORAE
Corolla generally regular.
Ovary not 4 lobed, ovules 2 or more.
Style 1, ovary 2-celled; fruit a berry or capsule............ Solanaceae.
Style 1, entire 2-cleft or 2-parted; frequently twining plants...........
IPT aE in rw OeRttn mle RIAA Y ey Ses ep NaS er a tea nae 844 Convolvulaceae.
Style 1, 2-lobed or 2-parted; herbs not twining...... Hydrophyllaceae.
Ovary: ‘generally: A-lobedija wean ractelat cis let toes Let este chek ete Boraginaceae
Corolla generally irregular.
Ovyatynsenerally/4-lobeq yin an AUR he rans ee na ee Ngee eae Labiatae.
Ovary not 4-lobed.
Placentae axillary cic. tee aii cr sha cle Al siclle Ae reane eat Scrophulariaceae.
Placentae :partetalvie sasoanh cits eee c ute niew a leeae eae ate Bignoniaceae.
CONVOLVULACEAE
Chiefly twining or trailing herbs, shrubs or trees, some with milky juice;
alternate leaves without stipules; flowers regular and perfect; calyx inferior, —
5-parted or 5-divided; a 5-lobed or plaited corolla, convolute or twisted in the
bud; stamens 5, inserted on the tube of the corolla and alternate with its lobes;
a 2-celled, rarely 3-celled ovary with a pair of erect ovules in each cell. About
900 species of wide distribution, but chiefly in warm regions. Contains a
number of important economic plants, among them the sweet potato (/pomoea
TUBIFLORAE — CONVOLVULACEAE 699
Batatas), which has been widely cultivated in all tropical and sub-tropical coun-
tries and is a well known and cultivated plant in the United States. There
are many varieties. In the South the large varieties are called yams, but these
should not be confused with the Chinese yam (Dioscorea), which forms an im-
portant article of food in tropical countries, in the islands of the Pacific and
in New Zealand. The man of the earth (/pomoea fastigiata) was used by the
Indians as food. It has properties similar to Jalap, for which it is sometimes
substituted. The Ipomoea Jalapa, native to Mexico, produces a large root
which is also a purgative and contains a glucoside convolvulin C,,H.,O,,-
Several plants of the order, like the moon-flower (Jpomoca Bona-nox), the
morning-glory (Jpomoea purpurea) and cypress vine (Ipomoea Quamoclit) are
cultivated for ornamental purposes. Several, like Jalap (Ipomoea Purga) and
(I. congesta) are used in medicine and are strong purgatives. The scammony
(Convolvulus Scammonia) of Western Asia is also used as a purgative, the
milky juice being collected when hard, it contains scammonin Cyt OF
Convolvulus scoparius and C. floridus, furnishing the oil of rhodium, are smail
shrubby species of the Canary Islands. The wood is strongly scented and the
oil is used to adulterate attar of roses.
Fig. 401. Sweet Potato (Ipomoea
Batatas). A well known cultivated
plant in tropical and_ sub-tropical
countries. (From Vesque’s Traité
de Botanique.)
LD
La
MM, ny
“
Fig. 403. Man-of-the-
Earth (Ipomoea fastigia-
as food.
Jalap (Ipomoea Purga). A x:
ta.) Used by the Indians
ae (Millspaugk
Fig. 402. : Selby.)
Plant and tuber. Furnishes a strong
purgative.
(From Vesque’s Traité de
Botanique. )
Fig. 404. Dodder. To the left—Field dodder (Cuscuta arvensis), a, flower; b, flower
spread apart; c, capsule with stamens and styles; d, seed. To the right—Alfalfa dodder
(C. epithymum), a, flower; b, flower spread apart to show stamens and corolla; c, capsule
showing styles; d, seed. (Dewey, U. S. Dept. Agrl.).
CONVOLVULACEAE — MORNING GLORY 701
The dodders (Cuscuta) belong to the family Cuscutaceae, and are of in-
terest in this connection mainly because they are parasitic on clover, alfalfa
and other plants. Those growing on the above named plants are Cuscuta
arvensis and C. Epithymum; the flax dodder (C. Epilinum) occurs on flax. The
plants contain cuscutin. From two independent sources in this country there
have come reports that clover dodder is injurious. Dr, J. L. Taylor of Lisbon,
Ohio, wrote Prof. A. D. Selby that when dodder was fed to horses it caused
bowel trouble. Dr. E. H. Jenkins of Connecticut states that cattle were serious-
ly troubled with scours when clover hay in which this plant occurred was a
part of the ration. He could not determine whether it was the dodder or the
mould which had developed because the dodder had so matted with the clover
the hay was not cured well. When this hay was cut out from the ration the
trouble ceased,
Ipomoea 1,. Morning Glory
‘Twining or erect herbs; flowers large, showy, axillary; calyx 5-parted;
corolla broadly bell-shaped, 5-cleft; stamens included; pistil with 2-4 celled
ovary, 4-6 ovules; style undivided; stigmas capitate, 1, 2 or 3; fruit a globular
capsule, 4-6 seeded. About 350 species, tropical, or of warm regions.
The Ipomoea leptophylla of the plains of Nebraska to Kansas and the
Rocky Mountains produces a large root weighing from 10-100 pounds; it has an
erect non-twining stem from 2-4 feet high; narrow and long leaves; large pink
purple flowers.
Ipomoea fastigiata Sweet. Man of the Earth. Wild Potato
A deep rooted, smooth, trailing or twining perennial with a stout, large
root occasionally weighing 30 pounds; leaves heart-shaped, acuminate or occa-
sionally fiddle-shaped; peduncles 1-5-flowered; sepals smooth, ovate, oblong,
very obtuse; corolla funnel-shaped, 3 inches long, tube purplish; pistil with a
2-celled ovary; stigma 2-lobed; each cell 2-seeded.
Distribution. Common in fields, dry or alluvial grounds from New Eng-
land to Florida to Ohio, Michigan, Illinois, to Texas.
Poisonous properties. The large root of this plant is said to be poisonous;
it contains the glucoside ipomoein and is purgative. The same is true of J.
leptophylla. The I. Purga is regarded as somewhat poisonous.
Convolvulus (Tourn.) L. Morning Glory or Bindweed
Herbs or somewhat shrubby plants; twining, erect or prostrate; leaves
generally cordate or sagittate and petioled; flowers large and axillary; calyx
bractless or with a pair of bracts; sepals nearly equal; corolla funnel-form or
campanulate; stamens included, inserted on the tube; style undivided or 2-cleft
at the apex; stigmas 2, filiform, oblong or ovoid; ovary 1 or 2 celled with 4
ovules; fruit a capsule, 1-4 celled, 2-4 valved. About 175 species of wide
distribution.
Convolvulus sepium L. Hedge Bindweed
Smooth, occasionally pubescent, twining around supports or trailing; leaves
triangular, halberd or arrow-shaped, the tip acute or pointed, the basal lobes
obliquely truncate or sinuate lobed; the flowering peduncles 4-angled,, with 2
leaf-like bracts which are commonly acute; corolla is white or tinged with rose
purple.
702 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Distribution. The weed is common in the Mississippi Valley in the moist
alluvial bottoms along streams and in fields. It is also found extensively creep-
ing over weeds and other herbaceous vegetation and roadsides throughout the
state. The species is native to North America and is common from Nova Scotia
to Maine, south to North Carolina and Texas to Kansas, Utah, Montana,
Minnesota and eastward. It also occurs in Europe and Asia.
Fig. 405. Bindweed (Con-
volvulus sepium:) Supposed
to be poisonous to swine.
(After Vasey.)
Poisonous properties. The plant has a somewhat disagreeable odor. Dr.
Schaffner states that it is supposedly poisonous to swine. It is more than
likely that some of the same substances are found in hedge bindweed that
occur in Jalap. Jalap contains the glucosides convolvulin C,,H,,O,,, jalapin
C,,H,,O0,, turpethin C,,H,,O,,. tampicin C,,H,,O,,. The rootstock is rich
in starch.
16’
Convolvulus arvensis lL. European Bindweed
A deep-rooting perennial; procumbent stem, twining or creeping; propagates
freely by underground rootstocks; the leaves from 1 to 2 inches long, ovate,
oblong, arrow-shaped, the lobes at the base running to a point; the flowers
are borne in 1-flowered peduncles with very small leaf-like bracts some distance
from the flowers; flowers an inch or less long, short; broadly funnel-shaped,
white, or commonly of a rose tinge.
Distribution, This weed has been known for a considerable length of
time in eastern North America, where it has been sparingly naturalized for
some time. Its distribution may be given as Nova Scotia to Ontario, New
Jersey, Nebraska and Kansas.
Poisonous properties, Probably the same as the preceding. European au-
thorities list this and the common morning glory, especially the latter, as
somewhat poisonous because of their purgative properties.
CONVOLVULACEAE — WATER-LEAF 703
HypropHYLLACEAE. Water-leaf Family
Herbs, generally hairy; with alternate leaves; perfect, regular 5-parted
flowers; calyx inferior, deeply cleft or divided; corolla gamopetalous; stamens
5, inserted on the corolla; ovary superior, 2-celled, with 2 parietal placenta;
styles 2-cleft or partially united; fruit a capsule, seeds generally reticulated or
pitted.
A small family of 17 genera and about 160 species, chiefly in western
North America. Very few plants of the family are ornamental. Some of the
western species are occasionally cultivated. Of these the Phacelia is the most
important. A few of the plants are weedy. The Yerba Santa (Eriodictyon
crassifolium) is an evergreen shrub with funnel-shaped, white or purple
flowers in cymose clusters; it contains a yellow acrid resin, a crystallin prin-
ciple, eriodictyonic acid and eriocolin,
Phacelia Juss.
Mostly hirsute, hispid, or scabrous herbs; leaves alternate or the Jower op-
posite; flowers blue or purple, violet, or white; inflorescence hispid; calyx
naked at the cymes; deeply 5-parted; stamens attached near the base of the
corolla; ovary l-celled; capsule 1-celled or falsely 2-celled; seeds reticulated.
About 80 species, natives of the New World.
iy
NG BY,
AGUA
2) Yi yy
suey aofod
4s
i tar WA
SYN aw
Bi aa
WAR ra
My WY, Go =
\
n i
AD gly
ty
Fig. 406. Hairy Phacelia (Phacelia
sericea). ‘The Phacelia is common in the
Rocky Mountains. The bristly hairs
produce mechanical injuries. (Charlotte
M. King.)
704 MANUAL, OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Phacelia sericea A Gray
Herbs 6 inches to a foot high from a branching caudex, silky-pubescent or
canescent, or the simple virgate stems and inflorescence villous-hirsute, rather
leafy to the top; leaves pinnately parted into linear or narrow-oblong numerous
and often again few-cleft or pinnatifid divisions, silky canescent or sometimes
greenish; the lower petioled; the uppermost simpler and nearly sessile; short
spikes crowded in a naked spike-like thyrsus; corolla violet-blue or whitish;
stamens long exserted; capsule a little longer than the calyx.
Distribution. Common in the mountains from Colorado and northward in
rather dry soil.
Phacelia Menziesti Torr.
Herbs 6 inches to a foot high, at length paniculate-branched, hispid or rough-
ish-hirsute; leaves mostly sessile, linear or lanceolate and entire, or some of them
deeply cleft; the lobes few or single, linear or lanceolate, entire; spikes or
spike-like racemes thyrsoid-paniculate, at length elongated and erect; corolla
bright violet or sometimes white; stamens about the length of the corolla;
capsule shorter than the calyx.
Distribution. Common in the Rocky Mountains from Montana to Utah and
westward,
Poisonous properties. ‘The stiff bristles upon these plants certainly produce
mechanical injuries. A form of dermatitis venenata occurs after handling the
plants. The writer has had abundant experience in contact with these plants
in the Rocky Mountains.
BorRAGINACEAE. Borage Family
Herbs, shrubs or trees, with alternate entire, rough or frequently scabrous
or setose leaves; flowers perfect, usually regular, generally blue, borne in
one-sided spikes; racemes, cymes or scattered; calyx inferior, mostly 5-lobed
or 5-cleft; corolla short, bell or wheel-shaped 5-cleft or 5-parted; stamens as
many as the lobes of the corolla and alternate with them; ovary superior,
deeply 2-lobed; style entire; capsule globular; fruit forming 4 seed-like, 1-
seeded nutlets, or into two 2-seeded or four 1-seeded nutlets.
A large family of wide distribution, consisting of about 80 genera and 1500
species. Some of the members are ornamental and are frequently cultivated,
like the common heliotrope (Heliotropium peruvianum), native to Peru, used
for bedding and in greenhouses. Borago or borage (Borago officinalis), used
in old gardens for ornamental purposes is an excellent honey plant. Lungwort
(Mertensia virginica), an early spring blooming plant of the North, with
handsome blue flowers, is occasionally cultivated. The Rocky Mountain M.
sibirica is an equally handsome species. The forget-me-not (\/yosotis scorpi-
oides), with small but pretty blue flowers, native of Europe, is occasionally
cultivated. Alkanet (Alkana tinctoria—Anchusa tinctoria), a native of southern
Europe, yields a red dye used for coloring oils and wax. Other plants of
this order yield a similar product and one species is known to color the wool
of sheep. The roots of the common puccoon (Lithospermum), also yield a
dye. The comfrey (Symphytum officinale) is used as a forage plant in Europe,
but in the United States is seldom cultivated. The wood of Cordia alba is used
by military authorities in San Juan in the manufacture of gun carriages, car-
penters’ benches, vises, etc.
eC
BORAGINACEAE — BORAGE 705
Genera of Boraginaceae
Brearrn not ) LODed iis ew ste a aa prataalere toe sista uretnin eel eal Guia} ar oh ove. 5 she eyecare Heliotropium
Ovary deeply 4-lobed.
Flowers regular.
Nutlets horizontally radiate, covered with prickles........ Cynoglossum
Nutlets ‘erect; armed with: prickleste hymen cols tae yee eioluls ees Lappula
Corolla irregular.
Stamens exsented) sish2cis ei oeselalsate pie ecliers saat nre,eieions, 6 etary etete Echium
Heliotropium (Tourn.) L. Heliotrope
Herbs or shrubs with entire alternate leaves; the small blue or white
flowers, scattered or borne in scorpoid spikes; corolla salver or funnelform
without appendages, more or less plaited in the bud; stamens not exserted,
with nearly sessile anthers; stigmas conical or capitate; fruit 2-4-lobed, sep-
arating into 4, l-seeded nutlets or into 2, 2-seeded carpels.
About 115 species, mostly tropical. The best known representative in the
North is the cultivated H. peruvianum. ‘The seaside heliotrope (H. curassav-
icum) occurs in saline soil along the Atlantic coast, to Maine, and from Mexico
to Illinois and westward.
Heliotropium indicum 1. Indian Heliotrope
An erect, hairy annual with hirsute or hispid stem; leaves petioled, ovate
or oval and somewhat heart-shaped; flowers blue, borne in spikes; fruit deeply
2-lobed, smooth, 2 seeds in each cell.
Distribution. Common in waste places from North Carolina to Southern
Indiana and Missouri. Naturalized from India.
Heliotropium europaeum 1, European Heliotrope
An erect annual, branched, roughish pubescent herbs; leaves oval, long
petioled, narrow at the base; flowers borne in 1-sided bractless spikes, the ter-
minal spikes in pairs; calyx spreading, the segments shorter than the corolla
tube; anthers distinct, obtuse.
Distribution. Common in waste places southward. New York to Pennsyl-
vania and Florida.
Poisonous properties. The European heliotrope contains heliotropin, a bitter,
volatile, alkaline, poisonous alkaloid.
Cynoglossum (Tourn.) L. Hound’s Tongue
Hirsute or hispid, rarely smooth herbs; alternate or entire leaves; purple,
blue or white flowers in panicled racemes; calyx 5-cleft or 5-parted; corolla
funnelform or salverform, the throat clothed with 5 obtuse scales; ovary
deeply 4-lobed fixed near the apex to the base of the style, roughened with
short barbed or hooked prickles. About 75 species, of wide distribution.
Cynoglossum officinale L. Hound’s Tongue
A coarse biennial herb, clothed with short, soft hairs; lower leaves oblong
or oblong lanceolate, the upper closely sessile with a slightly heart-shaped
base; racemes nearly bractless, elongated in fruit; divisions of the calyx ovate,
lanceolate, acute; corolla reddish-purple, rarely white; nutlets flat on the broad
upper face, splitting away at maturity.
706 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Distribution. In fields and waste places, especially eastward from New
England to Quebec, Ontario, Minnesota, Manitoba, and Kansas.
Cynoglossum virginianum LL. Wild Comfrey
Perennial hirsute herb with simple stem, 2-3 feet high, leafless above;
stem leaves lanceolate oblong, clasping by a heart-shaped base; flowers long-
peduncled, pale blue, small; fruit broad, nutlets not margined, convex on the
upper surface.
Distribution. Common in woods of the central Mississippi Valley states
from New Brunswick to Ontario, Florida, Louisiana to Texas.
Poisonous properties. The common hound’s tongue is suspected of being
poisonous. The European species, C. officinale, contains a powerful alkaloid,
cynoglossin, which resembles curare in its action. It also has the principle
consolidin. ‘
_ Fig. 407. Hounds-tongue (Cynoglossum of-
ficinale). Suspected of being poisonous. (From
Darlington’s Weeds and Useful Plants.)
Lappula (Rivinus) Moench. Stickseed
Roughish pubescent or hairy herbs with alternate narrow or entire leaves,
small blue or white flowers in racemes or spikes; calyx deeply 5-cleft or 5-
parted with narrow segments; corolla salverform or funnelform.
BORAGINACEAE — STICKSEED 707
About 40 species in north temperate regions, several of which are weedy
in North America.
Lappula virginiana (1) Greene. Beggar’s Lice
A coarse pubescent biennial from 2-4 feet high; lower leaves ovate, orbicu-
lar cordate, long, petioled; stem leaves ovate-oblong or oval; flowers nearly
white; globose nutlets, flattened and barbed.
Distribution. Common especially in woods northward from New Bruns-
wick to Wisconsin, Minnesota, Kansas to Louisiana.
Lappula echinata Gilbert. Stickseed
An erect annual from 1-2 feet high; pale, leafy, hispid with erect branches;
leaves linear or linear-oblong; racemes 1-sided, bracteolate; calyx segments
lanceolate; corolla blue; nutlets rough-granulate or tuberculate on the back,
the margins with a double row of slender prickles.
Distribution. Abundant in waste places along roadsides from eastern
Canada and New England to Minnesota, Kansas and British Columbia. Weedy
also in Europe, where it is native.
Lappula floribunda (Lehm.) Greene. Large-flowered Stickweed
An erect perennial or biennial, rough-pubescent; 2 feet or more high;
leaves oblong to linear-lanceolate, the lower tapering on margined petioles;
racemes erect or nearly so; pedicels deflexed in fruit; flowers pretty; blue, oc-
casionally white; nutlets scabrous on the margin with a row of flat prickles.
Distribution. Common in Saskatchewan and Minnesota and abundant in
the Rocky Mountains.
Poisonous properties. perhaps the fruits of all the species are somewhat
injurious to animals, causing inflammation. They are frequently found in wool.
Echium . Blueweed
Bristly annual, biennial, or perennial; erect stems; corolla with a funnel-
form tube and a 5-lobed spreading border; stamens many, exserted. ‘The 30
species are natives of the old world.
Echium vulgare (Tourn.) LL. Blueweed
An erect, rough, bristly biennial, 18 inches to 2 feet high, with an erect,
mostly simple stem; leaves of the stem linear-lanceolate, sessile; flowers in
cymose clusters; corolla reddish-purple, changing to blue; tube funnelform,
border unequal, spreading, 5-lobed;. stamens 5, inserted on the tube; style
threadlike; nutlets roughened or wrinkled.
Distribution. A common weed along roadsides, fields, and meadows from
New England to Indiana.
Poisonous properties. Probably poisonous. According to Friedberger and
Frohner it causes slavering.
VERBENACEAE. Verbena Family
Herbs, shrubs or trees, with opposite or alternate leaves; perfect, regular,
or somewhat irregular flowers borne in spikes, racemes, cymes or panicles;
calyx generally persistent, inferior, 4-5-lobed or cleft; corolla 4-5-cleft, tube
cylindrical; stamens 4, didynamous or 2; ovary superior, 2-4-celled or more;
fruit dry or drupaceous, splitting into 1-4 nutlets.
708 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Fig. 408. Blueweed (Ech-
ium vulgare). Probably poi-
sonous. (Vasey-Selby).
A large family which is found chiefly in tropical regions, there being about
1200 species. The wood of some of the tropical members of the family is
valuable. Among these is the Indian teak tree, (Tectona grandis), native to
India. The wood is hard, heavy and very durable and is used in ship-building
and for railway cars. The Vitex littoralis, a large tree, native of New Zealand,
produces a hard and heavy wood. ‘The fragrant leaves of V. Negundo are
used to stuff pillows.
This family includes many ornamental plants, the most commonly culti-
vated in green houses being the Clerodendron Thompsonae, which has a showy
crimson corolla and white calyx. The lemon verbena, (Lippia citriodora), a
stiff, branching shrub from Chili, is commonly cultivated in the south on ac-
count of its very fragrant leaves; an oil, from it, contains citral. The fog-fruit,
(L. nodiflora), is valued in Egypt as a lawn plant, proving a success where all
grasses or other plants tried for that purpose have failed, the lawns lasting
five or six years without renewal. The Lippia mexicana, used in medicine, con-
tains lippiol. ‘The extensively cultivated verbena of our flower gardens is the
V. Aubletia, which is produced in many colors, the species being native from
southern Indiana to Texas. Lantanas are also cultivated. The French mul-
berry, (Callicarpa americana), is said to be poisonous. The vervains (Verbena
stricia and V. hastata) with blue flowers, are common pasture weeds. ‘The white
vervain (I. urticaefolia) contains a bitter glucoside.
LABIATAE, Mint Family
Chiefly aromatic herbs, some shrubs and trees; with square stems; opposite
leaves without stipules; flowers with cymose inflorescence, perfect, irregular,
more or less 2-lipped; calyx 5-toothed or 5-lobed; corolla 4-5-lobed, commonly
2-lipped, upper 2-lobed or entire, the lower usually 3-lobed, stamens borne on
the corolla tube; ovary superior, deeply 4-lobed or 4-parted, in fruit forming
4 small seed-like nutlets or achenes surrounded by the persistent calyx; usu-
ally exalbuminous or with some albumin. A large family of about 3000 species
LABIATAE — MINT FAMILY 709
of very wide distribution, Many of these plants are used in medicine. Lav-
ender (Lavandula vera) of the mountain regions of northern and eastern
Europe, is cultivated for the oil of lavender, much used in perfume and con-
tains linalool and geraniol. Spearmint (Mentha spicata) a fragrant perennial
plant of Europe is used by confectioners and in the manufacture of perfumed
soap. The volatile oil contains carvol C,,H,,O. Peppermint (Mentha piperita)
a native to Europe and naturalized in North America, is cultivated in New
York and Michigan for the manufacture of peppermint oil. It contains a vol-
atile oil and menthol C,,H,,O, and is used for flavoring mutton and sweet-
meats and as a cordial. It is a stimulant. The Japanese peppermint is ob-
tained from M,. arvensis var. piperascens. Pennyroyal (Mentha Pulegium),
native to Europe, is used for the same purposes for which peppermint is used.
Garden -thyme (Thymus vulgaris) is a small erect woody shrub of southern
Europe; it is fragrant, has a pungent taste and contains thymol CON,
which is used as an antiseptic. It also contains cymene, borneol, and linalool.
Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis), an evergreen shrub of Europe, is chiefly
used as a perfume. This and Lavandula Spica both contain borneol Citas:
one of the pinene group of terpenes and camphene. Germander (Teucrium
canadense) is a stimulant and has aromatic properties. Horse mint (Monarda
fistulosa) is a stimulant and is used to remove colic pain. Oswego tea (Monarda
didyma) is used as a substitute for tea, and catnip is used for the same pur-
pose. M. punctata contains thymol, carvacrol, etc. Horehound (Marrubium
vulgare), a perennial weed native to Europe, is a stimulant and tonic and is
also slightly laxative. It contains the bitter principle marrubin. Sweet basil
(Ocimum Basilicum) of India is a strong aromatic herb used for culinary
purposes and in the manufacture of Chartreuse liquors while the mucilaginous
Fig. 409. Horse Mint
(Monarda fistulosa). A
common roadside weed with
pungent properties. (Char-
lotte M. King).
710 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
“seeds” are used for genito-urinary troubles. Savory (Satureia hortensis) an
annual herb of Europe, sparingly run wild in western United States, is used
as a pot herb. The patchouli (Pogostemon Heyneanus) is used by the Arabs
to scent mattresses and shawls. Sage (Salvia officinalis) is cultivated as a pot
herb and contains pinene, cineol, thujone and borneol. Marjoram (Origanum
majorana), a perennial plant native to South of Europe, and cultivated as an
aromatic herb, is also an excellent honey plant containing citral. Many species
of mints, like the brilliantly colored South American sage (Salvia coccinea, S.
splendens, etc.) and others native to the southern states and the west, are culti-
vated for ornamental purposes. The lance leaved sage (.S. lanceolata) is a
troublesome weed in the West. SS. officinalis of Europe, a stimulant and tonic,
contains cineol and salviol C,,H,,O, and is commonly used with meat and
sausage in German communities. The Japanese potato (Stachys Sieboldii), is
used as the Jerusalem artichoke is. Sweet balm (Melissa officinalis), a pot
herb, contains a bitter principle.
Cymol, C,,H,,O0, one of the benzol derivatives, occurs in many of the
Labiates, especially in Thymus officinalis, Monarda punctata, and Micromeria
punctata. Thymol, a benzol derivative, is also found in Origanum floribundum
and Monarda citriodora.
Genera of. Labiatae
GE) Rig ai afte Co BDAY os hasan Ye 12 (26 ap ae RA PRP ORLEANS REE 3 Leonurus
Calyx not spiny toothed.
Anthers approximate.
BETTING SEARIELS Tes bie e vinhentcctessaicie vik ot ban Sicialw Gustei Cale CRIM ws niereidee aie ieee 2 Hedeoma
MOLLE SEAMENS Ao dec (Cioicte’s wie koe s Bea Cle im ee She Selo ae ville Se alc SeaRE IE
Calva sMipMlar /CUnVeds af arc ase sie law aa wae eG eae a es Hoes Ree 1 Nepeta
Calyx bell-shaped,
Aromatic herbs; stamens exSerted.).. < sv. eseis aa che aye eeeee 5 Mentha
Not aromatic herbs ascending under the upper lip.......... 4 Lamium
1. Nepeta L. Catnip
Herbs with dentate or incised leaves; flowers white or blue, in clusters;
calyx tubular; corolla 2-lipped, lower lip spreading, 3-lobed. About 150 species
native to Europe and Asia.
Nepeta Cataria L. Catnip
A perennial erect herb, 1-3 feet high; leaves ovate, cordate, coarsely serrate,
petiolate, whitish, downy underneath; flowers in cymose clusters; corolla whit-
ish, dotted with purple.
Distribution. Native to Europe; widely naturalized in northern states.
Nepeta hederacea (1,.). Trevisan. Ground Ivy
A creeping, trailing perennial, with leaves all alike; petioled, round, kidney-
shaped, crenate, smooth green on both sides; flowers light blue in axillary
whorls of about 6, appearing in early spring and summer,
Distribution. Native to Europe, widely naturalized in the northern states,
especially in shady places.
Poisonous properties. According to Dr. Schaffner, Ground Ivy is said to
be poisonous to horses. Contains a yolatile oil and a bitter principle. The
common catnip also contains a volatile oil and bitter principle.
LABIATAK — MOTHERWORT 7\1
Fig. 410. Ground Ivy (Nepeta hederacea). A
somewhat weedy plant, naturalized from Europe.
Said to be poisonous to horses. (From Johnson’s
Med. Bot. of N. A.).
2. Hedeoma Pers.
_ Aromatic, pungent herbs; leaves small; flowers in axillary clusters, crowd-
ed into terminal spikes or racemes; calyx ovoid or tubular, bearded in the
throat, 2-lipped; the upper lip toothed; corolla 2-lipped, the upper 2-lobed, the
lower spreading, 3-cleft; fertile stamens, 2; the upper pair reduced to sterile
filaments or wanting; nutlets ovoid, smooth.
Hedeoma pulegioides Pers. American Pennyroyal
An erect, branching, hairy annual; leaves ovate to ovate-oblong, petioled,
sparingly serrate; whorls few flowered; upper calyx teeth triangular, gibbous;
corolla bluish; rudimentary stamens, evident but not usually anther-bearing.
Poisonous properties. It has been regarded with suspicion. It has the odor
and taste of true Pennyroyal. Hedeoma pulegioides contains a volatile oil,
hedeomol C,,H,,O.
Leonurus 1, Motherwort
Tall herbs with palmately cleft or dentate leaves; flowers small, white or
blue, in axillary clusters; calyx tubular, 5-nerved and 5 rigid teeth; corolla
2-lipped. About 10 species in the old world.
Leonurus Cardiaca I, Motherwort
Tall perennial herb with erect stem, 2-6 feet high; leaves long petioled, the
/12 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
lower round and palmately lobed, the upper crenate at the base, 3-cleft;
flowers pale purple in close axillary whorls; corolla bearded.
Distribution. Native to Europe, widely naturalized in the northern states.
Injurious properties. ‘The stiff bristles of the calyx are often injurious,
producing mechanical injuries. It contains a volatile oil with an unpleasant
odor, a bitter principle, etc.
Lamium J, Dead Nettle
Decumbent herbs; leaves usually cordate, doubly toothed; flowers small,
axillary and terminal clusters; calyx tubular; 5-toothed, the teeth nearly equal,
the upper ones larger; corolla dilated at the throat, upper lip ovate or oblong
arched, narrowed at the base, the middle lower lip spreading, the lobe notched
at the apex; stamens 4, small; the anthers nearly in pairs, nutlets truncate.
About 40 species in the old world; some troublesome weeds like L amplexicaule.
Lamium amplexicaule L. Dead Nettle
An annual or biennial herb with rounded, deeply toothed, crenate leaves;
the upper leaves small, clasping; calyx tubular, 5-toothed; flowers small; corolla
purple, upper lip bearded, the lower spotted. The L. album is perennial, has
larger flowers, and has slender calyx teeth,
Distribution. Common in the eastern states to Missouri. The L. album
escaped and not infrequent westward.
Injurious properties. ‘The dead nettle is regarded as injurious.
Fig. 411. Dead Nettle
(Lamium, album), fre- Fig. 412. Dead Nettle (Lamium
quently escaped from cul- amplexicaule). Regarded as poison-
tivation. (Ada Hayden). ous. (Selby).
——————
SOLANACEAE — NIGHTSHADE FAMILY 713
Mentha (Tourn.) L. Mint
Herbs with the odor of mint. Leaves usually with punctate spots; flowers
small in whorled clusters, pink or white; calyx bell-shaped or tubular, 5-toothed ;
corolla tube shorter than the calyx; limb 4-cleft; stamens equal, erect, included
or exserted; filaments smooth; nutlets ovoid, smooth. About 30 species of
temperate regions. Our native species (M. arvensis, var. canadensis) is com-
mon in low marshy ground. ;
Mentha crispa contains linacol, C,,H,,O, one of the terpenes. It may be
mentioned in passing that this same substance recurs in Ocimum Thymus and
Darwinia. A ketone-carbon, C,,H,,O, is found in several species of the genus.
Mentha piperita Ll. Peppermint
Smooth, erect, perennial herb with creeping rootstocks from 1-2 feet high;
leaves petioled, ovate, oblong to oblong-lanceolate, acute and sharply serrate;
flowers whorled in interrupted loose, leafless spikes; purplish or whitish.
Distribution. Commonly escaped from cultivation and troublesome in the
Fast.
Fig. 413. Peppermint
(Mentha piperita). One of
the sources of the pepper-
mint of commerce. (From Fig. 414. Tomato (Lycopersicum es-
Vesque’s Traité de Botani- culentum). An important food plant.
que). CW. S. Dudgeon).
SoLrANACEAE, Nightshade Family
Herbs, rarely shrubs, vines; a few of the tropical species, trees with alter-
nate leaves without stipules; flowers regular or nearly so, borne in cymes;
calyx inferior, 5-lobed; corolla gamopetalous, generally 5-lobed; stamens as
many as the lobes of the corolla and alternate with them, inserted on the tube,
generally equal; style and stigma 1; ovules numerous; fruit a berry or cap-
sule. A large family, chiefly tropical, consisting of 70 genera and 1600 species.
Several of these are important medicinal plants and several important food
plants. Many plants of the order have poisonous properties.
714 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
The red or Cayenne pepper (Capsicum annuum), native to North America,
is much used in tropical countries to stimulate the appetite. It seems to run
to many forms, but has been shown by Prof. Irish that many of the so-called
species belong to C. annuum. A shrubby species, C. frutescens, is native to
western Texas and Mexico. The tobacco (Nicotiana Tabacum), was undoubt-
edly native to America. It was used by the Indians in North America at the
time of the discovery by Columbus, and was introduced into England in 1585
by Lane who was a deputy of Sir Walter Raleigh. ‘Tobacco is now cultivated
in many civilized countries, as Cuba, Philippine Islands, Sumatra, also in
Florida, the Carolinas, Connecticut, Kentucky, and Wisconsin in the United
States. It is used for making cigars, snuff and for chewing. It is an important
article in commerce. ‘The potato (Solanum tuberosum) is indigenous to Peru
and Chili, but was introduced into Spain about the beginning of the 16th
century, and into England from Virginia in 1586 by Sir Walter. Raleigh. The
greatest yields occur in irrigated districts. It is one of the most important food
e
Fig. 414a. Tobacco Plant (Nicotiana Tabacum). a, Flower}
b, corolla; cut open; c, ovary; d, e, young fruit. (a, b, c, nat-
ural size; d. e. x 2.). (After Strasburger, Noll, Schenck, and
Schimper).
plants. Other species of tuberous Solanum occur, as the S. Jamesii, in south-
western United States, and several others in Mexico and South America. The
egg-plant (Solanum Melongena) is native to India, but is now widely cultivated
in tropical countries and temperate regions, the fruit being used for culinary
purposes. The tomato (Lycopersicum esculentum), a native of tropical Amer-
ica, of which there are many varieties, is now widely distributed in tropical
and temperate regions. The fruit is eaten fresh or canned, or made into
=
SOLANACEAE — NIGHTSHADE FAMILY 71S
various products. The currant tomato (L. pimpinellifolium), a fruit about the
size of a currant, is cultivated as a curiosity. Ground cherries are much culti-
vated. The strawberry tomato (Physalis Alkekengi), a perennial native to
southern Europe, has a large fruiting calyx which turns red. The fruit is
eaten, but it is not so palatable as the fruit of the Cape gooseberry (P. peruvi-
ana), which is native to Peru. The fruit of a native species (P. pubescens) is
also eaten, but this also is inferior to the Cape gooseberry.
Belladonna is derived from Atropa Belladonna, a tall glabrous or slightly
downy herb, with a perennial rootstock, native to southern Europe and east-
ward to Asia Minor. This furnishes the atropin of commerce used for dilating
the pupil of the eye. The earliest investigations of the alkaloids of belladonna
were made by Bauberlein in 1809, who first determined their presence. Esse
was the first to find atropamin C,,H,,NO,, in the roots of the plant, although
Schmidt denies the presence of atropin, affirming the presence of hyoscyamin
only. Belladonnin, an isomer of the above, is probably also present. The root
of Atropa Belladonna sometimes contains from 4/10-1% of the alkaloid and the
leaves about half as much. The greatest amount of the alkaloid occurs during
the flowering period. Pseudo-hyoscyamin occurs in the roots of Mandragora.
The alkaloids mandragorin, C,,H,,NO,, and manacin C, ps od 3N 20.) occur in
Brunrfelsia Hopeana. Several other undetermined alkaloids, ee as jurubebin,
have also been found in the family.
Fig. 415. Ground Cherry (Physalis viscosa). Culti-
vated for its fruit. (W. S. Dudgeon).
The mandrake (Mandragora officinarum) of the ancients was, at one time,
supposed to have medicinal virtues. The flowering tobacco (Nicotiana alata)
is a well known cultivated plant of Brazil. The thorn apple (Datura Metel) is
much cultivated, as is the D. meteloides, which has large, sweet-scented flowers.
The bittersweet (Solanum Dulcamara), the hardy annual (Schizanthus pinna-
tus), the Brunfelsia latifolia, which has fragrant flowers, and the Cestrum
716 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Fig. 416. Sleeping or Deadly Night-shade
(Atropa Belladonna). ‘Tip of flowering and
fruiting branch; entire fruit; cross section of
fruit; corolla cut open and spread out. Source
of the belladonna of commerce. (From Ves-
que’s Traité de Botanique).
elegans are frequently cultivated. The odor from the flowers of the latter is
very overpowering. The berries of C. pallidum are said to be poisonous, but
birds have scattered the plant very widely in the tropics. Petunia violacea,
Lycium halimifolium and L. chinense are cultivated. The Duboisia myoporoides
of Australia is a tall shrub, its leaves having narcotic properties and containing
the substance duboisin, a mixture of hyoscyamin and atropin producing an ac-
tion like that of hyoscyamus but more hypnotic. According to Maiden this plant
is poisonous to stock. Other species like D. Leichardtii contain the same sub-
stance. The piturie (D. Hopwoodii) contains a liquid volatile alkaloid piturin
C,H,N resembling nicotin. The natives mix the piturie leaves with the ashes
of some other plant and chew them like tobacco. In its action it resembles
nicotin,
The scopola (Scopolia carniolica) of Austria and Hungary, is a perennial
herb used like Belladonna in medicine. The leaves and rhizomes of this
species and S. japonica are poisonous. The S. carniolica plant contains atropin
C,,H,,NO,, hyoscyamin and scopalamin, The latter substance is broken up
into scopolin C,H,,NO, and tropic acid C,H,,O,. The hyoscin C,,H,,NO, is
impure scopolamin. Scopalin causes dilation of the pupils; the heart action is at
first diminished, then increased, due to the stimulation of the imhibitory nervous
apparatus. The pichi used in kidney troubles is the dried leafy twigs of the
Chilian shrub (Fabiana imbricata). The tree tomato (Cyphomandra betacea)
produces a fruit similar, in taste, to that of the common tomato, if eaten when
raw; but after it is stewed, provided the skin and seeds have first been removed,
an apricot-like flavor is produced. It is much used in tarts and pastry in the
mountainous districts of the tropics.
SOLANACEAE — NIGHTSHADE FAMILY aly
s)
oad eS
J
-
Fig 417. Corkwood (Duboisia myoporoides). A shrub, bearing leaves that possess nar-
cotic qualities. (After Faguet).
Genera of Solanaceae
Fruit a berry.
Corolla wheel shaped.
Anthers.. opening «byuplifted: valves). isk. 12 \.a/jers a wee «(sisiaininyeaaie 1 Solanum
Anthers opening longitudinally, widely spreading............ 2 Capsicum
iGocolla. not wineel shaped icici dud ace tarie tail aerials iene eeael saute 5 Nicandra
incolicy fusiel Torey ee ose eh a Mae cae Seek ln ca la 7 Lycium
Fruit a capsule.
Caboeurn shaped somewhatuirregular.s (ij 2ei. 036 aii a bales ks 4 Hyoscyamus
Matyi osisinatic, corolla, funnel Torn... Va eee i ee 6 Datura
Mees) AISLITI AR elo cid chet iaamt aR iacine ona le tativelalS acarece ae a aialemee Sita as 5 Nicotiana
718 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
1. Solanum (Tourn.) L. Nightshade
Herbs or shrubs, often with stellate pubescence; flowers in cymose, um-
bellate, or racemose clusters; calyx bell-shaped or rotate generally 5-parted
or 5-cleft, corolla rotate 5-lobed or cleft, plaited in the bud; stamens exserted,
filaments short inserted on the throat, anthers converging around the style
opening at the top; ovary usually 2-celled, stigma small; berry with persistent
calyx at the base or enclosing it; seeds numerous. About 900 species of wide
distribution. Several are troublesome weeds as horse nettle (Solanum carolin-
ense) and buffalo bur (S. rostratum). The potato (S. tuberosum) and egg-
plant (S. Melongena), are cultivated.
Fig. 418. Common potato (Solanum tuberosum).
The potato under some conditions is very poisonous,
especially when the tops are green. (Lois Pammel).
Solanum Duleamara \Y. Bittersweet
A more or less pubescent perennial, stem climbing or straggling, somewhat
woody below; leaves petioled ovate or hastate, the upper usually halberd shaped;
flowers purple or blue in cymes; berry globose, red.
Distribution. Naturalized from Europe, New Brunswick to New Jersey,
Pennsylvania, Kansas to Minnesota.
Poisonous properties. ‘The plant contains the alkaloid solanin C,.H,.NO,,
+H,O, with a hot, bitter taste, dulcamarm a bitter principle Capt a,O ig tenner
and the alkaloids solanidin C,,H,,NO and solanein C,,H,,NO,,.
Chesnut says with reference to this plant:
Besides solanin, (0.3 percent), this plant contains another less poisonous compound,
dulcamarin, which gives it its peculiar bitter-sweet taste. Neither of the compounds is abun-
dant. The berry, though its taste is not remarkably disagreeable, is somewhat poisonous, and
it has been shown that an extract of the leaves is moderately so. ‘The plant has nevertheless
caused some ill effect. ‘The treatment is the same used in case of the above species.
According to Schimpfky the berries of this plant have been used to poison
dogs and the juice of the fruit acts as a poison to rabbits. Fliickiger and
Hanbury in their Pharmacographia, make this statement with reference to
Dulcamara:
Dulcamara is occasionally given in the form of decoction, in rheumatic or cutaneous af-
fections; but its real action, according to Garrod, is unknown. ‘This physician remarks that it
does not dilate the pupil or produce dryness of the throat like belladonna, henbane or stramon-
ium. He has given to a patient 3 pints of the decoction per diem without any marked action,
and has also administered as much as half a pound of the fresh berries with no ill effect.
SOLANACEAE — BLACK NIGHTSHADE 719
Johnson in his Medical Botany of North America refers to the use of the
plant as follows:
Bittersweet, in full doses, produces a certain “mount of cerebral disturbance of a narcotic
character, together with dryness of the throat, and s.metimes an erythematous eruption of the
skin, with a tendency to diaphoresis. It has been employed with benefit in a variety of cutan-
eous eruptions, in muscular rheumatism, and in chronic bronchial and pulmonary affections.
Vig. 419, Littersweet (Solanum Dulcama-
ra). a, flowering spray; b, fruit—both one-
third natural size. Berries somewhat poison-
ous.) COy Shs Depts Agr:
Lehmann states that it is a narcotic poison when given in large doses, even
causing death in rabbits.
It will be seen from the above quotations that the plant is not a violent
poison and yet ill effects are probably produced by it under some conditions.
Solanum nigrum 1, Common Nightshade or Stubbleberry.
Annual, low branched and often spreading; stem glabrous or hairy, hairs
simple, roughened on the angles; leaves ovate, petioled, flowers white in small,
umbel-like drooping lateral clusters; calyx spreading, the lobes obtuse, much
shorter than the white corolla; berries glabrous, globose, black ; occasionally large,
Distribution. Found in northern United States. Also occurs in Europe.
Shady grounds and fields. A cosmopolitan weed.
Poisonous properties. Stubbleberries are occasionally cultivated for their
fruit. They are sometimes sold as huckleberries and used for pies and pre-
720 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Fig. 420. Black Night-shade (Solanum nigrum). | Unripe
fruit thought to be poisonous. (Charlotte M. King).
serves. The fruit should, however, be used with caution, especially before it is
ripe. A decoction of the ripe stubbleberry when fed to cats does not appear to
be poisonous, according to Dr. Buchanan, who fed considerable quantities to
cats in the writer’s laboratory without injurious effects. Mr. Chesnut says:
The amount of poison present in any part of this plant varies with the conditions of
growth. The more musky-odored plants are the most poisonous. In some, the amount of
alkaloid in the ripe fruit and leaves is so small that these parts may: be, and are, con-
sumed in considerable quantity without any ill consequences. Poisoning does sometimes
follow, but it is not clear whether this is due to improper preparation or to careless selection
of the parts used. ‘The use of black nightshade for food is certainly not to be recommended.
Cases of poisoning are recorded for calves, sheep, goats and swine.
The characteristic symptoms are about the same in man and animals. ‘They are stupefac-
tion, staggering, loss of speech, feeling and consciousness; cramps, and sometimes convulsions.
The pupil of the eye is generally dilated. Death is directly due to a paralysis of the lungs,
but fortunately few cases are fatal.
In June, Dr. Flickinger reported from Greenfield, Iowa, several cases of sheep
poisoning probably due to eating plants of Solanum nigrum. A subscriber of the
Towa Homestead also says that for a number of years poisoning has affected his
SOLANACEAE — BLACK NIGHTSHADE 721
sheep in a pasture where this weed has been abundant. Dr. Koto, lowa State
Veterinarian, also reports cases due to this plant.
This Black Nightshade contains the alkaloid solanin C,,H,.NO, which
is probably present in larger quantities in the fruit before it is entirely ripe, also
solanidin €.H,, NO; with stronger basic properties. From all the evidence I
can get, I may say that the fruit should be eaten with caution. In Europe it
has been looked upon with suspicion for a long time. The ancients held it in
suspicion and many superstitious beliefs were connected with it. Schimpfky
in discussing the poisonous and non-poisonous action of the plant states that
the amount of poison produced depends upon climatic conditions and the char-
acter of the soil. In some places it may be entirely harmless and in other
places poisonous. In Europe the plant is sometimes used as a salad plant, but
the author above referred to, remarks that when the odor is unpleasant and dis-
agreeable it should not be eaten.
According to Lehmann, Schreber and Haller the berries are poisonous to
ducks and chickens. Cases of poisoning from the berries of this plant have been
recorded in Europe by Hirtz,! Manners,? etc.
Fig. 421. Spreading nightshade (Solanum
triflorum), one-third natural size. Suspected
vf being poisonous. (U. S. Dept. Agr.).
1 Gaz. Med. d. Strasbourg. 1842.
2 Edin. Med. Jour. 1867.
For these and other references see Blyth ‘‘Poisons” 4th ed., 398. Poisoning by bitter
sweet berries is recorded in Lancet, 1856. Berries of S. tuberosum, Brit. Med. Jour. 1895.
NI
Iho
bo
MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Solanum triflorum Nutt. Three-flowered Nightshade
Annual, low spreading, slightly hairy or nearly glabrous; leaves acute;
pinnatifid, 7-9 lobed; peduncles 1-3 flowered; corolla white; berries greenish
or inclined to blackish, about the size of a small cherry; pedicels reflexed in
fruit.
Distribution. On the plains, and waste places from Nebraska and Kansas
to Northwest Territory and Arizona; introduced eastward.
Poisonous properties. Prof. Chesnut says experiments on guinea pigs show
that the berries are poisonous. No cases of human poisoning have been re-
ported. The berry is not attractive to the eye, but has an agreeable odor and
taste. It is therefore to be suspected in cases of poisoning which occur in
localities where the weed is abundant. The writer has also received complaints
of the poisoning by this plant from Nebraska and other western states. The
active constituent is, no doubt, solanin.
Solanum rostratun Dunal. Buffalo Bur. Sand Bur
Herbaceous, woody when old; somewhat hoary or yellowish; 8 inches to
2 feet high; covered with copious stellate pubescence; the branches and stems
covered with sharp yellow prickles; leaves somewhat melon like, 1-3 times
Fig. 422. Buffalo Bur (Solanum rostratum). a,
branches of the plant with burs; b, yellow flowers; c
and d, seeds; c, very much enlarged; d, natural size.
he prickles cause mechanical injuries to stock.
SOLANACEAE — BUFFALO BUR 723
pinnatifid; lobes roundish or obtuse and repand, covered with soft pubescence,
hairs stellate; flowers yellow; corolla gamopetalous, 1 inch in diameter, nearly
regular, the sharp lobes of the corolla broadly ovate; stamens, 5, declined,
anthers tapering upward, linear lanceolate, dissimilar, the lowest much larger
and longer with incurved beak, hence the technical name rostratum; style
much declined; fruit a berry but enclosed by the close fitting and prickly calyx,
which has suggested the common name buffalo bur or sand bur; pedicels in
fruit erect; seeds thick, irregular, round or somewhat longer than broad,
wrinkled showing numerous small pits; seeds surrounded by a gelatinous sub-
stance. The related species S. citrullifolium of the southwest is glandular
pubescent with slender yellow subulate prickles, lowest anther violet.
Distribution. The buffalo bur was undoubtedly a native to the region of the
Fig. 423. Horse nettle (Solanum carolinense). a,
plant with flowers and fruit; b, flower; c, seed enlarg-
ed. Considered poisonous by Bessey and others. (U.
S. Dept. Agr.).
plains occurring in the bare places where grass is scant and in former times
was most abundant around the “buffalo wallows.” Its range is from New Mex-
ico to Wyoming and across the plains. The general traffic from the west to the
east has caused the weed to be distributed in various eastern and middle states,
Iowa, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Missouri, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, New York,
Massachusetts and Tennessee.
724 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Injurious properties. This plant is carefully avoided by stock, but so far as
known is not poisonous although the prickles on the plant produce mechanical
injuries. When the prickles enter the tissues of animals inflammation occurs
and pus is formed.
Solanum carolinense L. Horse Nettle
Horse nettle is a deep rooting perennial, propagating freely by its under-
ground roots; these running roots are often 3 feet long; stem from 1-2 feet
high, somewhat straggling, half shrubby at the base; stems hairy or merely
roughish with minute hairs which are usually numerous; leaves oblong or
sometimes ovate, obtusely sinuate, toothed or lobed or deeply cut, 2-4 inches
long; flowers borne in racemes which later become 1-sided; the outer part of
the flower, the calyx, consists of slender lobes; the corolla is light blue or
white, an inch or less in diameter and resembles that of the common potato;
the flowers are followed by yellow globose berries, 1/2-3/4 inch in diameter; the
small seeds are yellowish, a little less than 1/12 of an inch long, minutely
roughened.
Distribution. Its distribution in North America is from Connecticut through
New York, Pennsylvania and New Jersey, West Virginia along the Atlantic
seacoast to Florida, west along the Gulf Coast to Texas, through Kansas,
Nebraska, Iowa, Illinois and Michigan.
Poisonous properties. The root as well as the fruit of the plant has a very
disagreeable narcotic odor; according to several authors, the plant is poisonous.
Dr. Bessey reports it as possibly poisonous. It contains solanin, according to
Kraemer, 0.8 per cent in the berries.
Solanum elaeagnifolium Cav. Horse-weed. Bull Nettle
A deep-rooted spreading perennial from 1-3 feet high; stem silvery canes-
cent, finely pubescent; leaves lanceolate, oblong or linear, petioled entire or
repand-dentate; flowers in cymose clusters; peduncle stout and short; corolla
gamopetalous, blue; calyx lobes lanceolate; berry yellow, smooth globose.
Distribution. Common on the prairies of Kansas to Texas and New Mexico.
Poisonous properties. The berries of this fruit are used to curdle milk in
northern Mexico and southern Texas. They are crushed into a powder, put into
a muslin bag, suspended in the milk until coagulation occurs. It is also used
as a medicine by the Mexicans.
Solanum tuberosum L. Potato
An erect herb, cultivated as an annual for the esculent tubers; leaves pin-
nate of several ovate leaflets and smaller ones between; flowers blue or white,
berries round, green.
Distribution. Native to Chile north to Mexico and Arizona. Introduced
into Europe between 1580 and 1585.
Poisonous properties. The wilted green stem and leaves are poisonous,
containing the alkaloid solanin. The water from boiled potatoes contains a
poisonous substance. Some persons cannot eat potatoes because poisonous to
them. According to Kassner, healthy potatoes do not contain solanin but dis-
eased potatoes contain this substance; from 150 gms. he separated 30-50 mers.
of solanin. It is probable that this substance occurs in other species of Sol-
anum. ‘Thos. Maiden states that the S. eremophilum poisons sheep and cattle
when they eat the tops. Friedberger and Frohner state that potato tops are in-
jurious; that the diseased animals show symptoms resembling foot and mouth
disease,
j
,
]
SOLANACEAE — POTATO 725
Dr. Doerr has recently reported a case of poisoning in a cow that had been
fed exclusively upon refuse from the Club-house kitchens near the Iowa State
College Campus. These contained potato parings among other things and to these
the poisoning was charged. The trouble was diagnosed as gastro-enteritis. The
post-mortem revealed diffuse intestinal hemorrhages with enlarged liver and spleen.
2. Capsicum. Pepper
Herbs or shrubs with sharp taste; leaves fleshy; flowers white; corolla
wheel shaped; 5-lobed; tube short; stamens separate with filaments
longer than the heart shaped anthers which open longitudinally; fruit a berry.
The Guinea pepper and the Indian goat pepper (C. frutescens) are much more
powerful stimulants than cayenne and often produce violent pain and purging.
This shrub is native to the Southwest. The genus Capsicum has two species.
A monograph by Prof. Irish published in the Missouri Botanical Garden Reports
describes many of the varieties.
Capsicum annuum L. Cayenne Pepper
Annual. Leaves ovate entire; flowers with truncate calyx and white corol-
la; fruit a berry, oblong or globular, red or green.
Distribution. Widely cultivated. Native to the Southwest.
Fig. 424. Red Pepper (Capsi-
cum annuum). ‘The fruit of this as
well as the leaves are power-
fully pungent. (W. S. Dudgeon).
Poisonous properties. The peppers are often used in domestic practice in
making a stimulating plaster; if its action is continued long enough, however,
a vesicular formation makes its appearance. In domestic animals it causes
726 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
gastro-enteritis. Death has even occurred where too much of the Cayenne
pepper has been used. Thresh isolated a principle to which he gave the name
of capsatcin C,H,,NO,, however, the bitter pungent substance has been called
by Morbitz, capsacutin, a crystalline nitrogenous compound containing the sub-
stance CH NO; This is so powerful that 1 part in 11,000,000 will impart
the pungent taste. A volatile alkaloid resembling contin has been found in
small quantities.
3. Nicandra Adans. Apple of Peru
Tall smooth annual with alternate leaves, calyx 5-parted, angled; corolla
wheel shaped or somewhat funnel shaped with widely spreading border; tube
short; anthers 5 connivent; fruit a somewhat 3-5 celled berry.
Nicandra Physalodes (U.) Pers. Apple of Peru
A tall smooth annual, 2-5 feet high; leaves ovate angled or sinuate toothed;
flowers solitary; corolla pale blue rather large; fruit a globular dry berry;
calyx, 5-parted, 5-angled, enlarged and bladder like in fruit.
Distribution. Native to Peru but sparingly naturalized in the United States.
Poisonous properties. Said to be poisonous; used as a fly poison in parts
of the United States.
4. Hyoscyamus (Tourn.) L. Henbane
Clammy-pubescent, fetid, narcotic herbs; leaves alternate, mostly lobed or
pinnatifid; flowers large, calyx bell-shaped or urn-shaped, 5-lobed; corolla
funnelform, oblique; 5-cleft, the lobes unequal; capsule enclosed in the persistent
calyx, 2-celled.
About 15 species, native to the Mediterranean region. Medicinal and
poisonous plants.
Hyoscyamus niger lL. Black Henbane
Biennial or annual. Stem 1-3 feet high; leaves ovate, sinuate toothed and
angled, the upper clasping; flowers short pedicelled in one sided leafy spikes:
corolla dull yellowish, reticulated, with purple veins; capsule globose oblong.
Distribution. Common only eastward in waste places from Nova Scotia to
Michigan, also in Montana, Utah, Idaho and the Pacific Coast.
Poisonous properties. A well known medicinal plant from which /iyoscyamin
is obtained. AHyoscyamin is an anodyne and hypnotic and is poisonous. Dr.
Chesnut says:
One or two cases are recorded in foreign literature in which stock have been poisoned
by eating the plant of their own accord, but there is very little danger from it, on account
of its ill odor and harsh texture.
It contains hyoscyamin, C,.H,,NO,, causing a dilation of the pupils
and having a sharp and disagreeable taste. It also contains pseudo-/iyoscyamin
C H,,NO,, another alkaloid, and hyoscin C,.H,,NO,; the latter of which
also dilates the pupils. The hyoscyamin resembles atropin in its composition
and action and is obtained from the HTyoscyamus seed. When damp the alkaloid
has a tobacco-like odor and a bitter taste. According to Dr. Winslow, the
hyocsyantin is practically atropin except that its mydriatic action is shorter.
Hyoscin is a powerful depressant to the cerebrum, respiratory center, spinal
reflex centers, and motor tract. It is a cerebral sedative. According to Wins-
low:
The tetanic stage succeeding spinal paralysis, observed in atropin C.H,,NO, poison-
ing, does not ensue with /iyoscin. ‘The latter alkaloid slightly depresses and slows the
SOLANACEAE — BLACK HENBANE Taf
heart, and does not paralyze the vagus terminations, nor depress the motor and sensory
nerves or muscles. ‘Ihe circulation is but slightly influenced, and vasomotor depression
only occurs in the latter stage of lethal poisoning. Death occurs from paralysis of the
respiratory centers. Poisoning in animals is exhibited by loss of muscular power, slowing
and failure of respiration, dryness of the mouth, stupor and asphyxia. ‘The pulse may be
infrequent, the pupils are dilated and the skin is moist rather than dry. Delirium and
convulsions sometimes occur in man. ‘The effect of the combined action of hyoscyamin
and hyoscin in Hyoscyamus is shown when we compare the drug with belladonna. Hyoscyamus
is more of a cerebral sedative and hypnotic, and less of a heart and respiratory stimulant.
It is said to possess more power in overcoming spasm, and griping of cathartics, and in
aiding intestinal movement. Hyoscyamus is also thought to exert a more pronounced
antispasmodic action than belladonna upon the smooth muscles of the bladder and urethra.
Blyth gives the action of hyoscyamin as follows:
Thirty-two mgrs. (% gr.) begins to act within a quarter of an hour, the face flushes,
the pupils dilate, there is no excitement, all muscular motion is enfeebled, and the patient
remains quiet for many hours; 64.8 mgrs. would possibly be a fatal dose. The root is
Fig. 425. Black Henbane. (Hyoscyamus niger). At the left, open corolla, and
flowering branch. At the right, longitudinal section of flower. A well known
medicinal plant. (From Vesque’s Traité de Botanique).
more poisonous than the leaves, and the seeds of Datura contain a considerable quantity of
hyoscyamin; they are often mistaken for other seeds such as poppy.
Many cases of children being poisoned by this seed are recorded. One
instance is given by Schimfky where of two children who had eaten the seeds
of the plant, one died before purgative action could be produced. The second
child slowly recovered but growth was checked.
5. Nicotiana (Tourn.) LL. Tobacco
Rank, viscid-pubescent narcotic herbs or shrubs; leaves alternate, entire;
flowers borne in panicled racemes; calyx tubular, bell-shaped, 5-cleft; corolla
funnel-form or salver-form, the limb with five separating lobes; stamens 5,.
inserted on the tube of the corolla; dehiscence of the anthers longitudinal ;
ovary 2-celled;- stigma capitate; capsule 2-valved; seeds numerous, small.
About 50 species nearly all native of North America.
Nicotiana Tabacum 1, Common Tobacco
A coarse annual from 46 feet high; leaves lanceolate, ovate, decurrent,.
728 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
1-2 feet long; flowers panicled, rose-purple; corolla funnel-form, 2 inches long;
lobes short, somewhat inflated.
Distribution. Native to South America but widely cultivated; introduced
into Europe by the Spaniards shortly after the discovery of America. The
best types of tobacco are cultivated in Cuba and Porto Rico; and this forms
an extensive industry in North America, especially in Connecticut, Wisconsin,
Virginia, etc.
Poisonous properties. Various opinions are expressed in regard to its
poisonous properties. It is known, however, that an alkaloid occurs in N.
Tabacum, N. macrophylla, N. rustica and N. glutinosa, which apparently does
not occur in any other plant.
The active principle of the tobacco leaf is the alkaloid nicotin C,,H,,N,.
which is easily extracted from tobacco by means of alcohol or water; it occurs
to the extent of 6 per cent in the dry leaves; it has a sharp, burning taste, is
very poisonous and is said to have sixteen times the toxic power of coniin.
On application of heat, nicotin is changed into pyridin, C.H.N, and other sim-
ilar alkaloids like picolin, CHN. Pyridin depresses the spinal motor tract and
causes paralysis of respiration. Moderate doses cause contraction of the pupil.
Nicotein C,,H,,N, was found by Pictet and Rotschy in leaves of tobacco; also
nicotemim C,,H,,N,, and nicotellin C,,H,N,. According to more recent in-
vestigations the seeds of Nicotiana are free of nicotin. The following state-
ment is made with reference to the toxicology of nicotin by Dr. Winslow:
Nicotin is one of the most powerful and rapidly acting poisons. When swallowed, it
causes, in animals, local irritation and pain in the throat and stomach; muscular tremors and
weakness, on account of which the animal falls. These symptoms are followed, first, by severe
tonic and clonic convulsions, and then by abolition of voluntary motion and quietude. The
pupils are contracted, and there is vomiting (in the case of some animals), purging and mic-
turition. The respiration is at first shallow and rapid, but becomes weaker and slower, and
death occurs from respiratory failure and general collapse. The pulse is primarily slow and
intermittent, but later becomes rapid. ‘The treatment of poisoning consists in evacuation of
the stomach; the use of tannic acid; respiratory and heart stimulants, as strychnin, atropin,
and alcohol; together with external heat and artificial respiration. The minimum lethal dose
is about one drachm of tobacco, or one minim of nicotine, for small dogs. For horses, five to
ten drops of nicotin or one-half pound of tobacco.
Friedberger and Frohner state that animals have convulsive spasms, great
muscular weakness, with acute paralysis.
The chronic effects of the use of tobacco, according to Millspaugh, are as
follows:
The effects produced upén smokers are almost useless in the study of the drug itself, and
it is only in that class of chewers who swallow the juice, that positive data could be looked
for; still here, as well, we are at a loss to determine facts, for in manufacturing the narcotic,
processes are used which alter the product greatly; nevertheless some few symptoms seem to
be more or less common to all who have been, for protracted periods, subjected to the drug.
Mental anxiety and irritability, with at times confusion of ideas; dilation of the pupils; ringing
in the ears; increased secretion of saliva; uncertainty of speech. dryness of the throat; at
times weakness of the stomach and nausea; increased secretion of urine; dry cough especially
at night; precordial oppression with palpitation of the heart and at times an irregular pulse;
trembling of the extremities when held long in one position; general arzemic condition of the
blood spasmodic contraction or jactation of single muscles; sensations of exhaustion and
especially lassitude; sleepiness; profuse perspiration and sensitiveness to cold.
A writer in the London Lancet quoting from the Therapeutic Gazette* states
that the injury from tobacco smoke comes largely from the inhalation of carbon
monoxide. Cigarette smoking is more harmful than smoking a pipe because more
of the gas is inhaled.
* Vol, 32:78C.
a
SOLANACEAE — TOBACCO 729
According to Zalackas, eserin and strychnin are not antagonistic to sicotin
but the juice of Nasturtium officinale counteracts it.
Nicotiana rustica L,. Wild Tobacco
Annual, with obovate, petioled leaves; flowers greenish-yellow, panicled,
longer than the calyx; capsule globose.
Distribution. In fields and waste places from Canada to Florida, and
Minnesota. Cultivated by the Indians.
Poisonous properties. Probably the same as those of the preceding species.
Nicotiana alata Link & Otto
An annual, pubescent plant from 3-4 feet high; leaves lanceolate,
flowers large tubular; tube 5-6 inches long; the limb deeply 5-cleft.
Distribution. Native to Brazil but a frequent escape in gardens in the east.
Nicotiana quadrivalvis Pursh. Wild Tobacco
An annual 1 or more feet high, leaves oblong or the upper lanceolate and
the lower obovate lanceolate, acute at both ends; flowers few; corolla white,
tubular funnel-form; tube 1 inch long.
Distribution. Oregon to the plains. Often cultivated by the Indians for
tobacco. The allied species, N. attenuata, Torr., is found from Colorado to
Nevada and California.
Poisonous properties. The poisonous properties are probably the same as
those of common tobacco. According to Maiden the N. suaveolens is poisonous
to stock in New South Wales.
6. Datura L. Thorn Apple. Jimson Weed
Rank-scented, tall, narcotic herbs; or a few tropical shrubs or trees with
alternate petioled leaves; large flowers; calyx 5-cleft; corolla funnelform,
5-lobed, the limb plaited; stamens generally included, inserted at or below the
middle of the corolla tube; ovary 2-celled, forming a capsule which is globular
and prickly.
A small genus of about 12 species of wide distribution, 2 being cosmopol-
itan weeds. Several of the species are used for ornamental purposes. Among
these are the common white-flowered thorn apple (Datura Metel) which is
native to tropical America, also the Datura meteloides, native to New Mexico
and cultivated for its large sweet-scented flowers. Several tropical American
tree-like shrubs like Datura suaveolens are often cultivated in conservatories.
The seeds of D. fastuosa are used in India as a poison according to Gimlette,
and are commonly used on the Malay Peninsula. The D. alba is common in
India, about Madras, and D. atrox occurs on the coast of Malabar. The
Daturas are all important in India from the point of view of poisoning. The
seeds of D. alba are often mistaken and eaten for the seeds of Capsicum.
Datura Tatula L.. Purple Thorn-apple or Purple Stramonium
A glabrous annual from a few inches to 5 feet high; stem purplish; leaves
thin, ovate, acute or acuminate; flowers consisting of a 5-toothed calyx and a
5-lobed funnel-form corolla, with stamens included; filiform filaments inserted
below the middle of the corolla tube; capsule globular, prickly, 4-valved and
2-celled.
Distribution. Abundant in fields and waste places from New England to
730 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Ontario to North Dakota, Nebraska, Texas, and Florida, naturalized from
tropical America.
Poisonous properties, The poisonous alkaloids found in this plant are:
atropin C,,H,,NO,, hyoscyamin, and hyoscin. The daturin is a mixture of
hyoscyamin and atropin.
Professor Chesnut, in his work on the Poisonous Plants of the United
States, referring to the jimson weed, says:
The poisonous alkaloids, atropin and hyoscyamin, the active constituents of belladonna are
found also in both of the jimson weeds. Hyoscyamin is the poison of the henbane and as it
is identical in its physiological action with atropin, the above-named plants present the same
symptoms of poisoning, which must be met in the same manner. ‘The alkaloids exist in all
parts of the two daturas. The seeds are especially poisonous.
Fig. 426. Jimson Weed (Datura Stamoni-
um). a, leaf and flowers; b, fruiting capsule.
Cases of poisoning arise in adults from excessive use of a stimulant or a medicine.
Children are sometimes tempted to eat the fruit, if they are permitted to play where the weed
is to be found. Several cases of this kind were reported to the Department during the fall of
1897. At Alpena, Michigan, five children were badly poisoned in August by eating the seeds
of the purple-flowered species, which was cultivated in a garden as a curiosity under the fanci-
ful trade name of ‘‘Night-blooming Cactus.” In Sept. a boy was killed in New York by eating
the seeds of a jimson weed, which was permitted to grow in a vacant lot; his brother poisoned
at the same time was saved only with difficulty. In October two other cases occurred in New
York. Four children were playing in one of the public parks of the city where jimson weeds
were growing luxuriantly. The boys imagined themselves Indians and roamed about and ate
parts of various plants. ‘Three of them ate the seeds of the jimson weed. One died in a state
of wild delirium; another was saved after heroic treatment with chloral hydrate and morphine;
SOLANACEAE — JIMSON WEED 731
the third, who ate but few of the seeds, was but little affected. Children are also poisoned by
sucking the flower, or playing with it in the mouth. The fresh green leaves and also the root
have occasionally been cooked by mistake for other wild edible plants. One or two instances
are recorded in which cattle have been poisoned by eating the leaves of young plants which
were present in grass hay, but these animals generally either avoid the plants or are very
resistant to its poison.
The symptoms of the poisoning are about the same in all cases, those characteristic of la-zé
doses being headache, vertigo, nausea, extreme thirst, dry, burning skin, and general nervous
confusion, with dilated pupils, loss of sight and of voluntary motion, and sometimes mania,
couvulsions, and death. In smaller amounts the effects are like those of the ordinary nar-
covics. As vomiting is not a common symptom, the contents of the stomach must be quickly
removed by the use of the stomach tube or emetics. It is well then to wash out that organ
thoroughly with strong tea, tannic acid, or an infusion of oak bark, and to administer stim-
ulants, such as brandy and hot, strong coffee. Pilocarpin is recommended by physicians to
counteract the drying effect upon the secretions (licorice is very useful), and prolonged artifi-
cial respiration must often be resorted to to maintain the xration of the blood.
As nothing has been said in regard to the atropin which is found in the
jimson weed, it might be said that the commercial atropin is derived from the
root of belladonna and when used externally it is a local anodyne. Dilute
solutions of a:ropin paralyze and stop the corpuscular movement in the blood
and large doses give rise to slowing of the pulse. In poisoning it causes a
paralysis wf the vascular motor centers and stimulates the brain; ‘arge
doses produce restlessness and excitement and delirium in man and occasionally
delirium in lower animals. With reference to the spinal cord, large doses
cause complete loss of motion. Its action upon the nerves is very important
and on this depends much of the value of the drug. Dr. Winslow says:
The peripheral motor nerve terminations, and to a less extent, their trunks, are de-
pressed and paralyzed. This is never so complete, however, but that there is some voluntary
power left in an animal fatally poisoned.
Dryness of the mouth is one of the first symptoms following the use of
belladonna because of the paralysis of the peripheral terminations of the |
secretory nerve. The involuntary nerves are not affected by moderate doses
of belladonna. The motor nerves ending in the voluntary muscles are paralyzed
by poisonous doses of belladonna. Small doses do not affect the respiration,
large doses make it quicker and deeper. Fatal doses cause asphyxia. Moderate
doses cause a rise of temperature, but fatal doses lessen the bodily heat. Dr.
Winslow gives the following summary of the action of the drug:
It will be observed that belladonna, generally speaking, first stimulates and then depresses
the nerve centres, while it chiefly paralyzes the motor nerve terminations, including the mbhibi-
tory (vagus and splanchnic), the secretory (Chorda tympani, etc.), and, to a less extent, the
sensory nerves. Secondary depression of the cerebrum is not so profound as that of the
great medullary centres, especially the respiratory centre, and there is sometimes a slight and
brief stimulation of the motor nerves of the smooth muscles, viz., vagus, splanchnic, and paos-
sibly vaso-motor nerves.
Full medicinal doses depress the peripheral filaments of the inhibitory and secretory nerves,
and those of the unstriped muscles, lessen the functional activity of the voluntary motor sys-
tem, and, to a less degree, that of the afferent nerves. The pulse becomes quickened because
of paralysis of the peripheral vagus endings and stimulation of the heart or its ganglia; the
blood tension is augmented because of the increased cardiac action and stimulation of the
vasomotor centers; and the respiration is accelerated because of excitation of the respiratory
centers. The temperature is elevated owing to the circulatory exaltation and stimulation cf the
heat-producing centers. Slight delirium may be present from the exciting action of the drug
upon the cerebral motor centers.
The spinal cord is unaffected by therapeutic doses. Locally applied, belladonna is a
direct paralyzant to nerves, muscles, vessels and cells.
Toxic doses of belladonna cause in animals dryness of the mouth, increased frequency of
the pulse and respiration, elevation of temperature, dilation of the pupil and partial blindness.
restlessness, nervousness, delirium, twitching of the muscles (occasionally erythema), and
%32 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
frequent micturition. These symptoms are succeeded, in fatal poisoning, by fall of tempera-
ture, retention of urine, muscular weakness, staggering gait, partial anesthesia, convulsions
and paralysis (one preponderating over the other), weak, slow, irregular respiration, feeble,
rapid pulse, paralysis of the sphincters, stupor and death. Death occurs mainly from asphyxia,
but is due in part to cardiac failure. The physiological test consists in placing a drop of
urine (secreted by the poisoned animal) into the eye of a healthy animal, when mydriasis
should follow if the case be one of belladonna poisoning. Three-quarters of a grain of
atropin under the skin has proved fatal to dogs. ‘Two grains of atropin produce mild toxic
symptoms in the horse. Small dogs are slightly poisoned by gr. 1-80 of atropin; medium sized
dogs by gr. 1-60, given hypodermatically. Cattle are as susceptible as horses, although her-
bivora are not so easily influenced as carnivora. The pulse in dogs is greatly accelerated,
sometimes as high as 400, while the pulse rate of the horse is not generally more than doubled.
Rodents, as guinea pigs and rabbits, and pigeons, are particularly insusceptible to belladonna,
in regard to its effect upon the pupil, circulation, etc.
The treatment for poisoning includes the use of the stomach pump, emetics, cardiac stim-
ulants, and pilocarpin under the skin. Also external heat, general faradism and artificial
respiration.
Daiura Stramonium L. Jamestown or Jimson Weed
Much like the last; an annual; glabrous or the young stem somewhat
pubescent, stout and green; branches and leaves sparingly pubescent; leaves
thin ovate, sinuate toothed or angled; calyx less than % the length of the
corolla; corolla white, 3 inches long, the border 5-toothed; capsule ovoid,
prickly, the lower prickles mostly shorter,
Distribution. Nova Scotia, New England to Minnesota, Iowa, Nebraska,
Texas and Florida. Naturalized, native to tropical regions of the Old World,
probably Asia. De Candolle says that it is probably native to the borders of
the Caspian Sea.
Poisonous properties. The Datura Stramonium has been used in medicine
since the close of the sixteenth century. Earlier than this it was used by the
people of western Asia and eastern Europe. Miss Henkel describes the method
of collecting as follows:
The leaves are collected at the time of flowering, the entire plant being cut or pulled up
and the leaves stripped and dried in the shade. The unpleasant narcotic odor diminishes upon
drying. The leaves are poisonous, causing dilation of the pupil of the eye, and are used prin-
cipally in asthma.
All three species of Datura are poisonous, the seeds being especially poison-
ous. Dr. Halsted records a case of poisoning of a boy five years old in New-
ark, New Jersey, who ate freely of a half grown capsule of this species and
died the next morning. The seeds of D. Stramonium are known to have
poisoned a child in eastern Iowa. ‘They contain hyoscyamin, atropin and
scopolamin. In some analyses, as much as 0.33 per cent of the alkaloid atropin
has been found in the seeds, and about 0.2 per cent in the leaves.
Datura Metel L. Thorn Apple
A clammy pubescent annual 3-4 feet high, leaves ovate, entire or obscurely
angular toothed, rounded at the base; flowers large, white, calyx about % as
long as the corolla; capsule globose prickly.
Distribution. Native to tropical America. Naturalized from New England
to Florida and westward, ;
Patura meteloides DC. Wright’s Datura
A spiny pubescent annual, pale in color, leaves obovate entire; flowers large
showy, white or pale violet, sweet scented; corolla with a 5-toothed border;
capsule nodding spiny.
Poisonous properties. The writer a few years ago saw a notice in a local
ae, geen
SOLANACEAE — WRIGHT’S DATURA 733
paper of a child being poisoned by sucking the nectar of a flower of Wright’s
Datura. Professor Chesnut, in speaking of the poisonous properties of the
same species, says:
Datura meteloides is a very large-flowered species, which is native from southern Califor-
nia to Texas, and in some localities is common in cultivaton. No cases of poisoning have yet
been recorded against it, but it is largely used as an intoxicant by Indians, and is used in gen-
eral for the same purposes as jimson weed. It undoubtedly contains the same poisons,
7. Lycium L. Matrimony Vine
Shrubs or woody vines, often spiny; leaves small, entire, alternate, with
smaller ones between; calyx 3-5 toothed or cleft, persistent, corolla funnel-
form or salver-shaped, usually 5-lobed, the lobes imbricated; stamens 5 rarely
4; anthers opening lengthwise; style slender; stigma capitate; ovary 2-celled;
berry globose, ovoid or oblong.
About 75 species of wide distribution.
Lycium halimifolium Mill. Common Matrimony Vine
A glabrous, spiny, or unarmed shrub; slender climbing or trailing stem;
leaves lanceolate, oblong or spatulate; petioles short; peduncles filiform; calyx
lobes ovate; corolla short, funnel-form; greenish-purple stamens slightly ex-
serted; berry oval; orange red.
Distribution. In thickets and waste places, escaped from gardens from
Canada to Texas. Introduced from Europe,
Poisonous properties. Supposed to be poisonous.
SCROPHULARIACEAE, Figwort Family
Mostly herbs, shrubs or rarely trees; leaves without stipules; flowers per-
fect, regular or irregular; calyx 4-5 toothed, cleft or divided; corolla irregular
2-lipped or nearly regular; stamens 2-5, didynamous or nearly equal, inserted
on the corolla; pistil 1, 2-celled, many ovuled; fruit a capsule; seeds numerous,
with a small embryo in copious albumen.
About 2500 species of wide distribution. Few plants of the family are
of economic importance. Several species are medicinal. The most important
are foxglove (Digitalis purpurea); mullein (Verbascum Thapsus), used as a
stimulant because of its mucilaginous properties, and speedwell or Culver’s root or
Culver’s physic (Veronica virginica), used for digestive disorders, when
fresh being a violent emetic-cathartic and containing a glucoside leptandrin.
Several species of the order are cultivated for ornamental purposes. The
Paulownia tomentosa, native to Japan, is hardy in the south. The foxglove is
also much cultivated. Several species of monkey flowers (Mimulus luteus) and
musk flower (M. moschatus) are cultivated. The best known of all is the
snap dragon (Antirrhinum majus), native to Europe. The genus Calceolaria,
of which there are numerous species, is native to Chili and other parts of
South America, and is cultivated. The C. crenatiflora is a showy herbaceous
plant cultivated for its pretty slipper-shaped, sac-like flowers. ‘The Maurandias
are Mexican climbers with heart-shaped or halberd-shaped leaves and open-
mouthed, somewhat bell-shaped, purple, rose-colored or violet corollas. The
Torenia asiatica, native to Asia, is cultivated for its handsome pale violet or
purple flowers. The turtle-head (Chelone glabra) is occasionally cultivated and
has large, white or rose-tinted corollas that are very pretty. The beard-tongue
(Penstemon) contains many species, found mostly in western America and
Mexico, the most beautiful of our western species being P. grandiflorus, with
734 - MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
large, lilac-purple flowers collected in ample racemes. Many of the Rocky
Mountain forms are handsome perennials. The Mexican Russellia juncea is a
showy bedding and greenhouse plant with carmine flowers and leaves reduced
to scales. The painted cup (Castilleia coccinea) is a pretty species, native of
the northern states. The roots of most species are parasitic. ‘The common
lousewort (Pedicularis canadensis) is an early spring blooming plant of north-
ern prairies. P. groenlandica of Europe, is found in the colder regions of
North America also and has handsome purple flowers borne in spikes. The
flowers of Lyperia atropurpurea or Cape Saffron resemble true saffron very
greatly in odor, taste and drying qualities.
Vanquelin isolated the glucoside gratiolin C,,H,,O,, from Gratiola of-
ficinalis. ‘This species is poisonous to stock; strong medicinal doses are poison-
ous to man as well. Some species, according to Maiden, are often poisonous to
stock in Australia. The cow wheat of Europe (Melampyrum arvense) causes
colic and sleepiness.
Genera of Scrophulariaceae
Flowers regular or nearly so.
Blowers smacemose, stamens Ses. :sce¢h.d ean bene horas eae 1. Verbascum
Flowers axillary or racemose, stamens 2.................ee05: 2. Veronica
Flowers irregular.
Stamens 4 not in pairs,
Corollaivepurre dd )0/. stick cds ailsieya stab slaucyete ale teve. 4s chet ches tees ee eer
Corolla not spurred.
1510151 5 AeA aL Op aie ERP ROOM CIRA aE OG yA emg a 3. Digitalis
Tee SHAME ies Ne LAS rch gk oh Ne a ean cay el ae 4. Gerardia
Stamens? sir) MaAes ssh so se soww le dhe sos eha Biche we Salar Pe A tioes tat OL ole SIO ala
1. Verbascum (Tourn.) L. Mullein
Biennial or perennial, generally tall herbs with alternate leaves; flowers in
spikes, racemes or panicles; calyx 5-parted; corolla flat with 5 broad rounded
or slightly unequal divisions; stamens 5, inserted on the base of the corolla,
unequal; filaments of all of the stamens woolly or only the 3 upper; style
flattened at the apex; fruit a capsule, 2-valved; seeds rough.
About 125 Old World species. Several naturalized in North America.
Verbascum Thapsus 1, Common Mullein
A tall, densely woolly annual from 2-6 feet high; leaves oblong, thick,
covered with branched hairs, the basal leaves margined petioled; flowers in
long dense spikes; corolla rotate, yellow or rarely white; stamens unequal, the
3 upper shorter, woolly with short anthers; the 2 lower smooth with large
anthers.
Distribution. From Nova Scotia north across the continent; south to
Missouri and Kansas and west to Utah.
Verbascum Blattaria I, Moth Mullein
Stem round, sparingly branched, biennial with smooth leaves, the lower
petioled, oblong, ovate, lanceolate, laciniate, serrate, upper clasping; flowers in
loose racemes, yellow or white with a tinge of purple; all the stamens bearded
with violet hairs; capsule nearly globose; numerous seeds.
Distribution. Common eastward, rarely in the Mississippi Valley. Abund-
ant in the west in Salt Lake basin.
SCROPHULARIACEAE — FIGWORT FAMILY 735
Poisonous properties. The common mullein produces an irritation but is
probably not very poisonous to stock.
2. Linaria (Tourn.) Hill. Toad Flax
Herbs or shrubs, with alternate leaves, or those of the sterile shoots op-
posite or whorled; flowers in racemes or spikes; calyx 5-parted; corolla per-
Fig. 428. Toad flax (Lina-
Fig. 427. Verbascum Thapsus. (From John- ria vulgaris). a, seed. Re-
son’s Medical Botany of N. A.). garded with suspicion, (Selby).
sonate and with a spur at the base; the upper lip erect, 2-lobed, the lower 3-
lobed; stamens 4, didynamous, not exserted; fruit a capsule, opening by 1 or
more holes in the top; seeds small, numerous.
About 150 species of wide distribution. One native species in the northern
states.
Linaria vulgaris Hill. Ramsted. Butter and Eggs.
A pale green perennial with erect, leafy globose or sparingly pubescent
stem; leaves sessile, entire, upper, at least, alternate; flowers in dense racemes;
calyx segment oblong, spur subulate; corolla orange color, nearly erect, 1 inch long,
spur subulate, nearly as long as the body of the corolla.
Distribution. Native to Europe. In fields and waste places from Nova
Scotia to Kansas, North to Manitoba.
Poisonous properties. It is regarded with suspicion. ‘The plant has a very
disagreeable odor. A glucoside linariin C,,H,.O,, has been isolated.
Veronica peregrina I, Purslane Speedwell, Neckweed
Glabrous, glandular, or nearly smooth, branching annual, 4-9 inches high;
736 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
leaves petioled, upper oblong, linear and entire; floral leaves like those of the
stem but reduced; flowers axillary and solitary, white; capsule orbicular.
Distribution. A common weed in fields in eastern North America from
Nova Scotia to Florida, Missouri, Kansas, Texas, British Columbia and Cal-
ifornia. Also found in Mexico, South America and in Europe, almost cos-
mopolitan.
Veronica virginica I, Culver’s Root. Culver’s Physic
A tall, smooth, or occasionally somewhat hairy perennial, simple stem;
leaves lanceolate pointed in whorls finely serrate; flowers in panicled spikes,
small nearly white, salverform, tube longer than the calyx; stamens 2, exserted;
pistil 1, style 1; fruit a capsule, oblong-ovate.
Distribution. From western New England to Minnesota, Manitoba to
Nebraska and Kansas.
Poisonous properties, The V. peregrina has been reported as poisonous.
The root of V. virginica contains leptandrin. It is a violent emetic, cathartic,
and, according to Johnson, cannot be used with safety in medicine.
3. Digitalis lL. Foxglove
Tall herbs, leaves alternate; large purple yellowish or white flowers borne
on l-sided racemes; calyx 5-parted; corolla irregular; tube contracted, upper
lip 2-cleft, lower lip 3-lobed, middle largest; stamens 4 didynamous; style slen-
der; fruit a capsule; seeds numerous, roughened. About 20 species in Asia
and Europe.
Digitalis purpurea lL, Purple Foxglove
Biennial or annual pubescent herb with stout stem; lower leaves ovate or
ovate-lanceolate, slender petioled, upper leaves smaller, sessile; flowers borne
in long drooping racemes; corolla spotted.
Distribution. Native to Europe but widely naturalized in the Pacific North-
west.
Poisonous properties. The plant has long been used in medicine. For this
purpose the leaves of the second year’s growth are collected. The active con-
stituents are such glucosides as digitoxin, C,,H,,O,,. The most poisonous are
active, digitalin, C,,H,,O,,, digitalein, an amorphous bitter substance soluble in
water, digitonin, C,,H,,O,,+H,O and digitophyllin C,,H,,O,,. The leaves
also contain luteolin which occurs in mignonette.
In large doses digitalis is a gastro-intestinal irritant and in poisoning causes
nausea. It causes the pulse to become slower, fuller and stronger and more
regular. It causes stimulation of the heart muscles. In poisonous doses it is
rapid, weak and irregular. The respiratory centers are unaffected except by
toxic doses. The temperature is reduced by toxic doses. Dr. Winslow, in
speaking of the cumulative action of digitalis and the toxic action, says:
Digitalis and strychnin are said to be cumulative in their action. Evidence is stronger in
the case of the former drug than in that of the latter. By cumulative action is meant sudden
transition from a therapeutic to a toxic effect. This may be due to three causes. 1. Tardy
absorption. 2. Increasing susceptibility. 3. Delayed elimination and accumulation of the
drug in the system. The cumulative action of digitalis is chiefly due to the latter cause. It
should never be administered in full medicinal doses uninterruptedly for any considerable
length of time.
Toxicology.—Poisoning may occur from large single doses within 3 to 10 hours of their
ingestion, and last for 16 or more hours with a fatal result; or may appear suddenly after the
administration for several days of large medicinal doses (cumulative action). A minimum
fatal dose for the horse is about 2 vi. of digitalis, or gr. i. ss. of Homolle’s digitalin. For dogs,
on
SCROPHULARIACEAE — FIGWORT FAMILY 737
3 i. of digitalis, or gr. % of digitalin. The symptoms exhibited are chiefly concerned with the
digestion and circulation. ‘They consist in dulness, lassitude, loss of appetite, nausea, flatulence,
diarrhoea, infrequent, full pulse (reduced 6-10 beats in the horse), and contracted pupils.
There is vomiting in dogs. In fatal cases these symptoms are followed by severe colic and
tympanites; rapid, feeble, dicrotic, irregular or intermittent pulse (120-140 in horses), while
the heart may be heard and felt beating wildly and strongly, and a systolic blowing murmur
can frequently be detected. This is due to mitral or tricuspid regurgitation caused by ir-
regular contraction of the columnz carnz. The pulse is imperceptible because of the failure
of the heart to fill the vessels. The extremities are cold, the eye is protruding, and salivation
occurs. Bloody diarrhoea is very often present and the urine may be suppressed. The breath-
ing finally becomes difficult and death ensues within a few hours, or as late as several days.
Treatment.—Evacuation of the stomach and bowels. 'Tannic acid, as a chemical antidote,
alcohol, opium, and aconite, which is the physiological antagonist in depressing the action of
the heart and lowering blood tension. In addition, external heat should be applied and com-
plete quiet and rest secured.
Fig. 429. Digitalis purpurea. Flowering branch-diminished.
Flower natural size. A well known medicinal and poisonous
plant. (From Vesque’s Traité de Botanique).
4. Gerardia (Plumier) L. Gerardia
Erect herbs or a few shrubs; leaves generally opposite and sessile or the
upper alternate; flowers showy purple or yellow; calyx bell-shaped, 4-toothed
or 5-lobed; corolla somewhat irregular, bell-shaped, 5-lobed, slightly 2-lipped;
stamens 4, somewhat unequal; filaments pubescent; capsule many seeded, About
40 species native to America.
738 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Gerardia tenuifolia Vahl. Slender Gerardia
A glabrous annual; leaves narrowly linear acute; calyx teeth very short
acute; corolla light purple spotted %4 inch long.
Distribution. In low grounds Quebec to Minnesota, Iowa, Kansas and
Louisiana.
Gerardia grandiflora Benth
A common pubescent annual or biennial 2-4 feet high; leaves ovate lance-
olate coarsely toothed or cut, the lower pinnatifid; pedicels shorter than the
calyx; calyx-lobes oblong or ovate; corolla longer than calyx-lobes.
Distribution. In dry woods Wisconsin, Minnesota to Texas and Tennessee.
Poisonous properties. "The first species said to be poisonous to sheep and
calves. Other species probably poisonous,
5. Pedicularis (Tourn.) L. Lousewort
. Perennial herbs with pinnately lobed or cleft or pinnatifid leaves; calyx
tubular; corolla 2-lipped, the upper lip arched, frequently beaked at the apex;
lower lip erect; stamens 4, under the upper lip, anthers transverse; capsule
generally oblique; several-seeded. About 125 species mostly in the Northern
Hemisphere.
Pedicularis canadensis I, Vousewort
Hairy simple stemmed plant from 6 inches-1 foot high; leaves scattered,
the lowest pinnately parted; flowers in short spikes; calyx split in front, oblique;
corolla greenish yellow and purple, upper lip of the corolla hooded, 2-toothed
under the apex.
Distribution. In woods and prairies from eastern Canada to Florida, to
Missouri and New Mexico, to Manitoba.
Pedicularis lanceolata Michx. Swamp Lousewort
An upright glabrous perennial from 1-3 feet high; leaves opposite and
alternate, lanceolate or linear-lanceolate, pinnately lobed, the lower petioled;
flowers in spikes; calyx 2-lobed, leafy-crested; corolla pale yellow, bearing a
short truncate beak, the lower lip nearly erect; capsule ovate, about as long as
the calyx.
Distribution. In swamps from Ontario to Connecticut, Virginia, Towa, —
Nebraska, Minnesota to Manitoba.
Poisonous properties. P. canadensis is said to be poisonous to sheep and
P. lanceolata is also suspected. Rocky Mountain species such as P. groenlandica,
P. racemosa and P. bracteosa, are frequently eaten by sheep without any ill
effects. Lehmann lists three European species as poisonous, the P. palustris,
P. sylvatica and P. sudetica. A decoction made from these European plants
is used to destroy animal parasites. In cattle these plants cause anemia,
Dr. Lindley, in speaking of the European species, says, “they are acrid but
are eaten by goats.” The European P. palustris was formerly officinal and is
much used in Europe as a domestic remedy. The glucoside, rhinanthin, is
found in the different species of the genus. It is identical with the material
found in the common Butter and Eggs (Linaria vulgaris) (C,,H,,0,,).
JIGNONIACEAR. Bignonia Family
Woody plants, trees, shrubs or woody climbers or some exotic herbs;
leaves opposite or rarely alternate; flowers mostly large and showy; calyx 2-
BIGNONIACEAE — BIGNONIA FAMILY 739
lipped, 5-cleft or entire; corolla tubular bell-shaped, 5-lobed, somewhat irreg-
ular; stamens inserted on the corolla; some of the stamens sterile or rudi-
mentary, inserted on the tube of the corolla, anther bearing 2 or 4; ovary
usually 2-celled; fruit a 2-valved capsule; seeds flat, winged; cotyledons broad
and flat.
About 500 species mostly tropical. The trumpet creeper (Tecoma radicans),
native from Pennsylvania to Minnesota and southward, produces large scarlet
or orange flowers, and is much cultivated as an ornamental plant. It contains
narcotic principles. 7. jasminoides, much cultivated in greenhouses for its
pretty white, pinkish or purple flowers, is a native of Brazil. Bignonia capreo-
lata, from Virginia to southern Illinois and southward, produces pretty orange
red flowers and is cultivated southward. B. venusta is a greenhouse plant
native to Brazil. The leaves of Caroba (Jacaranda procera) furnish a valuable
alterative. The Newbouldia laevis is used in dysentery.
Catalpa Scop. Catalpa
Trees or shrubs; leaves opposite or verticillate, simple, petioled; flower
large in terminal panicles; calyx deeply 2-lipped; corolla bell-shaped with
spreading margin; some stamens with fertile anthers 2, the others sterile or
rudimentary; capsule large and slender, 2-celled; seeds numerous, winged.
Seven species in Asia, North America and the West Indies.
Catalpa speciosa. Warder. Common Catalpa.
A large tree with thick bark; leaves large, heart-shaped, long, acuminate;
corolla 2 inches long, white and mottled; capsule thick with numerous seeds.
Distribution. The common hardy catalpa (C. speciosa), a native to the
United States from Illinois to Arkansas, is a tall tree largely planted for its
wood, which is used for posts, and railroad ties. It is hardy as far north as
northern Towa.
Catalpa bignonioides Walt.
Tree with thin bark, spreading branches; leaves strongly scented and broad-
ly ovate entire or 3-lobed acute or acuminate, deeply pubescent beneath; flow-
ers in panicles, white mottled with yellow and purple; corolla tube, bell-shaped,
the lower lobe entire; capsule rather thin walled, drooping.
Distribution. Commonly cultivated but less hardy than the preceding, native
to the Gulf States.
Poisonous properties. The odor coming from the fragrant flowers is poison-
ous and Dr. White in his Dermatitis Venenata states that the flowers are ir-
ritating to many persons. Dr. Millspaugh, also, says that it is considered
to be dangerous to inhale the odor of the flowers for a long time, which,
however, is probably not generally the case. The allied caroba (Jacaranda
procera) contains the bitter principle carobin. The glucoside, catalpin,
comes from the bark and pod of C. bignonioides. The Oroxylon indicum con-
tains oroxrylin C,,H,,O,(OH)..
PLANTAGINALES
This order contains but one family, the Plantaginaceae.
PLANTAGINACEAE Lindl. Plantain Family.
Mostly stemless herbs; leaves, in species with stems, opposite or alternate;
flowers small, perfect, polygamous or monoecious; calyx 4-parted, persistent;
740 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
corolla 4-lobed, hypogynous; stamens 4 or 2 or only 1, inserted on the throat
or tube of the corolla; ovary 1-2 celled, or falsely 3-4-celled, sessile; ovule 1,
several ovules in each cavity; fruit a pyxis, circumscissile, at or below the
middle or a nutlet.
3 genera, 2 native to North America, and more than 200 species, of wide
distribution. None of the plants are of any economic importance. The seeds
of several species (Plantago major and Plantago Rugelit) are used to feed
birds. The P. ovata is used in France as a salad. The seeds of P. arenaria
of Europe and P. indica are used for sizing in the manufacture of muslin. All
of the seeds of the genus have a mucilaginous testa.
Fig. 430. Hardy Catalpa (Catalpa speciosa). 1, Panicle of flowers.
2, Longitudinal section of flower. 3, Single fruit. 4, Seed. 5, Longi-
tuinal section of seed. All one-half natural size. (M. M. Cheney in
Green’s Forestry in Minnesota).
RUBIALES
Leaves opposite or whorled; flowers with gamopetalous corolla, separate
anthers; stamens as many as the lobes of the corolla and alternate with them
RUBIALES 741
or occasionally fewer or twice as many; ovary compound, adnate to the calyx
tube; ovules one or two in each cavity of the ovary. The important families
are Rubiaceae, containing cinchona coffee, asperula, and galium; Adoxaceae
containing a single genus Adoxa the Musk-root, A, Moschatellina; Valerian-
aceae containing the corn salad (Valerianella olitoria, and Valeriana officinalis),
native to Europe and North America, the roots of which are used in medicine;
Dipsaceae, containing fuller’s teasel (Dipsacus fullonum), whose rigid chaff
hooked at the end is used for carding woolen cloth, and scabious (Scabiosa
maritima) frequently cultivated for ornamental purposes; and Caprifoliaceae.
Families of Rubiales
Herbs or shrubs; flowers regular; leaves with stipules. Rubiaceae.
Herbs or shrubs; flowers regular or irregular; leaves without stipules.
Caprifoliaceae.
Fig. 431. Teasel (Dipsacus sylves-
tris). A common American weed al-
lied to Fuller’s Teasel. (Millspaugh-
Selby).
RuBIACEAE B. Juss. Madder Family.
Herbs, shrubs or trees, with simple opposite leaves connected by stipules,
or the leaves sometimes in whorls without stipules; calyx tube adnate to the
ovary; flowers regular and perfect, often dimorphic; corolla funnel-shaped,
club-shaped, bell-shaped or rotate, 4-5 lobed; stamens as many as the lobes of
the corolla and alternate with them; pistil with a simple or lobed style; ovary
1-10 celled; ovules one to many in a large cell; fruit various, capsule, berry or
drupe; seeds small or large, the coat thin or hard; endosperm fleshy or horny.
A large order, chiefly tropical, consisting of about 350 genera and 5000
species. Only a few of them found in northern United States. Some species
are abundant in southern United States, a few being weedy. Cinchona or
Peruvian Bark, from which quinine is derived, is found in several species of the
genus Cinchona, a tree with evergreen leaves. Quinine is derived chiefly from
Chincona officinalis, which is a native of South America; C. lancifolia is native
to Peru. The Cinchona is now, however, extensively cultivated in India. Its
use in fevers has been recognized since its earliest introduction from the wild
plants gathered in the Andes Mountains by the Indians. The Red cinchona is
obtained from C. succirubra and Calisaya bark from C. Ledgeriana.
742 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Cinchona contains a large number of alkaloids of which the following are
more important: Cinchonin, C,,H,,N,O, quinamin, C,,H,,N,O,, quinin,
Ci Ft NO: hydroquinin, C, Hg N.Oe aricin, C, eNO Another alka-
loid belonging to this group is disinchomn, C,,H,,N,O,. Javanin,
Ci stlsgN Os occurs in Calisaya bark. The Cuprea bark (Remijia pedunculata)
from the U.S. of Colombia is also used in the manufacture of quinine and
contains cinchonanin, C,,H,,N,O. The partridge berry (Mitchella repens)
is a tonic. Gambier (Uncaria) of the East Indies is used for tanning. The
root of ipecac (Psychotria Ipecacuanha) of Brazil is a systemic emetic used
as a remedy in dysentery and contains emetin, C,.H,,N,O; and cephaélin,
C,,H,,NO,. Madder (Rubia tinctorum) of the Levant and Southern Europe
is used for dyeing and contains a red coloring matter, alizarin, The Morinda
citrifolia contains a yellow coloring principle morindin. The cape jasmine’
(Gardenia jasminoides) also contains a yellow coloring resembling crocin.
Coffee obtained from the Coffea arabica and other species, contains the
chemical principle caffein C,H,,N,O,. This is the same as thein. This sub-
stance occurs in a large number of plants including cocoa (Theobroma Cacao),
cola (Cola acuminata), yopan (Ilex Cassine), maté (I. paraguensis), Sterculia
platanifolia, Paullinia Cupana.
Green seeds of Coffee arabica contain 1.22 per cent of caffein or thein
C,H,,N,O,, the young leaves of Chinese tea 2.12 per cent. Caffeidin
C,H,,N,O is obtained from caffein. Caffein causes the heart to beat more
Fig. 432. Cinchona (Chinchona lancifolia). A
native of Peru and one of the species furnishing
the Peruvian bark of commerce. (From Stras-
burger, Noll, Schenck and Schimper).
forcibly; it is a cerebral stimulant, producing wakefulness and restlessness; in
lower animals it produces excitement and mania. From a toxicological point it
is a spinal and muscle poison to the frog. In dogs and mammals it causes
restlessness, and in dogs it produces vomiting. The minimum fatal dose ac-
cording to Winslow is 1 gr. to 1 Ib. of live weight.
Fig. 433. Coffee-plant (Coffea arabica). Fruiting branch. Furnishing the cof-
fee berry of commerce. (After Faguet).
,
Fig. 434. Coffee-plant (Coffea arabica). 1, Flower-
ing branch. 2, Fruit. 3, Transverse section of fruit.
4. Seeds. (After Wossidlo).
744 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
The coffee plant is a small evergreen tree native to the tropical mountain
districts of Africa but now cultivated in all warm countries. It was introduced
into Arabia early in the 15th century or perhaps earlier. Brazil supplies a large
amount of coffee. Large amounts of coffee also come from Ceylon, Java and
the Celebes. It is also grown in Puerto Rico and Cuba. Its first introduction
is said to have occurred in the middle of the 16th century. The Mocha coffee
comes from southwestern Arabia.
The sweet-scented bedstraw (Galium triflorum) is used in making an aro-
matic drink, especially in German communities in this country. It contains
coumarin. In Europe the sweet woodruff (Asperula odorata) is used like
_G. triflorum and when added to wine, the drink is known as “Mai-trunk.”
Cephalanthus l. Button Bush
Shrubs or small trees; leaves opposite or verticillate; flowers in spherical
peduncled heads, white or yellow; calyx tube obpyramidal with 4 obtuse lobes;
corolla tubular 4toothed; stamens 4, inserted on the throat of the corolla;
ovary 2-celled ,ovules solitary in each cavity; style thread-like, stigma capitate;
fruit dry obpyramidal 1-2 seeded.
About 7 species native to America and Asia.
Cephalanthus occidentalis L. Button Bush
A shrub or small tree; leaves petioled ovate or lanceolate-oblong pointed,
opposite or whorled with small petioles; flowers borne in globular head; sessile
white; style longer than the corolla.
Distribution. In swamps and low grounds from Canada to Minnesota,
Texas and Florida.
Poisonous properties. The leaves contain a poisonous, bitter glucoside
cephalanthin C,,H,,O,. It has been used in medicine on account of its bitter
properties.
CAPRIFOLIACEAE Vent. Honeysuckle Family.
Shrubs, trees or vines, or rarely herbs, with opposite leaves; stipules absent
or present; flowers perfect, mostly cymose; calyx adnate to the ovary, 3-5
toothed or 3-5 lobed; the gamopetalous corolla with a 5-lobed limb or 2-
lipped; stamens 4-5, inserted on the tube of the corolla and alternate with its
lobes; ovary 2-5 celled; style slender; stigma capitate; fruit a berry, drupe or
pod; seeds with a membranous or hard coat.
About 275 species. Generally found in the northern hemisphere. The
plants of this order are of small economic importance. Several are used in
medicine, as the feverwort (Triosteum perfoliatum).
Many members of the order are used for ornamental purposes. The most
important are members of the genus Lonicera. Of the native species, the
trumpet honeysuckle (Lonicera sempervirens) is widely cultivated, also Sul-
livant’s honeysuckle (ZL. Sullivantii), Fraser’s honeysuckle, (L. flava), and
the western honeysuckle (L. involucrata). Some of the Loniceras are pos-
sibly poisonous. Of the European and Asiatic species, the L, tatarica, L.
japonica, L. fragrantissina and L, Periclymenum are cultivated. The elders
(Sambucus canadensis and SS. racemosa) are likewise cultivated in the North.
The former is often weedy. Several species of the snowberries, like the wolf-
berry (Symphoricarpos occidentalis) and the snowberry proper (.S, racemosus)
are native to the northern states. The Indian currant (S. orbiculatus) is some-
times weedy in Jowa and Missouri. Suckers used in Arkansas for making
CAPRIFOLIACEAE — HONEYSUCKLE FAMILY 745
baskets. The Linnaea borealis or twin-flower is native in the cool damp woods
of the North.
Several of the viburnums are cultivated. The hobblebush (V. alnifolium),
a native from Ontario and southward, is frequently cultivated in the East.
The cranberry-tree or guelder rose (V. Opulus) found along streams from
New Brunswick to northeastern Iowa, is cultivated both in its native and cul-
tivated forms. ‘The well-known snowball is a cultivated form of the cran-
berry tree. The fruit of this plant is used in the North. The root of horse
gentian (Triosteum perfoliatum) has a bitter taste and is used as a cathartic.
The flowers of the elder berry (Sambucus-canadensis) are sudorific. The bark
of Viburnum prunifolium, the black haw, is officinal, an antispasmodic, nervine
and an astringent. It is also used as an uterine sedative, contains viburnin,
oxalic acid; tannic acid, etc. The bark of V. Opulus is said to be antispasmodic.
Xylostein occurs in Lonicera Xylosteum. According to Greshoff the leaf of
Viburnum macrophyllum and of Symphoricarpos mollis contain saponin.
Genera of Caprifoliaceae
Blowers: in) compound, cymes’; corolla relates a...) se be Nan eue ke Sambucus
Flowers not in cymes, tubular to campanulate.
Brect; perennial ner bss i). vcs Gadi ite Qard Crees ees EA nate ee a eae Triosteum.
PPPS FURY R P07 ies foc tb wien dk i LG gs Wg HR vn EI OU a Symphoricarpos.
Triosteum 1, Worse Gentian. Feverwort
Coarse hairy perennial herbs with simple stems; leaves connate perfoliate
or sessile; flowers axillary perfect sessile; calyx tube ovoid with a 5-lobed limb,
persistent; corolla tubular, gibbous at the base, 5-lobed; stamens 5, anthers
linear; ovary 3-5 celled; ovule 1 in each cavity; style filiform; fruit a dry drupe
orange or red, enclosing 2-3 or rarely more 1 seeded nutlets, embryo minute.
Triosteum perfoliatum L. Feverwort. Wild Coffee
A soft hairy perennial 2-4 feet high; leaves oval, abruptly narrowed below,
downy beneath; flowers brownish purple, clustered; corolla purplish; fruit
orange in color.
Distribution. In rich woods New York to Minnesota, Kansas and Alabama.
Poisonous properties. Some species of the genus were used by the Indians
as a cure of fevers and early practitioners in this country used the root as an
emetic. In early days, the berries of this plant were used as a substitute for
coffee. The physiological action of the plant is to produce vomiting. It has
a bitter nauseous taste.
Sambucus (Tourn.) L. Elder
Shrubs, trees or occasionally herbs; leaves opposite, pinnate; flowers small
in compound cymes; calyx-lobes minute or obsolete; corolla rotate or somewhat
campanulate, regular with a 5-cleft wing; stamens 5, inserted at the base of
the corolla; stigmas 3; ovary 3-5-celled; ovules 1 in each cavity; fruit a berry-
like drupe with 3-5 1-seeded nutlets; endosperm fleshy.
About 20 species of wide distribution.
Sambucus canadensis 1, Common Elder
A shrub from 5-10 feet high, wood with large lenticels and large pith;
leaflets 5-11 ovate or oval acuminate or acute, short stalked, smooth above,
sharply serrate; flowers white.
746 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Distribution. From Canada to Manitoba, Kansas, Texas to Florida.
Poisonous properties. In regard to the poisonous properties Dr. Rusby says:
The common black elder or Sambucus canadensis L., a plant very common throughout the
entire eastern and central United States, and represented by other species, apparently with
similar properties, upon the Pacific Coast and in the old world, has dangerous properties which
have remained unrecognized, or, to say the least, very obscure, to the present time.
Of the last mentioned, Dr. Robert Christian reports in the Edinburgh Med-
ical and Surgical Journal, 1830, page 73, as follows:
Two boys in the vicinity of Edinburg encountered a clump of the S. Ebulus, and one of
them ate freely of the flowers, the other of the leaves. The boy who had eaten the leaves was
attacked with enteritis, the abdomen at length becoming so sore that it could scarcely be touched.
There was continuous vomiting, the matter containing blood. Odbstinate constipation ,existed
throughout. The boy was saved by vigorous treatment. The one who had eaten the flowers
suffered considerably, and for a considerable time, from vertigo with some headache, but the
symptoms were not very serious.
Dr. Christian observed that both the berries and the flowers were known
to kill fowls which fed upon them and that when berries were freely eaten
they often caused giddiness. He also quotes a report of a case of a woman who
dressed the shoots with vinegar and ate them as a salad, and who was promptly
seized with violent purging, forty times in two days, coma resulting on the
third day. Of our own species, S. canadensis, Dr. Johnson states that the bark
and the root are actively cathartic and hydragogue when freely used.. There
is little doubt that he refers in this instance to the bark and the root in the
green condition, since it is well-known that the properties become much less
active upon drying and keeping.
Our most direct evidence bearing upon the poisonous character of the elder-berry root
rests upon a case which occurred in the spring of 1894, at the Institution of Mercy, a Roman
Catholic institution for children at Tarrytown, on the Hudson, and which attracted a great
deal of attention at the time in the public press. The grounds of this institution were com-
paratively new, and ditching and fencing were still in progress at the time stated. A workman
in digging a drain, uncovered a large number of roots to which the children took a fancy and
which they began eating. Within a very few minutes, and while still engaged in eating, a
large number of the boys were seized with convulsions and several of them died. One of
them had the remainder of the root, the marks of his teeth upon it, still clutched in his hand
after death. ‘The symptoms correspond in most features to those of the Cicuta poisoning above
described and to that agent the accident was ascribed in the public press. Several months
later I visited the institution in company with Mr. Frederick V. Coville, the botanist of the
United States Department of Agriculture and Prof. Edward L. Greene, Professor of Botany,
in the Catholic University at Washington. At this time, and subsequently through corre-
spondence, a pretty thorough investigation of the case was made. We found that it was not a
locality where Cicuta would be apt to grow and no evidence existed that any had grown there.
Three poisonous plants grew upon the spot, viz., the locust, poke-berry and elder. ‘The work
man who had dug the drain, the surviving boys and the Sisters in attendance were positive
that it was the elder root which had occasioned the poisoning. ‘They did not know the name
of the plant, and had accepted the statements of the papers that it was Cicuta; but they pos-
itively identified it by its appearance and by the young purple shoots and compound leaves which
they had observed carefully while still attached to the pieces of root which had been taken from
the hands of the boys poisoned. ‘Their story was so clear, connected and positive that it was
difficult to doubt that the elder root was the poisoning agent. Furthermore the locust would
not have produced the symptoms that were observed. and the poke should have at once beer
distinguished by even a casual observer. Nevertheless, since the root was described as “‘like
a carrot or parsnip,’’ and since the symptoms in some respects resembled those of Pokeroot
poisoning, the question cannot be regarded as settled beyond a doubt. In the case of so large
a number of victims it is even possible that both of the roots were concerned. ‘The attending
physician, Dr. Luke Fleming, does not believe that the poisoning was caused by Elder. The
active constituent of the elder is not known farther than that a report has isolated coniin from
the twigs and leaves of the related European species, S. nigra. This would, of course, explain
the very similar symptoms to those of Cicuta poisoning. The chemistry of the plant is now
receiving thorough investigation in the division of pharmacology in the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture.
CAPRIFOLIACEAE — ELDER 747
In Part I attention was called to Treub’s theory in regard to the role of
hydrocyanic acid in plants. Prof. Treub in a recent paper! reiterates his former
conclusions that it performs some part in the products of assimilation, It was
found that the amount of hydrocyanic acid in plants of Sorghum increases during
the day because of its relation to the products of assimilation of carbon. It had
previously been shown in the case of Pangium edule and Phaseolus lunatus that
light plays no part in the formation of this substance, except as it favors photo-
synthesis. The same results have now been obtained with Prunus javanica,
Passiflora foetida, and some other plants. The results of the investigation with
these plants show a direct proportion between the formulation of hydrocyanic
acid and the function of the chlorophyll. The amount of acid is usually greatest
in the young leaves and gradually diminishes as the leaves grow older. Leaves
about to fall contain very little hydrocyanic acid. Sambucus nigra, according to
Guignard is one of the exceptions to the rule, and Treub has also found this to be
true for Indigofera galegoides. Hydrocyanic acid is probably the first recogniz-
able product of the assimilation of nitrogen “and perhaps the first organic nitro-
gen compound formed.” ‘The amounts of the acid in the plants could be increased
and decreased in proportion to the amount of nitrate used. Ravenna and Peli
think that the nitrates are necessary for the formation of the acid. Treub agrees
with this and adds that dextrose is especially essential. The acid probably
occurs in the form of a glucoside and is liberated by an enzyme or by boiling
water.
The investigations of Em. Bourquelot and Em. Danjon? with the glucosides
found in various plants show that they are not identical. In Satmbucus nigra
they find sambunigrin. They also studied the character of glucosides from
which hydrocyanic acid is derived in S. racemosa and S. Ebulus.
The flowers have long been used in domestic practice. The physiological
action recorded for the drug by Dr. Millspaugh are as follows:
Dr. Ubelacker’s experiments with from 20 to 50 drops of the tincture gave the following
symptoms of physical disturbance: Drawing in the head, with anxious dread; flushed and
blotched face; dryness and sensation of swelling of the mucous membranes of the mouth,
pharynx, and trachia; frequent and profuse flow of clear urine; heaviness and constriction of
the chest; palpitation of the heart; pulse rose to 100, and remained until perspiration ensues;
sharp, darting rheumatic pains in the hands and feet; exhaustion and profuse perspiration,
which relieved all the symptoms.
Prof. Hyams states that the young buds of the American elder are espe-
cially poisonous.
The European Sambucus nigra contains the alkaloid sambucin; according
to Sanctis the same plant contains coniin. Sambunigrin has also been isolated
and hydrocyanic acid is known to be present.
Symphoricarpos (Dill.) Ludwig. Snowberry
Low, branching shrubs; leaves oval, short petioled entire or wavy-toothed,
downy underneath; flowers white tinged with purple; calyx-tube nearly globular,
teeth short; corolla bell-shaped 4-5 lobed; stamens 4-5 inserted in corolla; ovary
4-celled, 2 with a fertile ovule; fruit a berry 4-celled and 2-seeded; embryo
minute,
About 10 species of North America. One species frequently cultivated for
ornamental purposes. The wolf-berry (S. occidentalis) northward is com-
1 Nouvelles recherches. Ann. Jard. Bot. Buitenzorg. II. 8:84-118. 1910. See R. Catlin
Rose, Bot. Gazette 50:156.
2 Soc. Biol. Paris. 7. July, 1905. 1. c. Oct. 9, 1905. Jour. de Pharm. et de Chimie, Aug.
16, and Sept. 1, 1905. Compt. rend. Acad. Sci. Paris, July 3, 1905.
748 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
mon in the Rocky Mountains and frequently cultivated. The snowberry (S.
Yacemosus) is common in rocky woods, and abundant along river course from
Minnesota to Arkansas and westward.
Symphoricarpos orbiculatus Moench. Indian Currant. Coralberry
A shrub 2-4 feet high, purplish, usually pubescent, branches; leaves oval or
ovate entire or undulate, nearly glabrous above, pubescent underneath; flowers
in short axillary clusters; corolla bell-shaped sparingly bearded, pinkish, stamens
included; fruit a purplish berry.
Distribution. Rocky woods and along streams; from New Jersey, Illinois,
Southern Iowa, South Dakota, Nebraska, Texas to Georgia.
Poisonous properties. It is suspected of being poisonous, but there is no
direct evidence to support this view.
CAMPANULATAE
Herbs or rarely shrubs; corolla gamopetalous; petals occasionally separate;
stamens as many as the lobes of the corolla; anthers united; ovary inferior.
It contains the families Cucurbitaceae, Candolleaceae (mostly Australian), and
Compositae, this last order including Cichoriaceae, Compositae and Ambrost-
aceae of some authors.
Families of Campanulatae
Herbs or rarely shrubs; flowers in an involucrate bead............ Compositae.
Flowers not in involucrate heads.
Flowers monoecious or dioecious, generally vines........... Cucurbitaceae.
Plowers per rect ietts vac reece Soeeine eae wane eek be ete Ree eae Lobeliaceae.
Fig. 435. Water melon (Citrullus vulgaris). (CW. S. Dudgeon).
CAMPANULATAE 749
CucurBitacEAE B. Juss. Gourd Family
Herbaceous vines, usually with tendrils; leaves alternate, petioled, palmately
lobed or dissected; flowers dioecious, monoecious or rarely perfect; calyx tube
adnate to the ovary, 5-lobed; petals usually 5, inserted on the limb of the calyx;
stamens 1-3, 2 of them with 2-celled anthers, the other with a 1-celled anther;
filaments short, frequently monadelphous; ovary 1-3-celled; stigmas 2 or 3;
fruit indehiscent or rarely dehiscent; seeds flat in the large embryo, exal-
buminous.
About 650 species, mainly in tropical regions. A few of the species are
medicinal. The squirting cucumber (Ecballium Elaterium) is a fleshy decum-
bent herb used for making elaterium, a powerful hydragogue cathartic and an
irritant poison. Its poisonous nature was known to Pliny. It contains elaterin,
C,,H,,0,- &. officinale contains prophetin, another glucoside. The colocynth
(Citrullus Colocynthis) a slender scabrous plant with perennial roots, is native
to the dry regions of the Old World, Palestine and North Africa. Its gourd
is about the size of an orange and used as a purgative, while the seeds are
roasted and boiled and used as food by some of the tribes of the Saharah.
Tea made from this fruit is used by the people of the Nile to smear their
water bags to prevent camels from cutting them. It contains colocynthin,
Fig. 436. Bryony (Bryonia dioica). A
a branch with flowers; b, female flowers;
c, male flowers; d, stamens; e, fruits; f,
section of fruit. (After Strasburger, Noll,
Schenck and Schimper).
750 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
C.,H,,,O,,- The plant is intensely bitter. The towel or sponge gourd (Luffa
aegyptiaca), a native of Egypt, produces a fruit one foot or more long, filled
with a spongy fiber, which when the outer part is removed is used to rub
the skin, and for many other domestic purposes. The fruits of many plants
of the family are economic. The nara (Acanthosicyos horrida) in Southern
Angola is used as food and has medicinal virtues. The chayote (Sechium
edule) is cultivated in the West Indies for its fruit. The green and ripe fruit
Fig. 437. Colocynth (Citrudlus
colocynithis). An intensely bitter
plant of economic importance. (Af-
ter Faguet).
of the cucumber (Cucumis sativus) native to India, has long been used for
food, especially for pickles, and the West Indian gherkin (C. Anguria) is also
cultivated for the same purpose. According to Greshoff the foliage of Cu-
cumis inetuliferus contains saponin. He also states that he found saponin in
the seeds of Lagenaria vulgaris, and Cucurbita maxima. The C. myriocarpus
contains the toxic alkaloid myriocarpin. ‘The musk melon (Cucumis Melo), a
native to British India, is now widely cultivated. Sugar and nutmeg melons
are well known everywhere in North America. The water melon (Citrullus
vulgaris), native to tropical Africa, where large areas of wild plants occur,
has long been cultivated in Mediterranean countries, and is well known every-
where in North and South America. The citron is a form of the water melon.
The common pumpkin (Cucurbita Pepo) is native to southwestern North
America, Arizona and Mexico. It is used for stock food and for culinary pur-
poses. The nest-egg gourd, bush scalloped squash, crookneck squash and com-
mon pumpkin are all from the same species. The seeds of pumpkin and squash
are used in North Africa and Egypt much as peanuts are in this country and
have taenifuge properties. The winter squash (C. maxima) is probably also of
CUCURBITACEAE — GOURD FAMILY 751
pisap bere Gras.
Fig. 439. Pistillate flower of cu-
cumber (Cucumis). a, sepal; b,
Fig. 438. Muskmelon (Cucumis Melo). petal; c, pistil; d, stigma; e, style;
Rape of a plant of the common melon. f, ovary. (Pieters, U. S. Dept.
(W. S$. Dudgeon). Agr.).
American origin. The hubbard squash is a well known representative of the
species and is used in various food preparations. Other species like cushaw
(C. moschata) are also cultivated. The Missouri gourd (C. foetidissima), with
a large root, sometimes a foot in diameter, occurs from Nebraska to Texas.
The wild cucumber or wild balsam apple (Echinocystis lobata) is frequently
ased as a climber and is sometimes weedy. The star cucumber (Sicyos an-
gulatus) is used in a similar way. The cocoon antidote, (Fevillea cordifolia),
a native of Jamaica, has seeds which are used as a cure for snake bites and as
an antidote against Entada scandens. They also contain an oil. The seeds of
Tefaria pedata, a native of the East coast of Africa and Zanzibar, contain an
excellent oil. The bryony of Europe (Bryonia dioica) is a climbing plant pro-
ducing a pretty colored fruit. It is a drastic purgative and is poisonous. It
contains the alkaloid bryonicin C,,H,,NO,, and the root of Bryonia alba con-
tains the glucoside bryonin C,,H,,O,,. Dr. Halsted states that a friend of
his has been repeatedly poisoned by handling the star cucumber (Sicyos angu-
lata). Friedberger and Frohner state that poisoning has occurred from Cucur-
bita Pepo, causing symptoms of dullness and in some cases the animals showed
excitement. Major Kirtikar says that the pulp of a cucurbitaceous plant of
India, Trichosanthes palmata, a perennial herb, is used in India to poison cattle,
and that the 7. cucumerina also of that country is an emetic and a drastic pur-
gative. Echinocystis macrocarpa, according to Trimble and Sayre contains a
glucoside. The marimbo or dipper gourd (Lagenaria vulgaris) yields gourds
which are edible when small.
LoBELIACEAE. Lobelia Family
Herbs with acrid milky juice; leaves alternate; flowers perfect, irregular,
5-lobed; gamopetalous corolla; stamens 5, free from the corolla, united into a
tube; stamens monadelphous and syngenesious; flowers proterandrous, the
stigma of the single style often fringed with hairs; fruit a capsule with numer-
ous small seeds; embryo minute and straight.
752 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
About 600 species of wide distribution, comparatively few in northern
United States. Some of the tropical species shrubby. Several species are
medicinal, among them Indian tobacco (Lobelia inflata). The Lobelia erinus
of the Cape of Good Hope is frequently cultivated in the conservatories and
in gardens. It has small azure blue flowers. It has escaped on the Pacific
Coast.
Lobelia (Plummer) L. Lobelia
Herbs or occasionally shrubs with alternate or radical leaves; flowers
racemose or spicate; calyx 5-cleft with a short tube; corolla irregular, with a
straight tube split down on one side, the upper lip of 2 erect lobes, the lower
lip spreading and 3 cleft; stamens 5, free from the corolla tube, monadelphous ;
two of the anthers or all of them bearded at the top; ovary 2-celled; fruit a
2-celled pod, many-seeded.
About 200 species, of wide distribution. Some 25 species native to the
United States.
Lobelia inflata l.. Indian tobacco
A pubescent or hirsute, much branched annual from 1-2 feet high; leaves
dentate or denticulate, the lower larger, the upper small, bract-like, but longer
than the pedicels of the flower; flowers pale blue; calyx tube ovoid; capsule
ovoid, inflated.
Distribution. In fields, especially clay soils, from Labrador to Georgia,
Tennessee, Arkansas, Kansas, Iowa to Northwest Territory.
Poisonous properties. It is used medicinally for laryngitis and spasmodic
asthma. In full doses it produces nausea, vomiting and great prostration; in
overdoses it produces prostration, stupor, coma, convulsions and death.
We quote from Dr. Millspaugh in regard to poisoning:
Thanks to much reckless prescribing by many so-called Botanic physicians, and to mur-
derous intent; as well as to experimentation and careful provings, the action of this drug is
pretty thoroughly known. Lobelia in large doses is a decided narcotic poison, producing ef-
fects on animals generally, bearing great similitude to somewhat smaller doses of tobacco- and
lobelina in like manner to nicotia. Its principal sphere of action seems to be upon the pneu-
mogastric nerve, and it is to the organs supplied by this nerve that its toxic symptoms are
mainly due, and its “physiological” cures of pertussis, spasmodic asthma, croup and gastralgia
gained. Its second action in importance is that of causing general muscular relaxation, and
under this it records its cures of strangulated hernia (by enemata), tetanic spasms, convul-
sions, hysteria, and mayhap, hydrophobia. Its third action is upon mucous surfaces and secre-
tory glands, increasing their secretions.
The prominent symptoms of its action are: great dejection, exhaustion, and mental depres-
sion, even to insensibility and loss of consciousness; nausea and vertigo; contraction of the
pupil; profuse clammy salivation; dryness and prickling in the throat; pressure in the cesophagus
with a sensation of vermicular motion, most strongly, however, in the larynx and epigastrium;
sensation as of a Iump in the throat; incessant and violent nausea, witn pain, heat, and op-
pression of the respiratory tract; vomiting, followed by great prostration; violent and painful
cardiac constriction; griping and drawing abdominal pains; increased urine, easily decomposing
and depositing much uric acid; violent racking paroxysmal cough with ropy expectoration;
small irregular slow pulse; general weakness and oppression, more marked in the thorax; vio-
lent spasmodic pains, with paralytic feeling, especially in the left arm; weariness of the limbs,
with cramps in the gastrocnemi; and sensation of chill and fever. Death is usually preceded
by insensibility and convulsions.
It contains lobelic acid, lobelacrin, inflatin and the alkaloid lobelin
C,,H,,NO, has been isolated which according to Lloyd is a powerful emetic.
Lobelia nicotianaefolia of India and L. purpurascens contain the same alkaloids.
According to the late Baron Ferdinand von Miiller the L. Breynii of Australia
and other species are poisonous.
LOBELIACEAE — LOBELIA FAMILY —LOBELIA 753
Lobelia siphilitica L. Great Lobelia
A somewhat hairy stout, perennial herb from 1-3 feet high; leaves thin,
acute or acuminate at the apex, dentate or crenate-dentate, sessile or the lower
petioled; flowers large, spicate, racemose, leafy bracts; calyx hirsute; corolla
bright blue or occasionally white.
Distribution. In moist soil near springs and in marshes from New Eng-
land to South Dakota, Kansas, Louisiana and Georgia.
Poisonous properties. It is suspected of being poisonous. Johnson in his
manual says of the action of the species of Lobelia:
In full doses lobelia produces severe nausea, obstinate vomiting, and great prostration.
In overdoses the prostration becomes extreme, there is failure of voluntary motion, followed
by stupor, coma, and not infrequently convulsions and death. Though formerly much used
for emetic effect by empirics, dangerous effects were so often produced that it is now seldom
employed in this manner. It is chiefly employed in spasmodic affections of the air-passages, as
spasmodic laryngitis and spasmodic asthma. In the latter disease it often produces the hap-
piest effects.
The great lobelia is probably not as poisonous as L. inflata to which the
above remarks chiefly apply.
Lobelia cardinalis L. Cardinal-flower
A tall smooth or slightly pubescent perennial 2-4 feet high; leaves thin,
oblong, lanceolate, smooth or slightly pubescent, crenulate; flowers racemose,
bright scarlet or red. :
Distribution. In moist soil, usually alluvial bottoms, from New Brunswick
to Manitoba, Kansas, Texas, to Florida.
Poisonous properties. Reported as poisonous,
Lobelia spicata Lam. Spiked Lobelia
A perennial or biennial, smooth or pubescent herb; leaves smooth or min-
utely pubescent; leaves thickish, the lower obovate or spatulate, the upper
linear or club-shaped bracts, entire or dentate or crenulate; flowers in a
racemose spike, pale blue; calyx tube short, obconical or nearly hemispherical.
Distribution. Prairies or dry sandy soil. From Nova Scotia to Manitoba,
Louisiana to North Carolina.
Poisonous properties. Reported as poisonous.
Compositag Adans. Thistle Family
Herbs or rarely shrubs; flowers borne in a close head on the receptacle,
surrounded by an involucre of a few or many bracts; anthers usually united
into a tube, syngenesious, sometimes caudate; calyx adnate to the ovary; limb
crowning the summit in the form of capillary or plumose bristles or chaff called
the pappus; corolla tubular or strap-shaped, when tubular, usually 5-lobed;
ligulate or bilabiate in one small division of the family; the flowers of a head
may be all alike when they are called homogamous; or of two kinds, heter-
ogamous; bracts or scales on the receptacle are often present; flowers inside
of the rays are disk flowers and a flower without rays is said to be discoid;
stamens 5 or rarely 4; style 2-cleft at the apex or in sterile flowers usually entire;
fruit a dry, indehiscent achenium containing a single seed without endosperm.
A large family consisting of 840 genera and 13,000 species, found in all
parts of the world. This is the largest order of flowering plants. Sometimes
it is divided into the families Cichoriaceae, Ambrosiaceae and Compositae,
A few of the plants of the family are medicinal. Inulin is obtained from
NI
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MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
MY, ll
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lig. 439a. Illustrating structure of Compositae. ‘Thistle
(Cirsium altissimum). 1, head; 2, leaf; 3, outer bracts of head;
4, inner bracts; 5, single flower; a, achene; b, pappus; c, tubu-
lar corolla with 5 lobes; d, anthers; e, style. 6, style enlarged
with two stigmas and pollen grains on style; 7, syngenesious
anthers cut lengthwise to show pollen grains and tailed appen- >
dages; 8, single pollen grain. (Charlotte M. King).
the Juula Helenium, native to Europe and occasionally naturalized in the north-
ern states. It is a mild tonic and contains inulin C,H. (0, helenin and a volatile
oil. The pellitory root (Anacyclus Pyrethrum) contains pyrethrin with a pungent
taste, which, according to Dunstan, is apparently identical with piperovatin C,,
H,,NO,, used for toothache; the flowers of Roman chamomile (Anthemis
nobilis) are used as a tonic and stomachic. However, German chamomile
(Matricaria Chamomilla) is sometimes substituted for the preceding and con-
tains anthemidin and a deep-blue volatile oil. Santonica, a species of worm-
wood, Artemisia Cina, contains santonin C,,H,,O,, and cinerol C,,H,,O,, is
COMPOSITAE — THISTLE FAMILY 755
found in the volatile oil, an’anthelmintic. Artemisia maritima, A. pontica, A.
Absuithium, A. biennis and A. Abrotanui are also used for the dislodgement of
worms. The latter contains the alkaloid abrotanin C,,H,,H,O. Sage brush
(Artemisia tridentata) and other species produce sneezing.
Wormwood (Artemisia Absinthium) is a stimulant and tonic; the volatile
oil produces cerebral disturbances and enters into the familiar composition of
absinthe, made by the French, and contains absinthin C,,H,,O,. Arnica root
(Arnica montana) native to arctic Asia and America, is used as a popular
remedy for chilblains and bruises and contains the bitter principle arnicin C,,
H,,0,. The tincture is liable to produce a form of dermatitis. | Dande-
lion root (Taraxacum officinale) is used as a mild laxative and tonic and con-
tains a bitter principle taravacin, and taraxacerin C,H,.O. Lactucarium, the
milky juice from several species of the genus Lactuca occurs in lettuce, in which
is also found Jaciucopicrin, a bitter acrid substance, and /actucol Cur ©,
Colt’s foot (Tussilago Farfara), a bitter astringent containing much mucilage,
is used for asthma. The costus (Saussurea Lappa) produces flowers with
thistle-like heads and large roots, the latter of which are used as a perfume
and an incense; according to Kraemer, it contains a ketone. The musk tree
(Olearia argophylla) of Tasmania, whose leaves emit a musk-like odor, grows
to a height of 20 feet and is often 1 foot in diameter. The wood takes a nice
polish. Other trees of the order are found in the genus Senecio (Senecio
Forsteri). ‘The genus Baccharis, found along the sea coast, is shrubby. The
B. cordifolia contains baccharin, an alkaloid poisonous to sheep. It is the
Mio Mio of South America.
The button snake root (Liatris spicata) has been used as a remedy for
snake bites, but it probably contains no antidotal properties whatever. Boneset
(Eupatorium perfoliatum) and other species much used in domestic medicines
for colds, and in large doses are emetic. They are tonics, emetics, cathartics,
and diaphoretics containing the bitter glucoside eupatorin. Horseweed (Eri-
geron canadensis) and other species are, used as tonics and astringents.
Golden-rod (Solidago odora) issased to relieve colic, and gumweed (Grin-
delia squarrosa) is beneficial ingtarrhal affections. It is said to contain an
alkaloid known as grindelin. _Madia oil is obtained from tarweed (Madia
sativa). The niger seed, the fruit of Guizotia abyssinica, is an important source
of oil in Abyssinia and India.
The root of the burdock (Arctium Lappa), used by the laity as a remedy
in skin diseases, contains a bitter glucoside, lappin. Chicory (Cichorium Intybus)
is used to increase the appetite and to aid digestion. Rattlesnake weed (Hiera-
cium venosum) is a popular antidote to the bites of poisonous snakes. Rattle-
snake root (Prenanthes alba) is used as a remedy for toothache. The ragweeds
(Ambrosia artemisiifolia and A. trifida) are stimulants and astringents, the
larger weed being also supposed to cause hay fever.
Dunbar has demonstrated that the producing cause of hay fever may be
pollen, and that pollen of all grasses, lillies of the valley, asters, and certain
other plants may produce an irritation similar to that accompanying hay fever.
He isolated an active principle which is believed to be a tox-albumin. A very
interesting account of his experiments is given by Rochussen in the twenty-sixth
volume of the Pharmaceutical Review.
According to Maiden, the Helichrysum apiculatum of Australia causes
death from irritation and from the formation of hair balls. The African mari-
756 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
gold is poisonous to stock and the may weed (Anthemis Cotula), when applied
to the surface, causes vesication. ‘The European prickly lettuce (Lactuce
virosa) contains a bitter principle, hyoscyamin; the prepared milky juice is
called Lactucarium. It is listed as poisonous by Lehmann; a small amount of
hyoscyamin also occurs in the cultivated lettuce.
The seeds of the sunflower (Helianthus annuus) are said to be diuretic.
The oil cake from these seeds is used as stock food. Sneeze weed (Helenium
autwmnale) is used by the Indians to produce sneezing; a decoction made from
it is used as a tonic. The mayweed (Anthemis Cotula) acts like chamomile,
and is used as a tonic and stimulant in colic; when applied to the skin, it
causes vesication. Yarrow (Achillea Millefolium), a stimulant and tonic, con-
tains achillein, C,,H,,.N,O,,. The oil of tansy (Tanacetum vulgare) is used
as an abortifacient, in many cases with fatal results. It contains the substance
thujone, found in Thuja occidentalis. This has commonly been called tanacetin
CEnOy and is identical with absinthol obtained from absinthium, and with
salviol from salvia. The Cnicus benedictus contains cnicin C,,H,,0,,.
Of the many cultivated plants of this order used for ornamental purposes,
the best known in the northern states are probably the bachelor’s button (Cen-
taurea Cyanus), a native of Europe, ageratum (Ageratum conyzoides), Chi-
nese aster (Callistephus hortensis), garden daisy (Bellis perennis), and dahlia
(Dahlia variabilis), native to Mexico, running into many varieties. The last
named produces thickened roots, that contain a great deal of inulin, C,H,,O,-
Among the species of the order which are common in the gardens are the zinnia
(Zinnia elegans), golden glow (Rudbeckia laciniata), sunflower (Helianthus an-
nuus), coreopsis (Coreopsis tinctoria), gaillardia (Gaillardia pulchella), dusty
miller or cineraria (Senecio Cineraria), common cineraria (S. cruentus) from
the Teneriffe, and the purple ragwort (S. elegans) from the Cape of Good
Hope, yarrow (Achillea Ptarmica), whiteweed (Chrysanthemum Parthenium),
several species of the genus chrysanthemum from Japan (C. sinense and C.
indicum), Marguerite (C. frutescens) and summer chrysanthemum (C. coro-
nariunt), marigold (Tagetes erecta), the pot marigold (Calendula. officinalis),
cosmos (Cosmos bipinnatus) of Mexico. The marigold (Calendula officinalis)
cultivated in country gardens contains calendulin C,H,,O,.
Of the economic plants, the following are the more important: the culti-
vated lettuce (Lactuca sativa), probably native to Asia, slightly narcotic,
comprising many varieties; the safflower or saffron (Carthamus tinctorius),
native to Egypt, used for dyeing; marigold flowers (Calendula officinalis)
sometimes used as an adulterant for saffron; wormwood (Artemisia Absinth-
ium), used for making absinthe; tarragon (Artemisia Dracunculus) used as a
pot-herb and in making vinegar, a native of Asia, but cultivated now in Hol-
land and England; the Jerusalem artichoke (Helianthus tuberosus), with thick-
ened roots, cultivated as food for hogs and stock, native to North America; the
great sunflower (Helianthus annuus), the seeds of which are eaten in Russia,
and from which an oil is obtained; the chicory (Cichorum Intybus) ; the bur-
dock (Arctium minus), cultivated for its thick root which is sometimes dried
and mixed with coffee and also used as a forage plant; the endive (Cichorum
endivia) cultivated as a winter salad plant; the cardoon (Cynara Cardunculus),
also known as the European artichoke, used as a vegetable, the thickened
scales being used as food; salsify (Tragopogon porrifolius) a vegetable, and
the dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) used like lettuce.
COMPOSITAE — THISTLE FAMILY LOT
The Compositae are divided into two sub-families: the Tubuliflorae with
corolla tubular in all the perfect flowers, 5-lobed, rarely 3-4-lobed, ligulate only
in the marginal flowers, called the ray flowers, which are absent in some species ;
the Liguliflorae with corolla ligulate in all the flowers of the head and all the
flowers perfect; herbs with milky juices and alternate leaves: The former con-
tains the tribes Vernonieae, with the large genus Vernonia of 450 species mostly
of the tropics; the Eupatorieae, containing Eupatorium; “Astereae, containing
Solidago, Aster, Erigeron, Grindelia, Bigelovia; Inuleae, containing Inula, An-
tennaria;*Heliantheae, containing Silphium, Parthenium, Helianthus, Bidens,
Coreopsis; the Helenieae with Helenium, Actinella; the Anthemideae with
Anthemis, Achillea, Tanacetum; the “Senecioneae with Senecio, Tussilago; the
*Cynareae with Arctium, Cnicus, Cirsium and Centaurea. The Liguliflorae con-
tain but one tribe, the Cichorieae, which contains the genera Taraxacum, Cichor-
ium, Lactuca, Hieracium, Sonchus and Scorzonera.
Genera of Compositae ,
Corolla ligulate in all of the flowers of the head; flowers perfect.
LIGULIFLORAE CICHORIEAE,
IPI ES PHONE Co ee dr tel ee eine Uwe hy ek eres eleva rein ee Oe ents 1. Cichorium
Pappus composed of capillary bristles.
Blowers yellow, achenes not “beakkeds.. 2.6. 62.2 bf ke. oe ae 2. Sonchus
Flowers yellow, purplish or cream colored.
PECHEMES) PEAKE Ven sere ee cree Ce elacha cherete » ata eieterateie seel atone ac 3. Lactuca
wehenes tot Deaked. irs HAO aha e oe cools oa sence aaiels 4. Lygodesmia
Corolla tubular in perfect flowers, 5 or rarely 3 or 4-lobed; lingulate only in
the marginal flowers. TUBULIFLORAE.
Stamens distinct or nearly so. AMBROSIEAE.
Staminate and pistillate flowers in the same head.................... 5. Iva
Staminate and pistillate flowers in a separate head.
Involucre of pistillate heads with several tubercles....... 6. Ambrosia
Invdlucral bracts of pistillate flowers forming a bur...... 7. Xanthium
Stamens generally united by their anthers into a tube around the style.
Anthers not tailed.
Style branches thickened upward, papillose. EUPATORIEAE.
Achenes 3-5 angled, flowers discoid................ 8. Eupatorium
Achenes 8-10, ribbed or striate.
Bracts of involucre in several series................ 9. . Liatris
Bracts of involucre in 2 or 3 series..... REE rave iy Bathe 10. Trilisa
Style branches of perfect flowers flattened with terminal ap-
pendages. ASTEREAE.
Ray flowers yellow.
Pappus. Gf scales Of sawils) 02) u.)6o6 chistes eee 11. Grindelia
Pappus of numerous capillary bristles........ 12. Solidago
Ray flowers not yellow, bracts nearly equal...... 14. Erigeron
Bracts in several unequal series................. 13. Aster
Style branches truncate or hairy appendaged. HELIANTHEAE.
Pappus wanting or minute crowm.......¢)...0ec.0ce 15. Rudbeckia
Pappus of 2 persistent downwardly barbed awns or tubes..........
atte Na) ctesatatehs Sebeeiaee vraiep athe, Bhatonsifei ies ok eval he nely ere Ml vty a al ON ye eR
758 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Style branches truncate or with hairy tips. HELENIEAE.
Bracts of the involucre spreading.
Receptacle naked; bracts of involucre spreading or reflexed at
MATELY sae Skies eee RL ee een ae 17. Helenium
Bracts. of the involuere suited 2 ehe sete tiem cet 18. Dysodia
Style branches mostly truncate with brush hairs on the tip.
ANTHEMIDEAE.
Pappus of short scales or a crown.
Scales of involucre scarious and imbricated,
Receptacle chaffy.
Heads small; involucre obovoid or campanulate; achenes
flattene ds tiie Gian ee Ree ete eh Rie 19. Achillea
Heads large; achenes terete................20. Anthemis
Heads solitary or corymbose. ;
Receptacles not chaffy.
Ray flowers usually present, conspicuous................-
NL he IM Ie SE Oe tO Cecchi gy Ct
Ray: flowers) INcOnspienols..:. 2):).-|sukeeene = 22. Tanacetum
Heads small spicate or racemose paniculate.23. Artemisia
Style branches truncate or triangular with brush hairs.
Heads radiate or discoid.
Pappus of capillary bristles. SENECIONIDEAE.
Heads showy, leaves opposite............+.000% 24. Arnica
Heads usually showy, leaves alternate........ 25. Senecio
Style branches short or united, anthers caudate. CyYNAREAE
AChenes bast fixed sid a/c! aisleyn nidlin's!s! Wie od seo AeUle oe 0h oe le A
Involucral bracts pointed or prickly.
Receptacle densely ‘bristly. i). )5 00g ts. ets oe tee
Receptacle honey-combed................e0+:++0-29 wollyDum
Achenes attached laterally.
Pappiusor ishortuscales. 4 poe cclasnic aie aires 28. Centaurea
LIGULIFLORAE
Herbs with milky juice. Corolla ligulate in all of the flowers of the head,
and all of the flowers perfect.
1. Cichorium (Tourn.) L. Chicory
Irect branching perennial or biennial herbs with alternate leaves; involucre
of two series of herbaceous bracts, the inner of 9-10 scales, the outer of 5
short spreading scales; receptacle flat, naked or slightly fimbriate; flowers bright
blue, purple or pink; rays 5-toothed; Achenes striate; pappus of numerous
small chaffy scales forming a crown. ;
About 8 species of the old world.
Cichorium Intybus I, Chicory or Succory
A branching perennial with deep roots and alternate leaves; basal leaves
spreading on the ground; stem leaves oblong or lanceolate, partly clasping.
Distribution. Common along roadsides and in fields and waste places from
New England to Canada and Nebraska, especially where chicory has been culti-
vated. It has become a troublesome weed in Wisconsin and Minnesota. It is
allied to endive (Chicorium Endivia), cultivated as a salad plant,
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~~. ee
COMPOSITAE — LIGULIFLORAE — CHICORY 7s
Poisonous properties. When fed in large quantities it imparts a bitter
flavor to milk and butter. It contains the bitter glucoside chicorin CH Owe
Chicory root is used as an adulterant of coffee.
Fig. 439b. Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale). 1, Single
head during flowering, single head after flowering. 2, Single
flower with corolla stamens and style. 3, Achenium. 4, Recep-
tacle and single achenium. (After Strasburger, Noll Schenck
and Schimper).
2. Sonchus (Tourn.) L. Sow Thistle
Annual or perennial herbs with alternate, mostly auriculate-clasping, entire
dentate, lobed, or pinnatifid leaves with soft prickly margins; flower heads in
corymbose or paniculate clusters; involucre bell-shaped; scales imbricated in
several rows; receptacle flat and naked; achenes oblong, more or less flattened ;
10-20-ribbed; pappus of soft white capillary bristles.
About 45 species of the old world.
Sonchus oleraceus 1, Annual Sow-thistle
Annual or perennial succulent herbs with leafy stems, smooth and glau-
cous with corymbed or umbellate heads of yellow flowers. Stem leaves dentate,
runcinate-pinnatifid, terminal segments large and triangular; heads numerous;
flowers pale yellow, occurring in summer and fall.
Distribution. Common in fields and waste places throughout North Amer-
ica, except far northward. Also from Mexico to South America.
Sonchus arvensis l. Field Sow-thistle
A glabrous perennial, producing deep creeping root-stock, stem leafy,
branched, basal leaves runcinate-pinnatifid, spiny-toothed, clasping by a heart-
shaped base; flowers yellow; achenes transversely wrinkled.
760 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Fig. 439c. Chicory (Chicorium Intybus). a, part of plant
with several heads; b, single head side view; c, single flower
with strap shaped corolla; d, achenium with small chaffy scales.
(U. S. Dept. Agrl.)
Distribution. Common in eastern states, Canada (Manitoba) and occasion-
ally in Wisconsin, Illinois, Iowa and Utah.
Poisonous properties. The plants are more or less bitter and not liked by —
cattle. Their milky juice probably contains some active principle.
3. Lactuca (Tourn.) L. Lettuce |
Tall, leafy-stemmed herbs with milky juice and alternate leaves; flowers
white, yellow or blue, in panicled heads; involucre cylindrical, bracts imbricated
in two or more series; receptacle flat, naked; anthers sagittate at the base;
achenes oval, oblong or linear, abruptly contracted into a beak, dilated at the
apex, bearing a soft white capillary or brown pappus.
About 90 species, natives of the northern hemisphere. Garden lettuce (1. |
sativa), native to Europe, is cultivated,
Lactuca Scariola . Prickly Lettuce
Tall, erect herbs, annual or winter annual, 2-6 feet high, simple or branched
except the lower part of the stem which has stiff bristles; leaves glaucous, ~
green, smooth except the midrib which is beset with weak prickles; lanceolate —
COMPOSITAE — THISTLE FAMILY—LETTUCE 761
to oblong in outline with spinulose, denticular margins occasionally sinuate
toothed, sometimes pinnatifid; base sagittate clasping; leaves becoming vertical
by a twist; the leaves are not twisted in shady situations; flowers in small open
panicled heads; each head has from 4-18 yellow flowers; achenes flat, striate
nerved, obovate, oblong, produced in long filiform beak which is paler in color
then the achene; pappus consists of delicate white bristles arising at the end
of the beak.
Distribution. Prickly lettuce is a native of temperate and southern Europe,
Canary Islands, Maderia, Algeria, Abyssinia, and the temperate regions of
eastern Asia. It was introduced into North America about 1863.
Fig. 440. Prickly Lettuce (Lac-
tuca Scariola). After Fitch,
Lactuca canadensis I, Wild Lettuce
A tall, leafy, smooth or occasionally somewhat hairy biennial 4-9 feet high;
leaves 6-12 inches long; stem leaves sessile or auriculate clasping, the upper
leaves smaller, lanceolate acuminate and entire; heads with about 20 flowers in
spreading panicles; involucre cylindrical; rays yellow; achene somewhat longer
than the beak.
Distribution. In moist places, borders of thickets and in fields from Nova
Scotia to Manitoba, south to Arkansas, Louisiana and Georgia.
Lactuca pulchella (Pursh.) D, C. Blue Lettuce
A glabrous perennial, with milky juice, simple stem from 1-2 feet high,
sessile, oblong or linear lanceolate entire leaves the lower runcinate-pinnatifid ;
heads corymbose paniculate, peduncles with scaly bracts; scales of the involucre
imbricated in 3 or 4 ranks; flowers blue; achenes oblong lanceolate, somewhat
flattened.
Distribution. Native to the plains from western Iowa north to Manitoba
and west to the Great Basin and California, and rare as far east as Michigan.
A troublesome weed in grain fields of Montana and Utah.
Poisonous properties. The wild blue lettuce is common in the west but is
not liked by cattle although sometimes eaten by sheep. It has been regarded
762 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
with suspicion. ‘The cultivated lettuce contains several active principles as
follows: Lactucorol C,.H,,O, lactucol OF 5 Be a small amount of hyoscyamin.
The bitter taste of LZ. canadensis is due to lactucrin Cre Ou and lactucopicrin
C,,H,,0.,- I quote Dr, Millspaugh in regard to the physiological action of
LL. canadensis. “Lactucarium, in large doses, causes: delirium, confusion of the
brain, vertigo and headache, dimness of vision, salivation, difficult deglutition,
nausea and vomiting, and retraction of the epigastric region, with a sensation
of tightness; distension of the abdomen, with flatulence; urging to stool fol-
lowed by diarrhoea; increased secretion of urine; spasmodic cough, oppressed
respiration, and tightness of the chest; reduction of the pulse ten to twelve or
more beats; unsteady gait; great sleepiness; and chills and heat, followed by
profuse perspiration.” ‘The L. virosa, a wild lettuce of Europe, and occasionally
in the Mississippi Valley, but never abundant westward, is regarded in Europe
as poisonous.
4. Lygodesmia D. Don.
Low smooth perennial herbs with linear leaves or the lower somewhat pin-
natifid, the upper of scales; heads 3-12 flowered, a single one terminating the
branch; flowers purple or pink; achenes smooth or striate; pappus of copious,
somewhat unequal simple bristles.
About 6 species of western North America.
Lygodesmia juncea (Pursh.) D. Don.
A tufted smooth, frequently glaucous perennial, a foot or more high, com-
ing from a thick woody root, copious milky juice and stems; lower leaves rigid,
linear lanceolate, entire, the upper scale-like; heads erect with purple flowers;
achenes narrow-ribbed, pappus light brown.
Distribution. Common on the plains from the Missouri river to western
Montana, Northwest Territory and east to the St. Croix river in Wisconsin.
This has been reported as a troublesome weed in corn fields in northwest Iowa,
troublesome also in Colorado and Montana.
Poisonous properties. ‘The plant is bitter like many others belonging to
sub-family Cichoriaceae. ‘The milky juice no doubt contains some deleterious
properties. ‘The plant is not liked by stock.
Professors Chesnut and Wilcox say with reference to the species in Col-
orado:
“This species, sometimes known as prairie pink, grows abundantly on dry prairies and
plains in Park, Sweet Grass, Gallatin, Meagher, Lewis and Clarke, Choteau, and Teton coun-
ties. The general distribution of the plant is from Minnesota to New Mexico and Nevada.
It has been suspected by stockmen both in Montana and Utah of being poisonous to stock.
The plant was not investigated, but it was ascertained that the milky orange-colored juice of
nonflowering plants gathered at Toston was extremely bitter and disagreeable to the taste.”
TUBULIFLORAE
Corolla tubular in all the perfect flowers, 5-lobed, rarely 3-4-lobed, or
ligulate only in marginal flowers, called the ray flowers which are absent in
some species.
COMPOSITAE — TUBULIFLORAE 763
andl ‘ yt — A ZZ
Ninn Gadi eT SS)" a
ae Vag Fi iS
Fig. 440a. Boneset (Eupatorium altissimum L.) Common in the Mississippi valley.
At the right Maxmillian’s Sunflower (Helianthus Maximiliani) common in Mississippi val-
ley. (Charlotte M. King).
Iva . Marsh Elder
Herbaceous or some shrubby plants, pistillate and staminate flowers in the
same head. The lower leaves opposite, the upper alternate; flowers greenish,
rays absent; subtended by an involucre of hemispherical or cup-shaped bracts ;
achenes obovoid or lenticular, without pappus.
About 12 species of western and southern America.
Iva axillaris Pursh. Small-flowered Marsh-elder
A smooth or sparingly pubescent perennial with herbaceous stems, from 1-2
feet high, with woody roots; leaves sessile, entire or nearly so; obovate, oblong
or linear oblong, the lower opposite, the upper smaller and alternate; heads gen-
erally solitary in the axils of the leaves, short petioled, involucre hemispherical,
pistillate, flowers with tubular corolla.
Distribution. Common especially in the saline soils from Nebraska to the
Dakotas, British Columbia, California and New Mexico.
Iva xanthifolia Nutt. Marsh Elder
An annual from 1-8 feet high; stem frequently pubescent when young; all
the leaves opposite, rhombic, ovate or the lowest heart-shaped, doubly serrate
or cut-toothed, obscurely lobed; the upper surfaces minutely scabrous, canescent
beneath, especially when young; petiole frequently ciliate at its upper end;
flowers born in spike-like clusters forming a compound panicle; heads small,
erowded; outer bracts of the involucre broadly ovate, greenish; inner mem-
branaceous; achenes glabrate.
764 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Distribution. In alluvial ground or along streams, Saskatchewan and
Nebraska to New Mexico, Utah and Idaho. In the western part of the state
of Iowa this weed is extremely common as in Woodbury, Harrison, Monona
and Fremont counties. It occupies not only the vacant lots but is found in
the streets and cornfields. To the west in Nebraska it becomes increasingly
abundant and in the irrigated fields of portions of Colorado it is frequently
8 feet high. It is common in the Red River Valley of the North and other
parts of Minnesota and Dakota, and Manitoba. It is a most aggressive weed.
Poisonous properties. ‘This plant and the preceding produce an unusually
large amount of pollen and have been looked upon as in part responsible for
hay fever, the pollen being simply an irritant of the nasal mucous membrane.
Fig. 441. False ragweed (Jva xanthifolia).
The pollen is possibly a cause of hay fever. (Dew-
ey, U. S. Dept. Agr.).
6. Ambrosia (Tourn.) L. Ragweed
Herbs; leaves alternate or opposite, lobed or dissected; flowers in heads,
fertile, 1-3 together, sessile in the axils of leaves or bracts; involucre of the
pistillate flowers top-shaped, ovoid or globose, closed, 1-flowered, armed with
4-8 tubercles or spines; corolla none; pappus none; involucre of the staminate
flowers saucer-shaped, 5-12 lobed, many flowered; receptacle nearly flat or with
a
Se
COMPOSITAE — THISTLE FAMILY — RAGWEED 765
filiform chaff; corolla funnelform, 5-toothed, anthers but slightly united; achenes
ovoid,
The twelve species are mostly native of North America.
Ambrosia trifida l. Great Ragweed, Ironweed
A stout, scabrous, hispid or nearly glabrous annual, 3-12 feet high; leaves
opposite and petioled, 3-nerved, deeply 3-5-lobed, the lobes ovate, lanceolate
and serrate, the upper leaf sometimes ovate and undivided; flowers monoecious,
Fig. 442. Ambrosia showing flowering stalk, pistils, stamens, and longi-
tudinal sections of stamens in perianth and ovary. (After Faguet).
766 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
staminate borne in spikes surrounded by the larger bract-like leaves; the in-
volucre is turbinate to ovoid, 5-7-ribbed, beaked, each rib bearing a tubercle
near the summit; the involucre enclosing a single achene.
Distribution. The greater ragweed is distributed from Quebec to Florida
throughout the Atlantic region to Texas, common throughout the Mississippi
Valley west to Colorado and Northwest Territory, in Manitoba and Saskatch-
ewan.
b i Fig. 444. Small Ragweed (Ambrosia arte-
J mistifolia). In the lower left hand corner is a
bur that contains the seed; upper right hand
Fig. 443. Tall ragweed (Ambrosia trifida). corner, a flower; in middle, branch and leaf.
(U. S. Dept. Agr.) Probably poisonous. (1lolm-Britton).
Ambrosia artemisiifolia l. Hogweed. Bitterweed
A puberulent or hirsute branched annual 1-3 feet high; leaves thin, once to
twice pinnatifid; the upper alternate, the lower usually opposite, pale or canescent
beneath; flowers monoecious, the staminate above and the pistillate in the lower
axils of the leaves; the fertile heads are obovoid or globose, short beaked
and 4-6 spined.
Distribution. A troublesome weed in northern states. Its distribution in
North America is from Nova Scotia to Florida throughout the Atlantic states
and Mississippi Valley; in the Rocky Mountain region and west to British
Columbia; also in Mexico and the West Indies and South America,
Poisonous properties. The greater ragweed is regarded as_ especially
COMPOSITAE — THISTLE FAMILY —RAGWEED 767
s
troublesome as an exciting cause with reference to hay fever. The following
from Dr. Johnson on this point is of interest:
These plants are said to be stimulant, tonic, and astringent. A decoction has been used,
chiefly in domestic practice, as a topical astringent in chronic catarrhal affections,
Of late years A. artemisiifolia has attracted considerable attention on account of its real
or assumed agency in the production of hay-fever. The plant produces pollen in great
abundance, which is extremely irritating to the air-passages of many people, and is capable of
exciting asthmatic attacks in susceptible persons. Now as the weed is so very abundant, and
its time of flowering coincident with the greatest development of hay-fever, the relation of
cause and effect has been asserted by many writers. That it may be so in a certain proportion
of cases is quite probable, but that its influence in this direction has been overrated is still
more probable. The pollen of all plants is irritating to the air-passages of sensitive people,
but probably little more so than any other dust of an organic character; and the proportion
which rag-weed pollen in the air of any specified locality bears to that of all other plants com-
‘bined must be very small indeed. Much less still must its proportion be to other pollen and
organic dust in the air of cities, where this affection has become endemic—and fashionable.,
The ragweeds, marsh elder, goldenrod, and chrysanthemum, as well as the
pollen of some grasses, are said to produce hay fever. In recent years a
toxic substance has been isolated which belongs to a class of poisonous sub-
stances known as toxalbumin.
The fact that this troublesome disease is caused by a poisonous toxin has
led to a study of serum treatment by Dunbar* who has produced an antitoxin
which he calls “pollantin,” and Weichardt** another called “graminol.” Pol-
lantin is obtained from the blood serum of horses which have been immunized
with the pollen toxin. J.unbar’s hay fever serum is sold both as a powder and
as a fluid. There are tnose, however, who believe that hay fever is not due to
poison by pollen toxin so that this treatment can be of no use. A. Wolff-
eisner*** attributes the action of the serum not to antitoxins but to colloidal
substances. Weichardt prepared the serum from the blood of herbiverous
animals. Sattistics of The Hay Fever Union of Germany for 1906 indicate
that the results with the treatment of ‘“graminol” were favorable. i
A correspondent from Nebraska sent to the writer a specimen of the small
ragweed stating that it was abundant in his pasture and that where cattle used
it as forage, the mouths of these animals became very sore. The plant is bitter
and possibly may be irritating at times. There were no parasitic fungi on the
specimens sent us.
7. Xanthium (Tourn.) L. Cocklebur. Clotbur
Coarse low branching annual herbs with alternate toothed or lobed petioled
leaves; monoecious flowers; staminate flowers with a short involucre of several
distinct bracts, receptacle cylindrical; pistillate flowers with a closed involucre,
covered with hooked prickles; 2-celled, 2-flowered, in fruit forming a bur;
achenes oblong, flat, without pappus.
The 12 species are widely distributed.
Xanthium spinosum L. Clotbur
A pubescent branched annual herb with slender yellow 3-parted spines in
the axils; leaves lanceolate or ovate lanceolate, white downy underneath; bur
oblong cylindrical, armed with single short beak and numerous glabrous prickles.
* Deutsch Med. Woch. 1903:140.
Berlin Klin. Woch. 1903:24, 25, 26, 28.
** Klinisch-ther. Woch. 1903:1457.
*** Das heufieber, sein wesen und seine Behandlung. Miinchen 1906. In this connection
the very excellent review on Serum Therapy in E. Merk’s Annual Report, 1909, Vol. 23
should be consulted.
768 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Distribution. Common in waste grounds from Ontario to Missouri and
Texas to Florida. Native to the old world.
Fig. 445. Thorny Clot-bur (Xanthium
spinosum). After Hochstein.
Xanthium Strumarium VL.
A low, rough, branching annual from 1-2 feet high; leaves slender, petioled,
broadly ovate or orbicular, 3-5-lobed, both surfaces rough; bur oblong, smooth
or nearly so, with two straight or nearly straight beaks.
Distribution. In waste places along the Atlantic seacoast. Native to
Europe.
Xanthium canadense Mill. Cockle Bur
A coarse rough annual from 1-3 feet high, stem marked with brown punct-
ate spots; leaves alternate, cordate or ovate, 3-nerved, long petioled; flow-
ers monoecious, staminate and pistillate flowers in different heads, the pistillate
flowers clustered below; the involucre of the staminate flowers somewhat
flattish of separate scales, receptacles cylindrical; scales of the fertile involucre
closed in fruit, 2-beaked, containing 2 achenes; the bur is densely prickly
and hispid, achenes oblong without pappus.
Distribution. In Iowa this species is very common along the sandy bottoms
of our streams and river courses. It is less troublesome in uplands but here
and there it does occasion some trouble even in the central and southern part
of the state. However, in southern and southeastern Iowa the weed is often
quite troublesome in cornfields, coming up in enormous quantities. In Texas,
too, it appears in the very richest soil. Its distribution in North America is
COMPOSITAE — THISTLE FAMILY — COCKLEBUR 769
from Nova Scotia to North Carolina, southwest to Texas and west through
Colorado, Utah and Nevada, and north to Saskatchewan and Manitoba. Most
abundantly developed in the Mississippi Valley region from Minnesota to Texas.
Poisonous properties. ‘The injury from this plant probably comes largely
from its mechanical action. As the involucre is indigestible, its barbs some-
times injure an animal feeding upon it. Stock will probably not eat very much
of it, but on account of the hooked awns of the involucre the animal may have
considerable difficulty in removing them. The hairs of the plant cause itching.
Several cases of poisoning of hogs, probably due to this plant, have been re-
ported to me. The plant contains the poisonous glucoside santhostrumarin
-which resembles datiscin. On heating, the odor of succinic acid is given off.
According to Chesnut, the young seedlings of three species of cockle bur, among
them our Canadian cockle bur (Xanthium canadense) are poisonous to hogs.
Dr. Bitting was unable to find a poisonous substance in the growing plants. He
thinks the injurious properties are largely mechanical.
Fig. 446. Cockle-bur (Xanthium canadense).
Cause of mechanical injuries to animals.
(Dewey, U. S. Dept. Agrl.)
A writer in the American Agriculturist says:
When the seed is ripe the bristles are very hard and sharp, and in the stomach and in
testines of the animal, mat or felt together by the aid of their barbs, forming large balls, which
770 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
obstruct the intestines and prove fatal. In these cases, death is evidently not from any poison-
ous quality of the hay, but is due to mechanical causes. While Cocklebur may not be poison-
ous, it may in a similar manner kill swine by mechanical obstructions. When the burs are
ripe, they readily leave the plant, and attach themselves to the coat of any passing animal.
The plant is especially annoying to sheep owners, as these burs become entagled in the wool.
Those who have traveled in Texas and Mexico, soon make acquaintance with the cockle bur.
Horses and mules, while grazing for a single night, will have their tails clotted with these
burs, and converted into a useless club. It can be understood, that if swine eat the burs in
considerable quantity, the pieces of them can, by means of the prickles, form masses which
may prove fatal. Both on account of its probable danger to swine and its injury to sheep, there
should be an united effort to destroy the plant. Being an annual, its extermination would
not be difficult. If the plants are cut down before the seed is ripe, new ones can not appear
unless the ground is re-seeded. 5
Fig. 447. Boneset (Eupator-
ium urticaefolium). A common
plant in woods. It is supposed
by some to cause milk fever or
trembles. Branches with numer-
ous small heads. (Lois Pam-
mel.)
8. Eupatorium (Tourn.) L. Boneset
Erect perennial herbs with opposite, whorled or alternate leaves, often
sprinkled with resinous dots; flowers in corymbose heads, white, bluish, or pur-
ple; bracts of the involucre in two series; receptacle naked; corolla regular,
tube short 5-lobed; branches of the style slender, thickened upward or club-
shaped, very minutely and uniformly pubescent, with stigmatic lines indistinct ;
achenes 5-angled, truncate; pappus of numerous fine capillary bristles, arranged
in one row.
About 450 species in warm temperate and tropical regions. An oil is made
from the southern £. capillifolium, which has an aromatic, pepper-like odor.
COMPOSITAE — THISTLE FAMILY —BONESET 771
The boneset (E. perfoliatwm), is commonly used as a domestic remedy, em-
ployed in catarrhal affections and fevers. The Joe-Pye weed (E. purpureum)
is used in urinary affections.
Eupatorium urticaefolium Reichard. White Snake-root
A smooth or nearly smooth branching herb from 2-3 feet high; leaves op-
posite, thin rounded, cordate at the base or abruptly narrowed into a slender
petiole, coarsely and sharply toothed; heads in ample and loose corymbose
clusters; flowers white; involucre narrowly campanulate; bracts linear, acute
or acuminate.
- Distribution. Common in rich woods from New Brunswick to South Da-
kota and Nebraska to Indian Territory and Louisiana.
Poisonous properties. This plant is said to produce the disease known as
trembles in cattle, horses and sheep, and milk sickness in people. Mr. E. L.
Mosely states that:
Milk-sickness is known to be due to the use of milk, butter, cheese or meat of animals
afflicted with the trembles, but what causes the trembles has not been well understood. It has
long been known that only the animals allowed to run in the woods were affected, and experi-
ence showed that certain woods were very dangerous, while others were safe. People who
came from Pennsylvania with a view to settling here returned to their own State on learning
of the peril of pasturing animals in Ohio. To this day many woods in this district are not
pastured, because animals would soon die if turned into them.
The Eupatoriums are not palatable. Anyone who has tasted boneset will admit that this
is true of Eupatorium perfoliatum. In the South I have observed that animals leave Eupa-
torium serotinum untouched even where they have been confined so as to eat almost every
other green thing in reach. In northern Ohio I have found Eupatorium urticaefolium, the
white snake-root, growing abundantly in a number of woods where animals were pastured
but no sign of their having eaten it. But if the pasture becomes poor, some are likely to eat it.
On the 8th of last October I visited a piece of woods in Sandusky county where there
was nothing fit for an animal to eat, the principal herbs being nettle, white snake-root, poke
and black nightshade, with some clearweed, basil, and bedstraw. Every plant of snake-root
had been nipped off so that I did not see one more than about half the normal height. This
had probably been done by cattle from the adjoining pasture which were doubtless accustomed
to spending a portion of hot sunny days in the shade of the woods. A few weeks before my
visit a man and his wife who had been using butter made from the milk of cows in this pasture
had milk-sickness and the wife died.
Elisha Haff, Townsend township, Sandusky county, did not think trembles were due to
any weed, until he found that western sheep which he turned into his woods ate the white
snake-root and died of trembles. Sheep whose ancestors had long been in the region did not
eat it, and did not have trembles. Since that he has been destroying the weed.
Mr. William Ramsdell of Bloomingville informs me that about 1842 when there was so
much discussion of the subject the boys of the neighborhood used to assemble evenings at the
old lime-kiln southeast of Castalia and experiment on dogs. They would boil or steep the
white snake-root and putting the extract in milk give it to the dogs, in which it would induce
the trembles; a large number were killed in this way. Some one experimented on sheep with
the same result. He informs me also that a Mr. Redmond (who did not believe that the weed
was the cause of trembles) chewed some of the weed and died after suffering for about four
weeks.
On November 26th my pupil, Oscar Kubach, using snake-root I had recently gathered,
broke up the stems and leaves of two plants and soaked them over night in about a pint of milk,
of which he gave about a gill at about 9 A. M. to his tom-cat. The cat took about one-half of it.
About 9:30 it seemed to take effect and he tried very hard to vomit but could not. He
took long, deep breaths. He was quiet and wanted to sleep very hard. All of a sudden he
would tremble very hard, then again very little. A watery fluid passed from his eyes and
mouth. He chose a spot in the sun and when driven away walked back in a staggering man-
ner. He had no appetite. His senses seemed to be duller, as he did not care for anything.
He went to sleep about 10:30 but did not sleep sound. He seemed to be in an unconscious
state for the rest of the day. The next morning about 10:30 he walked about three rods and
there died about noon.
Tip MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Mr. Mosely estimates that 5000 animals have succumbed from the disease
in a small area in northern Ohio. There are many cases commonly in this
same region from milk sickness.
Dr. Albert C. Crawford of the Bureau of Plant Industry, investigated the
so-called milk sickness occurring in Minooka, Illinois, which resulted in the
death of about 50 head of cattle, and gives the following conclusions:
To sum up, it certainly can not be said that it has been proved that milksickness is due
to any constituent of E. urticaefolium. The transmission of the disease by eating small quan-
tities of meat or milk of animals sick with the “trembles” and the fact that cooked meat or
boiled milk does not produce this disorder point primarily rather to a parasitic origin, while
the fact thatEupatorium urticaefolium is abundant in areas where the disease is not known
and absent in some milksick districts also indicates that the plant has no relation to the dis-
ease. If it does, it would be only an accidental carrier of some pathogenic organism. Ac-
cording to reports, the same flora may be in areas in which ‘“‘trembles” occur as in those free
from it, and milksickness is also said to occur where no vegetation grows (inclosed pens).
The disease also has disappeared from an area after simply clearing the woodland where it
occurred and turning it into pasture. Again, severe epidemics have occurred in winter when
the foliage has disappeared, which would tend to exclude the higher non-evergreen plants as
the cause of this disorder. In fact, all the evidence in hand is against the causation of this
disease by such plants, and certain analogies with cases of botulismus suggest a somewhat
similar cause. If there is any truth in the statement that cattle exposed in pasture to night air
especially contract the disease, this fact might suggest the more or less direcct connection of
some night organism as a carrier of the parasite, and certain parasites are supposed to be
associated with certain localities. Very little is known chemically of Eupatorium urticaefolium.
And this seems to confirm the investigation by Dr. Bitting of the Indiana
Agricultural Experiment Station. It seems very doubtful that this plant causes
milk sickness, since it is very common in many pastures in the west where
trembles does not occur.
In regard to boneset (. purpureum and E. perfoliatum) Dr. Johnson states
as follows:
Of domestic remedies few are better known or more largely used than boneset. It is
tonic, diaphoretic, emetic, and cathartic, the different effects depending largely upon the
size of the dose and mode of administration. The infusion, taken cold in moderate doses,
is tonic, and is employed in debility of the digestive organs and in convalescence. Taken
warm in large doses, the infusion or decoction produces copious diaphoresis, and is em-
ployed in the acute stages of catarrhal affections and in fevers, especially those of an
intermittent or remittent type. In still larger doses the warm infusion or decoction pro-
duces emesis or catharsis; these effects are, however, seldom sought.
E. purpureum, or gravel-root, is said to be diuretic and to have been employed in
urinary affections, but it has not attained an established reputation and is seldom used.
Boneset (E. perfoliatum) contains the glucoside eupatorin; the E. purpureum
contains the glucoside euparin C,,H,,O,.
Dr. T. Holm gives an extended account of the medicinal qualities accompanied
by the anatomical structure of this plant. Eupatorium perfoliatum* according to
Dr. Holm is now prescribed as a tonic and in large doses is an emetic.
9. Trilisa Cass. ‘Trilisa
Erect perennial herbs, fibrous roots, leaves alternate and simple; heads in
terminal corymbose panicles, discoid, 5-10-flowered, flowers white, receptacle
flat; corolla regular, 5-lobed; achenes nearly terete, 10-ribbed. A small genus
closely allied to Liatris. ‘Two species native to eastern North America.
Trilisa odoratissima Cass. Vanilla Plant
A rather stout, somewhat glabrous perennial, leaves pale obovate-spatulate,
* Merck’s Rep. XVII:326-328. f. 1-11.
——
——
——
COMPOSITAE—THISTLE FAMILY—VANILLA PLANT 773
or oval, thickish and clasping; head in corymbose clusters; achenes glandular
pubescent.
Distribution. From Virginia to Louisiana.
Trilisa paniculata Cass. Hairy Trilisa
Viscid-hairy, perennial, leaves entire, base lanceolate, narrowly oblong,
acute, or obtusish, those of the stem small; heads paniculate; achenes finely
pubescent.
Distribution. From Virginia to Georgia and Florida.
Poisonous properties. The former plant has the odor of vanilla and con-
tains the substance cumarin CHO. Dr. Johnson says:
~ Odoratissima deserves much more attention from the fact that it is largely used as an
adulterant of smoking tobacco, than from any demonstrated medicinal virtues. There is
abundant evidence to show that the leaves of this plant enter largely into the manufacture of
many grades of smoking tobacco, especially those employed in our domestic cigarettes. And
the author is convinced, from personal experience and observation, that the deleterious effects
produced by smoking tobacco thus adulterated are much greater than those produced by the
consumption of pure tobacco in even great excess. The inhalation of a few whiffs of the
smoke from a cigarette made from this adulterated material, provided the inhalations are
made in quick succession, produces a train of cerebral sensations of an intoxicating character
as much different from any effect of tobacco alone as could be imagined; and prolonged use
of such cigarettes invariably produces great derangement of the digestive organs, very little
resembling the dyspepsia induced by excessive use of tobacco, together with cardiac symptoms
often of a distressing character. And again, the habit of smoking coumarin in this form
appears to become more inveterate, more exacting, than that of the use of tobacco alone, so
that the unhappy victim—for such he should be called—is never comfortable except when in-
dulging. Hence it happens that cigarette-smoking in this country in its effects upon adoles-
cents especially, is assuming the proportions of a great national evil, and is producing far
more deleterious effects than in other countries where it is practised to a greater extent but
with different material.
10. Liatris Schreb. Button Snakeroot. Blazing Star.
Perennial herb, usually from a corm-like tuber; leaves alternate entire, nar-
row; flowers spicate or racemose, discoid, scales of the involucre few or many
imbricated in several series, the outer shorter, corolla regular, 5-lobed or 5-
cleft; branches of the style exserted; achenes 10-ribbed, slender tapering to the
base; flowers rose-purple, rarely paler in color.
Distribution. About 20 species in North America.
Liatris spicata (.) Willd. Snakeroot
Smooth or somewhat hairy perennial; leafy stem; leaves linear the lower
3-5 nerved; heads crowded in a long spike, 8-12 flowered; involucre cylindrical,
bell-shaped, flowers purple; pappus not very plumose.
Distribution. In moist soil from New England to Florida, Kentucky, Ar-
kansas, and South Dakota.
Liatris pycnostachya Michx. Snakeroot
Hairy or smooth perennial with a stout stem 3-5 feet high; leaves linear-
lanceolate, the upper very narrowly linear; spikes 6-20 inches long, densely
flowered, flowers purple; pappus not very plumose,
Distribution. Prairies, Indiana to Minnesota and southward.
Liatris punctata Hook. Western Snakeroot
A glabrous or sparingly pubescent perennial; stout rootstock; leaves rigid
punctate; spike many flowered; heads 3-6 flowered, purple; bracts of involucre.
oblong, often ciliate on the margins; pappus very plumose.
774 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Distribution. From Minnesota, Western Iowa, to Montana, Texas, New
Mexico and Sonora.
Poisonous properties. Several species of Liatris are powerful diaphoretics,
formerly these species were used as antidotes against snake bite. Dr. Johnson
says that they probably possess no antidotal properties whatever and beneficial
effects attributed to them are doubtless due to the diaphoresis induced by the
administration of large quantities of the hot decoction,
11. Grindelia Willd. Gum Weed.
Coarse perennial or biennial herbs, occasionally woody at the base; leaves
alternate, sessile or clasping, spinulose serrate; involucre hemispherical; scales
imbricated in several series; heads large, terminating leafy branches; radiate or
rayless; ray flowers yellow, pistillate, disk flowers perfect or staminate; achenes
short, thick, compressed or turgid; pappus of 8 awns, soon falling.
About 25 species, from western Minnesota and Iowa westward and south-
ward to Peru and Chill.
Grindelia squarrosa (Pursh.). Gum Weed
A resinous, viscid, glabrous perennial from 1-3 feet high; leaves alternate,
spatulate to linear oblong, sessile or clasping, spinulose serrate; heads many
flowered; ray flowers yellow, pistillate; scales of the involucre hemispherical,
imbricated in several rows with green tips; achenes short and thick; pappus
consisting of 2 or 3 awns.
Distribution. Common west of the Missouri river from Mexico, Nevada
and Texas to British America and east to Minnesota, Illinois and Missouri,
occasionally naturalized eastward.
Poisonous properties. Very abundant in the west; is not liked by. stock.
The G. robusta and G. squarrosa are used in medicine in moderate doses to stim-
ulate the mucous membrane and are beneficial in catarrhal affections. They are
also antispasmodics. An alkaloid has been isolated from G. robusta, It con-
tains grindelin, a bitter alkaloid, and two glucosides which resemble the saponins
of Polygala.
12. Solidago L. Golden-rod
Perennial erect herbs, simple or branched; leaves alternate, simple, toothed
or entire; heads small, in terminal or axillary panicles, cymose corymbose; ray
flowers yellow, rays few or many pistillate; disk flowers yellow, perfect; in-
volucre hemispherical or bell-shaped, bracts appressed, destitute of green tips,
achenes many-ribbed, terete or nearly so; pappus of simple capillary bristles.
A genus of about 100 species mostly in North America. About one-half
of the number found in northern states east of the Missouri river. A few of
the species are handsome and ornamental, like Solidago speciosa, S. Drum-
mondii, S. Missouriensis and S. odora. The latter species is used as a stim-
ulant and carminative. . From this species there is derived an aromatic oil.
An oil is also derived from Solidago canadensis, which strongly resembles the
oil obtained from pine needles. The leaves of the fragrant golden-rod (S.
odora) are often used as a substitute for tea; it contains an aromatic volatile oil.
Solidago canadensis L. Golden-rod
A perennial with rough stem, from 3-6 feet high; leaves hairy beneath,
rough above, lanceolate and pointed, sharply serrate; heads small, few flowered;
—————
COMPOSITAE — THISTLE FAMILY —GOLDEN-ROD 775
rays yellow, short pistillate; scales of the involucre appressed, not herbaceous ;
receptacle small, not chaffy; achenes ribbed; pappus simple, of capillary bristles.
Distribution. Widely distributed from New Brunswick to Florida. Com-
mon in the Mississippi Valley, especially along fences and in pastures and
borders of fields in the Rocky Mountains to the Northwest Territory, British
Columbia to Arizona.
Solidago rigida 1,. Rigid Golden-rod
An erect perennial from 2-5 feet high, rough and somewhat hairy, with
minute pubescence; leaves oval or oblong, thick and rigid, not 3-nerved, the
upper sessile, slightly serrate; heads in a compound corymb, large, 3 or more
flowered; rays large, 7 to 10, yellow.
Distribution. Common in the upper Mississippi Valley, especially on the
prairies; occurs east to New England.
Poisonous properties. It is thought by some that hay fever is caused by
this and other species. A disease of horses in Wisconsin a few years ago was
attributed to the eating of golden-rod, but Chesnut thought this might be caused
by a rust fungus, Coleosporium solidaginis.
Mr. J. L. Scott, who made an investigation of this disease, reported in
Garden and Forest as follows:
During the past four years a large number of horses have died in the northern part of this
state from the ravages of a disease which has baffled the skill of veterinarians, and I have been
called upon to make investigations as to the cause and nature of the malady. At first it was
thought to be anthrax, and samples of the blood and sections from the spleen and other internal
organs were sent to the Bureau of Animal Industry and to Dr. Russell, of the State Uni-
versity, for bacteriological examination. Numerous bacteria were found, but the bacillus
anthracis was not present.
The horses affected were in the majority of cases heavy draught horses from the lumber
camps. These animals were brought from the woods in the spring, usually in good condition,
and turned out to pasture. Most of them were fed grain while on pasture. On the farm of
Mr. C. F. Reynolds, Hayward, Wisconsin, over seventy horses died during the past four
years from this peculiar malady. The pasture contained about four hundred acres, three
hundred acres of which had been broken and seeded to timothy. Adjoining this was one
hundred acres of ‘‘slashings’? or land from which the timber had been cut, but which had
never been broken. ‘This was thickly covered with Golden-rod. On one side of the farm is
a lake with a clean gravel bottom and shore. ‘The lake is fed by springs. There is no marsh
or low land on the farm. Upon investigation I became convinced that the cause of the
trouble was to be found either in the food or water, and watched the horses closely for several
days, and saw them eating the Golden-rod greedily—some of them, especially those affected,
seeming to prefer the plant to anything else.
I also visited the farm of Peter Traux, near Eau Claire. ‘There is no Goldenrod to be
found on this farm and the disease has not made its appearance. During the past summer,
Mr. Traux placed ten horses in pasture near by, where the plant was plentiful, and eight of
them died during the summer and the remaining two were affected. When the healthy horses
are taken from the pasture in the fall the disease disappears. None of the animals attacked by
the malady have recovered, and medicinal treatment does not seem to produce any beneficial
effect.
Symptoms: The animal appears dull, ears drooped, temperature elevated, ranging from
103° to 107°, Fahrenheit, during the entire course of the disease. The visible mucous mem-
branes are pallid. On the mucous membranes of the vulva small petechial spots are seen. Oc-
casionally the legs swell and oedematous enlargements appear under the abdomen. ‘The ap-
petite remains fairly good during the entire course of the disease. Emaciation takes place
rapidly as the disease advances. J,oss of coérdination with staggering gait. Death takes place
in from two weeks to two months from the onset.
Post mortem: On cutting open the body the blood appears to be completely disintegrated,
resembling ordinary blood serum. Intestines bloodless, with numerous petechial spots on the
mucous membrane. Spleen enlarged, weighing from six to ten pounds. No structural changes
/
776 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
apparent to the naked eye. The lungs and kidneys apparently normal. The brain and spinal
cord were not examined.
I am fully convinced that this disease is due either to some poisonous principle in the
plant or some parasitic fungus upon the surface of the same. It is now too late in the season
for any investigation to be carried on in this direction this year, but I intend to have the mat-
ter thoroughly investigated next summer.
13. Aster (Tourn.) L. Aster
Herbs generally perennial with corymbose panicled or racemose heads;
heads many flowered, radiate; the ray flowers in a single series, fertile. Bracts
of the involucre more or less imbricated, generally with herbaceous tips; re-
ceptacles flat; achenes somewhat flattened; pappus simple, consisting of capillary
bristles. A large genus of 275 species, chiefly in eastern North America.
Flowering in the autumn. A few of the species are cultivated for ornamental
purposes. :
The New England aster (A. novae-angliae) occurs in moist ground. The
A. laevis with somewhat clasping leaves is common in dry soil or prairie regions
of the West. The small white aster (A. multiflorus) with small leaves is
common along roadsides in dry soil. Very few of the species have deleterious
properties.
Aster Parryi Gray. Parry’s Aster or Woody Aster.
A somewhat hoary perennial with deep woody roots and a short more or
less branched stem; hoary leaves, spatulate-linear, cuspidate; heads solitary,
bracts of the involucre oblong-lanceolate, long acuminate, pubescent, rays white
over half inch long, achenes white villous. This is the Xylorhiza Parryi Gray.
Distribution. Common in saline soils. In Colorado, West Wyoming and
Utah.
Poisonous properties. This plant has recently come into prominence in
western Wyoming where the disease “grub in the head” has been attributed to
the plant but Dr. Aven Nelson? has attributed this disease to a fungus Puccinia
axylorrhizae which according to Dr. Nelson abundantly occurs on the plant.
He says:
If it should prove to be true that the malady is due to the eating of the aster, then it may
be the aster itself that is the source of the trouble, but the chanees are rather better that the
specific poisonous qualities are due to the fungus. Some other parasitic fungi have been
proved poisonous and we may well, in the absence of evidence to the contrary, also suspect
this one.
Dr. Nelson states that the trouble is not a new one and that similar out-
breaks have occurred in previous years, the disease recurring in the same
localities. The disease was prevalent near Medicine Bow and northward to
the Shirley Basin as well as Natrona county. The farmers in the vicinity where
this disease occurs speak of the area in which the plant occurs as the “poison
patch.” Dr. O. L. Prien, Wyoming Agricultural Station, and Dr. Frederick
of the Utah Agricultural Station, are making a careful study of this disease.
To prevent the trouble, sheep should be kept, so far as possible, away from areas
in which this plant occurs.
14. Erigeron L. Fleabane, Daisy
Branching or scapose herbs with entire or toothed leaves; heads in corym-
bose, paniculate or solitary peduncled heads; scales of the involucre narrow,
nearly equal, not foliaceous or green-tipped; flowers radiate, white violet or
purple, numerous, fertile; disk flowers yellow, tubular and perfect; branches of
1 Press Bull. Wyoming Agr. Exp. Sta. No. 10.
|
|
|
COMPOSITAE — THISTLE FAMILY —FLEABANE 777
the style more or less flattened with short appendages; achenes pubescent and
2-nerved; pappus a single row of fine capillary bristles.
About 120 species of wide distribution, most numerous in North America.
Several species of fleabane (E. philadelphicus, E. annuus and E. canadensis)
are used in medicine. They are reputed diuretics, tonics and astringents.
Fig. A. Small Horseweed (Erigeron Fig. B. Horseweed, Mares’ Tail (Er-
divaricatus). From Yndiana to Minne- igeron canadensis). A common weed
sota to Nebraska and southward. Com- throughout the United States, especially
mon in sterile grounds. (Charlotte M. northward, also in Europe. Acrid said
King). to be irritating. (Charlotte M. King).
Erigeron canadensis L. Horseweed
Bristly herb, stem hairy or somewhat glabrate, 1-6 feet high, simple or
paniculately branched; leaves usually pubescent or ciliate, the lower spatulate,
incised or entire, obtuse or acutish, the upper generally linear and entire; heads
numerous, with inconspicuous white ray flowers shorter than the pappus; achenes
small, flattened; pappus of numerous small fragile bristles.
Distribution. Common throughout the eastern part of North America
except far northward. Common also in the Rocky Mountain region, and in
778 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
waste and cultivated grounds along the Pacific coast appearing as an introduced
weed. Also an introduced weed in Europe and South America.
Erigeron ramosus (Walt.) BSP. White Weed. Fleabane.
Stem and leaves somewhat hirsute and hairy, roughish; leaves entire or
nearly so; the upper lanceolate, the lower oblong or spatulate; heads borne in
corymbose panicles; ray flowers white and twice as long as the scales of the
involucre; achenes small, pappus double, the inner of fragile bristles.
Distribution. From Nova Scotia to Florida, west to Louisiana and Texas
to Northwest Territory.
Erigeron annuus (L.) Pers. Fleabane. White Weed.
A sparingly pubescent annual from 3-5 feet high; leaves thin, coarsely and
sharply toothed, the lower one ovate, or ovate-lanceolate, acute and entire on
both ends; heads corymbed and rays white, tinged with purple.
Distribution. A common weed in meadows, pastures and woods in northern
United States. j
Fig. C. White weed (Erigeron an-
‘nuus). Common in clover and timothy
meadows. ‘"
Ph ta), di i Wy, !
f ty id q if l/
\ 6 uy WY !
ANY Al
ANIA oe
FON NYE
By
ia NY
D3
—,
4
:
ti Key
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es
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es
Sec
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e
Fig. 455. Woolly Thistle (Cirsium canescens). 1, Head; 5, Flower and pappus; 6,
Achere; 7, Anthers and style cut open; 8, Pollen grain; a, end of style. (Charlotte M. King).
About 200 species of the north temperate regions. Some of them are culti-
vated for ornamental purposes; many of the species are pleasantly scented;
many of them are troublesome weeds. Cnicin C,,H,,O,, has been found in a
related genus (Cnicus benedictus). Horses are fond of the heads of many
species like C. eriocephalum, C. Drummondii, C. undulatus and others that occur
on the Rocky Mountains. None of the species are probably poisonous but many
of them have irritating properties. The Canada thistle is used in domestic
practice.
Cirsium arvense (1,.) Hoffm. Scop. Canada Thistle
Smooth perennial herbs, spreading by creeping rootstocks, 1-3 feet high,
corymbosely branched at the top; stem smooth; leaves lanceolate, sessile and
deeply pinnatifid, lobes and margins of leaf with spiny teeth; heads small, 34-1
in. high; bracts appressed, the outer with a broad base, inner narrow, all with
an acute tip, never spiny; flowers purple, dioecious; in staminate plant, flowers
exserted with abortive pistil; in pistillate, less so, scarcely exceeding the bracts;
long stamens with abortive anthers, tube of the corolla 6 lines long, anther tips
acute, filaments minutely pubescent, all of the bristles of the pappus plumose.
Distribution. The Canada thistle is found in waste places from Newfound-
land, Nova Scotia, various provinces of Ontario, to New York, Virginia, south-
west to Missouri and Kansas, Colorado to Idaho, Montana and Oregon,
Cirsium lanceolatum (L.) Hill. Bull Thistle
Branching biennial, 3-4 feet high, tomentose, becoming dark green and
villous or hirsute with age, branchlets bearing large heads; leaves lanceolate,
COMPOSITAE — THISTLE FAMILY — BULL THISTLE 799
a KY
le AY of} Vy
rye
\j | Y
Mt Y
WY
any
jal
ay
Fig. 456. Canada Thistle (Cirsium arvense). Common in the North, causes inflamma-
tion. (Charlotte M. King).
decurrent on the stem with prickly wings, deeply pinnatifid, the lobes with rigid
prickly points, upper face roughened with short hairs, lower face with cottony
tomentum; heads 134 to 2 inches high, bracts of the involucre lanceolate, rigid
when young, more flexible with age, long attenuated prickly pointed spreading
tips, arachnoid woolly; flowers perfect; anther tips acute; filaments pubescent;
achenes smooth; pappus of numerous plumose bristles.
Distribution. Distribution in North America in fields and waste places
from Newfoundland to Georgia, Missouri, Kansas to Nebraska, the Dakotas,
Montana, Washington, Oregon and Idaho. Naturalized from Europe, native
also to Asia.
800 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
, Fig. 457. Bull thistle (Cirsium lanceolatum). A common pasture weed. Causes mechan-
ical injuries. (U. S. Dept. Agrl.)
COMPOSITAE — THISTLE FAMILY — BULL THISTLE 801
Cirsium canescens Nutt. Woolly Thistle
Branching perennial 2-4 feet high, woolly throughout bearing single medium
sized heads, stem angled, white woolly; leaves, radical 8 inches to 1 foot long,
the divisions usually 2-lobed, prominently ribbed, ending in stout spines; stem
leaves except the lower, 1-4 inches long, pinnatifid, the upper sessile, slightly
roughened, with a’ slight cottony down, the lower white, woolly; heads 1% to
2 inches high, bracts of the involucre somewhat arachnoid, lower scales with a
broad base, glutinous ridge, and ending in minutely serrated spine, inner scales
long, attenuated, tips straw colored; flowers purple. This is Carduus Flod-
mannis Rydb.
Distribution. This species is distributed from Mason City, Iowa, to south-
western Minnesota, west to the Rocky Mountains. Collected by Charles A.
Geyer in 1839, and described by Nuttall. The writer has seen it very abundant
in Wyoming, Montana and Colorado.
Cirsium discolor (Muhl.) Spreng. Prairie Thistle
Tall, branching, leafy biennial, 5-7 feet high, with heads larger than the
Canada thistle; stem striate, slightly hirsute; leaves radical 12-14 inches long,
deeply pinnatifid, the divisions frequently divided, prickly toothed, the upper
surface smoothish, and the lower white, woolly single heads terminating the
branches, with purple flowers, heads 1% inches high; bracts of the globose
involucre slightly arachnoid, lower bracts ovate, with a broad base and a weak
prickly recurved bristle, slight dorsal gland, inner linear lanceolate with a nearly
colorless entire appendage; flower purple; lobes of the corolla terminating in
clavate tips, anther tips acute, filaments pubescent; bristle of pappus plumose;
achenium smooth, upper part yellow.
Distribution, In fields and along roadsides from Quebec, Ontario, south
through New England, New York and Georgia, west to Missouri, Nebraska
and South Dakota.
Cirsium ochrocentrum Gray
Biennial, 2-8 feet high; white tomentum; leaves commonly deeply pinnatifid
and armed with long yellowish prickles; heads 1-2 inches high; involucral
scales ,with a viscid line on the back, with a prominent spreading yellowish
prickle; corolla purple, rarely white.
Distribution. From Arizona to Colorado and Utah.
Cirsium undulatum (Nutt.) Spreng.
Biennial 1-2 feet high, white tomentose; leaves pinnately parted, some-
what prickly; heads about 2 inches high; the outer bracts thickened by gland-
ular-viscid ridge; corolla rose-color, purple or pale purple; the variety mega-
cephaleum with larger heads.
Distribution. West of the Missouri River to Oregon and New Mexico.
Injurious properties, None of the species is poisonous so far as the
writer knows. The spiny involucre and spiny leaves inflict inflammation and
cause the formation of pus.
28. Centaurea L,.
Perennial or annual herbs, with leaves alternate, entire, dentate, incised or
pinnatifid; involucre ovoid or globose; bracts in many series; marginal flowers
usually neutral and larger than the central ones in some species; all the flowers
perfect and fertile; heads middle-sized, tubular, purple-violet, or white or rarely
802 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
yellow; receptacle flat and bristly; corolla-tube slender and 5-cleft or 5-lobed;
anthers sagittate at the base; achenes oblong or obovoid; pappus of several
series of bristles and scales.
About 350 species mostly of the old world where they are troublesome
weeds. The common bluebottle or corn flower is frequently cultivated in
gardens and is a frequent escape from cultivation,
Fig. 458. Flowers of centaurea. 1, Flower; a, anther; 2, style. At the left, Achene
and Pappus.
Centaurea solstitialis Linn. Knapweed
Erect, branched, cottony, stems winged, lower leaves lyrate, upper linear
entire, decurrent, spines of upper bracts long spreading with a few smaller ones
at the base, pappus soft.
Distribution. Fields in California, also in Europe and England, rare; in-
troduced with alfalfa. Introduced into Iowa with alfalfa seed.
Injurious properties. Because of the spiny character of the plant it is often
troublesome to man and animals.
29. Silybum (Vaill.) Adans. Milk Thistle
Annual or biennial, much branched herbs; leaves large, alternate, clasping,
white-blotched; heads discoid, solitary at the end of the branches; involucre
large; bracts rigid, some armed with large spreading or recurved spines; flowers
all tubular; corolla-tube slender, top 5-cleft; anthers sagittate; achenes obovate-
oblong; pappus-bristles in several rows,
A single species, native to the Mediterranean region.
Silybum Marianum (.) Gaertn. Lady’s Thistle
A tall branched glabrous annual with striate stem; leaves oblong lanceolate,
prickly clasping.
Distribution. Occasionally found eastward especially in ballast and common
on the Pacific coast, from British Columbia to Southern California.
Injurious properties. The spiny leaves and involucre have been trouble-
some; produces mechanical injuries.
A CATALOGUE OF THE POISONOUS PLANTS OF
THE WORLD
- In the following catalogue an attempt has been made to record all of the
species that have been in some way or another regarded as poisonous or in-
jurious to man. This catalogue, however, is based mainly on the plants listed
by Greshoff, Cornevin, Chesnut, Ernst, Lyons, Maiden, Miquel, Radlkofer,
Rusby, Smith, White in “Dermatitis venenata,” but includes also a few from
other scattered sources. The poisonous fungi were listed from Atkinson, Hard,
Clements, and some from Fries, Peck, Farlow, and Bulliard. It was not thought
best to list the fungi from the works of Ratzeburg and Phoebus entirely be-
cause of the uncertainty as to the poisonous qualities. It should be stated that
many of the plants in this list are not poisonous nor are they always given as
poisonous by the authors credited to them after the species, in fact, many of
them on the whole must be regarded as plants simply having medicinal virtues.
It was thought best, however, to list them, to permit future investigators to
take up the problem of the chemistry and poisonous qualities of these plants
from an experimental standpoint. It is simply an indication of the lines along
which work should be done. We have also indicated the action of the plant, or
in some few cases the important substance found in the plant. The alphabetical
arrangement has been adopted except as to the lower forms. In the last col-
umn the distribution is indicated usually only where the plant is indigenous,
but in some cases North America is added where the plant has been introduced.
I have been greatly aided in this work by the excellent treatise of A. B.
Lyons, “Plant Names, Scientific and Popular,” published by Nelson Baker &
Co., and also by the excellent work of Sayre, “Organic Materia Medica and
_ Pharmacognosy.”
In the preparation of this catalogue I have received very substantial help
from Miss Harriette S. Kellogg, who has looked after the details in catalogue-
ing the species and the synonyms. In some cases the synonyms could not be
found in the Kew Index, and these have been allowed to stand as they were
given by the authors. Some duplication of names may occur, and possibly
through: an oversight some have been placed in the wrong orders, but I ask
the reader’s indulgence in errors of this kind.
Finally, I am indebted to Miss Bertha D. Herr for the laborious task of
getting the copy ready for the printer. L. H. PAMMEL.
The following abbreviations refer to the properties mentioned in the third
column of the catalogue.
Abort.—abortifacient Astr.—astringent
Acr.—acrid poison Berb.—contains berberin
Alk.—alkaloidal poison Card.—cardiac poison
Amyg.—contains amygdalin Cath.—cathartic
Androm.—contains andromedotoxin Con.—convulsive
Anes.—anesthetic Cou.—contains coumarin
Ant.—anthelmintic Cur.—curare poison
Antisc.—antiscorbutic ‘i Cyt.—contains cytisin
Antisp.—antispasmodic Del.—deleriant
804 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
A. P.—arrow poison
Ast.—asthenic
Dr. Em.—drastic-emetic
Em.—emetic
Ent.—causes enteritis
Eser.—contains eserin
Exp.—expectorant
F, P.—fish poison
Gastr.—causes gastro-enteritis
Hyd.—contains HCN.
Hyp.—hypnotic
Ineb.—inebriant
Ins.— insecticide
Intox.—intoxicant
Ir.—irritant
Lax.—laxative
Loco.—causes loco poisoning
Mech.—causes mechanical injuries
Nar.—narcotic
Diaph.—diaphoretic
Diur.—diuretic
Naus.—nauseant
Ord.—ordeal poison
Par.—paralyzing
Pur.—purgative
Sap.—contains saponin
Sed.—sedative
Sial.—sialagogue
Sol.—contains solanin
Sop.—soporific
Stim.—stimulant
Taen.—taenifuge
Toxal.—Contains a toxalbumin.
Tymp.—causes tympanites
Ur.—causes uraemic poisoning
Urt.—urticarial
Ver.—vermifuge
Ves.—vesicant
The abbreviations for the literature referred to are as follows:
C—Cornevin’s Les plantes vénéneuses et ses empoisonnements qui elles
determinent,
Ches.—Chesnut’s Preliminarv Catalogue of Plants Poisonous to Stock.
E.—Ernst’s Ueber fischvergiftenden Pflanzen.
G.—Greshoff’s The Distribution of Prussic Acid in the Vegetable Kingdom.
Phytochemical Investigations at Kew.
K.—Kirtikar’s The Poisonous Plants of Bombay,
L.—Lyon’s Plant Names, Scientific and Popular.
M.—Maiden’s Plants reputed to be Poisonous to Stock in Australia.
M.i—Miquel’s Poisonous Plants of North Netherlands.
R.—Radlkofer’s Plants said to be Poisonous to Fish,
Rusby—Rusby’s The Poisonous Plants of the Vicinity of New York City.
Sm.—Smith’s Poisonous Plants of all Countries.
Wh.—White’s Dermatitis venenata.
ACANTHACEAE
NAME OF PLANT Authority | Properties Localitv
Hygrophila hispida Nees. G. Em. Cuba
Justicia Gendarussa Burm. G. Tr. As.
Lepidagathis Wightiana Benth. G. Abort.
Paulowilhelmia polysperma Benth. G. ey tke Tr. Afr.
Paulowilhelmia speciosa Hochst. G. Em. Abyss.
Rhinacanthus communis Nees. G. Ind. Malay.
; Burma. Abyss.
Ruellia patula Nees, G. Em. Arab. Ind.
Ruellia strepens L. G. Em. N. Am. W. Ind.
Ruellia tuberosa L. G. 1. . |Em. N, Am. Tr. Am.
ADOXACEAE
ALISMACEAE
Alisma Plantago L. Tem, N. Am.
G. M. L. be
Austr.
ee
POISONOUS PLANTS OF THE WORLD 805
NAME OF PLANT
Achyranthes bidentata BI.
Amaranthus gangeticus L.
Amaranthus hybridus L.
Amaranthus hypochondriacus L,.
Amaranthus viridis L.
Celosia anthelmintica Aschers.
Celosia trigyna L,.
Deeringia celosioides R. Br.
AMARYLLIDACEAE
Amaryllis Belladonna L.
Buphane disticha Herb.
Crinum asiaticum L,
Crinum zeylanicum L,.
Curculigo scorzoneraefolia Baker
Furcraea gigantea Vent.
Galanthus nivalis L,
Haemanthus
Haemanthus coccineus L,
Hippeastrum equestre Herb.
Hippeastrum rutilum: Herb.
Hymenocallis sp.
Leucojum aestivum LL.
Leucojum vernum L,.
Lycoris radiata Herb.
Narcissus poeticus L.
Narcissus Pseudo-Narcissus L,.
Narcissus Tazetta L.
Pancratium Illyricum L,
Pancratium maritimum L.
Pancratium zeylanicum L,.
Sprekelia formosissima Herb.
Zephyranthes Atamasco Herb.
ANACARDIACEAE
Buchanania sp.
Comocladia glabra Spreng.
Corynocarpus laevigata Forst.
Gluta Benghas L,.
Holigarna caustica Roxb.
Holigarna longifolia Roxb.
Lithraea venenosa Miers.
Mangifera indica L.
Oncocarpus vitiensis A.
Pistacia Khinjuk Stocks
Pseudosmodingium perniciosum Engl.
Rhus Cotinus L,.
*Rhus glabra L.
Q
QO pe
aa aaZe
=n
oO
AMARANTHACEAE
Authority
G.
Cc. F snas i P:
SORNDOOFOONNOO
_
ze
ero)
L,.
Locality
IT'r. As.
Trop. Reg.
Eur. N. A.
N. Am. Eur,
Tr Reg
ANAM
Ht
setae
m
ARAHOHHALA ©
Med. Reg.
Tr) As) Paci Ts.
Austr.
Cuba.
N. Zeal.
Java.
Ind.
Ind.
S. Am.
Malay, Ind.
Fiji Is.
Egyp. Pers.
|Him.
Mex.
Eur. China.
Med. Reg.
N. A.
* Just as this part of the work is going to press I have received two important papers
on Rhus by L. E. Warren in which the statement is made that the poisonous substance
of Rhus is a powerful escharotic, one milligram producing very severe blistering when
806 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
NAME OF PLANT Authority
Rhus Metopium L, |
Properties
Locality
ee Emeto-Cath|N. A. W. I.
Rhus Toxicodendron L,. [iy UGresaesetnern alu N. Am.
Rhus venenata DC. G. Ir. N. Am.
Rhus vernicifera DC. CooL. Wid Thib. Jap. .
Sclerocarya Caffra Sond. G. ives S. Afr. Austr.
Semecarpus Anacardium L,. G. E.. ade; As. Tr. Austr.
Semecarpus heterophylla Bl. G. Ir. Java.
Spondias mangifera Willd. G. Ir Trop. As,
ANONACEAE
Anona amara Raeusch, G. Guiana
Anona Cherimolia Mill. G. je a Tr. Am.
Anona muricata L, G. L, Astr, Tr. Am.
Anona palustris L. rie) RB yee Tr. Am. & Aft
Anona reticulata L. GuLA Act Tr Am
Anona spinescens Mart. G. Brazil
Anona squamosa L, L FP Ind
Asimina triloba Dun. L Em N. Am
G
G
Goniothalamus macrophyllus Hook. G.
Guatteria veneficiorum Mart. G. Brazil.
Popowia pisocarpa Endl. G.
Xylopia odoratissima Welw. :
Xylopia polycarpa Oliv. Berb. ts Afr.
Xylopia salicifolia HBK. Tr. S. Am
APOCYNACEAE
Acokanthera Lamarkii G. Don. | G. S. Afr.
Acokanthera venenata G. Don. G. S. Afr
Adenium Boehmianum Schinz. | G. Afr
Adenium obesum Roem & Schult. | G. Afr. Arab
Adenium somalense Oliv. | G. [A. P. Afr
Aganosma calycina A.DC. | G. FE. PY Ind.
Allamanda cathartica L,. | G. Em. ‘Tr Arn
Alstonia constricta F. Muell. Ly, | Bitter |
Trop. Old
Alstonia Scholaris R. Br. Gals: World
Alstonia venenata R. Br. G. Ind.
Alyxia buxifolia R. Br. G. Austr.
placed on the arm for fifteen minutes. When in contact with the air it produces the
characteristic non toxic varnish. The resinous products from the latex of the Rhus give
black compounds with the alkali hydroxides. The irritating properties he thinks will be
found to be connected with the presence or the relations of these hydroxyl groups.
This writer found that the milk sap of Rhus vernix is analagous in almost every
particular to the Japanese lac. Warren agrees with nearly everyone else that the bacterial
infection theory has very little to support it. Nor is there much to support the recently
elaborated theory of immunity. He shows hew a popular impression in regard to supposed
immunity has become widespread even among scientists. It has not, however, been demon-
strated. In the same way, contrary to the early published records, Rhus Michauxii has
been shown by Warren and Trelease not to be poisonous. As to treatments, Warren, after
an extensive investigation of the subject, states that the great majority are empirical.
“There is no specific for this troublesome complaint. Remedies which have alleviated
the symptoms in one case have proved utterly valueless or worse in others.” ‘The follow-
ing species are listed by Warren as poisonous:
Rhus venenata D. C, (R. vernix L.); Rhus radicans 1,.; Rhus Toxicodendron I,.;
Rhus diversiloba. Torr. & Gray; Rhus Rydbergii Small; Rhus Metopium 1; Rhus flori-
dana Mearns; Rhus littoralis Mearns; Rhus vernicifera DC; Rhus succedanea I,.; Rhus
sylvestris Sieb. & Zucc.; Rhus Wallichii Hook. fils; Rhus Grifithii Hook. fils; Rhus striata
R. & Pav.; Rhus perniciosa H. B. & K.; Rhus chinensis Mill.; Rhus javanica L.; Rhus
caustica Hook. & Arn.; Rhus lucida L,.
POISONOUS PLANTS OF THE WORLD 807
NAME OF PLANT Authority | Properties Locality
Alyxia daphnoides A. Cunn. G. Norfolk Is.
Amsonia Tabernaemontana Walt. N. Am,
Apocynum androsaemifolium L, Ches. G.C.|Card. |N. Am,
Rusby L. |
Apocynum cannabinum L. Ches. “ot. F. P. Card.|N. Am,
Rusby L.
Apocynum venetum L,. G. | Med. Reg. Ori-
Aspidosperma quebracho-blanco Schlecht.| %. L. | aie As. Ind.
. Am.
Aspidosperma sessilifolium Fries. Gas Rue: S. Am.
Cameraria latifolia L,. G. | Ind.
Carissa ovata R. Br G. Austr.
Carissa Xylopicron Thou. G. Mascar Is.
Cerbera Odollam Gaertn. GAC Re ee: Ind. Malay.
Cerbera Tanghin Hook. Cans
Echites alexicaca Mart. & Stadelm. | iv Cath. Braz.
Echites maculata A. DC. evGenG: St. Doming. Is.
Echites venenosa Mart. Lievens CMe CSc, ial 2 Brazil.
Ellertonia Rheedi Wight. | c Ind.
Geissospermum vellosii Allem Ga Bitter Braz.
Haplophyton cimicidum A. DC. G. Ins. Mex.
Malouetia nitida Spruce Cre. Bal iPAQ Braz.
Melodinus monogynus Roxb. - Go Ry [Boe Him, Malaya.
China.
Nerium odorum Soland. G. Car. Per Jap. Ind.
Nerium Oleander L. G. C. Mi.jCar. Med. Reg. Ori.
Ches. L,.
Ochrosia Moorei F. von Muell. G. Austr.
Plumiera rubra L. Gay Ty, Trop, Am.
Pottsia cantonensis Hook & Arn. G. Ind. Java China
Prestonia toxifera G. |
Rauwolfia serpentina Benth. G. Lge 2 Ind. Java.
Rauwolfia trifoliata Gaertn. G. | Java.
Rauwolfia verticillata Baill. G. Ban be
Strobilanthes callosus Nees. K. | Ind.
Strophanthus Eminii Asch, | bE [Aok: |Cent. Afr.
Strophanthus hispidus DC. Geek! ES Ri AL B So Adin
Strophanthus Kombe Oliver | Les Bes Trop. Afr.
Strophanthus Pierrei Heim. G. W. Afr.
Tabernaemontana Borbonica Lam. G.
Tabernaemontana citrifolia L,. G. Ind. Mex.
Taberaemontana coronaria Willd. G. | iInd.
Taberaemontana malaccensis Hook. G. | !Malacca,
Taberaemontana Mauritiana Poir. G. a oa ee. |Mascar. Is.
Tabernanthe Iboga Baill. G. | |Trop. Afr.
Thevetia Ahouai A.DC, G. R. By BP. Brazil.
Thevetia nereifolia Juss. CG: CyR ieee: |Tr, Am.
Urechites suberecta Muell. Gi Te + sed: ‘St. Doming, Is.
Vinea major L. G. lL. |Abort Med. Reg.
Vinca minor L, Eh Astr Eur.
Vinca pusilla Murr. G. Ind.
AQUIFOLIACEAE
Ilex Cassine Walt. sm. L. |Em. Cath, |N. Am.
Tlex glabra A. Gray L. Astr. Wis Ae
Tlex verticillata A, Gray By Astr. N... A;
ee a ae
808 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
ARACEAE .
NAME OF PLANT Authority | Properties Locality
Alocasia indica Schott. G. | Ind. Malay.
Alocasia montana Schott. G. Ind. Malay.
Amorphophallus viridis BI. G. |
Anthurium Ferrierense it
Arisaema curvatum Kunth. G. In? Him. Reg
Arisaema tortuosum Schott. G. ped Him. Reg
Arisaema triphyllum Schott. Rusby |Em. N. A.
Arisaema vulgare Targ. G. if Med. Reg. )
Arum Dioscoridis Sibth. G. | 'Greece re Min. —
Arum Dracontium Schott. L. Acr N. A.
Arum italicum Mill. GC. Mi. |Sap Eur.
Arum maculatum L. G. Mi. Ir. Eur.
Arum triphyllum Schott. L. Acr N. A.
Caladium bicolor Vent. G. Ins. Am. Ausfr.
Caila palustris L, (Cob racer. |Eur. As. N-Am.
Colocasia antiquorum Schott. Ge ie Aver Te. As:
Colocasia gigantea Hook f. G. Acr
Colocasia virosa Kunth G. Acr Ind.
Cryptocoryne spiralis Fisch, G. Erm. Ind.
Cyrtosperma Merkusii Schott. G. Sumatra.
Dracontium asperum C. Koch. G. Brazil.
Dracunculus vulgaris Schott. & 1S.) Bar,
Epipremnum mirabile Schott. G. L. {Ant. |Java.
Homalomena aromatica Schott. G | |Malay. Ind.
Lasia aculeata sp. Lour. G. Hyd |Tr. As.
Monstera pertusa Schott. G. Tr. |Tr. Am.
Philodendron bipinnatifidum Schott. — | G | | Brazil.
Philodendron hederaceum Schott. | G P. S. Am.
Philodendron Imbe Schott. G. em |Argentine.
Philodendron Simsii Sweet. Sm. Ir. ‘Guiana.
Pinellia tuberifera Ten. Ged ie |Japan.
Scindapsus officinalis Schott. G, Ant. |Burma.
Spathiphyllum candicans Poepp. G. Trop. Am.
Symplocarpus foetidus Nutt. hoSnaly ia E. N. Am.
ARALIACEAE
Aralia sp. G. Eee N. Am. Asia
Aralia hispida Vent. | L; Dur. N. E..U. S
Aralia nudicaulis L. | 16 Dur. IN. Beas
Aralia racemosa L,. | G. Them: IN. A.
Aralia spinosa L, L. Diur. N. Am.
Hedera Helix L. iG. C. L.|Em. Nar |Eur. Afm As
Heptapleurum emarginatum Seem. G. Zeylan.
Heptapleurum scandens Seem. G. Malay.
Heptapleurum venulosum Seem. G. Austr.
Panax sp. G. Sap. N. Am, As
Polyscias sp. G. Sap. Austr. N. Zeal.
|\Afr. Madagas.
Malay. Pac. Is.
Polyscias nodosa Seem. G. Fh al oe ‘Malay.
Trevesia sp. G. Sap. \Java, Sumatra.
ARISTOLOCHIACEAE
Aristolochia anguicida Jacq. G. Diaph. S. Am.
Aristolochia antihysterica Mart. G. Em. Brazil.
Aristolochia argentina Griseb. G. em. Argent. Reg.
POISONOUS PLANTS OF THE WORLD 809
NAME OF PLANT Authority | Properties Locality
Aristolochia brasiliensis Mart. & Zucc.| | Er. Brazil.
Aristolochia Clematitis L, |G, C Mi. |Em. Eur. Caucas.
| Reg. As. Minor.
Aristolochia elegans Mast. G. Em. Brazil.
Aristolochia grandiflora Arruda Cre Pernamb.
Aristolochia indica L. G. Ind.
Aristolochia Kaempferi Willd. G. Japan.
Aristolochia longa L. aan, ures Daa Med. Reg.
Aristolochia pallida Willd. | G. |F. P. Nar. |Eur. As. Minor.
Aristolochia Pistolochia L, ek @ hn ieee a |Med. Reg.
Aristolochia rotunda L. | G. L. | Nar. 'Med. Reg.
Aristolochia Serpentaria L,. Ly, |Diaph Bvwss
Aristolochia sp. | E. BP Italy.
Asarum albivenium Regel. G. Em Japan.
Asarum arifolium Mx. By Tr. Wi A,
Asarum canadense L. ue ie N. Am.
Asarum caudatum L, L. Ir, Calif.
Asarum europaeum L. |Mi. Sm. L.|Ir. Em.-Cat. Dap
Asarum virginicum L, | L. ibe A.
Bragantia tomentosa BI. | G. JA) ek Ind. Malay.
Thottea dependens Klotzsch. | G. \Ir. | Malay.
ASCLEPIADACEAE
Araujia sericifera Brot. | G. am |Peru.
Asclepias curassavica L. Gey) eet S. Am.
Asclepias eriocarpa Benth. L. Em W. N. Am.
Asclepias incarnata L,. Ches. C.L,JAnt N. Am.
Asclepias mexicana Cav. Ches. |Em. W. N. Am.
Asclepias syriaca L,. Ches. C. L.| Em. N. Am
Asclepias tuberosa L, C. Ches. |Em N. Am.
Calotropis gigantea R. Br. by KG ain ean Ind.
Calotropis procera R. Br. | G. ate Be N. Afr.
Ind
Ceropegia bulbosa Roxb. | G. | |Ind.
Chlorocodon Whiteii Hook. G. Cou Ss Ath,
Choristigma Stieckertianum. G. Arg.
Cosmostigma racemosa Wight. G. | Ind.
Cryptostegia grandiflora R. Br. | G. Tr. Afr, Ind.
| |(Cult.).
Cynanchum acutum L, Tih Sin Bae | Ore (Kur. Ori. As.
Cynanchum sarcostemmoides K. Schum. G. |
Gonolobus laevis Mx. G. |A. P N. Am.
Gonolobus obliquus R. Br. G. | |N. Am.
Gymnema latifolium Wall. | G. Ind. Burma.
Gymnema sylvestre R. Br. GL) Destroys») Ind. ie Ade
sense of Austr.
taste |
Hemidesmus indicus R. Br. Gu Cou Zeylan,
Marsdenia Cundurango Nich. L. Dog Poison|S. A.
Marsdenia erecta R. Br. Ce Oe yr.
Menabea venenata Baill. Ge sored: !Madagas.
Metaplexis Stauntoni Schult. : |China.
Morrenia brachystephana Griseb. G. Argentine.
Periploca graeca L. : G. L. |Em. Wolt- |S. Eur.
Periploca vomitoria Leschen. G. (Em. \Java.
Sarcolobus carinatus Wall. G. | Ind. Burma.
Sarcolobus narcoticus Miq. G. TNar. Java.
%
810 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
NAME, OF PLANT Authority | Properties Locality
Sarcostemma australe R. Br. Gee 7] Aust.
Sarcostemma glaucum HBK. G Em. S. Am. Venez.
Solenostemma Argel Del. 1: Nubia.
Stapelia sp. Cc: S. Afr.
Tylophora asthmatica W. & A. Go ey Bim. Ind. Malay.
Tylophora fasciculata Ham. G. Em. Ind.
Tylophora laevigata Decne. G. Em. Maurit Is.
Vincetoxicum nigrum Moench. CG Dr. Em. Eur. As. Minor.
Vincetoxicum officinale Moench. C.MivL. [Drs Bm: Eur. Cag, @
BALSAMINACEAE
Impatiens amphorata Edgew. | G. | Him.
Impatiens aurea Muhl. | a: Diur. N. A.
Impatiens biflora Walt. | iff Diur. N. A.
Impatiens Noli-tangere L, | G. LL. |t,Dier. |Eur. Siberia.
BEGONIACEAE
Begonia gracilis HBK. | G. |Jém. |Mex,
BERBERIDACEAE
Berberis Aquifolium Pursh. oe seh N. Am.
Berberis aristata DC. Cet, ab. Pe Ind.
Berberis vulgaris L. GL... IF. PL Ir... |Bur. Demes
Caulophyllum thalictroides Michx. Goal ae: N. Am.
Leontice Leontopetalum L, Giedleealtit: Or Italy Orient,
Nandina domestica Thunb. G. Opium Japan China.
Podophyllum Emodi Wall. L. Cath. Him. Reg.
Podophyllum peltatum L. Sm. Rusby|Pur. |N. Am.
| C. Ches. |
BETULACEAE
Betula lenta L. | Witthaus | Astr. E. N. Am.
Betula lutea Michx. | Witthaus |Astr. |E. N. Am.
BIGNONIACEAE
Bignonia capreolata L,. GreRedpelieek: IN. Am.
Crescentia cucurbitina L,. G. | Tr. Am.
Crescentia Cujete L. G. Trop. Am.
Dolichandrona falcata Seem. G F. P. Abort.|Ind.
Jacaranda procera Spr. R vee: ‘Guiana.
Osmohydrophora nocturna G ae Braz.
Tanaecium crucigerum Seem. G. W. Ind.
Tecoma ceramensis Teijsm & Binn. is " Ceram Is.
Tecoma leucoxylon Mart. ware P. Guiana W, Ind.
Tecoma obtusata DC. e. |Brazil.
Tecoma radicans Juss. R. N. Am.
Tecoma speciosa DC. te Brazil.
Tecoma stans Juss. G. N. Am. S. Am,
Tecoma toxophora Mart. G. Brazil.
BIXACEAE
Gynocardia odorata R. Br, RX ee Pest ee ~ [Ind.
Hydnocarpus anthelminticum Pierce. L. Ant.
Hydnocarpus castanea H. F. & Thoms. G | endl ss Andoman Is.
Malacca.
POISONOUS PLANTS OF THE WORLD 811
NAME OF PLANT Authority | Properties Locality
Hydnocarpus heterophylla Bl. [Peo Bone Java.
Hydnocarpus Kurzii I. Ant Trop. As.
Hydnocarpus piscidia Sm.
Hyndocarpus venenata Gaertn. BC Be Zeylan.
Hydnocarpts Wrightiana Bl. LDN Raa iM AN itd \Ind,
Pangium ‘edule Reinw. | GR, BE. Hyd. Fo P.. Java.
Taraktogenos Blumei Hassk. G. Eosndte Sumatra.
Trichadenia zeylanica Thw. | G. Zeylan.
BORAGINACEAE
Asperugo procumbens L, | Sm. | N. As. Eur.
Borago officinalis L. |. Whiy'C. : (Ir, Afr. As.
Pourreria Havanensis Miers. | G. | iCuba.
Cynoglossum officinale L. Gi Ly B |Kur. Orient.
Echium vulgare L. G. (Ir. \Eur. N. Am.
Heliotropium europaeum L. | G. | (eur, Afr. Ori.
| Austr. N. Am.
Int.
BROMELIACEAE
Ananas sativus Schult. Neer ee Aart (Tr. Am.
Bromelia Pinguin L, leas Grenier esas Tr. Am
Karatas Plumieri Emorr. H G. Ant |Panama,
BURMANNIACEAE
Dipodium punctatum R. Br. A a aR | Aust.
BURSERACEAE
Canarium sp. | G. A SASY ec (Aust. Pac. Is.
| | Philipp.
Canarium commune Linn. L. |Cath. i‘Molucea_Is.
BU XACEAE
Buxus balearica Lam. G. Cath |Balearic Is.
Buxus sempervirens L. Ches,'G. Cats, |Eur, Ori. Tem.
L. JAs.
CACTACEAE
Anhalonium Lewinii Henn. \Card. Ineb.| Mex.
Nar.
Cereus Bonplandii Parm. Card. Sed. \Brazil.
Cereus flagelliformis Mill. Ant. jo. Am.
Cereus grandiflorus Mill. in Card: a Ind.
Sed.
Cereus McDonaldii Hook. is oi y Honduras,
Echinocactus sp. | G. N. Am.
Echinocactus Williamsii Lem, Gil ods, eu |Mex. Tex.
Mammillaria sp. G. | W. N. Am.
Rhipsalis sp. G. 'S. Am, Trop.
| | |Am.
CALYCANTHACEAE
Calycanthus glaucus Willd.
|G. L. Ches.|Sheep Poi.
|\N. Am.
812 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
CAMPANULACEAE (Including LOBELIACEAE)
NAME OF PLANT Authority | Properties Locality
Isotonia axillaris Lindl. = = =~ © | GM... ©. (Aneel
Isotoma Brownii G. Don. M. Austr.
Isotoma longiflora Presl. G. M. W. Ind.
Lobelia cardinalis L,. C. Mi. L.| Ant. E. N. Am.
Rusby
Lobelia fulgens Willd. C. Mi, [{Ac. Eur.
Lobelia inflata L. Sm. Ches.|Dep. Em. |N. Am.
L. Rusby. |
Lobelia Kalmii L. Ches. | IN. A.
Lobelia nicotianaefolia Heyne. G. Ac. \Ind.
Lobelia pratioides Benth. G ein Acr Austr.
Lobelia rhynchopetalum Hemsl. Tr, Afr.
Lobelia siphilitica L. Maa Acr E. N. A.
Ches.
Lobelia spicata Ruiz. & Pav. | Ches, | Peru.
Lobelia Tupa L. GR bec P Chili. Peru.
Lobelia urens Willd. Gx Ci ACE Eur.
Pratia erecta Gaud. ae oe Austr.
Siphocampylus giganteus Don. ss | = Gs | sd Equa,
CANELLACEAE
Canella alba Murr. [IG Te Sap. BV Be
CAPPARIDACEAE
Boscia urens Welw. G. | Tr. Afr.
Cadaba indica Lam. G. Ind.
(Capparis Cynophallophora L. G. Sm. L.|Ant. Diur. |S. Am.
BS aris ferruginea L. L. Ant. Diur. |W. Ind.
Capparis globifera Del. G. Try Afs,
\Capparis odoratissima Jacq. G. S. Am. Venez.
Teome Chelidonii Lf. G. Ind. Java.
Cleome frutescens Aubl. G. Guiana.
Cleome gigantea L. G. Braz. S. Am.
Cleome graveolens Raf. G. Iz, |N. Am.
Cleome psoraleaefolia DC. G. | | Brazil.
Cleome rosea G. i Shy a | Texas.
Cleome spinosa Jacq. G. ©. Aim,
Maerua angolensis DC. G. Tr Aim
Morisonia americana L, G. | |S. Am.
CAPRIFOLIACEAE
Abelia uniflora R. Br. G. Hyd. China.
Diervilla japonica DC. G. Sap. Japan.
Diervilla trifida Moench. L. Diur. N. Am,
Lonicera chrysantha Turcz. | G. Sap. ‘Siberia.
Lonicera involucrata Banks G. Sap. N. Am. Ry.Mts,
Lonicera japonica Thunb. G. Sap. Him. Reg.
Lonicera Standishii Hook. G. China.
Lonicera tatarica L. G. Sap. Siberia.
Lonicera tomentella Hook f. & Thoms. Sap Him. Reg.
Lonicera Xylosteum L. G. Sap. [Rur. N. As.
Sambucus canadensis L. C.Rusby L,.|Em. IE. N. Am.
Sambucus Ebulus L. Gi'Cy (San. e Eur. Him.
eg.
Sambucus mexicana Presl. q,: Em, IW. N. A
POISONOUS PLANTS OF THE WORLD 813
NAME OF PLANT Authority | Properties Locality
Sambucus nigra L, |G.C. Rusby|Pur. |Rur. N. As.
Sambucus racemosa L, Gari IN. Tem. Reg.
Symphoricarpos mollis Nutt. G. Sap. IW. N, Am.
Symphoricarpos racemosus Michx. G. Tr. |N. Am
Triosteum majus Michx, E. N. Am
Triosteum perfoliatum L. G.Rusby L.|Cath. N. Am.
Viburnum Lantana L. Gy A. “Aste |Kur, Cauc. Reg.
Viburnum macrophyllum Thunb. G. Sap. |Japan.
Viburnum Opulus L. Gy. Sens |Eur. As. N.Am.
CARYOPHYLLACEAE
Acanthophyllum C. A. Mey. sp.
Agrostemma Githago L, Ge ‘Sm. leap Tr: Eur. As Int. N.
‘Ches, | & S.Am. Austr.
Arenaria serpyllifolia L. | Abert Eur.
Dianthus chinensis L. | G. | Sap. Eur. Tem. As.
Gypsophila Struthium L. | G_L. [Sap. Spain.
Herniaria glabra L. | G. Sap. Eur. N. As.
Lychnis chalcedonica L. | G. | Sap. Japan.
Lychnis dioica L. G. Sap. Eur. N. As.
Lychnis Flos-cuculi L. | G. Sap. Eur. N. As.
Lychnis indica Benth. | G. Sap Him. Reg.
Polycarpaea sp. . G. Sap. Atistr:.: Pac. 3s:
| - Trop.
Saponaria officinalis L. Gwe be lr" Sap Eur, W. As.
Saponaria Vaccaria L. | G. aa Eur. As. Min.
| |Siber.
Silene antirrhina L. [is oes E. N. Am.
Silene Cucubalis Wibel. | G. | Eur. N. Afr.
| | |Him. Reg
Silene Griffithii Boiss. G. Him. Reg
Silene macrosolen Steud. G. | Abyss.
ue virginica L, G. pats N. Am.
ilene viscosa Pers. G. Eur. N- Am.
Stellaria crassifolia Ehrh. | G. | N. & Arct. Reg.
CELASTRACEAE
Catha edulis Forsk. G, |Stim. | Trop. Afr.
Celastrus scandens L. | Ches. L. |Em. E. N. Am.
Elaeodendron orientale Jacq. | G. | Madag. Is.
| | Maurit.
Euonymus atropurpureus Jacq. LG ni oe PL Earry. N. Am.
Euonymus Europaeus L. | G. Cc. |Em. Pur. |Eur. As. Min.
Euonymus latifolius Mill. Em. Eur. As. Minor.
Kurrimia zeylanica Arn. G. Ray |Zeyl.
Lophopetalum pallidum Laws. G. | Malacca.
CHENOPODIACEAE
Atriplex Halimus L. G. |Sap. N. & S. Afr.
Atriplex hortensis L. G. L. |Sap. Em. |Cosmop. Cult,
Atriplex laciniata L. G. Sap. Eur. N. Am.
Atriplex Nuttallii S. Wat. G. Sap. W. N. Am.
Atriplex rosea L,. G. Sap. iKur. N. Am. N.
; Afr. As. Minor.
Atriplex tatarica L. G Sap. Cent. As.
Atriplex vesicaria Hew. | G ap Austr.
Chenopodium ambrosioides L.
(Temp. & Trop.
814 MANUAL, OF POISONOUS PLANTS
NAME OF PLANT Authority
ee |
Chenopodium anthelminticum L,. be Say, aa
Chenopodium Bonus-Henricus L. | L,. Ant
Chenopodium Botrys L. LG af eA
Chenopodium californicum S. Wat. | G. | Sap.
Chenopodium hybridum L, ! G.
Chenopodium mexicanum Mog. G. Sap
Chenopodium polyspermum L,. R. aS
Chenopodium rubrum L,. G.
Chenopodium Vulvaria L. |_ Sm,L. JAnt
Eurotia ceratoides C. A. Mey. | G. fags
Halocnemum fruticosum D. Dietr. G. |Ant
Kochia arenaria Roth. G. Sap.
Kochia scoparia Schrad. G. Sap.
Kochia trichophylla Hort. | G. Sap.
Salsola Kali L, ! G. Ant.
Salsola Kali var tenuifolia G. F.W. Mey. in
Salsola tamariscifolia Cav. G. Ant.
Sarcobatus Maximilianii Nees. | Ches. |Tymp.
|
CISTACEAE
COMBRETACEAE
Combretum bracteosum, Brandis G Sap.
Combretum erythrophyllum Sond. G.
Combretum phaneropetalum Bak. G.
Combretum racemosum Beauv. G. |
Combretum trifoliatum Vent. | G. | Ant.
Gustavia augusta L. Fa: FAP Sega {1 Sic
Gustavia brasiliana DC. Vc Ce: nike oe a ae
Quisqualis indica L,. G. Ver.
Terminalia Bellerica Roxb, [ee POR ha
Terminalia Chebula Retz. L. Astr.
Terminalia tomentosa Wight. G.
COMMELINACEAE
Athyrocarpus persicariaefolium Hemsl.| G. |
Commelina deficiens Herb. | G. Sap
Commelina nudiflora L. G.
Commelina tuberosa L. Faas creer
Tradescantia crassifolia Cav. | FP,
Tradescantia elongata G. F. W. Mey. | G. }
COMPOSITAE
Achillea Ptarmica L, | Misi kye ED
Anacyclus officinarum Hayne. GL. | yd
Anacyclus pedunculatus Pers. | G. Ur
Anacyclus Pyrethrum DC. Sm. 4 Sir.
Anthemis aetnensis Schouw. G. Hyd
Anthemis altissima L. G. livd
Properties
Locality
|Reg. N. Am.
Temp. & Trop. |
\Reg. N. Am.
|Eu. N. Am.
iCal.
|N. Temp. Reg.
\N. Am. Eur.
{Mex.
|Fur. N. As.
lhur. N. As.
Eur. N. Am.
(Cal. Eu. N. As.
|W. N. Am.
is Eur. N. Afr.
S. Eur. W. As. @
lEur. W. As.
|Am.
|Eu. As. N. Am.
Eur.
Ry. Mts. W.
|N. Am.
|
|S.. Afr.
|S. Afr.
‘Trop. Afr.
Hab.
iTr. As.
(Ind. Malay
Pre ava
'Ind.
Panama
Braz.
Tr. Reg.
Mex.
S. Am.
S. Am.
|N. Temp, Reg.
‘S. Eur.
| Barbar.
|N. Afr. Orient.
Mt. Aetna
Eur. Orient.
POISONOUS PLANTS OF THE WORLD 815
NAME OF PI,ANT Authority | Properties Locality
Anthemis arvensis L. G. Hyd. ‘Eur. Orient.
Anthemis austriaca Jacq. G. [lyd. ‘Eur. Orient.
Anthemis Blancheana Boiss. G. ilyd. Syria
Anthemis chia L. G. yd. Greece, As. Min.
Anthemis Cota L,. G. Hyd. \S. Eur.
Anthemis Cotula L, Gee.) ht iRur. N. Afr.
| Orient.
Anthemis elbuensis | G. | Hyd.
Anthemis montana L. G. vd. |Eur. Orient.
Anthemis nobilis L,. L. Naus, Stim.;Eu. As.
Arnica alpina Olin and Ladau. 1 Be Nar. ‘Eur, N. A.
Arnica Chamissonis Less. L. Nar. /Unalaschk.
Arnica montana L, G. Sm; Te) Par, In (Eur. N. A.
Nar
Arnica nudicaulis Ell. | te: | Nar N. A.
Artemisia Abrotanum J. [ny Gage Ineb ‘Eur. Temp. A.
Artemisia Absinthium L,. PG GSCI ii eh te dN age:
| Rusby |Ant Eur.
Artemisia arenaria DC. Sm. Ineb. \Cau. Reg,
Artemisia maritima L. L. G. |Ineh. Ant. |Eur. Cauc. Sib.
Artemisia mexicana Willd. G. Ant. Mex.
Artemisia pontica L. | Te: Ant, [Kur. Cau. Reg.
Artemisia trifida Nutt. | Le Diaph W. N. A.
Artemisia vulgaris. L; Antisp 'Tem, Reg.
Athanasia amara L. G. Ant. |
Atractylis gummifera L,. | Ger. [Med. Reg.
Baccharis cordifolia DC. G. L. [|Poi. Alk. |Brazil
Cardopatium corymbosum Pers. G. | 'As. Min. Med.
\Reg.
Carlina acaulis L. G. L... |Diur |Kur.
Centaurea Calcitrapa L. L, Tr. iN. Af. Eur.
Temp. As.
Centipeda orbicularis Lour. G. Ant \As. Austr.
| Pac.” Is.
Chrysanthemum Balsamita L. Go Ane |W. As.
Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium Vis. | ee Peto ins: |Dalmatia
Chrysanthemum Parthenium Berrh. GCN Eas’ Anti by pee
Chrysanthemum pinnatifiidum L. G. [Cum. [Madera Ts.
Chrysocoma Coma—aurea [L,. G. | 1S. Afr.
Clibadium Barbasco DC. |S Aaa Den WL DAN a
Clibadium surinamense L, CES TEES) IDET Fe |S. Am.
Cosmos sulphureus Cav. G. | ‘Mex.
Crepis lacera Ten. G. | iItaly
Cynara Cardunculus L. | G. |Diur. ‘Med. Reg
Dimorphotheca Ecklonis DC. G. [Hyd. Sap. |S. Afr
Dimorphotheca pluvialis Moench. G. | IS. Afr
Doronicum pardalianches L,. | Ir. iEur. As
Dysodia papposa Hitch. lie N. Am.
Echinops Ritro L. G. | N. Am
Elephantopus tomentosus L., | Gino: ean N. Am.
Elytropappus glandolusus Less. G. | iS. Afr.
Eupatorium amarissimum G. Ins.
Eupatorium cannabinum L, | Geely VD: (Bar oN. tAS:
Eurybia moschata G. |
Flaveria Contrayerba Pers. Gory Op Age. (Trop. Am.
Gnephosis eriocarpa Benth. G. Austr.
Grindelia robusta Nutt. G. L. fAntispas. “Call:
Grindelia Tournefortii L,. | G. Em.
Haplocarpha lyrata Hav. G | [S; Agr
816 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
NAME OF PLANT Authority | Properties
Helenium autumnale L. Ches. G.L,|Ir. Nar.
Helenium tenuifolium Nutt. Ches. G. L.|Ir. Nar.
Helianthus tuberosus L. @.
Helichrysum apiculatum D. Don | G. Ant.
Hieracium virosum Pall. | G.
Ichthyothere Cunabi Mart. RG, RoE se
Inula Royleana DC. G.
Lactuca Scariola L, iG.C. Mi.L.| Nar.
Lactuca taraxacifolia Schum. G. Nar.
Lactuca tatarica C. A. Mey. | G.
Lactuca virosa L. G. Mi, L. | Nar.
Launaea pinnatifida Cass. G.
Montanoa floribunda C. Koch. G.
Montanoa tomentosa Cerv. G.
Mutisia viciaefolia Cav. GL \Sap. Sed
Oldenburgia Arbuscula DC. G. Sap.
Olearia macrodonta Bak. G. Sap.
Olearia moschata Hook. G. |
Onopordon Acanthium L, ! G. |
Othonopsis intermedia Boiss. | G.
Parthenium MHysterophorus L. | L. |
Parthenium integrifolium L. | G. |Diur
Pentzia virgata Less, G.
Perezia oxylepis Sch. G.
Petasites officinalis Moench. G.
Picris hieracioides L. | 1 | Bitter
Prenanthes altissima L. G. L. {Bitter
Pterigeron adscendens Benth. G. M.
Pterocaulon pycnostachyum EI. G. | Nar.
Pulicaria dysinterica Gaertn. | Ty. |Ins,
Senecio gaudalensis. Ches.
Senecio Grayanus Heimsl.. G. oe
Senecio Jacobaea L. G. L. Ches.| Anodyne
Senecio toluccanus DC. 3.
Senecio vulgaris L. Ge Ly). Aste:
Senecio vulneraria DC. en ysere
Silybum Marianum Gaertn. L.. |Exp.
Solidago Virgaurea L, G.) L. {Diar
Spilanthes Acmella Murr. Lh Ge LPs:
Spilanthes oleracea L,. 1, Pung.
Tanacetum umbelliferum Boiss. G. Abort.
Tanacetum vulgare L. 'G.Rusby L.| Abort.
Vernonia anthelmintica Willd. 1) Gea Ant.
Vernonia nigritiana Oliv. and Hiern. | G.
Xanthisma texanum DC. G. Sap.
Xanthium canadense Mill. | G. Ches. |Mech.
Xanthium spinosum L, | G. Ches.
Xanthium Strumarium L, | G. Ches.
CONIFERAE
Cephalotaxus drupacea Sieb and Zucc. | G. |
Ginkgo biloba L. G. Acr.
Juniperus Sabina L. C.G. Mi.L,.\Abort.
Juniperus oxycedrus L, Sm. Abort.
|
Locality
N. Am.
N.Am. S.States
N. Am.
Austr.
N. As. Eur.
Brazil
Him, Reg.
\E. Eur.
iTr. Afr.
W. As. In.
Eur. N. As.
As. Trop. Afr.
Mex.
Mex.
Chili
iS. Afr.
IN. Zeal.
N. Zeal.
lEur. N. Afr.
|Orient.
Eur. N. As.
Eur. Tem. As.
fe N. Zea.
iN. Tem. Reg.
Cosm, Trop.
Ber -trop.
A.
bred,
'Rur.. N. As.
|Him. Reg.
(Tr. Afr.
Texas
|N, Am.
|\Cosm.
ICos.
Jap.
Jap.
Eur, N. As
S. Eur. Cauc.
Reg.
POISONOUS PLANTS OF THE WORLD 817
NAME OF PLANT Authority
Juniperus virginiana L., IC. L. G. Mi.|Abort.
Picea excelsa | White i
Pinus Laricio Poir. hae et
Pinus sylvestris L, | Sin: | Ineb
Sequoia sempervirens Endl. : |
Taxus baccata L,. Mi Rukh iH a
Taxus brevifolia Nutt.
Taxus canadensis Marsh. |Ches.Wh.L. mee
Thuja occidentalis L. | G. L. |Abort.
Torreya nucifera Sieb. and Zucc. G.
Tsuga cannadensis 1 We Aste
CONNARACEAE
Agelaea emetica H. Bu. G.
Cnestis corniculata Lam. G.
Cnestis glabra Lam. G.
Cnestis polyphylla Lam. G.
Cnestis glabara Lam. G.
Connarus africanus | G.
Rourea glabra HBK. | G. Con.
CONVOLVULACEAE
Convolvulus Scammonia L. (Ci Sm (Caih
Convolvulus sepium L. | Oe
Convolvulus venenatus West. G.
Cuscuta americana L, G.
Cuscuta australis R. Br. G. AC
Cvscuta Dorycnium L. | G.
Cuscuta epithymum Murr. Sm. = _|Cath.
Cuscuta europaea L. Sm. Cath.
Ipomoea emetica Choisy. G. Em.
Ipomoea Jalapa Coxe. | Cy Em.
Ipomoea pandurata G. F. W. Meyer. Rusby |Pur.
Ipomoea Purga Hayne. Sm. Pur.
Ipomoea sinuata Orteg. G. Em.
Ipomoea tuberosa L. G.
CORIACEAE
Coriaria myrtifolia L,. OU ONG BY |
Coriaria naepalensis Wall. G.
Coriaria ruscifolia L. | G. |
Coriaria sarmentosa Frost, | Gia
Coriaria thymifolia Humb. & Bonpl. G. |
CORNACEAE
Alangium Lamarckii Thwait. G.
Amyris balsamifera L. G. Tr
Aucuba japonica Humb. Sm. Exp.
Cornus Amomum Mill. OEE Sem yi ES 8
Cornus circinata L. Her. De LAS.
Cornus Mas. L,. L. Astr.
Cornus paniculata L. Her. Pammel |Exp.
Garrya Fremontii Torr. Gaur
Marlea Vitiensis Benth. G.
Properties
Locality
|B. N. A,
|Eur. Cult.
Mad. Maurit
Trop. Afr.
Trop. Afr.
| Venez.
|As. Minor
Eur, N. A.
St. Croix Is.
N. A.
Aus.
Eur. N. As.
N. Am.
Eur. Orient,
IN. Am.
Am. Calid.
|Trop. Reg.
Med. Reg.
Him. China
Peru
N. Zeal.
Peru
W. N. Am.
‘Austr. Pac. Is.
818 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
CRASSULACEAE
NAME OF PLANT Authority | Properties
Cotyledon ventricosa Burm. G.
Kalanchoe spathulata DC. G.
Sedum acre L, G. Mi. L. Ir.
Sempervivum montanum L,. G. Ir.
CRUCIFERAE
Barbarea vulgaris R. Br. GL,” [Antise:
Brassica alba Boiss. Sm. Tf.
Brassica arvensis L.
Brassica nigra Koch.
Capsella Bursa-pastoris Medic. G. Sap.
Cardamine amara L,
Cardamine pratensis L, G. L. {Antise.
Crambe filiformis Jacq. :
Diplotaxis erucoides DC. Ge te tin:
Diplotaxis tenuifolia DC. 1 Ir
*Eruca sativa Mill. Wilcox* |
Erysimum cheiranthoides L.
Erysimum crepidifolium Reichb.
Isatis corniculata
Lepidium Draba L. G BP
Lepidium latifolium L, Sm. Is}
Lepidium oleraceum Forst. oe eas Te
Lepidium Owaihiense Cham. & Schlecht. G. i oe
Lepidium piscidium Forst. SAS SN 2s
Lepidium sativum L, G. Whi. L,.|Ir
Matthiola livida DC. G.
Radicula Armoracia (L.) Robinson. Antisc. Gah
Raphanus Raphanistrum L, Coy ea
Raphanus sativus L. L. Antise.
Senebiera pinnatifida DC. G.
Sisymbrium Alliaria Scop. Cc
Sisymbrium Sophia L. | G.
Sisymbrium officinale (L.) Scop. | Ly Antise.
Sisymbrium toxophyllum G. A. Mey. _ | G, |
Vesicaria gnaphalodes Boiss. | G |
CUCURBITACEAE
Bryonia alba L. ) Mia. Coat
Bryonia dioica Jacq. G.Mi. C.L,.\Ir
Cayaponia ficifolia Cogn, G.
Citrullus Colycinthis Schrad. GG Pur
Corallocarpus epigaeus B. & H. L. Ant
|
Cucumis africanus Lindl. | G. Em.
|
Cucumis dipsaceus Ehrenb, G.
Cucumis metuliferus E. Mey. G.
Cucumis myriocarpus Naud. L. Be
Cucumis prophetarum L, | L. Pur,
Si Lyre Ant
Locality -
|Afr. Austr,
|
Trop. As.
Eur. N. As. N.
Am. Cent. Eur.
Eur. Temp, As.
Ama
Eu. As. N. Am.
Eu. As. N. Am.
Eu. As. N. Am.
Temp. Reg. ~
Eur. N. As.
Temp, Reg.
Pat. Chili
Med. Reg. As.
Minor
Eur.
Med. Reg. W.
Eur. Orient.
Eur. As.Orient.
N._ Zeal.
Hawai. Is.
Paces
Orient.
Egypt, Arab.
Eur.As. N. Am.
Eur.
Asia
Cosmop.
Eur. Orient.
Him. Reg.
Temp. Reg.
\Kur. N. As.
N. As.
Persia
Eur, Med. Reg.
Brazil
|Afr. Calid.
E. Ind.
S. Afr.
|Arab. Trop.Afr.
Si Afr.
|S. Afr.
|Arabia,
*A case of probable poisoning of sheep by this weed was reported to Dr. Wil-
cox from Nebraska.
POISONOUS PLANTS OF THE WORLD 819
NAME OF PLANT Authority | Properties Locality
Cucumis Sacleuxii Hort. |Sap. |
Cucumis trigonus Roxb. on 1.) (ne Ind.
Cucurbita maxima Duchesne G. Sap. |
Ecballium elaterium A. Rich. CirSm,L, Pur. Med. Reg
Echinocystis fabacea Naud. Gos Sap Calif.
Echinocystis macrocarpa Greenee Sap Calif
Fevillea cordifolia L. GB hee Ind.
Lagenaria vulgaris Ser. Gries sap Trop. Reg.
Luffa acutangula Roxb. G. Trop. old world
Luffa aegyptiaca Mill, | G. Trop. old world
Luffa purgans Mart. | by Cath [Tr. Am
Melothria scrobiculata Cogn. G. Taen Abyss.
Momordica Balsamina L. | L, Em. Trop. Reg
Momordica Charantia L, | a Ant. Em. |Trop. Reg
Momordica cochinchinensis Spreng. G. rop. As.
Momordica Cymbalaria Fenzl. | G. Trop. Afr
Sicydium monospermum Cogn. G. Em. |Brazil
Telfairia pedata Hook. | G. Taen. ['Trop. Afr.
Trichosanthes Celebica Cogn. | G. |Celebes.
Trichosanthes globosa BI. G. Eee: |Java
Trichosanthes pubera Blum. G. [Ind. Malay
Trichosanthes trifoliata BI, G. Malay
Trichosanthes wallichiana Cogn. G. IInd.
CYCADACEAE
Callitris sp. | G. Austr.
Cycas circinalis L. | G. Molucce. Is.
Cycas media R. Br. Gay Austr.
Macrozamia sp. He Ge Ni Austr.
Zamia media Jacq. | G. W. I.
CYPERACEAE
Cyperus articulatus L. Goi lAnk Cosmop. Trop.
Kyllingia monocephala Rottb. G. Trop. old worid
Schoenus apogon Roem. and Schult. M. Austr. N. Zeal.
CHAILLETIACEAE
Chailletia cymosa Hook. | G. | SARE
Chailletia toxicaria Don. Pees Goa ter ees Trop. Afr.
Tapura guianensis Aubl. a Se Guian.
DILLENIACEAE
Davilla rugosa Poir, G. | Brazil
Doliocarpus Rolandri J. F. Gmelin. G, Guiana, Brazil.
Hibbertia glaberrima F. Muell. G. M. Austr.
Hibbertia longifolia F. Muell. | G. Austr.
Tetracera alnifolia Willd. (Crain Tt A 5 ie Ae
Tetracera Assa DC. | E. [FUP Ind. Malay
|
DIOSCOREACEAE
Dioscorea sp. | G.
Dioscorea alata L. | G. cys
Dioscorea bulbifera L,. | G. Pe AS
Dioscorea deltoidea Wall. | G. Ind.
820
MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
NAME OF PLANT | Authority | Properties Locality
Dioscorea hirsuta Mart. G. Mex.
Dioscorea macroura Harm, G.
Dioscorea toxicaria Bojer. G. Tr: Atri
Dioscorea triphylla Schimp. G. | Abyss.
Tamus communis L, G. C.L. [Ir. Diur:, |Ear.' Persiat
| Afr.
DIPSACEAE
Scabiosa Succisa L, | Sm. LL, | |Eur. Tr. N. A.
| _|& S.A.
DIPTEROCARPACEAE
Ancistrocladus Vahlii Arn. | G. |Zeylan.
Dryobalanops camphora | Sm: L. “Del. |Zevlon
DROSERACEAE
Dionaea muscipula Ellis. | G. Sm. L, |Ir. Hyd. hes Am.
Drosera binata Labill. G. Hyd. Austr. N. Zeal.
Drosera communis S. Hil. G. Brazil
Drosera intermedia Hayne. G. Hyd. Eur.
Drosera peltata Sw. G. M. Austr.
Drosera rotundifolia L, G Sm. L. |Ir. Hyd. |N. Reg.
Drosera Whittakerii Planch. M. |Austr,
Drosophyllum lusitanicum Link. G. Hyd. |Lusitan,
| |Morocco.
EBENACEAE
Diospyros acris Hemst. | G. Acr. Solomon Is.
Diospyros amara | G.
Diospyros Ebeneum Koen. | G. L. R. {Astr. F. P. [Ind. Malay
Diospyros embryopteris Pers. Le. Astr. |\Tr.Afr. Philipp.
Diospyros malacapai A. DC. | G. Trop. As.
Diospyros montana Roxb. | G. Philipp.
Diospyros multiflora Blanco, G. Eee? N, A.
Diospyros obtusifolia Willd. L. Astr. |
Diospyros samoensis A. Gr. G. F. P Samoa Is. Nav.
Diospyros tesselaria Poir. G. BLE Mascar. Is.
Diospyros toxicaria Hiern. G. | Madagascar
Diospyros virginiana L. |G. T LAnt. Astr, ieiee
EQUISETACEAE
equisetum arvense L, |G. Mi. L. [Diur. Eur. N. A.
| Ches. |
Equisetum hyemale L. L. Diur. Eur. As. N. A,
Equisetum palustris L. | Ches. {Diur. Eur.
ERICACEAE
Andromeda Polifolia L. | Ches, |Nar, ne N. Am, Eur.
s.
Arbutus Andrachne L. G. Nar. Med. Reg
Arbutus Unedo L. G L Med. Reg
Arbutus varians Benth. G | Mex.
he
POISONOUS PLANTS OF THE WORLD 821.
NAME OF PLANT Authority | Properties Locality
Arbutus xalapensis H. B. K, | 1s Diur. Nar. |Mex. S.W.U.S.
Arctostaphylos polifolia H. B. K. - | G. Nar. Mex.
Arctostaphylos Uva-ursi L,. San L.), [ie Wars se IN A
Epigaea repens L. | Ches Nar. . N. Am.
Gaultheria microphylla Hook. G. | Magellan Reg.
Gaultheria numularoides D, Don. G. Him. Reg. Java
Gaultheria procumbens. Gio i taNete, (By NAL
Kalmia angustifolia L,. G. Rusby |Nar. Astr. |E. N. A.
L. Ches.
Kalmia glauca Ait. 1B) Nar. IE. N. A.
Kalmia hirsuta Walt. |B Nar. iE. N. A,
Kalmia latifolia L. G. Ches. |Nar. Astr. |E, N. A
| L. Rusby |
Ledum glandulosum Nutt. | L. Ches. |Nar N. and Arc.Reg.
Ledum latifolium Jacq. iC. hes: fine N. N. A.
| L. Rusby
Ledum palustre L,. | CAA 8 Nar N. & Arc. Reg
Rusby L,.
Leucothoe Catesbaei A. Gr. C. L. Ches.|Errhine. N. A. S. States
Leucothoe racemosa A. Gray. Ches, |Errhine.
Oxydendron arboreum DC. | Whi. L. JIr. N. A.
Pieris floribunda Benth. & Hook. Ls Ches.)): ineb: |N. A.
Pieris mariana Benth. & Hook. G. Rusby |Ineb i. N, A.
L,. ‘Ches.
Pieris nitida Benth. & Hook. | G. L. {Ineb. VB IN WAL
Pieris ovalifolia D. Don. G, Him. Reg. Java
Rhododendron arborescens Torr. (Os Nar. — IN, A.
Rhododendron arboreum Sm. om. /G. iNan ‘Ind. Him. Reg
Rhododendron californicum Hook. Ches. |Nar N. A. Calif
Rhododendron campanulatum D. Don. G. Nar Him. Reg
Rhododendron catawbiense Mx 1 Nar, E. No A
Rhododendron caucasicum Pall. | G. Nar, Caucas,
Rhododendron chrysanthum Pall. Gl Sean La iNet: !Davur.
Rhododendron cinnebarinum Hook. | G. Nar, Him. Reg
Rhododendron dauricum L,. Gi Ry Nar RBS ole Ags
Rhododendron ferrugineum L. G.-C. Sm.L.| Nar. Eur. As
Rhododendron hirsutum L,. ie le aN Rea ur.
Rhododendron indicum Sw. Ons Nar China
Rhododendron ledifolium G. Don, c. Nar. |China
-Rhododendron maximum L. G. Ches. C.| Nar E. N. A
; | Rusby L. |
Rhododendron nudiflorum Torr. @! Nar ND AG
Rhododendron occidentale A. Gray. et Chess.) Nain W.N. A
Rhododendron ponticum L,. G. C. Sm. | Nar A. M.
Rhododendron punctatum Andr. Co N. A.
Rhododendron sinense Sw. Cc. Nar |Japan
Rhododendron sublanceolatum Miq. | Ce Nar \Japan
Zenobia speciosa D. Don. G. ] N. A.
ERY THROXYLACEAE
Erythroxylon coca Lam. | Sm. L. G. | Del. Stim. |Peru
| Anes. |
EUPHORBIACEAE
Acalypha colchica Fisch. & Mey. | G. | Hyd. |Caucas. .
Acalypha cordifolia Muell. G, Wat. Him. Reg.
Acalypha indica L,. | G. Em. Tr. As. & Afr.
Acalypha virginica L. L; Exp.Diur.Jr|N. Am.
MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
NAME OF PLANT
Baliospermum axillare BI.
Beyeria viscosa Miq.
Bridelia retusa Spreng.
Chrozophora plicata A. Juss.
Chrozophora tinctoria A. Juss.
Cleistanthus collinus Benth. & Hook.
Cnesmone
javanica BI.
Croton muricatus Zipp.
Croton Tiglium L.
Croton Verreauxii Baill.
Daphniphyllum bancanum Kurz.
Eloeococca verrucosa
Eremocarpus setigerus Benth.
Euphorbia
Euphorbia
Euphorbia
Euphorbia
Euphorbia
Euphorbia
Euphorbia
Euphorbia
Euphorbia
Euphorbia
Euphorbia
Euphorbia
Euphorbia
Euphorbia
Euphorbia
Euphorbia
Euphorbia
Euphorbia
Euphorbia
Euphorbia
Euphorbia
Euphorbia
Euphorbia
Euphorbia
Euphorbia
Euphorbia
Euphorbia
Euphorbia
Euphorbia
Euphorbia
Euphorbia
Euphorbia
Euphorbia
Euphorbia
Euphorbia
Euphorbia
Euphorbia
Euphorbia
Euphorbia
Euphorbia
Euphorbia
Euphorbia
Euphorbia
aleppica L,
alsinaeflora Baill.
amygdaloides L.
antiquorum L,
arborea
bicolor Engem & Gray.
candelabrum Trem.
caracasana
cerebrum L.
chamalsyce L,.
characias L.
corollata L..
cotinoides Miq.
cotinifolia L.
Cyparissias L,
dendroides L.
Drummondii Boiss.
eremophila A. Cunn.
Esula L,.
Gerardiana Jacq.
helioscopia L.
heptagona L.
heterodoxa Muell.
hyberna L,.
Ipecacuanhae L,
Lathyris L,.
linearis Retz.
lingularia
marginata Pursh.
mellifera Ait.
neriifolia L,.
officinarum
palustris L.
Paralias Lb.
Peplus L,
piscatoria Ait.
pithyusa L.
platyphyllos L,.
Preslii Guss.
primulaefolia Baker
pulcherrima Willd.
punicea Sw.
pungiformis Boiss.
Authority | Properties
G.
G. M.
G.
G.
G.
G.
G.
G.
(CCS mike uae
1b
G.
| G.
| C.
1. A. Poe
RE lr anes
Canine ie
(Gan Re ire.
G. ite
le
Ches hie.
ics
Ry Go) ee Bes
G. Nis
| G. Tiss
G. iWee
L. Ir.
Gea lice dew, ex
Goi les oe
Mi Cerin
| GaiRG a
POISONOUS PLANTS OF THE WORLD 823:
NAME OF PLANT Authority | Properties Locality
Euphorbia Regis-Jubae Webb. & Benth.| G. Ir. Teneriff Is.
“Euphorbia resinifera Berg. | L. Ir. Moroce.
Euphorbia Royleana Boiss. GouRS. |) ine BaP! ion, Reg,
Euphorbia Sibthorpii Boiss. |G. Rote BP. [Greece
Euphorbia Sieboldiana Moor. & Decne.| G. \Ir. Japan
Euphorbia thymifolia L,. | G. Te: Tropics
Euphorbia Tirucalli L. eR ie BPs Ages vind
Euphorbia venefica Trem. | G. Ir. as. Agr,
Euphorbia verrucosa Lam. Mia Cue Nites Eur
Euphorbia Wulfenii Hoppe. | G. ibe Dalmatia
_ Excoecaria Agallocha L. |G. R..M. C.|Aer. F. BP. | Tir As:) Malay
| L. Pacis
Excoecaria virgata Zoll and Mor. | G. Java
Fluggea Leucopyrus Willd. Ge BB ie. Ind.
Fluggea obovata Baill. G. Tr. Afr.
Gymnanthes lucida Sw. Sm. W. Ind.
Hippomane Mancinella LG. Sm. [Tr Ind.
Homalanthus crepitans L,. Tenet (CuReiin 12) |
Homalanthus Leschenaultianus A, Juss.| G. M. Ind. Malay
| | Austr,
Hyoemanche globosa C. |
Jatropha Curcas L. (Ge COMRSHE Ein ey Tr. Amphig.
Jatropha glandulifera Roxb. G. Tr. As. & Afr.
Jatropha macrorhiza Benth. G. Mex.
Jatropha multifida L. G. a Tr. Amphig.
Jatropha urens L,. G; Sm. |Ir: Tr. Am.
| Ches.
_Joannesia princeps Vell. GL. E. [Cath. F. P. |Braz.
Macaranga sp. G. Java
Mallotus philippinensis Muell. Sui Bs (Pur As. Astr.
Manihot Glaziovii Muell, G.
Manihot utilissima Pohl. | RuinGs E P. Hyd. |Braz.
Wh. Sm. | |
Pe |
Mecurialis annua | Ci Etat Eur.
Mecurialis perennis L, Gi) Tavtre Cath: Eur.
Mecurialis tomentosa | Ci
Pedilanthus tithymaloides Poit. Gi Te) lie SE ‘Mex. S. Am.
Petalostigma cordifolia Fv. M. | G. F
Phyllanthus Conami Sw. AG, P Tr. Am.
| Sm. Mi. |
Phyllanthus Emblica L. | G. pees
Phyllanthus epiphyllanthus L. | G. Cuba.
Phyllanthus Gasstromi Muell. Lapa Gagne Austr.
Phyllanthus lacunarius F. M. G. M. Austr.
Phyllanthus Niruri L. G. Tr. Reg.
Phyllanthus piscatorum H. B. & K. G. Mi. E. | Venezuela
Phyllanthus urinaria L, G. Be Tr. Amphig.
Piranhea trifoliata Baill. G. Mi. Braz
_Platygyna urens Mercier F,
Putranjiva Roxburghii Wall. G. Tnd. Burma
Ricinus communis 1 (G.Sim) (CAL is Py Tr. Reg.
Ghés. (Par! |
Sapium indicum Willd. | Ge Ma BB Ps. Nar wads
Sapium insigne Trim. G ir Ind.
Sebastiana Palmeri Riley. G. |
Sebastiana Pavoniana Muell. Arg. | G.
Securinega ramiflora Muell. Arg. G. Hyd. As.
Stillingia lineata Muell, | G \Ind, Maurit.
824
MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
NAME OF PLANT Authority | Properties Locality
Stillingia sylvatica L. L. Expect, U.S.
Toxicodendrum globosum G. Con.
‘Tragia cordifolia Vahl. G. Ves. Arabia
Tragia involucrata L, | G. Ves. Tr. As.
Tragia volubilis L. G. Le Ves. Ind.
FAGACEAE
Castanopsis Tungurrut A. D C. Malay
Fagus sylvatica L. C. Mi. |Gastr. Eur.
Quercus alba L, L,. Astr. Tymp.jE.. N. A.
Quercus Toza Gillet cS. S. Eur.
Quercus lusitanicus Lam. L. Astr. Med. Reg.
Quercus sp. | Ches.
FICOIDEAE
Aizoon canariense L,. | G. Canar. Is; Aig
Orient.
Gisekia pharnacioides L. G |Taen. Taen. Ind.
Limeum sp. G. S.. Air.
Mesembryanthemum anatomicum Haw. G. Nar. Tr.Reg & Sub.
| Tr. Reg, Afr.
Mesembryanthemum crystallinum L. L | Diur, Gr, ‘Can. Ise
Afr. Calf.
Mollugo hirta Thunb. G. M. Austr.
Tetragonia expansa Thunb, G. Sap. Japan
Trianthema sp. | G. Sap. Arab. Afr.
Austr.
Trianthema Portulacastrum L. | G. Sap. Par. ./|Tr, Age
FILICALES
Adiantum pedatum L. G Astr E. As. Jap
N. A.
Adiantum peruvianum Kl. G. Peru
Adiantum trapeziforme L,. G. Trop. Am.
Anemia oblongifolia Sw. G. Trop. Am.
Angiopteris erecta Hoffm. G.
Aspidium athamanticum Ktze. GL. Ant S. Afr.
Aspidium Filix-Mas Sw. named Sop bilan Ws 3 Eur. N. A:
Aspidium marginale Ktze. Sy. do Pea Eur. N. A,
Aspidium odoratum Willd. G. N. Ind. E. As.
Aspidium prestulatum Ten. G. An.
Aspidium rigidum Sw. G.
Ceterach officinarum Willd. G. LL. {Abort. Eu. Ind
Cheilanthes fragrans G. Med. Reg
Him, Reg
Cryptogramme crispa R. Br. G. : Eur. N. W
m.
Cystopteris alpina Desv. G. Hyd. Eur. Mt. Reg.
Cystopteris bulbifera Bernh, G. Hyd. N. Am.
Cystopteris fragilis Bernh. G. EL. ° (Hyd. Eu. N. Am.
Cosm.
Cystopteris montana Bernh. Hyd. Cent. Eur. E.
Malay, Trop.
Davallia brasiliensis Hook. G. Hyd. As. Austr.
Davallia elegans Sw. | G. aya nN a
POISONOUS PLANTS OF THE WORLD
NAME OF PLANT Authority | Properties
Davallia hirsuta Kaulf. G. Hyd.
Davallia majuscula Lowe G. Hyd.
Davallia pentaphylla Don. G. Hyd.
Davallia platyphylla Don. Hyd.
Davallia strigosa Sw. G.
Geniophlebium incanum Sw. G.
Gleichenia flabatellata R. Br. G. Sap.
Gymnogramme cordata Schl. G.
Lindsaea cultrata BI. G.
Polypodium laciniatum BI. G.
Polypodium ligulatum Sw. G.
Polypodium percussum Cay. G.
Polypodium Phymatodes L,. G. |
Polypodium scandens Forst. G. |
Polypodium suspensum L. G.
Polypodium vulgare L. 1 )Exp. Diur.
Polystichum spinulosum DC. | G.
Pteris aquilina L. G. Hyd. Ant.
Pieris caudata V+} caudata_L. | G. Ant.
FLAGELLARIACEAE
Susum anthelminthicum BI. ! G. |
FRANKENIACEAE
Frankenia ericifolia Chr, Sm.G. (i Pp.
Frankenia grandifolia Cham. & Schlecht, L. |Astr.
FUMARIACEAE
Corydalis racemosa Pers. G.
Dicentra canadensis Walp. L. Diur.
Fumaria officinalis L. Gag heii Nias:
Fumaria spicata L. G.
GENTIANACEAE
Gentiana verna L,. G.
Menyanthes trifoliata L. G.
Tachia guianensis Aubl. G.
GERANIACEAE
Erodium cicutarium | |
Pelargonium peltatum Ait. G.
GNETACEAE
Ephedra L,. { G.
Ephedra antisyphilitica C. A. Mey. L. Astr.
Gnetum scandens Roxb. G. FOP.
Gnetum urens Blum. G. Ur.
GOODENIACEAE
Goodenia grandiflora Sims. G.
Scaevola sp. G. AP:
Velleia paradoxa R. Br. G. M.
825
Locality
PAA eR EL EL HO ADEM
Ceylon
Java & adj. Is.
Ind.
N. Ind. Japan,
Malay
|
S. Afr.
N. Ind. Malay
Mad. Austr.
Malay, Ceylo
Austr.
N. Z. Austr.
Trop. Am.
Eu. N. Am.
N. Am.
inte Eu. N.Am.
|Java
Canary Is.
Calif.
Japan
N. A.
|Temp.old world
|Lusitan.
|Eur. Cauc. Reg.
iN. Temp. Reg.
Guian.
Eur.
N. A. Mex.
Ind. Malay
|Guian.
Austr.
Austr.
Austr.
826 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
GRAMINEAE
|
NAME OF PLANT Authority | Properties Locality
Agrostis alba L. | *Hell, Tr N. Temp. Reg.
Andropogon annulatus Forsk. | G. Afr.Ind. Austr.
Andropogon halepensis | Hyd. Eur. Afr.N.Am.
Anthistiria prostrata Willd. | Ind.
Anthoxanthum odoratum L, G. Cou. Eur. As. Afr.
Arrhenatherum avenaceum Beauv. | G. Sap. ‘Eur.
Avena fatua L. G. Mech. Eur. Ori. As.
Briza sp. G. Hyd. S. Am, Eur. N-
Am. As.
Bromus catharticus Vahl. G.
Bromus mollis L. | G. Eur, Afr. As.
Bromus secalinus L,. G. Pay Med. Reg.
| Ss.
Bromus tectorum L, Pa. Ir. iKu. N, Am.
Catabrosa sp. | G. Hyd.
Cenchrus tribuloides L, G. Mech IE Am.
Cortaderia argentea Stopf. G.
Cortaderia conspicua G. Hyd |
Cortaderia Kermesiana G, Hyd. |
Deyeuxia Langsdorffi Kunth. G. Sap. N. Am..
Elionurus sp. | G S. Af. S. Am.
| Austr.
Elymus sp. | G. Hyd. Eur. N. Am.
Festuca sp. G. Hyd.
Festuca quadridentata H. B. & K. Gre: Equador
Glyceria sp. G. Hyd. N. Am. Eur.
Glyceria aquatica Wahleb. G. Hyd. N. Tem. Reg
Heteropogon hirtus Pers. | | Tr. Reg.
Hierochloe australis R. & S. | G. Cou. Eur.
Hierochloe borealis Roem. & Schult. Cou. N. .Reg
Hierochloe rariflora Hook. G. |Cou. Eur.
Holcus sp. Hyd. |Eur. N. Am.
Lolium Lamarckii L. G. C. |Hyd. Del. ‘Eur. As.
Lolium perenne L. | G. C. Mi, |Hyd. Eur. As.
Lolium temulentum L. | L. Ches. |Nar. Intox. |Eur. As. U. S
Melica sp. G. Iyd,
Milium effusum L. | G. N. Temp. Reg.
Molinia caerulea Moench. CRG re Eur. As
Panicum | G, Hyd. N. Temp. Reg.
Panicum junceum Nees. | G. Hyd. Braz.
Panicum sanguinale L,. | G, Em. Cosmop.
Paspalum scrobiculatum L, | G, Nar. Tr. old world
Setaria scandens Schrad. | G. |Braz.
Sorghum vulgare Pres. 1 Gr liv Tr. Reg.
Spartium junceum Ty. Em.-Cath. |Cosmop,
Stipa capillata L. G. S. Am, As.
Stipa inebrians Hance. G. Del. China.
Stipa palmata Pall.
Stipa pennata Hohen. G. Mech (Eur. As. N.Am.
Stipa robusta Nash. | Ches. {Meb. N. Am. Ry.Mts, |
Triodia irritans Brown | G. Mech Austr. ‘
Zea Mays L. G. C, LL... |Hyd, ‘Paraguay
*A case of poisoning by Agrostis alba was reported from West Liberty,
la.. by Dr. Fell.
Probably forage poisoning.
ee
Ee a
POISONOUS PLANTS OF THE WORLD
827
GUTTIFERAE
NAME OF PLANT Authority | Properties Locality
Calophyllum Calaba Jacq. G. Sap. [Caith. Is.
Calophyllum Inophyllum L, G. F. P. Sap. |Tr. old world.
Calophyllum montanum Vieill. G. N. Caled.
Clusia macrocarpa Spreng. G. Guiana
Garcinia Cambogia Desr. Sm. Ind.
Garcinia Forsteriana BI. G.
Mammea americana L,. Gini. Ant: DR yataal
Stalagmitis Mangle G.
HAEMODORACEAE
Aletris farinosa L. | G. N. Am.
Gyrotheca majalis Morong. Ches. E. N. Am.
Haemodorum sp. G. Austr. Braz.
Ophiopogon sp, G. Japan, Ind.
Sansevieria thyrsiflora Thumb. G. S. Afr.
HIPPOCASTANACEAE
Aesculus californica Nutt. Ches Sap. W.N.Am. Calif.
Aesculus flava Ait. G.R Sap. PF. Py eee
Aesculus glabra Sm. Ches.|Sap. |N. Am
Aesculus Hippocastanum L,. G. Ches. L.|Sap. Turkey
Aesculus Pavia L. G. R. Sap. F. P. |N. Am.
Ches. I,
HYDROPHYLLACEAE
Eriodictyon glutinosum Benth. | |Exp. |Calif
HYPERICINEAE
Hypericum crispum L, G. | Med. Reg
Hypericum humifusum L,. G. Eur. As
Hypericum maculatum Walt. Ches._ |Acr. E. N. Am
Hypericum perforatum L,. Ches. |Acr. Eur. N. Am
ILICINEAE
Ilex Aquifolium L. | Go... |Em. Cath. [Bury As.
ILLECEBRACEAE
Paronychia bonariensis DC. | G. |Argent. Reg.
Paronychia capitata Lam. G. Sap. |Eur. Orient.
IRIDEAE
Belamcandra punctata Moench. | G, China.
Crocus sativus L,. oh Pain remy Ul a8 As. Min.
Gladiolus communis L, Cc. Ig Eur. Orient.
Gladiolus segetum Ce Tr. Med. Reg.
Homeria collina Vent. G. M. S. Afr.
Tris G. Ir. N. Am.
Iris florentina Sair. Sm) C.K. Lr S. Eur.
Iris foetidissima L,. Same. pir Eur. Orient.
Iris germanica L. Crbe lig Eur. Orient.
Tris hybrida Retz. | hie
Iris neglecta Parl. Ke? Sine edd
828 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
NAME OF PLANT Authority | Properties Locality
Iris prismatica Pursh. D;: ic IN. A.
Tris Pseudoacorus L,. CSmoia) me: Eur. As. Ori.
Tris reticulata Bieh. Sm. af; As. Minor
Iris sibirica x. C: Ir. Eur. N. As,
Iris variegata L . Wh. ibe Eur. Orient.
Iris versicolor L. Rusby |Ir.Em.Cath.|N. Am.,
Sisyrinchium angustifolium Mill. | Cath. |N. A.
JUGLANDACEAE
Juglans cinerea L. | Te Cath. NAG
Juglans regia L. Cc. L. . |Ant. Astr. |Him. Reg
LABIATAE
Achryospermum Gl. { G. Urt. Mad.
Eremostachys superba Royle. Gia oe Him. Reg.
Lagochilus inebrians Bunge. G. Nar. As.
Leonurus Cardiaca L. GL Card N. Tem. Reg.
Ocymum viride Willd. Sm. Trop. Afr.
Salvia amarissima Orteg. G. Nar. Mex.
Salvia officinalis L. ID; Nar. Med, Reg.
Salvia pratensis L. Gab. aiNar Eur. Caucas.
Scutellaria galericulata L. G. Sed. N. ig Reg.
Scutellaria lateriflora 1D L,. Sed. N. .
Stachys arvensis L,. G. M. L,. |Antisp Nera old wld.
Stachys palustris L. L, Antisp Eur. As, N. A.
Tetradenia fruticosa Benth. G. Pur: Madag.
Teucrium Chamaedrys L. Az. Eur.
Teucrium Marum L,. G. C. L. |Diaph Med. Reg.
Teucrium scordium CL Ant Eur.
LAURACEAE
Hernandia sonora L,. | G, IP: Ind.
Laurus nobilis L. Sm. L. Med. Reg.
Lindera Benzoin Muss. Sm. L. |Ant E. N. Am,
Umbellularia californica Nutt. A Gp PU BS is N. Am.
LEGUMINOSAE
Abrus precatorius L. M. Sm. L.|Toxal. Ira. |India
Abrus pulchellus Wall. Mi. Ind. Afr.
Acacia sp. Ca Gara SDN es Austr. Tr. Reg.
Acacia arabica Willd. es Sn Afr. As.
Acacia catechu Willd, | L,, Astr Ind. Ceylon
Acacia concinna DC. G. Astr Chili
Acacia Cunninghamii Hook. G. Sap Austr.
Acacia delibrata A. G. Sap Austr.
Acacia falcata Willd. G. Austr.
Acacia Georginae Bailey G.
Acacia Jurema Mart. LL. Astr Brazil
Acacia pennata Willd. G. As. Afr.
Acacia penninervis Sieber. G. Austr.
Acacia pruinescens Kurz. G. Bae. Burm.
Acacia pulchella R. Br. G. Austr.
Acacia salicina Linal. G. Austr.
Acacia verniciflua A. Cunn. | GM. Austr.
Acacia verticillata Willd. G. Sap. Austr.
Adenanthera pavonina L, G. Tr. As. Malay
POISONOUS PLANTS OF THE WORLD 829
NAME OF PLANT
Albizzia anthelmintica Brongn.
Albizzia Lebbek Benth.
Albizzia odoratissima Benth.
Albizzia procera Benth,
Albizzia stipulata Boiv.
Anagyris foetida
Andira anthelmintica Benth.
Andira araroba Aguiar.
Andira Aubletia Benth.
Andira inermis H. B. K.
Andira rosea Mart.
Andira retusa HBK.
Andira spinulosa Mart. & Benth.
Andira vermifuga Mart. & Benth.
Argyrolobium pumilum Eckl. & Zeyh.
Astragalus baeticus L,.
Astragalus Bigelovii A. Gray.
Astragalus exscapus L
Astragalus galegiformis L.
Astragalus garbancillo Cav.
Astragalus glycyphyllos L.
Astragalus hamosus L,
Astragalus Hornii A. Gray.
Astragalus lentiginosus Dougl,
Astragalus maximus Willd.
Astragalus mollissimus Torr.
Astragalus Mortoni Nutt.
Astragalus ochroleucus Cass.
Astragalus oocarpus A. Gray.
Astragalus Pattersoni A. Gray.
Baptisia sp.
Baptisia tinctoria R. Br.
Barbieria maynensis Poepp.
Barbieria polyphylla DC.
Bauhinia coccinea DC.
Bauhinia guianensis Aubl.
Bauhinia variegata L,.
Bowdichia virgilioides H. B. K.
Brachysema undulatum Ker. Gawl.
Caesalpinia Bonducella Fleming.
Caesalpinia coriaria Willd.
Caesalpinia pulcherrima Sw.
Calliandra Houstoni Benth.
Camptosema pinnatum Benth.
Canavalia obtusifolia DC,
Cassia acutifolia Delil.
Cassia’ alata LL,
Cassia angustifolia Vahl.
Cassia didymobotrya Fres.
Cassia hirsuta L,. f.
Cassia kituiensis Vatke.
Cassia laevigata Willd.
Cassia marylandica L,
Cassia occidentalis L.
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Properties
Sap.) iP?
Waco:
. Loco.
. Loco.
. Loco.
Ne oce
. Loco.
" Cath.
Locality
Abyss.
Tr. old world
Tr. As, Ind.
Tr. As. Austr.
W. Ind. Braz.
Braz.
Guiana
Braz.
Braz.
Afr. Austr.
Eur.
Caucas. Reg.
Peru
iSiber. Eur.
|Caucas. Reg.
Caucas. Reg.
Med. Reg. Ind.
N. Am.
N. Am.,
Armen. Caucas.
Reg.
N.Am. Ry. Mts.
‘Col.
N. Am.
Morocco
W. N. Am.
W. N. Am.
N. Am.
N. A.
Peruv.
Porto Rico
Cochin China
|Guiana.
China, Burma.
Ind.
Tr. Cosmop.
N. A
Tr. Cosmop.
Mex.
Braz,
Cos. Trop.
Egypt
Cos. Trop.
Trop. Afr.
Tr. Am. Abyss.
Tr. Am.
|Tr, Afr.
Cos. Trop.
A as tas
Cosm. Trop.
830
NAME OF PLANT Authority
Cassia sophora L,. |
Cassia stipulacea Ait. |
Cassia Sturtii R. Br.
Castanospermum australe A. Cunn. |
Centrosema amazonicum Mart.
Centrosema Plumieri Benth,
Cercis canadensis L.
Cercis chinensis Bunge.
Cladrastis amurensis Benth.
Clitoria amazonum
Clitoria arborescens Ait. G.
Clitoria Ternatea L.
Copaifera Langsdorfhi Desf.
Copaifera Salikorinda Heck.
Coronilla Emerus L. G
Coronilla juncea L,
Coronilla montana Scop.
Coronilla scorpioides Koch. '
Coronilla varia L,. Cenc:
Crotalaria alata Hamill. G.
Crotalaria Mitchelii Benth. |
Crotalaria paniculata Willd.
Crotalaria sagittalis L,.
Crotalaria striata Schrank.
Crotalaria verrucosa L,
Cytisus Alschingeri Vis.
Cytisus austriacus L.
Cytisus biflorus Ker. Gawl.
Cytisus capitatus Scop.
Cytisus hirsutus L.
Cytisus nigricans L.
Cytisus proliferus L.
Cytisus purpureus Scop.
Cytisus scoparius Link. @
Cytisus sessilifolius L,.
Cytisus supinus L,.
Dalbergia lanceolaria L,. f.
Dalbergia toxicaria Baill.
Derris amoena Benth.
Derris elliptica Benth.
Derris guianensis Benth,
Derris Negrensis Benth.
Derris uliginosa Benth.
Detarium Senegalense J. F. Gmel.
Entada polystachya DC.
Entada scandens Benth.
Enterolobium cyclocarpum Griseb.
Enterolobium timboiiva Mart,
Eperua falcata Aubl.
Erythrina Corallodendron L.
Erythrina Hypahphones Boerl.
Erythrina Mulungu Mart.
Erythrophleum Comminga Baill.
Erythrophleum guineense G. Don.
Euchresta Horsfieldii Bena.
Flemingia congesta Roxb, |
Galega officinalis L. G)
Galega orientalis Lam. G.
Gastrolobium bilobum R. Br. G. M. Sm.
ARES
Ches. L,. |Ineb.
G.
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DR ep hp
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7 Ar
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Sap.
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Ly Vapi
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CMe a P, Nar.
Taen,
Sap.
Sap.
Ineb.
Properties
MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Locality
Tr. old world
Chili
Trinidad Is.
Trop. Reg.
Braz.
S. Am.
S. Eur.
Eur.
|
Per. Reg. Med.
Braz.
Cosm. Trop.
Dalmatia.
Cautc.
Saeuie
S: Bar:
As. Min.
Eur. As.
Teneriffe
Eur. As.
Eur. Jap.N.Am.
. Eur.
Eur.
Ind.
Madag.
Burm. Malaya
Burm. Malaya
Guiana. Braz.
Braz.
Tr. old world
Tr. Air
Tr. Am.
Tr. Am.
Jamaica
Braz.
Guiana
E. Ind. N. Am.
Braz.
Mad.
Trop. Afr.
Jav.
"EE AS:
Eur. As.
Caucas. Reg.
Austr.
POISONOUS PLANTS OF THE WORLD
NAME OF PLANT
calycinum Benth.
Callistachys Meiss.
Gastrolobium
Gastrolobium
Gastrolobium grandiflorum F. M.
obovatum Benth.
ovalifolium Henfr.
Gastrolobium
Gastrolobium
Gastrolobium
Gastrolobium spinosum Benth,
Gastrolobium trilobum Benth.
Genista monosperma Lam.
Genista sphaerocarpa Lam.
Genista tinctoria L
Geoffraea superba
Gleditschia amorphoides Griseb.
Gleditschia sinensis Lam.
Gleditschia triacanthos L,.
Gliricidia maculata HBK.
Glycine hispida Max.
Gompholobium uncinatum A. Cunn.
Goodia lotifolia Salisb.
Gymnocladus canadensis
Gymnocladus chinensis Buill.
Halimodendron argenteum Fisch.
Hosackia Purshiana Benth.
~Hymenaea Courbaril L,
Indigofera anil L.
Indigofera australis Willd.
Indigofera galegoides DC.
Indigofera tinctoria L.
Isotropis juncea Turcz.
Laburnum anagyroides Medic.
Lathyrus amoenus Fenzl.
Lathyrus Aphaca L,.
Lathyrus Cicera L,
Lathyrus Clymenum L,
Lathyrus odoratus L.,
Lathyrus purpureus Presl.
Lathyrus sativus L.
Lessertia annularis Burch.
Leucaena glauca Benth.
Lonchocarpus densiflorus Benth.
Lonchocarpus ichthyoctonus Baill.
Lonchocarpus latifolius Kth,
Lonchocarpus Nicou DC.
Lonchocarpus rariflorus Hart.
Lonchocarpus violaceus Kunth,
Lotus australis Andr.
Lotus corniculatus L,.
Lupinus sp.
Lupinus albus L.
Lupinus angustifolius L.
Lupinus densiflorus Benth,
Lupinus leucophyllus Dougl.
Lupinus luteus L
Melilotus alba Lam.
Melilotus indica Desf.
Melilotus officinalis Desr.
oxylobioides Benth.
Authority | Properties
G. M. Sm.|[Ineb.
G. M. Sm. |Ineb.
G. Ineb.
G. M. Sm. |Ineb.
G. Ineb.
G, M. Sm. | Ineb.
G, M. Sm. |Ineb.
G. M. Sm. |Ineb.
G. Ineb.
G. Ineb.
IL. Sur.
G. Ant.
G. Mech.
G. Sap.
G. Mech.
G.
G. Em,
G. M. |Ineb.
G, Ineb.
Gc. iSapt
G. Sap.
| G. Sap.
G.
G. Ant.
G.
G. M.
G. Hyd.
G. Ins.
M.
c. oa LL. Pent: Cyt.
Cc Ast. Hyd.
| C:
| (ee
Cc
&
F. Sm. C. |Ent.
I ae
| G
| Ee Gage (aoe
G. |
G: Rae iBY P
Gi Rese | eee
[Re
G. hs BP
G. Sm. M.
M.
G.
@u@hes
G:
| Sm,
Ches.
c:
1 Con.
Con.
L Con.
831
Locality
Austr.
Austr.
Austr.
Austr.
Austr.
Austr.
Rye:
Reg. Caus.
IN. As.
N. Am.
S. Am.
S, Am.
Austr.
Malay
Trop. Reg.
Austr.
Eur.
Syria
Eur. Orient.
Eur. Orient.
lKur. N. Afr.
|Orient.
Austr.
Trop.
Guiana
Madag.
Tsu Ami
Tr. Afr.
Braz.
Ae
|Austr.
Tem. old world
Austr.
IN. Temp. Reg.
|S. Eur.
Med. Reg.
@al
[W. N. Am.
Bie Reg.
Eur. As.
Eur. N. As.
832 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
NAME OF PLANT Authority | Properties Locality
Milletia caffra Meiss. | SS Ae
Milletia ferruginea Hochst. e BYP: S. Afr,
Milletia pachycarpa Benth. G. Malay
Milletia rostrata Meig. G. Java
Milletia sericea G. & E. Re Bee, Burm. Malay
Milletia splendens Wright & Arn. G. Ind.
Mucuna capitata Max. G. fe: Him.Reg. Malay
Mucuna gigantea DC. G. Tr, ‘Atr
Mucuna purpureus DC. Whi. {Ir Trop.
Mucuna urens DC. L, it S. Am.
Mucuna venenosa A. Murr, G. Tro Air
Muellera moniliformis L. GB: Rey Trop. Afr
Muellera Telfairii Baker G. Mad
Myroxylon Pereirae Klotzsch. L. Stim. Cs
Myroxylon peruiferum L. L. Stim. Eq. Peru. Braz
Myroxylon toluiferum HBK. L. Cou Trop. Am.
Nissolia fruticosa Jacq. G. bes 2 Tr. Am
Ormocarpum glabrum Teis. & Binn. G. Celebes.
Ormosia coccinea Jacks. G. Tr. Am:
Ougeinia dalbergioides Benth. G. Ind.
Oxylobium parviflorum Benth. G. M. Austr
Oxytropis foetida DC. Phase Eur.
Oxytropis Lambertii Pursh. Ches. |Loco W. N. Am. Ia.
Ry Mts.
Oxytropis Lapponica Gaud. G. Hyd. Sap. |Eur. N. As.
Oxytropis sulphurea Fisch. G. Hyd. | Siber.
Pachyrhizus angulatus Rich. G. Tr. As.
Pachyrhizus tuberosa Spreng. G. TSW ey Ind.
Parkia africana R. Br. G. (Tr, Afr.
Pentaclethra macrophylla Benth. G. Alk. ir Ate.
Phaseolus aconitifolius Jacq. G. \Hyd. Ast. |Ind. Ar.
Phaseolus lunatus L,. Cron S. Am. Cosm
Cult.
Phaseolus multiflorus Willd. G, | Mex.
Phaseolus semierectus L,. Ge Re) aap: \Trop. Reg.
Phaseolus vulgaris L. Ga, N. Am. Cosm.
Cult.
Physostigma venenosum Balf. G. Sm. L. |Dep. Eser. | Afr.
Piptademia peregrina Benth. |Braz.
Piscidia Erythrina L, E. G.Sm.R.L. |Ineb. F. P.;Trop. Am.
Pithecolobium bigeminum Mart. | G. Malay
Pithecolobium fasiculatum Benth. G. By re ‘Malay
Pithecolobium Minahassae Teis. & Binn. G. Malay
Pithecolobium montanum Benth. G. |Him. Reg. Malay
Pithecolobium Saman Benth, G. Sap. ‘Tr. Am
Pongamia Piscida Steud. G. E. |F. P. ‘Ind.
Prosopis juliflora Benth. G. iN. Am. Tex
Prosopis ruscifolia Griseb, G. Sap. |Argen.
Psoralea glandulosa L,. G. L. |Em. ‘Chili. Mex,
Psoralea macrostachya DC. G. Sap. ‘Cal.
Psoralea pentaphylla L. G. Mex.
Psoralea tenuiflora Pursh. G. Sap. N. Am.
Pterocarpus esculentus Schw. G. Intox. Tr. Afr.
Pterocarpus Marsupium Roxb. L. Astr, Ind.
Rhynchosia minima DC. G. Cosmop. Trop.
N. Am. S.
Robinia Pseudo-acacia L. G. Ches. |Toxal. States
L. Rusby N. A
Robinia viscosa Vent. Rusby |Em. is. Eur.
POISONOUS PLANTS OF THE WORLD
NAME OF PLANT Authority
Sabinea florida DC. G.
Securigera Coronilla DC. G.
Sesbania vesicaria Ell. Ches
Sophora alopecuroides L,. G.
Sophora japonica L,. L. Pur
Sophora mollis Grah. G.
Sophora secundiflora Lah. G. Ches. L.|Nar.
Sophora sericea Nutt. L. Ches. |Nar.
Sophora tomentosa L, G. M. |Sop.
Stryphnodendron Barbatimam Mart. G. Sap.
Stryphnodendron polyphyllum Mart. L.. Astr.
Swainsona coronillaefolia Salisb. G. Ineb.
Swainsona Greyana Lindl. G. M. [Ineb.
Swainsona Oliverii F. Muell. M. Ineb.
Swainsona phacoides Benthm. M. Ineb.
Swainsona procumbens F. Muell, M.
Swartzia triphylla Willd. G.
Templetonia egena Benth. G. M.
Templetonia purpurea M.
Templetonia retusa R. Br. G.
Tephrosia astragaloides Benth. G.
Tephrosia candida DC. UI SA SU
Tephrosia cinerea Pers. Cre RE) Ba
Tephrosia coronillaefolia DC, a) Rt ee
Tephrosia densiflora G. TE sib
Tephrosia frutescens DC. Sm.
Tephrosia macropoda Harv. G. BrP.
Tephrosia nitens Benth. G.
Tephrosia periculosa Baker. G. Leal 2
Tephrosia purpurea Pers. GoM. Ro ks Pe:
Tephrosia tomentosa Pers. R. Be ee
Tephrosia toxicaria Pers. Gi ROL: E
Tephrosia virginiana Pers. G. iad
Tephrosia Vogelii Hook. G) Re
Teramus labialis Spreng. G. Sap
Tetlapleura caerulea Willd. G.
Tetrapleura Thonningii Benth. Ches. {Diur
Thermopsis rhombifolia Rich. Te Tymp
Trifolium elegans Sair. ¢ Tymp
Trifolium hybridum L,. e
Trifolium incarnatum L. G. Mec
Trifolium nigrescens Viv. LO
Trifolium repens L. oe Tymp
Trigonella cretica Boiss. G,
Vicia Ervilia Willd. oe |
Wistaria chinensis DC. G.
Xylia dolabriformis Benth. G. |Sap.
LENTIBULARIACEAE
Pinguicula vulgaris L. | G.
LILIACEAE
Agrostocrinum stypandroides Ev. M. G. M.
Allium ascalonicum L, L. Ant.
Allium canadense L. L. Ant.
Allium Cepa L. Ty Ent.
Allium Douglasii Hook. L. Ant.
Properties
833
Locality
S. Eur.
N. Am. S.
States
Him. Reg.
Japan, China
China,Him.Reg.
Mex.
N. A.
iCold Reg.
Braz.
|Braz.
Austr.
Austr.
Austr.
Austr.
Austr.
Tr. Am.
| Austr.
Austr.
|Austr.
| Austr.
'T'r. As,
|Borbon. Is.
Priv Air:
Honduras.
S! Aer
Tr. Am.
Austr.
Arab,
Jamaica
N. Am.
Tr. Afr.
Cosm. Trop.
ie) Air:
W. N. Am.
Egypt
Med. Reg.
S. Eur. As. Min.
S. Eur.
S. Eur.
N. Temp. Reg.
As. Min.
Eur, N. Afr.
China
|Burma. Malay
Eur. Sber.
N. Am.
Austr.
Cult.
N. A.
Per. Bel.
Calif.
834
MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
NAME OF PLANT
Allium Macleanii Baker
Allium Moly L.
Allium Porrum L,.
Allium sativum L,.
Allium Schoenoprasum L,.
Allium tricoccum Soland.
Allium ursinum L
Allium Victorialis L.
Allium vineale L.
Aloe abyssinica Lam.
Aloe africana Mill.
Aloe arborescens Mill.
Aloe chinensis Steud.
Aloe ferox. Mill.
Aloe saponaria Haw.
Aloe spicata L.
Aloe succotrina Lam.
Aloe tenuior Haw.
Aloe vera L.
Anemarrhena asphodeloides Bunge.
Asparagus officinalis L.
Asparagus scaber Brign.
Astelia Banksii A. Cunn,
Bulbine bulbosa Haw.
Bulbine semibarbata Haw.
Chamaelirium carolinianum Willd.
Colchicum autumnale L.
Colchicum neapolitanum Tenore.
Colchicum speciosum Stw.
Colchicum variegatum L.
Convallaria majalis L.
Dianella nemorosa Lam.
Dracaena arborea Hort.
Drimia ciliaris Jacq.
Drimia Cowanii Ridl.
Erythronium albidum Nutt.
Erythronium americanum Ker. Gawl.
Erythronium Dens-canis L,
Erythronium grandiflorum Pursh.
Erythronium purpurascens S. Wat.
Fritillaria Imperialis L.
Fritillaria Meleagris L.
Fritillaria pudica Spreng.
Gloriosa simplex L.
Gloriosa superba L.
Helonias frigida Lindl,
Hyacinthus orientalis L.
Leucocoryne
Leucocrinum montanum Nutt.
Medeola virginica L.
Melanthium cochinchinense Lour.
Melanthium virginicum L,
Muscaria comosum Mill.
—EEEEE
Authority | Properties Locality
L. Ant Afghan
IU. Ant Eur.
L. Ant Eur.
1b. ihe, Bor Nae
ie. Ant Eur. As.
Wh: I. [in N. A.
Corts Ant Eur. N. As
GL, WaAnt Eur. Sib.
Cc: Ir. Eur. N. A
L. Pur Austr.
Te Pur S. Af.
ibe Pur. S. Af.
1G, Pur China
Gy bs etre Sarda:
G. Pur S. Afr
Le: Pur S. Afr.
1 Pur S. Afr.
G. Pur Med. Reg
G. Pur Med. Reg
G. China.
IW Ir. Eur. As. N. A.
1s Tr. Med. Reg
Cauc
G. N. Z.
G. M. Austr.
G. Austr.
G. L. {Ant EN. A
GCsmi| Eur.
Cc. Ast. Italy.
Sm. Ast. Cauc. Reg
(ee Ast. S. Eur
OG SmiG lou
|Ches.Rusby|Car IN. Tem. Reg.
G. | As. Trop.
| Austr.
G. Tr Aut
G. Em. Agr. Austr.
G. Madag.
L. Em. N. A.
Ibe Em. N. A.
G. Em. Ant. |Eur. N. As
G. N. Am.
G. Sap. Cal:
GC Minis, Persia. Him.
| Reg.
Ibe Eur. Cauc.
L. |Ineb, Reg.
G. Nar. W. N. Am.
G. Em. Tr: Ave
G. Trop. As.
G.
M. Austr.
Ches. N. Am. .Ry.
Mts.
G Sap N. Am.
y. Cochin China.
G. L. |Fly Poison |N. Am.
SE Sap. _- __|Med. Reg. Ori. |Med. Reg. Ori.
‘
i
*
4
i
‘
¥
a ee = ee eee ee a ee
ee
i i
ee oe
a oe a oe?
sas,
er
a ee
ee ee ee ee
POISONOUS PLANTS OF THE WORLD 835
NAME OF PLANT Authority | Properties Locality
Muscaria racemosum Willd. pe (Santon fir aa Reg.
auc
Narthecium ossifragum Huds. | (Cale Eur. As. Min.
N. Am.
Nothoscordum striatum Kunth. Ches. Ne Am, °S:
States
Ornithogalum sp. Mi. |Kur. As. Afr.
Ornithogalum nutans L. G. Em. Eur. As. Min.
Ornithogalum thyrsoides Jacq. S. Afr.
Ornithogalum umbellatum L. ? Afr. As.
in.
Paradisea Liliastrum Bertol. G Card |Eur.
Paris obovata Ledeb. G. |Siber.
Paris quadrifolia L,. G. C. Mi. |Ir. Nar [Eur. N. As.
Sm. L |
Polianthes tuberosa L. G. |Mex.
Polygonatum biflorum Ell. G. [IN. Am.
Polygonatum officinale All. G. Eur. Siber.
Polygonatum verticillatum All. G. Eur. N. As.
Ruscus aculeatus L Gok.) |Sap Eur. Ori.
Schoenocaulon officinale A. Gr. G. Sm. EAst Mex.
Scilla bifolia L, Sm. Ir. Eur. As. Min.
Scilla festalis Salisb, Sm. Ir: Eur.
Smilax pseudo-syphilitica Kunth. G. Sap. Braz,
Stypandra glauca R. Br. G. M. Austr.
Tofieldia calyculata Wahl. G. Ant. Eur. N. Am:
Trillium erectum L, L, Rusby |Em E. N. Am.
Trillium grandiflorum Salisb. G. Sap. N. Am.
Tulipa Gesneriana L. | G. Eur. Orient
Tulipa sylvestris L. G. Eur.
Urginea Scilla Steinh, G. Cae age 1 245 is Afr.
Veratrum sp. N. Temp. Reg.
Veratrum album L,. EF. G, Mu iC. Ast Be Nias:
sm.) 1.
Veratrum californicum Dur. te Chies Tay [Tr W.N. Am. Ry.
Mts.
Veratrum viride Ait. G. Ches. |Ir. Em, BE. N. Am
L. Rusby| |
Xanthorrhoea sp. G. Austr.
Xerophylla Douglasii S. Wat. Sap. BE. N. Am. $
: , States.
Xerophylla setifolium Michx, G. EB. N. Am.
Yucca filamentosa L. G. Sap. W.N. Am. Ry.
Mts.
Yucca glauca (Nutt.) Carr. G. Sap. BON: Ame S:
| States
Zygadenus angustifolium S. Wats. | L,. N. A.
Zygadenus elegans Pursh. | Ches. L, E. N. Am. Ry.
Mts.
Zygadenus venenosus S. Wat. \cthes. G. | N. W. Am.
LINACEAE
Hugonia Mystax L, G. Ind.
Linum catharticum L,. GL ~ (Ptr: Eur. Orient.
Linum rigidum Pursh. Ches. |Pur. N. Am. N. M.
Tex.
836 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
NAME OF PLANT Authority | Properties Locality
Linum toxicum Boiss. G. Syria.
Linum usitatissimum L, Ge ie) ae Eur. Orient.
| N. Am.
LOGANIACEAE
Anthocleista grandiflora Gilg. Alk.
Buddleia brasiliensis Jacq. G Poe Hab. ?
Buddleia curviflora Hook. & Arn. G, Chili. Peru.
Buddleia globosa Hope. G, Sap. China.
Buddleia Lindleyana Fort. G, Hop: Madag.
Buddleia madagascariensis Lam. G, Taen. Abyss.
Buddleia polystachya Friesen. R.Gi Sap. SF MPP irae:
Buddleia variabilis Hemsl. Sap.
Buddleia verticillata HBK. RAP Mex.
Fagraea ceilanica Thumb. Sm. G. |Cou Zeyl.
Gelsemium sempervirens Ait. G.C.Sm.L. |Ast. E. N. Am. S.
Sts.
Nicodemia diversifolia Ten. G. Sap. Mascar. Is.
Spigelia Anthelmia L, GL. |Ir.. Nar.” |Trops Am
Spigelia glabrata Mart. G. Brazil.
Spigelia marylandica L. G. Sm, L,. |Ir. Nar Ee N. Am.
Spigelia pedunculata HBK. G. Old World.
Strychnos angustifolia Benth. G. Chinn
Strychnos brachiata Ruiz. & Pav. G. Con. Peru.
Strychnos Castelnaei Wedd. G. Sm. L,/Con. India.
Strychnos colubrina L, L. 7 NA Fae Guiana
Strychnos cogens Benth. L. FOcPy Braz.
Strychnos Crevauxiana Baill. Gea SAP: Guiana.
Strychnos gubleri Planch. eo APY Venez.
Strychnos Icaja Baill. Ordeal Poi.|Trop. Afr.
Strychnos Ignati Berg. IG, fone L.|Con, Philipp. Is.
Strychnos innocua Del. G, Nubia.
Strychnos malaccensis Benth. L. |Bur. Malay.
Strychnos Melinoniana Baill. G. Guiana.
Strychnos Nux-Vomica L. | G.Sm.R.L. owe F. P. |Burma.
Strychnos paniculata Champ. G. China.
Strychnos potatorum L. G. Burma.
Strychnos Pseudo-quina A. St. Hil. G. Braz.
Strychnos Santhierana Pierre. | G.
Strychnos spinosa Lam. G. Madag.
Strychnos Tieute Lesch. | G. Sm. L. |Con. A. P: |Java.
Strychnos toxifera Schomb. G. Sm. |Con. A. P. |Guian.
Strychnos yapurensis Planch. | L. As ae Ecuador.
LORANTHACEAE
Phoradendron flavesceus Nutt. ee cd va N. Am. S. Sts.
Viscum album L,. Sm. L._|Ir. Eur. Temp. As.
LYCOPODIACEAE
Lycopodium clavatum L. | Mi. L. |Diur. N. Am. Eur.
Lycopodium Selago Mi. L. |Pur. Eur.
LYTHRACEAE
Ammannia baccifera L. G. Acr. Tr. Old World
Cuphea viscossissima Jacq. G. Card. N. Am. §S. Sts.
Ginora mexicana Lam. G. Em. Mex.
ey ee ae Eee ae
a ae me
— <<
Sera & ae on
POISONOUS PLANTS OF THE WORLD 837
NAME OF PLANT Authority
Lagerstroemia Flos-reginae Retz. | G. Nar.
Nesaea verticillata HBK. ;
Punica Granatum L, |) hGeUELs s laen:
MAGNOLIACEAE
Drimys aromatica F. Muell. G, Hyd.
Drimys Winteri Forst. G, Hyd.
Tllicitum anisatum Gaertn. Gisai ky
Illicium floridanum Ellis. G, Ches. L
Liriodendron chinense Sarg. G.
Liriodendron tulipifera L,. G.
Magnolia grandiflora L. G.
Manglietia glauca BL. G.
Michelia Champaca L. | G. Alk.
Michelia fuscata Bl, | G. Alk
Michelia parvifolia Bl. G. Alk
Talauma macrocarpa Zucc. G.
Talauma ovata A. St. Hil. G.
MALPIGHIACEAE
Byrsonima amazonica Griseb. | G
Byrsonima crassifolia HBK. G
Byrsonima spicata Rich. G.
Heteropteris syringaefolia Griseb. G.
Malpighia oxycocca Griseb. G.
Sphedamnocarpus angolensis Planch. G
MALVACEAE
Althaea rosea L,. | G. Abort.
Gossypium herbaceum L,. GL... [Abort
Hibiscus diversifolius Jacq. G. Abort
Pavonia zeylanica G. Ant.
Sida jamaicensis L,. G.
Sida paniculata L. G. Mech
Sida urens L,. G in:
MELASTOMACEAE
Mouriria rhizophoraefolia Gard, | G. |
MELIACEAE
Carpa moluccensis Lam. G.
Dysoxylum arborescens Miq. G.
Flindersia Schottiana Fv. Muell. G.
Lansium domesticum Jack. G. | Ant.
Melia Azeldarach L, Gig: | Ant.
Ches./ Ty,
Melia birmanica Kurz. G.
Naregamia alata W. & A. Gel? Baim
Ptaeroxylon obliquum Rdlk. G.
Sandoricum indicum Cav. G.
Swietinia humilis Zucc. G.
Swietinia Mahagoni Jacq. L. Astr.
Trichilia sp. G. Sap.
Trichilia Moschata Sw. | 1 Astr.
Trichilia trifolia L. | G. Abort
Walsura piscidia Roxb, G. & E. Dia AS Soa Sans 6
Properties
Locality
|Trop. As.
NAY SiAm,:
S. Eur. Maurit.
Austr.
S. Am.
China.
N. Am. S. Sts.
China.
E. N. Am,
INE Amal SWiStss
Java.
Malay.
China.
Java.
Mex.
|Braz.
|Braz.
Guiana.
Thop. Am.
Braz.
W. Ind.
'Trop. Afr.
[Ori. Cult. Eur.
NE ie
Trop.
Tr. Die World.
Trop. Am.
Trop. Am.
Trop. Am, Afr.
|Marting. Is.
Tr. Old World.
Borneo.
Austr.
Malay.
Himal. Ch.
CultS)) States:
Burma.
S. Am.
| Jamaica.
|Venz.
| India.
838 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
MELIANTHACEAE
NAME OF PLANT Authority | Properties Locality
Bersama sp. G. Arab. & Abyss.
Melianthus comosus Vahl. G. S. Afr.
Melianthus major L. G. S. Afr.
MENISPERMACEAE
Anamirta paniculata Colebr. G. Sm. C, [Del) F. BP) ind
ROL, OE.
Anomospermum japurense Eich. G. Braz.
‘Cissampelos Pareira L. G. Trop. Reg.
Cocculus Ferrandianus Gaudich. G. Be: Hawai, Is.
Cocculus glaucescens BI. G. Sap. Bur. Jav.
Cocculus laurifolius DC. G. Him. Reg. Jap.
Cocculus toxiferus Wedd. G.
Coscinium Blumeanum Miers. G. Sap. Ind.
Menispermum canadense L. i, Diur. N. A.
Pachygone ovata Miers. Gor eee Pe Malay. Ind.
Pericampylus incarius Miers. Ind. Malay.
Sarcopetalum Harveyanum Fv. M. G. Austr.
Stephania discolor Spreng. G. Tr. Old World.
Stephania aculeata Walp. | G.
Tiliacora racemosa Colebr. G. Ind. Jav.
MONIMIACEAE
Kibara angustifolia | Smal |
MONOTROPACEAE
Monotropa uniflora L. L1G. Es An arome E. N. Am. Jap.
Him. Reg.
Pterospora andromedea Nutt. | G. N. Am.
MORACEAE
Morus alba L. | Bs ‘Taen. Temp. As.
Morus nigra L,. | iB Taen. ‘Temp. As.
Morus rubra L. L. Taen. N. A.
MYOPORACEAE
Eremophila maculata Fv. M. M. G. Austr,
Myoporum deserti A. Cunn. G. M. Austr,
Pholidia maculata Baill. G.
MYRICACEAE
Myrica cerifera i, |Astr. Nar. [N. A,
MYRISTICACEAE
Myristica gibbosa Hook. | L. Astr. India.
Myristica philippensis Lam. L. Astr. Phil. Is.
MYRSINACEAE
Aegiceras majus Gaertn. G. E.R. /Sap..——«Xd'T'r. Old World.
Aegiceras minus Gaertn. SR) 1 BP, India.
Anguillaria dioica R. Br. : Aust.
Clavija macrocarpa Ruiz. & Pav. G. S. Am.
]
POISONOUS PLANTS OF THE WORLD 839°
NAME OF PLANT
Embelia micrantha A. DC. G. ae
Embelia Ribes Burm. G.
Jacquinia arborea Vahl. Goku tee
Jacquinia armillaris Jacq. Gz E.R) IBS P
Jacquinia obovata Schrad. Gay, VRP:
Maesa indica Wall. G. FP;
Maesa lanceolata Forsk, G.
Myrsine africana L,. G. Taen
Theophrasta americana L,. | G.
MYRTACEAE
Baeckea frutescens L. G, Abort.
Barringtonia acutangulata Gaertn. G,
Barringtonia alba Blume. G,
Barringtonia Butonica Forst. GaeRi ipo
Barringtonia Careya Fv. M. G.
Barringtonia insignis Miq. G.
Barringtonia intermedia Viell. G. BP
Barringtonia neo-caledonica Viell.
Barringtonia racemosa Rexb. | peal 2
Eucalyptus Globulus Labill. | 1 Astr
Eucalyptus microtheca F.v. Muell. G. LD 2:
Eucalyptus rostrata Schlecht. a, Astr
Eugenia Jambos L. : G.
Lecythis amara Aubl. G.
Lecythis lanceolata Poir. G. Nar
Melaleuca leucodendron L. Smet kuey
Napoleona Whitfieldii Van Houtte | G, Sap
Pimenta acris Kostel. Whi. Tire
Psidium montanum Sw. | G.
MUSACEAE
Musa sapientum L. | G. Sap.
Nepenthes gracilis Korth. | G.
NYCTAGINACEAE
Boerhaavia erecta L. G. Em.
Boerhaavia hirsuta L,. G. Em.
Boerhaavia repens L. G. Em.
Pisonia obtusata Jacq. G. Em.
Pisonia tomentosa Casar. G. Em.
NYMPHAEACEAE
Euryale ferox Salisb. Sm.
Nymphaea advena Ait. L Astr
Nymphaea alba L. ?
Nymphaea lutea L, L. Astr.
OCHNACEAE
Ochna sp. Schreb. | G. |
OLACEAE
Villaresia Moorei F. v. M. | G.
Authority | Properties
Locality
Manrit. Is.
Trop. As.
Trop. Am.
igi Ind.
Ind. Malay.
N. Afr.
Him. Reg. Tr.
& S. Afr.
Azores W. Ind.
|
Malay. China.
Malacca Is,
Malacca Is.
Pacific Is.
Austr.
|Malay.
N. Caled.
N. Caled.
Malay. Polyn.
|Austr.
Austr.
Austr.
Trop. As.
Guian.
Brazil,
Austr.
Trop. Afr.
Ind.
|W. Ind.
|Trop. Reg.
Borneo.
N. Am. W. Ind.
N. Am. W. Ind.
Cosm. Trop.
W. Ind.
|Braz.
Ind. China.
N. A.
N. Temp. Reg.
Eur.
|Afr. Ind.
| Austr.
840 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
OLEACEAE
NAME OF PLANT Authority
Chionanthus picrophloia Fv. Muell. G. |
Chionanthus virginica L, G. Sm. L. | Nar.
Forsythia intermedia Zabel. G. Sap.
Forsythia suspensa Vahl. G. Sap.
Forsythia viridissima Lindl. G.
Jasminum floribundum R. Br. G.
Jasminum officinale L, Sm. Ast.
Jasminum Sambac Ait. G.
Ligustrum vulgare L. Sm. Ches.|Ir.
Olea dioica Roxb.
Phillyrea media L.
alee
mM
~
no)
ONAGRACEAE
Ludwigia erigata L,. | G.
Montinia caryophyllacea Thunb. |
Trapa natans L, | G.
ORCHIDACEAE
Angraecum fragans Thou. |
Catasetum sp.
Cymbidium aloifolium Sw.
Cypripedium pubescens Willd.
Cypripedium spectabile Salisb.
Dendrobium nobile Lindl.
Eria stellata Lindl.
Eulophia virens Spreng.
Habenaria nigra R. Br.
Neottia Nidus-avis Rich.
Orchis coriophora L,
Orchis odoratissima L.
Orchis purpurea Huds.
Orchis Simia Lam.
Phajus callosus Lindl.
Phalaenopsis amabilis Blume.
Phalaenopsis Lueddemanniana Reichb. |
OROBANCHACEAE
OXALIDACEAE
Ty. ip
|
Oxalis amara A, St. Hill. | G.
Oxalis Pes-caprae L. pues, Aa bs
Oxalis purpurata Jacq. |
Oxalis Smithiana Eckl. & Zeyr. G.
PALMACEAE
Oo
Se
>
ey
POEEQEHOHEGLHHAD’
Oxalis Acetosella L.
Areca Catechu L,. var. nigra. BR. © By PR ee
Arenga saccharifera Labill,
Borassus flabellifera Murr. G
Cocos amara Jacq. G
Cocos nucifera L, L.
Corypha umbraculifera L,. | G.
Hyphaene thebaica Mart. G
Hyphorbe indica Gaertn. G
Phoenix dactylifera | iS |Cur,
Properties
Locality
N. Am.
Japan, China.
China.
|Abyss
|Trop. As.
Eur, As. N.Am.
Med. Reg.
Ori. Ind. Eur.
Mascar Is.
Ind.
Ind,
N. Am.
N. Am.
China.
Philipp. Is.
Ind.
Eur. N. As.
Eur. Orient,
As. Min.
Eur. Ori.
Malay.
Philipp. Is.
ery As. N.
Afr. N. A.
Braz.
Sy Adin
S. Afr.
S. Afr.
Ind. Malay.
Malay.
Ind,
W. Ind.
Trop. Afr. Ind.
Trop. Afr.
N. Afr. Arab.
POISONOUS PLANTS OF THE WORLD 841
PANDANACEAE
NAME OF PLANT Authority | Properties Locality
Pandanus odoratissimus L. | G. | ae Arab.
Pandanus Thomensis Henrig. G.
PAPAVERACEAE
Argemone alba Lestib. L. Nar. Sys S
Argemone intermedia Sw. L. Nar. Mex.
Argemone mexicana L, Sm.Ches.L,| Nar. a Am. Tex
ex.
Bocconia cordata Willd; Ly. Ant. China. Japan.
Bocconia frutescens L. .. Gi) Te.) pea Mex. Peru.
Chelidonium majus L, C. Rusby |Ir. Nar. Eur. As. N.Am.
. G.) Sm:.
Ches. Mi.
L.
Eschscholtzia californica Cham. G. nee
Glaucium corniculatum Curb. L,. Pur. ur.
Glaucium flavum Crantz. C. Sm. L, |Ir. \Eur. Med. Reg.
Hypecoum procumbens L. G. Med. Reg.
Arabia,
Papaver aculeatum Thumb. G. S. Afr. Austr.
Papaver Rhoeas L,. Go Sm.) ir | Eur. Ori. Afr.
Ches. C. L,.
Papaver somniferum L,. ee Wii aed |Eur. As. Ind.
t Chee. Ie IN. Am.
Roemeria violacea Medic. Sm. Ir: Eur, N. Afr.
Sanguinaria canadensis L,. G.Rusby L.|Ir. Em. N. Am.
Stylophorum diphyllum Nutt. | G. IN. Am.
PASSIFLORACEAE
Andenia lobata Engl. G. Ant. Trop. Afr.
Carica Papaya L,. G. Trop. Amr.
Carica quercifolia H. St. Hil. G. f
Carica spinosa Aubl. G. Braz. Gutana.
Modecca palmata Lam. G, \Ind.
Modecca trilobata Roxb. G, Sap. \Ind.
Modecca venenata Forsk,. G,
Ophiocaulon gummifera Han. G. Trop. Afr.
Passiflora caerulea L. G, Em. Brazil,
Passiflora foetida Sm. L. |Antisp.
Passiflora Herbertiana Ker-Gawl. | G. ‘Austr.
Passiflora hispida DC. Te Nar. Jamaica.
Passiflora incarnata L,. | ya Antisp. Trop. Amer.
Passiflora laurifolia L. | G. Hyd. ‘|Trop. Amer.
Passiflora quadrangularis L,. en Nar. Trop. Amer.
Passiflora rubra L,. |Nar. W. Ind.
PHYTOLACCACEAE
Anisomeria drastica Mey, G.
Gallesia Scorodendron G. Ant. .
Petiveria alliacea L,. G, | Le: pAbort, W. Ind.
Petiveria tetrandra Gomez. i G. tS Brazil.
Phytolacca abyssinica Hoffm. G. Sap. Trop. & S. Afr.
Phytolacca acinosa Roxb. G. Del. Sap. |Him.Reg. Chin,
Phytolacca decandra L,. GC io. Nar Ba |) NG omer
Ches.Rusby|Sap.
Plumbago rosea L,
Plumbago scandens L,.
Plumbago toxicaria Bertol.
Plumbago zeylanica L,.
Statice pectinata Ait.
G. L. |Nar. Acr.
Pur.
G.
G. Abort. Ir,
G :
FP
Locality
S. Am, =
India.
Chili & Peru.
Panama :
ere Is.
|Trop. Am. .
Cosm. Tr. Reg.
N. Temp. Reg.
s N. Temp. Reg.
Madeira Is.
N. Zeal.
N. Zeal.
N. Zeal.
Malay. Austr.
Japan. China.
Austr.
N. Am.
S. Eur. Orient.
Eur,
S. Eur. Caucas.
Ind.
Trop. Am.
Trop. Afr.
Tr. Old World.
Canary Is.
842 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
NAME OF PLANT Authority | Properties
Phytolacca dioica G. Sap.
Phytolacca icosandra L, G Sap
Pircunia sp. (Phytolacca) G Sap
Rivina humilis
PIPERACEAE
Piper Carpunya Ruiz. & Pav. ean Ce Be
Piper darienense C. DC. Te Sial.
Piper methysticum Forst. BoB. WEE:
Piper nigrum L,. L. Ineb.
Piper Palmeri C. DC. | G. Sap.
Piper peltatum L. ~ | Ty Daur
Piper umbellatum L, et H le: Diur
PIROLACEAE
Chimaphila maculata Pursh. [GE sAsétr
Chimaphila umbellata Nutt. | ee Astr.
Monotropa uniflora oe
Pyrola chlorantha Sw. Astr
Pyrola elliptica Nutt. Astr
Pyrola rotundifolia L. ae L. {Em.
Pyrola minor L,. | ip |Astr
PITTOSPORACEAE
Billardiera longiflora Labill. | | Sap.
Pittosporum coriaceum Ait. G. Sap.
Pittosporum cornifolium A. Cunn, G. Sap.
Pittosporum crassifolium Soland. G. Sap.
Pittosporum eugenioides A. Cunn. G. Sap.
Pittosporum ferrugineum Ait. Sap.
Pittosporum floribundum W. & A. G.
Pittosporum Huttonianum T. Kirk. G. Sap.
Pittosporum javanicum Bl. G. Lae as
Pittosporum Moorei F. v. Muell. G. Sap.
Pittosporum phillyraeoides DC. G. Sap.
Pittosporum rhombifolium A, Cunn. |
Pittosporum tobira Ait. G.
Pittosporum undulatum Vent. G. |Sap.
PLANTAGINACEAE
PLATANACEAE
Platanus occidentalis L,. | G. Hyd.
Platanus orientalis L. G. Hyd.
PLUMBAGINACEAE
Armeria elongata Hoffm. L. Astr.
Plumbago capensis Thunb.
Plumbago europaea L,. L. Em.
POISONOUS PLANTS OF THE WORLD
POLEMONIACEAE
NAME OF PLANT Authority | Properties
Cantua buxifolia Lam. G,
Cantua pyrifolia Juss. G,
Cobaea scandens Cav, G. Sap.
Gilia achillaefolia Benth. G. Sap.
Gilia aggregata Spreng. G. Sap.
Gilia laciniata Ruiz, & Pav. G. Sap.
Loeselia caerulea G. Don. GE. (Em
Phlox L. G,
Polemonium boreale Adams, G. Sap
Polemonium caeruleum L, 1 Sap.
Polemonium flavum Greene G. Sap
Polemonium gracile Willd. | G. Sap
Polemonium humile Willd. G, Sap.
Polemonium panciflorum Ser. Wat. |
Polemonium reptans L. PG B. isan
POLY GALACEAE
Krameria triandra R. & Pav. 1: Ast.
Monnina sp. R. & P. G. Sap.
Polygala alba Nutt. Ib. Gee
Polygala amara L. | G.
Polygala angulata DC. G. ie
Polygala aspalatha L. | G.
Polygala Boykini Nutt, | By Ir.
Polygala Cyparissias A. St. Hil. G. Pe
Polygala glandulosa HBK. G.
Polygala Javana DC. G. Sap. Ins
Polygala Senega L. G) Sm, LE, | Sapir
Securidaca longepeduculata Fres. G. ;
POLYGONACEAE
Fagopyrum esculentum Moench. | ©: Ir.
‘Polygonum acre HBK. [Rees de ie ha P
Polygonum barbatum L,. G. BoP
Polygonum Bistorta L. Citi Aste
Polygonum Convolvulus L, C:
Polygonum flaccidum Meiss. G. Un
Polygonum Hydropiper L. GC. k Hr
Polygonum hydropiperoides Michx. G. Ir.
Polygonum orientale L,. | G. ir
Rheum Emodi Wall. L. Pur
Rheum hybridum Murray L. Pur
Rheum officinale Baill. Te Pur
Rheum palmatum L, Sm. Pur.
Rheum Rhaponticum Delarb. L. Pur. Astr.
| Newspaper
} Death in |
* Iowa
Rumex abyssinicus Jacq. | G. Taen.
Rumex Acetosa L. | EB Astr.
Rumex Acetosella Cr Es jOxal. Acid
Rumex Crispus {Oxal. Acid
Rumex Ecklonianus Meiss. | G ’Taen,
Rumex hymenosepalus Torr. by Gather) DASE.
Rumex obtusifolius L,. | L. Astr.
843
Locality
Peru
Peru
Mex. Ry. Mts.
N. Am.
Calif.
N. A. Ry. Mts.
Peru. Chili.
Mex.
N. Am.
Siberia.
N. Temp. Reg.
iN. A. N. Mex.
Arct. Reg.
{W. N. Am.
N. Am.
Peru
|Trop. Am.
IN. A.
|Eur.
| Brazil.
Braz.
Ds A.
| Mexico.
Malaga.
N. Am.
| Abyss.
Eur. N. As.
Cosm.
(Tr. Old World.
N. Reg.
N. Temp. Reg.
Ind. Malay.
Temp. Reg. N.
& S.
N. Am.
Tr. Old World.
Him. Reg.
‘Mongolia
| Thibet.
Mong.
Siberia.
| Abyss.
Eur. N. As.
‘Kur. N. Am,
[Kur. N. Am,
S. Afr.
W.&S. W.N.
Am.
Eur. As. N, A.
844 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
PORTULACEAE
NAME OF PLANT Authority | Properties
Lewisia rediviva Pursh.
Talinum polyandrum Ruiz. & Pav.
| G.
G.
Acr.
PRIMULACEAE
Anagallis arvensis L.
Cortusa Matthioli L.
Cyclamen europaeum L.
By:
Cyclamen graecum Link. R. iS ee
Cyclamen hederaefolium Ait. G.
Cyclamen latifolium Sibth. & Sm. G.
Lysimachia Nummularia L. Gi) este
Primula Auricula L, G.
Primula obconica Hance. Say Cats OAM BB
Primula Parryii A. Gray. | Pam.
Primula reticulata Wall. | G.
Primula sinensis Sm. Tr
PROTEACEAE
Brabejun L,. G. Hyd.
Grevillea mimosoides R. Br. G.
Helicia robusta Wall. G. Lyd.
Knightia excelsa R. Br. G. Sap.
Macadamia ternifolia F. Muell. G. Hvd
Protea cynaroides L. G. Hyd
Roupala Pohlii Meiss. G.
Roupala vervaineana Hort. I G.
Xylomelum pyriforme Knight. | G.
RANUNCULACEAE
Aconitum Anthora L, Coy.
Aconitum chinense Sieb. L.
Aconitum ferox Wall. C. Sm. LLB) BLAS.
Aconitum columbianum Nutt. Ches.
Aconitum Fischeri Reich. L.
Aconitum heterophyllum Wall. Cys
Aconitum japonicum Decne. L.
Aconitum Lycoctonum L, Mi.C.G.L.
Aconitum Napellus L. Mi. Rusby]Ast,
C.Sm. Wh.
L. Ches.
Aconitum noveboracense Gray, Rusby |Ast.
Aconitum uncinatum L. L.
Actaea alba (L.) Mill. L. Rusby |Em.
Ches.
Actaea rubra (Ait.) Willd. Rusby
Actaea spicata L,. |Wh. G. Sm.| Asth.
Adonis Dill. sp. | Mi.
Adonis aestivalis L. G. Ir.
Adonis amurensis Regel & Radde. G. Ir.
Adonis vernalis C..Sm. L. tr:
Anemone altaica. Fisch. a
Anemone apennina L, Ir.
G. C. Ches.|Sap.
L.
Ti
Sap
RCE GlSan FP.
Locality
W.N.Am. Mont.
Peru.
iy: Temp. As.
N. As.
Eur. Cauc. Reg.
Greece.
S. Eur.
Greece, A. Min.
Eur,
Eur.
China, }
Ry. Mts. N. A. _
Him. Reg.
China.
a 2
S. Afr. j
Austr.
Him. Reg, Bur-
ma. Malay. :
N. Zeal.
Austr.
Spree
Brazil.
Austr.
Austr.
a ee
IN. As,
|Japan.
|Him. Reg.
|W. N. Am.
Ry. Mts.
N. As. N, Am.
|Him. Reg.
[Japan
N. be Reg.
Eur. We
Eur. Ori.
Manchuria.
ur. N. Am.
Siber. Altai.
N. Am.
Anemone
Anemone
Anemone
Anemone
Koch.
Anemone
Anemone
Anemone
Anemone
Aquilegia
Aquilegia
Aquilegia
POISONOUS PLANTS OF THE WORLD
NAME OF PLANT
coronaria
nemorosa L,.
parviflora Michx.
patens L. var Wolfgangiana
pratensis L,.
Pulsatilla L,
ranunculoides L.
sylvestris L.
caerulea James.
canadensis L.
vulgaris L,.
Caltha arctica R. Br.
Caltha palustris L,.
Cimicifuga foetida L.
Cimicifuga racemosa L.
Clematis
Clematis
Clematis
Clematis
Clematis
Clematis
Clematis
Clematis
Clematis
Clematis
Clematis
Clematis
Clematis
Clematis
Clematis
Clematis
Clematis
Clematis
Clematis
Clematis
Clematis
aethusiaefolia Turcz.
alpina Mill.
Bergeroni A. Lavall.
brachiata Thunb.
Buchaniana DC.
caripensis HBK.
cirrhosa L,.
Flammula L,.
florida Thunb.
Fremonti S. Wat.
Gouriana Roxb.
integrifolia L.
lanuginosa Lindl.
mauritiana L,.
orientalis L,.
Pitcheri Torr. & Gray.
pseudo-flammula Sch.
reticulata Walt.
Vitalba L.
Wightiana Wall.
Williamsii Gray.
Delphinium Ajacis L.
Delphinium Brunonianum Royle
Delphinium caeruleum Jacq,
Delphinium Consolida L. »-
Delphinium Geyeri Greene
Delphinium Menziesii DC.
Delphinium mauritiana Coss.
Delphinium peregrinum L.
Delphinium recurvatum Greene
Delphinium Requieni DC.
Delphinium scopulorum A. Gray.
Rama i Properties
Ir
ei Ch.Giitr
Mi. L.
| G.
Ches.Rusby|Abort. Ir.
C!
|G.C.Mi.Sm.|Abort. Ir.
Mite Teg | Maes
ID. ia
Ie: Diur
Te: Diur
G.C.Mi.L. |ir.
By hein: Pur
G. C. Sm. |Acr.
CrySnre WAcr
Gey Smale Ast
Rusby
G, Acr
Gy ©) Sn Sap,
G. Sap.
| G. Ver.
| G. Sap.
G. Ves.
G. Sap.
Co, Gan Sap
G. Ir. Sap
G. Sap. Hyd
G. Ir.
Gi Cio abaya,
G. Ir. Hyd.
G.
G. ryd.
G. Sap.
G. Sap.
Sap.
|G.Sm.C,Mi.|Ir.
1
Hyd.
G. Sm.
ME Gein:
G. Card.
G.
CoM es Ast
Ches.
Ches. L. |Acr.
Ches.
G. L. Ches.|Car
G.
G.
Ches. L. |Acr.
Ches,
Cc
L. Ches.
845
Locality
'Med, Reg. Ori.
Eur. N.
Am.
|N. Am.
iN. Cent. St. Ry.
Mts. Br. Am.
As. N.
W. N. Am.
Arct. Reg.
|Eur. Siberia.
N. Am.
Mong.
Eur. N. Am.
IS. Afr.
Him. Reg.
Mex.
Med. Reg.
Med. Reg.
Japan.
W. N. Am.
Ind. Malay.
S. Eur. N. As.
China. W. N.
Amer. Ry. Mts.
Madag. Maurit
Ts.
ob Reg. Ori.
BE. N. Am.
Am.
rae N. Afr.
Cauce.
Ind. ,
Japan.
Eur.
Him. Reg.
Him. Reg. N.
Am,
Eur. N. As.
IS, Eur. Ori.
lW. N. Am.
Med. Reg.
N. Am.
846
NAME OF PLANT
Delphinium Staphisagria L.
L.
Delphinium tricorne Michx, G. L. Ches.|Car. E. N. A. S. Sts
Delphinium trolliifolium Gray. G. Ches. W. N. Am
Delphinium uncinatum Hook. Cones ilie Him. Reg
Eranthis hyemalis Salisb. Sm. G. |Ast. Eur.
Helleborus foetidus L. | C.G.Sm.L. Pur. Eur
Helleborus niger L. }G.W.C.Sm.| Pur. Eur.
| LL. Mi.
Helleborus odorus Waldst. Sm. Hungary,
Helleborus orientalis Lam. C.. Sm. A. Min. Greece.
Helleborus viridis L,. G. Ches. L.|Pur Eu.
Hydrastis canadensis L. ibs Berb IN. A
Tsopyrum fumarioides L, G. Hyd Eur. N. As.
Tsopyrum thalictroides L. G. S: Har:
Knowltonia vesicatoria Sims, Gy L | NemiVess Afr. Cape.
eg.
Nigella damascena L, LL. Sap. Med. Reg.
Nigella sativa L. G. L. |Sap. Med. Reg.
Ranunculus abortivus L. iia EK. N. Am.
Ranunculus acris L. C.G.Sm.Mi.|Acr
iis Eur. N. As.
Ranunculus alpestris L. Acr Eur.
Ranunculus aquatilis L. Mi. Sm. |Ir. Tem. Reg
Ranunculus arvensis L. G.Sm.C.L. |Acr Eur. N. As
Ranunculus, asiaticus L. Sm. ir. Asia.
Ranunculus auricomus L, Mi. Sm, L,.|Ir. N. Temp. Reg
Ranunculus bulbosus L. G.C.Mi.Sm.|Ir. Temp. Reg
Ranunculus Ficaria L,. G.C.Sm.Mi.| Ir. |Eur. Caucas.
Ranunculus Flammula L. G.C.Sm.Mi.|Ir.
Rusby N. Temp. Reg.
Ranunculus hybridus G. °C. Mi. Be 9. Eur.
Ranunculus lanuginosus L. G. iRur. Cau. Reg.
Ranunculus lappaceus Sm. M.. |P. Austr.
Ranunculus lingua L, C. Mi. Eur. Siber.
Ranunculus polyanthemos L, Mi. Cauc. Reg.
Ranunculus repens L,. C. Mi. N. Temp Reg.
Ranunculus sceleratus L. |G. Mi. Sm.|Acr. Ir. Eu. N. Am.
RusbyChes.
Ranunculus septentrionalis Poir. | Ir. Acr E. N. Am,
Ranunculus Thora L. | G. Mi. [Ves S.. Bur
{| Rusby
Thalictrum flavum L. Cc Eur, N. .\s.
Thalictrum foetidum L,. Sm. Eur. Siberia
Thalictrum macrocarpum Gren. CG:
Trollius asiaticus L. G. Sap. Siberia.
Trollius europaeus L, G. Sap. Eur. Cancas.
Trollius pumilus D. Don. | G. Sap. Him, Reg.
Zanthoriza | M. | | Austr.
RESEDACEAE
Reseda Tourn. sp. | G. Hyd. Eur.
Reseda Luteola L, L. Diur. Eur.
RHAMNACEAE
Ceanothus americanus L, | Gea Sap) |E. N. Am.
Ceanothus azureus Desf. iat Mex.
eanothus caeruleus Lag. L. Mex.
MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Authority | Properties Locality
|G.Sm.W.C.|Ast. Paras. |Med. Reg.
POISONOUS PLANTS OF THE WORLD 847
NAME OF PLANT | Authority
Ceanothus integerrimus Hook & Arn. G. Sap.
Ceanothus ovatus Desf. G. Sap.
Ceanothus thyrsiflorus Eschw. G. Sap.
Ceanothus velutinus Dougl, Ge Ee isan
Colletia spinosa Lam. G. Sap.
Discaria serratifolia Benth. & Hook. G. Sap.
Gouania Jacq. sp. G.
Karwinskia Humboldtiana Zucc., | G. Coult
(Mtchell)
Paliurus aculeatus Lam. [ete Grer ees
Rhamnus Alaternus L, | (ie
Rhamnus californica Esch. G. Tar:
Rhamnus caroliniana Walt. L. Lax
Rhamnus cathartica L. Ce Smelee tlie
Rhamnus Frangula L. GAG i: Tee
Rhamnus Purshiana DC. | L. Dax,
Rhamnus Wightii W. & A. | 1 Lax.
Zizyphus Joazeira Mart. G. Sap.
Zizyphus Lotus Lam. | G.
Zizyphus sativa Gaertn. | G. !
RHIZOPHORACEAE
Rhizophora Mangle L,. (Gy Sm. Tan:
ROSACEAE
Agrimonia eupatoria L. [Gs ay Sant
Brayera anthelmintica Kunth. Gs Ey’ . Ant.
Cercocarpus parvifolius Nutt. G. Sap.
Cormus foliosa Planch. G, Hyd.
Cotoneaster Rupp. G. Hyd.
Gillenia stipulacea Nutt. (© Beis) am PE sk
Gillenia trifoliata Moench. Li Gy peat
Kageneckia angustifolia D. Don. G. Hyd.
Kageneckia oblonga Ruiz. & Pav. G. Hyd.
Licania hypoleuca Benthm. G.
Nuttallia cerasiformis T. & G. 1 i Gre
Osteomeles arbutifolia Lindl. | G. Hy
Peraphyllum ramosissimum Nutt. G. Hyd
Poterium canadense A. Gray. | G. Em.
Poterium officinale A. Gray. L. Astr
Prunus amara | Sm. Ast
Prunus Amygdalus Stokes. C. G. Sm. |TTyd
Prunus Capollin Zucc.. G. Hyd.
Prunus caroliniana Ait. Ches tlyd.
Prunus demissa D. Dietr. Ches Lae
Prunus domestica L, : Lax
Prunus Laurocerasus L,. Sm.Mi.C.L.|Hyd.
Prunus Mahaleb L. G. Hyd.
Prunus persica Stokes. ae NR Ge
Properties
L. |Amyg. Hyd.
d.
Ast. Hyd.
Locality
N. W. Am.
N. Am.
Calif,
N. W. Am. Ry.
Mts.
S. Am.
|Chili. Pat.
W.N. Am. Tex.
S. Eur. W. As.
Med. Reg. As.
Minor.
Asia. N. Afr.
|Tr. Shores.
|N. Tem.
Abyss.
Ry. Mts. W.
N. Am.
N. Temp. Reg.
N. Am.
Chili.
New Gran.
\W. N. Am.
|
N. W. Am.
N, Am.
Eur. N. Am. N.
As.
Asia
\N. Afr. Eur. W.
As. Orient.
Mex.
iN. A.
Ry. Mts. W. N.
Am.
Eur. Cauc. Reg.
Orient.
S. Eur. Orient.
Temp. As.
848
MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Locality
Java.
N. Tem. Reg.
Eur. N. As.
Him. Reg.
|Eur. N. Afr.
Chili.
Spain.
|Eur. Tem. As.
\Eur. Cauc. Reg.
N. & Arc. Reg.
Eur.
E. N. Am.
N. Tem. Reg.
Him. Reg.
Him. Reg.
iN. As.
Rus. Tem. As.
Japan.
Siberia.
Siber. China.
N. A.
j\Eur. As. Min,
Eur.
Trop. Am.
S. A.
|Galapaene Is.
E. N. A,
Mascar. Is.
Amic. Is.
N. Zea.
Malay.
N. Tem. Reg.
Magellan.
NAME OF PLANT Authority | Properties
Prunus serotina Ehrh. G. Ches. |Hyd
Prunus undulata Ham. G. Hyd.
Prunus virginiana L. Gi (CC) E. yd.
Purshia tridentata DC. G. Em.
Pygeum africanum Hook. G. Hyd.
Pygeum parviflorum Teijsm. & Binn. G. Hyd.
Pyrus L,. G. Hyd.
Pyrus Aucuparia Gaertn. G.
Pyrus Janata D. Don G.
Pyrus Sorbus Gaertn.
Quillaja saponaria Molina Coie: Sap.
Rhodotypos herricides Sieb, and Zucc. | G. Sap.
Rosa canina L,. | Ty Astr.
Rosa gallica L. IE Astr.
Rubus chamaemorus L, | by; Diur.
Rubus cuneifolia E. Merc. se Astr.
Rubus villosus Ait. (Gs i 0A Sap. Mech.
Spiraea Aruncus L, G, Sap.
Spiraea bella Sims. G, Sap.
Spiraea canescens D. Don. G, Sap
Spiraea Filipendula L. G, Ant,
Spiraea Humboldtii Hort. G, Sap.
Spiraea hypericifolia L. iby Astr.
Spiraea japonica L, G. Sap.
Spiraea laevigata L. G. Sap
Spiraea palmata Pall. G. Sap.
Spiraea tomentosa L,. 1p, Nsth.
RUBIACEAE
Asperula cynanchica L, eee etic y i ae ae
Asperula odorata L. o” L. {Cou.
Basanacantha tetracantha Hook. | G. (aye 1 Bo
Bothriospora corymbosa Hook. G.
Cephaélis toxica A. St. Hil. G. Dras.
Cephalanthus occidentalis L,. G. Sap.
Chiococca P. Br. sp. G. Dras,
Chiococca P. Br. sp. L. Dras.
Chiococca brachiata Ruiz. and Pav. | Ik Diur.
Chiococca racemosa L, L. Diur.
Cinchona sp. G Wh. “inc P ae
Coffea mauritiana Lam. G.
Coffea odorata Forst. G.
Coprosoma linariifolia Hook. f. G.
Coptosapelta flavescens North. G. ae) =
Galium Aparine L, L. Diur
Galium asprellum Mx. | Ue Cou
Galium triflorum Mx. Goby Coed
Geophila macropoda DC. G. Em,
Geophila reniformis G. Don. G.
Hamelia patens Jacq. | G.
Mitchella repens L. G. LL. {Sap.
Mitragyna speciosa Korth. G.
Morelia senegalensis A. Rich, G. 1 ee
POISONOUS PLANTS OF THE WORLD 849
NAME OF PLANT Authority | Properties Locality
Mussaenda frondosa L. | G. |Sap. |Malay. Ind.
Oldenlandia senegalensis Hiern. G. Ant Ind. Tr. Afr.
Oldenlandia umbellata L. | L. Ant India
Paederia foetida Sm. Ind. Malay.
Palicourea rigida HBK | S. Am.
Pavetta reticulata BI. | G. Em. Java.
Plectronia dicocca Burck. G, i Hyd.
Psychotria emetica L. | wy |Em. N. Gran.
Psychotria Ipecacnauha Stokes |G. Wh. L. |Dep Em. /|Braz.
Randia aculeata L. Sm. W. Ind.
Randia dumetorum La. OE (AM Te ea Tr. Old World.
Sickungia rubra Mart. \ G. Alk. |Braz.
Spermacoce capitata Willd. G. Peru.
Spermacoce semierecta Roxb. G. Cou. Sumatra.
Tricalypsa Sonderiana Hiern. | G. eA
Vangueria spinosa Roxb. G. SLES ANS:
RUTACEAE
Acronychia laurifolia BI. | G. PP |Tr. As.
Casimiroa edulis L. Gee) Nar: Mex.
Choisya ternata HBK. G. Sap. Mex.
Citrus Aurantium L, C; | ar As:
Citrus medica L., G. Wh. |Hyd. Tr. As.
Cusparia febrifuga H. & B. ipa Bees New Gran.
Cusparia toxicaria Engl. G. |Braz.
Evodia rutaecarpa Hook. Ep Pur Him. Reg.
China. Japan.
Lunasia philipinensis Planch. G. AE: Philipp.
Melicope erythrococca Benth. G. Austr.
Peganum antidysintericum Kostel. L. Astr. S. Ate,
Peganum Harmala L, GC) Ey Amt Cent. As.
Pilocarpus sp. G. |W. Ind. S. Am.
Pilocarpus officinalis Poehl. | L, Diaph, S. A.
Pilocarpus pennatifolius Lem. | Sm. Wh. |Dep. Ir. Brazil
Pilocarpus racemosus Vahl. L. Diaph. W. Ind
Pilocarpus spicatus A. St. Hil. i Diaph. Brazil.
Ptelea trifoliata L. G, Sap. - |E. N, Am.
Ruta graveolens L, G:C.Sm.L,. |Abort. Ir. |S. Eur.
Ruta montana Mill. G. Abort. Med. Reg. Cau.
Skimmia japonica Thunb. G. [Re Japan.
- Thevetia Ahouai A. DC. | Braz.
/Thevetia neriifolia Juss. |
Zanthoxylum alatum Roxb. | G. LAA | Him. Reg. Chin.
Zanthoxylum caribaeum Lam. G. |New Grau,
Zanthoxylum Naranjillo Griseb, | G2 iar: Pasi
Zanthoxylum scandens BI. G. ( Java.
SALICACEAE
Populus balsamifera L. | Halsted Ir. ‘E. N. Am. Asia.
SALVADORACEAE
Salvadora persica L. G. | Orient. Ind. N.
fr.
850 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
SAMYDACEAE
NAME OF PLANT Authority | Properties Locality
Casearia graveolens Dal. G. Dad ea Ind.
Casearia guineensis G. Don. G. Boke Te Ae
Casearia tomentosa Roxb, G. fear. [Tr. As. Austr.
SANTALACCEAE
Exocarpus cypressiformis R. Br. AG IM |Austr.
SAPINDACEAE
Alectryon excelsum Gaert. G. | Hyd. N. Zeal.
Blighia sapida Kon. Afr. W. Ind.
Cardiospermum Halicacabum L, GC. ak. aisap: Tr. Reg. N. A.
S. States
Cupania sp. G.
Cupania Pseudorhus A. Rich, G. FY 'P Austr.
Dittelasma Rarak DC. G. Fe. Malacca
Dodonaea physocarpa Fv. Muell. G. | Austr.
Dodonaea viscosa Jacq. G.UoRS aise Cosmop. Tr,
Ganophyllum falcatum BI. G. Sap. Malacca.
Harpullia arborea Radlk. Gs4Ro), BPs
Harpullia cupanioides Roxb. GR a Bes Ind.
Harpullia thanatophora BI. G. N. Guin.
Koelreuteria paniculata Laxm. G. China.
Magonia glabrata A. St. H. G. R. |Sap. F. P. |Braz.
Magonia pubescens St. Hil. G. R. E. |Sap. F. P. [Braz.
Nephelium lappaceum L. G. Malay.
Nephelium Longana Camb. G. Ind. Burma.
Paullinia costata Schlecht. R. G. |Sap. F. P> |Mex.
Paullinia Cupana HBK. G, R. L. |Sap. F. P. Venez.
Paullinia curassavica Jacq. R Sap. F. P. |W.. Ind.
Paullinia macrophylla Kunth. G. R Sap. F. P. |N. Gran.
Pauilinia meliaefolia Juss. _ G. Sap. F. P. |Braz.
Paullinia thalictrifolia Juss. G. Sap. F. P. |Trop. Amer.
Paullinia trigonia Vell. Sap. F. P. |Brazil.
Sapindus abyssinicus Fres. | G Sap. F. P.. |Abyss.
Sapindus aborescens Aubl. | G. Bi uP: Guian.
Sapindus marginatus Willd. om, L. .| Sap: N. Am, 8. Sts.
Tex.
Sapindus Mukorossi Gaertn. G. BPs Trop. Asia
Sapindus Saponaria L, Cg Rea N. & S. Am.
Sapindus trifoliatus L,. Ge ae Trop. As.
Schleichera GC. Hyd
Serjania acuminata Radlk. Gi Re Narn Braz...
Serjania curassavica Radlk. RR. Est) Sap. make
Serjania cuspidata Cambess. G, Sap. W. Ind.
Serjania erecta Radlk, EK. & G. R.|Sap. F. P.* |Brazil.
Serjania ichthyoctona Radlk. BR. (Sap. Fo Py Brag
Serjania inebrians Radlk. E. & G. R.|Sap. F. P., |Costa Rica. ©
Serjania lethalis A. St. Hil. BE. G. R. L.|Sap. F. P. |Brazil.
Serjania mexicana Willd. L, Sap. F. P. |Mex.
Serjania nodosa Radlk. G. R. E. |Sap. F. P. |W. Ind
Serjania piscatoria Radlk, EF. & G. R.|Sap. F. P. |Brazill
Serjania polyphylla Radlk. G, -R. |Sap. F..P, {Gitian;
R
Talisia stricta Triana & Planch. G. Sap. New Granad.
Ungnadia speciosa Endl. [Gai Aha) ap: Texas.
a eS a ee
POISONOUS PLANTS OF THE WORLD
SAPOTACEAE
NAME OF PLANT Authority | Properties
Achras sapota L, GPE" jean:
Bassia butyracea Roxb. G. PP.
Bassia latifolia Roxb. G.
Bassia longifolia L. L. Astr.
Bassia Mottleyana Miq. G. Hyd.
Illipe Maclayana G.
Lucuma Bonplandia HBK. G.
Lucuma deliciosa Planch & Linden. G. Hyd.
Lucuma glycyphloca Mart. L. Astr.
Lucuma mammosa Gaertn. G. Hyd.
Lucuma multiflora A. DC. G. Hyd.
Lucuma salicifolia HBK IL; Sap.
Omphalocarpum procerum Beauy, G.
Payena latifolia Burck. G. Sap.
Sideroxylon borbonicum A. DC. G.
Sideroxylon dulcificum A. DC. G.
Sideroxylon toxiferum Thunb. G. APs
SARRACENIACEAE
Sarracenia flava L,. Te Astr
Sarracenia purpurea L. Gi I. pAste
Sarracenia variolaris Mx. P Astr
SAURURACEAE
Saururus cernuus L, I SGie. 7 san
SAXIFRAGACEAE
Aphanopetalum resinosum Endl. G. Alk.
Callicema serratifolia Andr. G. Sap.
Ceratopetalum apetalum D. Don. G. Cou.
Chrysosplenium alternifolium L. G. Poi.
Chrysosplenium americanum Schw. |e
Deutzia staminea R. Br. G. Sap.
Dichroa febrifuga Lour, G. Em.
Escallonia myrtilloides L,. f. | G.
Francoa appendiculata Cav. G. Alk.
Hydrangea arborescens L. be Gs Ee.) Sapo yd:
Hydrangea Hortensia Sieb. | G, Hyd.
Hydrangea involucrata Sieb. | Hyd.
Hydrangea Lindleyana G,
Hydrangea Thunbergii Sieb. G, Hyd.
Jamesia americana Torr. & Gray. Hyd.
Philadelphus coronarius L, G, Sap.
Philadelphus grandiflorus Willd. G. Sap.
Philadelphus Lemonei ~ G, Sap.
Philadelphus Lewisii Pursh. G, Sap.
Philadelphus microphyllus A. Gray. G, Sap.
Ribes aureum Pursh. G,
Ribes cereum Dougl. G. Sm. ene
Ribes macrobotrys Ruiz. & Pav. Sait
Ribes nigrum L, L. gee
Ribes prostratum L. Her. Sm.
Locality
S. Am.
Ind,
Ind,
Ind,
Malay.
New Guin.
Cuba.
New Gran.
Braz.
S. Am.
W. In.
Mex.
Tr As:
Sunda. Is.
Barbon Is.
Tr: Afr.
|E. N. Am.
Him. Reg..
|Malay China.
New Gran,
Chili.
N. Am.
Asia. Orient.
Japan.
| Japan.
Ry. Mt. N. Am.
5. Bur
N. Am.
IN. Am. Ry.Mts.
IN. Am. N.Mex.
[Ry. Mts. W.
N. Am.
IW. N. Am. Ry.
Mts.
Peru.
Eur. N. As,
N. Am.
851
852 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
NAME OF PLANT Authority | Properties
Saxifraga Andrewsii Harv. G. Sap.
Saxifraga cortusaefolia Sieb. & Zucc. G. Sap.
Saxifraga cuneifolia L. G. Sap.
Saxifraga Sibthorpii Boiss. G. Sap.
SCITAMINEAE
Kaempferia rotunda L, | Kirtikar |
SCROPULARIACEAE
Beyrichia scutellarioides Benth. | G. km.
Bonnaya veronicaefolia Spreng. | G. Ant.
Calceolaria scabiosaefolia Sims. H Em.
Capraria biflora L.
G
Castilleja canescens. Benth. G. Car,
Chelone glabra L. Gio pat
Digitalis ambigua Murr. hie Card.
Digitalis lutea L.
Digtalis purpurea L,
Digitalis Thapsi L.
G. Mi. Sm.|Card. Ast.
EGR CiROP
Gerardia tenuifolia Vahl Ches.
Gratiola officinalis L,. Mi.G.C.Sm.|Ir.
| Ches. L.
Gratiola peruviana L, G.
Limosella aquatica L. G. Sap.
Limosella. Cymbalaria Mill. C
Limosella Elatine Mill. c.
Limosella spuria Mill. | 'G)
Linaria vulgaris Mill. C.Sm.Mi.L,.|Ir
| Rusby
Melampyrum arvense L. Cink.
Melampyrum silvaticum L, Gus) Drug
Pedicularis palustris L. |G.Mi.Ches}
Pedicularis sylvatica L,. | Mi
Rhinanthus major Ehrt. Cc
Rhinanthus minor Ehrt. HENS Ins.
Scrophularia aquatica L, G.S
Scrophularia nodosa L,. G
Striga euphrasioides Benth.
Vandellia crustacea Benth.
Vandellia minuta Miq.
Verbascum Blattaria L.
Verbascum crassifolium Hoffmgg.
Verbascum dubium Roem & Schult.
lest
QQ ONEORS” os
jest
3
Verbascum orientale Bieh, RoR
Verbascum phlomoides L, BR ARO
Verbascum pulverulentum Vill G.
Verbascum simplex Labill. Be RP,
Verbascum sinuatum L., G.
Verbascum thapsoides L. G.
Verbascum Thapsus L, E.G.R.C.L.AB. PB.
OOM
Be Se
OQ
ret)
—
=
Locality
Japan.
Spain.
Greece.
ise: A.
| Brazil.
Malay. China.
Peru.
|Trop. Am.
| Mex.
E. N. Am.
Eur. W. As.
5, Buri
ee W. N.Am.
Spain. _
E. N. Am.
Eur.
Trop. Am. Aus.
New Zeal.
N. & S. Temp.
Reg.
Eur.
Eur. Orient
Eur. N. Afr,
Eur. N. Am.
Caucasus
Eur. N. As.
N. Tem. & Arc.
Reg.
Eur.
Eur.
Eur.
Eur. Caue.
N. Temp. Reg.
India.
|Cosm. Trop.
|Java.
Eur. N. As.
N. Am.
Lusitania.
Lusitania.
Caucas.
Eur. As. Min.
S. Eur.
|
.
ee ee ag ee ee ee ee ee a ee
eee ee a
POISONOUS PLANTS OF THE WORLD 853:
NAME OF PLANT Authority | Properties
Veronica Beccabunga L. Ee |Diur.
Veronica officinalis L. 1 Diur.
Veronica virginica Nutt. Gi Ls) Kar. fom.
Rusby
SELAGINELLACEAE
Globularia Alypum L, . ee RR eis
SIMARUBACEAE
Ailanthus glandulosa Desf. | G. Rusby |Taen.
L.
Balanites aegyptiaca Delile. : G, Sap.
Balanites Roxburghii Planch. G, Sap.
Brucea sumatrana Roxb. Gok:
Cneorum tricoccum L,. c.
Picraena excelsa Lindl. L. Ins.
Picrasma quassioides Benn. GiB) Piss
Samadera indica Gaertn. G.. 1,
Simaba Waldinii Planch. | G.
Simaruba amara Aubl. | Sm.
SOLANACEAE
Acnistus arborescens Schlecht. | G. Nar.
Anthocercis Lab. sp. | G.
Atropa Belladonna L,. |G.C.Mi.Sm.| Del.
| L. Rusby
Brunfelsia Hopeana Benth. Ray ean! DT 2 Sah 24
Capsicum annuum L. HESS rycen OAS 1
Capsicum frutescens L. sm. L. [Ir
Capsicum minimum Blanco. | Win Dy. |r.
Cestrum aurantiacum Lindl. Sm. Nar
Cestrum auriculatum L’Her. G. Nar
Cestrum macrophyllum Vent. G. |
Cestrum nocturnum L,. G.
Cestrum pallidum Lam. G.
Cestrum Parqui L’Her. G.
Cestrum vespertinum L,. G.
Datura arborea L, Gre
Datura fastuosa L. EH Berney Yd cand
Datura ferox L,. C.
Datura Metel L. Ge: CE Nar
Datura meteloides DC. 1 Nar
Datura sanguinea Riz, & Pav. | Go Le Narn P
Datura Stramonium L,. | C.G.Rusby | Hyp
Sm. Mi
Ches. L
Datura suaveolens C. |Hyp
Datura Tatula L,. |Ches. ae Fa
Duboisia Hopwoodii F. Muell. |& a Hyp.
Duboisia myoporoides R. Br. |
Hyoscyamus albus L,
Hyp. ‘Del.
Locality
IN. Temp. Reg.
Eur. As. Min.
N. As.
ib N. Am.
|Med. Reg.
China.
N. Afr, Arab.
Pales.
Ind.
Trop. As. Aust.
Har,
W. Ind.
|\Him. Reg,
China
Ind.
Trop. Am.
| Mexico.
Austr.
Eur. Ori. Ind.
Brazil,
Trop. Reg.
|Mex. S. Am.
Tex. Mex.
Trop. Reg.
Philipp. Is.
Guztimal.
Ss. Am.
W. Ind.
S. Am.
Jamaica.
Trop. Amer.
W. Ind.
S. Amer.
Tr. Old. World.
China.
Trop. Am.
W. N. A.
S. Am.
Cosm. Trop.
|
Cosm. Trop.
Austr.
Austr.
Orient.
854
NAMK OF PLANT
Hyoscyamus aureus L.
Hyoscyamus Falezlez Coss.
Hyoscyamus muticus L.
Hyoscyamus niger L,.
Hyoscyamus physaloides L.
Hyoscyamus reticulatus L.
Latua venenosa Phil.
Lycium barbarum L.
Lycopersicum esculentum Mill,
Mandragora autumnalis Bertol.
Mandragora officinarum L.
Nicandra physaloides Gaertn.
Nicotiana alata Link & Otto.
Nicotoana chinensis
Nicotiana glauca Grab.
Nicotiana quadrivalvis Pursh.
Nicotiana rustica L.
Wicotiana suaveolens Lehi.
Nicotiana Tabacum L.
Nierembergia hippomanica Mers.
Physalis Alkekengi L.
Physalis foetens Poir.
Physalis virginiana Mill.
Physochlaina orientalis G. Don.
Physochlaina praealta Miers.
Scopolia carnicola Jacq.
Scopolia japonica Max,
Scopolia lurida Dun.
Scopolia physaloides Dun.
Solandra grandiflora Sw.
Solanum aculeatissimum Jacq.
Solanum aviculare Forst.
Solanum caripense Humb. & Bopl.
Solanum carolinense L,.
Solanum crispum Ruiz, & Pav.
Solanum Dulcamara L.
Solanum ellipticum R. Br.
Solanum esuriale Lindl.
Solanum eremophilum Fv. M.
Solanum grandiflorum R. & P.
Solanum mammosum L,
Solanum Melongena L.
Solanum nigrum L,
Solanum saponaceum Dun.
Solanum sodemeum L,.
Solanum Sturtianum F. v. M.
Solanum stramonifolium Jacq.
Solanum torum Sw.
MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Authority | Properties Locality
@ A. Min. Mesop.
CG; W. As.
Cy a) Nar, Med. Reg.?
R.Ches.Sm.|Hyp. Del. |Eur. W. As.
Mi. Rusby Him. Reg.
CHE Ga hs
G. Hyp. Del. | Siberia.
G. Hyp. Del. |As. Min. Egypt.
iia Chili,
G. Orient.
G. Mi, Sm.|Sap. S. Am. Mex.
CORN Bs Tex. Tem. Reg.
Sm. Med. Reg.
Cc Gabe Del: |Med. Reg.
G. P. berry Peru.
GC: Brazil.
(Ge China,
| CGM: |Arg.
| Gs W. N. Am.
LCA Nags. Mexico.
G. M. Australia.
| RusbyC.R.|Naus. F. P.|S. Am. Temp.
hes. G. Reg.
Lawes
G. Arg. Rep.
1 Diur. Eur, Japan.
G. Nar. Trop. Am.
G. Nar. E. N. Am.
CAG, Orient.
G, Es Him. Reg.
C. L. |Atropin Eur.
G. L. |Atropn Pi. |Japan.
G. 1D. Him. Reg.
Siberia. Altai. —
G. Alk. Trop. Amer.
G. Tr. As. & Am.
G. | Aus. & N. Zeal.
G. | Venez.
Ty Diur N. A.
| Sm. Del. Chili.
Ches. |Sol. Nar. |Eu. N. Am.
| Rusby L. Austr.
G, Austr.
Austr.
G. M. Austr.
| G. | Peru.
| G. | Trop. Am.
[Cy Seach I'Tr. Old World.
| | |Austr. N. Am.
|G.M.Rusby| Nar |Eur. N. Am,
|C.Mi.Ches. | |As.
aay Fe |
| G. | |Peru.
| G Sm. | (Trop. Old
| World. Calid.
Wg CRO Austrl.
| G. |Cosm. Trop.
| | |Cosm. Trop.
POISONOUS PLANTS OF THE WORLD
855
NAME OF PLANT Authority | Properties
Solanum triflorum Nutt. G. Ches. |
Solanum tuberosum L, M. Rusby |Sol.
Ches.
Solanum villosum Willd. - Mi.
Solanum Xanti Gray G.
Triguera ambrosiaca Cav. G.
Vestia lycioides Willd. G.
Withania somnifera Dun. G. Abort.
; STERCULIACEAE
Pterospermum diversifolium Bl. G. dre
Sterculia alata Roxb. : G. Nar.
TERNSTROEMIACEAE
Camellia japonica L. G. [F: P.
Camellia Sasanqua Thunb. G. 1 an 2
Caraipa fasiculata Cambers. G.
Caryocar glabrum Pers. G.
Llanosia Toquian Blanco. G. i ie
THYMELAEACEAE
Daphne Gnidium L. | L, Ir.
Dahpne Laureola L. LGC My Whe Bees
Daphne mezereum L. i. a
Daphne striata Tratt. G.
Daphnopsis cestrifolia Meiss. G.
Daphnopsis Cneorum L., | G.R.MLE. |F. P.
Daphnopsis Gnidium L. GRG.Bs (iPoPs brs
Daphnopsis oleoides Schreb. Brandt Ir.
Dirca palustris L. G. L. |Sap.
Edgeworthia Gardneri Meiss. G. F,
Lasiadenia rupestris Benth. G. P.
Lasiosiphon anthylloides Ness. G. P.
Lasiosiphon eriocephalus D. C. G ER
Thymelaea Tartonraira All. G Ir.
Wikstroemia Chamaedaphne Meiss. G. 1 etal a
Wikstroemia viridiflora Meiss. GekRe. [Ee Pe:
TILIACEAE
Corchorus capsularis L. G.
Echinocarpus Sigun Bl. G. Hyd.
Grewia asiatica L. Ge Ree es
Grewia bracteata Roth. Hiyae:
Grewia Malococca L., Graks SBR
Grewia orientalis L. G.
Grewia pilosa Roxb. G.
Grewia piscatorum Hance.
Prockia theaeformis Willd. G. EP.
TROPAEOLACEAE
Tropaeolum majus ea WS i [lees
TYPHACEAE
Typha latifolia L,. | G. |P.
Locality
W. N. Am. Ry.
Mts. Neb.
De Aan @ alt.
Temp. Reg.
Eur. As. Afr.
Calif.
Spain.
Chili.
Med. Reg. Ori.
India Malay.
India.
Japan, China.
Japan.
Guiana.
Pacific Isl.
Guiana.
|Med. Reg.
Eur, N. As.
Eur, N. As.
Alp. S. Eur.
BS Granat.
Eur. Austr.
Med. Reg.
Eur. As. Min.
E. N. Am.
Him. Reg. Chi.
Japan.
Guinea.
S. Afr.
India.
S. Eur.
China.
|Tr. As. Austr.
Trop. Cosm.
Java.
India,
India,
Amicor Is.
Tr. As. & Aus.
Ind. Trop. Afr.
China.
Mascar Is.
|Peru.
|N. Temp. Reg.
a
856 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
ULMACEAE
UMBELLIFERAE
NAME OF PLANT Authority | Properties Locality
Aethusa Cynapium L,. iG.C.MiSm.|Ir. ‘| Bur. Orient.
Ammi Visnaga Lam. Di ae MC ona Med. Reg.
Anthriscus cerefolium Hoffm. Te Diur. Eur. N.. Asia.
Anthriscus sylvestris Hoffm, | L. Eur. N. As.
Can, Reg.
Anthriscus vulgaris Bern. i C7 Gai Ds Eur. Orient.
Apium graveolens L. MeL; Vir. Eur. Ori. Ind.
. Calif.
Apium leptophyllum F. v. M. G. M. Austr.
Apium nodiflorum Reichb. Wyse Ic.
Azorella Glebaria A. Gray. | G. iB:
Carum capense Sond, | G. Ss Ate
Carum copticum Benth. & Hooker. | G. Eur. N. Afr
| N. Asia.
‘Carum Petroselinum Benth & Hooker a igs RV Le Eur.
Caucalis daucoides L. | C: Eur. Temp. As.
Chaerophyllum temulum L,. | G. Eur. N. Afr.
| Caucas. Reg.
Cicuta Bolanderi A. Gray. 1} iGhes. Cane Calf.
Cicuta bulbifera L. | Rusby |{Con. N. A
Cicuta californica A. Gray, Rusby |Con. Calif
Cicuta maculata L,. | Rusby |Con.
\G. Ches. L. E. N. Am.
Cicuta occidentalis Greene | Ches. {Con. We N. Am. Ry
its.
Cicuta vagans Greene |G. Ches, L.|Con. W. N. Am
Cicuta venenata Nutt. | G. Con. W. N. Am.
Cicuta virosa L. 1G.Sm.C.Mi.|Con. |Eur. N. Am.
| L. Rusby |
Conium maculatum L,. | L. Mi. [Dep | Rur.Ori.N.Am.
Rusby G.
Sm.Ches.C.
Conopodium denudatum Koch. G. Kur.
Coriandrum sativum L,. We 1: S. Eur, Ori.
Crithmum maritimum L, | Ant. ur,
Daucus Carota L o L. |Diur Eur. Ori.N.Am.
Elaeselinum asclepium Boiss | as if S.. Eur:
Elaeselinum foetidum Boiss Wie if S. Eur. N. Afr.
Ferula communis L, Med. Reg.
Ferula foetida Regel | , Antisp. Turkest.
Ferula galbaniflua Boiss. & Buhse. PVs aks bas Persia.
Heracleum lanatum Michx. ie Got, Acs. Eur. N. Am.
W. As.
Heracleum Spondylium L,. Cra Ser Eur. N. As.
Heteromorpha arborescens Cham. & Schl.| G. S. Agr.
Hydrocotyle asiatica Ly. Nar.
Hydrocotyle javanica Thunb. G. PB: Java
Hydrocotyle umbellata L, G. Em. Trop. Reg.
Hydrocotyle vulgaris Sm. Mi Eur.
Lichstensteinia Beiliana Eckl. & Zeyh. | G. S. Afr.
Lichstensteinia pyrethifolia. Cham. & G,. S. Afr,
Schlecht. |
Molopospermum cicutarium DC. G. Nar Eur.
Oenanthe crocata L Gi Cain: Eur.
Oenanthe fistulosa CC. Mi air Eur. Casp. Reg.
Oenanthe Lachenalii G. Gmel. G. Eur. Casp. Reg.
POISONOUS PLANTS OF THE WORLD 857
NAME OF PLANT Authority
Oenanthe Phellandrium Lam: ee Cite
. Mi.
Oxypolis rigidus Britton. Ches.
Pastinaca sativa L. Coke (rar,
Peucedanum ambiguum Nutt. G.
Peucedanum foeniculaceum Nutt. L.
Peucedanum Ostruthium Koch. L.. Acr.
Pimpinella Saxifraga L,. L,. Naus
Sanicula marilandica L. Ge Ea) tAste
Sium cicutaefolium Schrank. L. Ches.
Sium erectum Huds. G. Sm. Mi.|Ir
Sium latifolium L. Mane:
Ches.
Thapsia garganica L. Lo Dn Fr
Thapsia villosa L. G. Tr.
Trachymene australis Benth. G. M.
URTICACEAE
Anitiaris toxicaria Lesch. Sie
Artocarpus calophylla Z. & M, | Bees
Cannabis sativa Lam. Mi. Sm. L,|Del.
| ay
Ficus altissima BI. ie
Ficus Carica L,. | ax.
Ficus hispida L. re
Ficus hypogaea.
Ficus leucantatomia Poir.
Ficus Roxburghii Wall. ae Ast,
Humulus Lupulus L. Mi. L. |Sed
Laportea canadensis Gaud. Wie ian is
Laportea crenulata Gaud. L. Ir
Laportea Gaudichaudiana Webb. L. Ir
Laportea stimulans Migq. Cain San 9 Fi
Trema aspera R. Br. M.
Urtica dioica L,. Sm. Mi. L,.|Ir
| Ches.
Urtica gracilis Ait. | Chesil: (he
Urtica holosericea Nutt. [yo kaPamn I
Urtica pilulifera L. om) 1.) {Ir
Urtica urens L. 1 SS WW
VALERIANACEAE
Valeriana dioica L.
Valeriana officinalis L.
VERBENACEAE
Callicarpa americana Lam. G.
Callicarpa cana L, G.
Callicarpa longifolia Lam. G. Basie
Callicarpa tomentosa Willd. G.
Clerodendron infortunatum Gart. G.
Properties
Ast. A. P.
12
Locality
Eur. N. As.
N. Tem. Reg.
Eur. Cauc. Reg.
Eur. N. A.
Med. Reg.
S. Eur.
Austr.
Ind. Malay
Tennasserim
Cent. As. N.
Him.Eur.N.Am.
Tr.Asia, Malay
S. Eur. Orient
Afr. N. & S.
Am. Austr.
Trop. As. &
Austr.
Malaya
Him. Burma
N. Am.
Trop. As.
Phil. Is.
Java
Austr.
|N. Temp. Reg.
Ry. Mts. W.N.
Am.
Orient. Med.
Reg.
Tem. old world
Eur.
Eur: N. As,
N. Am. Tex.
Trop.As. Austr.
Malay, Austr.
China
Malay
858 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
NAME OF PLANT Authority | Properties Locality
Clerodendron Siphonanthus R. Br. G. Ind. & Malay
Duranta Plumieri Jacq. G. Sap. Trop. Am,
Lantana salviaefolia Jacq. G. S. Agr;
Stachytarpheta indica Vahl. G. L.. |Abort. Cosm. Trop.
Verbena hastata L. Ts r N. A.
Verbena officinalis L. 1 ime, Bene ae Amphig. temp.
Verbena venosa Gill. & Hook. ] Sm. es Arg. Reg.
Vitex sp. | G. S. Am. Afr. As.
Austr.
Vitex pteropoda Mig. | G. Malay
Vitex vestita Wall. G. Malay
VIOLACEAE
Anchietea salutaris St. Hil. eR a Cie |Brazil
Ionidium Ipecacuanha Vent. | L. Em. Brazil
Noisettia HBK. | G. Em. Ss. Am.
Viola, G. Em. N. Temp. Reg.
Viola odorata L. Cai. | Baa N. Afr. & As.
Viola pedata L. | L. Em. N. A.
Viola sepenicola Jord. Ge Eur.
VITACEAE
Cissus nivea Hochst. G. | Abyss.
Cissus pruriens Planch. G.
Vitis hederacea Ehr. L. Ir. E. 'N. Am: Ry:
(Ampelopsis quinquefolia Michx. Mts.
Psedera quinquefolia (L.) Greene) | Hals.
Vitis elongata Wall. G. Ind.
Vitis Minahau. G.
Vitis Saponaria Seem. G. Austr. Pac. Is.
Vitis sessilifolia Baker. 1}: Brazil
XYRIDACEAE
Xyris communis Kunth. | | |Trop. Am.
ZINGIBERACEAE
Globba Beaumetzii Heck. G. Taen. |
Hedychium longecormatum. G. Ant.
Thaunatococcus Daniellii Benth. G. Trop. Afr,
Zingiber officinale Rose. Sm. ihe India
ZYGOPHYLLACEAE
Guaiacum officinale L. G. L. |Sap. India
Larrea mexicana Moric. Giles aL Mex. S.W.U.S.
Nitraria tridentata Desf. G. Ineb. Syria, N. Afr.
& Tropics
Tribulus cistoides L. G, Cosm. Trop.
Tribulus .maximus L, G. Sap. N. Am. Guiana
Zygophyllum coccineum L, G. N. Am. Arab.
Zygophyllum Fabago L. G. Spain, N. Afr.
W. Asia.
Zygophyllum iodocarpum F. v. M. G. | Austr.
POISONOUS PLANTS OF THE WORLD 859
EUTHALLOPHYTA. SCHIZOPHYTA. SCHIZOMYCETES.
Bacillus botulinus von Erm,
Bacillus piscidus Sieber (i) Schum.
For other toxic species see Buchanan, Part I of this Manual.
NAME OF PLANT
BACTERIA.
Authority
| Jordan
G.
|
Locality
N. Am. Eur.
Eur.
EUTHALLOPHYTA. EUPHYCEAE. ALGAE.
Hypnea muscaeformis
Rhodomenia palmata Gre.
See Parts I and II of this Manual.
EUTHALLOPHYTA. PHYCOMYCETES.
Saprolegnia sp.
Gyromitra esculenta Fr.
Claviceps purpurea Tul.
Amanita
Amanita
Amanita
Amanita
Amanita
Amanita
Amanita
Amanita
Amanita
Amanita
Amanita
Amanita
Amanita
Amanita
Cantharellus aurantiacus Fr.
cothurnata Atk.
floccocephala Atk.
Frostiana Pk.
magnivelaris Pk.
mappa Fr.
muscaria L,.
phalloides Fr.
recutita Fr.
rubescens Fr.
solitaria Bull.
spreta Pk.
strobiliformis Fr.
verna Bull,
virosa Fr.
Clitocybe illudens Schw.
Coprinus narcoticus Batsch._
Entoloma clypeatum (L.) Miquel.
Entoloma graveolens Pk.
Hebeloma crustuliniforme Bull.
| G.
ASCOMYCETES
Helvellaceae
| lef
Hypocreaceae
BASIDIOMYCETES
Agaricaceae
A.
A.
|CLA.H.Pk.
H.
ial.
Ch GE,
| Farl, A.
Pic Bie
Ches. Ph.
Cie:
Farl.
\|A.Mi. Bull.
| Cl. A. Fr.
Ph. Pk.
|Bull. Cl. A.
Fr, Ph. Pk.
RHODOMELACEAE
Alsidium Helminthochortes Ktzg.
Chondria vermicularis Hook.
G. Mi. |Abort.
|
|
Atlantic Ocean
Atlantic Ocean
Atlantic Ocean
Atlantic Ocean
|Cosm.
|Eur. N. Am.
Eur. N. Am.
|As. Austr,
Eur.
Eur. N.Am. Fr.
N. Am,
N. Am,
860 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
NAME OF PLANT Authority | Properties Locality
Hebeloma fastible Fr. In ay @ b Eur. N. Am.
Inocybe scaber Miill. H. Eur. N. Am.
Lactarius acris Bolt. COVE e Eur. N. Am.
Lactarius atroviridis Pk. Phare N. Am.
Lactarius camphoratus B. | H. Eur. N. Am.
Lactarium chrysorrheus Fr. LDeagral Eur. N. Am.
Lactarius insularis Fr. Bee Act Eur. N. Am
Lactarius pergamenus Fr, Fite Gel Aer Eur. N. Am.
Lactarius rubus Scop. G. a\cr. Eur. N. Am.
Lactarius scrobiculatus Fr. Pee Aer Eur. N. Am.
Lactarius subdulcis Fr. H. Fr. |Acr Eur. N. Am
Lactarius torminosis Fr. G. Acr. Eur. N. Am.
Lactarius trivialis Fr. H. Fr. |Acr. Eur. N. Am.
Lactarius turpis Fr. | re Acer Eur. N. Am.
Lactarius vellereus Fr. (Ep yeg bls Dalas Pa era Eur. N. Am.
Lactarius zonarius B. G. Acr. Eur.
Lentinus suavissimus Fr, Gi Br. Eur
Lentinus stypticus | G. Eur
Lepiota Morgani Pk. Pk. Cla N. Am.
Marasmias oreades Bolt. G. Eur. N, Am
Marasmias urens Bolt. GER Eur. N. Am
Paneolus papilionaceus Fr. | H. N. Am.
Pholiota caperata Cr |N. Am.
Pholiota radicosa B. G. Ke Eur. N. Am
Russula Barlea L. G. Eur. N. Am
Russula emetica Sch. | H.G.A.C1. | Em. Eur. N. Am
Russula foetens Pers. te CL Eur. N. Am
Russula fragilis H. Eur. N. Am
Russula rubra Fr, G. H. Fr. Eur. N. Am
Stropharia aeruginosa Curt. H: N. Am.
Tricholoma album Schaeff. | 1B Acr Eur, N. Am
Tricholoma saponaceum Fr. Be CL Ace Eur, N. Am
Tricholoma sulphureum | Ch. Acr Eur. N. Am
Volvaria volvacea I (@p jN. Am.
HY DNACEAE
Hydnum amarescens L,. | G. | Eur
Hydnum graveolens G. Eur
LYCOPERDACEAE
Lycoperdon Bovista Pers. G. Mi. lEur. N. Am.
Lycoperdon gemmatum Mi. Eur. N. Am
Lycoperdon giganteum Fr. Br. GC. Eur. N. Am
Lycoperdon saururus Lam. G. Eur.
Scleroderma vulgare G. Eur, N. Am.
Secotium acuminatum | ‘er |N. Am,
PHALLACEAE
Ithyphallus impudicus Ay Cr. N. Am. Eur.
Lisurus borealis Burt. inl N. Am.
Mutinus caninus Fr. Fes Cis Eur. N. Am.
Mutinus elegans Mont. Fly N. Am.
Phallus duplicatus Bosc. BCL Eur, N. Am.
Phallus Ravenellii (B&C) E. Fisch. H. Eur, N. Am.
NIDULARIACEAE
Crucibulum vulgare. Cl. Eur, N. Am.
Cyathus striatus Cl Eur. N. Am
Cyathus vernicosus Chi Eur, N. Am
POISONOUS PLANTS OF THE WORLD 861
POLYPORACEAE
NAME OF PLANT Authority | Properties Locality
Boletus alveolatus B. & C. H. N. Am.
Boletus felleus Bull. AE Eur. N. Am.
Boletus Frostii Russell He N. Am.
Boletus luridus Schaeff. pias! BE & Eur. N. Am.
Boletus satanas Lenz. isle @ik Eur. N. Am.
Polyporus anthelminticus Berk. G. |Eur.
Polyporus hispidus Bull. G. Eur.
Polyporus squamosus Fr. Fr. G: Eur.
UREDINEAE
Coleosporium Sonchi-arvense (Schw.) Ir. Eur, N. Am.
Thunb. Ches. Austr. Cosmp.
Puccinia coronata Cda. Pammel Eur. N. Am.
| Cosmp.
Puccinia graminis Pers. Virchow | Eur. N. Am.
Cosmp.
Puccina rubigovera DC. | Pammel Eur. N. Am.
Cosmp.
Puccinia xylorrhizae | Nelson N.Am. Ry.Mts.
Uromyces trifolii (Hedw.f) Lev Mohler Eur. N. Am.
Cosmp.
USTILAGINACEAE
Ustilago avenae (Pers.) Jens. Mi. \Ir. |Eur. N. Am.
|Cosmp.
Ustilago Hordei .P) well. & Swingle. Mi. te: |Eur. N. Am.
|Cosmp.
Ustilago neglecta Niessl. | Pammel |{Ir. [Kur. N. Am.
| |Cosmp.
Ustilago nuda (Jensen) Kell. & Swingle. Mi. Ir. Eur. N. Am.
Cosmp.
Ustilago Tritici (Pers.) Jens. Mi. Ir. Eur. N. Am.
; Cosmp.
Ustilago utriculosa Tul. Pammel |Ir. N. Am.
TILLETIACEAE
Tilletia foetens (B.&C.) Trel, | Schaffner |Ir. N. Am. Eur.
Tilletia Tritici (Bjerk.) Wint. | Schaffner |Ir. N. Am. Eur.
FUNGI IMPERFECTI
Cladosporium sp. | G. ii 'Kur. N. Am.
Diplodia zeae Lev. |E. F. Smtih| Pellagra Eur. N. Am
Fusarium sp. G. It; Eur. N. Am.
Fusarium roseum Lk. Pammel |Ir. Eur. N. Am.
Giberella sp. G. fics Eur, N. Am.
Macrosporium Brassicae B. Pammel |Ir. Eur. N. Am.
Polydesmus exitiosus Kiihn. | Mohler Ir. Eur. N. Am.
Polythrincium trifolii Kuntze. | Pammel |{Ir. Eur. N. Am.
See Part II of this Manual for other species.
LICHENES
Cetraria juniperina Ach. G
Cetraria pinastri Ach. G
Evernia vulpina Ach. G. :
Parmelia vulpina Ach. G. Eur,
Peltigera horizontalis L, G
Variolaria amara Ach. G
BIBLIOGRAPHY OF POISONOUS PLANTS
By Harriette S. KELLOGG
In this bibliography we have included such modern works bearing upon the
subject of poisonous plants as are more easily accessible to the student, but
to make this list more complete many titles of books by older writers have
been added. These works are of interest not only from an historical point of
view, but also from an artistic standpoint because many of them are hand-
somely illustrated. This is particularly true of the works of Brand and Ratze-
burg, Berge and Riecke, Godet, Bulliard, Dietrich, Henry, Hegetschweiler,
Otto, and Miquel which were published many years ago.
The bibliography also contains the more important articles published by the
various experiment stations and by the United States Department of Agricul-
ture besides a long list of rather recent papers appearing in technical chemical
journals and in professional journals of medicine, veterinary medicine, and
pharmacy. However, this bibliography is by no means complete so far as these
technical journals are concerned, but from the papers indicated in the bibliog-
raphy the student can easily find further literature.
Miss Kellogg has attempted to make a subject catalogue covering a great
many different topics such as the sale of poisons, general treatises on poisonous
plants, vegetable toxicology, poisons from Abrus, vegetable alkaloids, hydro-
cyanic acid, immunity, lupinosis, ricinus, poisonous seeds, geographical papers,
poisons from a legal standpoint, pellagra. antidotes, etc.
While it would be impossible to indicate a reference to every species, the
catalogue of the poisonous plants of the world indicates, to some extent, where
the species was discussed. We have had to omit from the catalogue refer-
ences to many popular treatises such as Lehmann’s “Giftpflanzen mit besonderer
Beriicksichtigung der wirksamen Stoffe,”’ and the works of Godet, Vicat,
Henslow’s “Poisonous Plants in Field and Garden” and the “Giftpflanzenbuch” .
by Berge and Riecke. ‘The later as well as the earlier treatises, frequently
refer to the literature where the species is mentioned as being poisonous. An
example of this is found in Helleborus niger, Berge and Riecke give seventeen
references where the plant is mentioned as poisonous; eleven references are
cited in regard to Oleander, and five upon Tecoma radicans, showing that many
of these plants have passed as poisonous for a considerable length of time.
Of peculiar and local popular treatises Germany has contributed more
than any other country. Tle treatment of the poisonous plants in books such
as Goeppert’s “Ueber die Giftige Pflanzen Schlesiens,” and Krause’s “Studies
of Poisonous Plants, in the German Colonies,” aid materially in determining
the distribution of certain plants. The United States has done something along
this line, especially through its Department of Agriculture. The publications of
Coville and Chesnut, are excellent illustrations of this. Popular accounts in
such treatises as that by Miss Huntington are helpful. ‘The subject of poison
ivy probably has been treated more exhaustively than any other subject indi-
cated. Dr. Warren has recently published a long list of papers on this subject,
and he shows especially how popular impressions get into current literature
BIBLIOGRAPHY OF POISONOUS PLANTS 863
without having much foundation in fact. On the subject of the anatomy very
little has been published. Attention may be called to the excellent treatise of
Collin, “Traite de Toxicologie Vegetale, Application du Microscope a la Re-
cherches des Poisons. Vegetaux.” 1907. The German work by Mitlacher, “Toxi-
cologische oder forensische wichtige Pflanzen und vegetabilische Drogen, mit
besonderer Beriicksichtigung ihrer mikroskopischen verhiltnisse”, also has
an admirable discussion of the subject. There are, however, many pharmocopeal
treatises like the work of Fliickiger ,(English translation ‘““Pharmacographia’),
“Pharmacognosy” by Powers, Kraemer’s “Botany and Pharmacognosy”, the
“Organic Materia Medica” by Sayre, “Foods and Drugs” by Greenish, Tschirch
and Oesterle’s “Anatomischer atlas, der Pharmakognosie and Nahrungsmittel-
kunde,” and “Microscopy of Vegetable Foods” by Winton, and the English trans-
lation of works of Moeller, which will indicate the sources from which informa-
tion of this kind can be secured.
We have added some “second hand” references which have been taken from
what we believe to be reliable sources. It was quite impossible to obtain all of
the original papers referred to in the bibliography. Many of them, however,
have been seen in the original, either by Miss Kellogg or myself.
We wish to express our thanks to Dr. Wm. Trelease of the Missouri
Botanical Garden, Dr. B. L. Robinson and Dr. W. G. Farlow of Harvard Uni-
versity, Dr. C. S. Sargent of the Arnold Arboretum, Mr. C. G. Lloyd of the
Lloyd Library, Cincinnati, to the Surgeon General of the United States Army,
and Mr. Johnson Brigham of the Iowa State Library, Des Moines, for cour-
tesies in the loan of books and papers.
L. H. PAMMEL.
PARTIAL CLASSIFICATION OF THE BIBLIOGRAPHY
The numbers following the topics correspond with the numbers in the
Bibliography.
Asrus, 158, 508a, 550
Achorion, 94
Aconite, 1186, 263, 302, 366, 474,
Aconitum, § 503a, 528, 923, 947, 1078
Acorn, 2
Actinomycosis, 88, 123, 138a, 463,
Antiarin t 662, 916, 917
Antiaris,
Antidotes, 157, 307, 319, 376, 410, 478,
507a, 508a, 522, 804, 932, 973
Antitoxins, 561, 718
Arbor toxicaria, 981
809, 832, 859a, 1072
Aethusa, 147, 302, 1078
Agaricus, 934
Alexipharmics, 679
Alfalfa, 414, 628, 1036
Algae, 33, 34, 70, 74, 126, 285, 286,
676, 728, 742, 991
Alkaloids, Vegetable, 121, 171, 187,
397, 484, 779, 779a, 780, 781, 808,
817, 873a, 938, 1082
Almonds, 688
Amanita, 307, 510, 512, 633a, 660, 797
Anatomy, 236, 237, 763, 887, 997
Andromeda, aye
Andromedotoxin, i 695, 799, 801
Anemone, 687, 708
Anhalonium, 193, 593, 599
Anise, see Star anise
Anthocercis, 670
Areca, 183, 302
Argemone, 885
eae l 754, 897
rum,
Arrow Poisons, 43, 50, 133, 156, 314,
329, 594, 598, 898, 916, 917
Aspergillosis,) 95, 154a, 318, 375, 527,
Aspergillus, § 618, 939
Astragalus, 332, 640, 725
Atractylis, 602
Atropa, 887
Atropin, 15la, 302, 944, 1078
Auto intoxication, 986
BACILLUS,
anthracis, 51, 561
oedamatis, 135, 561
suipestifer, 711
tetani, 292, 561
virgula, 1011
864
Bacterial Poisons, 126a, 144, 321, 544,
1007
Bacterium,
diptheriae, 561, 944
tuberculosus, 38, 217, 463, 561, 826
Baneberry, 41
Barium, 209, 482, 487, 984
ea 115, 256, 260, 388, 393, 394, 420,
8
Beech, 316
Belladonna, 302, 559, 621
Berberis, 302, 862
Bibliography, 3a, 477, 502a, 561, 579a,
727a, 823, 895, 1025, 1030
Black Tongue, 352
Blastomycosis, ae 526a, 776b, 987a
Borage Plants, 2
Does i 367, 368
Botulism, 5
Boxwood, 334
CactacEAk, 193, 444, 599
Calabar Bean, 302, 311, 412
Calandrina, 720
Camas, 253
Camphor, 856
Cannabis, 284, 816
Capsella, 532
Cardiac Poisons, 493
Cascara, 290
Cashew, 1063
Cassava, 19, 224, 657, 990, 1058
Castor Oil, See Ricinus
Catalpa, 1024
Celastrus scandens, 78
Cerebritis, 128, 247, 247a, 466, 655,
749, 106la
Cherry, 250, 681
Chickerinchee, See Ornithogalum
Cholera, 1035
Cicuta maculata, 96, 219, 442, 474,
803, 929, 1094
virosa, 96, 302, 531, 736, 1078
Cicutoxin, 96. Also see references
under Cicuta
Claviceps. See Ergot
Cleistanthus, 480
Clover, 202, 414
Coca, 921
Cocaine, 35a, 52a, 579a, 921, 1031a,
1078
Cocos, 271
Coffee, 953
Colchicum, 6, 6a, 129, 302, 689, 832a,
1078
Coniin, 501
Conium maculatum, 336, 501, 538,
1078, 1086
Convallaria, 474
Convulsives, 845
Copaifera, 302, 440
Copas, 481
MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Corn, 86, 86b, 247a
Broom, 427
Kaffir, 767
Cornstalk Disease, 12, 207, 819
Corydalis, 642
Cotoneaster, 460
Coumarin, 440
Cowbane, 732
Creosote, 213
Crotalaria,
Crotalism, i 331, 945
Crotin, 508a, 561
Croton, 257, 302, 553, 645
Cryptogams, 75, 714, 778, 805
Curare, 50, 788, 789
Cyanogenesis, 258, 262, 264, 583
Cynoglossum, 246, 883. See Borage
Cypripedium, 474, 513, 625, 626, 699,
700, 983
Cytisin, l >
Cytisus, § 189, 302
DALBERGIA, 199
Damiana, 72
Darnel, 384
peo 159, 239, 302, 337, 835, 887,
1053
Dermal Mycosis, ) 659,675, 680, 713,
Dermatitis, 741, 783, 784,
Dermatomycosis, | 1043
Derris, 727, 763
Dicentra, 35
Digitalis, 270, 302, 563, 669
Dioscorea,
Dioscorin, 905
Diphtherial Poison,
diphtheriae
Diplodia, 836a, 930
Duboisia, 1078
See Bacterium
EcuireEs, 410
Economic Plants, General, 238, 287,
686, 911
America, 228, 433
Mexico, 911
United States,
California, 160
Montana, 90
Porto Rico, 185, 761
Vermont, 518
Asia and Adjacent Islands,
Japan, 60
Australia, 282, 638
Miscellaneous,
Cuba, 655b
Guam, 870a
Ee ih
quisetosis,
Reaioerdia nl fh 842, 843, 843a, 961
Ergot, 1002
Ergotism, 52, 231, 423, ‘S307Gam
Ericaceae, 799
Se
Swe
BIBLIOGRAPHY OF POISONOUS PLANTS 865
Erigeron, 243, 574
Eriobotrya, 458
Erythrophloeum, 596
Escholtzia, 297
Eupatorium, 474
Euphorbiaceae, 474, 925
Exalgin, 816
Favus, 94, 191
Ferns, 296, 683
Fish Poisons, 277, 278, 279, 371, 480,
543, 727, 746, 829
Flax, 259
Fioras,
General, 47a, 274, 523
North America, 117, 363
United States, 116, 117, 155, 359
Alabama, 673a
California, 1030a
Connecticut, 355a
Iowa, 364a
Maryland, 924
Minnesota, 631
Washington, 786a
See also Bulletins from the
various Experiment Stations
South America, See Medicinal and
Poisonous Plants
Asia, See Economic, Medicinal and
Poisonous Plants
Australia, 685a
Europe,
England, 70a
Germany, 554
Switzerland, 554
Flowers, Poisonous, 22, 23, 853
Foods, 140, 421, 616, 1064
Forage Poisoning, 125, 291, 465, 469,
749, 1061
Fungi, Poisonous, 73, 94, 95, 503,
509, 610, 611, 629, 903, 1091
Also see Mushrooms
GALEGA, 682
Gastro-enteritis, 542
Gaultheria, 399, 407, 474, 514, 786,
820, 859
Gelsemium, 273, 474, 875, 926a, 1078
Genista, 227, 242
Germicides, 1009
Gift-apple, 232
Ginger, 417, 499
Gleditschia, 745
Glucosides, 306, 308, 349, 392, 458,
520, 938
Golden Rod, 910. See Hay Fever.
Grasses, 729, 731, 739, 740
Darnel, 384
Foxtail, 696
Johnson, 214
Porcupine, 82
Red Top, 423
Sleepy, 213
Sweet, 276
Hay Fever, 6b, 338, 661, 814, 814a,
852, 879a. 976
Haya Poison, 596
Heaves, 1062
Hemlock, 865
Hemlock Water, 501, 572, 573
Heracleum, 335
Hippomane, 411, 846
Honey, Poisonous, 529, 800
Horsetail. See Equisetum.
Hydrocyanic Acid in Plants, 80, 105,
125, 196, 224, 261, 349, 369, 372, 385,
386, 387, 388, 389, 390, 391, 392, 393,
394, 435, 458, 459, 520, 630, 992,
1014, 1078
Hyoscyamus, 887
Immunity, 229, 252, 306, 502, 561
Ipoh, 327, 916, 917
Ivy, Ground, 890
Ivy Poison. See Rhus
JABORANDI, 419
Janipha, 409
Jatropha, 409, 553, 1058
Jequirity, 661
KauMIA, 204, 212, 533, 695, 864
Kenyah, Dart Poison. See Ipoh
Kimanga. See Komanga
Kirondro Poison, 199
Kissoumpa. See Menabea
Kokra. See Cocos
Komanga, 439, 439
Ksopo, 765
Lac, Japanese, 948, 998
Larkspur, 79, 211, 302, 339, 1047
Lathyrus, 267, 396, 900
Laurel. See Kalmia
Lauro-cerasus, 1006
oh hai 465, 557, 684, 761, 857,
Lemon, Salts of, 111
Lepiota, 161
Leucomaines, 484, 1008
Lichens, 553b
Linamarin, 520
Loco Weeds, | 89, 209, 210, 233, 234,
Locoism, § 235, 268, 356, 472, 482,
487, 533, 648, 649, 655a, 705, 721,
728a, 743, 810, 876, 946
Loganiaceae, 549
Lotus, 265 ,
Lupine
Tagine | 141, 565, 889
Lychnis Githago, 148, 554
Lymphangitis, 727a, 727d, 749a, 827a
Mactiura, 404
Macrosporium, 822
Macrozamia, 591
Manchineal Tree. See Hippomane
‘366 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Mangels, 665
Materia Medica, 9, 39, 55a, 57, 248,
350, 365, 592, 1066, 1074
Mechanical Injuries, 82, 87, 537, 696,
729, 731, 735
Medicinal Plants, General Distribu-
tion, 71, 169, 170a, 302, 604, 612,
620, 834, 943, 1090
Africa,
Soudan, 575
America, 8&4
United States, 57, 172, 281, 830
California, 333
Massachusetts, 1060
Minnesota, 1034
Missouri, 733
North Carolina, 497
Tennessee, 324
Asia and Adjacent Islands,
Afghanistan, 26
Japan, 60
Malay, 338
Philippines, 44
Medical Jurisprudence, 65, 155a, 169a,
304a, 586, 804, 828, 837, 967, 968,
1078
Menabea, 437, 438, 765
Meningitis, 291, 561, 749 :
Meningo-encephalitis. See Cerebritis
Mesquite, 1063
Millet, 219a, 467, 468
Mistletoe, 580
Morphine, 92, 299, 302, 516, 562, 877,
886, 967, 1045 1074 1078
Mucor, 354
Mucorymcoses, 55
Mulberry, 103, 367
Mushrooms, 36, 173, 175, 201, 203,
205, 308a, 381, 382, 569, 629, 654,
751, 815, 971. See Fungi
Mycosis, 145a, 673, 874
Nicotine, 93, 302, 758a
Nuts,
Areca, 183
Betel, 302
Nutmeg, 1052
Numa, 873
Nux vomica, 241
Oak. See Acorn, Quercus
Oedema. See Bacillus, oedamatis
Oenanthe crocata,' 61, 1078
Oils,
Castor, 230, 302. See Ricinus
Croton. See Croton
Gaultheria, 820
Pennyroyal, 1029
Peppermint, 417
Savin, 1029
Tansy, 1029
Vervain, 104
Oleander l
Oleandrin § 892, 1021, 1067
Opium, 229, 302, 639. See Morphine
Orange, 107
Orange, False, 106
Paneer Poisons, 311, 438, 694, 1033,
Ornithogalum, 495
Oxalic Acid, 561, 1078
PAPAVEACEAE, 747
Parasitic Diseases, 703
Parsnip, 119, 473, 730
Peas, 507
Pellagra, 29, 86a, 150, 154a, 351a, 581,
661, 756, 825, 836a, 930, 987
Pellotinia, 443
Peppermint, 417
Pharmacognosy Nee 302, 558, 877,
Pharmacographia - § 1046, 1079
Phamacopoeia, 302, 450
American, 182
United States, 774, 776a
British, 115a
French, 176a
German, 244a
Italian, 288
Swedish, 775
ER See Beans
ysostigma,
Physostigmin } 272, 412
Phyto-bezoars, 202, 425, 991a
Phytolacca, 474, 1042
Pink-root. See Spigelia
Poison Lore, 4, 5a. 92a, 587, 978, 1018
Poison Tree. See Copas
Poisons, Detection of, 92, 93, 118, 154,
157, 429, 446, 552, 933
Poisons in General, 4, 92, 97, 130, 310,
380, 552, 614, 723, 846, 940
Mineral Poisons, 723, 963
Vegetable Poisons, 30, 31, 197, 475,
400, 764, 827, 919, 920, 1000, 1016
Poisonous Plants General Treatises,
28, 42, 75, 145, 188, 194, 197, 248,
249, 252, 299, 341, 343, 403, 455,
457, 521, 523, 556, 578, 588, 668,
709, 714. 744, 773, 812, 824, 834,
853, 858, 884, 902, 915, 933, 982,
1010, 1018, 1032a, 1048, 1077
Geographical Distribution
Africa, 839, 851
Soudan, 575
South Africa, 374, 1021b, 1059
America, North, 23
Mexico, 911
United States, 27, 162, 163, 166,
167, 340, 500, 555, 805
California, 67, 533, 894, 1005
Colorado, 339
Idaho, 927
Indiana, 195
Iowa, 734, 738
Massachusetts, 922
x)
u)
fv
\
‘
(
i
BIBLIOGRAPHY OF POISONOUS PLANTS 867
Minnesota, 175
Missouri, 733
Montana, 84, 90, 168, 1049
Nebraska, 82, 83
Nevada, 534, 536
New Jersey, 405, 406
New York, 751, 988
New York City, 863
North Carolina, 497, 626
North Dakota, 1004
Ohio, 878, 913, 914
Pennsylvania,
Erie, 395
Rhode Island, 47
Vermont, 518
America, South,
Brazil, 143, 571
Chili, 787
Guiana, 747, 898
Surinam, 747
West Indies,
Cuba, 180
Porto Rico, 185, 761
Asia, and Adjacent Islands
Afghanistan, 26
China, 218
India, $88, 947
Bombay, 543
Japan, 948, 998
Malay, 69, 225
Philippines, 43
Australia, 46, 282, 634, 635, 636,
684, 996
Victoria, 282
Europe, 445
Austria, 564
Belgium, 139
Central Europe, 445
Denmark, 377
England (also Great Britain),
21,457, 515
France, 131, 344, 973, 1015
Germany, 112, 245, 342, 353,
373, 383, 402, 449, 454, 538,
556, 778, 792, 881, 904, 1073a,
1087
Colonies, 562
Duisberg, 99
Thuringia, 726
Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, 926
Hungary, 393, 566
Netherlands, North, 666
Poland, 73
Saxony, 275
Silesia, 941
Switzerland, 446, 447, 470, 1015
Russia, 869
Potato, 617, 627
Primula, 701, 702, 831
Printhogalum. See Ornithogalum
Prulaurocerasin, 459, 460
Prunus, 459, 474, 1014.
Cherry —
Also see
Ptomaines, 121, 484, 1008
Quercus, 4, 474, 1021a
Ranunculus, 149, 424, 580, 759
Rape, 49, 469
Rattle Weed. See Crotalaria
Raphanus, 606
Rhizopus, 192
Rhododendron, 800, 1071
Rhus, 3, 11, 15, 30, 53, 76, 124, 134,
138, 146, 181, 223a, 422, 426, 432,
474, 476, 485, 491, 517, 525, 531,
539, 613, 637, 639a, 678, 741, 758,
771, 772, 783, 784, 790, 368, 907,
949, 951, 955, 965, 969, 972, 974,
1025, 1038, 1044, 1056.
Biblioghaphy on Rhus Poisoning,
1025, 1026, 1027.
Rhus and Bacterial Infection, 136
Ricin, 508a, 561
Ricinus, 85, 220, 229, 683
Robinia, 811
Roots, Poisonous, 836
Rosaceae, 386
Rumex, 1078
Sakalava, 438, 439, 765
Sale of Poisons, 93, 280, 448
Salikounda, 440
Sambucus, 474
Sanguinaria, 474
Santonin, 345
Saponin, 45, 372, 896
Savanna Flower. See Echites
Sawdust, Poisonous, 271
Scarlet Fever Poison, 120
Seeds, Poisonous
Beans, 115
Colchicum, 302
Cotton, 215
Croton, 302
Cynoglossum, 883
Eriobotrya, 458
Garcia, 152
Larkspur, 79
Leguminosae,
Lupine, 141
Lychnis, 589
Nux vomica, 302
Omphalea, 152
Rape, 49
Ricinus, 85, 302
Sabadilla, 302
Simarubaceae, 185
Sinapis, 302
Vicia, 80
Wormwood, 100
Septicaemia, 320
Shepherd’s Purse, 532
Sicyos, 404
Silage, 208
Simarubaceae, 199
868 MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Sinapis, 860
Sium, 610a, 777
Sneezeweed, 641
Snowdrop, 601
Solanaceae, 674
Solanum, 283, 474
Sophora, 190, 798
Sorghum, 24, 48, 767, 1022
Spigelia, 295, 315, 846, 954, 979
Sporotrichosis, 3a, 90a, 135a, 145a,
536b, 727a, 727c, 859a, 993a
Spruce, 752
Spurge, 568
Staphisagria. See Larkspur
Star-anise, 222, 242, 494
Stellaria media, 150
Stomatitis, 298, 671
Strawberry, 814b
Streptococcus, 174, 176, 561
Strophantus, 311, 329
Strychnin, 283, 376, 658, 1045
Strychnos, 133, 241, 436
Stylophorum, 886
Sugar Beets, 665
Suicide, 688
Sumach, 491, 951, 1050. Also see
Rhus.
Symptoms from Poisoning, 37, 37a,
39, 92, 93, 118, 376, 382, 552, 932.
Also see General Treatises upon
Poisoning
TANGHIN, 311, 437, 438
Tartaric Acid, 1078
Taxus, 150a, 461, 901, 959
Tea, 953
Temperature affecting Toxicity of
Poisons, 418, 872, 1088, 1089
Templetonia, 190
Tetanus. See Bacillus tetani
Thalictrum, 505, 506
Therapeutics, 39, 55a, 288, 783, 893,
953, 1070
Thrush, 379, 607, 608, 609
Tobacco. See Nicotin
Tonka Bean, 440
Toot Poison, 605
Toxicology, General, 155a, 551, 553a,
ae 597, 651, 724, 796, 828, 918,
Vegetable, 173, 177, 197, 553, 561,
851, 107
Veterinary, 592, 706, 715
Toxins, 718
Treatment for Poisons, 39, 595, 646,
689, 693, 722, 804, 933, 956, 962,
1068
Trees, Malignant Effect of, 838
Trichophyton, 401, 870, 975
Tropaeolum, 389
Tulip Grass, 109
Tunas, 415
Turpentine, 958
UMBELLIFERAE, 547, 603, 803
Upas, 241
Ustilago, 276
VERATRUM, 58, 114, 221, 302, 313, 760
Verbascum,
Verbena, 104
Veronal, 328
Water Broom, 650
Weeds, Poisonous, 734
Yew. See Taxus.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY OF POISONOUS PLANTS 873
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MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
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BIBLIOGRAPHY OF POISONOUS PLANTS 875
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oe:
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157.
MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
Oe
i
. Carruthers, Wm. and
OPIERS eects ae eodner
Cantera i larion elev sae
Cassava’ Poisoning) 0/0). 3.
Cattell ay TV iy «tk eeu
Ceni, Carl and Besta,
Carlo eeianiaunss acne rete:
Chapraan, WAS Woe! ideas
Chapman VEG Cari. eral’ ceie
@harteriss, Homan cna alse
Chaassien Elie W alert
CC
Cie Su ee CMe CER Cnt CUE ar Je Wi Se ur Sta Ser
a)
6[6f Bre) @1e\.0) » e\bl ed e\id 6 (0) 6s) 66.6 8's 6 \e @
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Contre-poisons, ou moyens reconnus le plus ef-
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Poisonous Spores of the Green-spored Lepiota.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY OF POISONOUS PLANTS 877
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MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
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‘
BIBLIOGRAPHY OF POISONOUS PLANTS 879
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MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
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MANUAL OF POISONOUS PLANTS
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ED chedst