Ube IRural /Manuals EDITED BY L. H. BAILEY MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS Ube IRural Manuals EDITED BY L. H. BAILEY MANUAL OF GARDENING — Bailey MANUAL OF FARM ANIMALS — Harper FARM AND GARDEN RULE-BOOK — Bailey MANUAL OF FRUIT INSECTS — Slingerland and Crosby MANUAL OF WEEDS — Georgia THE PRUNING-MANUAL — Bailey MANUAL OF FRUIT DISEASES — Hester and Whetzel MANUAL OF MILK PRODUCTS — Stocking MANUAL OF VEGETABLE-GARDEN INSECTS — Crosby and Leonard MANUAL OF TREE DISEASES — Ranltin MANUAL OF HOME-MAKING — Van Rensselaer, Rose, and Canon MANUAL OF AMERICAN GRAPE-GROWING — Hedrick THE NURSERY-MANUAL — Bailey MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS — Popenoe PLATE I. The Nimlioh avocado. MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS EXCLUDING THE BANANA, COCONUT, PINEAPPLE, CITRUS FRUITS, OLIVE, AND FIG BY WILSON POPENOE AGRICULTURAL EXPLORER, UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE . '*•> ** '!,» ?* Nefa THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 1920 Ml righto reserved COPYRIGHT, 1920, BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. Set up and electrotyped. Published July, 1920. Nortoooti Jprrss J. S. Gushing Co. — Berwick & Smith Co. Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. PREFACE MY intention in preparing the present work has been to bring together, for the guidance of those who live in the tropical and subtropical regions of the globe, the available information concerning the principal fruits cultivated, or which may be cultivated, in those regions. The banana, the coconut, the pineapple, the citrus fruits, the olive, and the fig are not in- cluded, however, since these have been fully treated by other writers. Nor have I attempted to describe all of the fruit- bearing plants of the tropics : rather has it been my aim to concentrate on those which most seem to merit extensive cultivation, the culture of many of which is as yet little under- stood. No work in the English language has attempted to cover this subject, and the few which have appeared in other languages do not contain the data concerning propagation and cultural practices which would make them useful to horti- culturists. Unfortunately, as regards many of the less-known fruits, few data are available, but concerning the more im- portant ones the researches of such workers as E. Bonavia, A. C. Hartless, and William Burns in India, H. A. Van Her- mann, F. S. Earle, and C. F. Kinman in the West Indies, George B. Cellon, Edward Simmonds, W. J. Krome, P. H. Rolfs, and Reasoner Brothers in southern Florida, F. Franceschi (E. O. Fenzi) and Ira J. Condit in California, J. E. Higgins and his associates in Hawaii, P. J. Wester in the Philippines, and L. Trabut in the Mediterranean region, have brought to light much valuable information. The work of such men as G. N. Collins, O. F. Cook, David Fairchild, W. E. Safford, and Walter T. Swingle, of the Bureau of Plant Industry, 423708 VI PREFACE United States Department of Agriculture, has also added materially to our knowledge of the subject. References throughout the book indicate the extent of my indebtedness to these and other investigators. In order that the work may reflect as fully as possible the total knowledge at present available on any topic, I have drawn freely from all sources, exercising, at the same time, all possible care to avoid perpetuating the more than numerous errors with which the literature of tropical fruits is burdened. For the past seven years, during a large part of which time I have traveled as Agricultural Explorer for the United States Department of Agriculture, I have had exceptional oppor- tunities for gathering, at first hand, information for this work. In the course of my journeys I have visited Hawaii, Japan, the Philippines, the Straits Settlements, India, Arabia, North Africa, Mexico, Guatemala, the West Indies, and Brazil. This field work has alternated with and been supplemented by practical experience with the cultural problems of tropical and subtropical fruit-growing in California and Florida. To those familiar with the thorough and exhaustive treatises which have been published on the northern fruits, however, the present work will no doubt appear superficial in character. Necessarily it is so. Present knowledge of the greater number of tropical fruits is superficial, and many years must pass be- fore it will be possible for a thoroughly comprehensive treatise to be offered on any one of the species here considered, except- ing possibly the date. I have been assisted and encouraged in the preparation of this work by many persons. It is a particular pleasure to acknowledge my indebtedness to Charles Fuller Baker, now Dean of the College of Agriculture, University of the Philip- pines, under whose guidance I first took up work in tropical pomology, and whose boundless enthusiasm for tropical plants has been a constant inspiration to me; to F. Franceschi, PREFACE vii formerly of Santa Barbara, California, who was one of the pioneers in the introduction and cultivation of tropical fruits in California ; and above all, to my present chief, David Fair- child, and my colleagues in the Office of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction of the Bureau of Plant Industry. To Dr. Fairchild America is indebted for many choice varieties of the mango, the date, and other tropical fruits which are now cultivated in the United States, and for his assistance and encouragement in my own investigations I owe him a debt of gratitude which I can never pay. W. J. Krome of Homestead, Florida, has criticized the chapters on the avocado and mango, and added many notes of interest and value to the former. W. E. Safford of the Bureau, of Plant Industry has revised the chapter on the an- nonaceous fruits, and Henry Pittier of the same Bureau that on the sapotaceous fruits. To my brother, Paul Popenoe, I am indebted for most of the chapter on the date. H. H. Hume of Florida has criticized the chapter on the kaki. J. N. Rose of the United States National Museum has furnished most of the data on the tuna and pitaya. Sidney F. Blake of the Bureau of Plant Industry has been of much assistance on matters of botanical nomenclature. J. Smeaton Chase of Palm Springs, California, has rendered valuable aid in the preparation of the manuscript. To all of these men I express my sincere appreciation of their help. The line drawings with which this work is illustrated have been made by Mrs. R. E. Gamble of the Bureau of Plant In- dustry. Nearly all of them, as well as most of the half-tone plates, are from my own photographs ; a few are from photo- graphs by P. H. Dorsett of the Bureau of Plant Industry. WILSON POPENOE WASHINGTON, D. C., October 1, 1919. TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I PAGES THE OUTLOOK FOB TROPICAL FRUIT . . fc 1-8 CHAPTER II THE AVOCADO 9-78 Botanical description 11-14 History and distribution 14- 20 Composition and uses of the fruit .... 20- 23 Climate and soil .23-30 Cultivation 30-40 Tillage, mulching and cover-crops .... 32- 33 Fertilizer 33-36 Irrigation 36-38 Pruning 38-40 Propagation 40- 52 Stock plants 41-43 Essential features of bud propagation . . . 43- 44 Budding 44-49 Grafting 49-50 Top-working old trees 50- 52 The crop 52-54 Season 54-56 Picking, packing, and marketing 56- 58 Pests and diseases ....... 58- 65 Races and varieties 65- 78 West Indian race 69- 71 Guatemalan race 71-76 Mexican race 76- 78 Hybrids. , ... . . . . . 78 CHAPTER III THE MANGO 79-145 Botanical description . . » . • History and distribution . . . . . . 84- 92 TABLE OF CONTENTS Composition and uses of the fruit Climate and soil . Cultivation Propagation The mango flower and its pollination The crop Pests and diseases Races and varieties Mulgoba group Alphonse group Sandersha group . Cambodiana group PAGES 92- 95 95-100 101-107 107-118 118-122 122-128 128-132 132-145 138-140 140-143 143-144 144-145 CHAPTER IV RELATIVES OF THE MANGO The cashew . The imbu The ambarella The red mombin . The yellow mombin 146-160 146-152 152-154 155-157 157-159 159-160 CHAPTER V THE ANNONACEOUS FRUITS The cherimoya Cultivation . Propagation . The crop Pests and diseases . Varieties The sugar-apple The soursop . The bullock's-heart The ilama . . Minor annonaceous fruits Pond-apple . Wild cherimoya Mountain soursop . Soncoya Posh-t6 . Biriba 161-195 161-177 169-171 171-174 174-175 175 175-177 177-182 182-186 186-188 188-191 191-195 191-192 192 192-193 193 193-194 194-195 TABLE OF CONTENTS xi CHAPTER VI PAGES THE DATE 196-224 Cultivation . . . . 202-207 Propagation . . . ..... . . 207-211 Yield and season . . • „ ^ . . . . 212-213 Picking and packing . . . . . . 213-216 Pests and diseases . 216-218 Varieties and classification 218-224 CHAPTER VII THE PAPAYA AND ITS RELATIVES 225-249 The papaya 225-240 Cultivation 230-233 Propagation 233-237 Yield and market 237-238 Pests and diseases 238-239 Seedling races 239-240 The mountain papaya ....... 240-241 The purple granadilla 241-245 The sweet granadilla 245-246 The giant granadilla 247-249 CHAPTER VIII THE LOQUAT AND ITS RELATIVES ..... 250-271 Theloquat 250-267 Cultivation 256-259 Propagation 259-261 Yield and picking 261-262 Pests and diseases 262-264 Varieties 264-267 Thecapulin 268-269 The manzanilla 269-271 The icaco 271 CHAPTER IX FRUITS OF THE MYRTLE FAMILY . . . . . 272-311 Theguava . . , 272-279 The strawberry guava 279-283 Other guavas . . ... . . . 283-286 Costa Rican guava 283 Xll TABLE OF CONTENTS Guisaro . Brazilian guava Para guava . The pitanga . The feijoa . The jaboticaba Other myrtaceous fruits Grumichama . Jambolan Rose-apple . * Pera do campo Pitomba Ohia . Uvalha . Cabelluda . Guabiroba Downy myrtle PAGES 284 284-285 285-286 286-292 292-299 299-302 302-311 302-304 304-305 30&-306 307 307-308 308-309 309-310 310 310-311 311 CHAPTER X THE LITCHI AND ITS RELATIVES The litchi . Cultivation . Propagation . Yield and season . Pests and diseases . Varieties The longan . . . . The rambutan The pulasan . The akee . The mamoncillo 312-333 312-325 317-321 321-323 323-324 324-325 325 325-327 327-329 329-330 330-332 332-333 CHAPTER XI THE SAPOTACEOUS FRUITS The sapodilla The sapote . The green sapote . The star-apple The canistel . The abiu 334-352 334-340 340-343 343-344 344-347 347-349 349-350 TABLE OF CONTENTS X1U The yellow sapote The lucmo PAGES 350-351 351-352 CHAPTER XII THE KAKI AND ITS RELATIVES . The kaki or Japanese persimmon Cultivation . « Propagation . . . Picking and shipping Pests and diseases . _ . ' Varieties . . , The black sapote . . . The mabolo . 353-374 353-370 357-359 359-363 363-365 365-366 366-370 370-373 373-374 CHAPTER XIII THE POMEGRANATE AND THE JUJUBE The pomegranate . . The jujube CHAPTER XIV THE MANGOSTEEN AND ITS RELATIVES The mangosteen . . . Cultivation ' Propagation . . . . Season and enemies of the mangosteen The mamey . The bakuri . ... The bakupari CHAPTER XV THE BREADFRUIT AND ITS RELATIVES The breadfruit . ' . . ., The jackfruit The marang CHAPTER XVI MISCELLANEOUS FRUITS The durian 375-389 375-383 383-389 390-405 390-401 394-397 398-400 400-401 401^03 403-104 405 406-420 406-414 414-419 420 421-455 421-425 xiv TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGES The santol 426 The langsat . . . . . . . . . 426-428 The carambola . . . . . . « . . 429-431 Thebilimbi . . . . . . . . . 431-432 The tamarind . . . . . . . . 432-436 The carissa .... • /. .... 436-439 The ramontchi . . . ... . . 439-441 The umkokolo . 441-443 The ketembilla . . . ' . . . . . 443-445 The white sapote . . . . ... . 445-448 The tuna . 448-450 The pitaya 451-452 The tree-tomato 452-453 The genipa 454-455 BIBLIOGRAPHY 455-457 INDEX . . 459-474 PLATES PLATE PAGE I. The Nimlioh avocado Frontispiece II. Four or five tortillas (corn cakes) and a good-sized avocado are considered a good meal by the Guatemala Indians 24 III. Avocado-growing in the Mexican highlands ... 46 IV. Puebla avocado tree producing its first crop at two years of age ; the Fuerte avocado ..... 68 V. Inflorescence of the Alphonse mango ; a Cuban mango- vender 90 VI. The Sandersha mango ; the ambarella . . . .110 VII. Red mombins on the tree 132 VIII. The cherimoya at its best ; the soursop and other fruits 150 IX. The home of the Fardh date; in the date gardens of Basrah 176 X. A date palm in full production ; the purple granadilla 190 XI. A tropical substitute for the cantaloupe, the papaya ; a papaya in bearing 208 XII. A plate of fine loquats 230 XIII. The wild cherry of Central America (Prunus salicifolia) \ the manzanilla (Cratcegus stipulosa) .... 250 XIV. Feijoas ready for gathering 280 XV. A fruiting jaboticaba tree 292 XVI. Flowers and fruits of the rose-apple (Eugenia Jambos) 306 XVII. The litchi, favorite fruit of the Chinese . . .324 XVIII. Foliage and fruits of the akee (Blighia sapida) . . 350 XIX. The sapodilla (Achras Sapota) 370 XX. The rambutan and other fruits; a basket of green sapotes 386 A young kaki tree in bearing 400 A basket of pomegranates ; the black sapote . . . 420 The jackfruit (Artocarpus integrifolia) , the largest tropical fruit 438 The mangosteen ; the durian 456 xv MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS CHAPTER I THE OUTLOOK FOR TROPICAL FRUITS THE thickly peopled countries of the Temperate Zone must look more and more to the tropics to supplement their own food resources, whether by direct supplies, made possible in increasing measure by ever-improving means of trans- portation, or by furnishing plants which may be cultivated in mild-wintered regions such as California and Florida. Both forms of contribution will be largely in the item of fruits. As examples of the first class, the banana, because of its immense yield and quick production, has already been exploited on a large scale, and the coconut, through its product copra, has become an economic factor of prime importance; in the second (or rather, in both) the avocado, still a novelty but of very great possibilities as adaptable to growth in our own country, is on the verge of taking a high place among the food crops contributed by the tropics. Many other fruits of the Torrid Zone, not all of them so important, yet all valuable in degree in the dietary of the race, must be grown in ever-increasing quantities, not only to supply northern markets, but also, — and even more important, - to enable the native populations of the tropics as well as settlers from the North to obtain abundantly and cheaply this most wholesome source of human energy. B 1 2 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS For, strange as it may seem to many who have never lived or traveled in the hot belts of the earth, those lands come far short of conforming to that conventional idea of the tropics, as regions where luscious fruits grow wild upon every tree and the languorous native has only to stretch forth his hand to obtain his dinner. It is a well-attested fact that the inhabitants of many tropical countries suffer for want of sufficient fresh fruit ; and it is also true that much real starvation in densely populated hot regions, India for example, could be averted by planting on a wholesale scale fruit-trees such as the avocado, whose product has a relatively high food value. The reason for this scarcity of fruits in precisely those regions where, by climatic indications, one would expect them to be most abundant, is not to be found in any single fact, but is, perhaps, largely the result of three causes : first, the enervating effect of heat, which discourages man from under- taking work which can be avoided; second, the one-sided exploitation of many tropical regions for the production of materials such as rubber and cotton, without sufficient regard to supplying wholesome foodstuffs for those who labor in producing these articles ; and third, the long time required by tree-fruits to yield returns, as compared with the annual crops such as corn, beans, and squashes. This last factor is par- ticularly disastrous where primitive races of people are con- cerned, for such almost invariably devote their attention in the main to crops which give quick returns, — the very crops which must depend absolutely on the season's rainfall. It is, indeed, only as scattered, often neglected, specimens in dooryards and around cultivated fields that many of the tropical fruit-trees exist. Others, such as the mango and the breadfruit, are given more attention, yet they rarely receive more than a fraction of the solicitous care which northerners lavish on their apples, peaches, and pears. With the exception of a few species, such as the banana THE OUTLOOK FOR TROPICAL FRUITS 3 and the coconut, the tropical fruits have received scientific attention only when their culture has been brought northward to the extreme limit of their zone, as, in the case of certain of them, it has been in California and Florida. Even here their study and improvement have only been undertaken in very recent years ; many species, in fact, are still in the condition of wild plants, so that it is no wonder their fruits are sometimes looked on by northern horticulturists as almost without value. The case is well put by Hartwig, who writes, in his work " The Tropical World": "It may easily be imagined that the tropical sun, which distills so many costly juices and fiery spices in indescribable multiplicity and abundance, must also produce a variety of fruits. But man has yet done little to improve by care and art these gifts of Nature, and, with rare exceptions, the delicious flavor for which our native fruits are indebted to centuries of cultivation, is found wanting in those of the torrid zone. In our gardens Pomona appears in the refined garb of civilization, while in the tropics she still shows herself as a savage beauty, requiring the aid of culture for the full development of her attractions." The exceptions to this condition, however, are notable, and scarcely so rare as Hartwig and others have believed. The mango, in its finer Indian varieties, offers an example of im- provement through selection and vegetative propagation which equals that of the peach, if indeed the advance from wild to cultivated forms has not been greater in the former than in the latter fruit. Those who have tasted the luscious Pairi mango of Bombay, or the Mulgoba as now grown in Florida, will recognize the probable accuracy of this statement. Many other tropical fruits might be mentioned which compare favorably with the best products of high cultivation in the Temperate Zone. Who, that has had the opportunity of judging, has not felt, as he lifted the snowy segments of the 4 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS mangosteen from their cup of royal purple, that here was a fru t not excelled by any other in the world? The cherimoya of tropical America leaves little to be desired, while the litchi is preferred in China, not without reason, to the finest orange or peach. American residents in Hawaii consider the papaya the most delicious of breakfast-fruits, surpassing in their esti- mation the cantaloupe or muskmelon. To the Japanese taste there is no better fruit than the kaki, while to the Arab the date is the quintessence of richness and flavor. The ignorance, or tardiness of adoption, of the art of graft- ing has, in many tropical countries, prevented the development of superior fruits. The superb apples and pears of the Tem- perate Zone, and the splendid mangos of India, could not be grown without grafting, since improved varieties of nearly all tree-fruits tend to revert to the wild type when propagated by seed. The finest fruits are, in fact, artificial productions which can only be maintained by artificial means; under free com- petition of natural selection they would disappear. Because of this rare occurrence, among tropical fruits, of fine horticultural varieties as compared with the profusion of semi-wild seedlings, much criticism has been ignorantly directed at these fruits in general. C. F. Baker, who has done much to advance the science of tropical pomology, graphically states the case as follows : "On hearing some aspersions cast upon the caimite (Chryso- phyllum Cainito), a valuable and delicious fruit at its best, a Cuban was heard to remark, 'There are caimit.es, and there are caimites ! ' A similar remark might be made of most tropical fruits. The methods of seed selection, of breeding, and of vegetative propagation have rarely been brought to bear on any of these things. As for systematic search for the better forms now existing, and the rapid building up of really com- prehensive experimental plantations of them in the tropical botanic gardens and experiment stations, we have yet a field of THE OUTLOOK FOR TROPICAL FRUITS 5 highly useful, most remunerative, and intensely interesting work before us." It is to this field that attention must be devoted, if the agri- cultural development of the tropics is not to become even more one-sided than it is to-day. British horticulturists in India and Ceylon, French in the Oceanic colonies, and American in the subtropical parts of California and Florida, as well as in the West Indies, Hawaii, and the Philippines, have done notable work during the past quarter of a century; yet when their achievements are considered alongside the possibilities, it is evident that hardly has a beginning been made with this promising field. " Botanicus verus," said the great Linnaeus, " desudabit in augendo amabikm scientiam," - "The true botanist will sweat in advancing his beloved science." Even so must the inves- tigator who undertakes to further the progress of tropical pomology expect to find hard work, at times under trying climatic conditions, — to sweat indeed, — unless his lot is cast in the delightful climate of the tropical highlands, or in subtropical regions such as California and Florida. But the subject is one which offers such a wealth of fascinating problems and gives promise of such valuable results, that for a long time to come it can hardly fail to attract the needful few among the many whose tastes incline them toward pomological pur- suits. It is indeed fortunate for our country that its boundaries include areas where certain of the most valuable tropical fruits can be cultivated. Of these areas, the warmer parts of Florida and California seem destined, by reason of their favorable situation with respect to the great centers of our population, to take the lead in the production of such fruits for supplying the northern markets. The advantageous climate of these states as regards living and working conditions, as compared with the tropics, makes it probable also that they will be the 6 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS field of more activity along lines of horticultural investigation than will the strictly tropical countries where the fruits are native. Of course, it is not possible to cultivate within the boundaries of the continental United States all of the fruits discussed in this work. Many of them are uncompromisingly tropical in character and refuse to accommodate themselves to regions where the temperature ever falls as low as the freezing point. It is a noteworthy and hopeful circumstance, however, that certain of the tropical fruits attain their greatest per- fection when grown at the extreme northern or southern limit of their zone, when pushed, so to speak, right up against the frost-line. For example, the citrus fruits have been brought in California and Florida to a higher degree of excellence than has been reached by them in strictly tropical regions. It has been thought in the past that it might be possible, by means of a process of acclimatization, to adapt even the more tender species of tropical plants to conditions in California and Florida, and ultimately to cultivate them on a commercial scale in those states. In the light of present knowledge, how- ever, it seems probable that ability to withstand frost is not greatly increased by submitting a plant to lower temperatures than those to which it has been accustomed, even when this is carried through several consecutive generations, and the chances of acclimatizing in California such fruits as the strictly tropical annonas are not great. Many of the tropical fruits have as yet scarcely been brought under cultivation, and systematic cultivation of the more important ones, such as the avocado and mango, is of such recent origin that cultural practices have not yet become standardized. New developments are constantly taking place. It is, therefore, inevitable that many of the practices herein described will be obsolete a few years hence. Regarding the use of the terms tropical and subtropical a few words of explanation are necessary. Plants which will THE OUTLOOK FOR TROPICAL FRUIT& 7 not grow where the temperature falls much below 40° (where temperatures are mentioned in this work, they refer to the Fahrenheit scale) are here termed strictly tropical ; by tropical plants are meant (following P. H. Rolfs) those of the zone in which the coconut can be grown; and by subtropical plants, those of the zone of the orange. The next region, in point of minimum temperatures, should be termed the semi-tropical, but this term is frequently confused with subtropical and had better be avoided by stretching the use of the word subtropical to cover the region in which the loquat, the pomegranate, and the date can be grown. It must be borne in mind, however, that knowledge regarding the frost-resistance of plants is still meager. Because a certain species has safely passed through a temperature of 25° above zero in a particular instance in California, it need not follow that the plant will withstand the same temperature in another region, nor even that the same individual specimen in California would withstand again 25° if in different physiological condition. With a few exceptions, the common names for the fruits are those recommended by the American Pomological Society (Proceedings 1917). The pomological nomenclature (names of fruit varieties) also follows, so far as is possible, the Code of Nomenclature of that Society. In spelling names which have come into the English from the Arabic or some other oriental alphabet, the system has been followed elaborated by the Inter- national Congress of Orientalists at Geneva in 1894, and now generally adopted by those having to do with the transliteration of oriental names ; which is, that vowels should take the value they possess in Spanish and other Latin languages, and con- sonants the value they possess in English. The names in this work most affected by the application of this principle are those of varieties of the mango, date, and pomegranate, and the common names of a few minor fruits. Current spellings rejected as incorrect are given in the synonymy of varieties. 8 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS The botanical nomenclature is intended to conform to the International Rules, better known as the Vienna Rules. These are the ones followed by European, as well as many American, botanists. In the botanical synonymy all names are included which commonly appear in the publications of the United States Department of Agriculture, when they differ from those adopted under the Vienna Rules. CHAPTER II THE AVOCADO Plates I-IV NORTH AMERICAN horticulturists are accustomed to view the avocado as one of the greatest undeveloped sources of food which the tropics offer at the present day. From their stand- point they are correct, but the inhabitants of Mexico and Central America would consider it more logical to assert that the Irish potato is a new crop deserving of extensive cultivation. North Americans view the avocado as a possibility, but to the aboriginal inhabitants of tropical America it is a realized possibility. "Four or five tortillas [corn cakes], an avocado, and a cup of coffee, — this is a good meal," say the. Indians of Guatemala. It is precisely this condition, — the importance of the avocado as a food in those parts of tropical America where it has been grown since immemorial times, — that has led students of this fruit in the United States to predict that avocado culture will some day become more important than citrus culture in California and Florida. To a certain extent, the avocado takes the place of meat in the dietary of the Central Americans. It is appetizing, it is nourishing, it is cheap, and it is available throughout most of the year. When these last two conditions have been re- produced in the United States, will not the avocado become a staple article of diet with millions of people? There is every reason to believe that eventually the avocado will be as familiar to American housewives as the banana is 9 10 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS to-day. The increasing scarcity of meat, and the fact that an acre of land will yield a larger amount of food when planted to avocados than it will in any other tree crop known at present, assures the future importance of the avocado industry in this country. Horticulturally speaking, the avocado is a new fruit. In Central America it has been grown mainly as a dooryard tree, and no care has been given to its propagation or culture. During the last fifteen years the horticulturists of California and Florida have devoted systematic attention to vegetative propagation, to cultural methods, and to the development of superior varieties. In these two states the avocado has been regarded as a fruit of great commercial possibilities. Cuba, Porto Rico, and several other countries are also giving serious consideration to commercial avocado culture. During summer and autumn the avocado is regularly offered in the markets of New York, Boston, Philadelphia, and other large cities. Many persons who ten years ago were not even familiar with its name have now learned to appreciate the merits of this unique fruit. However, production is not yet great enough to place the avocado in the position which ulti- mately it must occupy, — that of a staple foodstuff, rather than a luxury or a salad-fruit. The avocado orchards of California, Florida, Cuba, and Porto Rico now have a total area approaching one thousand acres. As with every young horticultural industry, the problems of propagation, culture, and marketing have been numerous, and many of them remain to be solved. The avocado growers of California have formed a cooperative organization for the purpose of attacking these problems more efficiently. Especially important is the question of varieties, which must, in many cases, be settled individually for each locality. Experience of the last fifteen years has brought to light many of the fundamental requirements of the avocado THE AVOCADO 11 tree and has suggested cultural practices and methods which are producing satisfactory results. In addition, problems of budding and grafting have been mastered, and these means of propagation are practiced successfully by nurserymen, with the result that trees of the best varieties are obtainable in quantities which permit of extensive commercial plantings. A large number of varieties is being tested, and experience in handling and marketing the fruit is being gained rapidly. BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION The genus Persea, to which the avocado belongs, is a member of the laurel family (Lauracese) ; hence it is related to the cinnamon tree, camphor, and sassafras. The avocados cul- tivated in the United States usually have been considered to represent a single species, Persea americana, but careful study shows that they are derived from two species, as follows : P. americana, Mill. (P. gratissima, Gaertn.). All of the varieties classified horticulturally as belonging to the West Indian and Guatemalan races are of this species. It is the common avocado of the tropical American lowlands, and the one which has been most widely disseminated throughout the tropics. P. drymifolia, Cham. & Schlecht. (P. americana var. drymi- folia, Mez). This includes the small avocados of the Mexican highlands, now grown in California, Chile, and to a very limited extent in southern France, Italy, and Algeria. Horticulturists in the United States use the term "Mexican race" to indicate avocados of this species. In addition to these two species, a third is well known in southern Mexico and Guatemala, and has recently been intro- duced into the United States. This is the coyo or chinini, P. Schiedeana, Nees. The yas of Costa Rica (probably P. Pittieri, 12 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS Mez) is another species which is likely, when known in this country, to be classed popularly as an avocado. The two species from which the cultivated avocados are derived are closely alike in many respects. It is easy to dis- tinguish them by the smell of the crushed leaves; those of P. drymifolia possess an aromatic odor, resembling that of anise or sassafras, which those of P. americana entirely lack. The flowers of P. drymifolia are typically more pubescent, and the under surfaces of the leaves more glaucous, than those of P. americana. The fruits also are distinct, having a thin, almost membranous skin in the former species, and a thick leathery or brittle skin in the latter. The horticultural differences are of more interest here than the botanical ; they will be referred to later, in the discussion of the horticultural races. Seedling avocados of both species vary in habit of growth, being sometimes short and spreading, but more commonly erect, even slender. On shallow soils they may not reach more than 30 feet in height, while on deep moist clay-loams they sometimes reach 60 feet. Budded trees are usually more compact in habit than seedlings, and probably will not attain such great ultimate dimensions. While the avocado is classed as an evergreen, trees of some varieties cast their foliage at the time of flowering, the new leaves making their appearance almost immediately. The leaf-blades are multiform, some of the commonest shapes being lanceolate, elliptic-lanceolate, elliptic, oblong-elliptic, oval, ovate, and obovate. The apex differs from almost blunt to acuminate, while the base is usually acute or truncate. The length of the blades ranges between 3 or 4 inches and as much as 16 inches. P. drymifolia usually has smaller leaves than P. americana, both species exhibiting a wide diversity in leaf form. In the United States the flowers appear from November to THE AVOCADO 13 May, according to locality and variety. Occasionally some of the Mexican avocados (P. drymifolia) bloom in November, while the Guatemalan varieties (P. americana) may not begin flowering until March or April. The flowers (Fig. 1) are pro- duced in racemes near the ends of the branches, and are fur- nished with both stamens and pistils, all of them being inherently capable of developing into fruits. From their immense number, however, it is easy to see that only a minute percentage can actually do so. They are small and pale green or yellowish green in color. At first glance they appear to have six lanceolate or ovate petals, but on closer examination these are seen to be perianth-lobes; the usual differentiation into two whorls or series, calyx and corolla, does not occur in the avocado. The perianth-lobes are of nearly equal length in most varieties, the inner three occasion- ally being longer than the outer ; they are more or less pubescent, heavily so in P. drymifolia, sometimes almost glabrous in P* americana. The nine stamens are arranged in three series; the anthers are 4-celled, the cells opening by small valves hinged at AX-LL u * i. the upper end. At the base of each stamen of the inner series are two large orange-colored glands which secrete nectar, presumably for the attraction of insects. Inside the stamens are three staminodes or vestigial stamens. The ovary is 1 -celled, and contains a single ovule; the style is slender, usually hairy, with a simple stigma. The fruit is exceedingly variable in both species. The smallest fruits of P. drymifolia are no larger than plums, while the largest of P. americana weigh more than three pounds. The form in both species is commonly pear-shaped, oval, or obo- void, but ranges from round and oblate at one extreme to long -fio. 1- Rowers of Fuerte avocado. 14 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS and slender, almost the shape of a cucumber, at the other. The color varies from yellow-green or almost yellow through many shades of green to crimson, maroon, brown, purple, and almost black. The skin is as thin as that of an apple in many varieties of P. drymifolia; in P. americana it is occasionally a quarter of an inch thick, and hard and woody in texture. The fleshy edible part which lies between the skin and the seed is of buttery consistency, yellow or greenish yellow in color, of a peculiarly rich nutty flavor in the best varieties, and contains a high percentage of oil. The flesh is traversed from the stem to the base of the seed by streaks or fine fibers (invisible in the ripe fruit of many varieties) which represent the vascular system. The single large seed is oblate, spherical, conical, or slender, inverted so that the young shoot develops from the end which lies toward the stem of the fruit. It is covered by two seed-coats, varying in thickness, often adhering closely to one another. The cotyledons are normally two, occasionally three in P. drymifolia, white or greenish white in color, smooth or roughened on the surface. HISTORY AND DISTRIBUTION The native home of the avocado is on the mainland of tropical America. Per sea drymifolia is abundant in the wild state on the lower slopes of the volcano Orizaba, in southern Mexico, as well as in other parts of that country. The extent of its distribution is not precisely known. The native home of P. americana has not been determined with certainty, since the tree has been so long in cultivation and few efforts have as yet been made to locate the region in which it is truly in- digenous. Jacques Huber, in the Boletim do Museu Goeldi, says : " Everything indicates that the avocado, originally indigenous to Mexico, has been cultivated since immemorial times, and THE AVOCADO 15 that it very early spread through Central America to Peru; then into the Antilles, where its introduction is mentioned by Jacquin; and much later into Brazil." He also remarks that its presence in Peru in pre-Colombian days is indicated by the indigenous name, palta, and the finding of fruits in the graves of the Incas. W. E. Safford, however, says that no vestiges of the avocado are found in the prehistoric graves of the Peru- vian coast, nor is it represented in the casts of fruits and vege- tables discovered among the terra cotta funeral vases so abun- dant in the vicinity of Trujillo and Chimbote. While it is probable that the avocado is of relatively recent introduction into Brazil, and that its presence in Peru in pre- Colombian days may be open to question, the existence of native names for it in many different languages, as well as references by the early voyagers, indicate that at the time of the Discovery it was cultivated, if not indigenous, in extreme northern South America and from there through Central America into Mexico. The first written account of the avocado, so far as known, is contained in the report of Gonzalo Hernandez de Oviedo (1526), who saw the tree in Colombia, near the Isthmus of Panama. Pedro de Cieza de Leon, who traveled in tropical America between 1532 and 1550, mentions the avocado as one of the fruits used by the Spaniards who had settled in the Isthmus of Panama, and as being an article of food among the natives of Arma and Cali, in Colombia. Francisco Cervantes Salazar, one of the earliest chroniclers of Mexico, gives evidence that the avocado was well known in the markets of Mexico City as early as 1554, which was very soon after the Conquest. In a later work, the "Cronica de Xueva Espana," written about the year 1575, he described the fruit. Both in this work and in his earlier one, "Mexico en 1554," he uses the name aguacate. 16 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS Sahagun, another early chronicler of Mexico, who wrote some time previous to 1569, briefly describes the Mexican avocado (Persea drymifolia) under the Aztec name, which he spelled aoacatl. Acosta, writing in 1590, distinguished clearly between the Mexican form and that grown in Peru. He used the Peruvian name palta, in place of the Mexican ahuacatl or any of its corruptions. Garcilasso de la Vega, writing in 1605, states that the name palta was applied to this fruit by the Incas, who brought the tree from the province of Palta to the valley of Cuzco. One of the most valuable accounts written in the early days is that of Hernandez, as «edited and published by the friar Francisco Ximenez in 1615. Hernandez, who was a physician sent by the King of Spain to study the medicinal plants of Mexico, was evidently familiar only with the Mexican avocado (P. drymifolia) ; at least, if he had seen the lowland species he makes no mention of it. Another excellent account was written in 1653 by Bernabe Cobo, a priest who had traveled widely in tropical America. He was the first, so far as known, to mention the Guatemalan avocados. After describing at some length the West Indian race, as it is now called, mentioning in particular the varieties grown in Yucatan and those of certain sections of Peru, he says : "There are three distinct kinds of paltas. The second kind is a large, round one which is produced in the province of Guatemala, and which does not have as smooth a skin as the first. The third is a small palta which is found in Mexico which in size, color and form resembles a Breva fig ; some are round and others elongate, and the skin is as thin and smooth as that of a plum." Thus it is seen that the three groups of cultivated avocados, recognized at the present day by horticulturists under the names of West Indian, Guatemalan, and Mexican, were distinguished as early as 1653 by Padre Cobo. THE AVOCADO 17 Hughes, in his important work "The American Physician" published in 1672, devotes a short chapter to "The Spanish Pear." His reference to its having been planted in Jamaica by the Spaniards is in agreement with other accounts, all of which indicate that the avocado was not cultivated in the West Indies previous to the Discovery. Sir Hans Sloane, in his catalog of the plants of Jamaica, ~ published in 1696, briefly describes the avocado, cites numerous works in which it is mentioned, and gives as its common name "The avocado or alligator pear-tree." This is the first time that either of these names appears in print, so far as has been discovered. It is useless to enter into a discussion of all the common names which have appeared in the literature of this fruit. G. N. Collins 1 lists forty-three, but many of them are of limited use, and others are the clumsy efforts of early writers to spell the names they had heard. The correct name of this fruit in English is at present recog- nized to be avocado. This is undoubtedly a corruption of the Spanish ahuacate or aguacate, which in turn is an adaptation of the Aztec ahuacatl. The Spaniards, who probably introduced - the avocado into Jamaica, brought with it the Mexican name. When Jamaica was taken by the British this name began to undergo a process of corruption, during which such forms as albecata, avigato, and avocato were developed. Frequently the term "pear" was added to these, in conformity with the tendency of the early English colonists to apply familiar names to the fruits which they found in America. We have many other evidences of this tendency, e.g., star-apple, custard- apple, hog-plum, Spanish-plum. The name avocado or avocado-pear was one of the numerous corruptions which found its way into print, first appearing, so far as known, in 1696 (see above). For some reason it has 1 Bull. 77, Bureau of Plant Industry. c 18 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS outlived many other corruptions. Since it is reasonably eupho- nious, well adapted to the English language, and widely used, it has been officially adopted by the California Avocado Asso- ciation and is used in the publications of the United States De- partment of Agriculture, as well as by horticultural societies and horticulturists generally. The name alligator-pear, which seems to have appeared in the same way and about the same time as the term avocado, is considered decidedly objectionable, and a vigorous effort is being made to eliminate it from popular usage. Ahuacate (more commonly but less correctly spelled aguacate) is the name at present used in Mexico, Central America as far south as Costa Rica, and the Spanish-speak- ing islands of the West Indies, as well as in a few other parts of the world. The original form ahuacatl is still employed in those sec- tions of Mexico where the Aztec or Mexican language has not been replaced by Spanish. The avocado tree is ahuacaquahuitl, a com- bination of ahuacatl and quahuitl (tree). There were at least two towns in ancient FIG. 2. Sign of Mexico named Ahuacatlan. This word was the avocado tree -. . ., . . ... » ., A used by the Aztecs, expressed in the picture writing or the Aztecs by means of the sign of the avocado tree and the locative suffix -tlan, indicated by teeth set in the trunk of the tree (Fig. 2). The picture thus read ahuacatlan, or "place where the ahuacate abounds." The word ahuacatl has two meanings ; one, the fruit of the avocado tree, and the other, testicle. The name pahua (from the Aztec pauatl, fruit) is applied in certain parts of Mexico to avocados of the Guatemalan and West Indian races, distinguishing them from the thinner skinned and smaller ahuacates of the Mexican race. In southern Costa Rica the common name is cura, while in the western part of South America the Peruvian name palta is THE AVOCADO 19 current. The latter occurs in the Quichua language, and is of unknown derivation. The names current in various European languages are mainly adaptations or corruptions of the Spanish ahuacate or aguacate. The Portuguese name, used principally in Brazil, is abacate; the French generally call the fruit avocat; while the German name is advogado or avocato. In all probability the avocado was brought to Florida by the Spaniards, but the first introduction of which a record has been found was in 1833, when Henry Perrine sent trees from Mexico to his grant of land below Miami. - The first successful introduction into California is believed to have been in 1871, when R. B. Ord brought three trees from Mexico and planted them at Santa Barbara. It seems strange that so valuable a fruit should not have been introduced into California by the Franciscan padres, who came from Mexico in the latter part of the eighteenth century and to whom credit is due for the introduction of the orange, the olive, and the vine. According to Higgins, Hunn, and Holt,1 the avocado was grown in Hawaii as early as 1825, although it did not become common until after 1853. The avocado is now cultivated to a very limited extent in Algeria, southern Spain, and France, and has even fruited in the open at Rome. Naturally, only the hardiest varieties succeed in the Mediterranean region. In India and other parts of the Orient it has never become common, although it may have been introduced as early as the middle of the eighteenth century. In Reunion and Madagascar it seems to be more abundant. In Polynesia it has become well established, considerable quantities of the fruit having been shipped from the French island of Tahiti to San Francisco. It is gaining a foothold in northern Australia, and is grown in Natal, Mauritius, Madeira, 1 Bull. 25, Hawaii Agr. Exp. Sta. 20 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS and the Canary Islands. In the Philippines its culture has been established since the American occupation, many varieties having been introduced by the Bureau of Agriculture. While it will thus be seen that the avocado has spread from its native home entirely around the globe, it is still most abun- dant, and of the greatest importance as a food, in tropical America. Throughout Mexico, Central America, and the West Indies seedlings are common in dooryards, thriving with practically no attention and yielding generously of their delicious and nourishing fruits. Rarely in these countries, however, has the avocado been developed as an orchard crop ; but this is not surprising in 'view of the fact that orchards of fruit- trees are almost unknown in the tropics. COMPOSITION AND USES OF THE FRUIT Due to the investigations of M. E. Jaffa and his associates at the University of California, much light has been thrown on the food value of the avocado in recent years. The following table shows the composition of several well-known varieties, one of each of the recognized horticultural races, and the hybrid Fuerte. In presenting this table, which is based on the work of Jaffa, it is necessary to explain that the proportions of the constituents have been found to change in each variety according to the degree of maturity of the fruits. They may fluctuate also in different years. Variation is particularly noticeable in regard to the fat-content. For example, in specimens of the Chappelow examined at different times, the percentage of fat ranged from approximately 14 to 30, while in specimens of the Challenge it ran from 3 to 17. Fruits showing the lowest percentages were immature at the time the analyses were made, but they were no more so, probably, than many which are put on the market. Up to a certain point, the fat-content increases with the maturity of the fruit; after THE AVOCADO 21 this point is reached, there is quite often no further increase, no matter how long the fruit may remain on the tree. The total dry matter in the edible portion of the avocado is greater than in any other fresh fruit, the one nearest approach- ing it being the banana, which contains about 25 per cent. An average of twenty-eight analyses showed the avocado to con- tain about 30 per cent. TABLE I. COMPOSITION OP AVOCADO VARIETIES VARIETY WATER PROTEIN FAT CARBO- HYDRATES ASH % % 7, % % Trapp .... 78.66 1.61 9.80 9.08 0.85 (West Indian) Sharpless 71.21 1.70 20.54 5.43 1.12 (Guatemalan) Puebla .... 63.32 1.80 26.68 6.64 1.56 (Mexican) Fuerte .... 69.86 1.25 29.14 7.40 1.35 (Hybrid) The protein-content, which has been found to average about 2 per cent, is higher than that of any other fresh fruit. The percentage of carbohydrates is not high compared with that of many other fruits, because the avocado contains almost no sugar. F. B. La Forge of the Bureau of Chemistry at Washington has found in the avocado a new sugar, called D-Mannoketoheptose, which is believed to be present in amounts varying from 0.5 to 1 per cent. The amount of mineral matter is much greater than is found in other fresh fruits. Soda, potash, magnesium, and lime compose more than one-half the ash or mineral matter, which places the avocado among the foods which yield an excess of the base-forming elements, as opposed to nuts, which furnish acid-forming elements in excess. 22 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS Jaffa * says : " So far as protein and ash in fresh fruits are concerned, the avocado stands at the head of the list, and with reference to the carbohydrates, contains on an average fully 50 per cent of that found in many fresh fruits. These facts alone would warrant due consideration being given to the value of the avocado as a fresh fruit. Its chief value as a food, however, is due to its high content of fat. This varies, as shown by the analysis, from a minimum of 9.8 per cent to a maximum of 29.1 per cent, with an average of 20.1 per cent. The only fruit comparable with the avocado in this respect is the olive." Experiments carried on at the University of California have shown that the digestibility of avocado fat is equal to that of butter-fat, and not below that of beef fat. As to the caloric or energy-producing value of the avocado in twenty-eight varieties examined, one pound of the flesh represents an average of 1000 calories. The maximum and minimum were 1325 and 597 respectively. The maximum " corresponds to about 75 per cent of the fuel value of the cereals and is not far from twice that noted for average lean meat." In the following table the avocado is compared, in caloric value, with several common foodstuffs. For this comparison a pound of avocado flesh has been considered to represent 1000 calories; this is not showing the avocado at its best, for, as just stated, in some varieties a pound represents over 1300 calories : CALORIES 100 grams (about 3± oz.) boiled rice 322 100 grams white bread 246 100 grams avocado 218 100 grams egg 166 100 grams lean beef , 100 It must not be assumed from the figures that the avocado has a total food value greater than that of lean beef. It is 1 Bull. 254, Calif. Agr. Exp. Sta. THE AVOCADO 23 only the caloric or energy-producing values that are shown, and much of the value of meat as a food lies, of course, not in the energy which it produces, but in its ability to build up and repair the tissues of the body. In the United States the avocado is commonly used in the form of a salad, either alone or combined with lettuce, onions, or other vegetables. Up to the present, no satisfactory ways of cooking or preserving this fruit have been developed. Experi- ments in extracting a table- or cooking-oil have been encourag- ing, but as yet the production of avocados in this country is not great enough to permit the commercial development of this field. In the tropics, the fruit is added to soups at the time of serving ; mashed with onions and lemon juice to form the delectable guacamole of Cuba and Mexico; or eaten as a vegetable, without the addition of any other seasoning than a little salt. In Brazil it is looked on more as a dessert than as a staple foodstuff, and is made into a delicious ice-cream. Numerous recipes appear in cook-books which have been pub- lished in Cuba, Florida, California, and Hawaii. CLIMATE AND SOIL It is impossible to define in few words the climatic condi- tions most favorable to the avocado, since the different races do not always succeed under the same conditions. The sub- ject must, therefore, be considered from the standpoint of races. The West Indian race, which comes from the moist low- lands and seacoasts of tropical America, is more susceptible to frost than the others. Hence, when grown near the north- ern limit of the subtropical zone, it requires more protection from possible severe frosts than the Guatemalan race, which comes from the highlands of southern Mexico and Guatemala, or the hardy avocados from central and northern Mexico which constitute the Mexican race. Not a few losses have 24 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS already resulted from attempts to grow West Indian avocados in locations in California subject to occasional severe frosts. In this state, the Guatemalan and Mexican races are the only ones to plant. The same is true of central and northern Florida, where the West Indian race has nearly always suc- cumbed to cold. In Florida, the region in which avocado culture is at present conducted commercially, lies south of Palm Beach on the east coast and south of Tampa Bay on the west. Of the orchards which are now in bearing, the largest are situated close to Miami and Homestead. On the west coast the most impor- tant plantings are near Fort Myers. Most of the orchards in Florida are planted to Trapp, a variety of the West Indian race. The planting of hardy Guatemalan kinds will prob- ably extend the commercial culture of this fruit many miles to the northward of the present limits of the zone. In addition, it will make avocado growing safer in all regions by lessening the possibility of frost injury. The Mexican race is known to have fruited as far north in Florida as Gainesville and Waldo. In California, most of the young orchards, as well as the old seedlings which have fruited for some years, are in the vicinity of Los Angeles, Orange, and Santa Barbara. The coastal belt between Santa Barbara and San Diego, including the foothill region some distance from the coast, has been tested sufficiently to show that planting may proceed with confidence. In the interior valleys comparatively few trees have been planted, and these mainly in recent years. Much less is known, therefore, regarding the adaptability of the avocado in these situations. Old seedlings are to be seen at Visalia, San Luis Obispo, Berkeley, Los Gatos, and Napa, indicating that some varieties may be grown successfully as far north as the Sacramento Valley. Sections of the San Joaquin Valley which have proved suitable for citrus culture, such as the Porter- ville district, should prove safe for the hardier varieties of PLATE II. Four or five tortillas (corn cakes) and a good-sized avocado are considered a good meal by the Guatemala Indians. THE AVOCADO 25 avocados as well. Experimental plantings in the Imperial and Coachella Valleys have up to the present served only to indicate that the atmosphere of these regions is too dry. The leaves turn brown and fall off, no matter how much water is applied at the root. As a guide to planters in regions where the avocado has not been tested, it may be said that experience has shown the Guatemalan race to be about as hardy as the lemon. Certain kinds probably are hardier than that, while others are known to be more tender. The Mexican race, in its hardier varieties, withstands a little more frost than the orange. The West Indian race is distinctly more tender than either the Guatemalan or Mexican. W. J. Krome's experience at Homestead, Florida, leads him to say : " As a general rule West Indian avocados, beyond one year old, will not be damaged by a temperature of 32° unless that temperature holds for a longer period than two or three hours. When four or five years old they will stand 26° or 27° without injury, except to tender growth, but below that tem- perature there is likely to be considerable damage. At 22° five-year-old Trapp trees were killed back to wood one inch in diameter. At a temperature somewhere between 22° and 24° Guatemalans have, with a few exceptions, shown almost no damage beyond a slight singeing of the leaves." In the Report of the California Avocado Association for 1917, H. J. Webber publishes the following summary of the effect of different temperatures on avocado trees in California in the cold weather of the winter of 1916-1917 : "30° F. Nothing injured so far as could be observed. " 29° F. No injury of account ; only traces on most tender growth of West Indian and Guatemalan varieties. "28°F. New foliage scorched on Guatemalan types; West Indian varieties showing considerable damage. " 27° F. Mexican varieties with new tips slightly scorched ; Guate- malan with almost all new foliage injured ; West Indian badly damaged. 26 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS "25° to 26° F. Mexican varieties with new foliage injured but some dormant trees uninjured ; all Guatemalan sorts with new foliage badly injured and some old foliage scorched. "24°F. Some dormant Mexicans uninjured; Guatemalan varie- ties badly injured, small limbs frozen back. " 21° F. All Guatemalan types killed to bud ; a few of the hardiest Mexicans, such as Knowles and San Sebastian, with young leaves only injured." The observations reported to Webber showed that young trees were injured at higher temperatures than older ones, when the variety was the same in both cases. It was also observed that trees in rapid growth were more severely injured than those which were in semi-dormant condition. Krome of Florida reports an opposite state of affairs. He says: "At the time of the January 1918 freeze, Trapp trees which had borne heavy crops and were in a hard, completely dormant state suffered a great deal more injury than trees which, owing to light crops the preceding season, were in full growth." Possibly the trees were weakened by over-production of fruit, and thus more susceptible to frost-injury. The sub- ject demands further investigation. Webber further says: "Trees which needed irrigation when the freeze came suffered rather severely, as did also trees that had been irrigated three to five days before the freeze and were thus gorged with water. The least injury seemed to be on trees that had been thoroughly irrigated two or three weeks before the freeze, and had water supposedly in what might be termed the optimum amount." In regions subject to frosts, it is necessary to protect the trees during the first two or three winters with shelters of burlap, or by placing palm-leaves, pine boughs, or other material around them. Frost-fighting with orchard heaters is some- times practiced where heavy frosts are expected. A sharp frost at the time the tree is in flower may result in a crop failure, although the danger from this source is prob- THE AVOCADO 27 ably not great either in California or Florida, and has been over-estimated in the past. In Florida, the West Indian race usually blooms late enough to escape the coldest weather, while in California the Mexican race, though it blooms in winter, is sufficiently hardy to withstand ordinary frosts, and the Guate- malan race does not bloom until April or May. The latter race is, therefore, the safest in this respect. In California, avocado culture is not dependent on rainfall, since irrigation is commonly practiced. In Florida, on the other hand, very few crops are irrigated, and up to the present it has been the general custom not to irrigate avocado trees, / except during the first two or three summers. It is coming to be recognized, however, that a wet spring is followed by a good avocado crop and a dry one by a poor crop (a condition exactly reversed with the mango). As a result of this observation, irrigation is beginning to be practiced in southern Florida, especially in seasons when the rainfall is below normal. The necessary soil-moisture can be supplied easily and satisfactorily, but the relative humidity of the atmosphere cannot be altered artificially; hence in regions wfiere the humidity is exceedingly low the avocado suffers in the dry portion of the year. In Florida no attention need be paid to this subject, since the humidity closely approaches that of the West Indies and other regions where the avocado is at home. Humidity may prove, however, to be the limiting factor in parts of California. Tests in the Imperial and Coachella Valleys indicate that the trees are seriously injured by the dry- ness of the atmosphere. Experience shows that the Mexican - race is less susceptible than the West Indian. None of the varieties so far tested, however, has proved to be so resistant to atmospheric dryness as the orange or grapefruit. Shading may help to limit the injury from this source. It has been found very beneficial in4 the coastal belt of California, where 28 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS .young avocado trees are often injured during the dry summer months by sunburn. Another climatic factor which deserves consideration is the danger from high winds. The lower east coast of Florida is occasionally visited by a West Indian hurricane which defoli- ates trees, strips them of their crops, or even breaks them down. Certain parts of California are also subject to occasional high winds, less severe than the hurricane but nevertheless capable of doing much damage. To minimize the danger from this source, it is advisable to keep the trees as low as possible through pruning, since they are then much less liable to injury. The low tree has an additional advantage in that it permits of picking the fruit without the use of tall ladders, and keeps the branches more readily accessible for pruning, spraying, or thinning the fruit. In regard to soil the avocado seems to be unusually adapt- able, succeeding on the sandy lands of southern Florida, the volcanic loams of Guatemala and Mexico, the red clays of Cuba and Guatemala, the granite soils of California, and even on heavy adobe, provided the drainage is good. This question is less important, therefore, than many others connected with avocado culture. The chief requisite is good drainage. Most of the avocado groves of southeastern Florida are situated upon limestone of the kind shown as Miami oolite. This formation comprises a narrow strip of land extending from above Fort Lauderdale on the north to some miles below Homestead on the south, being widest near the latter place, and nowhere more than thirty feet above sea level. In many parts of this region the rock comes to the surface ; toward the northern end it is commonly overlaid with six inches to two feet of loose light-colored quartz sand, while below Miami the surface soil becomes very scanty, but heavier in nature, contain- ing some clay in certain localities, and being strongly impreg- nated with iron, giving it a reddish color. The rock itself is THE AVOCADO 29 soft and porous, and in the process of erosion has broken down unequally, leaving a jagged surface or the characteristic pot- hole formation. When first grubbed it crumbles and is readily worked, but on exposure to the air it gradually hardens, owing to the deposition of carbonate of lime following evaporation of the moisture held in the interstices. The growth made by the avocado upon this rocky land is rather remarkable ; it seems, in fact, that young orchards have done better around Homestead, where the rock comes to the surface, than they have in those areas north of Miami where there are six to eighteen inches of sand on top of the rock. The reason for this may lie in the moisture-retaining proper- ties of this soft limestone; the roots, which are always close to the surface, here probably are kept more uniformly supplied with moisture during a period of dry weather than on light sandy soils which dry out rapidly. The heavier Florida soils seem to be much more favorable to the growth of the tree than light sands. A yellowish or brownish subsoil in many parts of Florida indicates good avocado land. The avocado prefers a moist heavy loam, and the closer this can be approached the better will be the results. The soils of California are probably more nearly ideal for avocado culture than any of those in southern Florida. Sandy loam, which is abundant in the southern part of the state, pro- duces excellent growth and is giving good results. Adobe does not seem so desirable, yet good trees have been grown upon it at Orange. Red clay has been satisfactory in Cuba and Central America, while heavy clay where well drained has produced good trees in Porto Rico. Many problems connected with avocado culture remain to be solved. One of the most important is the adaptability of the tree to low wet lands in southern Florida. It has been the general opinion that avocados should not be planted on 30 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS land where the water-table is less than three feet below the surface. Krome has observed groves on low rock-land which have been killed or badly injured by overflows, even where the water came scarcely as high as the crown roots and remained there only a few days. In several plantings on marl prairie, however, experience has been quite different. Trees on this type of land have been submerged twenty-four hours without damage to them. On the low islands along the western coast of Florida, salt water sometimes floods the groves, and this has proved fatal to many trees. It is probable, also, that the failure of one or two plantings on this coast can be attrib- uted to the fact that the water which stands about two feet below the surface of the land is saline in character. Until more experience has been gained regarding the adapta- bility of the avocado to low flat ground, occasionally subject to overflow, orchard plantings should be limited to lands where the water-table is three feet or more below the surface. In California, the best site for the orchard is a gently slop- ing hillside, or level ground adjacent to a slope. If of this character, and well drained but naturally retentive of mois- ture, the situation may be considered excellent. In regions subject to heavy winds, it is well to select a piece of ground which is sheltered by surrounding elevations. CULTIVATION Regarding the best time to plant avocados in southern Florida, Krome says : " I have planted at least a few avocados every year since 1905 and these plantings have been made during every month of the year. When I have the land prepared and the trees available I do not hesi- tate to plant at any season but I endeavor to make my arrangements so that all of my main settings will be between the 15th of Septem- ber and the 20th of October, i.e. during the last month of the regular rainy season, after the hottest weather of the year is past. When avocados are planted in the spring in Florida they have immediately THE AVOCADO 31 ahead of them our most trying months of drought, March, April and usually most of May. During this period the plants must be watered with the greatest regularity or they will suffer. Following the dry weather of our spring months the trees have the benefit of the rainy season but in Florida our rains are quite frequently uncertain during July and August and there will be need for watering any trees planted during the preceding three or four months. For the past month (June) we have averaged at least two applications of water per week to avocados planted during March, April and May. These spring-planted trees must also withstand the sun's rays during our season of greatest heat and shading is usually a necessity if sun-scald is to be prevented. There are no good reasons why trees thus planted should not be brought through to fall in good condition but it requires a great deal of additional work and expense as compared with trees planted during the latter part of September or first half of October, when rains are of almost daily occurrence and the plants after setting need very little further attention. Furthermore, spring-planted trees very seldom make sufficient growth over those planted in the fall to acquire any considerably greater degree of resistance to cold the following winter. I have always found that trees planted in March fare just about as badly as those planted in September when we have severe cold the next winter." In California it is not desirable to plant earlier than March, because of danger from late frosts. April and May are good months, and November planting has been successful. Plant- ing in midsummer is to be avoided, but it may be done success- fully if the trees are carefully shaded and watered until they have become established. Avocados are sometimes interplanted with other fruit-trees, such as grapefruit and mangos. This is scarcely to be recom- mended, since avocados require different cultural treatment. In Florida, budded avocados are planted 20 by 20 feet (108 to the acre) to 26 by 26 feet (64 to the acre), some growers preferring to have the trees close together so that they will soon shade the ground, others desiring to give more room for ultimate development. On light sandy soil the trees are usually set closer than on heavy soils, 20 by 20 feet being a suitable distance in the first case, 24 by 24 in the second. In 32 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS California they should not be spaced closer than 24 by 24 feet, making 75 to the acre ; 30 by 30 feet (48 to the acre) is preferable. Holes for planting should be prepared a month in advance, with a small quantity of fertilizer incorporated in each. Barn- yard manure is commonly used for this purpose in California, while South American goat manure and pulverized sheep manure, 2 or 3 pounds to each hole, have proved satisfactory in Florida. In planting, the tree should be set so that the point of union between the bud and the seedling stock is slightly above the surface. Deeper planting may not be objectionable in California, but in Florida shallow planting seems to be best. A liberal watering should be given immediately after planting. Tillage, mulching, and cover-crops. The ground around the young trees should be kept liberally mulched with weeds, straw, barnyard litter, seaweed, or any coarse material which is not injurious and will not pack and form a layer impervious to air and water. Through the winter a mulch is not necessary in California, but in Florida it has been found desirable, in some sections at least, to maintain one throughout the year. In Porto Rico, G. N. Collins observed that the avocado tree was seldom, if ever, found in perfectly open places, with the bare ground around the roots exposed to the sun. While this principle applies more particularly to Florida and other regions distinctly tropical in character, it may be proved to hold good in California as well. Definite knowledge on this point is still lacking. Up to the present it is the practice of many California orchardists to cultivate the soil regularly after each irrigation, as with citrus fruits. Deep cultivation seems to produce no harmful results in Cali- fornia, where the roots go far down into the soil, but in southern Florida it must be practiced with caution. In this region the feeding roots extend practically to the surface, and deep culti- THE AVOCADO 33 vation destroys many of them, thus cutting off a large part of the tree's food supply. On shallow soils the most healthy and vigorous trees are those which are mulched. The mulch should extend at least two feet in each direction from the trunk of the young tree, and as the latter increases in size and its roots reach out on all sides, the mulch must be en- larged to be always a little wider than the diameter of the crown. Mulching serves two purposes : it prevents the soil from drying out rapidly, and it protects the delicate feeding roots from injury due to excessive heating of the soil. This protec- tion is of particular importance in Florida, where in many places the land is sandy and becomes exceedingly hot if exposed to the sun. When the trees are of mature size, the shade furnished by their own foliage, together with the fallen leaves which carpet the ground, aids materially in maintaining the soil in good condition; but additional loose material, especially during the summer, is highly desirable. The use of green cover-crops between the rows is decidedly beneficial, but they must not be brought close enough to the trees to rob them of their food. In Florida, cowpeas and velvet beans have been used for this purpose, cowpeas being preferred. A clump of pigeon peas (Cajanus indicus) planted four feet to the south of each young tree will provide shade during the first summer or two, serve as a protection from wind, and aid in enriching the soil. In California, purple vetch (View, atropurpurea) , common vetch, and the other cover- crops used in citrus culture will probably prove satisfactory. Up to the present time they have not been extensively tried in connection with avocado culture. Fertilizer. Little systematic attention has yet been given to this subject. Not only is the question difficult, but it is also one of the most 34 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS important in connection with avocado culture in Florida. The following extracts from a paper by Krome, published in the 1916 Report of the California Avocado Association, present the results of several years of experimentation : "The nature of the plant food required by the avocado has not been very satisfactorily determined, but it has become evident that a scheme of fertilization must be worked out differing considerably from that which has been generally adopted for citrus. Broadly speaking the application of commercial fertilizers deriving their ele- ments of plant food from wholly chemical sources has not proved successful. In many instances, through lack of more definite infor- mation, growers have given their avocados the same fertilizers which they have used on their citrus trees. Where the formulae have been those most frequently applied to citrus, with nitrogen derived from sulphate of ammonia or nitrate of soda, potash from sulphate of potash, and phosphoric acid from acid phosphate, the results with the avocado have been generally unsatisfactory. However, when the formula used has been of the type known as 'young tree ' fertilizer, carrying a proportionately higher percentage of ammonia largely derived from organic sources, better effects have been obtained. " It has become fairly well established as a fact that of two avocado trees of the same variety, one which is well nourished and kept in growing condition during the entire summer and fall will produce larger and finer appearing fruit than one which is permitted to become more or less dormant through lack of fertilizer, but it is quite certain that the semi-dormant tree will carry its fruit without dropping for a considerably longer time. There is therefore a rather delicate adjust- ment to be made in order to bring the tree into condition such that it will hold its crop until late in the season and at the same time will not 'go back' to an extent that will be seriously detrimental to its further development or jeopardize the crop for the following season. "Following such applications of fertilizer as are made to restore the tree to good condition after it has passed through the period of bloom and fruit setting there should certainly be at least one further fertilizing during the summer or early fall to provide the nourishment necessary for the production of the crop. And it may be added here that the drain on an avocado tree in bringing its fruit to maturity seems to be vastly greater in proportion than the same effort on the part of a citrus tree. The writer cannot vouch for the soundness of the theory, but it has been thought that this is probably due to the different character of the fruit. In the case of any citrus, water con- stitutes a large percentage of the fruit either by weight or volume, while with the avocado the proportion of oils is much higher and it THE AVOCADO 35 would seem reasonable that to supply these components would be a heavier draft upon the tree. At any rate the fact is certain that an avocado tree must be furnished with a sufficiency of plant food if it is to be expected to produce full and regular crops. "Avocados of the West Indian type begin to ripen in Florida about the middle of July and the heaviest portion of the seedling crop matures between August 20th and October 10th. At that period the crop from Cuba and other West Indian islands is likewise being shipped and the large quantity of fruit thus thrown on the market, together with the fact that during the summer and early fall the avocado must compete with northern-grown fruits and vegetables, tend to force prices so low, that at times it is difficult to dispose of the Florida seedlings with any margin of profit. After the middle of October the price of avocados begins to climb and during November and December very satisfactory figures are usually obtained. For this reason the large plantyigs of budded trees which have been made during the past few years have practically all been of late maturing varieties such as the Trapp and Waldin. These varieties mature their fruit so that it may be picked early in October if desired, but under proper conditions will carry at least a portion of their crop into December and in some cases until well along in January. "Just how late in the season an application of fertilizer can be made without bringing about a tendency for the tree to mature and drop its fruit at too early a date depends somewhat on weather condi- tions. Fertilizer applied to Trapp trees about the middle of August of the season just passed, apparently had no detrimental effect as to the fruit holding well, while an application of fertilizer given the same trees about the first of September of the preceding year was followed, within a few weeks, by heavy dropping of fully matured fruit. The application made in August of the present year was at the beginning of several weeks of dry weather, while that of the previous season was followed by heavy rains and these differences in moisture probably had considerable to do with the effects of the fertilizer. "This second problem is one of great importance to the Florida avocado grower as between December 1 and December 15 the value of his product not infrequently more than doubles and the premium to be gained by being able to carry his fruit until the latest possible date is well worth his very best efforts. " It is our plan at Medora Grove to give the trees a heavy fertilizing immediately after the crop has been picked and a light application about the first of February, which brings them to their blooming stage in good condition, quite thoroughly recuperated from their fast during the fall. "This program provides for five or six applications of fertilizer during the year, which is probably one or two more than is given by 36 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS most growers, the difference being in the method of carrying the trees through the spring period. The quantity of fertilizer used at each application varies of course with the size of the tree, quantity of fruit it is carrying and the analysis of the fertilizer. For ten year old trees as high as 25 pounds at a single application has been used with good results. For four year old trees, bearing their first crop, four applica- tions of from three to four pounds each, one of four and one-half and one of five pounds have brought the trees through the year in fine shape. As materials from which fertilizers suitable for avocados may be compounded, cottonseed meal, castor pomace, tankage, ground tobacco stems and ground bone are to be recommended, with a cer- tain amount of nitrate of soda used as a source of nitrogen when quick results are sought as in the case of trees which have 'started back.' Previous to the war scarcity of potash, it was thought advisable to use formulae giving from four to six per cent of that element, but the enforced limitations to the percentage of potash obtainable during the past two years has had no apparent ill effects upon the trees or fruit and seemingly a range of from zero to four per cent will provide all the potash that an avocado tree requires under Florida conditions. A formula that has given good results is built up of cottonseed meal, castor pomace, tankage, and ground tobacco stems, analyzing 4 per cent to 5 per cent ammonia, 6 per cent to 7 per cent phosphoric acid and 2 per cent potash. " The trees were usually cultivated by hoeing three times each year and a heavy mulching of dead grass or weeds during the dry winter season. If instead of the dead grass a mulching of compost or well rotted stable manure is used the results are even more satisfactory and the February application of fertilizer may then be omitted entirely." In California, stable manure has been practically the only fertilizer used up to the present. The necessary nitrogen can be obtained from this source, and the organic matter added to the soil is also of benefit. Irrigation. An abundance of water is especially important during the first two or three years after the tree is planted, if rapid healthy growth is to be maintained. In Florida, particularly in sections where the soil is deep, many young groves have in the past suffered for lack of water. One of the most experienced growers near Miami states that trees which have had abundant irriga- THE AVOCADO 37 tion are as large at four years of age as non-irrigated trees. at six years. Their larger size enables them to yield commercial crops earlier than non-irrigated trees. In California it is the general practice to irrigate avocados in the same manner as citrus fruits. The amount of water necessary for maximum development varies considerably on different soils, but during the first few years a thorough irrigation every ten days during the dry season is not too much. The importance of an abundance of moisture in the soil at the time the fruit is setting has already been mentioned in the discussion of the climatic requirements of the avocado. Several crop failures in Florida have been blamed on unusually dry weather during this period. A drought probably does little harm if it occurs when the trees are just beginning to bloom, but if it continues the flowers are likely to drop and the crop to be a failure. This has been the experience with Trapps when grown on deep sand ; on heavy soils, which are more retentive of moisture, the danger is less. In order to avoid crop failures from this cause, the grower should certainly be prepared to irrigate at the time the fruit is setting. In southern Florida this is usually in March and April. When a prolonged dry spell occurs just at this time, as is sometimes the case, two or three thorough irrigations, a week apart, may suffice to save a considerable amount of fruit. In California, if the soil is allowed to become too dry during the hot summer months, young trees are frequently given a setback from which they are slow to recover. This has been observed in Florida as well, particularly on deep sandy soils. The method of applying water varies in different regions. In California the basin system is commonly used, especially when the number of trees to be irrigated is small. Basins should be filled with coarse strawy manure to serve as a mulch. In many orchards the trees are irrigated by the furrow system which is used with citrus fruits, the soil being cultivated after 38 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS each irrigation. In southern Florida other methods are made necessary by the fact that water cannot be run in furrows over the sandy soil. Revolving sprinklers, placed at the proper distance so that all the ground will be covered by their spray, are sometimes employed. Where economy of water is a factor, these are less desirable than the basin system. Taken in all, it seems that the best method of irrigating is to form around the tree a basin as wide as the spread of the branches (or wider during the first two years), to fill it with weeds, straw, manure, seaweed, or other loose mulch, and then to apply water at least once in two weeks when the rainfall is not sufficient to maintain the tree in good growing condition. Pruning. The amount of pruning required by the avocado depends largely on the variety. Some make short stocky growths and form shapely trees without the assistance of the pruning- shears, while others take long straggling shapes and do not branch sufficiently to form a good crown. These latter must be cut back heavily. Trapp, and other varieties of the West Indian race in general, usually make low stocky trees, branch- ing abundantly and forming plenty of fruiting wood. With such forms, pruning is reduced to the minimum, consisting principally in removing fruit-spurs which die back after the crop has been harvested, and in the occasional cutting back of a branch to produce a crown of symmetrical form and good proportions. Beyond this very little pruning is done in Florida orchards. With the Guatemalan race, more training is often necessary to produce a tree of ideal proportions, since some varieties tend to make long unbranched growths. In others the lateral branches are very weak and scarcely able to bear their own weight if allowed to develop unhindered. With these, care- ful attention should be given during the first few years to pro- THE AVOCADO 39 ducing a well balanced tree capable of carrying good crops of fruit. The Mexican race usually shows a tendency to grow more stiffly erect than the others, and make stout rigid branches which are capable of bearing heavy crops. In order to keep some of these varieties from becoming too tall and slender, it is necessary to top them when young, perhaps pinching out the buds of the main branches later on to induce branching. It is not desirable to have the crown so dense that light will not reach all parts freely. When the crown is too thick, fruit is produced only on its outer surface, and much of the fruit- bearing capacity of the tree is thus wasted. Thus it can be seen that no specific rules for pruning, cover- ing all varieties, can be laid down, other than that the object should be to produce a tree having a broad, strong, well- branched crown of good proportions and great fruiting capacity, preferably headed low (about 30 inches above the ground), in order to shade the soil beneath it. After the tree has reached maturity little pruning is required, provided it has had the benefit of careful training during the first few years. Experi- ence along this line is meager, however, and the future will bring out many new points of importance. In top-working old seedlings, it is often necessary to cut off large limbs. The stubs should be smoothed off and covered with a coating of grafting-wax. The same rule applies to cuts made in the course of ordinary pruning with young as well as old trees. When secondary branches are removed, they should be cut as close to their junction with the main branch as possible, and the cut should be parallel with the main branch. The cut surface should be treated with a coating of grafting- wax. Paint is sometimes used for this purpose, but in Florida it has been found injurious, especially to young trees. If the stubs are not waxed, they often allow fungi to start and destroy the wood. The entrance of such fungi is facilitated 40 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS by the fact that the pith sinks in the cut ends of large limbs, leaving a small cavity to collect water and maintain the moist conditions which are so favorable to fungous growth. Opinions differ as to the best time for pruning. In Florida late fall and winter, November to February, have proved suit- able. In California the best growers seem to favor spring or fall. According to Krome, pruning in hot weather often results in serious injury. The most favorable times seem to be early spring, before growth has commenced and before the heat of summer, and autumn after hot weather is past. PROPAGATION Avocados do not come true from seed ; that is, a tree grown from a seed of the Trapp variety will not produce Trapp fruits, although it may produce fruits similar in character. For commercial purposes it is necessary to propagate the trees by budding or grafting, in order to insure good fruit of uniform quality and to eliminate sparse bearers, or trees otherwise undesirable. Seedling avocados are often grown, especially in the tropics. While named varieties cannot be propagated in this way, if the seed is taken from good fruit the tree which it produces is likely to bear such fruit. But occasionally seedling trees do not bear, and some have other undesirable qualities, so that it is always best to plant a budded tree. Seedlings can only be recommended, in fact, where a tree is desired for the dooryard merely, in which case the ornamental appearance of the avocado makes it eminently satisfactory. If such trees do not bear well no special loss is entailed. Since 1901, when George B. Cellon first budded the avocado commercially, several methods of vegetative propagation have been applied to this plant by nurserymen. While all of these have been successful in the hands of certain propagators, THE AVOCADO 41 shield-budding, which was originally used by Cellon, has proved the most generally dependable, and is now employed by most nurserymen in California and Florida. It is, therefore, given major consideration here, while methods of grafting are de- scribed in less detail. Stock plants. In Florida it has been the custom to bud or graft West Indian varieties on seedlings of the same race. In California the Guatemalan race has usually been budded on the Mexican, in the belief that the superior hardiness of the latter would make the budded tree less susceptible to cold and also because seeds of the Mexican race are more easily obtainable. Recently in Florida the Guatemalan has been budded on the West Indian, the West Indian on the Mexican, and so on ; and these experi- ments, although not extensive, have served to indicate that the question of stocks is of great importance, and demands further investigation. Not only does it appear that the hardiness of the tree may in a measure depend on the nature of the root stock, but the congeniality of the various races, when budded on each other, seems to differ. Attempts to bud the West Indian on the Mexican have produced rather indifferent results in Florida, the buds making a poor union and growing very slowly. The Mexican race has not been tried on the West Indian extensively, but this practice appears to succeed better than the reverse. The Guatemalan buds well on the West Indian, but is perhaps preferable on Guatemalan roots. Seeds are usually obtainable most abundantly in August and September in Florida, a month or two later in California, having reference to the West Indian race in the former state and the Mexican in the latter. These two races are those generally used for seedling stocks. The seeds should be planted soon after removal from the fruit, although they are viable for sev- eral weeks if kept cool and dry. Seeds of the Mexican race 42 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS have even been kept for three or four months in good condition, in the dry climate of California. Previous to the issuing of Quarantine Order No. 12 of the Federal Horticultural Board, prohibiting the importation of avocado seeds from Mexico, many thousands were imported annually to California from that country. In shipping these, the best results were obtained when the seeds were removed from the fruit, washed immediately, dried in the shade, and packed loosely in wooden boxes without the addition of moist- ened sawdust, charcoal, sphagnum moss, or other material. The percentage of loss with such seeds was insignificant. When shipping seeds from moist tropical regions, greater difficulty is experienced, decay being more troublesome. Good results are sometimes secured by shipping in slightly dampened char- coal, but where the distance is not too great the best method seems to be to wash and dry the seeds and then pack them loosely in wooden boxes, as above described. Seeds are planted in pots, boxes, flats, or in the open ground. For nursery work on a large scale, planting in flats and seed- beds has given excellent results. The seedlings are transplanted almost as soon as they have sprouted. In California seeds planted in the seed-bed during autumn, October to December, will make plants six to twelve inches high by March or April, when they may be planted out in the field in nursery rows. While seedlings are sometimes budded in pots or boxes, field budding is more satisfactory, as it is difficult to bring pot-grown trees into the vigorous growth essential to success in budding. Planting in the field should be done in California as soon as danger from frost and cold weather is past. Nursery rows should be 3 to 4 feet apart, with the plants 18 inches apart in the row (or about 12 inches in Florida). Partial shade should always be given the young plants for a few days after they are set in the open, especially if they have been sprouted, as they should be, under a lath- or slat-house. In Florida, seeds THE AVOCADO 43 planted in August may be set out in the field in November, and should make trees ready to bud by January or February, which is the proper season for budding in that state. For germinating seeds, a light, loose, sandy loam is prefer- able, pure sand sometimes being used in California if the seed- lings are to be transplanted as soon as they have germinated. Four-inch pots are large enough for seeds of the Mexican race, but frequently a five- or six-inch pot is necessary to accommo- date the West Indian. In Florida, wooden boxes about 6 inches in each dimension are often used, while in California tin cans are employed, but the latter are much less desirable than clay pots. When planted in flats or seed-beds, the seeds may be placed close together. The pointed end of the seed, — or in the case of round seeds, the end which has been toward the stem in the fruit, — should be uppermost, and it is usually allowed to project above the surface of the soil, not more than four-fifths of the seed being below the surface. If the seed- coats are loose and come off easily, it is well to remove them before planting. The soil should be kept moist while the seeds are germinat- ing. The time required for germination varies greatly, sprouts sometimes appearing within two weeks from planting, while in other instances they may be two or three months in starting. A month is the average time in warm weather. Essential features of bud propagation. Shield-budding is most successful when the stocks are small and full of vigor. If the plants are once allowed to cease the rapid thrifty growth with which they spring from the seed, the wood hardens, sap is less abundant, and if the bud unites at all there is great difficulty in forcing it into growth. Those who do not devote their undivided attention to the propagation of the avocado sometimes allow the seedlings to get into this condition before they attempt to bud them, and as a result 44 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS failures are numerous. It must be stated unreservedly that shield-budding of the avocado, to be successful, must be made the subject of careful and intelligent study on the part of the nurseryman, who must exercise constant vigilance to keep the stock plants in perfect condi- tion. If this is done, and bud- wood is intelligently selected, success is within reach, but the number of failures from neglect or ignorance of these two points might well be enough to dis- courage the beginner from at- tempting to bud the avocado. It is only through the closest application to minute details that real success in budding avocados can be achieved, and it may truthfully be said that those who have produced budded trees in quantity have invariably been men who have devoted their best efforts to the work and made it a pains- taking study. FIG. 3. Shield-budding the avo- cado. On the left, a bud properly in- serted ; above the knife blade, two buds of proper size and shape ; and on the right, bud wood with good " eyes." The method of wrapping the inserted bud is shown in Fig. 11. Budding (Fig. 3). As soon as the stock plants are large enough to receive the bud conveniently they should be budded, provided the season is favorable. In southern Florida the best months for budding the West Indian race are November, December, January, and February. Budding can be continued into March with success, but after warm weather commences the percentage of failures THE AVOCADO 45 is too high to make the undertaking profitable. In California the best time is as soon as the sap has begun to flow freely. This usually occurs late in April or early in May, at which season there is a period of three or four weeks when budding is more successful than at any other time of the year. After this short period, however, avocados are in active growth and the proper sort of budwood is difficult to obtain, hence it is best to wait until the growth has hardened sufficiently to make good bud- wood. This will usually be late in June or in July, when bud- ding can be recommenced and continued until autumn. October and November are good months, although not quite so favor- able as the first-named period in the spring. Buds inserted in autumn frequently push out within five or six weeks and must be protected carefully during the ensuing winter. Unless the work is done very late in the autumn, the buds cannot be held dormant until spring. Selection of the proper type of budwood requires more ex- perience and judgment than any other feature of avocado propagation, since the character of the buds differs widely among varieties of the same race. Some kinds make such poor budwood that not more than 50 per cent of the buds will grow even for the most skillful propagator ; in other varieties, such as Taft and Fuerte, 95 per cent of the buds can frequently be made to develop into trees. In general, it may be said that the budwood should be of recent growth, not soft enough to snap on bending but beginning to mature. In early spring, bud- wood must be obtained from mature growth of the previous fall and early winter. In summer it must be obtained from the current season's growth. In some sorts, such as Fuerte, very young budwood can be used successfully, but that which has commenced to mature is usually better. Buds can some- times be cut from the tips of the branchlets and from 6 to 12 inches from the tip, according to the variety and the condi- tion of the wood. Buds which have broken into growth should 46 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS be avoided, in the case of most varieties, at least; so should those from which the outer bud-scales have dropped, as this is indicative of old wood, and such buds, when inserted, will frequently "drop their eyes" and leave a blind shield from which a tree cannot develop. To insert the buds, an incision is made in the stock, as close to the ground as convenient, either in the form of a T or an inverted T. No particular advantage seems to be derived from either form of incision, both being used quite successfully. The bark should not be opened by using the ivory end of the budding-knife, as this injures the delicate tissues below; if the bark does not separate from the wood readily enough to allow the bud to be pushed in easily, the stock is too dry to be budded. The propagator should always aim to have the stock plants in such vigorous condition that he can force the bud into the incision with very slight pressure and without loosening the bark with his knife. The most skillful budders, when making the horizontal cut of the incision, turn the knife blade forward dexterously, forcing the bark away from the stock and leaving a sufficient opening in which to insert the point of the bud. The latter is then pushed in very gently and wrapped imme- diately with a strip of waxed cloth, raffia, soft cotton twine, or plain tape. This should be wound firmly around the stock, from the bottom upward, and fastened securely at the upper end, above the. incision, by slipping the end through the last loop and drawing it down tightly. In cutting the buds, an extremely thin-bladed, sharp-edged budding-knife should be used, and it should never be allowed to become the least bit dull. A razor-strop is usually worn by budders, attached to the belt; after ten or fifteen buds have been cut, the knife is given a few strokes on the strop to keep it in perfect condition. It should be the aim of the budder to cut the bud with one sliding stroke of the knife, keeping the blade as nearly parallel with the budstick as possible, so THE AVOCADO 47 that the cut surface will be flat and not rounded at the ends. Buds which are gouged out do not fit snugly on the stock. It is well to cut the buds somewhat larger than citrus buds, 1 inch being the minimum length, and 1^ inches the ideal for most varieties. This must vary, of course, with the size of the stock and budwood, large stocks sometimes taking a bud 2 inches long. Opinions differ as to the best material for wrapping, some preferring waxed cloth, while others have found plain cloth tape equally good, and still others use raffia successfully. Waxed cloth is doubtless the safest, but the objection to it has been that in hot weather the wax melts and works its way into the bud, sometimes killing it. This can be avoided by using a compound of 1 pound beeswax and -J- pound rosin. The cloth, preferably a cheap grade of bleached muslin, should be torn in strips 6 inches wide, made into rolls 1 inch in di- ameter, and boiled for fifteen minutes in this mixture. It may then be kept until needed, when it is torn into narrow strips of the proper width and length for tying buds. Three weeks after insertion the buds should have united with the stock, and the wraps must be loosened or they will soon bind the stock, if growth is active. They should not be removed until the end of six weeks or two months. In order to force the bud into growth, the tree should be topped at the time the wrap is first loosened, 3 or 4 inches being removed from the tip. The axillary buds along the stem will then break into growth ; some of these should be allowed to develop for a while, to keep up an active flow of sap. In another four or five weeks the top should be cut back farther, but a few axillary buds still left on the seedling to grow and maintain the flow of sap. If the stock is cut back too heavily the first time, the eye may fall from the bud, leaving a blind shield. Lopping, as practiced with many other fruits, is not altogether successful with the avocado. 48 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS As soon as the bud has made a growth of 3 or 4 inches, it should be tied back to the stem of the seedling with raffia. Later it must be stake-trained, and when it has reached a height of 24 to 30 inches it should be forced to branch and form a shapely top. The stub which remains from the seedling stock should not be cut off until the bud has developed to the height of one foot. In California it is usually considered best to remove the stub in winter ; it should be cut off just above the bud, and the cut surface covered with grafting-wax, or shellac made with alcohol and a little rosin. Common paint should not be used for this purpose. Field-grown trees, after they have reached the proper size, are either lifted and put into pots or boxes, where they are held until established and then planted in the field; or they are balled at any time after they have gone dormant in late winter, and heeled-in under a plant-shed, where they can be kept until spring and then planted out. In Florida, field-grown plants are usually lifted and set in wooden boxes 5 X 5 X 12 inches in size. As soon as they are placed in these boxes, they must be set in partial shade and watered copiously. When they have become established, which will be within a month or six weeks, they can be transplanted to the orchard. Transplanting with bare roots has not proved generally satisfactory in California. Regarding his experience with it in Florida, Krome says : " This may become one of the recognized methods of planting and under certain conditions it has many advantages over setting either boxed or balled plants. Two years ago I moved about four hundred seedlings with semi-bare roots and lost only three trees in the process. The trees were two year stocks averaging four feet in height grown in a 'red-flat' at my own grove. We began transplanting during July but most of the trees were moved in September. We waited until the trees had reached a dormant state between flushes and then defoliated them and pruned back the most tender growth. We moved them only after three o'clock in the afternoon when the greatest heat of the day was over, digging only as many trees as could be carefully THE AVOCADO 49 planted during the remainder of that day. Before digging we wet down the surrounding soil until it puddled easily. The trees were dug with as much of the root systems as could well be handled and the roots were immediately wrapped in wet burlap and the trees placed in the shade. We did our defoliating and pruning back considerably ahead of the digging and found that trees which had been cut back for a week or more and had just started a new growth could be moved as successfully, and in fact grew off better, than those which had been more recently defoliated. " Since then we have carried on experiments in this line at our nursery, using trees with roots entirely bare, and have had a very low percentage of loss. Upon our recommendation a number of avocado growers in South Bade have tried the method with a limited number of trees and without exception have expressed themselves as intending to make all their plantings hereafter with bare-root trees. " The two essentials seem to be getting the tree into proper condition before moving from its original position and plenty of water after transplanting." Grafting. One method of grafting has been employed extensively for the production of nursery stock in Florida, and an- other has been used on a limited scale for top-working old trees. The system extensively used is a modified form of the side- graft employed with other plants. The seeds are germinated in a seed-bed; when the sprouts have reached a height of 5 or 6 inches the plants are dug and laid on the bench. A cut an inch long is made on one side of the sprout, just above the seed, and a thin section of the stem removed, exposing the tissues. The cion is then taken from the tip of a very small branchlet, preferably one which has not fully matured. It should be about 1 inch long, and provided with one or two axillary buds as well as the terminal. It is trimmed on one side to a tapering point at the lower end, and this cut surface is placed against the cut on the stock, after which it is bound carefully in place. The plant is then potted, placed under partial shade, and carefully watered from day to day. After 50 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS a union is effected, the top of the seedling is removed and the cion allowed to develop. Top-working old trees. Large numbers of seedling avocados have been planted in Florida and California. Many of these produce fruits inferior in quality to the best budded varieties, while quite a number do not produce at all. It is often desired, therefore, to convert such avocados into budded trees of choice varieties, and this can easily be done. Several methods of top-working are employed, the most satisfactory one being shield-budding. When trees are to be top-worked by this means, they should be cut back in November or December in Florida, February or March in California, removing three-fourths of the main limbs a foot or two from their union with the trunk, the remainder being left to keep the tree in vigorous condition. The limbs should be cut off with a sharp saw, to avoid splitting or tearing on the lower side. The stubs should be covered with a good coating of grafting-wax. When growth has commenced, in early spring, numerous sprouts will appear around the upper ends of the stubs. Only three or four of the strongest should be allowed to remain on each stub, and when these have reached the diameter of one's little finger, they may be budded in the same manner as seed- lings, with a large bud, preferably from growth which is not mature. The exceedingly vigorous growth of these sprouts makes success much more certain than in budding seedlings in the nursery. Because of the rapid growth, it is necessary to loosen the wraps frequently to keep them from binding. They should not be removed entirely before the buds have developed to a length of 6 or 8 inches. The sprouts rising from the upper side of the stub form stronger unions with the latter than do those from the lower side. Cleft-grafting, another method employed in top-working old THE AVOCADO 51 trees, is most successful with seedlings two to four years old, but can also be used on older trees. While it has not been practiced extensively, it has given good results in the grove of W. J. Krome, at Homestead, Florida. Krome has worked out the method here described. The trees to be grafted should be sawed off 2 to 4 feet from the ground, according to size, this work being done during November and December in Florida, though it has been success- ful as late as March. With two-year-old seedlings the trunk itself is sawed off; on larger trees it is well to go above the trunk and saw off the main branches a foot from their union with the trunk. A cleft is then prepared in the stump, not by splitting it with a grafting tool as is usually done with fruit- trees in the North, but by using a saw. After sawing to a depth of 4 to 8 inches, depending on the size of the stub, the saw is removed and a soft wooden wedge is inserted in the top of the cleft and driven down until the lower end of the cleft begins to split. This produces the steady pressure necessary to hold the cion firmly in place. Cions are cut from wood of larger size and more mature growth than is used for budding, branches about \ inch in diameter being preferable. The cion, which should be 6 to 9 inches long, is trimmed on two sides throughout the lower half to a slender tapering point at the bottom. It is then placed in position in the cleft and forced downward until the upper end of the cut surface is flush with the top of the stub. One cion is placed in the cleft at each side of the stub, nearly even with the surface of the bark on the outside. The wedge which has been used to keep the cleft open is now partly withdrawn until the cions are clamped firmly by the pressure of the two halves of the stub, when it is sawed off flush with the top of the stub and allowed to remain in place so that the pressure on the cions will not become too great. After the cions are properly placed, the cleft is filled with 52 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS plastic grafting-wax so that air is excluded. Wax is also rubbed over the outside of the cion where it fits into the stub. The stub is then firmly wound with strips of waxed cloth, covering the top as well as the sides. A collar made of builder's paper is then tied around the stub, extending an inch above the tops of the cions. This collar is filled with sand. Particular atten- tion must be given to insuring a layer of sand between the cions and the side of the collar, since otherwise the latter transmits heat from the outside and kills the cions. Vent holes should be made in the paper near the top of the stub to drain off the water which collects within the cup. Nothing more remains to be done until the cions have had time to unite with the stock. Two or three months after growth has commenced the sand may be removed and the collar taken off. As a rule, only the stronger of the two cions develops. Both may start to grow but one eventually outstrips the other in most cases, and the weaker one succumbs. This method appears to produce vigorous trees. Its use has been attended by excellent results at Homestead. THE CROP The age at which budded avocado trees come into bearing varies with the different races, and also among the varieties of the same race. Furthermore, experience indicates that many kinds will bear at an earlier age on the sandy soils of southern Florida than on the heavier lands of California. In the latter state, budded trees of the Mexican race frequently come into bearing the second or third year after they are planted in the orchard ; the Guatemalan race shows greater range among the numerous varieties, some, for example the Lyon, commenc- ing to bear within eighteen months or two years from the time of budding, while others, for example Taft, have not borne earlier than the fourth or fifth year. Trapp and several other THE AVOCADO 53 West Indian varieties have been grown for four or five years in southern California without bearing fruit. They are sometimes injured by cold, but, allowing for setbacks from this cause, the West Indian race does not fruit so early in California as in Florida. The Mexican race usually fruits at an early age in both regions. As a rule, budded trees of the West Indian race are precocious in Florida. Trapp is remarkable in this respect; and in addition it has a strong tendency toward over-production which must be checked during the first few years by thinning the fruit. Trapp trees will often produce a few fruits the year after they are planted in the orchard, and at three years from planting may begin to yield commercial crops. If grown under irrigation, \ so that their development has been rapid, the trees may be allowed* to carry thirty or forty fruits the third year after planting, but during th^first year it is best to remove all fruits, and the second yearSiot more than half a dozen should be allowed ID mature. \WThen grown without irrigation, the tree is rarely large enough at three years of age to carry more than twelve or eighteen fruits without injury to itself, unless soil conditions have been very favorable. The mistake is often made of allowing Trapps to over-bear when young, with the result that they die back following the fruiting season. Seedlings vary even more than budded trees in the age at which they begin fruiting. The Mexican race often fruits at two or three years from seed. The Guatemalan race, in Cali- fornia, has occasionally fruited at three or four years, but more commonly comes into bearing at six or seven years. The West Indian race, in Florida, does not usually come into bearing earlier than five or six years from seed. In California, no figures showing the yield of a budded orchard have as yet been obtained, but in Florida, where the avocado industry is older, interesting data are available. While the figures given may not apply to both regions and will certainly 54 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS vary greatly with different sorts, they serve at least to show what may be expected from one variety under certain conditions. According to George B. Cellon, a Trapp tree seven to ten years old will yield, under good cultural treatment, between five and ten crates of fruit, counting forty fruits to the crate, which is about the average pack. The returns from one of the largest groves near Miami for two seasons, however, show an average of only one and one-half crates to a tree. This is a low yield, and should certainly be exceeded. Krome, who has kept careful crop records, finds that his Trapp trees at five years of age yield one to four crates a tree, two and a half crates being the average. Charles Montgomery of Buena Vista, Florida, has obtained yields of about the same amount, his estimate being that a mature Trapp grove should produce 500 crates to the acre. The yield of other varieties in Florida is not so well known, since none except Pollock has been planted to any extent, and even this variety is grown in comparatively small numbers. In regularity of bearing Trapp excels Pollock, the latter showing a tendency to fruit in alternate years. In Guatemala and Mexico, many seedling trees of the Guatemalan race tend to produce good crops only in alternate years. The feature is not so marked in trees of the West Indian race which have been observed, nor in those of the Mexican ; nor is it true that all Guatemalans possess it. It is possible that over-production one season results in a crop failure the following one, and it is probable that unfavorable cultural conditions have something to do with the matter. SEASON The season during which avocados are obtainable in southern Florida has been, until very recently, from July until January. A few Trapps may hang on until February or even as late as THE AVOCADO 55 March, but the fruit is so scarce after the early part of January that it need scarcely be reckoned with. The earliest varieties of the West Indian race begin to ripen in July, while the bulk of the seedling crop matures in August and September. During this season avocados are cheap, and the markets of the North are receiving shipments from Cuba, but there is a certain demand for high-class fruit even during the summer, and such varieties as Pollock are profitably grown in a small way. It has always been recognized, however, that the most profitable avocados are those which can be marketed in winter, for not only is the cheap seedling fruit out of the way at that time, but the markets of the North are not filled to overflowing with peaches, plums, grapes, and other standard fruits. It is, therefore, the late Trapps which have been the most profitable in Florida, and the constant search has been for even later varieties which would make it possible to supply the markets during late winter and early spring. Such have not been found among those of the West Indian race, but the Guate- malan meets this demand, and varieties of this race will, in all probability, soon be planted extensively in Florida. The Guatemalan kinds which have already fruited at Miami and elsewhere have served to indicate that the season during which this race will ripen is, roughly speaking, November to May. In California a given variety of the Guatemalan race ripens one to two months later than in Florida, so far as present experience goes. The season of this race in California extends from January or February, when the earliest sorts appear in the market, to autumn. Following the Guatemalans, the Mexican varieties mature, their season in general being October to January, although there are some kinds which mature a few fruits in spring. Thus it can be said that there is never a day when ripe avocados are not obtainable in California. While the Mexican race has received little attention in Florida, it seems likely to become of considerable value for. the 56 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS cooler sections of the state, now that varieties of good size and quality are obtainable. Chappelow has been in bearing at Miami for some years, maturing there in June and July, which is considerably earlier than in California. In Cuba it is said 'that trees growing on dry soils will hold their fruits longer than those growing on low moist land. Occasional seedling trees (West Indian race) are found through- out Cuba which have the reputation of carrying their fruits until Christmas or even later. Such trees are, of course, highly profitable to their owners, since avocados are in great demand in Habana during the winter months, and the supply at present is limited. PICKING, PACKING, AND MARKETING Avocados are picked best with orange clippers. The stem is usually swollen just above the point of attachment with the fruit; it should be severed with the clippers immediately above this swollen portion. In order to supply the early markets, avocados are sometimes picked before they are fully mature, a custom which should be discouraged. Immature fruits are certain to be inferior in flavor, and should they fall into the hands of those who were trying the avocado for the first time they would be certain to give a bad impression. Trapps are usually left on the tree as long as possible, in order to obtain the high prices which late fruit commands; when they begin to change from bright green to yellowish green they must be picked or they will drop. If they are picked only a day or two before they would drop, they are sure to ripen in transit and reach the market in an over-ripe condition. To prevent this, Cellon advises that questionable fruits be laid aside for twenty- four hours ; if at the end of this time they are still firm, they may safely be packed for shipment. The standard package for avocados in southern Florida is the THE AVOCADO 57 tomato crate, which measures about 12 X 12 X 24 inches. It is sometimes used with a partition in the center, sometimes without. Excelsior is placed above and below each layer of fruits as a cushion, and is stuffed around them freely to hold them in place and prevent bruising. Some growers wrap each fruit in tissue-paper, but the wisdom of this practice is doubtful. The fruits heat more quickly when wrapped, and as heating greatly hastens the ripening process it should be avoided as much as possible. Avocados must not be packed under such great pressure as oranges, more care being necessary in nailing on the top of the crate to avoid crushing the fruits. The number of fruits to a crate varies from twenty-three to fifty-four with Trapp, the average being about forty. Pollocks run from eighteen to thirty-six to a crate, while seedlings run from twenty-eight to ninety. Quotations, f. o. b. southern Florida, are sometimes made by crate, sometimes by dozen fruits. The following figures on Trapps are those quoted by one of the principal shippers at Miami during the past several years : First week in October, 54s (that is, fruits which pack 54 to the crate), 75 cents a dozen ; 50s, 85 cents ; 46s, $1 ; 36s, $1.30 ; 28s, $1.75; 23s, $2. After November first the price is in- creased on all sizes, as follows: 50s, $1.50 a dozen; 46s, $2; 36s, $3. At Thanksgiving the prices vary from $3 to $4 a dozen for 24s, 36s, and 46s, and about Christmas they advance to $4 to $6 a dozen. Pollocks are quoted during August as follows : 36s, 75 cents a dozen; 28s, $1; 24s, $1.50; 18s, $2. The quotations on high-grade seedling fruits at the same time are as follows: 50s to 60s, 60 cents a dozen ; 46s, 75 cents ; 36s, $1 ; 28s, $1.50. Prices on Trapps a crate vary from about $2 in early October to as high as $36 for the last few crates at the end of the season in February ; these figures are f . o. b. southern Florida. From one of the principal groves near Miami the entire crop has been 58 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS marketed for several years at an average net price of $5.25 a crate averaging forty fruits. The average return from 1400 crates shipped from another grove was $5.50 a crate. Trapps have been shipped from southern Florida to all parts of the United States. A few years ago one grower sent small consignments every day during a large part of the season to Seattle, Washington, and did not receive a complaint of a crate received in bad order. These shipments were on the road eight days, and were not sent in cold storage. It is the general practice to ship from Florida by express. The shipping qualities of Trapp are much better than those of the average seedling. At present most of the Florida Trapp crop goes to the markets of the eastern United States, Washington, Philadel- phia, New York, and Boston each taking a good share. Some growers have shipped heavily to Chicago and other points in the Middle W^st, and small shipments go to the Pacific Coast each year. The production in California has not yet become great enough to permit of commercial shipments to eastern markets, the crop being consumed locally. Since most of the returns up to the present time are based on the crop from the parent seedling tree of each variety, they are of little value to show the probable profits from a budded orchard of the same sort. The most remarkable record which has been made by a commercial planting of budded trees is that of J. T. Whedon at Yorba Linda. Whedon's planting of the Fuerte variety, containing fifty trees (less than one acre), produced a crop of fruit when five years old which sold for $1700. PESTS AND DISEASES In the early stages of many horticultural industries insect pests and fungous diseases are not troublesome, but as the THE AVOCADO 59 industry develops its enemies become more numerous. So it has been with the avocado. During the first few years in which this fruit was planted commercially in Florida little injury was caused by parasites, but recently it has been necessary to com- bat vigorously the insects which prey on the tree, and also several fungous diseases. In California the avocado has, up to the present, been com- paratively free from the attacks of insect and fungous pests; yet several insects have made their appearance in the orchards and must be watched carefully lest they become so numerous as to cause serious harm. Thrips and red-spider are the most common insects which attack the avocado in Florida. Red-banded thrips (Heliothrips rubrocinctus Giard.) and the greenhouse thrips (Heliothrips hcrmorrhoidalis Bouche) feed on the foliage, sometimes causing much damage. Both these species are exceedingly small, soft-bodied, fringed-winged insects, with piercing mouth-parts by means of which they puncture the epidermis and extract the juices from the leaves. They are most destructive in early spring, their numbers being greatly reduced when the summer rains commence. Spraying with nicotine solutions has been quite effective in controlling them. The red-spider (Tetranychus mytilaspidis Riley) also does considerable damage during the spring months. This insect, which is scarcely larger than a pin point, can be detected on the foliage without the aid of a magnifying glass because of its bright red color. It feeds on the avocado by piercing the leaf tissues and extracting the plant juices. Often it becomes so abundant as to cause the leaves to assume a brownish, sickly appearance. It occurs commonly in California as well as in Florida, but has not yet been reported as attacking avocados in California. Lime-sulfur mixtures have been used success- fully in combating this insect. For citrus trees, H. L. Quayle recommends commercial lime-sulfur, dry sulfur and hydrated 60 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS lime, and distillate emulsion. These may all prove to be effective with the avocado as well. Among the scale insects which commonly attack the avocado, the most important are the black scale (Saissetia olea? Bern.), and a soft white scale (Pulwnaria pyriformis CklL), the latter being a serious pest in Florida. Severe infestations of the black scale are occasionally found on old seedling trees in California, but this insect has not yet become a pest in the young avocado groves of that state. The wax scale (Ceroplastes floridensis Comst.) is occasionally found on avocados in Florida, but rarely requires combative measures. All of these scale insects, as well as a white fly ( Trialeurodes floridensis Quaint.), which has become troublesome on some of the Florida Keys, can probably be controlled by the use of oil sprays. The citrus mealy-bug (Pseudococcus citri Risso) has been reported on the avocado in Ventura County, California, but it is not known to have caused extensive damage. The avocado mealy-bug (Pseudococcus nipce Mask.), which is a serious pest in Hawaii, has been found in southern Florida groves. It sometimes becomes very troublesome. D. F. Fullaway of Hawaii recommends that it be controlled by spraying with oil- emulsions. The presence of the avocado weevil (Heilipus lauri Boh.) in California, where it was probably introduced from Mexico in avocado seeds, caused the Federal Horticultural Board to prohibit the importation of seeds of the Mexican race from Mexico and Central America. This insect is a small black beetle which tunnels in the seeds, and is said to do considerable damage. Other seed weevils attack the avocado in various parts of the tropics. H. S. Barber describes the more important ones, so far as they are known, in the Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington, March, 1919. Heilipus pittieri Barber, from Costa Rica, is similar to H. lauri. Conotrachelus persece THE AVOCADO 61 Barber does great damage to avocados in Guatemala. Its larvae have been found in avocado seeds sent to the United States, but it is believed the species has not become established in this country. Once thoroughly established, the seed weevils are difficult to exterminate, hence it is to be hoped that they will not gain a foothold in this country. In Guatemala, Trioza koebeki Kirkaldy (and perhaps other species) produces leaf-galls on the avocado, often in such great numbers as seriously to affect the health of the tree. In addition to these insects, a number of others have been reported as attacking the avocado in various parts of the tropics. These include numerous scale insects, both armored and un- armored, several borers, and the well-known Mediterranean fruit-fly (Ceratitis capitata Wied.) ; the better-known species are listed in the Manual of Dangerous Insects published by the Department of Agriculture. In the dry climate of California, fungous parasites give the avocado grower comparatively little trouble, but in Florida and in many parts of the tropics they may require stringent combative measures. The following extracts from a paper by H. E. Stevens, pub- lished in the Proceedings of the Florida State Horticultural Society for 1918, cover the situation as regards fungous pests in Florida as it exists at the present time : " Leaves and frequently fruits of the avocado are attacked by a fungus which is probably a species of Gloeosporium. The affected leaf is usually attacked at the tip, and the disease gradually spreads until the greater part of the blade is involved, when the leaf falls. Severe attacks may cause considerable defoliation of trees and result in the death of young terminal twigs. Fruits may be attacked when small, in which case severe shedding may follow. If the more mature fruits are attacked, a brown spotting is produced and the skin may crack. " Another common type of injury, frequently noted on the fruits, is referred to as anthracnose by some of the growers. This type of injury is very similar to melanose of citrus fruits in general appearance. It is superficial and appears in the form of dark reddish brown caked 62 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS masses on the surface of affected fruits. The markings are hard, compact, and the surface is cracked or broken. The injury may cover only a part or the whole surface of the fruit. It makes an un- sightly fruit, but apparently does not affect the quality. The disease is apparently caused by a fungus, perhaps a Gloeosporium or a closely related species. " Another fungus, a species of Colletotrichum, is often observed in diseased spots on leaves and fruits. This fungus is closely related to Gloeosporium and the injuries with which it is associated resemble those caused by the latter fungus. It is probably the cause of some of the injuries that are classed as anthracnose. " In the control of these leaf and fruit spots, Bordeaux mixture has given satisfactory results where applied in time. As soon as the injuries begin to appear, spraying should be made and continued until the disease is checked. Two or three applications may be necessary, made at intervals of two or three weeks. If the fruit is near maturity, it is advisable to substitute ammoniacal solution of copper carbonate for the Bordeaux mixture, to prevent any disagreeable stain that may result from the use of the latter. Aside from spraying, all dead wood should be kept out of the trees, as this is likely to harbor these fungi from one season to the next. "Avocado scab is of more than ordinary interest, owing to its close connection with citrus scab, and the fact that it has come into existence within the past three or four years. It is in all respects a new disease that has had its beginning in Florida. " Scab is chiefly a disease of the tender growth, and at present it is found more abundantly in the nurseries, where it is particularly severe on seedling plants. It also attacks budded varieties in the nursery. The disease has been found on young and old bearing trees in the groves, affecting the leaves, and in a few cases the injury was observed on fruits. At present it is more common in the nurseries, but it may soon prove a serious pest in the groves. " Scab forms definite spots or patches on the young, tender leaves and shoots, and severe attacks may cause the foliage to curl or become distorted. The more mature leaf tissue is not affected, but old leaves will be found bearing spots that were formed when the tissue was young. The spots are usually small, raised, circular to irregular, purplish brown to dark in color, and may vary from a sixteenth to an eighth of an inch in diameter. They may appear scattered over the surface, or several may grow together, forming irregular patches. The spots penetrate the leaf tissue, and they are visible on both sides. They are usually more prominent on the upper surface of the leaf, in which case the under surface of the spot will be slightly bulged and marked by a discolored area. The centers of the spots are composed of dead cells, more or less spongy in character and brownish in color. THE AVOCADO 63 In the earlier stages the surfaces may show a fuzzy, whitish growth — the fruiting parts of the fungus. The surfaces of older spots are darker in color and frequently covered with a dark webby fungous growth. On young shoots and twigs the spots appear more elevated, small, oval, dark purplish brown to black, and have comparatively smooth surfaces. This same type of spot is observed on the fruits. "It is plainly evident that the avocado scab fungus is none other than Cladosporium citri, which causes citrus scab. The two fungi agree in structure and growth habits, and both are parasitic on citrus. 44 Only tentative control measures for avocado scab can be sug- gested at the present time. Spraying with Bordeaux mixture for the disease in the nursery has given good results in some cases, in others less satisfactory. If the new growth can be protected while it is putting out, the disease may largely be avoided. The sprayings should be made when the foliage begins to put out, and continued until the leaves are nearly developed. The 1 1 50 Bordeaux mixture may be applied at intervals of ten days or two weeks, or often enough to keep the young foliage well protected. The fungus develops more rapidly during cool weather where moist conditions are provided. Shade and a crowded condition of the trees also seem to favor the development of the scab." Many growers in southern Florida who have planted the Trapp avocado have been troubled by the trees dying back following the production of a heavy crop of fruit. Krome of Homestead has given this subject much study, and writes as follows regarding it in the 1916 Report of the California Avocado Association : " Avocado trees of the West Indian race, when in good condition of growth, are prone to put on a tremendous bloom from which a setting of fruit is apt to result so heavy as to be entirely beyond the carrying capacity of the tree. Following this abnormal effort there is often a period of apparent exhaustion during which the tree seems to realize that it has 'bitten off more than it can chew,' and to be seeking the best method to recoup from its over exertion. This is a critical time in the life history of the tree and calls for intelligent handling on the part of the grower. If left to its own devices the tree will endeavor to carry the over crop, draining upon its reserves until its vitality has been seriously impaired. Evidences of this condition are usually very apparent. The tree drops a large portion of its leaves, the younger branches change in color from a dark green to a saffron yellow and no new growth is put on. Lack of sufficient foliage to provide proper 64 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS shade often results in serious sunburning of the more tender branches, and the low state of vitality lays the tree particularly liable to the inroads of disease, especially of the anthracnose fungus which seldom loses such an opportunity for making an attack. Finally the tree is compelled to drop practically its entire crop of fruit and is left in a condition which means, at the very best, a set-back of two seasons ifl^ its development and not infrequently results in its actual death. "To obviate overblooming, particularly in the case of young trees, is very difficult, for the better the cultural condition of the tree, the more likely this is to occur. The usual procedure has been to thin the over crop of fruit and this method of handling works quite satis- factorily provided the set-back to the tree has not already been brought about through the excessive bloom. However, the avocado requires a longer period than most fruits between the first appearance of the bloom and the setting of the fruit and it often happens that the damage to the tree has made considerable advance before relief by stripping can be obtained. In this event removal of the entire crop and further careful attention is necessary. " In an effort to overcome this difficulty, I have during the past two seasons resorted to frequent applications of fertilizer, in order to offset the heavy drain upon the vitality of the trees during the blooming period. In the spring of 1916, following a season favorable to growth, the avocado trees at Medora Grove began to bloom about the middle of March. Immediately afterward a light application of fertilizer, carrying ammoniates from readily available sources was made. The bloom was the heaviest known in a number of years and persisted until about the middle of April. Between April 15th and 20th, another light application of the same fertilizer was made and this was followed by a third application the latter part of May, when a fertilizer some- what higher in phosphoric acid, largely derived from low grade tank- age, was used. As a result of this treatment a full crop of fruit was set and in most cases carried through to maturity without damage to the trees. When an over crop was set at first, as a rule dropping took place without a reduction in vitality, until the proper carrying capacity had been reached, and the remainder of the crop was matured. In a few cases stripping was necessary, but among nearly two thousand trees of varying ages, not more than eight or ten showed any appre- ciable damage." In both California and Florida, avocados sometimes crack open while hanging on the tree. This has occurred in varieties of the Guatemalan and Mexican races, but is most common in the latter. The cracks are usually situated towards the apex THE AVOCADO 65 of the fruit, and are often very extensive. W. R. Home, H. S. Fawcett, and others have noted the presence of several fungi in the cracks and the flesh beneath them, but up to the present it is believed that these fungi are secondary, and not the cause of cracking. RACES AND VARIETIES The avocados cultivated in the United States are classified horticulturally in three races : the West Indian, the Guate- malan, and the Mexican. The West Indian and Guatemalan races, so far as can be judged at present, are two expressions of one botanical species, Persea americana, while the Mexican race represents a distinct species, Persea drymifolia. Horticultural varieties of the avocado, when propagated from seed, do not reproduce the parent fruit in every detail. Seedlings from a round green fruit of the West Indian race may produce fruits oblong or pyriform in shape, and red or purple in color, varying from the parent in numerous other ways as well. But these seedlings will always be like their parents in certain respects, because they belong to the same race and will reproduce the racial even though not the individual char- acteristics. To use the definition of H. J. Webber,1 " Races are groups of cultivated plants that have well-marked differentiating char- acters, and propagate true to seed except for simple fluctuating variations." Technically speaking, the Mexican avocados should not be called a race, since they really represent a species ; the West Indian and the Guatemalan, however, do not appear to differ from each other except in minor characters. The classification of avocados into these three races has been useful, inasmuch as it brings together all those varieties which have several characteristics in common. In fact, the mere 1 In the Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture. 66 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS statement that an avocado belongs to the West Indian, Guate- malan, or Mexican race gives one an idea of the relative hardi- ness, season of ripening, and commercial character of the fruit. The botanical standing of the cultivated races, as at present understood, and the characters which serve to distinguish them horticulturally, are shown in the following key : 1. Leaves anise-scented ; skin of fruit thin (rarely more than ^ inch in thickness) Persea drymifolia MEXICAN RACE of horticulture 2. Leaves not anise-scented; skin of fruit thicker (from -fa to i inch in thickness) Persea americana a. Fruit summer and fall ripening; skin usually not more than TV inch thick, leathery in texture. WEST INDIAN RACE 6. Fruit winter and spring ripening; skin tk to | inch thick, woody in texture. GUATEMALAN RACE One variety cultivated in the United States, the Fuerte, appears to be a hybrid between the Mexican and Guatemalan races. Others of similar origin are likely to appear at any time, hence it is desirable to establish a group to include hybrids. The avocados of the West Indian race have been developed in the tropical lowlands ; the Guatemalan race, on the other hand, is a product of the highlands. At intermediate eleva- tions varieties appear which belong to neither of these races, but possess some of the characters of each. These intermediate forms cannot be classified with accuracy. In selecting varieties for commercial planting, it must be borne in mind, first of all, that the tree must be vigorous and t hardy enough to grow successfully in the particular location which the planter has in view. Secondly, it must in time pro- duce sufficiently large crops of marketable fruit to make its culture commercially profitable. It is not necessary that it THE AVOCADO 67 be very precocious; it is noticeable, in fact, that precocious varieties often fail to make vigorous trees. It is more desirable to have the tree devote itself during the first three years to the development of an extensive root-system and a well- branched crown capable of withstanding the drain imposed by the production of heavy crops of fruit than to have its growth limited and its vitality exhausted by premature fruiting. Thirdly, the fruit itself must be given consideration from a commercial standpoint. Attractiveness, flavor, shipping qual- ities, season, and other important characteristics should be considered in respect to the market it is proposed to supply. Naturally, good shipping quality can be sacrificed to some other point if the fruit is for local use, while it is essential if the fruit is destined for distant markets. The flavor and quality of the flesh should be as good as possible, and the seed should not be unduly large. More than one hundred and fifty varieties have been propa- gated in the United States up to the present tune. The larger part of these originated as seedlings in California and Florida ; the remainder have been introduced from Mexico, Guatemala, Cuba, the Bahamas, Hawaii, and a few other regions. Of this large number not more than a dozen are likely to be planted ten years hence. Indeed, most of them have already been discarded. New varieties are originating every year, however, and the introduction of promising sorts from foreign countries is receiving much attention. It is only by testing a large number of varieties from all of the important avocado regions of the tropics that the best available kinds for commer- cial cultivation can be obtained. It is not desirable to burden such a work as this with descrip- tions of all the avocados which have been propagated. It is sufficient to include the more important ones which are at the present time being planted commercially. For descriptions of minor varieties, and for information regarding the behavior 68 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS and value of new introductions, the reader is referred to the annual reports of the California Avocado Association. In 1917 this organization issued Circular No. 1, "Avocado Varieties Recommended for Planting in California," the suggestions con- tained in which have done much to eliminate from considera- tion numerous inferior sorts. The varieties recommended in this circular are as follows, the arrangement being according to season of ripening in California : Spring varieties Fuerte, Spinks, Blakeman, and Lyon Summer varieties Spinks, Blakeman, Lyon, Dickinson, and Taf t Fall varieties Taft, Dickinson, and Sharpless Winter varieties Sharpless, Puebla, and Fuerte Several of these varieties may be superseded within a short time by others which are now being tested in California. It is not to be expected that the industry can settle down to the cultivation of a few standard sorts until all of the promising ones have been tested, and this may require several years. In Florida, the only variety which was extensively planted during the first fifteen years of the industry was Trapp. With the introduction of the Guatemalans, however, the question has become more complicated, and it will take some time to determine by actual trial which members of this race are most suitable for cultivation in different parts of the state. It is probable that varieties will be obtained which will make it possible, both in California and Florida, to market avocados in every month of the year. Indeed, it is almost possible to do so at the present time. In other regions horti- culturists should work toward this end by obtaining for trial varieties ripening at different seasons. THE AVOCADO 69 West Indian race. This race is the predominant one in the West Indies and throughout the low-lying portions of the tropical American mainland. It is found as far north as Florida and the Bahama Islands, and as far south as central Brazil. From its home in America it has been carried to Madeira, the Canary Islands, parts of tropical Africa, Oceania, and the Indo-Malayan Archipelago. It is much more widely disseminated than either of the other races. The name South American race is sometimes applied to it, while P. H. Rolfs * termed it the West Indian-South American. Practically all of the avocados cultivated in Florida previous to the introduction of the Guatemalan were of this race. In California it has never been extensively grown; only a few trees, in fact, are known to have fruited in that state. It is the most susceptible to frost of the three races, and is best suited to cultivation at low elevations in the tropics. The foliage of the W'est Indian race lacks the anise-like scent which characterizes the Mexican ; in general, it resembles the foliage of the Guatemalan closely, but often the young branch- lets and the leaves are lighter in color. The fruits are pro- duced on short stems ; the smallest weigh 4 or 5 ounces, the largest 3 pounds or more. The surface is nearly always smooth, yellow-green to maroon in color, the skin rarely more than iV inch thick, pliable and leathery in texture. The seed is usually large in proportion to the size of the fruit, and often loose in the seed cavity. The cotyledons are often rough on the surface, with the two seed-coats frequently thick and separated, at least over the pointed end of the seed, one of the coats sometimes adhering to the cotyledons and the other to the wall of the seed cavity. The flowers are characterized by less pubescence than those of the Mexican race, but are very similar to those of the Guatemalan ; sometimes they are almost 1 Bull. 61, U. S. Dcpt. Agr. 70 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS devoid of pubescence. The flowering season is from February to March in Florida, the fruit maturing from July to November, in certain varieties sometimes remaining on the tree until December or January. Pollock (Fig. 4). — Form obovate to oblong-pyrif orm ; size very large to extremely large, weight commonly 25 to 35 ounces, but occa- sionally attaining to 50 ounces, length 6| to 7i inches, greatest breadth 4 to 5 inches ; base nar- row, flattened slightly, with the short stem inserted obliquely in a shallow, flaring, regular cavity ; apex obliquely flattened or slightly depressed ; surface smooth, light yellowish green in color, with numer- ous small greenish yellow or russet dots ; skin less than T^ inch thick, separating very readily from the flesh, tough and leathery ; flesh firm, smooth and fine in texture, deep yellow changing to yellowish green close to the skin, almost without a trace of fiber discoloration; flavor rich, rather dry, very pleasant ; quality excellent ; seed conic, oblique at base, rather small, weighing about 4 ounces, usually fitting snugly in the cavity but sometimes loose, the seed-coats rather loose, more or less separate ; season August and September at Miami, Florida. Originated at Miami, Florida; first propagated in 1901. It has been planted more extensively than any other West Indian variety except Trapp. It is remarkable for its large size and excellent quality. Trapp (Fig. 5). — Form roundish oblate, obliquely flattened at the apex ; size large to very large, weight 16 to 24 ounces, length 4 to 4£ inches, greatest breadth 4| to 4| inches ; base narrowing slightly, flattened around the deep, narrow, rounded, regular cavity in which the short stem is in- serted ; apex obliquely flattened ; sur- face smooth to undulating or slightly pitted, pale yellow-green in color, with numerous small to medium sized, irregular, pale greenish yellow FIG. 4. The Pollock avocado. (X T3?) FIG. 5. The Trapp avocado. ( Xf ) dots ; skin TV inch thick, separating very readily from the flesh, firm, leathery and pliable ; flesh firm, very smooth, rich cream-yellow, chang- ing to pale green near the skin, fiber discoloration very slight ; flavor THE AVOCADO 71 moderately rich, pleasant, quality good; seed broadly oblate, large, about 5 ounces in weight, nearly tight in the cavity, with the seed-coats adhering more or less closely to the cotyledons or sometimes to the lining of the cavity. Season commencing in late September or October at Miami, Florida, and extending until the end of December, with a few fruits hanging on until the end of February or March. Originated at Coconut Grove, Florida; first propagated in 1901. An unusually late variety, and for this reason valuable. It was the only avocado planted extensively in Florida previous to the introduction of the Guatemalans. The tree is very productive, but is a weak grower and susceptible to frost. Waldin. — Form oblong to oblong-pyrif orm ; size large to very large, weight 18 to 28 ounces, length 5 to 6£ inches, greatest breadth 3| to 4| inches ; base somewhat narrowed with the rather short thick stem inserted squarely; apex slightly flattened; surface smooth, usually without markings; skin fa inch thick, separating readily from the flesh, tough and leathery in texture ; flesh firm, deep yellow in color, smooth, with very little trace of fiber ; flavor rich and pleas- ant; quality excellent; seed obovate, rather large, weighing about 5 ounces, usually tight in the cavity. Season October until early January at Homestead, Florida. Originated near Homestead, Florida; first propagated in 1915. The tree is a strong grower, productive, and more resistant to cold and to fungous diseases than the average variety of its race. Valu- able on account of its lateness in ripening, and the good quality of its fruits. Guatemalan race. Although planted in California as early as 1885, the Guate- malan race did not begin to attract attention until about 1910. With the increase of interest in avocado culture which had its inception in California about that time, a number of fruiting trees were brought to light, most of them grown from seed introduced about 1900 by John Murrieta of Los Angeles, although the first tree was planted by Jacob Miller at Hollywood. Because of the excellent commercial qualities of the fruits produced by these seedlings and the season at which they ripened, several of them were propagated and named as horticultural varieties. The number has now increased, both through the fruiting of seedlings locally and the introduction of 72 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS selected varieties from southern Mexico and Guatemala, especially from the vicinity of Atlixco, Puebla, Mexico, which was the source of most of the seeds introduced by Murrieta and has since furnished bud wood of many choice varieties. In Florida this race came into notice even later than in California. Several trees grown from seeds sent from Guate- mala by G. N. Collins about 1901 came into bearing at the Miami Plant Introduction Garden in 1911-1912, and their season of ripening, February to April, immediately stimulated interest in this race, since a winter-ripening avocado had been the greatest desideratum of Florida growers. Budwood of practically all the varieties growing in California was obtained, and the first offspring of these came into bearing at Miami in 1915. While it can thus be seen that the Guatemalan race is new to Florida, it promises to become of great commercial value, and it has the decided advantage that its culture will be possible farther north than that of the West Indian race. Up to the present the trees are successful under Florida condi- tions. The varieties that have so far fruited ripen from October to May. In other countries the distribution of this race is limited. It was introduced into Hawaii in 1885, and has recently begun to attract attention in that territory. Lately it has been planted in Cuba, where it promises to be successful. It has also been introduced into Porto Rico and a few other regions, but only within the last few years. The foliage of the Guatemalan race, as of the West Indian, lacks the anise-like odor which characterizes the Mexican. It is commonly deeper colored than the West Indian, the new growth often being deep bronze-red. The fruits, weighing 4 ounces to more than 3 pounds (commonly 12 to 20 ounces), and borne on long stems, are light green to purplish black in color. The surface is often rough or warty, especially toward the stem end of the fruit. The skin is usually over ^ inch, THE AVOCADO 73 sometimes i inch, thick. This characteristic, together with the texture of the surface, is variable, occasional forms being found which have the skin scarcely thicker or rougher than in the West Indian race. It is usually harder, however, and more coarsely granular in character. The seed completely fills the cavity. The cotyledons are nearly or quite smooth, the seed- coats thin, closely united, and adherent to the cotyledons throughout. The flowers, more finely pubescent than in the Mexican race, are similar in character to those of the West Indian. They appear much later than those of the Mexican race, usually beginning to open in late spring, about the time those of the Wrest Indian race (in Florida) are setting fruits. Unlike both the other races, the fruit does not ripen in the en- suing summer, but is carried over into the following autumn, winter, or spring; while in California, fruits which develop from flowers appearing in June may remain on the tree until a year from the following October. The ripening season in general is winter and spring in Florida, somewhat later in California, where the earliest varieties at present cultivated begin to ripen late in January or in February, and the latest ones hang on the tree until October. Blakeman. — Form broad pyriform to obconic, oblique, broad at the basal end ; size above medium to very large, weight 14 to 20 ounces, length 4 to 4f inches, greatest breadth 3£ to 3| inches ; base rounded, the long stem inserted obliquely in a very shallow cavity; apex broadly rounded, obliquely flattened or slightly depressed on one side, with the stigmatic point raised; surface slightly undulating to roughened, but not so rough as in many other Guatemalan varieties, dark green with numerous large yellowish or reddish brown dots ; skin thick and woody, separating readily from the flesh, brittle, granular ; flesh fine-grained, firm, deep cream-yellow in color, tinged with green near the skin, free from fiber or discoloration ; flavor rich, pleasant ; quality very good ; seed broadly conic, medium sized, fitting tightly in the cavity with both seed-coats adhering closely. Season April to August at Hollywood, California. Originated at Hollywood, California; first propagated in 1912, under the provisional names Habersham and Dickey No. 2. 74 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS Dickinson (Fig. 6). — Form oval to obovate, sometimes almost pyriform; size small to medium, weight 9 to 14 ounces, length 3| inches, greatest breadth 2f inches ; base not noticeably flattened, the long stem inserted in a very small and shallow cavity ; apex rounded ; surface very rough, verrucose or tuberculate around the base, dark purple in color with large, irregular, maroon dots ; skin very thick, especially near the base, separating fairly readily from the flesh, coarsely granular, woody, brittle ; flesh buttery, pale greenish yellow, free from fiber, of pleasant flavor ; quality good ; seed roundish oblate, medium sized, tight in the cavity, with both seed-coats adhering closely. Season June to October at Los Angeles, California. Originated at Los Angeles, California; first propagated in 1912. Vigorous in growth and precocious in fruiting. Lyon. — Form broad pyriform, indistinctly necked, and some- times oblique at the apex ; size above medium to large, weight 14 to 18 ounces, length about 5£ inches, greatest breadth 3| inches ; base nar- row, the long stout stem inserted obliquely al- most without depression ; surface undulating to rough, bright green in color, with numerous small yellowish or russet dots; skin moder- ately thick, separating very readily from the flesh, coarsely granular, brittle ; flesh smooth, firm, deep cream colored, tinged with green toward the skin, free from fiber discoloration, the flavor very rich and pleasant ; quality very good ; seed broad conic, medium small to me- dium in size, fitting tightly in the cavity with both seed-coats adhering closely. Season April to August at Hollywood, California. Originated at Hollywood, California; first propagated in 1911. The tree is precocious in bearing, and the fruit is of excellent quality. Sharpless. — Form slender pyriform to elongated pyriform with a long neck ; size large to very large, weight 16 to 24 ounces, length 6 to 6| inches, greatest breadth 3£ inches; base very narrow, the long stem inserted obliquely without depression; apex rounded; surface slightly roughened or pitted, glossy, greenish purple to deep purple in color, with numerous yellowish dots ; skin thick, separat- ing readily from the flesh, granular and woody ; flesh smooth, firm, cream colored, free from fiber discoloration, and of unusually rich pleasant flavor ; quality excellent ; seed oblate-oblique, small, weigh- ing 1£ ounces, fitting tightly in the cavity, with both seed-coats adhering closely. Season October to February at Santa Ana, Cali- fornia. FIG. 6. The Dickinson avocado. (X f) THE AVOCADO 75 Originated near Santa Ana, California; first propagated in 1913. This is a fruit of fine quality, ripening very late in season. Solano. — Form broadly obovate to oval ; size above medium to large, weight 16 to 24 ounces, sometimes attaining to 28 ounces, length 5| inches, greatest breadth 3J inches ; base rounded, with the long stem inserted obliquely without depression ; apex oblique, slightly flattened; surface nearly smooth, somewhat glossy, bright green in color with numerous greenish yellow dots; skin moderately thick, separating readily from the flesh, granular ; flesh firm, smooth, yellow- ish cream color, greenish near the skin, free from fiber discolorations and of mild pleasant flavor; quality fair; seed broadly conical to broadly ovate, small, fitting tightly in the cavity, with both seed-coats adhering closely. Season March to May at Los Angeles, California ; October to November 15 at Miami, Florida. Originated at Hollywood, California; first propagated in 1912. Productive, and a strong grower. S pinks. — Form broadly obovate, or ob- conic ; size extremely large, weighing from 18 to 34 ounces, length about 5 inches, greatest breadth about 4£ inches ; base narrow, rounded, with the rather short stout stem inserted almost squarely without depression; apex rounded; surface roughened, warty around the base, dark purple in color ; skin thick, separating readily from the flesh, woody, granular, brittle ; flesh firm, smooth, rich yellow in color, free from fiber, and of rich pleasant flavor ; quality very FIG. 7. The Taft avo- good ; seed nearly spherical, small, weighing 3 cado. (X $) ounces, fitting tightly in the cavity with the seed- coats adhering closely. Season April to August at Duarte, California. Originated at Duarte, California; first propagated in 1915. The tree is vigorous and productive, and the fruit of excellent quality. Taft (Fig. 7). — Form broad pyriform, slightly necked; size above medium to very large, weight 14 to 24 ounces, length 5 to 5| inches, greatest breadth 3f inches; base tapering, the long stem inserted obliquely without depression ; apex rounded, with the stigmatic point raised ; surface undulating to roughened around the base, deep green in color, with, numerous yellowish dots; skin thick, separating very readily from the flesh, granular, rather pliable; flesh firm, smooth, light yellow in color with no trace of fiber discoloration; flavor un- usually rich and pleasant; quality excellent; seed broadly conical, medium sized, fitting tightly in the cavity with both seed-coats adhering closely. Season May to October in southern California. Originated at Orange, California; first propagated in 1912. The 76 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS tree is a strong grower but has not proved very frost-resistant in Florida. Its bearing habits have not been satisfactory in California, but in Florida they promise to be better. Taylor. — Form pyriform to obovate ; size medium to large, weight 12 to 18 ounces, length 4 to 4| inches, greatest breadth 3^ inches ; base tapering, usually not distinctly necked, the long stem inserted obliquely almost without depression ; apex rounded ; surface undulat- ing to rough, dull green in color, with numerous small yellowish dots ; skin T^ inch thick, separating readily from the flesh, granular and woody ; flesh firm, smooth, yellowish cream color, pale green near the skin, free from fiber, and of fairly rich pleasant flavor ; quality very good ; seed conical, medium sized, tight in the cavity with both seed^ coats adhering closely. Season January 15 to April 1 , at Miami, Florida. Originated at Miami, Florida; first propagated in 1914. This variety has been planted only in Florida, where it has proved to be vigorous and reasonably productive. Mexican race. This race, which embraces the hardiest avocados cultivated in the United States, is particularly valuable for regions too cold for the West Indian and Guatemalan varieties. It is extensively cultivated in the highlands of central and northern Mexico, whence seeds have been brought to California, re- sulting in numerous seedling trees scattered throughout the southern half of the state. In Florida it has never become popular, but good varieties have not been introduced until recently. Some of them promise to prove of value for the colder sections of that state. From its native home in Mexico this race has spread to several other regions, most notably Chile, where it appears to be well known. It is the only race grown successfully in the Mediterranean region, trees having fruited at Algiers, in southern Spain, along the Riviera in southern France, and even in such a cold location as that of Rome. In tropical regions outside of Mexico it seems to be little cultivated. The anise-like scent of the foliage and immature fruits is the most distinctive characteristic of the race and the one by which THE AVOCADO 77 it is usually identified. The leaves are commonly smaller than those of the Guatemalan and West Indian races, and sharper at the apex. The fruit is small, 3 to 12 ounces in weight, rarely 15 or 16 ounces. The skin is thin, often no thicker than that of an* apple, and usually smooth and glossy on the surface. The color varies from green to deep purple. The seed is commonly larger in proportion to the size of the fruit than in the Guatemalan race. The seed-coats are both thin, sometimes closely united and adhering to the cotyledons, some- times separating as in the West Indian race. The flowers are heavily pubescent, and appear in winter or early spring, sometimes as early as November and usually not later than March. The fruit ripens in summer and autumn, commencing in June in Florida and August in California. Some- times a second crop is produced from late flowers, ripening from March to May in California. Northrop (Fig. 8). — Form obovate to pyri- form, sometimes distinctly necked; size small, weight 5 to 8 ounces, length 4 inches, greatest breadth 2£ inches ; base narrow, the slender stem inserted squarely almost without depression; apex rounded ; surface smooth, very glossy, deep purple in color, with a few small maroon dots ; skin thin, adhering closely to the flesh, membranous ; flesh buttery, cream yellow in color, practically free from fiber, and of rich flavor ; quality good ; seed oblong-conic, small, fitting tightly in the cavity with the seed-coats both adhering closely. Season October and November at Santa Ana, California, with a second crop maturing in April and May. Originated near Santa Ana, California; first propagated in 1911 under the name Eells. The tree is vigorous, frost-resistant, and productive. Puebla (Fig. 9). — Form obovoid, slightly oblique; size below medium to medium, weight 8 to 10 ounces, length 34 inches, greatest breadth 21 inches ; base obliquely flattened, the stem inserted slightly to one side in a small shallow cavity ; apex obliquely flattened but not prominently so ; surface smooth, glossy, deep maroon-purple, in color, FIG. 8. The North- rop avocado. (X 7) 78 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS with numerous reddish dots ; skin less than -fa inch thick, easily peeled from the flesh, firm in texture ; flesh rich cream yellow near the seed, changing to pale green near the skin, buttery in texture, and of rich nutty flavor ; quality very good ; seed medium to large, tight in the cavity, with both seed-coats adhering closely to the cotyledons. Season December to February in southern California. Originated at Atlixco, state of Puebla, Mex- ico; first propagated in 1911, in which year it was introduced into California. A vigorous and hardy variety, fruiting later in the season than most others of its race. FIG. 9. The Puebla avocado. (X f ) Hybrids. This group has been established to in- clude hybrids between Persea drymifolia (the Mexican race of horticulture) and P. americana (the Guatemalan and West Indian races). Fuerte is the only variety which at present falls within it, and even this is not definitely known to be a hybrid. It bears, however, many evidences of hybridity, and cannot rightly be classified either with the Mexican or the Guatemalan races. Fuerte. — Form pyrif orm (not necked) to oblong ; size below medium to above medium, weight 10 to 16 ounces, length 4 to 4? inches, greatest breadth 2i to 2| inches; base pointed; the stem inserted obliquely in a small shallow cavity ; apex obliquely flattened, depressed around the stigmatic point; surface pebbled, sometimes slightly wrinkled around the stem, dull green, with numerous small yellow dots ; skin about ^ inch thick, separating readily from the flesh, pliable and leathery in texture; flesh rich cream yellow in color, greenish near the skin, of smooth buttery texture, and very rich flavor ; quality excellent; seed small, tight in cavity, seed-coats closely sur- rounding cotyledons. Season January to August in southern California. Originated at Atlixco, state of Puebla, Mexico; first propagated in 1911, in which year it was introduced into California. An unusual variety, apparently a hybrid between the Guatemalan race of Persea americana and the Mexican race (P. drymifolia). It is characterized by great vigor of growth, hardiness, good productiveness, and a long season of ripening differing from that of nearly all Guatemalan and Mexican varieties. The fruit contains as much as 30 per cent of fat, and is of very pleasant flavor. CHAPTER III THE MANGO Plates V-V1 AKBAR, the Mughal emperor who reigned in northern India from 1556 to 1605, planted near Darbhanga the Lakh Bagh, an orchard of a hundred thousand mango trees. Nothing, perhaps, more eloquently attests the importance of this fruit and the esteem in which it has long been held than this immense planting, made at a time when large orchards of fruit-trees were almost unknown. Three hundred years after they were set out, the English horticulturist Charles Maries found some of these trees still in vigorous condition. Few other fruits have the historic background of the mango, and few others are so inextricably connected with the folk-lore and religious ceremonies of a great people. Buddha himself was presented with a mango grove, that he might find repose beneath its grateful shade. The Turkoman poet Amir Khusrau, whose grass-covered tomb is still venerated at Delhi, wrote to this effect in Persian verse during the reign of Muhammad Tughlak Shah (1325-1351) : The mango is the pride of the Garden, The choicest fruit of Hindustan. Other fruits we are content to eat when ripe, But the mango is good in all stages of growth. In more recent times, British authors have not hesitated to lavish praise on this oriental King of Fruits. Fryer, in 1673, wrote regarding mangos that "The Apples of the Hesperides are 79 80 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS but Fables to them; for Taste, the Nectarine, Peach, and Apricot fall short." Hamilton, who wrote in 1727, went even farther than this; he declares "The Goa mango is reckoned the largest and most delicious to the taste of any in the world, and I may add, the wholesomest and best tasted of any Fruit in the World/' These few quotations will suffice to show the long established prestige of the mango in its native home. After the develop- ment of trade between India and the outside world, its culti- vation spread to other countries. At the present time the mango is a fruit of greater importance to millions throughout the tropics than is the apple to temperate North America. In the past twenty years choice budded or grafted varieties have been planted in Florida and the West Indies, and the fruit has begun to appear in the markets of the North. The rich spicy flavor of the mango, its peculiarly tempting fragrance, and the beautiful shades of color which characterize many varieties, make it one of the most attractive dessert fruits on the American market. In many instances travelers have made the acquaintance of this fruit through some of the fibrous seedlings which abound in all parts of the tropical world, and as a result may have formed an aversion for it difficult to overcome. It is only in the superb grafted varieties of the Orient, the product of cen- turies of improvement, that the mango exhibits its best qualities. There is more difference between an ordinary seedling and a grafted Alphonse than there is between a crab-apple and a Gravenstein. Since the introduction of these choice varieties into tropical and subtropical America, mango culture has there taken on a new aspect. Previously limited to the production of seedling fruits usually of inferior quality though valuable for local consumption, the industry is now being developed with a view to supplying northern markets with fancy fruit. THE MANGO 81 While many of the common seedlings yield abundantly with no cultural attention, the production of fine grafted mangos is attended by certain cultural difficulties, some of which are yet to be overcome. Anthracnose, a fungous disease related to the wither-tip of citrus fruits, is a serious pest in many regions. The greatest difficulty, however, is the tendency of many of the choice Indian varieties to bear irregularly. In some cases good crops are produced not oftener than once in three or four years. Thorough investigation of cultural requirements together with experimental planting of many varieties is bringing to light the most productive kinds and the proper methods to be employed in their cultivation. BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION The family Anacardiaceae, to which the mango belongs, includes a large number of plants found within the tropics and a few growing in the Mediterranean region, Japan, and temperate North America. The best known relatives of the mango are, probably, the cashew (Anacardium occi- dentale), widely cultivated in the tropics for its edible fruit; the pistachio nut (Pistacia vera) of the Mediter- ranean region; several species of Spondias which are grown for their edible fruits; the obnoxious poison ivy (Rhus Toxi- codendron) of the United States; and the so-called pepper- tree, Schinus molle, familiar in the gardens and streets of southern California. The cultivated mangos are usually considered as belonging to a single species, Mangifera indica. It has been pointed out by certain botanists, however, that probably other species have entered into the composition of cultivated forms. C. L. Blume l says that they have developed from many species scattered through tropical Asia, mainly in the Malay Archi- » Mus. Lugd. Bat. 1, 190-191. 82 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS pelago. It is probable that some of the groups or races recog- nized as horticulturally distinct represent other species than M. indica, or hybrids. A species which has been regarded particularly as one of the ancestors of cultivated forms is M. laurina. About forty species of the genus Mangifera are recognized by botanists, most of them coming from the Malayan region. Several are cultivated for their fruits, although on a limited scale. Some of them are perhaps not distinct from M . indica, as at present recognized. The following species merit con- sideration in connection with mango culture (the notes are based mainly on Hooker's Flora of British India and Blume's Museum Botanicum Lugduno-Batavum) : Mangifera altissima, Blanco. PAHUTAN. Indigenous to the Philip- pine Islands. Fruit large, closely resembling that of the mango, edible. M. ccesia, Jack. BINJAI. Wild and cultivated in Malacca, Sumatra, and Java. Fruit oblong-obovate, reddish white in color, not of good quality. M. fcetida, Lour. BACHANG. AMBATJANG. Distributed through- out the Malay Archipelago. Fruit variable in form, not compressed, green, with yellow flesh of disagreeable odor. Not esteemed, although sometimes eaten. M. laurina, Blume. MANGA MONJET, MANGA PARI, etc. Wild and cultivated in the Malay Archipelago. Fruit elliptic-oblique, the size of a plum. Blume describes numerous varieties grown in Java and other islands. Certainly very close to M. indica. M. odorata, Griff. KUWINI. BUMBUM. Wild in Malacca, cul- tivated in Java. Fruit oblong, yellowish green, the flesh yellow, sweet, with no turpentine flavor. "Often planted by the natives, who eat the fruit." M. sylvatica, Roxb. Tropical Nipal, Sikkim Himalaya, and the Khasia mountains of India ; Andaman Islands. The foliage is like that of the common mango ; the fruit, ovoid, beaked, differs only slightly from that of M . indica. M. verticillata, Rob. BAUNO. Wild in the southern Philippine Islands. Fruit " very juicy, rich, subacid, quite aromatic, of excellent flavor." M. zeylanica, Hook. f. Wild in Ceylon. Closely resembles M. indica, but is considered by Hooker to differ in habit and foliage, and in the character of the flowers. Fruit said to be small, edible. THE MANGO 83 The mango tree is evergreen. Seedlings on deep rich soils often reach immense size. One measured in Bahia, Brazil, had a spread of 125 feet and a trunk 25 feet in circumference. Trees believed to be more than a hundred years old are common in the Orient ; not a few such are to be seen in tropical America, but the comparatively recent introduction of the mango into this hemisphere makes old trees less common than in India. Budded or grafted trees do not grow so large as do seedlings, and are probably shorter lived. The crown is sometimes broad and round-topped; in other instances it is oval, giving the tree an erect or even slender form. The leaves are lanceolate, commonly to 12 inches in length, rigid, deep green, almost glossy, borne upon slender petioles 1 to 4 inches long. Growth is not continuous through- out a long season, but takes place in frequently recurring periods, each of which is followed by a period of inactivity. These periods of growth (commonly termed "flushes" by horti- culturists) do not occur at fixed intervals, and in fact the whole tree does not always break out in new growth at the same time. It is a common occurrence for one side of the tree to be in active growth while the other side is dormant. The young leaves are usually reddish or coppery, and often hang limply from the ends of the branchlets. After the growth has begun to mature, they become turgid and soon lose their reddish color. The small pinkish white flowers are borne in large panicles at the ends of the branchlets. In Florida and the West Indies the flowering season extends from December to April. Some- times the trees bloom two or three times during the season. More than 4000 flowers have been counted on a single panicle, but not all of these are capable of developing into fruits, since the mango is "polygamous," that is, it produces two kinds of flowers: perfect ones having both stamens and pistils, and others which are unisexual. The unisexual flowers, which are staminate, commonly outnumber the perfect ones ; usually, 84 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS however, there is only one pollen-bearing stamen in each flower. The perfect blossoms are easily distinguished from the staminate by the presence in the former of the small greenish yellow ovary surmounting the white disk in the center. The fruit varies greatly in size and character. The smallest kinds are no larger than good-sized plums, while the largest are 4 or 5 pounds in weight. The form is oval, heart- shaped, kidney-shaped, round, or long and slender. The skin is smooth, thicker than that of a peach, commonly yellow on the surface but varying greatly in color. Some varieties are delicately colored, deep yellow or apricot with a crimson blush on one cheek; others are an unattractive green even when ripe. The color depends to a certain extent on the climate in which the fruit is grown. The aroma is often spicy and alluring, indicative of the flavor of the fruit. The flesh is yellow or orange in color, juicy, often fibrous in seedlings and inferior budded varieties, but in the best sorts entirely free from fiber and of smooth melting texture. The seed is large and flattened, its tough, woody husk or outer covering inclosing a white kernel. The flavor of the mango has been likened to a com- bination of apricot and pineapple, yet it cannot be described accurately by any such comparison. It is rich and luscious in the best varieties, sweet, but with sufficient acidity and spiciness to prevent its cloying the palate. HISTORY AND DISTRIBUTION Alphonse DeCandolle considered it probable that the mango could be included among the fruits which have been cultivated by man for 4000 years. Its prominence in Hindu mythology and religious observance leaves no doubt as to its antiquity, while its economic importance in ancient times is suggested by one of the Sanskrit names, am, which has an alternative meaning of provisions or victuals. THE MANGO 85 Dymock, Warden, and Hooper (Pharmacographia Indica) give the following resume of its position in the intellectual life of the Hindus : " The mango, in Sanskrit Amra, Chuta and Sahakara, is said to be a transformation of Prajapati (lord of creatures), an epithet in the Veda originally applied to Savitri, Soma, Tvashtri, Hirangagarbha, Indra, and Agni, but afterwards the name of a separate god presiding over procreation. (Manu. xii, 121.) In more recent hymns and Brahmanas Prajapati is identified with the universe. 44 The tree provides one of the pancha-pallava or aggregate of five sprigs used in Hindu ceremonial, and its flowers are used in Shiva worship on the Shivaratri. It is also a favorite of the Indian poets. The flower is invoked in the sixth act of Sakuntala as one of the five arrows of Kamadeva. In the travels of the Buddhist pilgrims Fah-hien and Sung-yun (translated by Beal) a mango grove (Amravana) is mentioned which was presented by Amradarika to Buddha in order that he might use it as a place of repose. This Amradarika, a kind of Buddhic Magdalen, was the daughter of the mango tree. In the Indian story of Surya Bai (see Cox, Myth, of the Arian Nations) the daughter of the sun is represented as persecuted by a sorceress, to escape from whom she became a golden Lotus. The king fell in love with the flower, which was then burnt by the sorceress. From its ashes grew a mango tree, and the king fell in love first with its flower, and then with its fruit ; when ripe the fruit fell to the ground, and from it emerged the daughter of the sun (Surya Bai), who was recognized by the prince as his long lost wife." When introduced into regions where climatic conditions are favorable, the mango rapidly becomes naturalized and takes on the appearance of a wild plant. This fact, together with the long period of time during which it has been cultivated through- out India, makes it difficult to determine the original home of the species. Sir Joseph Hooker (Flora of British India) considered the mango to be indigenous in the tropical Himalayan region, from Kumaon to the Bhutan hills and the valleys of Behar, the Khasia mountains, Burma, Oudh, and the Western peninsula from Kandeish southwards. He adds, "It is difficult to say whether so common a tree is wild or not in a given locality, 86 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS but there seems to be little doubt that it is indigenous in the localities enumerated." Dietrich Brandis (Indian Trees) says it is indigenous in Burma, the Western Ghats, in the Khasia hills, Sikkim, and in the ravines of the Satpuras. R. S. Hole, of the Imperial Forest Research Institute at Dehra Dun, considers that the so-called wild mangos which are found in many parts of India are mostly forms escaped from cultivation, as shown by the fact that they are always near streams or foot-paths in the jungle, where seeds have been thrown by passing natives. Alphonse DeCandolle says : " It is impossible to doubt that it is a native of the south of Asia and of the Malay Archipelago, when we see the multitude of varieties cultivated in those countries, the number of ancient names, in particular a San- skrit name, its abundance in the gardens of Bengal, of the Dek- kan peninsula, and of Ceylon, even in Rheede's time. . . . The true mango is indicated by modern authors as wild in the forests of Ceylon, the regions at the base of the Himalayas, especially towards the east, in Arracan, tygu, and the Andaman Isles. Miquel does not mention it as wild in any of the islands of the Malay Archipelago. In spite of its growing in Ceylon, and the indications, less positive certainly, of Sir Joseph Hooker in the Flora of British India, the species is probably rare or only naturalized in the Indian peninsula." Most species of Mangifera are natives of the Malayan region. Sumatra in particular is the home of several. While it is known that the mango has been cultivated in western India since a remote day, and we find it to-day naturalized in many places, it seems probable that its native home is to be sought in eastern India, Assam, Burma, or possibly farther in the Malayan region. The Chinese traveler Hwen T'sang, who visited Hindustan between 632 and 645 A.D., was the first person, so far as known, to bring the mango to the notice of the outside world. He THE MANGO 87 speaks of it as an-mo-lo, which Yule and Burnell consider a phonetization of the Sanskrit name amra. Several centuries later, in 1328, Friar Jordanus, who had visited the Konkan and learned to appreciate the progenitors of the Goa and Bom- bay mangos, wrote, "There is another tree which bears a fruit the size of a large plum, which they call aniba." He found it "sweet and pleasant." The common name which he used is a variation of the north Indian am or amba. Six years later (1334) Ibn Batuta wrote that "the mango tree ('anba) resembles an orange tree, but is larger and more leafy; no other tree gives so much shade." John de Marignolli, in 1349, says, " They also have another tree called amburan, having a fruit of excellent fragrance and flavor, somewhat like a peach." Var- thema, in 1510, mentioned the mango briefly, using the name amba. Sultan Baber, who wrote in 1526, is the first to distin- guish between choice and inferior varieties. He says, "Of the vegetable productions peculiar to Hindustan one is the mango, (ambeh). . . . Such mangos as are good are excellent." The island of Ormuz, in the mouth of the Persian Gulf, was settled in early days by the Portuguese and became one of the great emporiums of the East. Garcia de Orta, a Portu- guese from Goa, wrote in 1563 that the mangos of Ormuz were the finest in the Orient, surpassing those of India. It is probable, however, that the mangos known at Ormuz were not grown on the island itself, since it has very little arable land and water is exceedingly scarce. The Cronica dos Keys Dormuz (1569) says that mangos were brought to Ormuz from Arabia and Persia. Later, in 1622, P. della Valle speaks of the mangos grown on the Persian mainland at Minao, only a few miles from Ormuz. The Ain-i-Akbari, an encyclopedic work written during the reign of Akbar (about 1590), contains a lengthy account of the mango. Akbar, it may be remembered, was the Mughal emperor who planted the Lakh Bagh at Darbhanga, and in 88 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS other ways stimulated the cultivation of fruit-trees through- out northern India. Abu-1 Fazl-i-'Allami, author of the Ain (translated by Blochmann), writes : " The Persians call this fruit Naghzak, as appears from a verse of Khusrau. This fruit is unrivalled in color, smell, and taste ; and some of the gourmands of Turan and Iran place it above muskmelons and grapes. In shape it resembles an apricot, or a quince, or a pear, or a melon, and weighs even one ser and upwards. There are green, yellow, red, variegated, sweet and subacid mangos. The tree looks well, especially when young ; it is larger than a nut tree, and its leaves re- semble those of a willow, but are larger. The new leaves appear soon after the fall of the old ones in the autumn, and look green and yellow, orange, peach-colored, and bright red. The flower, which opens in the spring, resembles that of the vine, has a good smell, and looks very curious. . . . The fruit is generally taken down when unripe, and kept in a particular manner. Mangos ripened in this manner are much finer. They commence mostly to ripen during summer and are fit to be eaten during the rains ; others commence in the rainy season and are ripe in the beginning of winter ; the latter are called Bhadiyyah. Some trees bloom and yield fruit the whole year; but this is rare. Others commence to ripen, although they look unripe ; they must be quickly taken down, else the sweetness would produce worms. Mangos are to be found everywhere in India, especially in Bengal, Gujrat, Malwah, Khandesh, and the Dekhan. They are rarer in the Panjab, where their cultivation has, however, increased since his Majesty made Lahor his capital. A young tree will bear fruit after four years. They also put milk and treacle around the tree, which makes the fruits sweeter. Some trees yield in one year a rich harvest, and less in the next; others yield for one year no fruit at all. . . ." The name mango, by which this fruit is known to English- speaking as well as Spanish-speaking peoples, is derived from the Portuguese manga. According to Yule and Burnell, the Tamil name man-kay or man-gay is the original of the word, the Portuguese having formed manga from this when they settled in western India. Skeat traces the origin of the name to the Malayan manga, but other writers consider the latter to have been introduced into the Malay Archipelago from India. The name mango is used in German and Italian, while the Dutch have adopted manga or mangga, and the French form is mangue. THE MANGO 89 In the Malay Archipelago and in many parts of Polynesia mangos are plentiful. W. E. Safford 1 writes, "The mango tree is not well established in Guam. There are few trees on the Island, but these produce fruit of the finest quality. Guam mangos are large, sweet, fleshy, juicy, and almost entirely free from the fiber and flavor which so often characterize the fruit." Excellent mangos were formerly shipped from the French island of Tahiti to San Francisco. Many choice varieties have been planted in the Hawaiian Islands. J. E. Higgins has written a bulletin on mango culture in this region. On the tropical coast of Africa, extending south to the Cape of Good Hope, and in Madagascar, mangos are common. The French island of Reunion is the original home of several varieties now cultivated in the West Indies and Florida. In Queensland, .Australia, attention has been given to the asexual propagation of this fruit, and a limited number of choice Indian varieties have been introduced. In the Mediterranean region the species is not entirely successful. Trees are reported to have produced fruit in several localities, but nowhere have they become commonly grown. In Madeira and the Canary Islands they are more at home ; Captain Cook, when on his first voyage of discovery, reported in 1768 that mangos grew almost spontaneously in Madeira. C. H. Gable, who has recently worked on the island, says there are now only a few trees to be found, but that these bear profusely. The Portuguese are given the credit for bringing the mango to America. It is believed to have been first planted at Bahia, Brazil, at an uncertain date probably not earlier than 1700. Captain Cook found in 1768 that the fruit was produced in great abundance at Rio de Janeiro. In the West Indies it was first introduced at Barbados in 1742 or thereabouts, the " tree or its seed" having been brought from Rio de Janeiro. It did 1 Useful Plants of Guam. 90 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS not reach Jamaica until 1782. Its introduction into the latter island is described by Bryan Edwards : 1 " This plant, with several others, as well as different kinds of Seeds, were found on board a French ship (bound from the Isle de France for Hispaniola) taken by Captain Marshall of his Majesty's Ship Flora, one of Lord Rodney's Squadron, in June, 1782, and sent as a Prize to this island. By Captain Marshall, with Lord Rodney's approbation, the whole collection was deposited in Mr. East's garden, where they have been cul- tivated with great assiduity and success." Thirty-two years after its introduction, John Lunan stated that the mango had become one of the commonest fruit-trees of Jamaica. It is said to have been introduced into Mexico at the same time as the coffee plant, early in the nineteenth century, the introducer having been D. Juan Antonio Gomez of Cordoba. It is evident that Mexico has received mangos from two sources ; some from the West Indies, and others from the Philippines, brought by the Spanish galleons which traded in early times between Acapulco and Manila. The cultivation of the mango under glass in Europe was attempted at an early day. A writer in Curtis' Botanical Magazine in 1850 says : "The mango is recorded to have been grown in the hothouses of this country at least 160 years ago, but it is only within the last twenty years that it has come into notice as a fruit capable of being brought to perfection in England. The first and, we believe, the most successful attempt was made by the late Earl of Powis, in his garden at Walcot, where he had a lofty hothouse 400 feet long and between 30 and 40 feet wide constructed for the cultivation of the mango and other rare and tropical fruits; but within these last few years we have known it to bear fruit in other gardens." In the United States, cultivation of the mango is limited to southern Florida and southern California. It is believed the 1 History of the West Indies, 1793. THE MANGO 91 species was first introduced into the former state by Henry Perrine, who sent plants from Mexico to his grant of land below Miami in 1833. These trees, however, perished from neglect after Perrine's death, and many years passed before another introduction was made. According to P. J. Wester, the second and successful introduction was in 1861 or 1862, by Fletcher of Miami. The trees introduced in these early years were seed- lings. In 1885 Rev. D. G. Watt of Pinellas made an attempt to introduce the choice grafted varieties of India. According to P. N. Reasoner,1 Watt obtained from Calcutta eight plants of the two best sorts, Bombay and Malda. "They were nearly three months on the passage, and when the case was opened five were dead ; another died soon after, and the two remaining plants were starting nicely, when the freeze destroyed them entirely." In 1888 Herbert Beck of St. Petersburg obtained a shipment of thirty-five inarched trees from Calcutta. This ship- ment included the following varieties : "Bombay No. 23, Bom- bay No. 24, Chuckchokia, Arbuthnot, Gopalbhog, Singapore, and Alphonse." In the latter part of 1889 Beck reported to the Department of Agriculture that all but seven of the trees had died. Further details regarding this importation are lacking, but it is not believed that any of the trees lived to produce fruit. On November 1, 1889, the Division of Pomology at Wash- ington received through Consul B. F. Farnham of Bombay, India, a shipment of six varieties, as follows : " Alphonse, Banchore, Banchore of Dhiren, Devarubria, Mulgoba, and Pirie." The trees were obtained from G. Marshall Woodrow, at Poona. After their arrival in this country they were for- warded to horticulturists on Lake Worth, Florida. Most of the trees succumbed to successive freezes, but in 1898 Elbridge Gale reported that one Alphonse sent to Brelsford Brothers was still alive, but was not doing well ; and that of the five trees sent to himself only one, a Mulgoba, had survived. This 1 Division of Pomology, Bull. 1. 92 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS tree began to bear in 1898, and is still productive, although it has not borne large crops in recent years. The superior quality of its fruit furnished the needed stimulus to the development of mango culture in this country, and considerable numbers of Mulgobas were soon propagated and planted along the lower east coast of Florida. Recently, numerous other Indian varie- ties have fruited in that state, some of them more valuable from a commercial standpoint than Mulgoba, so that the latter probably will not retain the prominent position which it has held. As regards California, the exact date at which the mango was first introduced is not known, but it is believed by F. Franceschi that it was first planted at Santa Barbara, between 1880 and 1885. COMPOSITION AND USES OF THE FRUIT The mango contains much sugar. The proportions of other constituents, such as acids and protein, are low in the ripe fruit. The following table, from analyses made in Hawaii by Alice R. Thompson, shows the composition of three well- known Indian varieties : TABLE II. COMPOSITION OP THE MANGO VARIETY TOTAL SOLIDS ASH ACIDS PROTEIN TOTAL SUGARS F..T Pairi . .... \ Macmillan says that it thrives in Ceylon up to elevations of 2000 feet. It is cultivated in India, in Cochin-China, and in many parts of Polynesia. Vaughan MacCaughey states that it is the commonest species of Annona in the markets of Hono- lulu. Paul Hubert notes that it is cultivated in Reunion and on the west coast of Africa. It will be observed that its distribution is limited to tropical regions. In the United States it can only be grown in southern Florida, where with slight protection it succeeds at Miami and even as far north as Palm Beach. Exceptionally cold winters, however, may kill the trees to the ground. In California it is not successful. The name soursop is of West Indian origin, and is the one commonly used in English-speaking countries. In Mexico the fruit is known as zapote agrio, and more commonly as guandbana (sometimes abbreviated to guanaba), which is the name most extensively used in Spanish-speaking countries. Guandbana is considered to have come originally from the island of Santo Domingo. In the French colonies the common name is corossol or cachiman epineux. Yule and Burnell say : " Grainger identifies the soursop with the suirsack of the Dutch. But in this, at least as regards use in the East Indies, there is some mistake. The latter term, in old Dutch writers on the East, seems always to apply to the common jackfruit, the 'sourjack,' in fact, as distinguished from the superior kinds, especially the champada of the Malay Archipelago." In Mexican publi- cations the soursop is sometimes confused with the soncoya (A. purpurea), though it actually differs widely from the latter both in foliage and fruit. The soursop is more tolerant of moisture than the sugar- apple, and can be grown in moist tropical regions with greater success. Temperatures below the freezing point are likely to injure it, although mature trees may withstand 29° or 30° above zero without serious harm. THE ANNONACEOUS FRUITS 185 The soil best suited to this species is probably a loose, fairly rich, deep loam. It has done well, however, on shallow sandy soils in south Florida. F. S. Earle has found in Cuba that liberal applications of fertilizer will increase greatly the amount of fruit produced. The formula used is the same as that recommended for . the sugar-apple. Little attention has yet been given to the cultural requirements of the plant. The soursop, grown from seed, comes into bearing when three to five years old. The season of ripening in Mexico and the West Indies is June to September ; in Florida it is about the same. Mature trees rarely bear more than a dozen good fruits in a season. . Oftentimes there are produced numerous small, malformed, abortive fruits which are of no value. These are due to insufficient pollination, only a few of the carpels develop- ing normally, the remainder being unable to do so because they are not pollinated. The same phenomenon often occurs in the eherimoya, and, less commonly, in the sugar-apple and bullock's- heart. Seedling trees differ in the amount of fruit they yield. Only the most productive should be selected for propagation. It may be possible still further to increase their productiveness by attention to pollination, and it has been shown that proper manuring is a great aid. Since the fruits are commonly of large size, it cannot be expected that so small a tree will produce many ; still, the average seedling does not bear more than a small proportion of the crop it could safely carry to maturity, and the object of future investigations should be to obtain varieties which will be more productive. In various parts of the world the tree is attacked by several scale insects, and the fruits by some of the fruit-flies, notably the Mediterranean fruit-fly. Propagation of the soursop is usually effected in the tropics by seed. Choice varieties which originate as chance seedlings, however, can only be perpetuated by some vegetative means. 186 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS P. J. Wester has found that the species can be budded in the same manner as the cherimoya. He recommends as stock- plants the bullock's-heart and the pond-apple, both described below. Seeds are germinated in the same manner as those of the cherimoya. THE BULLOCK'S-HEART (Fig. 26) (Annona reticulata, L.) The bullock's-heart, although widely grown, is a fruit of little value. Compared with the sugar-apple and the cherimoya it lacks flay or. An occasional seed- ling produces fruit of fair quality, but there is no reason why this species should be culti- vated when the sugar-apple and the ilama can be produced on the same ground. The tree is com- monly 20 to 25 feet high. It is semi- deciduous, some- times remaining devoid of foliage for several weeks. FIG. 26. The bullock's-heart (Annona reticulata), a The leaves are fruit widely cultivated in the tropics. (X |) oblong- lanceolate or lanceolate in form, commonly 4 to 6 inches in length, acute, and glabrate. The flowers are borne in small clusters upon THE ANNONACEOUS FRUITS 187 the new branchlets. The three outer petals are oblong linear, about an inch long ; the inner ones small, scale-like, and ovate in form. The fruit is usually heart-shaped (whence its common name), but it may be conical or oval. It weighs from a few ounces to 2 pounds, and requires a long time to reach maturity. The smooth surface, usually reddish-yellow or reddish-brown in the ripe fruit, is divided by impressed lines into rhomboidal or hexagonal areoles. The flesh, which contains numerous brown seeds the size of a small bean, is milk-white in color, granular near the thin skin, and sweet, even mawkish in flavor. Safford says of this species: "Its fruit is inferior in flavor to both the cherimoya and the sugar-apple (A.squamosa), from the first of which it may be distinguished by its long, narrow, glabrate leaves, and from the second by its solid, com- pact fruit as well as its larger leaves. From A. glabra, with which it is also confused, it may be distinguished readily by its elongate narrow outer petals and its small, dark brown seeds." The bullock's-heart is indigenous in tropical America. It is more abundant in the gardens of seacoast and lowland towns than its value warrants. From America it has been carried to the Asiatic tropics, and it is now cultivated in India, Ceylon, the Malay Archipelago, Polynesia, Australia, and Africa. Vaughan MacCaughey says that it is not very common in Hawaii, but may be found in a few gardens. In the Philip- pines and in Guam it has become spontaneous. One West Indian common name of this fruit, custard-apple, is applied in India to A. squamosa, and sometimes in America to A. Cherimola and other species. In India A. retwulata is often termed ramphal (fruit of Rama) . In Mexico the Spanish names are anona and anona Colorado,; the Aztec name, which appears in the early work of Francisco Hernandez, was quauht- zapotl, or tree zapote. In the French colonies the name cachi- man or cachiman cceur-de-bceuf is generally used. In Brazil it is called in Portuguese coraqao de boi. 188 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS So far as is known the tree has never fruited in California, the climate of that state being probably too cold for it. It has been planted in protected situations there but no specimens have reached large size. In southern Florida it grows and fruits well. P. W. Reasoner,1 who apparently confused this species with the cherimoya, says that it is confined to the same terri- tory in Florida as the sugar-apple. Its requirements seem to be about the same as those of A. squamosa. It does not appear to be so partial, however, to a dry climate. The mature tree will withstand several degrees of frost without serious harm ; a temperature of 27° or 28° usually does not injure it severely. In Ceylon, according to H. F. Macmillan, it does not grow at elevations above 3000 feet. In tropical America it ascends to the same altitude, or occasionally to 3500 feet. The bullock' s-heart prefers a deep rich soil with plenty of moisture. It is propagated by budding in the same manner as the cherimoya. P. J. Wester has found that it can be budded on the soursop, the pond-apple, and the sugar-apple, as well as on seedlings of its own species. As a rule, the trees bear more freely than those of the soursop and cherimoya, but not more so than the sugar-apple. There are as yet no named varieties in cultivation. THE ILAMA (Fig. 27) (Annona diver sifolia, Safford) ' The ilama is probably the finest annonaceous fruit which can be grown in the tropical lowlands ; yet it has not, until very recently, been planted outside the region in which it is in- digenous. Now that it has been called to the attention of horticulturists, its range should be extended rapidly to all parts of the tropics. 1 Bull. 1, Div. Pomology. THE ANNONACEOUS FRUITS 189 The identity of the ilama, first mentioned by Francisco Hernandez toward the end of the sixteenth century, remained in doubt until W. E. Safford showed, in 1911, that it was a species which had not been described botanically. Safford named it Annona diversifolia, and brought together much information concerning its habits and the character of its fruit. These data were published in the Journal of the Washing- ton Academy of Sci- ences, March 4, 1912. More recently the writer has been able to study the species in Mexico and Guate- mala, and the United States Department of Agriculture has distrib- uted several thousand plants in the warmest regions of the United States and in tropical America. The tree grows to an ultimate height of 25 feet. It is slender in FlG. 27. The ilama (Annona diversifolia), an habit the trunk not excellent fruit from southern Mexico and Central A . ' America. (X about 3) more than 10 inches thick, often branching from the ground to form three to six main stems. Some trees are erect, others spreading in habit. The foliage somewhat resembles that of A. squamosa, but the leaves are larger and of distinct form, being broadly elliptic to oblance- olate, rounded at the apex, and 4 to 5^ inches in length. A distinguishing characteristic of this species is the presence of or- bicular leaf-like bracts at the bases of the smaller branchlets. The flowers are maroon-colored, 1 inch long, with the three outer 190 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS petals linear-oblong in form, the inner petals minute. The fruit is conical, oval, or round in form, the largest specimens weighing about H pounds. The surface is rough, with the carpel- lary areas indicated by deeply incised lines; from each of the areoles thus formed rises a short thick protuberance. Sometimes these protuberances are suppressed, the fruit then being almost smooth. The color varies from pale green to magenta-pink. An appearance of whiteness is given by the presence of a thick bloom over the entire surface. In the pale green varieties the flesh is white ; in the pink kinds it is tinged with rose-pink. The flavor is sweet, very similar to that of the sugar-apple in the green varieties ; in the pink it is more acid, resembling that of the cherimoya. The seeds are about as numerous as in the latter species but larger in size. The fruits are used fresh, like those of the sugar-apple. The ilama is indigenous in the mountains and foothills of southwestern Mexico, Guatemala, and Salvador, but is not known to occur at elevations greater than 2000 feet. It is found in the gardens of many Mexican and Central American towns, notably in Tapachula, Chiapas, where it is one of the principal cultivated fruit-trees. In Colima and Acapulco, Mexico, it is called ilama (the ilamatzapotl or "old women's zapote" of Hernandez), while from Tehuantepec to the Guate- malan border it is known as papauce. In Guatemala and Salvador it is named anona blanca. The climatic requirements of the ilama are similar to those of the sugar-apple and the custard-apple. The species is found only at relatively low elevations, indicating that it prefers a i hot climate. The amount of cold it will withstand has not yet ff been determined. The regions where it occurs most abundantly / are dry during several consecutive months and subject to / abundant rainfall the remainder of the year. In Guatemala it I sometimes appears in places where there is little rainfall. The same is true as regards Tehuantepec, but in this region the trees PLATE X. Upper, a date palm in full production ; lower, the purple granadilla. THE ANNONACEOUS FRUITS 191 are irrigated. The best soil seems to be a deep, rich, rather loose loam. Although propagated in Mexico and Central America by seed only, the ilama can probably be budded in the same manner as other annonas. By using this method of propagation, it will be possible to perpetuate the best varieties which originate as seedlings. The trees come into bearing when three or four years old, and sometimes produce good crops. Productive trees often bear 100 fruits in a single season. There is, however, the same variation in this regard as with other annonas, though less as to the form and size of the fruit. The ripening season is short ; July and August are the principal months. When the fruits are fully mature they crack open. They are commonly left on the tree until they reach this condition but it would be better to pick them a few days earlier. So handled, they require to be kept one to three days after being taken from the tree before they soften and are ready for eating. The ilama may be termed the cherimoya of the lowlands. The cherimoya does not succeed in the tropics unless grown at elevations of 4000 to 6000 feet, where the climate is cool. The ilama, on the other hand, belongs to the lowlands, but is strikingly similar in character to a good cherimoya. It is a valuable recruit and one which cannot be too strongly recom- mended for cultivation throughout the tropics. MINOR ANNONACEOUS FRUITS Pond-apple (Annona glabra, L.). — This species is of no value as a fruit, but has been used as a stock for other annonas. It grows wild in south Florida around the shores of Lake Oke- chobee and along the Indian and Caloosahatchee rivers ; occur- ring also in the West Indies, on the mainland of tropical America, on the west coast of Africa, and in the Galapagos Islands. In 192 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS Florida it is often called custard-apple; in the West Indies alligator-apple and cork-wood. While tropical in nature, it withstands a few degrees of frost. It is swamp-loving, as the name here used indicates, and a vigorous grower. The tree is usually small, but sometimes reaches a height of 40 feet. The leaves are smooth, ovate to oblong or elliptic in form, acute to bluntish, glossy green above and paler beneath. The flowers are large, with the outer petals cream-colored, the inner smaller and narrower, whitish outside and blood-red within. The fruit is ovoid or heart-shaped, 2 to 4 inches long, smooth, yellowish when ripe, with soft yellowish flesh. Mexican writers have asserted that the tree is cultivated and the fruit sold in the markets. These statements are due to the confusion of A. glabra with other species of Annona, most probably the smooth- fruited forms of A. Cherimola and A. reticulata. Annona palus- triSy L. and A. laurifolia, Dunal are synonyms of A. glabra, L. Wild cherimoya (Annona longiflora, Wats.). — This species comes from the state of Jalisco, Mexico. Horticulturally it is not yet well known, but it is said to have been introduced into California. Safford describes it as a shrub or small tree, with leaves resembling those of the true cherimoya but distinguished when mature by being glabrate or glabrescent between the lateral nerves. The flowers are often 2 inches long. The fruit is conical or ovate in form, the surface smooth to rough as in the cherimoya, which in flavor it resembles. Mountain soursop (Annona montana, Macf.). — This species is native to the West Indies, where it is also known as guanabana cimarrona (Spanish, wild guanabana) and corossolier batard (French) . It is a small forest tree with leaves resembling those of the soursop ; the flowers also resemble those of that species. P. J. Wester,1 who tested the fruit in the Botanic Garden at 1 Philippine Agrl. Review, 2, 1916. THE ANNONACEOUS FRUITS 193 Buitenzorg, Java, was " surprised to find it of remarkably good quality considering that it is entirely unimproved and that it has never been recorded as edible. The fruit is about the size of a small custard-apple, with sparse, short prickles ; greenish, and with yellowish, rather cottony but juicy and subacid, refreshing pulp, somewhat recalling the flavor of the soursop though inferior to that fruit." The tree is larger and more robust than A. muricata. Soncoya (Annona purpurea, Moc. & Sesse). — This tree is little known outside of southern Mexico and Central America, where it is native. In Mexico it has been confused with the soursop, although neither foliage nor fruit resembles that of A. muricata. It is confined to the lowlands ; a moist, hot climate suits it best. In Mexico it is sometimes called cabeza de negro (negro-head) and ilama. The leaves are large, oblong-elliptic to oblong-obovate in form, acuminate at the apex. The young branchlets are reddish pubescent. The flowers resemble those of the soursop. The fruit is round, sometimes as much as 6 inches in diameter, brownish gray in color and covered with pyramidal protuberances which terminate in short hooks curved toward the stem. The carpels, which separate readily, each contain an obovate brown seed about an inch long. The flesh is bright orange in color, soft, of pleasant flavor suggesting that of the northern papaw (Asimina triloba). The fruit is not highly esteemed, but is common in the markets of the regions where it is native. The tree is cultivated in Mexican and Cen- tral American dooryards. Because of its large size, its thick skin, the attractive color of its flesh, and its aromatic flavor, the soncoya is of interest in connection with the possibilities of annona breeding. Posh-te (Annona scleroderma, Safford). — This species, which grows wild in southern Mexico and Guatemala, is o 194 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS scarcely known in cultivation. It is remarkable for its thick, relatively hard shell, which makes it of possible value with regard to the production of annonas suitable for shipping to distant markets. This is a vigorous tree with large, thick, glabrous, oblong leaves and small cinnamon-brown flowers. The fruit is roundish oblate in form, about 3 inches in diameter, with dull green surface divided into areoles by small ridges, the shell being nearly ^ inch thick. The seeds, which are embedded in the white melting pulp, are about the same size as those of the cherimoya. O. F. Cook 1 says : " The texture of the pulp is perfect, the flavor aromatic and delicious with no unpleasant aftertaste. It is much richer than the soursop, with a suggestion of the flavor of the matasano (Casimiroa edulis). . . . The most fragrant pulp is close to the rind. The seeds separate from the surrounding pulp more readily than in most annona fruits." The posh-te appears to be adapted to moist tropical regions most probably at elevations of less than 4000 feet. Annona testudinea, Safford, the anona del monte of Honduras and Guatemala, is closely related to A. scleroderma. The fruit has soft, juicy pulp similar to that of the cherimoya but not quite so highly flavored. When fully ripe the surface takes on a brownish color. The external appearance of the fruit resembles that of the posh-te, although the ridges are not so pronounced. Both of these species merit horticultural attention. Biribd (Rollinia deliciosa, Safford) . — Jacques Huber 2 de- scribes this as a medium-sized tree common in the orchards of Para, Brazil. Its growth is rapid and it prospers equally well in sun and shade. "Of all the annonaceous fruits cultivated in Para this seems best adapted to our (i.e., the north Brazilian) climate, springing up almost spontaneously wherever seeds fall." The biriba has been referred incorrectly to R. orthopetala, Journal Wash. Acad. Sci., Feb. 19, 1913. 2 Boletim Museu Goeldi, 1904. THE ANNONACEOUS FRUITS 195 A. DC., from which it can be distinguished by the decurved wings of its flowers. The leaves are obovate-oblong or elliptic in form, acuminate, 8 to 11 inches long, and nearly glabrous. The fruit is roundish oblate in shape, 3 to 5 inches in diameter, cream-yellow in color, with the areoles distinctly outlined. The flesh is white or cream-colored, juicy, sweet, and of pleasant flavor. In Para it has been characterized as the finest annona- ceous fruit of tropical America, but Florida-grown fruits do not entitle the species to this distinction : neither do specimens purchased in the markets of Rio de Janeiro, where they are sold under the name fructa da condessa (Countess' fruit). The tree is adapted only to tropical lowlands and to regions in the sub- tropics which are practically free from frost. At Miami, Florida, the mature tree has been killed by a temperature of 26.5° above zero. CHAPTER VI THE DATE Plates IX-X "HONOR your maternal aunt, the palm," said the prophet Muhammad to the Muslims ; " for it was created from the clay left over after the creation of Adam (on whom be peace and the blessings of God!)." And again, "There is among the trees one which is preeminently blessed, as is the Muslim among men ; it is the palm." It is in this reverential aspect that the Semitic world has always regarded the date palm; and with sound reason, for its economic importance to the desert dweller as the source of both food and shelter is even greater than that of the coconut palm to the Polynesian. Only in recent years, however, have oriental methods of date-culture been scientifically examined and tested by horti- culturists. By far the greater part of this work must be credited to investigators in the United States. The first modern importation to this country was of palms rooted in tubs, shipped from Egypt to California in 1890. Better methods of shipping offshoots were gradually worked out, and intro- ductions from all parts of the world have been made in ever- increasing numbers in the last quarter of a century. Meanwhile, continued study has been given to methods of culture, with the result that the problems of the rooting of offshoots and the ripening of the fruit, which were at first serious sources of loss, have been brilliantly solved, and many others adequately dealt with. This work has been done by 196 THE DATE 197 the United States Department of Agriculture, the experiment stations of California and Arizona, and many private growers ; and any history of the progress of scientific date-culture will certainly record the names of such pioneers as Bruce Drum- mond, David Fairchild, R. H. Forbes, George E. Freeman, Bernard Johnston, Fred N. Johnson, Thomas H. Kearney, Silas C. Mason, James H. Northrop, F. O. Popenoe, Paul Popenoe, Walter T. Swingle, and A. E. Vinson. As a result of the work not only of the Americans but of French horticulturists in North Africa and English in Egypt and India, the culture of the date palm is to-day perhaps better understood than that of any other fruit of which this volume treats. There is room, however, for immense improvement in method in practically all of the older date-growing regions, and the introduction of more scientific culture will add greatly to the national wealth in many parts of the Orient. Such an important date-growing country as Egypt does not now produce enough dates for its own consumption; for al- though it is a moderate exporter it is still more of an importer of low-grade dates from the Persian Gulf. The markets of North America and Europe have scarcely been touched. Before the Great War the annual importation into New York was thirty to forty million pounds, — only five or six ounces a head of the country's population. This is a ridiculously low rate of consumption for a fruit possessing the food-value of the date, and which can be produced so cheaply. There would seem to be no reason why it should not become an integral part of the diet of American families, being eaten not as a dessert or luxury only, but as a source of nourishment. So regarded the market is almost unlimited, and considering how few are the areas available for growing first-class dates, over-production seems hardly possible. The date palm characteristically consists of a single stem with a cluster of offshoots at the base and a stiff crown of pinnate 198 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS leaves at the top. It reaches a maximum height of about 100 feet. If the offshoots are allowed to grow, the palm eventually becomes a large clump with a single base. The plant is dioecious in character, i.e., staminate and pis- tillate, or male and female, flowers are produced by separate individuals. The inflorescence is of the same general character in both sexes, — a long stout spathe which bursts and discloses many thickly crowded branchlets. Upon these are the small, waxy-white, pollen-bearing male flowers, or the greenish female blossoms in clusters of three. After pollination, two out of each three of the latter usually drop, leaving only one to proceed to maturity. Chance development of a blossom that has not been pollinated occasionally gives rise to unfounded rumors of the discovery of seedless dates; genuine seedless varieties have, however, been credibly reported. The fruit varies in shape from round to long and slender, and in length from 1 to 3 inches. While immature it is hard and green ; as it ripens it turns yellow, or, in some varieties, red. The flesh of the ripe fruit is soft and sirupy in some varieties, dry and hard in others. In many kinds, including most of those that ripen early, the sugar-content never attains sufficient concentration to prevent fermentation; the fruit of such varieties must, therefore, be eaten while fresh. In cultivation about 90 per cent of the male palms are usually destroyed, since they can bear no fruit. The presence of offshoots around the base is one of the simplest ways to distinguish the date palm, botanically known as Phoenix dactylifera, L., from the wild palm of India (Phoenix syhestris, Roxb.) and the Canary Island palm (P. canariensis, Hort.) ; from the latter, which is often grown in the United States for ornamental purposes, it may also be distinguished by its more slender trunk, and by its leaves being glaucous instead of bright green. Phoenix dactylifera is commonly supposed, following the THE DATE 199 study of O. Beccari,1 to be a native of western India or the Persian Gulf region. Evidently, long before the dawn of history, it was at home in Arabia, where the Semites seem to have accorded it religious honors because of its important place in their food supply, its dioecious character, and the in- toxicating drink which was manufactured from its sap, and which in the cuneiform inscriptions is called "the drink of life." Traditions indicate that when the Semites invaded Babylonia they found in that country their old friend the date palm, particularly at Eridu, the Ur of the Chaldees (Mughayr of modern maps) whence Abram set out on his migration to Palestine. It is even suggested that the Semitic immigrants settled at Eridu, which was then a seaport, on account of the presence of the date palms, one of which was for many centuries a famous oracle-tree. Several competent orientalists see in the date palm of Eridu the origin of the Biblical legend of the Garden of Eden. In very early times the palm had become naturalized in northern India, northern Africa, and southern Spain. From Spain it was brought to America a few centuries ago. In the last quarter of a century, United States governmental and private investigators have visited most of the date-growing regions of the Old World in search of varieties for introduction into this country, where, in California and Arizona, may now be found assembled all the finest ones that cultivation, ancient and modern, has yet produced. Orthodox Muslims consider that the dates of al-Madinah, in Arabia, are the best in the world, partly for the reason that this was the home of the prophet Muhammad, who was himself a connoisseur of the fruit. Unbiased judgment, however, com- monly yields the palm to the district of Hasa, in eastern Arabia, where the delicious variety Khalaseh grows, watered by hot springs. The district of greatest commercial importance is 1 Malesia, ill. 200 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS that centering at Basrah, on the conjoined Tigris and Euphrates rivers, a region which contains not less than 8,000,000 palms and supplies most of the American market. The region around Baghdad, while less important commer- cially, contains a larger number of good varieties than any other locality known. Date cultivation by Arabs is most scientifi- cally carried on in the Samail Valley of Oman (eastern Arabia), where alone the Fardh dates of commerce are produced. Serious attempts to put the date industry of northwestern India on a sound basis are being made, and with good prospects of success. Western Persia and Baluchistan produce some poor dates and incidentally a few good ones. In Egypt there are nearly 10,000,000 palms, of which seven- tenths are widely scattered over Upper Egypt. Most of them are seedlings and practically all are of the "dry" varieties. On the whole, the Egyptian sorts are inferior. The Saharan oases of Tripoli, Tunisia, and Algeria contain many varieties, of which one (Deglet Nur) is as good as any in the world, and is largely exported not only to Europe but to the United States, where it is marketed under the name of " Dattes Muscades du Sahara." Morocco grows good dates in the Tafila- let oases only, whence the huge fruits of one variety (Majhul) are shipped to Spain, England, and other countries. The date palms of southern Spain are seedlings and bear inferior fruit. Elsewhere about the Mediterranean the palm is grown mainly as an ornamental plant. Intelligent culture of the date palm is now being attempted in some of the dry parts of Brazil, where it promises to attain commercial importance. It is doubtful whether the date will succeed commercially in any moist tropical region, although in isolated instances successful ripening of fruit has been reported in southern India, Dominica (British West Indies), Zanzibar, and southern Florida. A large area in northern Mexico, not yet developed, is un- THE DATE 201 doubtedly adapted to this culture ; but experimental attempts with it on the Rio Grande in Texas have been abandoned. Arizona and California offer the best fields for date-growing in the United States, and in the Coachella Valley of California (a part of the Colorado River basin) conditions are particularly favorable. Residents of this valley are not exceeding the truth in asserting it to be the center of scientific date-growing at the present time. Dates consist mainly of sugar, cellulose, and water. An average sample of fruits on the American market will show in percentages : l carbohydrates 70.6 per cent, protein 1 .9 per cent, fat 2.5 per cent, water 13.8 per cent, ash (mineral salts) 1.2 per cent, and refuse (fiber) 10.0 per cent. Cane-sugar is found in dates ; in a few varieties this is partly or wholly inverted by the time the fruit is fully ripe. A diet of dates is obviously rich in carbohydrates but lacking in fats and proteins. It is, therefore, by no accident that the Arabs have come to eat them habitually with some form of milk. This combination makes an almost ideal diet, and some tribes of Arabs subsist on nothing but dates and milk for months at a time. By Arabs, as well as by Europeans, the date is commonly eaten uncooked. Unsalted butter, clotted cream, or sour milk is thought to "bring out the flavor'' and render the sugar less cloying. The commonest way 'of cooking dates is by frying them, chopped, in butter. For native consumption around the Persian Gulf and in India, immature dates are boiled and then fried in oil. Jellies and jams are made from dates, and the fruit is also preserved whole. Again, they may be pounded into a paste with locusts (grasshoppers) and various other foodstuffs. The soft kinds are tightly packed into skins or tins, when they are easily transported and will keep indefinitely. 1 U. S. Dept. Agr., Bull. 28. 202 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS Various beverages are made by pouring milk or water over macerated dates and letting slight fermentation take place. The sap of the plant provides a mild drink resembling coconut milk, which when fermented becomes intoxicating. From cull dates a strongly alcoholic liquor is distilled, which, flavored with licorice or other aromatics, becomes the famous (or rather perhaps, infamous) arrak, of which many subsequent travelers have confirmed the verdict of the sixteenth-century voyager Pedro Teixeira, himself probably no strict water-drinker, who w said of it, "This is the strongest and most dreadful drink that was ever invented, for all of which it finds some notable drinkers." CULTIVATION While the date palm grows luxuriantly in a wide range of warm climates, it is, for commercial cultivation, adapted only to regions marked by high temperature combined with low \/ humidity. Properly speaking, it belongs to the arid subtropical zone. A heavy freeze will kill back the leaves, but the plant may nevertheless be as healthy as ever in a year or two. Thus, date palms have withstood a temperature of only 5° above zero and have borne satisfactory crops in subsequent years. Ellsworth Huntington speaks of seeing the date palm in Persia where twenty inches of snow lay on the ground ; many genera- tions of natural selection in such an environment would doubt- less produce a hardy race, but such a region would scarcely be thought adapted to commercial date-growing. At the other climatic extreme, the date palm apparently finds no limit, being at its best where the summer temperature \l stays about 100° for days and nights together. The combina- tion of warm days with cool nights is unsatisfactory; unless there is a prolonged season during which high temperatures prevail night and day, the best varieties of dates will not ripen successfully. THE DATE 203 Humidity is an important factor with many varieties. Dates coming from the Sahara usually demand a dry climate; yet the Coachella Valley in California has sometimes proved too dry, and the fruit has shriveled on the tree unless irrigation was given while it was ripening. Persian Gulf and Egyptian varieties will endure more humidity, since they come from the seacoast or near it. Dew at night or rain coming late in the season when the dates are softening is almost ruinous to the crop, for which reason dates cannot be produced satisfactorily in some parts of Arizona. In regions of India where the summer rains begin in July, it has been possible to bring dates to maturity before the rains arrive. In general, the best varieties require : (1) a long summer, hot at night as well as in the daytime ; (2) a mild winter, with no more than an occasional frost ; (3) absence of rain in spring when the fruit is setting; and (4) absence of rain or dew in the fall when the fruit is ripening. In regions lacking any of these characteristics, date-growing will be profitable commer- cially only if special care is taken to secure suitable varieties and to develop, by experiment, proper methods of handling them. Date palms grow well in the stiff clays of the Tigris-Euphrates delta, in the adobe soils of Egypt, in the sand of Algeria, and in the sandy loam of Oman and of California. No one type of soil can be asserted to be necessary. Thorough drainage and aeration of the soil are desirable, but even in these regards the palm will stand considerable abuse, and is found to grow fairly well in places where the ground-water level is comparatively near the surface. Naturally, however, the palm responds to good treatment as do other plants. On the whole, it is probably best suited on a well-drained sandy loam. The palm's tolerance of alkali has been noted from very early times, and has led Arab writers to believe that it throve best in alkaline soil. This is unlikely. Dates can indeed be grown 204 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS successfully in ground the surface of which is white with alkaline efflorescence, provided the lower soil reached by the roots is less salty ; but it is probable that the limit of tolerance is some- where about 3 per cent of alkalinity, and the grower who looks for the best results should not plant on soil whose total alkaline- / content exceeds one-half of 1 per cent. Naturally, old date palms will stand more alkali than young ones. It should be noted that the so-called black alkali, consisting of carbonates of sodium and potassium, is more harmful than the more or less neutral chlorids, sulfates, and nitrates of sodium, potassium, and magnesium which go by the name of white alkali. If the irrigating water is free from alkalinity, it will, of course, help to counteract any alkali present in the soil ; whereas the grower who needs to irrigate with brackish water must plant his palms in fairly alkali-free soil. Desert landowners sometimes calculate that soil which is too salty for anything else is good enough for a date plantation. This is short-sighted reasoning. Date-growing is, when rightly conducted, so profitable that it is worth giving the best conditions available, and the wise grower will plant his palms in his best soil. The ground should be tested to a depth of six or eight feet to deter- mine its alkali-content, particularly if there is salt evident on the surface. Unless at least one stratum of alkali-free soil is found not far from the surface, the ground should not be used for date palms. It is the custom in the United States to plant date palms 50 to the acre. The grower with plenty of land may find that 40 to the acre (33 feet apart each way) is more convenient, Arabs plant them much closer but do not cultivate their plantations frequently. The question of spacing is affected both by the nature of the soil and by the variety planted; according to Bruce Drummond, such kinds as Saidi and Thuri give the best results if spaced 35 or 38 feet apart. Drummond gives the following advice about planting : THE DATE 205 "The rooted offshoot when ready for transplanting should be pruned from three to five days before removing from the frame. The new growth should be cut back to one-half the original height, leaving from three to five leaf stubs to support the expanded crown of leaves. The holes in the field should be 3 ft. in diameter and 3 ft. deep, with from 12 to 16 in. of stable manure placed in the bottom of each, with 6 in. of soil on top, then irrigate thoroughly. The rooted palm when removed from the nursery should carry a ball of earth large enough to protect the small fibrous roots from exposure to the sun or dry winds. The average depth for planting should be 16 in., but this may be varied somewhat with the size of the shoot. In any case, the depth should be as great as can be without danger of covering the bud. "It is not advisable to transplant rooted offshoots later than June. April and May are considered the best months of the entire year for the transplanting of either young or old date palms. "In southern California, where the dry winds occur from March to June, the transplanted palms should be irrigated thoroughly every week ; in sandy soil two irrigations a week should be given until new strong growth is established." Arabs usually follow the basin method of irrigation, and it has been satisfactory in many other parts of the world. The most skillful American growers who irrigate in basins make them 15 feet square and a foot deep, filling them with a loose mulch of straw or stable manure. Most American growers, however, prefer to irrigate in furrows, and use no mulch. The function of the mulch in reducing evaporation is covered by giving a thorough cultivation with a surface cultivator or spring-toothed harrow as soon as the ground has dried out enough to be workable. This involves cultivation of the ground every week or two. Adequate fertilization of the soil is absolutely necessary in order to make date palms produce fruit as heavily as commercial growers desire and at the same time yield well in offshoots. Nitrogen-gathering cover-crops are much in favor, sesbania or alfalfa being preferred in California. The long roots of the latter are useful to break up any hardpan or layer of hard silt which may be present. Many growers plant garden-truck 206 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS between the rows of palms, especially while the latter are young and making no financial return. The soil in which date palms are usually grown is of a kind that benefits by the incorporation of rough material, and stable manure is, therefore, the fertilizer of first choice. Wheat-straw or similar loose stuff is frequently added with advantage. An annual application of fertilizer is required in most localities, and if the soil is sandy the grower must be more liberal. For palms producing offshoots, half a cubic yard a year is advised ; for older palms a full yard is desirable : both in addition to such cover-crop as the grower may select. In regard to irrigation, it is to be borne in mind that the soil must be kept moist during the entire year, and that the roots of the palm go deep. The character of the soil must be carefully and experimentally studied before the grower can be certain that he has arrived at the correct method for irrigation. The amount of water that the palm can stand in well-drained land is strikingly illustrated in the great plantings around Basrah, where fresh water is backed into the gardens by tidal flow, so that there are two automatic irrigations each day throughout the year. In the Coachella Valley, with furrow irrigation, a twenty- four-hour flow each twelve days from April to November has generally been satisfactory, although in many soils weekly irrigation is required. During the winter the rainfall usually suffices. Each application of fertilizer must be followed promptly by several irrigations. Pruning is not so important with date palms as with many fruit-trees. Dead leaves should be removed from young palms,, and if the top growth is heavy the two lower rows of leaves may be removed when the palm is four years old. Regular pruning should begin about the sixth year, after which one row of leaves is usually removed at each midwinter. Drummond advises that "the leaves should not be pruned higher than the fruit THE DATE 207 stems of the former crop, which will leave about four rows of leaves below the new fruit stems, or approximately 30 to 36 expanded leaves." PROPAGATION The date palm can be propagated in only two ways : by seed, and by the offshoots or suckers which spring up around the base or sometimes on the stem of the palm until it attains an age of ten to twenty years. Seedlings are easily grown, but offer little promise to the commercial grower. Half of the plants will be males, and among the females there will be such a wide variation that no uniformity of pack or quality can be secured. In regions with a large proportion of seedling palms, such as Spain and parts of Egypt, there is practically no commercial date-culture. Most growers in California plant a few seedlings for windbreak or ornamental purposes. These yield a supply of males, but males can be secured better by growing offshoots from male palms of known value. The multiplication of the date palm, therefore, is reduced in practice to the propagation of offshoots, and skill or lack thereof in this regard will determine largely the grower's success or failure at the outset. In California at the present time the yield of offshoots is almost as valuable as that of fruit, and growers, therefore, desire to secure as many offshoots of their best varieties as possible. For this purpose ample fertilization and irrigation must be supplied. After the fourth or fifth year of a palm's life, the owner can usually take at least two offshoots a year from it for a period of ten years. The best size for offshoots at removal is when they weigh from ten to fifteen pounds (say 5 to 6 inches, is greatest diameter). The best season for the purpose is during February, March, or April. 208 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS Four or five days before the offshoots are to be removed from the mother-palm, their inner leaves should be cut back one-half and the outer leaves two-thirds of their length. It will be well worth while to have a special chisel made for re- moving offshoots. It should have a cutting bit of the best tool steel, 5 inches wide by 7 inches long, one side flat, the reverse beveled for 2 inches on the sides as well as on the cutting edge. The chisel should have a handle of soft iron 3 feet long and 1^ inches in diameter, such as can be hammered with a sledge- hammer. The delicate operation of cutting is described by Bruce Drummond, who is the best American authority on the culture of the palm, as follows : "To cut the offshoots from the tree the flat side of the chisel should always be facing the offshoot to be cut. Set the chisel well to the side of the base of the offshoot close to the main trunk. Drive it in with a sledge until below the point of union with the parent trunk ; then by manipulating the handle the chisel is easily loosened and cuts its way out. Next reverse and cut from the opposite side of the shoot until the two cuts come together. This operation will in most cases sever the offshoot from the trunk. No attempt to pry the offshoot from the tree should be made, as the tissues are so brittle that the terminal bud may be ruined by checking or cracking. In cutting offshoots directly at the base of the palm the soil should be dug away until the base of the offshoot is located and enough exposed to show the point of union with the mother plant. Then the chisel can be set without danger of cutting the roots of the parent tree so much as to injure or retard its growth. The connection of the offshoot on such varieties as Deglet Nur is very small, and there is no necessity of cutting deeply into the trunk to sever the offshoot from the tree." Once separated from its parent, the moist offshoot requires a period of seasoning before it is dry enough to be planted without danger of fermentation. Offshoots from the base of a palm are usually softer and sappier than those growing some distance above ground. The evaporation should amount to 12 or 15 per cent of the total weight, which will require at least ten to fifteen days to effect. Offshoots are usually left where cut, on the ground beneath the palm, to season. THE DATE 209 The Arabs plant offshoots at once in their permanent loca- tions in the orchard, but the best results will be obtained by first rooting the young plants in a shed or frame where the two necessary conditions of high temperature and high humidity can be maintained. In California this is often done cooperatively. A common type of shed for an individual grower is 12 by 20 feet in size with side walls 6 and 7 feet high respectively, present- ing a roof-slope to the sun. The sides are usually of boards covered with tarred paper and the roof of 8- or 10-ounce canvas. In such a shed on an ordinary California summer day, the temperature will be about 115° and the humidity should be about 75. The soil inside the shed should be a light sandy loam, well drained. Ten inches of the top soil should be removed and replaced with fresh stable manure, well packed, on which 2 inches of soil should be replaced. After a thorough flooding, the bed should be allowed to steam for a week, and then be flooded again, whereupon it is ready for the offshoots. These should be planted about 8 inches deep ; in any case the bud must be above danger of flooding. During the summer the bed must be flooded at least twice a week, to keep the humidity at as high a point as possible. The offshoots must be kept in it until they are thoroughly rooted and have half a dozen new leaves. This may require one year or may need several years. The causes that may lead to failure with offshoots are sum- marized by Drummond as : " (1) improper selection of the location for the nursery bed ; (2) failure to construct the frame so nearly air-tight as to insure the necessary humidity and high temperature; (3) improper methods of cutting and pruning, and the neglect of seasoning before planting in the nursery-bed ; and (4) the neglect of irrigation when necessary and failure to apply water properly. The points above mentioned are all essential to success, and to neglect one and observe the others may lead to as great a failure as to neglect them all." On the 210 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS other hand, by using the proper care growers frequently succeed in making 90 to 95 per cent of their offshoots take root. After they are removed to the open field, the young palms should be protected by wrapping during the following winter from the possibility of freezing, as they are tender at first. Newspaper is- as good as anything for the purpose; canvas, burlap, and palm-leaves are also used. •V For security, the orchardist should allow one or two male date palms for each acre of fruit- bearing trees. Care should be taken to secure males that flower early in the season and yield abundant fertile pollen; sterility is common. The female palm ordinarily blossoms between February and June (in California usually dur- ing March and April). Flowers appearing later than May 1 are not worth pollinating, so far as commercial production is con- cerned. Artificial pollination has been practiced since the dawn of history, and offers no difficulties. The flowers of the two sexes can be distinguished readily (Fig. 28). The branchlets of the male inflorescence are only about 6 inches long, and are densely clustered at the end of the axis, while those of the female are several times as long and less densely clustered. The male blossoms are waxy white in color, the female more yellowish ; while also the latter are much the less closely crowded together on the branchlets. FIG. 28. On the left, a sprig of staminate or pollen-bearing flowers of the date palm ; on the right, pis- tillate flowers which will, if properly pollinated, develop into fruits. THE DATE 211 The presence of pollen in the male flower is in most cases easily to be detected by shaking a cluster of the blossoms. As soon as the spathe containing the pollen-bearing flowers opens, it should be cut and put into a large paper bag to dry, the bag being stored, open, in a dry room. Thoroughly dry pollen will retain its vitality for many years, and a small quantity should be kept in a bottle from year to year, as a precaution. In case of need it can be used with a wad of cotton. The pistillate flowers should be pollinated as soon as the spathes crack open, the plantation being inspected every day or two with this in view. The operation is preferably carried out about midday. The split female spathe is held open, and a sprig from the male flower gently shaken over it and then tied, open flowers downward, at the top of the female cluster. A single pollination with one sprig is enough for each cluster unless rain follows within twenty-four hours, in which case the operation should be repeated. The grower should keep the situation well in hand. The grower must not let his young palms bear too many dates, particularly if he wants them to produce offshoots at the same time. Part of the female spadices (flower-stalks) should, therefore, be cut off. In most cases a palm may be allowed to bear its first two bunches of fruit in its fourth year, and three or four bunches in each of the next two years. If even a full- grown palm is allowed to bear to its limit in any year, it is likely to bear less the following season. In case the grower should find himself absolutely without date pollen at a time when his pistillate trees are flowering, he may have recourse to the pollen of some other Phoenix, or even of a different genus of palms, Chamserops, Washingtonia, or whatever it may be. This will often enable him to save part, if not all, of the crop. 212 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS YIELD AND SEASON Most varieties of date palm, if properly cared for, will begin to bear in the fourth year, and should yield a considerable return in the fifth and succeeding years. Under Arab treat- ment they usually take longer. References in the Code of Hammurabi (about 2000 B.C.) indicate that the Babylonians at that time could secure a paying crop in the fourth year ; if so, they were better cultivators than their modern descendants. Beginning with two small bunches, the grower may allow his palms to bear an increasing amount each year until maximum is reached. After the fifth, sixth, or seventh year, 100 pounds or thereabouts to a tree can be maintained steadily without difficulty by most varieties, and one or two offshoots a year will still be produced, given proper fertilization and irrigation. In many cases even larger yields can be obtained. If, however, the growing palm is not given proper culture, for instance is allowed to carry a full load of offshoots, and, simultaneously, to bear all the fruit that it can, it tends to become an intermittent bearer, bringing in a large crop one year and little or nothing the next. This should be avoided by eliminating the conditions named. The season of ripening is from May to December, depending on variety and location. Fresh dates as early as May can be secured in favored locations in Arabia, where certain early kinds are grown. They have not yet been produced so early in the United States, where the first dates do not ripen until July. In many regions very late varieties will carry fruit into mid- winter. In California and at Basrah the height of the season is September; in Egypt, August; in western Arabia, July; in Algeria, September or early October. As a general rule, the dates of best quality are late in ripening and the early dates are soft varieties which must be consumed fresh as they lack the necessary amount of sugar to keep without fermenting. THE DATE 213 American growers will find an advantage in fairly early varieties (other considerations agreeing), as the crop can thus be disposed of without competition, say before November 1, at about which time dates from Persian Gulf or North African sources can be put on the market, possibly at lower prices. PICKING AND PACKING The picking process offers no particular problems, although the methods are not the same with all varieties. Usually two persons can pick together conveniently, one holding the basket and the other gathering the dates and placing them in it. Under favorable conditions, some varieties will mature a whole bunch so evenly that it can be removed entire without loss, but in many cases it is necessary to pick out the different "threads" carrying dates, and cut them separately, leaving those whose fruit is not yet mature for another day. It is advisable, with kinds that permit of it, to leave the calyx on the fruit, since if this is pulled off it opens an avenue for the entrance of insects and dirt. Bunches left to ripen on the tree frequently need to be protected by a bag of cheese-cloth or similar material, to keep off birds and insects. Dates grown for home use need no treatment after picking unless it be a washing to remove the dust. If they are to be kept for some time, they may well be pasteurized to free them of insect eggs and the bacteria of fermentation and decay. Small quantities of fruit can be treated successfully in the oven of a cookstove, pains being taken by regulating; the aperture of the door, to keep the temperature between 180° and 190° for three hours. This may slightly alter the taste ; sterilization by exposure overnight to the fumes of carbon bisulfide is easy and causes no change of flavor. There are many advantages in ripening dates artificially rather than leaving them to mature on the tree; hence some 214 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS method of artificial ripening has been practiced in most date- growing countries since the time of the earliest written records. Much careful experimentation has been done in this country, first by the Arizona Experiment Station and later by the United States Department of Agriculture. As a result, such simple, satisfactory, and inexpensive methods of maturing dates have been worked out that the commercial grower will do well to rely on them. The exact process differs with the variety and with the conditions under which the dates have to ripen ; for the precise technique advisable in his case the grower must either refer to those who have had the experience he needs, or experiment on a few dates for himself, after he has grasped the general principles. As W. T. Swingle points out, a date is botanically mature, or "tree ripe" as horticulturists say, as soon as it reaches full size and the seed is fully developed. At this stage, however, the date is still astringent and not eatable. Following this comes a process that may be called "ripening for eating," consisting of complex chemical transformations by which the sugars are altered and the tannin deposited in insoluble form in " giant cells." This final ripening is brought about by the combination of heat and a certain degree of humidity. The principle underlying modern methods of artificial ripening is, therefore, to expose the dates to a constant high temperature, while holding them in the humid atmosphere which is created by the moisture they naturally give off as they dry and wrinkle. For this purpose the dates are picked when they first begin to soften. Most varieties at this stage show translucent spots while the remainder of the berry is still hard and remains bright red or yellow in color. Dates taken from the tree in this condi- tion will ripen successfully in three or four days if they are packed loosely, stems and all, into a tightly closed box and left at ordinary room temperature, the room being closed at night to keep out cold air. Commercial growers provide a special THE DATE 215 house, or a room built in the packing-shed for this purpose. This is so constructed as to be air-tight when closed, so that the temperature can be maintained at an even figure, without varia- tion of more than a degree or two, by means of an electric light or a lamp with thermostat attachment such as is used in the incubators of poultry men. Under such conditions, dates will be brought to a beautiful even maturity and practically without loss by keeping them from twenty-four to seventy-two hours at a temperature of 110° to 120°. The skillful grower will control further the ripening of his dates by irrigation. In some climates, like that of Upper Egypt and of the Coachella Valley in some seasons, a typically "soft" date like Deglet Nur will mummify on the palm, as it matures, until it becomes a "dry" date. This can be avoided by keeping the palms well irrigated while the dates are ripen- ing. On the other hand, "soft" varieties sometimes "go to pieces" and ferment on the tree, because of too much moisture ; in this case the soil must be kept dry during the ripening season. The packing of dates is a matter for the grower's own taste, or for standardization by the cooperative association to which he may belong. Good dates of standard varieties are usually packed in layers in one-pound cardboard boxes, like sweet- meats. In California, where home-grown dates bring fancy prices, great pains are taken with this finest quality of fruit, which is easily retailed at $1 a pound. Most dates worth marketing in the United States are worth packing in cartons. In Arizona, berry-boxes have been used. The American standard for bulk shipment is the lug-box of 30 to 40 pounds' capacity. It is important, in any case, that the pack be uniform, both in size and variety ; otherwise the grower can expect to receive only "cull" prices. Many varieties, such as Zahidi, ripen well in the bunch and adhere indefinitely. It is probable that a profitable trade can be developed in marketing entire bunches of these, which the 216 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS retail dealer can display in his store as he does a bunch of bananas. Dates of inferior quality can be worked up into various by-products, such as "date butter," or sweetmeats, or may be sold to bakers and confectioners. Culls are used in the Orient for the distillation of arrak, or as feed for live-stock. Soft early dates, which in many cases are of a beautiful color as well as delicious flavor but which lack keeping quality, prob- ably could be sold in crates as are berries and be similarly handled as perishable fruits. Marketing should be carried on through a growers' cooperative association, which can guard the interests of all by insisting on proper standards. For a bearing plantation with fifty palms to the acre, 100 pounds of fruit to a tree each year is a conservative estimate of the yield. This means 5000 pounds of fruit an acre each year, the retail value ranging from 2 cents a pound in the Orient to $1 a pound in the United States. Growers in the Coachella Valley have been able for some years to sell practically all the good dates they produce at 25 cents to 75 cents a pound at the \j plantation. Such a price is not likely to be maintained, since dates of many varieties can be grown, picked, and packed at a total cost of not more than 5 cents a pound ; but there are no present indications of an early decrease in price. If it should fall to an average of 20 cents a pound, this would still allow the satisfactory gross income of $1000 an acre from fruit alone, while the offshoots of good varieties at present prices ($5 to $15 each) are a valuable factor and may be worth almost as much to the orchardist as the fruit. Offshoots, in fact, should more than pay the whole cost of running a young plantation, leaving the entire proceeds from the fruit as clear profit. PESTS AND DISEASES There are two scale insects, found wherever dates grow, that are troublesome to the orchardist. The Parlatoria scale THE DATE 217 (Parlatoria blanchardii Targ. Tozz.) remains dormant during the winter but is active in summer, sucking the plant juices from the leaves at the time when growth is most vigorous. The following description of the insect is condensed from T. D. A. Cockerell : To the naked eye the scales appear as small dark gray or black specks, edged with white. If the scale is lifted by means of a pin or the point of a knife, the soft, plump and juicy female, of a rose-pink color, is found under- neath. The male scales, which are rarely seen, are much smaller and narrower than those of the female. About the middle of March the female lays eggs; the larvae hatch a fortnight later, crawl about restlessly for a time, and then settle down for the remainder of their lives. The treatment is by dipping the offshoots in a solution of 1 gallon of Cresolin, 4 gallons of distillate, and 95 gallons of water. Mature palms may be sprayed with the same mixture. By these methods this scale is eventually eliminated. The more dangerous Marlatt scale (Phoenicococcus marlatti Ckll.) is wine-colored, and secretes a white waxy substance. It usually lives at the base of the leaves, "inside" the palm, where it is almost inaccessible, coming out at intervals to molt. It can be destroyed by dipping the offshoots and following this by periodic spraying. Date palms in moist regions are often attacked by parasitic fungi, which, however, yield to bordeaux mixture or other standard fungicides. In some regions the palm is attacked by a borer (Rhynco- phorus) which, if not destroyed, is fatal to the tree. The only successful treatment seems to be to watch for the intruder and kill it before it has penetrated too far. Locusts, grasshoppers, rats, gophers, ants, bees, wasps, birds, and the like give trouble in various localities. The treatment resorted to against these pests in connection with other cultures will also serve for the date palm orchard. 218 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS Stored dates are likely to become infested with such common enemies of stored foods as the fig-moth (Epliestia cautella Walker) and the Indian meal-moth (Plodia interpunctella Hiibner) . The best protection against these is a packing-house that is reasonably insect-proof and is fumigated at the beginning of each season. The modern methods of preparing dates for the market usually include some system of disinfection which kills insect eggs. It is reported that in Egypt dates for export are dipped in dilute alcohol, or in alcohol and glycerine. " Dry " dates can be scalded ; "soft" dates are, in America, frequently pasteurized by dry heat or by fumigation. VARIETIES AND CLASSIFICATION Several thousand varieties of dates have been recognized, but those which have any commercial importance are limited to a few score, while those that are of real merit number only a few dozen, since many kinds owe their reputation not to excellence of flavor but, as do the Elberta peach and the Ben Davis apple, to good shipping and keeping qualities. Varieties are usually classified as "soft" (or "wet") and "dry." Orientals classify them by color (yellow or red, before they are cured); by keeping quality; and as "hot" and "cold," according to whether a long-continued diet of them "burns" the stomach or not. The classification of "soft" and "dry" (which sometimes has been complicated and confused by the insertion of an inter- mediate class of "semi-dry") is commercially convenient, but not absolute; for practically any soft date may become a dry date under certain atmospheric conditions, and most dry dates can be made soft by proper management and arti- ficial maturation. The dry dates predominate in most parts of North Africa, including Egypt, being preferred by the nomads because they THE DATE 219 are easily packed and not likely to spoil. On the other hand, practically all of the dates which the world recognizes as valuable are soft varieties. In the following list, which in- cludes the most important kinds from throughout the world, there is only one unmistakably dry date (Thuri), which, though recognized as good in its Algerian home, is given a place in this list mainly because it has succeeded particularly well in Cali- fornia. There are three others (Asharasi, Kasbeh, and Zahidi) that would probably be considered dry, but cannot be un- equivocably placed in that class. Asharasi and Kasbeh are much softer than the typical dry date, while Zahidi at one stage of its maturity is typically soft, and is widely sold in that condi- tion, although if left long enough on the palm it becomes actually a dry date. All the other varieties in the list are typically soft, but most, if not all, of them will be converted into dry dates if left to ripen on the trees in a sufficiently hot and dry climate. The American and European markets are accustomed only to soft dates, and as most of the good varieties are soft, growers will naturally give attention to soft kinds by preference. A market for dry dates, in America at least, will have to be created before any large quantity can be sold. Nevertheless, Americans who have eaten good dry dates usually like them, and fre- quently consider them preferable to those soft dates, such as Malawi and Khadhrawi, which (often under the trade name of Golden Dates) have until recently been almost the only varieties on the American market. Amri. — Form oblong, broadest slightly above the center and bluntly pointed at the apex; size very large, length 2 to 2£ inches, breadth 1 to \\ inches; surface deep reddish brown in color, coarsely wrinkled; skin thick, not adhering to the flesh throughout; flesh about \ inch thick, coarse, fibrous, somewhat sticky, and with much rag close to the seed ; flavor sweet, but not delicate ; seed oblong, 1 \ to 1| inches long, rough, with the ventral channel broad and shallow, and the germ-pore nearer base than apex. Season late. More extensively exported from Egypt than any other variety. It is not, however, a first-class date. It is large and attractive in appear- 220 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS ance, but inferior in flavor. The keeping and shipping qualities are unusually good. Named probably from Amr, a common personal name. Asharasi. — Form ovate to oblong-ovate, broadest near the base and pointed at the apex ; size medium, length 1| to If inches, breadth | to lj inches; surface hard, rough, straw-colored around the base, translucent brownish amber toward the apex ; skin dry, thin, coarsely wrinkled ; flesh \ inch thick, at basal end of fruit hard, opaque, creamy white in color, toward tip becoming translucent amber, firm; flavor rich, sweet, and nutty; seed oblong-elliptic, pointed at apex, f to f inch long, smooth, the ventral channel almost closed, and the germ-pore nearer base than apex. Ripens midseason. Syn. Ascherasi. The best dry date of Mesopotamia, if not of the world. It can be used as a soft date ; having always some trans- lucent flesh at the apical end of the fruit, it has by some writers been classed as semi-dry. Grown principally in the vicinity of Baghdad; now also in the United States, where it succeeds well. The name means Tall-growing. Deglet Nur. — Form slender oblong to oblong-elliptic, widest near the center and rounded at the apex; size large, length 1£ to If inches, breadth f to | inch ; surface smooth or slightly wrinkled, maroon in color ; skin thin, often separating from the flesh in loose folds ; flesh J inch thick, deep golden-brown in color, soft and melting, conspicuously translucent; flavor delicate, mild, very sweet; seed oblong-elliptic, pointed at both ends, about 1 inch long, with the ventral channel shallow and partly closed, the germ-pore at center. Season late. Syns. Deglet Noor, Deglet en-Nour. This variety is considered the finest grown in Algeria and Tunisia, where its commercial cultivation is extensive, and it is highly esteemed in California, where it holds at present first rank among dates planted commercially. Its defects are a tendency to ferment if kept for several months, and the immense amount of heat required to mature it properly. The name is properly transliterated Daqlet al-Nur, meaning Date of the Light, an allusion to its translucency. Fardh. — Form oblong, widest near the middle and rounded at the apex; size small to medium, length about 1£ inches, breadth about f inch ; surface shining, deep dark brown in color, almost smooth ; skin rather thin, tender ; flesh | to J inch thick, firm, russet brown ; flavor sweet with a rather strong after-taste; seed small, length f inch. Ripens midseason. Syn. Fard. This is the great commercial date of Oman, in eastern Arabia. It has recently been planted in California ; American markets are thoroughly familiar with the fruit through the large importations which are annually made from Oman. While inferior in quality to many other varieties, Fardh holds its shape well when packed and keeps well. For these reasons it is a valuable commercial variety. THE DATE 221 According to modern Omani etymologists, the name means The Separated, because of the way the dates are arranged in the bunch ; but the ancients, who are entitled to more credit, spell it in a way that means The Apportioned. Ghars. — Form oblong to obovate, narrowest near the rounded apex; size large to very large, length H to 2 inches, breadth about 1 inch ; surface somewhat shining, bay colored ; skin soft and tender ; flesh | inch thick, soft, sirupy, slightly translucent; flavor sweet and rich ; seed oblong, f to 1 inch long, with the ventral channel deep and sometimes closed near the middle, and the germ-pore at center. Season early. Syns. Rhars, R'ars. One of the commonest soft dates in North Africa, esteemed for its earliness in ripening, its productiveness, and the ability of the plant to resist large amounts of alkali and much neglect. In California it has proved to be a strong grower, but the fruit is not so good as that of several other varieties, and also ferments easily. The name means Vigorous Grower. Halawi. — Form slender-oblong to oblong-ovate, broadly pointed or blunt at the apex ; size large, length 1£ to If inches, breadth about | inch; surface slightly rough, translucent bright golden-brown in color ; skin thin but rather tough ; flesh \ to T\ inch thick, firm, golden- amber in color, tender ; flavor sweet and honey-like, but not rich ; seed slender oblong, | inch long, with the ventral channel broadly open. Ripens midseason. This is the great commercial date of Mesopotamia, and probably the most important variety in the world, as regards quantity sold. It is grown chiefly around Basrah, at the head of the Persian Gulf. It has good keeping and shipping qualities, but is not esteemed by the Arabs for eating; in American markets, however, it is preferred to several other varieties because of its attractive color. Both in California and in Arizona Halawi has succeeded remarkably well. The name means The Sweet. Hayani. — Form oblong-elliptic, broadest slightly below the center and rounded at the apex ; size very large, length 2 to 2\ inches, breadth 1 to 1J inches; surface dark brown in color, smooth; skin thick, separating readily from the flesh ; flesh about \ inch thick, light brown in color, soft ; flavor sweet, lacking richness ; seed oblong, sometimes narrowed toward the apex, \\ to If inches long, with the ventral channel broad and deep, and the germ-pore usually f inch from the base. Ripens midseason. Syns. Hayany, Birket al Hajji, Birket el Haggi, Birket el Hadji, and Birkawi. One of the most satisfactory Egyptian dates in California and Arizona. It is precocious and prolific, and has proved to be more frost-resistant than many other varieties. The plant is unusually orna- mental in appearance. The variety is named after the village of Hayan. 222 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS Kasbeh. — Form oblong-ovate, widest near the base and broadly pointed at the apex; size large, about If inches long, f inch broad; surface golden-brown to chestnut in color ; skin thin but fairly tough ; flesh y3^ inch thick, firm, but never hard, tender ; flavor sweet, slightly heavy but not cloying ; seed oblong-elliptic, almost an inch long, the ventral channel open and deep, the germ-pore nearer base than apex. Season late. Syns. Kesba, Kessebi, El Kseba. A variety of ancient origin, exten- sively cultivated in Algeria and Tunisia. Before Deglet Nur came into the field it was considered the finest date in North Africa. It is valued in California, where it has been found to have excellent keeping and shipping qualities as well as good flavor. The name means The Profit- able. Khadhrawi. — Form oblong to oblong-elliptic, widest near the center and broadly pointed at the apex ; size medium to large, length 1£ to If inches, breadth f to | inch ; surface translucent orange-brown in color, overspread with a thin blue-gray bloom; skin firm, rather tough; flesh, •& to \ inch thick, firm, translucent, amber-brown in color; flavor rich, never cloying; seed oblong-obovate to oblong- elliptic, | inch long, the ventral channel narrow or almost closed. Ripens midseason. Syns. Khadrawi, Khudrawee. One of the most important commer- cial varieties of Mesopotamia, ranking second only to Halawi. It is a better date than the latter, but not so highly esteemed on the American market because of its slightly darker color. In California it has been grown with great success. The name means The Verdant. Khalaseh. — Form oblong to oblong-ovate, broadest near the center and rounded to broadly pointed at the apex; size medium, length If to If inches, breadth f to | inch; surface smooth, orange-brown to reddish amber in color, with a satiny sheen ; skin firm, but tender ; flesh I inch thick, firm, tender, reddish amber in color, free from fiber ; flavor delicate, with the characteristic date taste in a desirable degree ; seed oblong-elliptic, pointed at both ends, f to | inch long, the ventral channel almost closed. Ripens midseason. Syns. Khalasa, Khalasi, Khalas. The most famous date of the Persian Gulf region, and unquestionably one of the finest in the world. It is grown principally at Hofhuf in the district of Hasa ; a few palms have been planted in the United States, and have produced fruit of superior quality. Khalaseh likes a dry situation and sandy soil. It is not a heavy bearer, but is precocious. The name means Quintessence. Khustawi. — Form oblong-oval, broadest near center and rounded at apex; size small to medium, length 1 to 1| inches, breadth f to $ inch; surface smooth, glossy, translucent orange-brown in color; skin thin and delicate ; flesh I inch thick, soft and delicate in texture, translucent golden-brown in color ; flavor unusually rich yet not cloy- THE DATE 223 ing, with the characteristic date taste in a desirable degree ; seed oblong-obovate, f inch long, pointed at both ends, with the ventral channel open. Ripens midseason. Syns. Khastawi, Kustawi, originally Khastawani (Persian). A delicious dessert date from Baghdad. It has proved well adapted to conditions in the date-growing regions of America. It is not a heavy bearer, but the fruit possesses good keeping qualities. The name means ' The Date of the Grandees. Majhul. — Form broadly oblong to oblong-ovate, broadest at center to slightly nearer base and broadly pointed at apex ; size very large, length 2 inches, breadth 1^ inches; surface wrinkled, deep reddish brown in color ; skin thin and tender ; flesh f inch thick, firm, meaty, brownish amber in color, translucent, with no fiber around seed ; flavor rich and delicious ; seed elliptic, 1| inches long, with the germ- pore nearest the base and the ventral channel almost closed. Season late. Syns. Medjool, Medjeheul. A variety of large size and good keeping qualities, from the Tafilalet oases in the Moroccan Sahara, whence the fruit is exported to Europe. Probably suited only to the hottest and driest regions in the United States. The name means Unknown. Maktum. — Form broadly oblong to oblong-obovate, usually broad- est near center and rounded at the apex ; size medium, length 1£ to 1£ inches, breadth f to 1 inch; surface somewhat glossy, translucent golden-brown in color ; skin firm, wrinkled, rather thin ; flesh f to f inch thick, soft, almost melting, light golden-brown in color ; flavor mild, sweet, similar to that of Deglet Nur. Season late. Syn. Maktoom, originally Makdum. A rare variety from Mesopo- tamia which has proved admirably adapted to conditions in California, although not resistant to frost. It is large and of fine quality. The palm is a vigorous grower. The name means The Bitten. Manakhir. — Form oblong, rounded at the apex ; size very large, length 2 to 2£ inches, breadth slightly more than 1 inch ; surface smooth, brownish maroon in color, with a purplish bloom ; skin thin and tender ; flesh 1 inch thick, soft and melting, with fiber around the seed ; flavor delicate, resembling that of Deglet Nur ; seed oblong, 1 inch long, with the germ-pore nearer the base and the ventral channel frequently closed. Season late. Syns. Menakher, Monakhir. A rare and large-fruited variety from Tunis, of which only a few palms exist in the United States. In this country it is not a date of the best quality. The name means The Nose Date. Saidi. — Form oblong-ovate, broadest near the base and blunt at the apex; size large, length 1| inches, breadth about 1 inch; sur- face almost smooth, brownish maroon in color, overspread with a bluish bloom; skin thin, tender; flesh & inch thick, red-brown in 224 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS color, firm ; flavor very sweet, almost cloying ; seed oblong-elliptic, | inch long, the germ- pore slightly nearer the base and the ventral channel almost closed. Ripens in midseason. Syns. Saidy, Wahi. One of the most important varieties of Upper Egypt. It is not considered so good in quality as some of the Algerian and Mesopotamian varieties, but it is a heavy bearer, though it requires a hot climate to ripen perfectly. The name indicates that it comes from Said or Upper Egypt. Tabirzal. — Form broadly oblong-obovate, broadest below center and broadly pointed at the apex ; size medium, length If to 1 1 inches, breadth f to 1| inches; surface translucent deep orange-brown in color, with a blue-gray bloom ; skin thin and tender, coarsely wrinkled ; flesh £ inch thick, soft and tender, translucent orange-brown in color ; flavor distinctive, mild and pleasant, sweet but not cloying; seed broadly oblong, f to f inch long, with the ventral channel narrow. Season late. One of the best dates grown at Baghdad. In the United States it is little known as yet. Originally Tabirzad (Persian) meaning Sugar Candy. Thuri. — Form oblong, broadest near center and bluntly pointed at apex; size large, length If inches, breadth f inch; surface reddish chestnut color, overspread with a bluish bloom ; skin thin ; flesh T35 inch thick, firm and nearly dry but not hard or brittle, golden-brown in color ; flavor sweet, nutty and delicate ; seed oblong, 1 inch long, the ventral channel deep and partly closed, the germ-pore nearer the base. A midseason date. Syns. Thoory, Tsuri. One of the best Algerian dry dates. It is large, not too hard, and of excellent flavor; the palm bears heavily and the clusters are of exceptional size. In California it has proved very satisfactory. The name means The Bull's Date. Zahidi. — Form oblong-obovate, broadest near the rounded apex ; size medium, length 1£ inches, breadth | inch ; surface smooth, glossy, translucent golden-yellow in color, sometimes golden-brown ; skin rather thick and tough ; flesh \ inch thick, translucent golden-yellow close to the skin, whitish near the seed, soft, meaty, and full of sirup ; flavor sweet, sugary, and not at all cloying ; seed oblong, £ inch long, the ventral channel open. Season early. Syns. Zehedi, Zadie, originally Azadi (Persian). A remarkable date, the principal commercial variety of Baghdad. It can be used as a soft date (as described above) or as a dry date, depending on the length of time it is allowed to remain on the palm. The tree is vigorous, hardy, resistant to drought, and prolific in fruiting. The name means Nobility. CHAPTER VII THE PAPAYA AND ITS RELATIVES THE papaya (sometimes called papaw) and the passion- flowers are closely related, and the fruit-bearing kinds are treated together in this chapter. Some botanists place them all in one family even though the papaya is an erect plant and the passion-flowers are tendril-bearing vines ; but recent botan- ists separate them into the Caricacere (or Papayaceae) and Passifloracea?. In botanical structure, the fruits are very sim- ilar, and they are related not distantly to the Cucurbitacea3 (pumpkins and melons). THE PAPAYA (Plate XI) (Carica Papaya, L.) "There is also a fruite," wrote the Dutch traveler Linschoten in 1598, "that came out of the Spanish Indies, brought from beyond ye Philipinas or Lusons to Malacca, and fro thence to India, it is called Papaios, and is very like a Mellon. . . and will not grow, but alwaies two together, that is male and female . . . and when they are diuided and set apart one from the other, then they yield no fruite at all." The facility with which the papaya is propagated by means of its seeds made possible its rapid dissemination throughout the tropics, when once the Discovery had opened up routes of travel between its native home in the Western Hemisphere and the regions in Asia, Africa, and Polynesia favorable to its growth. In many places it early attained the position of im- Q 225 226 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS portance among cultivated fruits which it holds at the present day. Higgins and Holt say of it : " Excepting the banana, there is no fruit grown in the Hawaiian Islands that means more to the people of this territory than the papaya, if measured in terms of the comfort and enjoyment furnished to the people as a whole." It may fairly be said, perhaps, that the northern cantaloupe is replaced in Hawaii and other tropical regions by the papaya, a fruit which, in its better varieties, is a worthy rival of the melon. It is adapted to a wide range of territory; it comes into bearing when a few months old ; and it yields most abun- dantly of its handsome fruits. The presence of inferior varie- ties in many regions has detracted from the prestige of the papaya, but its intrinsic merit is beyond dispute. It is the duty of tropical horticulture to encourage the dissemination of the better forms and further to improve them by means of breeding. Considerable attention has already been devoted to this subject, but much remains to be done. The rapidity with which seedlings can be brought to fruiting stage makes papaya-breeding a much less tedious process than is the case with the hard- wooded tree-fruits. It has always been a source of wonder to those unfamiliar with the species that a plant so large as a mature papaya could be produced in so short a time. The poet Waller l wrote in 1635 with but slight exaggeration of the literal fact : "The Palma Christ! and the fair Papaw Now but a seed (preventing Nature's Law) In half the circle of the hasty year, Project a shade, and lovely fruits do wear." • The papaya, a giant herbaceous plant rather than a tree, grows to a height of 25 feet, and is often likened to a palm in general appearance, although there is no botanical relationship. 1 Battle of the Summer Islands. THE PAPAYA AND ITS RELATIVES 227 The trunk bears no lateral branches, but sometimes divides to form several erect stems, which produce at their tops large deeply-lobed leaves sometimes 2 feet across, upon hollow petioles 2 feet or more in length. The wood is fleshy, the bark smooth, grayish brown, marked by conspicuous leaf-scars. The papaya is normally dioecious (Fig. 29) and produces its flowers in the uppermost leaf- axils, the staminate blossoms sessile on pendent racemes 3 feet or more in length, the pistillate ones subsessile and usually soli- tary or in few-flowered corymbs. The staminate flowers are fun- nel-shaped, about an inch long, whitish, the corolla five-lobed, with ten stamens in the throat ; the pistillate flowers are consid- erably larger, with five fleshy petals connate toward the base, a large, cylindrical or globose, superior ovary, and five sessile fan-shaped stigmas. The fruit is commonly spheri- cal or cylindrical in form, round or obscurely five-angled in trans- verse section, from 3 up to 20 or more inches in length, and sometimes weighing as much as 20 pounds. In general character it strongly resembles a melon; the skin is thin, smooth on the exterior, orange- yellow to deep orange in color; the flesh, which is deep yellow to salmon-colored, being from 1 to 2 inches thick and inclosing a large, sometimes five-angled, cavity, to the walls of which are attached the numerous round, wrinkled, FIG. 29. Flowers of the papaya : the cluster and the single flower to its left are staminate (male), and the larger flower to the right is pistillate (female). Sometimes the organs of both sexes are found in the same flower, but this condition cannot be considered normal. (X about |) 228 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS blackish seeds, the size of small peas, inclosed by a thin gelat- inous aril. The flavor is rather sweet, with a slight musky tang which is sometimes objectionable to the novice, and which varies greatly in degree; the best types being of a bland agreeable taste which is almost sure to be relished. In Brazil the flavor is believed to be improved if the fruit is lightly scored when taken from the tree, and then allowed to stand for a day so that the milky juice may run out. The native home of the papaya is known to be in tropical America, but the exact area in which it originated has not been determined. Jacques Huber, after reviewing the evidence presented by Alphonse DeCandolle and others, reached the conclusion that the species originally came from Mexico. Count Solms-Laubach, who monographed the Caricacese, be- lieves that the cultivated papaya may have originated as a cross between some of the species of Carica native to Mexico. The plant is now widely distributed. In nearly all parts of tropical America it is one of the common fruits. It is abun- dant in India, Ceylon, and the Malay Archipelago. In Hawaii it probably attains greater comparative importance than in any other region. It is common in Australia, where it is culti- vated as far south as Sydney. In the United States it has been planted in Florida and Cali- fornia. It is entirely successful in the southern part of Florida, but in California its cultivation is limited to the most protected situations, and even there the fruit produced is not of good quality. The name papaya is held to be a corruption of the Carib ababai. In one form or another it has been carried around the world; papaia, papeya, and papia are some of the corrup- tions which are in use. The English name papaw is widely employed, but in the southern United States its use has the dis- advantage of confusing this fruit with Asimina triloba. The THE PAPAYA AND ITS RELATIVES 229 Portuguese name, current in Brazil, is mamdo (probably re- ferring to the mammiform apex of the fruit) ; in French the fruit is called papaye, in German papaja, and in Italian papaia. Several other names are used in tropical America, notably fruta de bomba in Cuba, lechosa in Porto Rico, melon zapote in parts of Mexico, and tree-melon in English-speaking countries. Botanically the species is Carica Papaya, L. While most commonly used, perhaps, as a breakfast-fruit, like the muskmelon or cantaloupe in northern countries, the papaya can be prepared in numerous ways. In Brazil it is served as a dessert, sliced, with the addition of a little sugar and whipped cream. As a salad, in combination with lettuce, it is excellent. As a crystallized fruit it is good, but has not much character. When green it is sometimes boiled and served as a vegetable, much as summer-squash is in the North. It can also be made into pickles, preserves, jellies, pies, and sherbets. WThen used as a breakfast-fruit, it is cut in halves longitudinally, and after the seeds are removed served with the addition of lemon juice, salt and pepper, or sugar, according to taste. The fruit of the papaya, as well as all other parts of the plant, contains a milky juice in which an active principle known as papain is present. This enzyme, which was first separated by Theodore Peckholt, greatly resembles animal pepsin in its digestive action, and in recent years has become an article of commerce. Aside from its value as a remedy in dyspepsia and kindred ailments, it has been utilized for the clarification of beer. Its digestive action has long been recognized in the tropics, as is evidenced by the common practice of the natives, who rub the juice over meat to make it tender, or, in preparing a fowl, wrap it in papaya leaves and let it remain overnight before cooking it. Much has been written concerning the preparation and properties of papain. Lengthy accounts will be found in the Philippine Journal of Science, Section A, January, 1915 ; Agri- 230 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS culture (Habana, Cuba), April, 1917 ; the Tropical Agricultur- ist (Colombo, Ceylon) No. 3, 1915; and the American Jour- nal of Pharmacy, 1901. Alice R. Thompson of Hawaii has published the following analyses of several different seedling strains grown at Honolulu : TABLE IV. COMPOSITION OF THE PAPAYA STRAIN TOTAL SOLIDS ASH ACIDS PROTEIN TOTAL SUGARS FAT FIBER Trinidad . . 12.14 .53 .06 .43 9.72 .06 .78 South Africa 13.00 .54 .09 .68 10.73 .07 .81 Honolulu . . 12.20 .56 .07 .50 10.29 .05 .66 Barbados 11.72 .48 .06 .46 8.05 .06 .76 Panama . . 14.41 .90 .14 .50 11.12 .25 1.09 The sugar found in the papaya is principally invert only traces of sucrose being present. sugar, Cultivation. The papaya is tropical in its requirements, but it can be grown in regions where light frosts are experienced. It prefers a warm climate and rich, loamy, well-drained soil. In southern Florida it grows best on hammock soils, but it is successful on "high pine" lands if properly fertilized. On the Florida Keys the plant has become thoroughly naturalized and springs up wherever a clearing is made, the seeds being scattered by birds and other agencies. While commercial papaya-culture prob- ably should not be attempted north of Palm Beach, good fruits are occasionally produced in the central part of the state when a mild winter allows the plants to reach fruiting age without injury. In California the cool nights do not permit the fruit to mature THE PAPAYA AND ITS RELATIVES 231 perfectly. It has been observed in the tropics that papayas ripened in cool weather are insipid or squash-like in flavor. The best situations in southern California are the protected foot- hill regions, where the heat during the summer months is more intense than on the seacoast. An old tree at Hollywood, near Los Angeles, bore fruit several years, but finally succumbed to the cold rains of winter which cause the plants to rot off at the base, especially if the drainage is in the least defective. Higgins and Holt, whose bulletin "The Papaya in Hawaii" 1 is the most valuable contribution yet made to the literature of papaya-growing, have the following to say concerning climate and soil : "In regard to rainfall and moisture requirements, the plant is able to adapt itself to a wide range of conditions, and when established suffers much less from a shortage of water than the orange or the avocado, but makes beneficial use of a large amount if supplied. Yet, withal, it is one of the most insistent plants in the matter of drainage. In waterlogged soils the papaya makes a spindling growth and drops its lower leaves prematurely, while the remaining f oliage becomes yellow, the whole plant indicating an unhealthy condition. "There are few, if any, soils in which the papaya will not grow if aeration and drainage are adequately supplied. Most of the plantings at this station are upon soils regarded as unsuitable for other fruit trees and upon which the avocado is a failure. . . . They are very porous, permitting perfect drainage and aeration. Rich soils give cor- respondingly better and more permanent results if they permit of the free passage of water and entrance of air." For a permanent orchard, the plants should be set not less than 10 feet apart. The papaya is short-lived, and will not usually remain in profitable bearing more than three to five years. That it is extremely simple of culture is proved by the ease with which it becomes naturalized in tropical regions, and by the thriftiness of the wild plants which spring up every- where along the roadsides. 1 No. 32 of the Hawaii Exp. Sta. 232 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS P. J. Wester writes as follows regarding the planting and care of papayas : "When the plants have attained a height of about 3 to 4 inches, they are ready to be transplanted to the place where they are intended to grow. "Unless the transplanting has been preceded by a good rain, the plants should be thoroughly watered before they are removed from the seed-bed. In order to reduce the evaporation of water from the plants until they are well established in their new quarters, about three- fourths of the leafblades should be trimmed off. "In transplanting, take up the plants with so large a ball of earth that as few roots are cut or disturbed as possible. Do not set out the young plant deeper in the new place than it grew in the nursery ; firm the soil well around the roots, making a slight depression around the plant, and water it thoroughly. " In order to protect the tender plant from the sun until it is estab- lished, it is well to place around it a few leafy twigs at the time of planting. It is well to set out three plants to each hill, and as the plants grow up and fruit, to dig out the males or the two poorest fruiting plants. "If the plants cannot be set out in the field at the time indicated, transplant them from the seed-bed to a nursery, setting out the plants about 8 to 12 inches apart in rows a yard apart, or more, to suit the convenience of the planter. While the best plan is to set out the plants in the field before they are more than 12 inches tall, the plants may be transplanted to the field from the nursery with safety after they are more than 5 feet high, provided that all except young and tender leaf- blades are removed, leaving the entire petiole, or leafstalk, attached to the plant; if the petiole be cut close to the main stem, decay rapidly enters it. If the entire petiole is left it withers and drops and a good leaf scar has formed before the fungi have had time to work their way from the petiole into the stem of the plant. "When a plant has grown so tall that it is difficult to gather the fruit, which also at this time grows small, cut off the trunk about 30 inches above the ground. A number of buds will then sprout from the stump, and will form several trunks that will bear fruit like the mother-plant in a short time. These sprouts, except two or three, should be cut off, for if all are permitted to grow the fruit produced will be small." When first set out in the field, the young plants should be watered every day or two ; after a few weeks have elapsed and they have become established, waterings may be less frequent. THE PAPAYA AND ITS RELATIVES 233 Mature plants should be irrigated liberally unless rainfall is abundant. Since they are gross feeders, stable manure or commercial fertilizers should be supplied liberally. This is particularly true of plants which are grown on the sandy lands of southeastern Florida. Organic nitrogen is especially desirable. Propagation. The papaya is usually propagated by seeds, which in Florida should be sown as early in the year as possible, preferably in January, in order to have the plants in bearing by the follow- ing winter. If seeds are washed and dried after removal from the fruit, and stored in glass bottles, they will retain their viability for several years. Higgins and Holt say : "It is best to plant the seeds in a well-drained, porous soil in flats or boxes, covering them about half an inch deep. In from two to six weeks the seedlings should appear, germina- tion being hastened by heat. In the open in cool weather the time will not be less than a month, but in a warm greenhouse it may be shortened to two weeks. In about a month after germination the seedlings should be large enough to be trans- ferred to pots, in which they should remain for another month before being placed in the orchard or garden." Wester advocates planting in seed-beds and transferring the young seedlings directly into the open ground. He writes : " The seed-bed should be prepared by thoroughly pulverizing the soil by spading or hoeing the ground well, and the clearing away of all weeds and trash. Sow the seed thinly, about 1 to 2 centimeters apart, and cover the seed not more than 1 centi- meter with soil, then water the bed thoroughly. In the dry season it is well to make the seed-bed where it is shaded from the hot midday rays of the sun, under a tree ; or it may be shaded by the erection of a small bamboo frame on the top of which is placed grass or palm leaves. If the seed is planted during the rainy season a shed of palm leaves should always 234 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS be put up over the seed-bed to protect the seed from being washed out and the plants from being beaten down by the heavy rains." Vegetative propagation of the papaya by two means has been shown to be possible, but it is not yet demonstrated that either of these methods produces satisfactory plants. Cuttings are readily grown, but they develop more slowly than seedlings. Grafted plants are more rapid in growth and come into fruit early, and it was thought at one time that this method offered great possibilities ; but later experience has shown that when propagated by this means in Florida, a given variety degen- erates rapidly, and in the third or fourth generation from the parent seedling the grafted plants make very little growth and their fruits are small and practically worthless. The explana- tion of this behavior has not been found, nor is it known whether it will occur in other regions ; but its effect in Florida has been to do away with grafting and cause all growers to return to seed-propagation. In order that those who are interested in the subject may experiment for themselves, a brief extract is given here from "The Grafted Papaya as an Annual Fruit Tree," by Fairchild and Simmonds.1 These investigators found that seeds of the papaya, when planted in the greenhouse in February, produce young seedlings large enough to graft some time in March ; that these grafted trees, which can be grown in pots, when set out in the open ground in May or the latter part of April, make an astonishing growth and come into bearing (in Florida) in November or December ; that they continue bear- ing throughout the following spring and summer, and if it is advisable, can be left to bear fruit into the following autumn. "After a seedling begins to fruit, it does not normally produce side- shoots which can be used for grafting. It has been observed for some time, however, that if the top of a bearing tree is cut or broken 1 Circ. 119, Bur. Plant Industry. THE PAPAYA AND ITS RELATIVES 235 off accidentally, a large number of shoots begin to form, one from the upper part of each leaf scar ; that is, the axil of the leaf. This takes place three or four weeks after the tree is decapitated. It is these small shoots, of which as many as 50 or more may be produced by a single tree, that are used in grafting the papaya. One of these shoots is taken when a few inches long and about the diameter of a lead pencil, is sharpened to a wedge point, the leaf surface reduced, and inserted in a cleft in a young seedling papaya plant which has been decapi- tated when 6 to 10 inches high and split with an unusually sharp, thin grafting knife. At this age the trunk of the young seedling has not yet formed the hollow space in the center. It is not necessary for the stock and the cion to be of equal size ; the cion should not, however, be larger than the stock. After inserting the cion, the stock is tied firmly, but not tightly, with a short piece of soft twine. The grafted plant should be shaded for a few days after the grafting has been done and the twine should be removed on the sixth or seventh day. The best success has been secured in these experiments by grafting potted seedlings in the greenhouse, or under the shade of a lath-house, pre- sumably because the stock can be kept in good growing condition under these circumstances." One of the most remarkable features of the papaya is the irregularity which it presents in the distribution of the sexes. Normally it is dioecious, with staminate and pistillate (male and female) flowers produced on different plants. Cross- pollination is necessary to enable the pistillate flowers to de- velop fruits. This is effected by insects. Among seedling plants the number of staminates is usually greater than that of pistillates. Only a few of the former being necessary as pol- linizers (certainly not more than one in ten), this excess of staminates is, from the grower's standpoint, an objectionable feature. In addition to the staminate and pistillate forms, many intermediates have been observed in which both sexes are com- bined in one plant. Staminate flowers may occur with rudi- mentary stigmas and ovaries which give rise to small worth- less fruits ; and there is a hermaphrodite type which regularly produces perfect flowers, is self-pollinated, and yields excellent fruits. Numerous other forms have been described (see the 236 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS bulletin by Higgins and Holt), but the importance of these is lessened by the fact that during the lifetime of a plant it may change from one form to another. In general, it may be said that plants which develop from the seed as pure pistillates will retain their sex without modi- fication, but plants which commence life as pure staminates may undergo a change of sex. It has been asserted that a change of sex may be induced by topping the male tree or breaking its roots. M. J. lorns, who studied this question in Porto Rico, reached the conclusion that other conditions than the loss of the terminal bud must be present to induce a change of sex, and he suggested that the trees may pass through definitely recurring cycles of development, and be subject to the change only at certain periods. L. B. Kulkarni,1 who investigated the matter in India, came to the belief that change of sex is not in any way connected with the removal of the terminal bud. He found that male plants, in the course of their develop- ment, may present a number of different sex-combinations, as follows : First stage : Staminate flowers only. Second : Staminate, with a few hermaphrodite flowers. Third : A few staminate, with many hermaphrodite flowers. Fourth: A few staminate, with many hermaphrodite, and a few pistillate flowers. Fifth : Hermaphrodite flowers only. Sixth : Hermaphrodite, with a few pistillate flowers. Seventh : A few hermaphrodite, with many pistillate flowers. Eighth : Pistillate flowers only. Thus the plant in the course of its life history may change from a staminate to a hermaphrodite and then to a pure pistillate. At the Hawaii Experiment Station, much attention has been devoted to breeding papayas. Some of the objects in view have been hermaphroditism (in order to eliminate the necessity 1 Poona Agrl. College Magazine, 1, 1915. THE PAPAYA AND ITS RELATIVES 237 of male trees to act as pollinizers), fruit of suitable size and shape for market purposes, uniformity in ripening, good keep- ing qualities, and good color and flavor of flesh. The dioecious type has not been satisfactory in breeding, principally because the staminates do not show the characters which are inherent in them and which will appear in the fruits of their progeny. "The hope, therefore," says J. E. Higgins,1 "must lie in the use of a hermaphrodite type. Here it is possible to select an in- dividual of known qualities. This may be used as the sole parent stock or may be combined with another parent of known qualities. What mixtures there may be in the individ- ual at the start may not be known ; but through repeated selec- tions and elimination of undesirable characters, it should be possible to produce a reasonably pure strain, provided, of course, that the stock is kept pure by constantly avoiding cross-pollination with plants of different characters." Some excellent hermaphrodite forms have already been pro- duced, and, although they do not breed true, a sufficient number of the seedlings are hermaphrodites and produce fruit of good quality for it to be felt that a definite advance has been made. Breeding work should be continued until a strain has been puri- fied to a point that it will breed true and retain its fruit charac- teristics as closely as do cultivated varieties of eggplant, tomato, and other vegetables. Yield and market. . In the tropics papayas are in season during a large part of the year and the yield is enormous, a single plant bearing in the course of its life (not more than a few years) a hundred or more immense fruits. In Florida the season extends from December to June, with a few fruits ripening at other times. Higgins and Holt say : " The first ripe fruits may be expected (in Hawaii) in about a year from the time when the plants are 1 Journal of Heredity, May, 1916. 238 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS set in the orchard or garden, and thereafter fruits and flowers in all stages of development may be in evidence at all times of the year. In the cool season the fruits are slow in ripening, thus causing a short crop and high prices for a month or two." Sometimes the fruits are produced in such abundance that it is necessary to thin them in order to avoid their remaining small in size or becoming malformed by the pressure of neigh- boring fruits. Thinning should be done when the fruits are rather small. If the fruits are to be sent to market they should be picked as soon as the surface begins to turn yellow. " Certain varieties become ripe enough for serving while showing little yellow coloring." It is difficult to ship the fully ripe fruit, since it is large, heavy, and has no firm outer covering, but only a thin membranous skin, to protect it. For this reason papayas must be shipped before they are fully ripe, and even then great care is necessary. Shipments have been made from Hawaii to San Francisco in cold storage with good results. When shipped from southern Florida to New York by express, the percentage of loss is usually large, unless the fruit is picked while still green; and in the latter case it does not ripen properly after reaching the market. It is advised to encase the fruits in cylinders of corrugated strawboard, and pack them in single- tier cases holding four to six fruits. Pests and diseases. Two pests have become sufficiently troublesome in south Florida to require attention. One, the papaya fruit-fly (Toxo- trypana curvicauda Gerst.) threatened at one time to become serious. This insect occurs in several parts of tropical America. The female inserts her eggs into the immature papaya by means of a long ovipositor, and the larvaB first feed in the central seed- mass, but later work into the flesh of the fruit, frequently rendering it unfit for human consumption. The only means THE PAPAYA AND ITS RELATIVES 239 of control which have been suggested are the destruction of wild plants and infested fruits, and the production of varieties having very thick flesh, so that the ovipositor will not reach to the seed-cavity (the young larvae are unable to live in the flesh). A fungous disease known as papaya leaf -spot (Pucci- niopsis caricae Earle) frequently attacks the foliage in the win- ter season, forming small black masses on the under-surfaces of the leaves. It is not very destructive and is easily con- trolled by spraying with bordeaux mixture. In Hawaii a red mite (Tetranychus sp.) sometimes occurs in scattered colonies on the lower surfaces of the leaves and on the fruits. The larvae of a moth (Cryptoblades aliena Swezey) feeds under a web on the floral stems and beneath the flower- clusters. Neither of these pests is said to be serious. The Mediterranean fruit-fly (Ceratitis capitata Wied.) attacks the fruit; its presence in Hawaii has made necessary a quaran- tine order prohibiting the shipment of papayas from that territory to the mainland of the United States. Two scale insects, Aspidiotus destructor Sign, and Pseudoparlatoria ostriata Ckll., are reported on the plant in Africa and Cuba respectively. Seedling races. With the introduction of grafting as a means of propagating choice papayas in Florida, one named variety, the Simmonds, was established, but the stock has degenerated and it is no longer grown. Grafted plants of the third and fourth gene- ration from the original seedling developed to a height of 3 or 4 feet only, produced a few small fruits, and were always yellowish and sickly in appearance. There are marked differences in the size, shape, and quality of the fruits produced by different seedlings, and the papayas of certain regions in the tropics are uniformly superior to those of other regions. In Bahia, Brazil, there are two distinct 240 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS types, one with small nearly spherical fruits not over 6 inches in diameter, and a very superior type called mamao da India which produces fruits 18 inches long, cylindrical in form, and .of excellent flavor. The hermaphrodite seedlings produce some of the sweetest fruits, and they usually have thick flesh. Some papayas are very sweet, while others are insipid. The production of seedling races which will produce fruits of good quality and breed fairly true is much to be desired. THE MOUNTAIN PAPAYA (Caricacandamarcensis, Hook, f.) Since it comes from elevations of 8000 or 9000 feet in the mountains of Colombia and Ecuador, this species is more frost- resistant than its near relative the papaya, and in this charac- teristic lies its greatest interest. It has been suggested that hybridization of the two species might result in a plant which would be sufficiently hardy for regions like southern California and the shores of the Mediterranean, and yet would produce fruit nearly as good as that of the papaya. Such a hybrid has not yet been produced. The mountain papaya resembles its more tropical relative in habit and general appearance, but it is smaller in all its parts; it grows only 8 or 10 feet high, its leaves are smaller (and deeply lobed), and its fruits are only 3 or 4 inches in length. H. F. Macmillan says: "The tree has been introduced at Hakgala Gardens, Ceylon, in 1880, and is now commonly grown in hill gardens for the sake of its fruit, being often found in a semi-naturalized state about up-country bungalows." A. Robertson-Proschowsky of Nice, France, writes, in the Petite Revue Agricole et Horticole : " It is a handsome plant, grow- ing a few meters high, and often without branches, though the latter are developed when the top is killed by frost. For several years I have grown this species and I find it to pro- THE PAPAYA AND ITS RELATIVES 241 duce good fruits, of a sweetish, acidulous, perfumed taste. They are suitable, as I have had occasion to learn from experi- ence, for persons with weak stomachs, who cannot eat other fruits. They are particularly good for dyspeptics." Mac- millan notes that the fruit, which ripens in Ceylon throughout the year, is too acid to be used for dessert, but is very agree- able when stewed and can be made into jam and preserves. The requirements of the plant are much the same as those of the papaya, except in regard to climate. It withstands 28° above zero without serious injury. The seeds are sown in the same manner as those of the papaya. There are other species of Carica in tropical America, many of them as yet little known, which may be of value in connec- tion with papaya breeding. C. quercifolia, Benth. and Hook., with leaves like those of the English oak, is even hardier than the mountain papaya, but its fruit, the size of a date, is worth- less. There appear to be in Ecuador several species closely resembling C. candamarcensis, but some of them may be nothing more than varieties of the latter. THE PURPLE GRANADILLA (Plate X) (Passiflora edulis, Sims) The passifloras are known in the Temperate Zone as flower- ing plants, but the species commonly grown in the tropics are cultivated principally for their edible fruits. The most im- portant one is the purple granadilla, P. edulis, known in Aus- tralia, where its culture is extensive, as passion-fruit. The plant is a strong-growing, somewhat woody climber, with deeply three-lobed, serrate leaves. The flower, which is white and purple, is attractive but not so handsome as that of some other members of the genus. The fruit is oval, 2 to 3 inches long, deep purple in color when fully ripe. Within the brittle outer shell are numerous small seeds, each surrounded 242 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS by yellowish, aromatic, juicy pulp, the flavor of which is rather acid. From its native home in Brazil the purple granadilla has been carried to all parts of the world. It attains its greatest impor- tance as an economic plant in Australia, but it is grown also in Ceylon, the Mediterranean region, in the southern United States, and elsewhere. The fruit is used for flavoring sherbets, for confectionery, for icing cakes, for "trifles," — a dish composed of sponge-cake, fruits, cream, and white of egg, — and for other table purposes. The pulp is also eaten directly from the fruit, after adding a little sugar, or it may be used to prepare a refreshing drink by beating it up in a glass of ice-water and adding a pinch of bicarbonate of soda. The term passion-fruit, which is often applied to this species, confuses it with other members of the same genus, many of which are known by the same common name. In order to distinguish between these different species, it is well to adopt a different name for each. P. edulis is called lilikoi in Hawaii. In California this fruit is easily grown, but it has not yet reached a position of importance in the markets; indeed, it is rarely seen in them, — a condition which contrasts strik- ingly with its prominence in Australia. It withstands light frosts, but when young is injured by temperatures more than one or two degrees below the freezing-point. While it bears abundantly in California, plants grown in Florida have in some instances failed to produce fruits. The reason for this is not definitely known, but it may be due to defective pollination. The pollination of this and other edible-fruited passifloras deserves investigation, for it is probable that the secret of many failures in their cultivation lies in this detail. Paul Knuth, in his " Handbook of Flower Pollination," states that the passi- floras are protandrous (the anthers shedding their pollen before the stigmas are in condition to receive it) and adapted to cross- pollination by humble-bees and humming-birds. In describ- THE PAPAYA AND ITS ABLATIVES 243 ing the pollination of P. ccerulea he says : " In the first stage of anthesis, a large insect (such as a humble-bee) when sucking the nectar, receives pollen on its back from the downwardly dehiscing anthers. In the second stage the styles have curved downwards to such an extent that the now receptive stigmas are lower than the empty anthers. It follows that older flowers are fertilized by pollen from younger ones." The passifloras are easily propagated by seeds or cuttings, the latter method being preferable in most cases. Seeds should be removed from the fruit, dried in a shady place, and planted in flats of light soil. They do not germinate quickly, but the young plants are easily raised, and may be set out in the open ground when six months to a year old. Cuttings should be taken from fairly well-matured shoots, and should be about 6 inches in length. They are easily rooted in sand, no bottom-heat being required. Cuttings of the purple granadilla will often fruit in pots at the age of two years. Directions for the commercial cultivation of this fruit, based on American experience, cannot be given, since no commercial plantings, with the exception of a few small ones on an experi- mental scale, have yet been made in this country. The fol- lowing extracts are taken from an article by W. J. Allen in the Agricultural Gazette of New South Wales for November 2, 1912 : "Although this fruit is not grown so extensively as it should be throughout the many districts on the coast where it will do well, it nevertheless plays quite an important part in some of the young citrus orchards in the County of Cumberland, on the Penang Moun- tain, and around the Gosford district, where it is frequently planted among the trees. As it begins to bear very early, growers are enabled to make considerably more from this crop than pays for the working of the orchard until the young trees begin to produce crops of fruit, which they invariably do after the third or fourth year. "Generally speaking, the vines are most productive before having attained to four or five years of age. After that period they begin to lose vigor and gradually die out, or cease to be very profitable, and are, in consequence removed. 244 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS "The passion- vine is found to thrive well on many classes of soil, — some so poor that one is led to wonder how anything could profit- ably be grown on it. On the light sandstone and poorer coastal coun- try there is no other fruit which will give the same return as this, and with proper working and heavy manuring, it is wonderful the amount of fruit that can be taken from an acre of such vines. The area planted is comparatively small, and, in consequence, the fruit usually commands very high prices. As an addition to a fruit salad there is no flavor that can surpass it, and when eaten with cream it rivals the most delicious of strawberries. If this fruit were known in Great Britain and America, I venture to say that there would be an unlimited demand for it, if once we were successful in landing it in those countries in large quan- tities. "In selecting a site for the planting of a vineyard, one of the im- portant points to keep in view is to avoid a district or situation where frosts are at all severe or of frequent occurrence in the winter. There is one thing which this vine will not stand, and that is severe frosts ; and the Easter, winter, and spring crops are those which are in most demand. During the summer time there is a superabundance of other fruits, and hence the consumption of the passion-fruit is not so great ; from Easter until Christmas time there is a splendid market for all well grown fruit. It is during part of this time that we have our cold- est weather, and a severe frost or two would destroy the whole crop, and in all probability kill the vine back to the root. "The chief feature about the passion- vine, however, is its habit of producing two crops per annum. The summer crop comes in about February or March, and prices are necessarily low. The winter crop is ready for pulling when other fruits are not so plentiful on the market. The practice of the growers, has, therefore, been to secure a heavy winter crop by pruning away the summer crop when about hah7 grown ; or generally speaking, about the month of November. This stimu- lates the vines to throw out fresh fruiting laterals for the winter. "The next point of importance is to put the land in thorough order before planting, and in places where it is very sour and deficient in lime, which it mostly is on our coastal country where the passion- fruit is grown, it would be advantageous to give the land at least half a ton of good lime to the acre. "The vines should be planted out about August or September, when the ground is in good condition. "The seed is sown in February. The rows should be 30 inches to three feet apart, and the seed every inch or so in the row, afterwards thinning out to three inches apart to make good stocky plants. "In erecting the trellis, the posts should be six feet and a half long, firmly set in the ground to a depth of 18 inches, and placed at distances of about 24 feet apart, or at farthest 32 feet in the row. On the tops THE PAPAYA AND ITS RELATIVES 245 of these posts are tightly stretched, at a distance of six inches apart, two strong No. 8 galvanized iron wires. The rows should run north and south, so that they get the sunlight on both sides. The rows are placed in the center of the tree-rows, or when alone, 10 feet apart, with the vines 12 feet in the row, thus requiring about 362 plants to the acre. "The young vine is trained with a single stem up the stakes until it reaches the wires, when it is allowed to throw out from two to four leaders, which are trained to run either way on the wires. As the vine puts forth further growth, the main leaders and laterals are trained along the wires. "Without judicious manuring there are very few districts where the growing of this fruit would prove highly satisfactory, while, on the other hand, those growers who are giving the most attention to this important adjunct are the ones who are making the greatest profits out of the industry. It has become a recognized fact that liberal dressings of manure must be used from the time of planting until the plants cease to be productive. "On making inquiry among the different growers, I found that scarcely any two of them were using the same mixture. Some, on the lighter soils, were using considerable quantities of blood and bone with a little potash ; others were using bone, superphosphate, and potash ; while others were using a mixture of nitrate of soda, dried blood, and superphosphate and sulphate of potash, etc., etc. ; and judging from the appearance of the different vines, all with very gratifying results. "When the fruit begins to ripen it should be picked at least twice a week. It will keep well in a cool dry place, but I would recommend marketing every week. "All badly formed and inferior fruit is discarded, and the better fruit is mostly packed in layers, so that when opened at the markets it presents a good appearance. In grading, color as well as size is taken into consideration, any badly colored fruits being sorted out and packed separately." THE SWEET GRANADILLA (Fig. 30) (Passiflora ligularis, A. Juss.) Next in importance to the purple granadilla or passion- fruit comes the sweet granadilla, a species extensively used by the inhabitants of the mountainous parts of Mexico and Cen- tral America. In flavor it is perhaps the best of the genus, and it certainly merits a wider distribution than it enjoys at present. 246 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS Henry Pittier speaks of this fruit as "neither a food nor a beverage." Its white pulp is almost liquid, acidulous, and perfumed in taste. Among the Indians of Central America it is a favorite, and figures prominently in many of the markets. The plant is a vigorous climber, scrambling over build- ings and trees of considerable size. The leaves are cordate and acuminate, and commonly about 6 inches long. The flowers are solitary, with the petals and sepals greenish, and the corona white with zones of red-purple. The fruit is somewhat larger than that of P. edulis, oval or slightly elliptic in form, and orange to orange-brown, sometimes purplish, in color. The shell is strong, so that the fruit can be trans- ported long distances without injury. The seeds are numerous and each sur- rounded by translucent whitish pulp. The Indians eat the fruit out of hand. The species is a native of tropical America and does not seem to be known in other regions. Recently it has been introduced into California and Florida by the United States Department of Agriculture, but so far as is known, it has not yet fruited in either state. Since it grows in Central America at elevations of 6000 to 7000 feet, it should be suffi- ciently cold-resistant to withstand light frosts, although it is doubtful whether it will survive temperatures more than two or three degrees below freezing-point. Its requirements in regard to soil and cultural attention are probably about the same as those of P. edulis. It does not fruit quite so abundantly as the latter, nor has it been observed to produce more than one crop a year in Central America. Propagation is usually by seed. FIG. 30. The sweet granadilla (Passiflora lig- ularis), one of the best- flavored fruits of its genus. (xi) THE PAPAYA AND ITS RELATIVES 247 THE GIANT GRANADILLA (Fig. 31) (Passiflora quadrangularis, L.) While this is the largest-fruited species of the genus, and one of the most widely distributed, it is not the best in quality. From its native home in tropical America it has been carried to the eastern tropics, where it is now grown in many places. It is common in the West Indies, but nowhere is it cultivated on a commercial scale. The plant is somewhat coarse and is a strong climber. The stems are four-angled, as indi- cated by the specific name, and the leaves are ovate or round- ovate, cordate at the base and mucronate at the apex, entire, and 6 or 8 inches long. The flowers, which are about 3 inches in diameter, are white and pur- ple in color. The fruits are ob- long, up to 10 inches in length. H. F. Macmillan says: "Its large, oblong, greenish-yellow fruit is not unlike a short and thick vegetable-marrow, and con- tains in its hollow center a mass of purple, sweet-acid pulp mixed with flat seeds." A horticultural form exists which has leaves variegated with yellow. This species is more tropical in its requirements than P. ligularis and P. edidis. It will grow in southern Florida, but is not successful in California. A. Robertson-Proschowsky reports, however, that it has fruited on the French Riviera FIG. 31. The giant granadilla (Passiflora quadrangularis) . (X \ 248 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS at Golfe-Juan and perhaps elsewhere, and in his own garden at Nice was only killed after surviving several winters. The fruit is known in French as barbadine, in Portuguese as maracujd melao, and in Spanish as granadilla or granadilla real. The name granadilla is applied, in different parts of the tropics, to several species of Passiflora, and in order to dis- tinguish them it is necessary to append a qualifying word. It is derived from granada, and means "small pomegranate." Macmillan recommends that the shoots be well cut back after the fruiting season is past. It is commonly believed necessary to resort to hand-pollination to insure the produc- tion of fruit, but this is not always the case. The protandrous character of the passifloras, and the necessity of cross-pollina- tion, are mentioned in the discussion of the purple granadilla ; that it is sometimes possible, however, for fruits to be produced by self-fertilization, has been shown by experience. Paul Knuth, after describing the character of the passiflora flower, says : " Autogamy (self-pollination) would seem to be ex- cluded under such circumstances, yet it is possible that the stigmas and the anthers may be brought into contact when the flower closes at the end of the single day's anthesis. This is the more probable as Warnstorf saw a fully formed fruit in a greenhouse. Here, then, is a case in which an obviously chasmogamous flower (one in which the perianth opens) is only self-pollinated after it has closed." If P. quadrangularis is self -sterile, however, it would do no good to have the flowers self-pollinated. If insects are lacking to do the work, cross- pollination must be effected by hand. Propagation is by seed or by cuttings, which should be 10 to 12 inches long and from well-matured stems, and should be inserted in sand. Several other species of Passiflora are cultivated in the tropics for their fruit. P. laurifolia, known as yellow granadilla, water- lemon, Jamaica honeysuckle, sweet-cup, bell-apple, and pomme THE PAPAYA AND ITS RELATIVES 249 d'or, is cultivated in the West Indies, and to a limited extent in other regions. H. F. Macmillan states that it is not fruit- ful in the eastern tropics. P. mcdiformis, L. is grown in the West Indies, and in the mountains of Colombia, where it is called curuba or kuruba. CHAPTER VIII THE LOQUAT AND ITS RELATIVES HEREIN are grouped the few fruits of the Rose family that are cultivated to any extent in the tropics and sub tropics. In temperate regions, this family supplies the leading tree- fruits, as apple, pear, quince, stone-fruits, and also such small- fruits as raspberry, dewberry, blackberry, and strawberry. THE LOQUAT (Plate XII) (Eriobotrya japonica, Lindl.) The production of loquats in Japan is estimated at twenty million pounds annually. From one small village in the Che- kiang Province of China, twenty thousand dollars' worth have been shipped in a single year. In the Occident this excellent fruit has not attained the commercial prominence which it deserves, nor has it been improved through cultivation and selection to any such extent as have many other Asiatic fruits now grown in Europe and America. To northern residents and travelers in tropical and sub- tropical countries, the loquat should possess an especial attrac- tion, inasmuch as it recalls in flavor and character the fruits of the North. As a matter of fact, it is a close relative of the apple and the pear, while its flavor distinctly suggests the cherry. Those whose palates have been educated to demand the subacid sprightly flavored fruits of the Temperate Zone often criticize tropical fruits as being too sweet and rich. The loquat is not open to this objection, and it can be grown throughout 250 THE LOQUAT AND ITS RELATIVES 251 the tropics wherever there are elevations of a few thousand feet. To reach its greatest perfection, the loquat requires particular climatic conditions. Quite satisfactory results are obtained with it, however, in situations where the plant cannot realize its best possibilities. The tree is simple of culture, and has become widely distributed throughout the tropics and sub- tropics. Not until rather recently has it been planted in regions where systematic attention is given to the improvement of fruits; hence its development to meet the ideals of European and American pomologists, while accomplished in part, is still far from complete. The progress made during the last twenty years is highly encouraging, and several varieties now available are sufficiently good to merit extensive cultivation. Because of its ornamental appearance alone, the loquat is often planted in parks and gardens. It is a small tree, rarely more than 30 feet high and commonly not exceeding 20 or 25 feet. It has a short trunk, usually branching two or three feet from the ground to form a crown round or oval in form, and normally compact and dense. The leaves, which are somewhat crowded towards the ends of the stout woolly branchlets, are elliptic-lanceolate to obovate-lanceolate in outline, 6 to 10 inches long, remotely toothed, deep green in color, and woolly below. The fragrant white flowers are ^ inch broad and are borne in terminal woolly panicles 4 to 8 inches long. The calyx is composed of five small, imbricate, acute teeth; the corolla has five oblong-ovate clawed petals, white in color and delicate in texture. The stamens are twenty, the pistils five, joined toward the base. The fruits, which are borne in loose clusters, are commonly round, oval, or pyriform, 1 to 3 inches in length, pale yellow to orange in color, and somewhat downy on the surface. The skin is about as thick as that of a peach, but slightly tougher; the flesh firm and meaty in some varieties, 252 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS melting in others, ranging from almost white to deep orange in color, juicy, and of a sprightly, subacid flavor. The seeds may , be as many as ten, since there are five cells in the ovary and two ovules in each cell ; but usually several of the ovules are aborted, and not more than three to five seeds develop. They are ovate in form, flattened on the sides, light brown in color, and about f of an inch long. Sometimes fruits with only one seed are found, and varieties constantly one-seeded have been reported. Although formerly considered indigenous to Japan and China, it is now believed that the loquat was originally limited to the latter country. The late Frank N. Meyer considered the species to be "in all probability indigenous to the hills of the mild- wintered, moist regions of central-eastern China." He found it in a semi-wild state near Tangsi, in Chekiang Province, a region in which loquats are extensively cultivated for market. The Chinese graft superior varieties on seedling stocks, but according to Meyer 1 they are not very skillful in this work. Their finest variety is said to be the pai bibaw or white loquat. The loquat has been cultivated in Japan since antiquity, and is at present one of the important fruits of that country. It is grown in the same regions as the citrus fruits, or even farther north than the latter. T. Ikeda 2 points out that localities noted for unusually fine loquats always lie close to the sea. Numerous varieties have originated in Japan, the best of which have been introduced into the United States and a few other countries. While there are commercial orchards in many places, the total number of trees growing in Japan is said to be less than one million; hence it would seem that the industry there should be capable of extension, for the fruit is popular and the territory adapted to its production is large. In northern India the loquat is a fruit-tree of considerable importance. A. C. Hartless, superintendent of the Government 1 Bull. 204, Bur. Plant Industry. 2 Fruit Culture in Japan. THE LOQUAT AND ITS RELATIVES 253 Botanical Gardens at Saharanpur, observes that certain localities have been much more favorable than others, and that the best results are obtained where the soil is sandy loam and where abundant water is supplied: and reports that "In the plains the loquat is in season in April, but in the colder climate of the hills it fruits in the autumn." Most of the trees in India are seedlings, but several grafted varieties have been distributed from Saharanpur. Throughout a large part of the Mediterranean region the loquat is highly successful ; it is said, in fact, to have become naturalized in several places. In southern France it is a common tree, but there are no large commercial plantations. In Italy and Sicily it is abundant. David Fairchild states it to be one of the principal fruits of the island of Malta, but the trees are seedlings and practically none of them worth propagating. L. Trabut says of the loquat in Algeria: "The Horticultural Society, the Botanical Service, and a certain number of amateurs have collaborated in producing superior varieties which are now propagated by grafting. The Botanical Service has introduced the best varieties obtainable in Japan, and public opinion is undergoing a change regarding this fruit. For- merly it was not esteemed." The tree is common in the gardens of Algiers, and during early spring the fruit is abundant in the markets. Regarding its behavior in England, the Gardener's Chronicle (May 3, 1913), referring to it under an alternative name, says : "The Japanese Medlar is an old garden favorite, grown in this country for its handsome evergreen foliage, and in warmer regions for the sake of its edible fruits. Messrs. Sander have obtained from some source a variegated sport of it, which is likely to become a popular garden plant, the variegation being particularly pleasing, some of the leaves being more milk- white than green. It is not generally known that the Japanese Medlar is quite happy when grown under the shelter of a wall 254 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS in the neighborhood of London; in other words, it is much hardier than is supposed." According to Paul Hubert, the loquat is grown in Madagascar and in some islands of French Oceania. It is also cultivated in Indo-China. In Hawaii it is fairly common as a garden tree. In Australia its cultivation is limited to Queensland, but Albert H. Benson says that it can be grown in the more southerly coast districts, in the foothills of the Coast Range, and on the coast tablelands. It is not extensively cultivated in any of these regions. Grafted varieties are offered by nurserymen in Brisbane. The loquat has become widely distributed throughout America, where its cultivation extends from California and Florida to Chile and Argentina. In Mexico, Central America, and northern South America, it is grown usually in mountain valleys and on plateaux at elevations of 3000 to 7000 feet. In those situations it succeeds well, and merits more attention than is now given it, especially the introduction of superior varieties, propagated by grafting. California is probably the most favorable region for loquat culture in the United States. There are many areas in the southern end of the state which are admirably adapted to the production of choice fruit, and the commercial development of loquat culture in these localities is slowly but steadily progress- ing. Already there are several orchards ten to twenty acres in size, and many budded trees of superior varieties have been planted in dooryards and home gardens. Throughout the Gulf states the tree grows well, but in many regions frosts interfere with the production of fruit. Several small orchards have been started in Florida, and while these have not been altogether successful in most instances, there are certain districts in the southern part of the state which seem well adapted to its culture. W. J. Krome has had signally good results with this fruit at Homestead. At Miami it has not done THE LOQUAT AND ITS RELATIVES 255 so well, probably because the soil is too light for it and not sufficiently moist. While the name loquat is universally recognized among English-speaking peoples as the correct one for this fruit, it is sometimes called Japanese medlar and Japan-plum. The Span- ish name is nispero del Japon, the Italian nespola giapponese; both of these mean Japanese medlar, and have been applied because of the resemblance of this fruit to the European medlar, Mespilus germanica. The French use this same term, as neflier du Japon; they also use the name bibace. Yule and Burnell say of the word loquat : " The name is that used in S. China, lu- kiih, pronounced at Canton lukwat, and meaning ' rush orange.' Elsewhere in China it is called pi-pa." This later suggests biwa, which is the common name in Japan. The botanical name of the loquat is Eriobotrya japonica, Lindl., of which Photinia japonica, Gray, is a synonym. The latter name is retained by those who prefer not to separate the two genera, for the generic name Photinia is older than Eriobotrya. Although most commonly eaten as a fresh fruit, the loquat can be utilized in several ways. For culinary purposes it is nearly as useful as its temperate-zone relative the apple; it may be stewed and served as a sauce, or it may be made into excellent jelly. Loquat pie, if made from fruit which is not fully ripe, can scarcely be distinguished from the renowned article made from cherries. The seeds are usually removed from the fruit before it is cooked, as otherwise they impart a bitter flavor to it. The following analyses of two California varieties, made by M. E. Jaffa, have been published by I. J. Condit in his bulletin "The Loquat" l unquestionably the most thorough treatise on this fruit which has appeared up to the present : 1 Bull. 250, Calif. Agr. Exp. Sta. 256 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS TABLE V. COMPOSITION OF THE LOQUAT VAEIETY WATER PROTEIN FAT SCG A.R FIBER ASH Dextrose Sucrose Thales % 89.0 % 0.35 % 0.06 % 8.95 % 0.94 % 0.30 % 0.29 Champagne . . . 84.0 0.32 0.03 11.96 0.83 0.37 0.36 Cultivation. The climatic requirements of the loquat, except as an orna- mental plant, are distinctly subtropical. It is not successful in the hot tropical lowlands, nor can it be grown for fruiting purposes in regions subject to more than a few degrees of frost. Cool weather during part of the year and a rainfall of 15 to 50 inches (with artificial irrigation where the dry season is severe) suit it best. These conditions are found in southern Japan, in parts of southern California, along the shores of the Mediterranean, and in several other regions. It has been noted in Japan that the best loquat situations always lie close to the sea; and in California much finer fruit has been produced near the coast than in the foothill tracts twenty to thirty miles inland. Thus it seems that the mild climate of the seacoast is peculiarly favorable to the development of the fruit. While mature trees have withstood temperatures as low as 10° above zero without serious injury, the flowers and young fruits may be killed by temperatures only a few degrees below freezing ; hence loquats cannot be produced successfully where heavy frosts may occur at the time of flowering. Condit notes : "Frost coming when the fruit is less than half grown may result in killing the seeds only, while the flesh continues to develop, so that seedless fruits mature. On the other hand, frost may have somewhat the same effect as sunburn, THE LOQUAT AND ITS RELATIVES 257 injuring the tissues and causing them to shrink or to develop irregularly." When grown in regions where the weather during the ripening season is extremely hot and dry, the fruit is subject to sun- scald or sunburn. The exposed surface withers and turns brown, and the product is rendered unfit for market. If, on the other hand, the weather is cool and foggy during the ripening season, the fruit lacks sweetness and flavor. Sandy loam is considered the ideal loquat soil, and it should be of good depth. Several other types of soil have proved satisfactory; thus, in southern California good orchards have been produced on heavy clay of the adobe type, and in Florida the shallow rocky soils of the Homestead region on the lower east coast have given excellent results. Deep sandy soils, when of little fertility, are not suitable. Frank N. Meyer points out that the best loquat orchards in China are situated on low, rich, moist land. In California orchards, loquat trees are planted 12 to 24 feet apart. When planted on the square system, they should not be nearer than 20 feet. Close planting has been practiced in Orange County, where the rows are set 24 feet apart and the trees 12 feet apart in the row. This is believed to result in greater regularity and uniformity of production than wider planting. March and April are good months for planting in California; late September and October are also suitable. In southern Florida the best time is probably in the autumn. The amount of tillage given the orchard varies in different regions. Condit says: "Clean culture may be practiced throughout the season, but the growth either of a winter or a summer leguminous cover-crop is much more advisable." For a winter cover-crop, the natural vegetation which springs up in California with the arrival of the rains may be allowed to grow until it reaches its maximum development, when it 258 MANUAL OP TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS should be cut with a mowing-machine and plowed under after the fruit is harvested. Following this the ground should be cultivated and a summer cover-crop such as buckwheat or the whip-poor-will cowpea should be planted. "Winter cover- crops may be planted as early as September, in which case they may have made sufficient growth to be turned under before the harvest begins. This is not always possible, especially if an early variety of loquat is grown ; in fact, it is a question whether it is advisable to plow or work the ground deeply or at all during the setting and maturing of the fruit." In Florida and other regions different methods of cultivation may be required, but the liberal use of green cover-crops seems universally desirable. In addition to cover-crops, stable manure is often used to enrich the land in California orchards. Bearing loquat trees exhaust the fertility of the soil rapidly and it is necessary to replenish the supply of plant-food annually if fruit of large size is to be expected. Condit observes: *When the average California soil begins to fail from heavy production, nitrogen is likely to be the first crop limiter ; after nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and after phosphoric acid, potash." Particular care should be taken, therefore, to see that the supply of nitrogen is sufficient to meet the demands of the tree. C. P. Taft, of Orange, California, has found the green cover-crops of great value in this connection. E. Pillans, Government Horti- culturist at the Cape of Good Hope, says that a yearly appli- cation of well-rotted stable manure is amply repaid by larger crops and increased size of fruit. The loquat groves of Japan are said to be fertilized with litter, weeds from the roadsides, and, recently, with commercial fertilizers. Condit advises the application of 15 cubic feet of stable manure biennially to each bearing tree. It is ordinarily considered that the amount of water required by loquat trees corresponds closely to that needed by citrus fruits. Probably it would be more accurate to say that the THE LOQUAT AND ITS RELATIVES 259 loquat is more drought-resistant than any of the citrus fruits, but that the best results are obtained when the orchard is irrigated as liberally as the citrus orchard. In California there is usually abundant rainfall at the time the fruits are approach- ing maturity ; in other regions, or in California if the season is abnormally dry, it may be desirable to supply water at this time, since the fruits only develop to large size when there is abundant moisture in the soil. In southern France the tree is said not to do well en soils which are over-moist in winter. The young tree should be headed 24 to 30 inches above the ground, and three to five main branches forced to develop. The loquat is a compact grower, and the mature tree requires much less pruning than most of the temperate-zone fruits. It has been found by C. P. Taft, however, that a certain number of branches must be cut out from time to time, in order to limit the amount of fruiting wood and to admit light to the center of the tree. It must be remembered that the tendency of the loquat is to overbear, and for the production of commercially valuable fruit this must be checked by pruning and thinning. The best time for pruning is soon after the crop has been har- vested. Propagation. In many countries it is still the custom to propagate the loquat by seed, but in regions where the commercial cultivation of this fruit has received serious attention, this method has been replaced by budding and grafting. Seedling loquats are no more dependable than seedlings of other tree-fruits. As ornamental trees for parks and dooryards they can be rec- ommended, but they will not serve when commercially market- able fruit is required. Choice named varieties are budded or grafted on seedling loquat stocks or on the quince. Other plants have been used as stock-plants, but have not proved altogether satisfactory. 260 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS When budded on quince the tree is dwarfed. This stock is easy to bud ; and it is believed to produce a tree which bears at an early age, while its fibrous root-system readily permits of transplanting. In spite of these advantages it is considered unsatisfactory in Florida, and in California it is commonly held that the seedling loquat is preferable. To produce stock- plants, loquat seeds may be planted singly in four-inch pots; they may be sown in flats of light soil and later transplanted ; or they may be germinated in moist sand or sawdust and potted off as soon as they are 3 or 4 inches high. Potting soil should be light and loamy. After the young plants are 8 inches high, they may be planted in the field in nursery rows. When the stems are about \ inch in diameter at the base, the plants are ready for budding or grafting. In California, budding is best done in October or November. Bud wood should be of young smooth wood, preferably that which has turned brown and lost its pubescence and from which the leaves have dropped. Shield-budding is the method used (a description of the operation will be found in the chapter on the avocado). The buds should be cut at least 1J inches long. After inserting them in T-incisions made in the stocks at a convenient point not far above the ground, they are tied with raffia, soft cotton string, or waxed tape. Three or four weeks later the wraps should be loosened to keep them from cutting into the stock, and the eye should be left exposed. The wraps should not be finally removed until the bud has made several inches' growth. In California the stock-plant is cut off 2 or 3 inches above the bud in early spring. This usually forces the bud to grow, but sometimes it shows a tendency to lie dormant, and many adventitious buds develop around the top of the stock. These must be removed as fast as they make their appearance. In Florida it has been found that buds unite readily with the stock-plant, but that it is difficult to force them into growth. THE LOQUAT AND ITS RELATIVES 261 For this reason grafting has superseded budding in that state. The stocks should be of the same size as for budding, and the cion should be of well-matured wood. Cleft-grafting is the method commonly employed. The young trees should be stake-trained in the nursery, and headed 24 to 30 inches above the ground. In a year from the time of budding or grafting they should be ready for transplanting. In California, budded or grafted trees begin to bear the second or third year after they are planted in the orchard, but they can- not be expected to produce commercial crops until four or five years old. According to Condit, a ten-year-old tree should produce 200 pounds of fruit. Early in the season, the latter part of February and all of March, prices are high. Fancy fruit will bring 25 to 35 cents a pound at this time. Later, in May and June, the average price drops to 5 cents and occasionally lower, but fancy fruit rarely sells for less than 8 to 10 cents a pound. It is the opinion of experienced loquat- growers that the gross returns from an orchard should be $300 to $500 an acre; more than this has been obtained in some instances. The advisability of planting early varieties, in order to place the crop on the market while prices are high, is emphasized by all growers. If late fruit is to be produced, it should be of large-fruited varieties which ship well ; otherwise the profits will be small. Yield and picking. The loquat tree is productive, and a regular bearer. Barring crop failures due to severe frosts at flowering time, the trees rarely fail to produce well every year. Their tendency is to overbear, with the result that the fruits are apt to be undersized. It has been profitable to thin the crop, since the increased size of the fruits remaining on the tree more than compensates for the loss of those removed. The practice of experienced loquat- 262 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS growers in California is to clip out the ends of the fruit-clusters with a pair of thinning-shears : this should be done as soon as the young fruits have formed. Where choice varieties are grown, and where birds and insects are troublesome, it has been profitable, in a small way, to protect the fruit by inclosing each cluster in a cloth or paper bag. The Japanese, who practice bagging in connection with the production of fancy loquats, find that it results in larger fruit and a greater degree of uni- formity in ripening. The season during which loquats are marketed in California extends from the latter part of February to June. A given variety may ripen several weeks earlier in one locality than in another. In Florida the season is considerably earlier than in California. The fruits should be left on the tree until they are fully ripe, unless it is desired to use them for jelly or for cooking. Unripe the loquat is decidedly acid, whereas the fully ripe fruit is sweet and delicious. Clippers such as are used by orange- pickers are employed in gathering the fruit. Sometimes whole clusters can be picked, and again it may be necessary to clip off two or three ripe fruits and leave the remaining ones to mature. The fruit is sorted and graded by hand. For shipping to near-by markets it is packed in thirty-pound wooden boxes ("lug boxes") without the use of excelsior, straw, or other soft material to prevent bruising. For distant markets smaller packages and considerable care will be required, since the fruit is bruised rather easily. Pests and diseases. The principal enemies of the loquat in California are pear- blight (Bacillus amylovorus Trev.) and loquat-scab (Fusi- cladium dendriticum var. eriobotryce Scalia). Condit says of the former : " The pear blight is a serious enemy of the loquat at times, blossom blight often being especially abundant on THE LOQUAT AND ITS RELATIVES 263 trees during the spring months. Infected twigs should be cut off well back of the diseased area and burned, care being taken to sterilize the pruning shears in alcohol or formalin after each cut so as to reduce the danger of further infection. Occasionally entire trees are killed by the blight, which gradually extends downward from the branches into the trunk, although in most cases the disease does not seem to progress much beyond the branches. Some varieties are more susceptible than others. For example, the Advance is quite resistant and the trees of the Victor, which were very susceptible when young, have in later years become more or less immune; the Champagne showed considerable blossom blight in the spring of 1914, but to no greater extent than young trees of other varieties. The trees seem to gain resistance as they grow older." In regard to the scab he says : " This is reported to be a serious disease of the loquat in Australia. The fruit is attacked when half grown by brownish black spots, which soon extend, stop its further development, and disfigure its appear- ance. The fleshy part of the fruit becomes desiccated and the skin seems to cling to the stones. A large proportion of the crop may in a short space of time be rendered absolutely un- salable. It is also well known in Italy upon the leaves. In California the scab is quite common both on nursery and bearing trees, attacking both leaves and fruit. . . . Spraying with Bordeaux mixture after the blossoms have fallen and the fruit is setting should prove an effective remedy." In Florida the flowers are sometimes blighted by the an- thracnose fungus (Colletotrichum glceosporiaides Penz.). Bor- deaux mixture, prepared according to a 3-3-50 formula, should be used to combat this disease. E. O. Essig * mentions four insects which occasionally attack the loquat in California. One of these is the well-known codlin-moth (Cydia pomonella L.). Another is the green apple 1 Injurious and Beneficial Insects of California. 264 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS aphis (Aphis pomi DeGeer), and the remaining two are scale insects, one the San Jose scale (Aspidiotus perniciosus Corn- stock), and the other the Florida wax scale (Ceroplastes flori- densis Comstock). None of these insects is a serious pest at present. In other countries the fruit is sometimes attacked by the Mediterranean fruit-fly (Ceratitis capitata Wied.) and the Queensland fruit-fly (Bactrocera tryoni Froggatt). In India the anar caterpillar (Virachola isocrates Fabr.) bores in the fruit. Varieties. The regions in which named varieties of the loquat have been developed are China, Japan, Queensland, India, Sicily, Algeria, and California. Little is known of the Chinese varieties. Frank N. Meyer observed several in his travels in China, but mentioned specif- ically only one, the pai-bibaw, or white loquat. T. Ikeda lists forty-six varieties which are cultivated in Japan, but only nine of them are important. One of them, Tanaka, has been intro- duced into the United States by David Fairchild and into Algeria by L. Trabut. Four sorts are listed by the Government Botanical Garden at Saharanpur, India, but only one, the Golden Yellow, is recommended by A. C. Hartless, Superin- tendent of the Garden. The Queensland varieties are not extensively planted, and probably are not so good as those of California. Out of five or six named forms which have origi- nated in Italy (including Sicily), not one has been planted extensively. More than fifteen varieties have been described from Algeria, but most of them have already been discarded. One, named Taza, which Trabut produced by crossing Tanaka and one of the best Algerian loquats, is considered meritorious. Most of the improved sorts at present cultivated in California and Florida have been produced by C. P. Taft of Orange, California. Taft has done more than any other man in the THE LOQUAT AND ITS RELATIVES 265 United States to improve the loquat. His method of procedure has been to grow a large number of seedlings and select the most desirable ones. In this way he has established eight named varieties, of which Champagne, Advance, Early Red, Premier, and Victor are the best. Little attention has been devoted to the classification of loquat varieties. Takeo Kusano, professor in the Imperial College of Agriculture and Forestry at Kagoshima, states that the Japanese classify them into two groups, called Chinese and Japanese. The Chinese type is large, pyriform, and deep orange-colored, while the Japanese is smaller, lighter colored, and sometimes slender in form. This classification may corre- spond to one suggested in 1908 by L. Trabut of Algiers. Trabut's two groups were defined, one as having crisp white flesh and the other orange or yellow flesh. The Chinese group, so far as is known at present, includes only late-ripening varieties. The flesh differs in texture from that of loquats belonging to the Japanese group, while the flavor is very sweet. Kusano states that Tanaka belongs to this class. The variety known in California as Thales, which is thought by some to be identical with Tanaka or very close to it, appears also to belong to the Chinese list. The Japanese group includes the loquats of California origin, such as Champagne and Premier. These fruits have not the firm meaty flesh of the Chinese group, but are more juicy, and also are distinct in flavor. The flesh is whitish or light- colored, except in the variety Early Red. The varieties described below are the important ones culti- vated in the United States at the present time. For others of minor value, the reader is referred to Condit's bulletin and to the articles by Trabut in the Revue Horticole de TAlgerie. Advance. — Shape pyriform ; size large, weight 2| ounces, length 2£ inches, breadth 1| inches; base somewhat tapering; apex narrow, the basin medium deep, narrow, abrupt, corrugated; the calyx-seg- 266 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS ments short, converging, the eye closed ; fruit-cluster large, compact ; surface downy, deep yellow in color; skin thick and tough; flesh whitish, translucent, melting and very juicy; flavor subacid, very pleasant ; quality good ; seeds commonly 4 or 5, the seed cavity not large. Season March to June at Orange, California. This variety was originated by C. P. Taft of Orange, California, in 1897. It is a productive variety, and the fruit-clusters are large and handsome. Champagne. — Shape oval to pyriform ; size large, weight 2 ounces, length 1\ inches, breadth \\ inches; base tapering, slender; apex flattened, rather narrow, the basin shallow, narrow, flaring, and the calyx-segments broad, short, the eye small, open; fruit-cluster large, loose ; surface deep yellow in color with a grayish bloom ; skin thick, tough, somewhat astringent; flesh whitish, translucent, melting, and very juicy, flavor mildly subacid, sprightly and pleasant ; quality very good ; seeds 3 or 4, the seed cavity not large. Season late April and May at Orange, Cali- fornia. Originated by C. P. Taft at Orange, Cali- fornia, in 1908. Taft considers it superior to his other varieties in flavor. It is preco- cious and productive. FIG 32 The Premier Early Red. — Shape oval pyriform to ob- loquat, of California origin lonS PY^orm ; size medium large, weight 2 which has been planted ounces, length 2 finches, breadth If inches ; commercially. (X i) base tapering slightly ; apex broad, flattened, with the basin shallow, narrow, abrupt, the calyx-segments short, broad, the eye small and closed; fruit-cluster compact ; surface yellowish orange, tinged with red in the fully ripe fruit ; skin thick, tough, acid ; flesh pale orange, translucent, melting and very juicy; flavor very sweet, pleasant; quality good; seeds 2 or 3, the seed cavity not large. Season February to April at Orange, California. The Early Red loquat was originated by C. P. Taft of Orange, Cali- fornia, in 1909. This is the earliest variety known in California. It is valuable for commercial cultivation in regions that are free from severe frosts. Premier (Fig. 32). — Shape oval to oblong-pyrif orm ; size large, weight 1\ ounces, length 1\ inches, breadth If inches; base tapering slightly ; apex flattened, the basin shallow, moderately broad, rounded, the calyx-segments short, the eye large, nearly open ; surface orange- yellow to salmon-orange in color, downy ; skin moderately thick and tough ; flesh whitish, translucent, melting and juicy ; flavor subacid, pleasant ; quality good ; seeds 4 or 5, the seed cavity not large. Season April and May at Orange, California. THE LOQUAT AND ITS RELATIVES 267 Originated by C. P. Taf t of Orange, California, in 1899. It is a good variety for home use, but not a good shipper. Tanaka. — Shape commonly obovoid, weight 2 to 3 ounces. L. Trabut says of it: "Tanaka is characterized by a beautiful color, remarkable size, firm flesh of rich color, agreeable perfume, and little acidity. The proportion of flesh to seeds is large. This loquat owes to the consistence of its flesh unusual keeping quality, — it can be handled without turning black. Left for a week it wrinkles and dries but does not rot. Among the plants, grafted on quince, which were introduced from Japan, two subvari- eties can be distinguished ; one with pear- shaped fruits, the other subspherical. Tanaka is vigorous, the leaf a little narrower thaninourloquats. The tree is productive." FJG 33 Thaleg ^ Tanaka is famed as the largest loquat m iate-ripening, large, and of ex- Japan, and one of the best. It has been cellent quality. (X about £) planted in Algeria and in California. Tholes (Fig. 33). — Shape round to pyriform; size large, weight 2\ to 2f ounces, length 2f inches, breadth 1 f to 2 inches ; base rounded ; apex flattened, the basin shallow and flaring, the calyx-segments broad and short, eye open or closed; surface yellow-orange to orange in color; skin not thick, tender; flesh orange-colored, firm and meaty, juicy ; flavor sweet, suggesting the apricot ; quality good ; seeds 4 or 5, the seed cavity not large. Season April to June at Placentia, California. Syns. Placentia Giant, Gold Nvgget. Introduced into California, without name, from Japan betwen 1880 and 1890. It is a large, hand- some fruit, and possesses unusually good shipping qualities. It is considered to be very close to Tanaka, if not synonymous with that variety. Victor (Fig. 34). — Shape oblong-pyri- form; size large, weight 1\ ounces, length 1\ inches, breadth If inches ; base tapering slightly; apex slightly flattened, with a shallow, flaring basin; fruit-cluster large, loose; surface deep yellow in color; skin moderately thick and tough ; flesh whitish,- translucent, melting, very juicy; flavor sweet, not very rich; quality good; seeds 3 to 5, the seed cavity medium-sized. The season of this variety is May and June at Orange, California. Originated by C. P. Taft of Orange, California, in 1899. A large and showy fruit, but not considered valuable in California because it ripens late in the season. It is considered especially good for canning. FIG. 34. quat. The Victor lo- (X about i) 268 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS THE CAPULIN (Plate XIII) (Prunus salicifolia, HBK.) One of the best rosaceous fruits of tropical countries is the capulin or wild cherry of Central America and northern South America. In its present wild and semi-wild state a fruit of fairly good quality, it would seem that with a little attention from plant-breeders it might become a valuable addition to the list of fruits suitable for moist subtropical regions. Geographi- cally it is a tropical fruit, but in climatic requirements it is distinctly subtropical, for it does not thrive upon the tropical littoral, but grows in cool mountain regions at elevations of 4000 to 9000 feet. It should, therefore, be sufficiently hardy to permit of cultivation as far north as California, Florida, and the Gulf states, and it may also be of value for northern India, southern Brazil, and similar regions. The botany of this species is confused. It seems to differ very little from the Prunus Capollin, Zucc., of Mexico (P. Capuli, Cav., Cerasus Capollin, DC) ; possibly the two are identical. Prunus Capollin is abundant in the Mexican high- lands, where it is an important fruit. Prunus salicifolia is supposed to be found only in South America, but specimens collected in Guatemala have been identified as of this species. Horticulturally there is little difference between the capulins of Mexico and those of Central America. The name is taken from the Nahuatl language of Mexico. In Spanish the fruit is often termed cereza (cherry). The tree is erect, often somewhat slender, and reaches a height of 30 feet. The trunk is stout, reaching as much as 3 feet in thickness, with bark rough and grayish. The leaves, which are borne upon slender petioles f inch long, are commonly 4J inches in length, oblong-lanceolate in outline, with a long slender tip, and are deep green on the upper surface, glaucous THE LOQUAT AND ITS RELATIVES 269 below, with margins finely serrate. The flowers, which in Guatemala are produced from January to May, are white, about f of an inch broad, very numerous, on slender racemes 2 to 4 inches long. As many as fifteen or twenty fruits sometimes develop on a raceme, but half or more fall before reaching matur- ity. The ripening season in Guatemala is May to September. The fruits resemble northern cherries in appearance ; they are \ to | inch in diameter, and deep, glossy, maroon-purple in color. The skin is thin and tender, though sufficiently firm for the fruit not to be easily injured by handling. The flesh is pale green, meaty, and full of juice, and the flavor sweet, suggestive of the Bigarreau type of cherry, with a trace of bitterness in the skin. The stone is rather large in proportion to the size of the fruit. Pleasant to eat out of hand, this cherry can also be used in various other ways, — stewed, preserved whole, or made into jam. In the highlands of Guatemala, where it is abundant, it is usually eaten as a fresh fruit or made into a sweet preserve. While not equal to the cultivated cherries of the North, — fruits which have been produced by generations of selection and vegetative propagation, — the capulin is a fruit of remarkably good quality for one which has never had the benefit of in- telligent cultivation and has been propagated only by seed. Naturally, some trees produce much better fruit than others, and it will be worth while to select the best seedling forms now existing in tropical America and propagate them by budding or grafting. THE MANZANILLA (Plate XIII) (Cratsegus spp.) The manzanilla of Guatemala and the tejocote of Mexico are fruits so similar in character that they may perhaps belong to one species; the former is considered at present to be Cratcegus stipulosa, Steud., and the latter C. mexicana, Mo?. & 270 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS Sesse. It may be allowable to use the common name manzanilla (the diminutive of the Spanish manzana, hence little apple) for both, since it is better adapted to the English language than the Mexican tejocote (from the Nahuatl texocotl, meaning stone-plum) . According to Gabriel Alcocer, Cratagus stipulosa is found in Mexico as well as in Guatemala. The manzanilla closely resembles some of the northern haws in appearance, but it is a larger fruit than most of the latter. It occurs only in the highlands, at elevations of 3000 to 9000 feet. It withstands heavy frosts unharmed, and should be suitable for cultivation in subtropical regions with rather dry climates. It has done well in southern California, where it was introduced some years ago by F. Franceschi under the name Cratcegus guatemalensis. The plant is variable in habit, in some cases shrubby, in others becoming a small tree, with a short thick trunk. Com- monly it is seen as an erect slender tree about 20 feet high. In spring it produces white flowers resembling those of the apple. In early fall, beginning about October, the yellow fruits ripen and remain abundant in the markets of Mexico and Guatemala until Christmas. They resemble small apples in appearance. The largest specimens are nearly 2 inches in diameter, but the average size is not over 1 inch. The flesh is mealy in texture, and not so juicy nor so sprightly in flavor as that of a good apple. The seeds, commonly three in number, are rather large. The fruits, which are much used for decorative purposes, are eaten in the form of jelly and preserves. For stewing, they are first boiled with wood-ashes, by which means the skin is easily removed ; they are then placed in hot sirup and boiled for a short time. The flavor of the cooked fruit suggests that of stewed apples. The plant is simple of culture. It grows most commonly on heavy soil and does not require a large amount of water. Propagation is usually by seed, but it would be an easy matter THE LOQUAT AND ITS RELATIVES 271 to bud or graft superior varieties. Both in Mexico and in Guatemala the European pear is sometimes top- worked on the manzanilla by cleft-grafting. THE ICACO (Chrysobalanus Icaco, L.) Although not a fruit of great value, the icaco is extensively used in the tropics, especially by the poorer classes. It is abundant along the seacoasts of tropical America as a wild plant, and is frequently planted in gardens. In southern Florida, where it is known as coco-plum, it is not considered valuable. In Cuba, where the Spanish name icaco (often spelled hicaco and jicaco) is current, the wild fruit is gathered and made into a sweet preserve, which is served in Habana restaurants as a sobremesa or dessert. In Brazil, where it is called uajuru, its use is limited. It is said to occur in Africa as well as in America. The icaco is a large shrub or small tree, attaining a maximum height of 25 or 30 feet. When grown as a shrub it is rather ornamental and it is sometimes planted for this reason. The leaves are obovate or obcordate in outline, about 2 inches long, thick, glossy, and deep green in color. The flowers are small and white, in axillary racemes or cymes. The fruit resembles a large plum in appearance, being oval, 1^ inches long, and pinkish white, magenta-red, or almost black in color. The skin is thin, and the white flesh, which is cottony and of insipid taste, adheres closely to the large oblong seed. Jacques Huber says that the icaco grows wild in the Amazon region on dry sandy soils. In other parts of tropical America it is often found on moist rich ground. It is propagated only by seed. While there is hope of improving the quality of the fruit through selection, it is doubtful, in view of the abundance of more promising subjects, whether the species would repay attention. The plant is easily grown and withstands light frosts. CHAPTER IX FRUITS OF THE MYRTLE FAMILY THE myrtaceous fruits comprise an interesting lot of aromatic things, and with blossoms bearing many long and conspicu- ous stamens. The Myrtacese include many of the spices, as clove, cinnamon, allspice, nutmeg. The eucalyptus belongs here; also such ornamental plants as myrtus, callistemon, metrosideros, melaleuca. The guava is the most important pomological fruit of the family. Most of the guavas belong to what is usually considered to be a single species, although several Latin names have been applied in the group. THE GUAVA (Fig. 35) (Psidium Giwjava, L.) The guava, while useful in many ways, is preeminently a fruit for jelly-making and other culinary purposes. To the horticulturist the species is admirable as being one of the least exacting of all tropical fruits in cultural requirements, for it grows and fruits under such unfavorable conditions, and spreads so rapidly by means of its seeds, that it has in truth become a pest in some regions. It is a fruit of commercial importance in many countries, and one whose culture promises to become even more extensive than it is at present, for guava jelly is generally agreed to be facile princeps of its kind, and is certain to find increasing appreciation in the Temperate Zone. 272 FRUITS OF THE MYRTLE FAMILY 273 The first account of the guava was written in 1526 by Gonzalo Hernandez de Oviedo, and published in his " Natural History of the Indies." Oviedo says : "The guayabo is a handsome tree, with a leaf like that of the mulberry, but smaller, and the flowers are fragrant, espe- cially those of a cer- tain kind of these guayabos; it bears an apple more substantial than those of Spain, and of greater weight even when of the same size, and it contains many seeds, or more properly speaking, it is full of small hard stones, and to those who are not used to eating the fruit these stones are sometimes trouble- some; but to those familiar with it, the fruit is beautiful and appetizing, and some are red within, others white ; and I have seen the best ones in the Isthmus of Darien and nearby on the main- Fio. 35. The common guava of the tropics (Psidium Guajava), an American plant which has become naturalized in southern Asia and else- where. (X |) land ; those of the islands are not so good, and persons who are accustomed to it esteem it as a very good fruit, much better than the apple." The guava is an arborescent shrub or small tree, sometimes growing to 25 or 30 feet. The trunk is slender, with greenish- 274 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS brown scaly bark. The young branchlets are quadrangular. The leaves are oblong-elliptic to oval in outline, 3 to 6 inches long, acute to rounded at the apex, finely pubescent below, with the venation conspicuously impressed on the upper surface. Flowers are produced on branchlets of recent growth, and are an inch broad, white, solitary, or several together upon a slender peduncle. The calyx splits into irregular segments; the four petals are oval, delicate in texture. In the center of the flower is a brush-like cluster of long stamens. The fruit is round, ovoid, or pyriform, 1 to 4 inches in length, commonly yellow in color, with flesh varying from white to deep pink or salmon-red. Numerous small, reniform, hard seeds are embedded in the soft flesh toward the center of the fruit. The flavor is sweet, musky, and very distinctive in character, and the ripe fruit is aromatic in a high degree. The native home of the guava is in tropical America. The exact extent of its distribution in pre-Columbian days is not known. In the opinion of Alphonse DeCandolle, it occurred from Mexico to Peru. In the former country the Aztec name for it was xalxocotl, meaning sand-plum, probably a reference to the gritty character of the flesh. The name guayaba (whence the English guava) is believed to be of Haitian origin. The plant was carried at an early day to India, where it has become naturalized in several places. It is now cultivated throughout the Orient. In Hawaii it has become thoroughly naturalized. Occasional specimens are said to be found along the Mediter- ranean coast of France, and in Algeria. In short, the guava is well distributed throughout the tropics and sub tropics. In the United States, the two regions in which guavas can be grown are Florida and southern California. The plant is said by P. W. Reasoner to have been introduced into the former state from Cuba in 1847. It is now naturalized there in many places and cultivated in many gardens. It is successful as far north as the Pinellas peninsula on the west coast and FRUITS OF THE MYRTLE FAMILY 275 Cape Canaveral on the east, but has been grown even farther north. If frozen down to the ground, the plant sends up sprouts which make rapid growth and produce fruit in two years. In California the species has not become common, as it has in Florida, nor is it suited to so wide a range of territory in the former as in the latter state. Accordingly it can only be grown successfully in California in protected situations. At Hollywood, at Santa Barbara, at Orange, and in other localities it grows and fruits well, although occasional severe frosts may kill the young branches. Guayaba is the common name of Psidium Guajava throughout the Spanish-speaking parts of tropical America. The French have adopted this in the form goyave, the Germans as guajava, and the Portuguese as goiaba. The latter name is used in Brazil, where the indigenous name (Tupi language) is araqd guaqu (large ara£u) . In the Orient there are many local names, some of them derived from the American guayaba. The commonest Hindustani name, amrud, means "pear." The term safari am, meaning "journey mango," is also current in Hindustani. The two species Psidium pyriferum and P. pomiferum of Linnaeus are now considered to be the pear-shaped and round varieties of P. Guajava. They represent two of the many variations which occur in this species. The pear-shaped forms are often called pear-guava, and the round ones apple-guava. A large white-fleshed kind was formerly sold by Florida nursery- men under the name Psidium guineense, and in California as P. guianense; but it is now known to be a horticultural form of P. Guajava , as is also a round, red-fleshed variety introduced into California under the name P. aromaticum. The true P. guineense, Sw. (see below) has been itself confused with P. Guajava, but can be distinguished from it by its branchlets, which are compressed-cylindrical in place of quadrangular, and by the number of the transverse veins, which is less than in the latter-named species. 276 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS The fruit is eaten in many ways, out of hand, sliced with cream, stewed, preserved, and in shortcakes and pies. Com- mercially it is used to make the well-known guava jelly and other products. When well made, guava jelly is deep wine- colored, clear, of very firm consistency, and retains something of the pungent musky flavor which characterizes the fresh fruit. In Brazil a thick jam, known as goiabada, is manufac- tured and sold extensively. A similar product is made in Florida and the West Indies under the name of guava cheese or guava paste. An analysis at the University of California showed the ripe fruit to contain : Water 84.08 per cent, ash 0.67, protein 0.76, fiber 5.57, total sugars 5.45 (sucrose none), starch, etc., 2.54, fat 0.95. The guava succeeds on nearly every type of soil. In Cuba it does well on red clay, in California it has been grown on adobe, and in Florida it thrives on soils which are very light and sandy. While not strictly tropical in its requirements, it can scarcely be called subtropical. It is found in the tropics at all elevations from sea-level to 5000 feet, and it withstands light frosts in California and Florida. Mature plants have been injured by temperatures of 28° or 29°, but the vitality of the guava is so great that it quickly recovers from frosts which may seem to have damaged it severely. Young plants, how- ever, may be killed by temperatures of only one or two degrees below freezing. As regards moisture, writers in India report that the guava prefers a rather dry climate. The plants may be set from 10 to 15 feet apart, the latter distance being preferable. They should be mulched with weeds, grass, or other loose material immediately after planting. In certain parts of India, where guava cultivation is conducted commercially on an extensive scale, it is the custom to set the plants 18 to 24 feet apart. Holes 2 feet wide and deep are prepared to receive the trees. Occasionally the soil is tilled and once a year each plant is given about 20 pounds of barn- FRUITS OF THE MYRTLE FAMILY 277 yard manure. During the dry season the orchard is irrigated every ten days. Very little pruning is done. Seedling guavas do not necessarily produce fruit identical with that from which they sprang. It is the custom in most regions to propagate the guava only by seed, but choice varieties which originate as chance seedlings can be perpetuated only by some vegetative means of propagation, such as budding or grafting. Although the seeds retain their viability for many months, they should be planted as soon after their removal from the fruit as possible. They may be sown in flats or pans of light sandy loam and covered to the depth of i inch. When the young plants appear they should not be watered too lib- erally. After they have made their second leaves, they may be transferred into small pots. Since they are somewhat difficult to transplant from the open ground, they had better be carried along in pots until ready to be planted in the orchard. The proper season for planting varies in different regions; in India it is said to be July or August ; in California it is April and May; while in Florida October and March are good months. Both shield-budding and patch-budding are successful with the guava. Shield-budding is the better method of the two. P. J. Wester, who says that the guava was first budded, so far as known, in 1894 by H. J. Webber at Bradentown, Florida, describes the method in the Philippine Agricultural Review for September, 1914. He states that budding should be per- formed in winter. WThile it has been done successfully as late as May, the months from November to April are the best (in the southern hemisphere the season would, of course, be at the opposite time of year). The stock-plants should be young; it is best to use them just as soon as they are large enough to receive the bud. When inserted in old stocks the buds do not sprout readily. The method of budding is the same as that 278 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS described for the avocado and mango. The bud wood should be so far mature that the green color shall have disappeared from the bark. The buds should be cut 1 to 1 J inches long. Patch-budding has been successful in California when large stock-plants have been used. They should have stems 1 inch in diameter, and the buds should be cut 1| inches in length, square or oblong in form. Propagation by cuttings is also possible if half-ripened wood is used and bottom-heat is avail- able. A simple method of propagation, which may be employed when it is desired to obtain a limited number of plants from a bush producing fruits of particularly choice quality, is as follows : With a sharp spade cut into the soil two or three feet from the tree, severing the roots which extend outward from the trunk. Sprouts will soon make then- appearance. When they are of suitable size they may be transplanted to permanent positions. They will, of course, reproduce the parent variety as faithfully as a bud or graft. The guava is a heavy bearer and ripens its fruit during a long season. In some regions guavas are obtainable throughout the year, though not always in large quantities. Seedlings come into bearing at three or four years of age ; budded plants may bear fruit the second year after they are planted in the orchard. Indian horticulturists state that the plants bear heavily for fifteen to twenty-five years, and thereafter gradually decline in production. The guava is not a long-lived plant, but may live and bear fruit for forty years or more. The season of ripening in India is November to January ; in Florida and the West Indies it is in late summer and autumn. The guava is subject to the attacks of numerous insect and fungous enemies. The list of scale insects injurious to it is a particularly long one, including numerous species belonging to the genera Aspidiotus, Ceroplastes, Icerya, Pseudococcus, Pulvinaria, and Saissetia. All of these can be held in check by FRUITS OF THE MYRTLE FAMILY 279 the usual means, i.e., spraying with kerosene emulsion or some other insecticide, but little attention is given to this matter in most tropical countries. The fruit-flies, including species of Anastrepha, Ceratitis, and Dacus, cause serious trouble in many regions. It is said that 80 per cent of the guavas pro- duced in Hawaii have in some seasons been infested with the larvse of the Mediterranean fruit-fly (Ceratitis capitata Wied.). The guava fruit-rot, a species of Glomerella, is a common fungous disease in some places. There are other pests, some of them serious, which the guava-grower may have to combat. Within the species there evidently exist more or less well- defined races, each of which includes many seedling variations. Of true horticultural varieties, propagated by cutting or graft- ing, there are as yet practically none. The so-called varieties listed in different regions are presumably seedling races. Indian nurserymen distinguish a number of forms, such as "smooth green," "red-fleshed," Karalia, Mirzapuri, and Allahabad. In the United States, seedlings are offered of the Allahabad guava, and of forms termed Brazilian, Peruvian, lemon, pear, smooth green, snow-white, sour, Perico, and Guinea. The number of such forms which could be listed is considerable. The Guinea variety, a white-fleshed, sweet-fruited guava with few seeds, has been propagated in California by budding, but it has not been planted extensively. THE STRAWBERRY GUAVA (Fig. 36) (Psidium Cattleianum, Sabine) Unlike the preceding species, the strawberry guava is sub- tropical in its requirements, and can be grown wherever the orange succeeds. It is ornamental in appearance, and for this reason has become a favorite garden-shrub in many regions. Though somewhat less valuable than the tropical guava for 280 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS the commercial production of guava jelly, the fruit is popular with housewives and is put to several uses. The strawberry guava is ordinarily a bushy shrub, but some- times becomes a small tree up to 25 feet high. The bark is smooth, gray-brown in color, and the young branchlets are cylindrical (not quadran- gular as in P. Guajava). The leaves are elliptic to obovate in outline, acute, 2 to 3 inches long, thick and leathery in texture, somewhat glossy, and deep green in color. The flow- ers, which are produced singly upon axillary ped- uncles, are white, and nearly an inch broad. The calyx is obscurely lobed ; the corolla is com- posed of four orbicular petals. The numerous stamens are clustered at the bases of the calyx lobes. The fruit is obovate to round in form, 1 to If FIG. 36. The strawberry guava (Psidium inches in diameter, pur- species than the pHsh re.d in coi°r- with a thin skin; the soft flesh, which is white toward the center, contains numerous hard seeds. The flavor is sweet and aromatic, suggesting that of the strawberry (whence the common name). It has not the pronounced muskiness of P. Guajava, and for this reason is preferred by some. . The strawberry guava is a native of Brazil, whence it was FRUITS OF THE MYRTLE FAMILY 281 carried to southern China at an early period, presumably by the Portuguese. From China it was taken to Europe, where it was for some time considered to be native to China and hence was called Chinese guava. It has been planted in India, but is not widely known in that country. According to H. F. Mac- millan, in Ceylon it thrives at elevations of 2000 to 4000 feet. In the Mediterranean region it succeeds in southern France, Spain, Algeria, and elsewhere. It is grown in Hawaii, but is not common there. In Mexico, Central America, and the West Indies it is occasionally seen in gardens. In Brazil, its native home, it is nowhere extensively cultivated. In the United States it thrives in both Florida and California. Besides the name strawberry guava, the terms Cattley guava and Chinese guava are sometimes applied to this species. In Brazil it is known as aracd da praia and aracd vermelho. Nurserymen in the United States have sent out seedling races or horticultural forms of this species under several botanical names ; the yellow-fruited form (variety lucidum of horticulture) has been listed as Psidium lucidum, P. chinense, and P. sinense. A form distributed in California under the name P. acre, Ten., has proved to be identical with the yellow-fruited strawberry guava, except in its elongated fruits. Otto Berg considered P. Cattleianum and P. littorak, Raddi, synonyms of P. variabile, Berg ; more recently, however, the two last-named species have been included under P. Cattleianum. A large-fruited guava which appears to be nothing more than a form of this species has been distributed in California under the name Psidium Aracd. It is similar to the yellow-fruited strawberry guava, except in its larger and broader leaves, larger fruit, and fewer seeds. The fruit is used principally for jelly-making, but is some- times eaten out of hand. An analysis made at the University of California showed the ripe fruit to contain : Water 79.42 per cent, ash 0.77, protein 0.88, fiber 6.58, total sugars 5.06, starch, etc., 6.49, and fat 0.80. 282 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS Like other species of Psidium, the strawberry guava succeeds on a wide variety of soils. A rich sandy loam seems to suit it best, but it grows well on red clay and on adobe. It is not quite so successful on shallow sandy soils. The mature plant withstands severe frosts without serious injury; temperatures of 22° above zero have not killed it. A dry climate suits it better than a moist one, if the soil is irrigated with reasonable frequency. It is fairly drought-resistant. Young plants 12 inches high may be set in the open ground in the positions they are to occupy permanently. They may be spaced 10 X 10 feet in California, but in the tropics, and on rich soil, they should be somewhat farther apart. They require the same cultural treatment as the tropical guava. During the first few years the plants retain a compact bushy form ; later they may develop trunks and become small trees. They need very little pruning. Propagation is usually by seed, which method is more satis- factory with the strawberry guava than it is with many other of the fruits here discussed, since there is less variation among seedlings. Particularly choice varieties cannot, however, be propagated by this means. Cuttings are sometimes grown, and the species may be budded in the same manner as Psidium Guajava. Seeds are germinated as in that species. The plants come into bearing very early and should pro- duce a few fruits the second or third year after planting. Their growth is slow; hence good crops cannot be expected until the plants are five or six years old. The season of ripening in Florida and California is from August to October. The strawberry guava suffers much less from the attacks of insect parasites than does the tropical guava. As a garden plant in California and Florida it has thus far been subject to few pests. No horticultural varieties have as yet been established. The seedling race or botanical variety lucidum, known as the Chinese FRUITS OF THE MYRTLE FAMILY 283 or yellow Cattley guava, differs from the typical strawberry guava in its sulfur-yellow colbr and more delicate flavor. It is very productive, and so far as is known, comes true when grown from seed. OTHER GUAVAS Costa Rican guava (Psidium Friedrichsthalianum, Ndz.). This is a species from Central America which recently has been introduced into California, Florida, and a few other regions. In the countries where it is native it is found occasionally in gardens, but nowhere is it cultivated extensively. Its fruit is highly acid and is valued for jelly-making. The tree is erect, about 25 feet high, with slender trunk and branches. The young branchlets are wiry, quadrangular and reddish in color. The leaves are elliptic, oblong-elliptic, or oval in form, 1J to 3 inches long, acuminate at the apex, almost glossy on the upper surface and puberulent on the lower. The flowers are produced singly on slender peduncles; they are white, fragrant, and about an inch broad. The calyx is closed, but splits into irregular segments when the flower expands. The petals, five in number, are waxy in appearance. The fruit is round or oval in form, and 1 \ to 2i inches long, sulfur-yellow in color, with comparatively few seeds, and soft white flesh of acid flavor with none of the musky aroma which characterizes some of the other guavas. In Costa Rica the indigenous name for this fruit is cos. A plant which has been introduced into the United States from the island of Trinidad under the name Psidium laurifolium is evidently P. Friedrichsthalianum. When planted in southern Florida it has grown well, but in southern California it has usually been killed by frost. Plants in Florida have not borne heavy crops, and the species does not seem to possess great promise for that state. 284 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS Guisaro (Psidium molle, Bertol.). This shrub from southern Mexico and Central America is now cultivated in a few gardens in southern California and southern Florida. The acid fruits, smaller than those of the Costa Rican guava, are used only for jelly-making. The plant is of slender habit, and rarely grows more than 10 feet high. The young branchlets, peduncles, and lower surfaces of the leaves are reddish-velvety, which makes it easy to dis- tinguish the species from P. Guajava. The leaves are oblong- oval, 3 to 5 inches long, obtuse at the apex, and rather stiff. The flowers, of which three are commonly borne upon each peduncle, resemble those of the common guava (P. Guajava). The fruit is round, about 1 inch in diameter, yellowish green to pale yellow in color, with whitish flesh containing numerous small hard seeds. The flavor is acid with little of the muski- ness which characterizes some other guavas. This is the chamach of northern Guatemala, often called guayaba acida in Spanish. In California it has proved to be hardier than P. Guajava and of simple culture. In Florida some plants have not borne good crops while others have been productive. It cannot be considered a valuable species. Brazilian guava (Psidium guineense, Sw.). While this species is scarcely known horticulturally, so much confusion has existed regarding its identity that it seems desirable to include it here. As was stated on a former page, the guava which has been disseminated in Florida under this name is properly a horticultural form of P. Guajava; the true P. guineense may have been planted in a few Florida gardens, but it is not well known in that state. It is grown in Cuba, although not widely, so far as is known. The shrub is of slender habit. The young branchlets are com- pressed-cylindrical and finely hairy. The leaves are oblong- FRUITS OF THE MYRTLE FAMILY 285 oval, acute or obtuse, 3 to 5 inches long, with the lower surfaces pubescent. The flowers, of which one to three are borne upon a single peduncle, resemble those of P. Guajava. The fruit is round or nearly so, 1 to li inches in diameter, greenish-yellow and rather hard when ripe, with whitish flesh containing numer- ous small seeds. The flavor is subacid, and not so musky as that of P. Guajava. This guava was considered by Swartz, who first described it, to be indigenous to Africa, but more recent knowledge shows this to be improbable. P. Araqa, Raddi, is a synonym of this species. In Brazil many wild guavas are known by the indige- nous (Tupi) name ara$d, a fact which has led North American nurserymen, who have obtained seeds from that country, to apply the name P. Ara • V • _r i grows in the Malayan round, I to 2 inches in diameter, velvety Archipelago, (x }) and straw-colored, with a thick leathery skin inclosing five segments of white, translucent, juicy, aromatic flesh, and one to three large seeds. The tree is cultivated in many islands of the Malay Archipelago and in the Philippines. Regarding its importance in the latter region, P. J. Wester writes : " The lanzone is extensively grown for the Manila mar- ket in Laguna Province, east of Santa Cruz, and is also cultivated to a considerable extent in Misamis, Zamboanga, the Sulu Archipelago, and around Argao in Cebu." As indicated by Wester's note the common name in the Philippines is lanzone (often spelled lanzori). In the Malay Archipelago the forms lansa and lanseh are sometimes seen, and also the nameayer-ayer. While it is most commonly eaten out of hand, the culinary uses of the fruit are several. The edible portion is said 428 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS to contain 1.13 per cent of protein, 1 of acid, and 4.9 of sugar. In its climatic requirements the plant is distinctly tropical. Wester says : " The lanzone is of vigorous growth and succeeds best under somewhat the same climatic conditions as the mangosteen. It will not grow where there is a pronounced or prolonged dry season, and in the Philippines it is usually grown in half-shade interplanted with the coconut." Experi- ments indicate that it is not suitable for cultivation in Florida or California, the climate of both states probably being too cold for it. In Cuba and the Isle of Pines it has shown more promise. Little is known regarding cultural methods, since the lang- sat usually occurs in the Malayan region as a dooryard tree, or along roadsides, where it receives no cultural attention. Propagation is commonly by seeds, which should be planted as soon as possible after they are removed from the fruit ; but Wester has shown that cleft- and side-grafting are successful, and one or the other of these methods should be used to propa- gate choice varieties, and to insure early fruiting. \Yester says : "The cion should be well matured but not of old growth, 2J to 3J inches long, J to f inch in diameter, and inserted in the stock 2J to 4 inches above ground ; when at that height it is J to | inch in diameter ; cover all wounds with grafting wax. Shield-budding has been done but the percentage of successful buds is small." The langsat occurs in two distinct forms, one termed langsat and the other duku or doekoe. The typical langsat is borne in clusters of five or six up to twenty or thirty, and the individ- ual fruits are round or oval in form, about an inch long, with a comparatively thin skin. The duku is produced in small clusters of two to five fruits, and is round, from 1 to 2 inches in diameter, with a thicker, darker-colored skin more leathery than that of the langsat. MISCELLANEOUS FRUITS 429 THE CARAMBOLA (Fig. 55) (Averrhoa Carambola, L.) "There is another fruit called Carambola," wrote the Dutch traveler Linschoten in 1598, "which hath 8 corners, as bigge as a smal aple, sower in eating, like unripe plums, and most used to make Con- serues." The Chinese and the Hindus eat the carambola when green as a vegetable, when ripe as a dessert. It is widely distributed in the tropics, but in America it is not so highly esteemed as in the Orient. The tree is small, handsome, and grows up to 30 feet in height. It has compound leaves composed of two to five pau*s of ovate or ovate- lanceolate leaflets, rounded at the base and acute to acuminate at the apex, H to 3 inches long, glabrous, light green above and glau- cous below. The small white or purplish flowers are borne in short racemes from the bark of the young and old branches. The petals are five ; the stamens ten, but five are without anthers. The fruit is oval or elliptic in outline, translucent yellow or pale golden brown in FIG. 55. A flowering and fruiting branch of carambola (Averrhoa Carambola), an Asiatic fruit sometimes cultivated in tropical America. 430 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS color, 3 to 5 inches long, and three-, four-, or five-ribbed longi- tudinally, so that a cross-section is star-shaped. "It contains a clear watery pulp," writes W. E. Safford, "astringent when green and tasting like sorrel or green gooseberries, but pleasantly acid when ripe, or even sweet, with an agreeable fruity flavor, and a strong perfume like that of the quince." While the native home of this species is not definitely known, it is believed to be indigenous to the Malayan region, whence it was early brought to America. It is now cultivated in southern China, and from there westward to India. Safford states that it grows in Guam, but is not common. It also grows in the Philippines and in Hawaii. In America it is most abundant in Brazil, where it was doubtless introduced by the Portuguese. It does not grow in California, but succeeds in southern Florida. E. N. Reasoner has a handsome specimen in his tropical fruit shed at Oneco, near Bradentown, a place which would be too cold for the species were it not given some protection during the winter. It is rare on the lower east coast of Florida. The name carambola is said to have come from Malabar, and was early adopted by the Portuguese. In upper India the fruit is called kamranga or kamrakh. The presence of a Sanskrit name, karmara, and the accounts of early writers, indicate that the plant was known in India before the time of European colonization. The Chinese are said to call the fruit yongfo or foreign peach. In the Philippines it is termed balimbing as well as carambola; in Guam bilimbines. The fruits, when fully ripe, are eaten out of hand, or they may be stewed. When slightly unripe they are used for jelly and pickles. Like the bilimbi, the carambola contains potas- sium oxalate, and for this reason the unripe fruit is used in dyeing and to remove iron-rust. In southern China caram- bolas are preserved in tin and exported to other countries. An analysis made in Hawaii by Alice R. Thompson shows the MISCELLANEOUS FRUITS 431 ripe fruit of the sweet variety to contain : Total solids 8.22 per cent, ash 0.42, acids 0.78, protein 0.71, total sugars 3.40, fat 0.75, and fiber 1.23. In its climatic requirements the tree may be considered tropical. It withstands very little frost and when young is injured by temperatures above the freezing-point. It prefers a warm moist climate and a deep rich soil, but it can be grown successfully on sandy soils and heavy clays, and in northern India it thrives where the climate is dry. Cold is the limit- ing factor in California and Florida ; in the latter state it may succeed from Palm Beach southwards, but plants have often failed to grow at Miami. When young the carambola is deli- cate and requires careful attention. Safford states that the tree is long-lived and a constant bearer, producing, in Guam, several crops a year. Father Tavares writes of its behavior in Brazil : " During the entire year it loads itself with successive crops of flowers and fruits, except for a short period when it is devoid of foliage." Propagation is readily effected by means of seeds, and P. J. Wester has shown that budding is successful. He states that budwood should be beyond the tender stage, but not so old that it is brittle. It should not be used if the petioles have fallen. The buds should be cut an inch in length, and inserted in inverted T-incisions, the operation of budding being essen- tially the same as with the avocado. No horticultural varieties of the carambola are yet estab- lished. Sweet and sour seedling forms are sometimes recognized. THE BILIMBI (Averrhoa Bilimbi, L.) Like its congener the carambola, this tree is probably a native of the Malayan region, but it is known only as a culti- vated species. The fruit is too highly acid to be eaten out of 432 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS hand ; it may be pickled in the same manner as the cucumber, which it resembles in appearance; it may be preserved in sirup ; or it may be used as a relish with meat or fish. The tree, which grows to about 30 feet in height, may be distinguished readily from the carambola by its larger leaves, which have five to seventeen pairs of leaflets in place of two to five. The crimson flowers have ten stamens, all perfect. The fruit, known in different regions as bilambu, balimbing, blimbing, blimbee, and camias, is cylindrical or obscurely five- angled, 2 to 4 inches long, greenish yellow and translucent when ripe, with soft juicy flesh containing a few small flattened seeds. The requirements of the tree are much the same as those of the carambola. It is usually propagated by seeds. P. J. Wester reported that attempts to bud it were not successful. No horticultural varieties are grown. THE TAMARIND (Fig. 56) (Tamarindus indica, L.) In addition to the usefulness of its fruit, the tamarind has the advantage of being one of the best ornamental trees of the tropics. It is particularly valued in semi-arid regions, where it grows luxuriantly if supplied with water at the root. From India to Brazil, its huge dome-shaped head of graceful foliage enlightens many a dreary scene. The fruit became known in Europe in the Middle Ages. Marco Polo mentioned it in 1298, but it was not until Garcia d'Orta correctly described it in 1563 that its true source was known; it was thought at first to be produced by an Indian palm. The New England sea-captains who traded with the West Indies in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries fre- quently brought the preserved fruit to Boston from Jamaica and other islands, but in recent years it has become scarcely MISCELLANEOUS FRUITS 433 known in the United States. In Arabia and India, however, it is a product of considerable importance. When grown on deep rich soils the tree may attain to 80 feet in height, with a trunk 25 feet in circumference. The small pale green leaves are abruptly pinnate, with ten to twenty pairs of opposite, oblong, ob- tuse leaflets, soft and about J inch long. The pale yellow flowers, which are borne in small lax racemes, are about 1 inch broad. The petals are five, but the lower two are re- duced to bristles. The fruit is a pod, cinnamon- brown in color, 3 to 8 inches long, flattened, and \ to 1 inch in breadth. Within its brittle covering are several obovate com- pressed seeds sur- rounded by brown pulp of acid taste. The tamarind is be- lieved to be indigenous to tropical Africa and (according to some authors) southern Asia. It has long been cultivated in India and it was early introduced into tropical America. It succeeds in southern Florida and has been grown in that state as far north as Manatee, where a large tree was killed by the freeze of 1884. 2F FIG. 56. The tamarind (Tamarindus in- dica), a leguminous fruit-tree whose brown pods contain an acid pulp used in cooking, and to prepare refreshing drinks. (X £) 434 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS It is not sufficiently hardy to be grown in any part of Cali- fornia. Yule and Burnell say: "The origin of the name is curious. It is Arabic, tamar-u'l-Hind, 'date of India/ or perhaps rather in Persian form, tamar-i-Hindi. It is possible that the origi- nal name may have been thamar, ' fruit' of India, rather than tamar, 'date."' In French it is tamarin, in Spanish and Portu- guese tamarindo. The fruit is widely utilized in the Orient as an ingredient of chutnies and curries and for pickling fish. In medicine, it is valued by the Hindus as a refrigerant, digestive, carminative, laxative, and antiscorbutic. Owing to its possession of the last-named quality, it is sometimes used by seamen in place of lime-juice. With the addition of sugar and water it yields a cooling drink or refresco, especially well known in Latin America. In some countries tamarinds are an important article of export. In Jamaica the fruit is prepared for shipment by stripping it of its outer shell, and then packing it in casks, with alternate layers of coarse sugar. When the cask is nearly full, boiling sirup is poured over all, after which the cask is headed up. In the Orient the pulp containing the seed is pressed into large cakes, which are packed for shipment in sacks made from palm leaves. This product is a familiar sight in the bazaars, where it is retailed in large quantities ; it is greatly esteemed as an article of diet by the East Indians and the Arabs. Large quantities are shipped from India to Arabia. The pulp contains sugar together with acetic, tartaric, and citric acids, the acids being combined, for the most part, with potash. In East Indian tamarinds citric acid is said to be present in about 4 per cent and tartaric about 9 per cent. The following analysis has been made in Hawaii by Alice R. Thomp- son : Total solids 69.51 per cent, ash 1.82, acids 11.32, protein 3.43, total sugars 21.32, fat 0.85, and fiber 5.61. Commenting on this analysis, Miss Thompson says : " The tamarind is of MISCELLANEOUS FRUITS 435 interest because of its high acid and sugar content. It is sup- posed to contain more acid and sugar than any other fruit. The analysis reported by Pratt and Del Rosario shows the green tamarind to contain little sugar, but the sugar increases very greatly on ripening." The tree delights in a deep alluvial soil and abundant rain- fall. Lacking the latter, it will make good growth if liberally irrigated. The largest specimens are found in tropical regions where the soil is rich and deep. On the shallow soils of south- eastern Florida the species does not attain to great size. When small it is very susceptible to frost, but when mature it will probably withstand temperatures of 28° or 30° above zero without serious injury. It is usually given little cultural atten- tion, and is not grown as an orchard tree. Propagation is commonly by means of seeds. These can be transported without difficulty, since they retain their viability for many months if kept dry. They are best sprouted by planting them \ inch deep in light sandy loam. The young plants are delicate and must be handled carefully to pre- vent damping-off. P. J. Wester has found that the species can be shield-budded in much the same manner as the avocado and mango. He says : " Use petioled, well-matured, brownish or grayish budwood ; cut the buds one inch long ; age of stock at point of insertion of bud unimportant." Seedling trees are slow to come into bearing. A mature tree is said to produce, in India, about 350 pounds of fruit a year. Little is known of the insect pests which attack the tamarind. H. Maxwell-Lefroy mentions two, Caryoboms gonagra F., and Charaxes fabius Fabr., the latter a large black, yellow-spotted butterfly whose larva feeds on the leaves. Both these insects occur in India. Thomas Firminger speaks of three varieties of tamarind which are grown in India, but does not know whether they can be depended on to come true from seed. M. T. Masters, in the 436 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS "Treasury of Botany," states that the East Indian variety has long pods, with six to twelve seeds, while the West Indian variety has shorter pods, containing one to four seeds. Seed- lings undoubtedly show considerable variation in the size and quality of their fruit, which accounts for the different "varie- ties" which have been noted by many writers. Since none of these has yet been propagated vegetatively, they are of little horticultural importance. THE CARISSA (Fig. 57) (Carissa grandiflora, A. DC) For its ornamental value as well as its edible fruits the carissa deserves to be cultivated throughout the tropics. Within the last few years it has become fairly common in southern Florida, and it has been found to succeed in southern California. The plant is a large, much-branched and spreading shrub, reaching 15 or 18 feet in height. It is armed with stout branched thorns, and the dense foliage is deep glossy green in color. The leaves are ovate-acute, mucronate, thick and leathery, and 1 to 2 inches long. The flowers, which are borne in small termi- nal cymes, are star-shaped, fragrant, and about 2 inches broad. The plant blooms most profusely in early spring, but produces a few flowers throughout the year. The fruits, most of which ripen in summer, are ovoid or elliptic in form, 1 to 2 inches long, with a thin skin inclosing the firm granular reddish pulp, toward the center of which are several papery almost circular seeds. David Fairchild, who studied this plant in Natal (its native home), writes of it: "On the markets of Durban the long, brilliant red fruit of the amatungula is commonly sold ; in fact, during January and February it is one of the commonest fruits to be seen in the stalls. Though variable in size and shape, it has generally an elongated form, with a distinct point, and the diameter of a good-sized Damson plum. The thin MISCELLANEOUS FRUITS 437 red skin covers a pink flesh with a milky juice, which in flavor is sweet but lacks character, although much praised by European residents for use in making fruit salads." The name under which this fruit is known in Natal is ama- tungula. In the United States it is called Natal-plum as well as carissa. The bo- tanical name Arduina grandiflora, E. Mey., is a synonym of Carissa grandiflora. In Florida, the car- issa is not generally relished when eaten out of hand. When stewed it yields a sauce which greatly resembles that made from cranberries. It is also used for jelly and preserves. Ac- cording to an analysis made in Hawaii by Alice R. Thompson, its chief chemical constit- uents are : Total solids 21.55 per cent, ash 0.43, acids 1.19, protein 0.56, total sugars 12.00, fat 1.03, and fiber 0.91. FIG. 57. The carissa (Carissa grandiflora) is a handsome shrub from South Africa, with fra- grant white flowers and scarlet fruits whose fla- vor suggests raspberries. (X \) The plant is not ex- acting in its climatic requirements. It will grow in warm, moist tropical regions, and in the dry subtropics wherever the temperature rarely falls below 26° or 28° above zero. In California it is sometimes injured by frost, but in southern Florida this is rarely the case. It succeeds on soils of varying 438 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS types, red clay, sandy loam, and light sand. It is somewhat drought-resistant. The carissa is particularly valued as a hedge plant. It withstands shearing admirably and its growth is compact and low. "To make an amatungula hedge," writes Fairchild, "is a very simple matter. The seeds are sown in a seed-bed, and when the young plants are six inches high they are trans- planted to the place chosen for the hedge and set a foot apart, alternately in parallel rows, distant from one another a foot or more. As the plants grow they are trimmed into the desired hedge form, and the oftener they are trimmed the thicker they interweave their tough, thorny branches, making an impene- trable barrier for stock of all kinds. When in flower the white jasmine-like blossoms show off strikingly against the dark back- ground of foliage; and the red fruit which follows is quite as pretty." Cuttings, when planted directly after removal from the parent bush, do not form roots readily unless grown over bottom heat; but a method has been devised by Edward Simmonds at Miami, Florida, whereby nearly every one will grow. This consists in notching young branchlets while still attached to the plant, making a cut halfway through the stem 3 or 4 inches from the tip. The branchlet is then bent down- ward and allowed to hang limply until the end of the second month, when a callus will have formed on the cut portion, and the cutting may be removed and placed in sand under a lath shade, requiring another month to strike roots. The carissa is also propagated by layering, and it is not difficult to bud, using the common method of shield-budding, essentially the same as practiced with the avocado. Late spring is the best time to do the work. It has been noted in Florida and more particularly in Cali- fornia that many carissa plants are unproductive. This matter has never been fully investigated, but the preliminary studies PLATE XXIII. The jackfruit CArfocarpws integrifolia) , the largest tropical fruit. MISCELLANEOUS FRUITS 439 of Allen M. Groves at Miami, Florida, suggest that the difficulty may be due to lack of the necessary insects to effect cross-pollination. It has been observed, however, that occasional plants uniformly bear heavily, and the vegeta- tive propagation of such eliminates all danger of unpro- ductiveness. There are as yet no named varieties in the trade. Another species of carissa, and one which is sometimes con- fused with C. grandiflora, is C. Arduina, Lam. (C. bispinosa, Desf., Arduina bispinosa, L.). This can be distinguished from C. grandiflora by the smaller size of the flowers, which are only \ inch broad in place of nearly 2 inches, with the corolla-seg- ments much shorter than the tube ; and by the oblong-obtuse fruit, which is only \ inch in length and contains one or two lanceolate seeds, instead of fifteen or twenty circular ones. The species is not commonly cultivated in the United States, but is said to be used as an ornamental plant in Cape Town, South Africa. The karanda (Carissa Carandas, K. Sch.), a species common in India, has been introduced into the United States, but is not often planted either in California or Florida. It is dis- tinguished from C. grandiflora and C. Arduina by the corolla- lobes being twisted to the right instead of to the left in the bud ; by the oblong or elliptic-oblong leaves with rounded or obtuse tips ; and by the spines being simple in place of bifurcate. Its fruits are less than an inch long, and contain three or four seeds. They are used in India for pickles and preserves. THE RAMONTCHI (Fig. 58) (Flacourtia Ramontchi, L'Herit.) While it must be listed among the minor fruits, the ramon- tchi (more commonly known in the West Indies as Governor's- plum) is not devoid of interest and merit. It is an excellent 440 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS hedge plant, and its plum-like fruits, which are produced in great abundance, make good jam and preserves. If allowed to develop to maximum size, the plant may be- come a large shrub or small tree about 25 feet high. It is armed with long slender thorns. The leaves are broadly ovate in outline, 2 to 3 inches long, acuminate, and commonly serrate. The staminate and pistillate flowers are normally produced on separate plants, as in the papaya ; it is, therefore, necessary to FIG. 58. The ramontchi (Flacourtia Ramontchi) , often called governor's-plum, comes from Madagascar. Its maroon-colored fruits, of subacid flavor, are valued principally for making preserves. (X f) plant trees of both sexes in order to have fruit. The flowers are small and inconspicuous, the fruits round, about an inch in diameter, and deep maroon colored when fully ripe, having a thin skin surrounding soft juicy pulp and several small thin seeds. The flavor is sweet and agreeable in some varieties, acid and somewhat strong in others. The ramontchi is considered a native of southern Asia and Madagascar. It is now widely scattered throughout the MISCELLANEOUS FRUITS 441 tropics, but is not extensively cultivated in any region. It can be grown in southern Florida as far north as Fort Pierce. In California it has never been very successful. With protec- tion during the first winters it may be possible to grow it in the mildest sections of the latter state. It withstands light frosts after it has attained a few years' growth, and is not exacting in its cultural requirements. It grows on soils of various types, and in moist climates as well as in those which are rather dry. Propagation is usually effected by means of seeds. When multiplied in this manner, however, many more male plants are produced than are required for the pollination of the females, and it is not possible to perpetuate choice varieties. Vegetative propagation, most likely by means of budding, will have to be applied to this species before its cultivation can be made altogether satisfactory. THE UMKOKOLO (Fig. 59) (Doxy alls caffra, Warb.) While its scented fruit is not of great value for eating out of hand, the umkokolo, often called in English kei-apple, is a useful and interesting plant. It is unexcelled for hedges in regions where the temperature does not commonly fall below 20° above zero. The native home of the species is on the Kei River in South Africa. It is a tall vigorously-growing shrub, with rich green foliage and long, stiff, sharp thorns. The leaves are oblong- obovate, about 2 inches in length, often in small clusters at the bases of the thorns. Staminate and pistillate flowers are pro- duced on separate plants, and both are without petals. The fruit is oblate or nearly round, bright golden yellow, and about 1 inch in diameter. The thin skin incloses a yellow, melting, juicy pulp and five to fifteen flattened pointed seeds. The flavor is aromatic, highly acid unless the fruit is fully ripe. 442 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS Because of this, the fruit is most commonly used to make jam and preserves. Outside of its native region the umkokolo has been planted to a limited extent along the shores of the Mediterranean in France, Algeria, and Italy ; in northwestern Australia ; and in Florida and California. In Florida it is said to have succumbed to the cold during the severe winter of 1894-1895, and in California it has been killed by tem- peratures of 16° above zero. The usual win- ter temperatures in the southern parts of both states, however, are too high to injure it, and the species can be grown safely as far north as the Lake re- gion in central Florida and favored sections of the San Joaquin Valley in California. Botanically the um- kokolo is a Dovyalis (latterly written Dory- alis), and it is some- times listed as Aberia caffra, Harv. & Sond. Umkokolo is one of the vernacular names of its native region in South Africa. The name kei-apple is often spelled incorrectly kai- apple. The plant is not exacting in its cultural requirements, and is FIG. 59. The umkokolo or kei-apple (Dovy- alis caffra) is a large thorny shrub from South Africa, excellent for hedges. (X \) MISCELLANEOUS FRUITS 443 decidedly drought-resistant. It is most successful in a sub- tropical climate, and on a soil rich in humus. It is considered one of the best hedge plants in South Africa, since its long sharp thorns make it impenetrable. To form a hedge the bushes should be set 3 to 5 feet apart, and should be trimmed on both sides once a year. For the production of fruit, they should not be set closer than 12 to 15 feet, and both staminate and pistillate plants must be present. One of the former (male) is considered to be sufficient for twenty to thirty of the latter (female). If sufficient seedling plants are grown so that there are sure to be some of both sexes, satisfactory results will be obtained; otherwise, it is best to propagate staminate and pistillate plants by layering or some other vegetative means, and to plant no more staminates than will be required to furnish pollen. In the Mediterranean region and in the United States, the plants flower in April and May and ripen their fruit from August to October. Seeds may be sown in pans or flats of light sandy loam. Plants propagated in this manner will begin to bear when four or five years old. Propagation by layering is practiced in Queensland, and the species will prob- ably lend itself to shield-budding, since P. J. Wester has shown that another member of the same genus can be propagated readily in this way. The ripe fruit is sometimes attacked by the Mediterranean fruit-fly (Ceratitis capitata Wied.). THE KETEMBILLA (Dovyalis hebecarpa, Warb.) The ketembilla is a better fruit than its congener the um- kokolo, but the plant is somewhat more limited in its distri- bution. From its native home in Ceylon it has been brought to the Western Hemisphere, where it may now be found in a few gardens in Florida, Cuba, and California; elsewhere it is 444 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS little known. Since it is more tropical in its requirements than the umkokolo, it is not suitable for cultivation in the Medi- terranean basin, except perhaps in the most favored situations. In growth and habit the plant is less robust than its congener, although it reaches about the same ultimate height, 15 to 20 feet. The branches are slender, often drooping under the weight of their fruit, and the thorns are long and sharp, but not so formidable as those of the umkokolo. The leaves are lanceolate or oval in outline, acute, entire or subserrate, and 2 to 4 inches long. The fruit is of the same size and form as that of the umkokolo, but maroon-purple in color and more velvety on the surface. The purplish pulp is sweet and luscious, with a flavor resembling that of the English gooseberry, a fruit which the ketembilla suggests so strongly in appearance and character as to give rise to the common name Ceylon-gooseberry. Aberia Gardnerii, Clos., is a botanical synonym. The plant does not withstand drought as well as the umkokolo, and is injured by temperatures considerably above 20°. While it succeeds in southern Florida, the climate of most parts of southern California has usually proved too cold for it. It likes plenty of moisture, both in the atmosphere and in the soil, and under proper conditions bears enormous crops of its attrac- tive fruits. The distribution of the sexes is the same in this species as in the umkokolo, and it is, therefore, necessary to insure the proximity of staminate and pistillate plants if fruit is desired. It has been reported that isolated plants of both species are sometimes fruitful, which suggests that they may in occasional instances produce perfect flowers and not require cross-polli- nation. If plants of such character are found, they should be propagated by budding or grafting, since they would be of con- siderable value. P. J. Wester reports that shield-budding is successful. He says: "Use petioled, preferably spineless, not too old budwood with tomentum still present ; cut buds an MISCELLANEOUS FRUITS 445 inch to an inch and a quarter long; age of stock at point of insertion of buds unimportant." Propagation by seeds is easily effected, as with the umkokolo. THE WHITE SAPOTE (Fig. 60) (Casimiroa edulis, La Llave) In the highlands of Mexico and Central America, where it is believed to be indige- nous, the white sapote ranks among the prin- cipal cultivated fruits. Outside of this region it is not well known, although it has, in re- cent years, attracted attention in California and Florida. The Aztecs of ancient Mexico used the term tzapotl to designate soft sweet fruits such as the sapodilla and its allies. The lack of acidity and the heavy sweetness of these fruits makes them less acceptable to pal- ates accustomed to ap- ples and peaches than the mangosteen and certain other tropical fruits. They are, however, liked by many northerners, and natives of tropical regions consider them perfect. FIG. 60. The white sapote (Casimiroa edulis) , a common fruit of the Mexican and Central American highlands, is now grown in California and Florida. (X i) 446 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS The white sapote is a medium-sized erect or spreading tree, having palmately compound leaves, small inconspicuous flowers, and yellowish green fruits the size of an orange. The fruits have a thin membranous skin, yellowish flesh of soft melting texture and sweet or slightly bitter flavor, and one to five large oval or elliptic seeds. In its native region the white sapote is a fruit of the high- lands. Throughout Mexico and Guatemala it is found at ele- vations of 2000 to 3000 feet, and occasionally as high as 9000 feet. It is not grown in regions subject to heavy rainfall. It has borne fruit at La Mortola, in southern Italy, and is occasionally seen elsewhere on the Riviera. It is said also to have fruited in the island of Jersey. Although introduced into California from Mexico about 1810, it has not yet become extensively cultivated in that state, and large trees are rare. One of the oldest, believed to have been planted more than a century ago, is growing on De La Guerra Street in Santa Barbara. A number of younger trees, most of them propa- gated by F. Franceschi and distributed about 1895, are fruiting in various parts of southern California; although some of these produce small bitter fruits, others bear large ones of deli- cious flavor. In Florida the species has not been cultivated so long as in California, but it has proved quite successful in the southern part of the state. The Aztec name for this fruit is cochiztzapotl, meaning " sleep- producing sapote." It is commonly known in Mexico at the present day as zapote bianco (white sapote). In Guatemala it is called matasano. The fruit is usually eaten fresh, but attempts have been made in Central America to prepare a sweet preserve from it on a commercial scale. Some of the early writers considered the white sapote unwholesome, and stated that it would induce sleep if indulged in too freely, but recent experience does not indicate that there are grounds for such beliefs. Francisco MISCELLANEOUS FRUITS 447 Hernandez observed that the seed, if eaten raw, was poisonous to animals and men. An analysis of the fruit made at the University of California shows it to contain : Water 72.64 per cent, ash 0.44, protein 0.64, total sugars 20.64 (invert sugar 8.44, sucrose 12.20), fat 0.46, crude fiber 1.26, and starch and the like 3.92. In its climatic requirements the tree is distinctively sub- tropical. It is not altogether successful in Central America below 3000 feet, and it thrives at elevations of 5000 to 6000 feet. It is even found in places which are too high (i.e., too cold) for the avocado. It prefers a well-drained sandy loam, but may be grown on clay if the drainage is good, and in Florida it has done well on shallow sandy soils underlaid with soft limestone. It is drought-resistant, but succeeds much better in dry regions if irrigated like the orange. While young, the tree should be watered liberally to en- courage growth, and when it is about three feet high it should have the terminal bud removed, in order to induce branching ; three or four laterals will develop, and these in turn, after they have grown to a length of one or two feet, should have the terminal buds removed. Unless this is done, the tree may grow ten or twelve feet high before it branches. Seeds should be planted as soon as possible after their removal from the fruit in flats of light porous soil, or singly in three-inch pots, covering them to the depth of an inch. If the weather is warm, or artificial heat is provided, germina- tion will take place within three or four weeks. The young plants should be grown in pots until two or three feet high, when they may be set out in the open ground. Seedlings do not come into bearing until seven or eight years old, and many produce fruit of inferior quality. For this reason propagation should be effected by some vegetative means. Shield-budding is successfully practiced, the method being essentially the same as with the avocado. Stock plants 448 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS should be selected from young vigorous seedlings whose stems are about f inch in diameter at the base. Budwood is taken from the ends of the branches, but of fairly well matured wood which has acquired an ash-gray color. The buds are cut about 1-| inches long, leaving any wood that may adhere to them, and are inserted in T-incisions, after which they are bound firmly in place with waxed tape. At the end of two to four weeks, depending on the weather, they may be un- wrapped and then rewrapped loosely, leaving the bud exposed so that it may start into growth, at the same time lopping back the stock to a point three or four inches above the bud. In the tropics budding can probably be done at almost any season of the year ; in California spring and summer, when the stock plants are in most active growth, are the best times. Seedling variation results in some trees being very produc- tive, while others bear little fruit. No budded trees have yet come into bearing. The ripening season in Guatemala is April and May; in Florida it is May; in Mexico it extends from May to July; and in California it begins in September and ends in November. Because of its thin skin and delicate texture, the fruit does not ship well, unless picked while still hard and dispatched so as to reach its destination before it has had time to soften. Several horticultural varieties have been described, but none has been propagated or planted extensively. Harvey and Maechtlen are two which have been offered by the trade in California; Parroquia and Gillespie have been described, but not propagated. THE TUNA (Opuntia spp.) Several species of Opuntia, notably 0. Ficus-indica, Mill., and 0. megacantha, S. D., are extensively grown in tropical and MISCELLANEOUS FRUITS 449 subtropical countries for their fruits, commonly known as tunas, prickly-pears, or Indian figs. Among the aboriginal inhabitants of tropical America, the tuna (using this term in a comprehensive sense) has long been held in high esteem. It was early introduced into southern California by the Franciscan monks, and is now found abun- dantly in many places, particularly around the old missions. From America it was carried to Spain by the early voyagers, and from that country it spread along the Mediterranean littoral and finally to many other regions. It is now cultivated and naturalized throughout the tropics and subtropics. The edible-fruited opuntias are erect or spreading plants, growing from 10 to 25 feet in height. They have large flat- tened branches made up of more or less rounded joints, which in popular language are called leaves. Usually these joints bear long sharp spines, although in some species they are almost spineless. The flowers, which are produced toward the upper part of the joints, are yellow or red and rather showy. The oblong to pear-shaped fruits, commonly 2 to 3 inches in length and green to deep maroon in color, contain soft, whitish, trans- lucent pulp intermixed with numerous large bony seeds. The pulp is juicy with a pleasant, although not pronounced, flavor. The principal objection to the tunas is the great quantity of hard seeds which they contain. 0. Ficus-indica has fewer spines and somewhat differently colored fruit from 0. megacantha; both these species are cultivated in the southwestern United States as well as in Mexico, the Mediterranean region, and elsewhere. Several other species produce edible fruits, but their cultivation is not extensive. A considerable quantity of tunas is shipped annually to the United States from Sicily, and an important trade could be developed betweeen the United States and Mexico. Because of its rather high nutritive value, the tuna forms 2o 450 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS an important article of diet in many regions. It is eaten fresh, dried, or prepared in various ways. Griffiths and Hare have dis- cussed this subject fully in " The Tuna as Food for Man. " 1 The ripe fruit contains : Total solids 19.66 per cent, ash 0.40, acids 0.18, protein 0.98, total sugars 13.42, fat 0.23, and fiber 2.79. J. W. Tourney, writing in Bailey's " Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture," says : "It has been ascertained that some of the best varieties are capable of producing on lean, sandy or rocky soil, ill-suited for growing ordinary crops, as much as 18,000 pounds of fruit to the acre. When it is considered that this is equal to 2500 pounds of sugar, as well as other valuable food constituents, it may be readily seen that the food value from the standpoint of nutrition is considerable/' Little cultural attention is usually given to the opuntias in the regions where they are grown for their fruit. To quote Tourney again : " Plantations are usually made on dry ' slopes of hills, as the plants do not thrive where there is much mois- ture or on heavy clay soils. Joints, cut or broken from the plants, are used instead of seeds, and are planted at distances of 6 to 8 feet in furrows from 6 to 15 feet apart. No tillage is practiced, as they grow rapidly, and in a few years smother out all other growth. Before planting, the cuttings are exposed in half sunlight from seven to fifteen days, that they may partially wither, in order to facilitate rooting. " An important advantage in the culture of these plants is the regularity of the yearly crop. They begin to bear in about three years after planting, and continue in bearing for many years." Numerous varieties or forms, usually local in their distribu- tion, are distinguished in Mexico and elsewhere. In spite of the attention given in recent years to the improvement of this fruit by breeding, still further advances must be made before varieties are obtained which will become popular as table- fruits among North Americans. 1 Bui. 116, Bur. Plant Industry. MISCELLANEOUS FRUITS 451 THE PITAYA (Fig. 61) (Hylocereus, Lemaireocereus, and Cereus) The fruits of many cacti are known in tropical America by the name pitaya, also spelled pitahaya, pitajaya, pitajuia,, pitalla, and pithaya. These belong to several genera, formerly classified under the genus Cereus, but the best fruits are ob- tained from the genera Hylocereus and Lemaireocereus. Pitayas are commonly larger than tunas, and by some are considered superior to the latter in quality, but their use is less extensive. The genus Hyloce- reus has several species which produce good fruits. The widely cultivated plant which usually passes under the name of Cereus tri- angularis is properly Hylocereus undatus, Brit, and Rose; the true C. triangularis is found in Jamaica, but rarely elsewhere. All of these plants are climbing in habit, and have three-angled stems. They produce large, showy, night-blooming flowers, and oblong or oval fruits, bright pink to red in color, sometimes more than 3 inches in length, with large leaf-like scales on the surface. The flesh is white and juicy and is filled with numerous minute seeds. In southern Mexico the fruits are used in various ways : they may be eaten out of hand ; employed in making cooling drinks and sherbets ; and for preserves. FIG. 61. The pitaya (Hylocereus undatus) is widely cultivated in the American tropics. Its bright rose-colored fruits contain white trans- lucent pulp of pleasant taste ; they are produced by a climbing cactus which bears handsome night-blooming flowers. (X 3) 452 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS Somewhat distinct are the pitayas furnished by several species of Lemaireocereus, notably L. griseus, Brit. & Rose, and L. queretarensw, Brit. & Rose, and their allies. These are common wild plants in Mexico and elsewhere, and L. griseus is often cultivated. The fruits are globose, about 2J inches in diameter, and covered with many small clusters of spines. These are brushed off the red fully ripe fruit, leaving it in condition to be eaten. The flesh is dark red to purple, sweet and delicious in flavor. The propagation and culture of these plants resembles that of the tunas; the Hylocereus group, however, is much better adapted to a moist tropical climate than the latter. THE TREE-TOMATO (Fig. 62) (Cyphomandra betacea, Sendt.) Several food-plants which were cultivated by the agricultural Indians of ancient Peru have become of economic importance to the modern world, one of them, the potato, of immense value. The tree-tomato, a bush fruit which was planted in their gardens high upon the mountain-sides, is now grown in the hill-regions of India and Ceylon, as well as in several other countries. In its native home, where it forms a miniature tree 5 or 6 feet high, O. F. Cook says the plant is cultivated at elevations of 6000 to 10,000 feet. In California it grows 8 or 10 feet high. It has large cordate-ovate, subacuminate leaves, small pinkish flowers, and oblong fruits produced in clusters of three or more. In length these fruits are about 2 inches ; in color and in general character they resemble tomatoes, to which they are, of course, closely related. "It has become thoroughly established in many hill gardens," writes H. F. Macmillan of the tree-tomato in Ceylon, "and is commonly grown about Nuwara Eliya for market. The egg-shaped and smooth-skinned fruit, produced MISCELLANEOUS FRUITS 453 in great abundance and in hanging clusters at the ends of the branches, is in season almost throughout the year, but chiefly from March to May. At first greenish purple, it changes in ripening to reddish yel- low. The subacid and succulent fruits are re- freshing and agreeable when eaten raw, but their chief use is for stewing; they may also be made into jam or preserve. The tree is a quick grower, and commences to bear fruit when about two years old, remaining produc- tive for several years." It has been found in California that the species withstands sev- eral degrees of frost. It may be killed back to the large limbs by a temperature of 26° to 28° above zero, but it promptly recovers. In Mexico and Central America, where it is known as tomate, it is cultivated by the Indians at elevations of 4000 to 8000 feet. It likes a rich loamy soil and grows best when abundantly irrigated. It does not require a high degree of atmospheric humidity. Propagation is effected by means of seeds which germinate readily and develop rapidly into strong plants. FIG. 62. The tree-tomato (Cyphomandra betacea), a fruit produced by a half -woody shrub from South America, closely resembles the to- mato in character, and is useful in the same ways as the latter. (X i) 454 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS THE GENIPA (Genipa americana, L.) In parts of Brazil and in Porto Rico the genipa is a popular fruit. Elsewhere it is of little importance. Outside of its native area, which is considered to be northeastern South America and the West Indies, it is indeed scarcely known. When well grown the tree is stately and handsome in appear- ance. It reaches a height of 60 feet or more, and has a straight, slender trunk branching 10 or 15 feet above the ground. The leaves are oblong-obovate in form, entire or dentate, dark green in color, and about a foot long. The flowers, which in Brazil are produced in November, are small, and light yellow in color. The fruits are the size of an orange, broadly oval to spherical in form, and russet-brown. After being picked they are not ready to be eaten until they have softened and are bordering on decay. Beneath the membranous skin is a thin layer of granular flesh, and within this a mass of soft brownish pulp in which numerous small compressed seeds are embedded. The flavor is characteristic and very pronounced ; it may be likened to that of dried apples, but is stronger, and the aroma is more penetrating. The genipa, known in Brazil as genipapo, in Porto Rico as jagua, and in the British West Indies as genipap and mar- malade-box, is eaten fresh, and used to prepare an alcoholic beverage known as licor de genipapo. A refreshing drink known as genipapada is also made from it, and, when green it furnishes a dye used by some of the Brazilian Indians in tattooing. In its climatic requirements the tree is tropical. It is not known to have been grown in California or Florida, although it might succeed in the southern part of the latter state. It prefers a humid atmosphere and a deep rich loamy soil con- taining plenty of moisture. Propagation is usually by seeds, MISCELLANEOUS FRUITS 455 which are easily germinated. P. J. Wester, who has experi- mented with the tree in the Philippines, finds that it can be shield-budded in the same manner as the avocado. He says: "Use mature, bluish-green, smooth, non-petioled budwood; cut the buds about an inch and a half long; age of stock at point of insertion of bud unimportant." By utilizing this method of propagation it will be possible to perpetuate choice varieties which originate as chance seedlings. BIBLIOGRAPHY Much of the literature on tropical fruits exists in the form of bulletins and brief articles in the horticultural press. Refer- ence has been made in the text of this work to the most im- portant. The more extensive works containing information on the history, cultivation, varieties, pests and diseases of tropical fruits are listed below. An asterisk is placed before those which will be found particularly useful by the tropical horticulturist or fruit-grower. BALLOU, H. A., Insect Pests of the Lesser Antilles. Pamphlet No. 71 of the Imperial Department of Agriculture for the West Indies. Barbados. 1912. BENSON, ALBERT H., Fruits of Queensland. Department of Agri- culture and Stock, Brisbane. 1911. *CAPUS, G., and Bois, D., Les Produits Coloniaux, Origine, Produc- tion, Commerce. Librairie Armand Colin. Paris. 1912. CLUTE, ROBERT L., Practical Lessons in Tropical Agriculture, Book 1. The World Book Co., Yonkers-on-Hudson, N.Y. and Manila, P. I. 1914. *CooK, MELVILLE T., The Diseases of Tropical Plants. Macmillan and Co., Ltd., London. 1913. *CooK, O. F., and COLLINS, G. N., Economic Plants of Porto Rico. Contributions from the United States National Herbarium, vol. VIII, pt. 2. Government Printing Office, Washington. 1903. DECANDOLLE, ALPHONSE, Origin of Cultivated Plants. 2d ed. In- ternational Scientific Series. Kegan Paul, Trench, Triibner and Co., Ltd., London. 1909. 456 MANUAL OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL FRUITS *EssiG, E. O., Injurious and Beneficial Insects of California, 2d ed. State Commission of Horticulture, Sacramento, California. 1915. *FENZI, E. 0., Frutti Tropicali e Semitropicali (esclusi gli Agrumi). Institute Agricolo Coloniale Italiano, Firenze. 1915. FIBMINGER, THOMAS A. C., Manual of Gardening for Bengal and Upper India. Barnham, Hill and Co., Calcutta. 1869. HALDANE, R. C., Subtropical Cultivations and Climates, a Handy Book for Planters, Colonists, and Settlers. William Blackwood and Sons, Edinburgh and London. 1886. *HUBERT, PAUL, Fruits des Pays Chauds, tome 1. H. Dunod et E. Pinat, Paris. 1912. IKED A, T., The Fruit Culture in Japan. Seibido, Tokyo. Without date. JUMELLE, HENRI, Les Cultures Coloniales, Legumes et Fruits. 2d ed. Librairie J. B. Bailliere et fils, Paris. 1913. *MACMILLAN, H. F., A Handbook of Tropical Gardening and Plant- ing, with special reference to Ceylon. 2d ed. H. W. Cave and Co., Colombo, Ceylon. 1914. MAXWELL-LEFROY, H., Indian Insect Life, a Manual of the Insects of the Plains. Thacker, Spink and Co., Calcutta and Simla. 1909. PIERCE, W. DWIGHT, A Manual of Dangerous Insects Likely to be Introduced into the United States through Importations. Office of the Secretary, United States Department of Agriculture. Gov- ernment Printing Office, Washington. 1917. *PITTIER, H., Ensayo sobre las Plantas Usuales de Costa Rica. H. L. and J. B. McQueen, Inc., Washington, D. C. 1908. *POPENOE, PAUL B., Date Growing in the Old World and the New. West India Gardens, Altadena, California. 1913. REASONER, P. W., and KLEE, W. G., Report on the Condition of Tropical and Semi-tropical Fruits in the United States in 1887. Bulletin 1, Division of Pomology, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington. 1891. RIBERA GOMEZ, D. EMILIO, Manual sobre Arboles Frutales, Escrito especialmente para America. Garnier Hermanos, Paris. No date. RIVIERE, CH., and LECQ, H., Cultures du Midi, de 1'Algerie, et de la Tunisie. J. B. Bailliere et fils, Paris. 1906. *ROEDING, GEORGE C., Roeding's Fruit Growers' Guide. Published by the author, Fresno, California. 1919. *SAFFORD, W. E., The Useful Plants of the Island of Guam, with an Introductory Account of the Physical Features and Natural History of the Island, of the Character and History of its People, and of their Agriculture. Contributions from the United States National Herbarium, vol. IX. Government Printing Office, Washington. 1905. PLATE XXIV. Upper, the mangosteen ; lower, the durian. BIBLIOGRAPHY 457 *SAUVAIGO, £MILE, Les Cultures sur le Littoral de la Mediterranee ; Provence, Ligurie, Algerie. 2d ed. Librairie J. B. Bailliere et fils, Paris. 1913. VON MUELLER, FERDINAND, Select Extra-Tropical Plants Readily Eligible for Industrial Culture or Naturalization. American edition, revised and enlarged. George S. Davis, Detroit, Michigan. 1884. *WATT, SIR GEORGE, The Commercial Products of India, being an abridgment of " The Dictionary of the Economic Products of India." E. P. Dutton and Co., New York. 1908. *WESTER, P. J., Plant Propagation in the Tropics. Bulletin 32 of the Bureau of Agriculture, Manila, P. I. 1916. WICKSON, EDWARD J., The California Fruits and How to Grow Them. The Pacific Rural Press, San Francisco, California. 1910. WILCOX, E. V., Tropical Agriculture, the Climate, Soils, Cultural Methods, Crops, Live Stock, Commercial Importance and Oppor- tunities of the Tropics. D. Appleton and Co., New York and London. 1916. WILDER, GERRIT P., Fruits of the Hawaiian Islands. Revised ed. The Hawaiian Gazette Co., Ltd., Honolulu. 1911. *WOODROW, G. MARSHALL, Gardening in India, 5th ed. Printed at the Education Society's Press, Byculla, Bombay. 1889. WOODROW, G. MARSHALL, The Mango: Its Culture and Varieties. Alexander Gardener, Paisley. 1904. YULE, SIR HENRY, and BURNELL, ARTHUR COKE, Hobson-Jobson ; being a glossary of Anglo-Indian colloquial words and phrases, etymological, historical, geographical and discursive. New edition, edited by William Crooke. J. Murray, London. 1903. INDEX ababai, 228. abacate, 19. Abbevillea Fendiana, 310. Aberia caffra, 442. Gardnerii, 444. abi, 349. abiu, 349. abrico do Para, 402. abricot de Saint Domingue, 402. Abu-1 Fazl-i-'Allami, 88. acajou, noix de, 150. acaju, 149. Achradelpha mammosa, 341. Achras mammosa, 341. Sapota, 334. acosta, 16. Advance loquat, 263, 265. advogado, 19. Afoos mango, 142. aguacate, 15. ahuacate, 17. Akbar, emperor, 79, 87. akee, 330. albecata, 17. albero del pane, 411. Alcocer, Gabriel, 270. Allahabad guava, 279. Allen, W. J., 243. alligator-apple, 164, 192. pear, 17. Alphonse group of mangos, 140. mango, 91, 92, 108, 126. am, 84. amatungula, 436, 437. amba, 87. ambarella, 154, 155. ambatjang, 82. ambchur, 94. ambeh, 87. Amblyrrhinus poricollis on lite hi, ambosi, 94. ambsath, 94. amburan, 87. 324. American Pomological Society, 7. Amlni mango, 124, 126, 127, 140, 141. Amiri mango, 141. Amir Khusrau, 79, 88. am-khushk, 94. am-ki-chhitta, 94. Amlasi pomegranate, 382. amra, 85. amrapesi, 94. Amri date, 219. amrud, 275. anab, 385. Anacardiaceae, 81. Anacardium occidentals, 81, 146. anar, 377. butterfly on pomegranate, 382. caterpillar on loquat, 264. Anastrepha on guava, 279. fratercidus on mango, 130. ludens on mango, 130, on sapodilla, 339. 'anba, 87. Andre, Edouard, 292, 295, 299. Andre feijoa, 299. aniba, 87. Annona biflora, 180. Cherimola, 161. cinerea, 180. diversifolia, 188. Forskahlii, 180. glabra, 163, 171, 176, 191. laurifolia, 192. longiflora, 192. macrocarpa, 163. montana, 192. muricata, 182. palustris, 192. purpurea, 184, 193. reticulata, 163, 164, 165, 171, 176, 186. scleroderma, 193. squamosa, 177. suavissima, 164. tesiudinea, 194. tripetala, 164. 459 460 INDEX anon, 176. anona blanca, 180, 190. colorada, 187. de dedos pintados, 176. del monte, 194. picuda, 176. anone, 164. anthracnose on loquat, 263. on -mango, 121, 128. antipolo, 411. aoacatl, 16. Aphis pomi on loquat, 264. green apple, on loquat, 264. Apoos mango, 142. apple, alligator, 164. bell, 248. custard, 164. kai, 441. kei, 441. malay, 309. mammee, 402. mango, 135. mountain, 309. Otaheite, 156, 309. pond, 177, 191. rose, 291, 305. star, 344. sugar, 177. araca, 285. da praia, 281. do Para, 285. guacu, 275. vermelho, 281. Arbela tetraonis on litchi, 324. arbol del pan, 411. arbre & pain, 411. Arbuthnot mango, 91. Ar chips postvittuanus on litchi, 325. Arduina bispinosa, 439. grandiflora, 437. Aristoclesia esculenta, 404. arrak, 202, 216. Artocarpus communis, 406. incisa, 411. integra, 417. integrifolia, 414. (KJoratissima, 420. arvore do pao, 411. Ascherasi date, 220. Asharasi date, 219, 220. Asimina triloba, 161, 173, 193. Aspidiotus on guava, 278. on mango, 132. destructor on papaya, 239. perniciosus on loquat, 264. Aswad pomegranate, 382. ata, 179, 180. ate, 179. atemoya, 177. atte, 180. Augustus, J. C., 394. Aulacaspis miranda on cherimoya, 175. Averrhoa Bilimbi, 431. Carambola, 428. avigato, 17. avocado, budding of, 41. climate and soil suited to, 23. cultivation of, 30. grafting of, 49. history of, 14. pests and diseases of, 58. propagation of, 40. pruning of, 38. races and varieties, 65. seedling, 40. avocat, 19. avocato, 17. ayer-ayer, 427. B Baber, Sultan, 87. bachang, 82. Back, E. A., 291. Bacillus amylovorus on loquat, 262. mangiferce on mango, 129. bacury-pary, 405. Bailey, L. H., 357, 362. Baker, C. F., vi, 4. bakupari, 404, 405. bakuri, 403. balimbing, 430, 432. Ballou, H. A., 455. Banchore mango, 91. .of Dhiren mango, 91. Baramassia mango, 124. barbadine, 248. Barber, H. S., 60. Barnhart, P. O., 327. Barrett, O. W., 425. Batocera rubra on jackfruit, 419. INDEX 461 tryoni on loquat, 264. tryoni on mango, 130. Baum, Henry E., 408. batino, 82. Beagles, R. L., 387. Beccari, O., 199. Beck, Herbert, 91. Bedana litchi; 325. Belgrave, W. N. C., 301. bell-apple, 248. Belling, John, 109. Bennett mango, 120, 141. Benson, Albert H., 254, 455. Bephrata cubensis on cherimoya, 175. ber, 385. Berg, Otto, 281. Besson feijoa, 299. bhaduria, 124. bibace, 255. bilambu, 432. bUimbi, 431. bilimbines, 430. binjai, 82. biriba, 194. Birkawi date, 221. Birket al-Hajji date, 221. Biscochuelo mango, 136. biwa, 255. Blake, Sidney F., vii. Blakeman avocado, 8, 73. Blanco, Manuel, 371. Bligh, William, 409. Blighia sapida, 330. blight, pear, on loquat, 262. blimbee, 432. blimbing, 422, 432. Blume, C. L., 81, 133. Bois, D., 455. Bombay mango, 91, 108, 135. No. 23 mango, 91. No. 24 mango, 91. Bonavia, E., v, 108, 313, 316, 320, 323. bonavist bean as cover-crop for mango, 105. Bontius, Jacobus, 390. bor, 385. borers on cherimoya, 175. on date, 217. Bowrey, J. J., 331. box, marmalade, 454. Boyle, Harry H., 330. Brandis, Dietrich, 86. Brazil-cherry, 289. Brazilian guava, 279. breadfruit, 406. breadnut, 411. breiapfel, 336. Brewster, William N., 318, 320, 323. Britoa acida, 285. brotbaum, 411. bulia, 411. bullock's-heart, 177, 186. bumbum, 82. Burnell, A. C., 457. Burnette, F. H., 359. Burns, William, v, 118, 125, 132, 142. cabelluda, 310. cabeza de negro, 193. cachiman, 187. cceur-de-bceuf, 187. epineux, 184. caimite, 4, 346. caimito, 346. caimo, 350. caja, 160. caja-manga, 156. Cajamts indicus, 33. caju, 149. cajuada, 150. California, possibility of growing tropical fruits in, 5, 6. Calocarpum mammosum, 340. viride, 343. Calophyllum calaba, 398. inophyllum, 398. Cambodiana group of mangos, 144. mango, 98, 120, 124, 127, 133, 144. camias, 432. Campomanesia Fenzliana, 311. Candolle, Alphonse De, 84, 86, 164, 178, 183, 228, 274, 315, 326, 349, 376, 392, 416, 455. canistel, 347. capulasan, 330. capulin, 268. Capus, G., 455. Carabao mango, 93, 134. carambola, 428. 462 INDEX Caricaceae, 225. Carica candamarcensis, 240. Papaya, 225. querci folia, 241. Carissa, 436. Arduina, 439. Carandas, 439. grandiflora, 436. Caryoborus gonagra on tamarind, 435. Caryophyllus Jambos, 305. malaccensis, 309. cas, 283. cashew, 81, 146. Casimiroa edulis, 194, 445. castanha, 150. Cayenne-cherry, 289. Cellon, George B., v, 40, 41, 54, 56. Cerasus Capollin, 268. Ceratitis on guava, 279. capitata on avocado, 61. on kaki, 365. on kei-apple, 443. on loquat, 264. on mango, 130. on papaya, 239. on pitanga, 291. on pomegranate, 382. on sapodilla, 339. Cereus triangularis, 451. cereza, 268. cereza de Cayena, 289. cerise carree, 289. cerise de Cayenne, 289. Ceroplastes on guava, 278. floridensis on avocado, 60. on loquat, 264. Ceropute yuccse on cherimoya, 175. Ceylon-gooseberry, 444. chaka, 417. chake-baruke, 414. chalcid flies on cherimoya, 175. Challenge avocado, 20. chamach, 284. champada, 184. Champagne loquat, 256, 263, 265, 266. champola de guanabana, 182. chang chow-ling, 312. Chappelow avocado, 20, 56. Charaxes fabius on tamarind, 435. Chase, J. Smeaton, vii. Chauveaud, G. L., 111. cherimolier, 164. cherimoya, 161. cherry, Brazil, 289. Cayenne, 289. Florida, 289. Surinam, 289. chewing-gum, 335. chicle, 335. chico, 336. mamey, 341. chicozapote, 336. chiku, 336. China litchi, 325. chinini, 11. Chino mango, 136. Chionaspis on mango, 132. chirimoya, 164. lisa, 176. de puas, 176. de tetillas, 176. Chrysobalanus Icaco, 271. Chrysophyllum Cainito, 4, 344. Chuckchokia mango, 91. Chupadero mango, 134. chuta, 85. Cicer arietinum as cover-crop for mango, 105. ciruela, 157. Cladosporium citri, 63. Clute, Robert I., 455. Cobo, Bernabe, 16. Coccus on mango, 132. cochiztzapotl, 446. Cockerell, T. D. A., 217. coco-plum, 271. Cocos australis, 295. codlin-moth on loquat, 263. Colletotrichum on avocado, 62. gloeosporiodes on loquat, 263. on mango, 128. Collins, G. N., v, 17, 32, 72, 96, 136, 159, 340, 455. olo, 411. Columbus, Christopher, 401. Condit, Ira J., v, 257, 258, 261, 262, 265. 'onotrachelus persece on avocado, 60. Cook, Captain, 89. ook, O. F., v, 159, 194, 340, 452,455. ook, Melville T., 455. cork-wood, 192. INDEX 463 corocSo de boi, 187. corossol, 184. corossolier, batanl, 192. Correa, M. Pio, 153, 289. Costa, Christopher a, 149. Costata kaki, 365, 367. cowpeas as cover-crop for avocado, 33. for mango, 105. coyo, 11. Cratcegus guatemalensis, 270. mexicana, 269. stipulosa, 269. creme de creole, 403. Crotalaria juncea as cover-crop for mango, 105. Cryptoblades aliena, on papaya, 239. qnidiella on pomegranate, 382. Cryptophlebia carpophaga on litchi, 324. Mepida on litchi, 324. Cryptorhynchus mangiferce on mango, 131. Cupania sapida, 332. cura, 18. curuba, 249. custard-apple, 164, 180, 187, 192. Cydia pomonella on loquat, 263. Cyphomandra betacea, 452. Dacus on guava, 279. ferrugineus on mango, 130. Dampier, William, 409. Daniel, H. L., 396. darimba, 377. date-palm, 197. plum, 356. dates, cultivation of, 202. pests and diseases, 216. picking and packing, 213. varieties and classification, 218. yield and seasons, 212. datte muscade, 200. Deglet Nur date, 200, 215, 220. Descourtilz, Michel Etienne, 334. Devarubria mango, 91. De Vries, H., 109. Dicer a obscura on kaki, 365. Dickey No. 2 avocado, 73. Dickinson avocado, 68, 74. Dimocarpus Longan, 326. Dinoderus distinctus on mango, 132. Diospyros chinensis, 356. discolor, 373. Ebenaster, 370. kaki, 353. Lotus, 362. Roxburghii, 356. Schitse, 356. virginiana, 353, 362. doekoe, 428. dogdog, 411. Doidge, Ethel M., 129. Dolichos Lablab as cover-crop for mango, 105. dorian, 424. D'Or mango, 101, 122. Dorsett, P. H., vii. Doryalis caffra, 442. Douglas Bennett's Alphonse mango, 141. Dovyalis caffra, 441. hebecarpa, 443. dragon, ceil de, 326. Drummond, Bruce, 197, 204, 206, 208, 209. Dudhia litchi, 325. dugdug, 411. duku, 428. duren, 424. durian, 421. Durio malaccensis, 424. zibethinus, 421. durivan, 424. duriyan, 424. Earle, F. S., v, 181, 185. Early Red loquat, 265, 266. East, Hinton, 165, 416. eau de Creole, 403. Edwards, Bryan, 90. Eells avocado, 77. egg-fruit, 348. Elceis guineensis, 330. El Kseba date, 222. Ephestia cautclla in dates, 218. erinose on litchi, 325. Eriobotrya japonica, 250. Eriophyes on litchi, 325. 464 INDEX Espada mango, 137. Essig, E. O., 263, 456. Eugenia brasiliensis, 304. Cumini, 305. Dombeyi, 303. jambolana, 304. Jambos, 291, 305. Klotzschiana, 307. Luschnathiana, 307. malaccensis, 308. Michelii, 289. Pitanga, 289. tomentosa, 310. uniflora, 285. Z/wtoo, 309. Euphoria Longana, 322, 325. m, 156. Fairchild, David, v, vii, 134, 197, 234, 253, 264, 383, 386, 391, 394, 395, 397, 400, 436, 438. fan-li-chi, 179. Fard date, 220. Fardh date, 200, 220. Farnham, B. F., 91. Fawcett, H. S., 65. feijoa, 292. Feijoa Sellowiana, 292. Fenzi, E. O., v, 456. fig-moth in dates, 218. Filipino mango, 134, 135, 136. Finger-printed cherimoya, 176. Firminger, Thomas, 103, 309, 334, 416, 417, 418, 435, 456. Flacourtia Ramontchi, 439. Florida-cherry, 289. Florida, possibility of growing tropi- cal fruits in, 5, 6. fly, white, on avocado, 60. Foex, Felix, 174. Forbes, R. H., 197. Franceschi, F., v, vi, 92, 270, 288 293, 445. Freeman, George F., 197. frost-resistance, 7. fruit-fly on avocado, 61. on cherimoya, 175. on guava, 279. on kaki, 365. on loquat, 264. on mango, 130. on papaya, 238. on pitanga, 291. on pomegranate, 382. on sapodilla, 339. on soursop, 185. fructa da condessa, 195. do conde, 179, 180. fruta de bomba, 229. Fuerte avocado, 20, 21, 45, 58, 66, 68, 78. Fullaway, D. F., 60. Fusicladium dendriticum on loquat, 262. Fuyugaki kaki, 367. G Gable, C. H., 89, 166, 172, 174. Gailey kaki, 360, 369. gajus, 150. Gale, Elbridge, 91. Gamble, Mrs. R. E., vii. Cannes, J. G. de, 393. Garcinia Livingstonei, 399. Mangostana, 390. morella, 399. tinctoria, 399. xanthochymus, 395, 399. Gay, Francis, 397. genip, 333. genipa, 454. americana, 454. genipap, 454. genipapo, 454. genipe, 333. ghaetsao, 362. Ghars date, 221. Gillespie white sapote, 448. Gloeosporium on avocado, 61. Glomerella on guava, 279. goiaba, 275. goiabada, 276. Gokhale, V. N., 337, 339. Gold Nugget loquat, 267. Golden date, 219. Russet cherimoya, 175, 176. Yellow loquat, 264. Gomez, Don Juan Antonio, 91. gooseberry, Ceylon, 444. Gopalbhog mango, 91. INDEX 465 goraka-jambo, 289. Gore, H. C., 356, 364. Governor's plum, 439. goyave, 275. Grabham, M., 166. granada, 377. granadilla, giant, 247. purple, 241. real, 248. Bweet, 245. yellow, 248. granatapfel, 377. granatum, 377. grenade, 377. grenadine, 377. Griffiths, David, 450. Groff, G. W., 318, 322, 325. grosse sapote, 341. Groves, Allen M., 439. grumichama, 303. grumixama, 304. guabiroba, 310. guacamole, 23. guajava, 275. guanaba, 184. guanabana, 184. cimarrona, 192. Guatemalan race of avocados, 71. guava, 272. Brazilian, 284. Costa Rican, 283. Guinea, 279. lemon, 279. Para, 285. pear, 279. Perico, 279. Peruvian, 279. strawberry, 279. guayaba, 274. acida, 284. guayabo del pais, 294. guayabota, 372. guayabote, 372. Guinea guava, 279. guisaro, 284. gulab-jaman, 305. Guttiferffi, 390. Haak ip litchi, 325. Habersham avocado, 73. 2n Hachiya kaki, 357, 365, 367, 368. Haden mango, 122, 139. Hafu mango, 142. Halawi date, 219, 221. Haldane, R. C., 456. Halu pomegranate, 382. Harris, W., 309, 316, 330, 416. Hartless, A. C., v, 118, 123, 125, 252, 264, 338, 356. Harvey white sapote, 448. Hawaiian Sweet mango, 134. Hayani date, 221. heart-rot of pomegranate, 382. Hehre feijoa, 299. Heilipus lauri on avocado, 60. pittieri on avocado, 60. Heliothrips hcemorrhoidalis on avocado, 59. rubrocinctus on avocado, 59. rubrocinctus on cashew, 152. Hernandez, Francisco, 16, 187, 189, 447. Hess, W. E., 116. hicaco, 271. Hiern, William Philip, 371. Higgins, J. E., v, 89, 104, 115, 134, 226, 231, 236, 237, 320, 321, 322, 323, 327. Hodgson, Robert W., 379, 380, 381. Hole, R. S., 86. honeysuckle, Jamaica, 248. Hooker, Joseph, 85, 311, 424. Home, W. R., 65. Huber, Jacques, 14, 148, 194, 228, 271, 349, 405. Hubert, Paul, 134, 184, 254, 418, 419, 456. Hume, H. H., vii, 354, 355, 359, 360, 362, 363, 364, 365, 366, 367. Huntington, Ellsworth, 202. Hwen T'sang, 86. Hyakume kaki, 363, 365, 367, 369. hybrid avocados, 78. cherimoyas, 176. Hylocereus undatus, 451. Ibn-al-Awam, 382. Ibn Batuta, 87. icaco, 271. 466 INDEX Icerya on guava, 278. Idiocerus on mango, 130. Idolothrips halidaji on cashew, 152. Ikeda, T., 252, 264, 357, 358, 362, 456. ilama, 177, 188, 193. ilamatzapotl, 190. imbu, 152. imbuzada, 154. India, lack of fruits in, 2. Indian meal-moth in dates, 218. injerto, 343. lorns, M. J., 236. ivy, poison, 81. jaboticaba, 299. de cabinho, 302. do matto, 302. de Sao Paulo, 302. macia, 302. jaca, 417. jack, 422. jackfruit, 184, 414. jacque, 417. Jaffa, M. E., 20, 255. jagua, 454. jakfruit, 417. jaman, 304. jambo, 305. jambolan, 304. Jambosa malaccensis, 309. vulgaris, 305. jambou, 422. jambu, 304, 305. jamelac, 309. jamelongue, 304. Japanese persimmon, 356. Java-plum, 304. Jew-plum, 156. jicaco, 271. jobo, 160. jocote, 158. marafion, 150. Johnson, Fred N., 197. Johnston, Bernard, 197. Johore jackfruit, 419. Jones, C. R., 131. Jones, Joseph, 393. Jordanus, Friar, 87. Josselyn, P. R., 317. jujube, 383. Julie mango, 121, 122. julnar, 377. Jumelle, Henri, 456. Kagdi Pairi mango, 142. kai-apple, 441. kaju, 150. kaki, 353. kamrakh, 430. kamranga, 430. kaniste, 348. kantaka, 417. kanthal, 417. Kao Tsu, 315. kapoelasan, 330. Karalia guava, 279. karanda, 439. karmara, 430. Kasbeh date, 219, 222. Kastawi date, 223. kathal, 417. Kearney, Thomas H., 197. kei-apple, 441. Kesba date, 222. Kessebi date, 222. ketembilla, 443. Khadhrawi date, 219, 222. Khalaseh date, 199, 222. Khastawi date, 223. Khustawi date, 222. Kingsley, Charles, 345. Kinman, C. F., v, 97, 106, 126, 136. Klee, W. G., 456. knepe, 333. Knowles avocado, 26. Knuth, Paul, 242, 248. kolo, 411. Krome, W. J., v, vii, 25, 34, 40, 48, 51, 54, 63, 254. Kulkarni, L. B., 236. kurUba, 249. Kura-waraka jackfruit, 419. Kusano, Takeo, 265. kuwini, 82. La Forge, F. B., 21. laichi, 316. Lang jujube, 389. INDEX 467 langsat, 426. lansa, 427. lansat, 422. lanseh, 427. Lansium domesticum, 426. Ianz6n, 427. lanzone, 427. lechosa, 229. Lecq, H., 456. leechee, 316. lemae, 411. lemai, 411. Lemaireocereus griseus, 452. queretarensis, 452. lemay, 411. lemon guava, 279. water, 248. Leon, Pedro de Cieza de, 15. lichee, 316. lichi, 316. licor de genipapo, 454. lilikoi, 242. limao do matto, 405. lime, Spanish, 333. lingeng, 326. Linnaeus, 5. Litchi chevelu, 328. chinensis, 312. nut, 313. Loh Mai Chi litchi, 322, 325. Long Amini mango, 141. long an, 326. longan, 322, 325. longyen, 326. Idquat, 250. -scab, 262. lucmo, 351. Lucuma Caimito, 350. mammosa, 341. nercosa, 347. obovata, 351. rivicola, 348. salicifolio, 350. lucumo, 352. lu-kuh, 255. lukwat, 255. Lunan, John, 90. lung an, 326. lychee, 316. Lyon avocado, 52, 68, 74. bean as cover-crop for mango, 105. M mabolo, 373. MacCaughey, Vaughan, 167, 168, 179, 184, 187, 303, 308, 410, 413, 414. Macmillan, H. F., 167, 184, 188, 240, 241, 247, 248, 249, 281, 288, 309, 311, 328, 336, 346, 415, 419, 452, 456. Maechtlen white sapote, 448. Majhul date, 200, 223. Maktum date, 223. Malay-apple, 309. Malda mango, 91, 122. Malum punicum, 377. mamao, 229. mamey, 401. Colorado, 341. de Santo Domingo, 402. mango, 136. zapote, 341. Mammea americana, 342, 401. mammee, 402. -apple, 402. -sapota, 341. Mammilaris cherimoya, 175. mamoncillo, 332. Manakhir date, 223. manga amarilla, 135. blanca, 135. da rosa, 137. mamey, 136. mango, 135. monjet, 82. pari, 82. man-gay, 88. mangga, 88. manggis, 394. Mangifera altisaima, 82. ccesia, 82. fcetida, 82. indica, 81. laurina, 82. odor at a, 82. sylvatica, 82. verticillata, 82. zeylanica, 82. mango bark-borer, 131. bianco, 136. botanical description of, 81. 468 INDEX climate and soil suited to, 95. composition of fruit, 92. cultivation of, 101. distribution of, 84. frost-resistance of, 98. fruit-fly, 130. history of, 79. hopper, 130. introduction of to U. S., 90. pests and diseases, 128. pollination of, 118. propagation of, 107. races and varieties, 132. seedling, 108. shoot psylla, 131. weevil, 131, 132. mangophul, 94. mangosteen, 390, 422. mangotina, 136. mangoustan, 394. mangrove annona, 164. mangue, 88. Manila mango, 108, 134, 136. man-kay, 88. manzanilla, 269. maracuja melao, 248. marang, 420. maranon, 149. Maria, P. Vicenzo, 177. Maries, Charles, 79, 125, 133, 137. Marignolli, John de, 87, 414. Marin, Don Francisco de Paula, 304. Markham, Sir Clements, 161. Marlatt scale on date, 217. marmalade-box, 454. -fruit, 341. -plum, 341. masa pan, 411. Mason, Silas C., 197. Masters, M. T., 435. matasano, 194, 446. Maxwell-Lefroy, H., 130, 131 152 419, 435, 456. McLean's litchi, 325. McMurran, S. M., 128. mealy-bug, avocado, 60. citrus, on avocado, 60. Mediterranean fruit-fly on avocado 61. on guava, 279. on kaki, 365. on kei-apple, 443. on loquat, 264. on mango, 130. on papaya, 239. on pitanga, 291. on pomegranate, 382. on sapodilla, 339. Medjeheul date, 223. Medjool date, 223. medlar, Japanese, 255. Melicocca bijuga, 332. melon tree, 229. melon zapote, 229. Memminger, Lucien, 150. Menakher date, 223. Merrill, Elmer D., 371. Mespilus germanica, 255, 336. Mexican fruit-fly on mango, 130. Mexican race of avocados, 76. Mexico, origin of avocado in, 14, 15. Meyer, Frank N., 252, 257, 316, 325, 326, 354, 362, 382, 385, 387. Michael, William H., 94. Miller, Jacob, 71, 168. Mimusops Kauki, 339. Miranda, Conde de, 179. Mirzapuri guava, 279. mite, red, on papaya, 239. mi-tsao, 386. Mohur Thakur mango, 125. mombin, 150. red, 157. yellow, 159. Monceaux, H., 393. Montgomery, Charles, 54. Moracese, 406. Morrow, J. E., 388. Moti Pairi mango, 142. mountain-apple, 309. soursop, 192. Mucuna Lyoni as cover-crop for mango, 105. Mueller, Ferdinand von, 457. Muhammad Tughlak Shah, 79. Mulgoba group of mangos, 138. mango, 91, 92, 100, 105, 108, 110, 122, 123, 124, 126, 139. Murrieta, John, 71. muscade date, 200. Mu shing hong jujube, 389. Myrciaria cauliflora, 300. INDEX 469 jaboticaba, 300. teneUa, 300. trunciflora, 300. Myrobolan, 160. Myrtacese, 272. Myrtle, downy, 311. Myrtus tomentosa, 311. N nabk, 385. naghzak, 88. naseberry, 336. Natal-plum, 437. neflier du Japon, 255. Nephelium lappaceum, 327. Litchi, 316. Longana, 326. mutdbile, 329. Nespola giapponese, 255. nispero, 336. del Jap6n, 255. noix d'acajou, 150. Northrop avocado, 77. Northrop, James H., 197. No. 11 mango, 109, 135. ceil de dragon, 326. ohia, 156, 308. Okame kaki, 364, 365, 367, 369. Oliver, George W., 395, 398, 399. Opuntia Ficus-indica, 448. megacantha, 448. Ormond kaki, 368. Ord, R. B., 19, 168. oriental names, transliteration of, 7. Orta, Garcia de, 87, 432. Otaheite-apple, 156, 309. Oviedo, Gonzalo Hernandez de, 15, 183, 273, 334, 401. Padero mango, 134. Paheri mango, 142. pahua, 18. pahutan, 82. mango, 134. pai bibaw, 252, 264. Pain mango, 92, 108, 124, 125, 126, 142. pajuil, 149. palta, 15, 16. panasa, 417. pao, fruta, 411. papaja, 229. papauce, 190. papaw, 193, 228. papaya, 225. fruit-fly, 238. leaf-spot, 239. mountain, 240. Papayaceae, 225. papaye, 229. Paper-shell pomegranate, 383. papeya, 228. papia, 228. Parlatoria blanchardii on date, 217. Parroquia white sapote, 448. Passiflora ccerulea, 243. edulis, 241. laurifolia, 248. ligularis, 245. maHformis, 249. quadrangularis, 247. Passifloraceae, 225. passion-fruit, 242. Peace mango, 135. pear, alligator, 17. blight on loquat, 262. guava, 279. Peckholt, Theodore, 229. Peni-waraka jackfruit, 419. pepper- tree, 81. pera do campo, 307. Perez, George V., 167. Perico guava, 279. Perina nuda on jackfruit, 419. Perrine, Henry, 19, 91. Persea americana, 11. drymifolia, 11. gratissima, 11. Pittiera, 11. Schiedeana, 11. persimmon, Japanese, 356. American, 353. Peru, avocado in prehistoric, 15. Peruvian guava, 279. Phaseolus aconitifolius as cover-crop for mango, 105. Mungo as cover-crop for mango. 105. 470 INDEX Philippine mango, 121, 122. Phloeothrips anacardii on cashew, 152. Phoenicoccus marlatti on date, 217. Phoenix canariensis, 198. dactylifera, 198. sylvestris, 198. Photinia japonica, 255. Phyllocalyx Luschnathiana, 308. tomeniosus, 310. Pico mango, 134. Pierce, W. Dwight, 456. pigeon peas as cover-crop for avocado, 33. Pillans, E., 258. pina mango, 136. pinha, 180. pi-pa, 255. Pirie mango, 91, 142. pistachio nut, 81. Pistacia vera, 81. pitahaya, 451. pitajaya, 451. pitajuia, 451. pitalla, 451. pitanga, 285. pitaya, 451. pithaya, 451. pitomba, 307. Pittier, Henry, vii, 246, 335, 341, 350, 456. Placentia Giant loquat, 267. plant-breeding, absence of, in the tropics, 4. plaquemine, 356. Platonia insignis, 398, 403. Ploccederus ruficornis on mango, 131. Plodia inter punctella in dates, 218. Plotheia celtis on litchi, 324. plum, coco, 271. date, 356. governor's, 439. Japanese, 255. Java, 304. Jew, 156. marmalade, 341. Natal, 437. Spanish, 158. Pollock avocado, 54, 55, 57, 70. Polo, Marco, 432. polyembryony of mango, 107. poma-rosa, 305. pomegranate, 375. butterfly, 382. pomme-cannelle, 180. Cythere, 156. d' acajou, 150. d'or, 249. rose, 305. pond-apple, 177, 191. Popenoe, F. O., 197. Paul, vii, 197, 456. posh-te, 193. Pouteria Caimito, 349. Pratt, W. E., 424. Premier loquat, 265, 266. Proschowsky, A. Robertson, 167, 240, 247, 288. proterogyny, 173. prune Myrobolan, 160. prunier d'Espagne, 158. rouge, 158. Prunus Capollin, 268. Capuli, 268. salicifolia, 268. Pseudococcus on guava, 278. citri on avocado, 60. filamentosus on cherimoya, 175. nipoe on avocado, 60. Pseudoparlatoria ostriata on papaya, 239. Psidium acre, 281. Araca, 281. aromaticum, 275. Cattleianum, 279. chinense, 281. Friedrichsthalianum, 283. Guajava, 272. guianense, 275. guineense, 275, 284. laurifolium, 283. littorale, 281. lucidum, 281. molle, 284. pomiferum, 275. pyriferum, 275. sinense, 281. variabile, 281. Psylla cistellata on mango, 131. Pucciniopsis caricce, 239. Puebla avocado, 21, 68, 77. pulasan, 329. pulassan, 330. INDEX 471 Pulvinaria on guava, 278. on mango, 132. pyriformis on avocado, 60. Punicaceae, 375. Punica Granatum, 375. Pyrie mango, 142. quauhtzapotl, 187. Quayle, H. L.f 59. Queensland fruit-fly on loquat, 264. on mango, 130. quenette, 333. R race, definition of horticultural, 65. Ragawi pomegranate, 382. Rajpuri mango, 142. ramboetan, 328. rambotang, 328. ramboutan, 328. rambustan, 328. rambutan, 327, 422. ramontchi, 439. ramphal, 187. R'ars date, 221. Reasoner Brothers, v. Reasoner, E. N., 319, 430. Reasoner, P. W., 91, 151, 180, 188, 274, 288, 333, 336, 342, 346, 348, 456. Red mombin, 157. Redondo mango, 136. red-spider on avocado, 59. on mango, 131. Rhamnacese, 375. Rhars date, 221. Rheedia brasttiensis, 405. edulis, 405. macrophytta, 405. Rhodomyrttis tomentosa, 311. Rhua Toxicodendron, 81. Rhyncophorus on date, 217. Ribera Gomez, D. Emilio, 456. Ridley, D., 397. rima, 411. rimmon, 377. Riviere, Ch., 456. Rodrigues, J. Barbosa, 289, 404. Roeding, George C., 356, 358, 364, 365, 378, 381, 456. Rolfs, P. H., v, 69, 133. RoUinia deliciosa, 194. orthopetala, 194. roma, 377. roman, 377. Rorer, J. B.f 129. Rose, J. N., vii, 158. rose-apple, 291, 303. litchi, 325. mango, 137. rumman, 377. Ryerson, K. A., 298. Safari am, 275. Safford, W. E., v, vii, 15, 89, 164, 176, 179, 183, 187, 192, 430, 431, 456. sahagun, 16. sahakara, 85. Saidi date, 204, 223. Saissetia on guava, 278. on mango, 132. hemispherica on litchi, 324. olecB on avocado, 60. on feijoa, 299. Salazar, Francisco Cervantes, 15. Salimi pomegranate, 382. San Chi litchi, 322. Sandersha group of mangos, 143. mango, 121, 124, 126, 127, 143. Sandoricum Koetjape, 426. indicum, 426. San Jose scale on loquat, 264. santol, 426. Sapindacese, 312. Sapindus Saponaria, 333. sapodilla, 334. sapota, 336. Sapota Achras, 337. zapotUla, 337. Sapotacese, 334. sapote, 340. black, 370. green, 343. white, 445. yellow, 350. sapoti, 336. sapotilha, 336. sapotille, 336. 163, 189, 472 INDEX saramuya, 180. Sauvaigo, Emile, 358, 362, 457. scab, avocado, 62. scale, black, on avocado, 60. Florida wax, on loquat, 264. insects on kaki, 365. on feijoa, 299. San Jose, on loquat, 2,64. wax, on avocado, 60. white, on avocado, 60. Schimper, A. F. W., 121. Schinus molle, 81. Schultz, H. F., 170, 174. Sebastian avocado, 26. seeds, shipment of avocado, 42. Seemann, Dr., 161. seso vegetal, 332. Sextus Papinius, 384. sharifa, 180. Sharpless avocado, 21, 68, 74. shibukaki, 362. shi tze, 356. Simmonds, Edward, v, 177, 234, 338, 438. Simmonds papaya, 239. Singapore mango, 91. siniguelas, 158. sitaphal, 180. Sloane, Sir Hans, 17. soapberry, 332. Solano avocado (description of), 75. Solms-Laubach, Count, 228. soncoya, 184, 193. Soondershaw mango, 144. soursop, 177, 182. mountain, 192. Souza, Gabriel Soares de, 148. Spanish-lime, 333. -plum, 158. Ruby pomegranate, 383. Spinks avocado, 68, 75. Spondias, 81. cytherea, 155. dulcis, 156. lutea, 159. Mombin, 150, 157. purpurea, 158. tuber osa, 152. star-apple, 344. Stenocalyx brasiliensis, 289, 304. Michelii, 289. Sternochetus grams on mango, 132. mangiferce on mango, 131. Stevens, H. E., 61. Stizolobium Deeringianum as cover- crop for mango, 105. Strasburger, E., 109. strawberry guava, 279. subtropical fruits, definition of, 6, 7. sugar-apple, 177. suirsack, 184. Sundersha mango, 144. Supsupen mango, 134. Surinam-cherry, 289. Su Tung-po, 312. sweet-cup, 248. sweetsop, 180. Swingle, Walter T., v, 109, 197, 214, 315. Syzygium Cumini, 305. jambolana, 305. Tabirzal date, 224. Tafilalet date, 200. Taft avocado, 45, 52, 68, 75. Taft, A. Z., 168. C. P., 258, 259, 264, 266. tamar-i-Hindi, 434. tamarin, 434. tamarind, 432. tamarindo, 434. Tamarindus indica, 432. Tamopan kaki, 361, 368. •Tanaka loquat, 264, 265, 267. Tane-nashi kaki, 357, 361, 364, 365, 367, 368. Tavares, J. S., 146, 147, 152, 286, 289, 290, 292, 300, 301, 302, 303, 416, 417, 431. Taylor avocado, 76. Taza loquat, 264. Teixeira, Pedro, 202. tejocote, 269. Tetranychus on papaya, 239. mytilaspidis on avocado, 59. texaltzapotl, 180. texocotl, 270. Thalassodes quadraria on litchi, 324. Thales loquat, 256, 265, 267. thamar, 434. INDEX 473 theonti, 311. Theophrastus, 415. Thompson, Alice R., 92, 151, 155, 160, 169, 180, 230, 290, 306, 309, 317, 326, 346, 378, 412, 417, 430, 434, 437. Theory date, 224. thrips on avocado, 59. on cashew, 152. on mango, 131. Thuri date, 204, 219, 224. ti-es, 348. tipolo, 411. tliltzapotl, 371. tomato, 453. tomato, tree, 452. Totapari mango, 92, 144. Tourney, J. W., 450. Tozotrypana curvicanda, 238. Trabut, L., v, 167, 253, 264, 265, 288, 294. Trapp avocado, 21, 24, 25, 26, 35, 37, 40, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 63, 68, 70. tree-melon, 229. tree-tomato, 452. Trialeurodes floridensis on avocado, 60. Trioza koebeli on avocado, 61. Triumph kaki, 357, 365, 367, 369. tropical fruits, definition of, 6, 7. tropics, scarcity of fruits in, 2, 3. Trypetidae on cherimoya, 175. on mango, 130. on sapodilla, 339. tsao, 385. tsjaka, 417. Tsjakapa jackfruit, 419. Tsuri date, 224. Tsuru kaki, 355, 357, 364, 365, 369. Tuberculate cherimoya, 176. tuna, 448. turpentine mango, 135. Turton, Harry, 393. Twain, Mark, 161. tzapotl, 341, 445. tzicozapotl, 336. uajuru, 271. 'ulu, 411. 'ulu-ma'a, 411. L umbonate cherimoya, 176. umkokolo, 441. unnab, 385. Urbina, Manuel, 371. uto, 411. uto-sore, 411. uvalha, 309. Valle, P. della, 87. Van Hermann, H. A., v, 116. Varaka jackfruit, 419. Vasconcellos, Simam de, 147. Vega, Garcilasso de la, 16. Vela jackfmit, 419. velvet bean as cover-crop for avocado, 33. for mango, 105. vetch, as cover-crop for avocado, 33. vi, 156. Vicia atropurpurea, 33. Victor loquat, 263, 265, 267. Vienna rules of nomenclature, 8. Vigna Catjang as cover-crop for mango, 105. Vinson, A. E., 197. Virachola isocrates on loquat, 264. on pomegranate, 382. lima on pomegranate, 382. Vitellaria mammosa, 341. Viviand-Morel, M., 299. W Wahi date, 224. Waldin avocado, 35, 71. Wallace, Alfred Russel, 422. Waller, Edmund, 226. Waraka jackfruit, 419. water-lemon, 248. Watt, Rev. D. G., 91. Watt, George, 93, 477. Webber, H. J., 25, 65, 109, 277. weevil, avocado, 60. Wehmer, Carl, 337, 394. Werckle, Carlos, 170. Wester, P. J., v, 91, 105, 134, 152, 156, 159, 171, 172, 173, 176, 181, 186, 188, 192, 232, 233, 277, 306, 373, 399, 413, 420, 474 INDEX 421, 425, 426, 427, 428, 431, 432, 435, 443, 444, 455, 457. West Indian mango, 135. race of avocados, 69. Whedon, J. T., 58. wi, 156. Wickson, Edward J., 457. Wilcox, E. V., 457. wild cherimoya, 192. Wilder, Gerrit P., 336, 393, 457. Willis, J. C., 96. Wonderful pomegranate, 383. Woodrow, G. Marshall, 91, 101, 103, 104, 105, 112, 124, 181, 457. Wright, W. H., 395. Wu Ti, 305. xalxocotl, 274. Ximenez, Francisco, 16. xocotl, 158. ya, 336. yambo, 305. yds, 11. yash-tul, 344. Yeddo-ichi kaki, 363, 365, 367, 369. Yemon kaki, 355, 364, 365, 367, 370. yongt'o, 430. Yu jujube, 389. Yule, Sir Henry, 457. Zadie date, 224. Zahidi date, 215, 219, 224 zapote agrio, 184. amarillo, 351. bianco, 446. borracho, 351. negro, 372. prieto, 372. zapotillo, 336. Zehedi date, 224. Zengi kaki, 357, 363, 365, 370. Zignoella garcinece on mangosteen, 401. Zizyphus, 384. Jujuba, 384. mauritiana, 384. saliva, 384. vulgaris, 384. Printed in the United States of America. CIRCULATION DEPARTMENT 202 Main Library 642-3403 AN PERIOD 1 HOME USE ALL BOOKS MAY BE RECALLED AFTER 7 DAYS 1 -month loans may be renewed by calling 642-3405 lonth loans may be recharged by bringing books to Circulation Desk Renewals and recharges may be made 4 days prior to due date DUE AS STAMPED BELOW — ' XX GIL JU126'76 NO. 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