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THE MAEE AND FOAL.

The Breeding-stud.

The breeding of horses, whether as a branch of agriculture or as
a separate and distinct enterprise, has always been looked upon
as more or less a lottery, not only as regards the type of the
animals produced, but also in respect to the financial success of
the undertaking. The frequent contradiction of the old maxim
that like begets like — that, as the parents, so the offspring — has
upset the calculations and destroyed the confidence of many an
enthusiastic devotee in the service of horseflesh. If, however
the practice of breeding has not been removed altogether from
; the sphere of speculation, the fact has become more and more
appreciated and accepted that the foundation of success must be
laid in the judicious selection and mating of parent stock, not
only in regard to conformation and physical capabilities, but
also, and in the highest degree, to constitutional soundness. Im-
portant as this initial step may be to the production of a sound
and useful race of horses, it is but the beginning of a difficult
and delicate enterprise — difficult, because of the scope and
variety of knowledge and experience necessary to successful
breeding and stud management ; delicate, because it contem-
plates the perpetuation of animal life and the evolution of man's
ideal of equine beauty and power.

Breeding, employing the term in a physiological sense, is
not too much in evidence in papers of this kind. It may not
be without interest, therefore, to those who would take a wider
view of the subject, to consider briefly the functions of gestation
and parturition ; in other words, the embryo and its life-relationa

with the parent, . — . ■ ■

UNIVERSITY

PL'\;\oiLVArgiA

A

2 The Mare and Foal.

Female Organs of Generation.

In order to render this branch of the subject intelligible to
the general reader it will be necessary to briefly consider the
female organs of generation. These comprise : 1. The ovaries.
2. The Fallopian tubes. 3. The uterus or womb. 4. The
vagina or genital passage. 5. The vulva and clitoris.

The Ovaries (figs. 1 and 4) are the essential organs of genera-
tion, in form and character resembling the testicles of the male.
They are two ovoid bodies suspended from the spine immediately
behind the kidneys. In structure they consist of interlacing
bundles of connective tissue, branching blood-vessels, and nerves,
in the midst of which are embedded a number of small bladder-
like bodies, termed Graafian vesicles or ovisacs (fig. 1). These are
chiefly located near to the circumference of the organ, and vary
in size with their age and progress towards maturity. The
younger and smaller ones are placed near the surface, while
those further advanced in development are more deeply situated.
When fully matured they are filled with a transparent yellowish
fluid of the consistence of water, and contain also the ovum
or egg, out of which is developed the future horse.

The Ovum (figs. 2 and 3) is a small cell or sac about yoo o^
an inch in diameter. When ripe it escapes from the ovary by
the bursting of the Graafian vesicle, an act always associated
with the condition termed ccstrum, or horsing. On leaving the
ovary the extruded egg enters the Fallopian tube, and by it is con-
ducted into the uterus.

The Fallopian Tube (fig. 4) is a narrow duct extending in a
wavy course from the extremity of the horn of the uterus, where it
is small, to the ovary, where it spreads out like the wide end of a
trumpet. The purpose of this duct is, as just stated, to convey
the discharged egg from the ovary into the uterus ; but before this
can be done the ovum must first be secured, or it will fall into the
cavity of the belly. To guard against this the free, broad end of
the duct is thrown like a mantle over the egg at the moment of its
escape, and in this way it is secured against loss and enters the
orifice of the tube.

The Uterus or Womb (fig. 4) is an irregular cavity into which
the discharged ovum is conveyed by the Fallopian tube to be fer-
tilised and afterwards nourished during fa:tal development.
It is situated in the cavity of the belly beneath the loins,
and is held in position by two broad ligaments which suspend
it from the spine. Anatomically considered, the uterus is
divided into a body ; two branches, termed cornua or horns ; a
cervix or neck ; and the os uteri or mouth. The mouth is

The Mare and Foal.

the opening by which the cavity of the uterus communicates
with the vagina, and through which the foetus escapes in the act
of parturition. The neck is the constricted portion situated
immediately behind the mouth. Beyond this is the body, or
cylindrical portion of the organ, extending forward, and dividing
into two long branches or horns. These latter curve upwards
towards the spine, and each communicates by a small orifice with

Fig. 1. — Section of the Ovary.

1, Small Graafian vesicles ; 2, Larger Graafian vesicles ; 3, 4, 5, G, 7, 8, Vesicles in various stages
of development ; 9, Ovum in situ ; 10, Non-ruptured vesicle surrounded by a network of
blood-vessels; 11, Connective tissue in which the vesicles are imbedded ; 12, Blood-vessels
entering the ovary to break up as shown into a number of branches.

Fig. 3. — A Mammalian Ovum ruptured,
with the contents escaping.
mv, Vitelline membrane; j, Yolk ; va, Germinal vesicle ; tg, Germinal spot.

Fig. 2.— Constituent parts of entire Ovum.

the Fallopian tube. The lower surface of the uterus is in contact
with the bladder, while the Upper surface is in apposition with
the rectum. It is important to recognise these two facts, inas-

A '^

4 The Mare and Ihal.

much as undue fulness of the bladder or the rectum, or both, at
the time of delivery, may impede the passage of the foetus.
Structurally, the uterus is made up of three layers : —

1. The outer, or serous layer.

2. The middle, or muscular layer.

3. The inner, or mucous layer.

The serous layer is a thin, transparent membrane which not
only covers the uterus, but more or less completely invests
all the abdominal organs. It is lubricated and kept constantly
moist by a watery secretion of its own, by which its smooth
surface is permitted to move over the adjoining organs and
parts with the least possible friction.

The muscular layer is much thicker and stronger, and forms
the chief bulk of the uterine wall. The muscle of which it is
composed is of the involuntary order, and is arranged in layers of
fibres. The superficial, or outer layers, take a longitudinal direc-
tion, while the ones within them are disposed in circles. During
pregnancy the muscular fibres of the uterus are very consider-
ably augmented, both in size and number, in order to allow the
organ to enlarge for the accommodation of the foetus without
becoming unduly attenuated, and ultimately to assist by their
contraction in expelling the foetus in the act of parturition.

The mucous layer is a thin vascular membrane of a pale pink
hue. In this respect, however, it varies with the state of the
organ, and in the impregnated womb becomes not only much
thicker, but of a deep red colour, while at the same time the
vessels are largely increased in number and in size, having now
to furnish not only materials for the nourishment of the young,
but to provide, in addition, a constant supply of oxygen for
foetal respiration. In order that the latter may be carried on,
the fcetal membranes, or "afterbirth," are everywhere attached to
the inner surface of the uterus, and as the foetal blood circulates
through them, it is brought into close proximity with that
portion circulating in the vessels of the parent, so that the
carbonic acid contained in the blood in the one set of capillary
vessels is given up to that in the other set in exchange for
oxygen, with which the latter freely parts.

The Vagina (fig. 4) is a membranous canal of some consider-
able capacity, extending from the neck of the uterus backward to
beneath the anus, where it ends in a vertical opening — the
vulva. It is by this opening the urine escapes after leaving the
bladder. In the act of copulation the vagina receives the organ
of the male, and through it the foetus escapes in the act of
parturition. Figs. 1 to 4 are from Chauveau's " Comparative
Anatomy,"

The Mare and loal.

Puberty.

When the organs of generation have arrived at maturity and
become capable of exercising the reproductive function

Fig. 4.— Generative Organs of the Mare, Isolated and Partly Opened.
1, Ovaries ; 2, Fallopian tubes ; 3, Fimbriated extremity of Fallopian tube, with opening for
entrance of ovum in the centre ; 4, Oornu or horn of the uterus entire ; 6, Oornu or horn of
the uterus laid open ; 6, Broad ligament by which the uterus is suspended ; 7, Cervix or neck
and mouth of the uterus ; 8, Interior of the vagina ; 9, Urinary meatus, or passage to the
bladder, covered by a small fold of mucous membrane ; 10, The vulva ; 11, Interior of the
yiUva : 12, Clitoris ; 13, Labia of the vulva.

6 The Mare and Foal.

animals are said to have reached the period of puberty. The
age at which puberty is attained varies in different species, and,
in the same species, it varies according to different circumstances
of climate, food and management. In the mare a disposition
to receive the horse may appear as early as at a year old, and
is invariably established between that time and the completion
of the second year. The duration of this propensity and the
continuance of the procreative function present wide diver-
gencies in different individuals. Some mares cease to breed at
a very early period, while others continue to be fruitful until
over thirty years of age.

(Estnim or Horsing.

With the advent of puberty the female begins to manifest a
periodical desire for the male, in which state she is said to be at
oestrum. In regard to the mare it is more commonly spoken
of as "horsing," or being "in use" or "in season." In
ordinary circumstances this condition appears only in the
spring an,d summer months, when it recurs at intervals of about
three weeks, and continues each time for a period of two to
three days, but in this respect great variations are noticeable in
different animals. In some exceptional cases it appears and
disappears in twenty-four hours, while in others it may continue
for five or six days. The appearance of oestrum is a sign of the
ripening and escape of an ovum from the ovary or egg-forming
gland, and is attended by considerable excitement of the sexual
organs. The manifestation of its presence is marked by an
irritable and restless state. The mare whinnies and shows an
irrepressible desire for the male. The coat stares, and there is
a slight rise of temperature — which, however, soon subsides — and
the appetite becomes more or less subdued. The genital parts,
especially the vagina and vulva, are swollen and congested,
and a discharge of a whitish glutinous secretion is frequently
emitted from them. Staling is repeatedly attempted, but only
small quantities of urine are discharged, and this is followed by
a succession of spasmodic movements of the clitoris and vulva.
Suckling mares fall off in their milk, and the quality of the
secretion would seem to undergo some sort of change, as it is
frequently the case that during the a3stral period foals suffer
relaxation of the bowels, and sometimes experience a sharp
attack of diarrhcea.

In the case of mares not suckling foals the mammary gland at
this time flushes and becomes somewhat increased in size. Some
animals develop great excitability at the time, and kick, and

The Mare mid Foal. 7

squeal, and become dangerous both to approach and to drive.
It must not however be supposed that the signs of oestrum as
here given will be uniformly present in all cases. Great varia-
tions may be expected to come uuder notice from time to time,
depending in a large measure on the idiosyncrasy and bodily
condition of the animal. Some mares when loaded with fat,
and others of a sluggish temperament or low in flesh, may pass
through the cestral period without exhibiting any striking
indications of their condition, and require therefore the most
careful watching in order that they may not be overlooked. It
is in the writer's experience that even the closest observation
may sometimes fail to detect a mare's fitness for service, and in
such cases nothing short of being presented to the horse will
disclose her amorous state.

The Ocum Fertilised.

If, while at oestrum, copulation be permitted, the ovum of
the female becomes fertilised by the sperm elements of the
male and acquires the power, which it did not possess before, to
grow and, under favourable conditions, to reproduce the species.
Where, however, intercourse is not allowed, the ovum, on reach-
ing the uterus, is expelled or perishes, and undergoes disintegra-
tion and decay.

A fertilised ovum possesses no means within itself by which
growth and development can be carried on to its ripening
stage, and it becomes necessary, in order that it may prove
fruitful, that it should be grafted on to the parent, from whose
store of nutriment it can obtain the materials requisite for the
building up and sustenance of its complex structure. This
union of the one with the other is effected by certain changes
which go on simultaneously on the outer side of the ovum and
the inner surface of the womb, resulting in the former becoming
intimately attached to the lining membrane of the latter (fig. 5).

FUNCTIOX OF THE FcETAL MExMBRANES.

The medium through which this union of the foetus with the
mother is effected is afforded by the foetal membranes, or, as they
are commonly termed, " afterbirth." The foetal membranes
are three in number, and are respectively named (1 ) the Chorion,
(2) the Allantois, and (3) the Amnion. The chorion is a highly
vascular structure, the outermost of the three, and is every-
where attached to the lining membrane of the uterus. The
nature of this attachment is such as to bring the bloodvessels
of the young into close relation with the blood of the dam, by

8 The Mare and FoaL

which means the necessary exchanges concerned in respiration
and nutrition are carried on.

To fully appreciate these facts it must be understood that the
blood circulating in the body of the fa3tus is constantly passing
out of it through the umbilical opening or navel, and being
distributed by branching vessels over the entire surface of the
chorion, where, on being brought into relation with the maternal
blood, through the medium of the walls of the capillaries,
it gives up to it its carbonic acid, and takes in oxygen in
exchange. In addition to this it also receives from the same
source the materials of nutrition. With this fresh charge of
oxygen and foodstuff the blood is now gathered together
by the union and reunion of the divided vessels, and returned
to the body of the foetus by the umbilical vein to be again
distributed through its various organs and tissues. It will
thus be seen that the outer membrane or chorion is the one
through which the foetus is supplied both with food and air.
The other two membranes need not be considered here, beyond
stating that they form a cavity in which the foetus is enclosed,
together with a considerable amount of straw-coloured fluid.
This fluid is important on account of the purposes it serves
in foetal economy — first, in protecting the foetus from outside
concussion, such as would be inflicted on the belly of the dam
in passing through gates ; and secondly, in warding off" the effects
of inside concussion, such as would result from galloping down
hill. In both these cases the water softens the shock, and pre-
serves the foetus from injury.

But it is not only during gestation that this water proves of
service in the mechanism of reproduction, for, in the act of
parturition, while the throes of foaling are taking place, it
forces out the membranes or " afterbirth " in which it is con-
tained, as a bladder-like protrusion, and in so doing opens the
mouth of the womb, and widens the genital passage for the
escape of the foetus. It is this water contained in its sac which,
when protruding from the vagina at the time of foaling, is
spoken of as the " water-bladder." More than this, it lubricates
the genital passage, and thus further facilitates delivery.

Fig. 5 represents the horse embryo, natural size, at seven
weeks old.^ It is seen to be enclosed in a sac, am, containing
fluid, and to have attached to its abdomen a short stalk, or
rudimentary umbilical cord, connected with an orange-shaped
sac, y s. These parts are surrounded by a membrane composed

' Fig. 5 is from A Critwal Period in the Bevelopment of the Hone, by
Professor J. C. Ewart, M.D., F.R.S., who kindly supplied the original drawing
t<xf the illustration. — Ed. '■

10 Tlie Mare and FoaJ.

of two layers, termed respectively the embryonic sac, 1 1, and
the allantois, cdl, aU^, all^, all^.

In the early weeks of gestation the fostiis is anchored on to
the uterus between the points marked a and c, and by this
means is enabled to draw its nourishment from the dam. The
nutritive matter there obtained first enters the yolk sac, y s,
and is afterwards taken np by the vessels distributed through
its walls, and by them conveyed to the embryo.

As growth becomes more active the connection of the
embryo with the uterus becomes more extensive and secure,
and about the eighth week the entire surface of the embryonic
sac contracts a union with the uterus by branching off-shoots
which bury themselves in- the mucous membrane. The blood-
vessels of the former are now brought into contact with those
of the latter in such way as to allow an abundant supply of
nutriment to pass through the walls of the vessels from one to
the other, and, at the same time, to insure the necessary supply
of oxygen for the purposes of respiration.

Pregnancy and its Signs.

When the fertilised ovum has contracted a physiological
union with the uterus the animal is said to be pregnant, or "in
foal," and the process of gestation has begun. It is always a
matter of concern with stud managers and breeders to be
assured that all is well in this connection. But, although there
are certain signs commonly indicating the pregnant state, they
sometimes appear in such a variable and dubious manner that
correct diagnosis becomes very difficult or, it may be, impossible ;
and this is especially the case in young mares with their first
foal, who do not " let down " freely, and in old mares who have
a naturally deep and pendulous abdomen, made still more so by
long-continued breeding.

In ordinary circumstances, however, conception is fol-
lowed by well-defined changes in the temperament and sus-
ceptibilities of the subject, as well as in the volume and form of
certain parts, and later in the greater activity of particular organs.
In addition to this, information may be gathered at various stages
of* gestation from observations directed to the movements of the
foetus as seen from without, and from explorations made by the
hand within. One of the earliest, if not the most reliable, indica-
tions of conception is the cessation of oestrum, or horsing, and the
mare's refusal to accept service after recent copulation. Instances
to the contrary, however, have been known to occur again and
again, and every breeder of experience can furnish examples of

The Mare and Foal. 11

mares returning to the liorse wlien, according to the time when
they foaled down, they must have been pregnant. Some mares,
indeed, will receive the sire repeatedly after a fruitful service,
but many horses will refuse to serve a mare in foal.

Another and a very notable sign of pregnancy is the marked
change in temperament and behaviour. Any disposition to
skittishness and irritability that may* have existed disappears,
and the animal becomes quiet, even approaching to dulness. Her
movements, too, are less active and energetic, and she is often
described as lazy. Moreover, she rests, takes food with unusual
zest, and, unless unduly worked, lays on flesh. Some mares
become ravenous in their feeding, and occasionally filthy.
Sooner or later, the period depending on age, condition and
management, an increase is observed in the size of the belly^
and subsequently in its form. In this connection, young mares
carrying their first foal show but little change until pregnancy
has far advanced, and in some cases doubt may exist even to
within a few weeks of parturition. When in regular work and
receiving a liberal amount of corn, aged mares do not so soon
and so obviously " let down " as do others at pasture. The
snugness with which the foal is carried depends a great deal on
the bracing influence of " condition." As to the form of the
barrel it is noticeable, as gestation proceeds, that there is a
gradual break in the uniformity of the enlargement resulting
in the under surface of the belly becoming strikingly promi-
nent with a tendency to an angular outline. This departure
from the maiden form is very pronounced in some mares at an
early period after conception, while in others it is only seen in
the later months of pregnancy.

Should the outward signs of pregnancy not be conclusive,
reliable information may usually be obtained by rectal or
vaginal exploration.

Rectal Exploratmi. — As already pointed out, the rectum or
posterior bowel is situated immediately above the uterus, so that
by passing the hand into the former the contents of the latter
may be felt. The anatomical relation, therefore, of these two
organs renders the diagnosis of pregnancy comparatively easy,
but it should be understood that for three months, and some-
times longer after conception, the foetus is too small to be
identified through the thick walls of the two organs, and often
too far away in one or the other of the uterine horns to be
reached by the hand of the explorer ; success in this examina-
tion depends accordingly on the size and position of the foal.
Even when of considerable growth it may be quite out of arm's
reach, especially in some old roomy mares where it sinks to

12 TJie Mare arid Foal.

the bottom of a pendulous abdomen. It is related, indeed,
by a distinguished member of the veterinary profession that on
one occasion, being called upon for an opinion as to the preg-
nancy or otherwise of a mare, he made a diligent and careful
examination per rectum, and, failing to find the foetus in the
uterus, expressed the opinion that the mare was barren. Imagine
his surprise and consternation when, three months later, he was
informed that she had been delivered of a fine colt. As to the
desirability and safety of this mode of investigation, it may be
said that when pursued with due care, and with proper regard to
the subject to be examined, it is quite free from danger, but
when practised on certain excitable temperaments, or in a rough
and careless manner, even in animals of a placid disposition,
abortion may sometimes be induced.

Kectal exploration is an operation requiring not only nice
discrimination and care, but some knowledge of anatomy as
well. As a preparatory step the animal should be allowed to
fast for twelve hours, so that the posterior bowel may empty
itself and room be afforded for play of the hand. If the foal
cannot be felt in the natural position of the mare, she may be
made to stand on a sloping surface with the hind quarters
lowermost, and it is also recommended by some to raise the floor
of the belly by means of a rug placed beneath it, aided by an
assistant on either side.

Vaginal Exploration. — Here the desired information is sought
by introducing the hand into the vaginal passage, and carrying
it forward as far as the neck of the uterus, which in this
instance is the part to be inspected. If the womb is empty the
neck will be found projecting into the vagina, while in advanced
pregnancy it is shortened to the last extremity and almost
entirely obliterated. Vaginal exploration, unless performed
with the greatest possible care, involves considerable risk of
exciting abortion, and especially in young mares and others
of an excitable disposition. It is neither so safe nor so reliable
as exploration per rectum, and should not be resorted to save
in very special cases.

Beyond these means of diagnosing the pregnant state some
observers have succeeded in hearing the foetal heart beat through
the abdominal walls of the parent. For this purpose the instru-
ment termed the stethoscope is interposed between the ear of
the listener and the flank of the mare. By moving it about
from place to place, and concentrating the attention on the
sounds conveyed through it, the pulsations of the foetal heart may
sometimes be heard as the subdued ticking of a watch. Many
very excellent obstetricians, however, have failed to identify the

The Mare and Foal. 13

heart's beats amidst the noise and rumbling of the bowels, and
under the most favourable circumstances the operation is a
tedious and protracted one.

Signs of approaching Parturition.

As gestation draws to a close indications of the pregnant
state become more and more striking. The belly lets down and
bulges at the flanks, where the foetus may sometimes be seen to
give an occasional jump, especially after the ingestion of cold
water following upon exertion. Later the udder flushes, and
becomes large, full and tense, the milk ducts are plugged with
a wax-like secretion, and the ligaments of the pelvis relax, pro-
ducing that condition of the croup known as " dropping of the
bones," " falling in at the hips," &c. Coincidently the vulva or
external genital parts swell, the lining membrane assumes a
red colour, and a viscid secretion is discharged from the
vagina.

At the end of the term certain well-known signs of its
completion are presented. Among them the mare is noticed to
become restless and to cease feeding, the face wears an anxious
expression, and she will repeatedly neigh and paw the ground.
Urine and fseces are frequently discharged in small amount,
and later on there are signs of colicky pains when she lies
down and rises again. Straining now sets in, and a bladder-
like extrusion appears at the vulva. This is the " water-bladder,"
or more properly the foetal membranes forced out by their con-
tained fluid which, as we have already explained, serves to
enlarge the passage and prepare the way for the foal. As the
throes or " pains " become more and more energetic, the pro-
truding membranes having done their work, break, and the
water gushes out in considerable quantity.

Period of Gestation. — The period of gestation in the mare
is about eleven months, being sometimes a little under and at
others a little over. The average number of weeks given by
different Continental observers is variously stated to be between
forty-eight and forty-nine. In thirty -three thoroughbred mares
at the Middle Park Stud, Dr. George Fleming found the average
duration of pregnancy to be 335^ days, " the shortest periods
being 316 days (one instance) and 318 days (one instance),
and the longest 354 days (one instauce) and 348 days (one
instance)." With regard to sex, statistics in this stud bore out
the result of general experience, that colts are carried longer
than fillies, but not to a great extent. In sixteen of the former
Dr. Fleming found the average duration of gestation was 330i
days, while in seventeen of the latter it was 334,

14 The Mare and Foal.

Parturition,

Parturition is the act of giving birth, or, as it is commonly
termed in respect to the mare, foaling. If the foal is in a
natural and proper position the fore feet are first presented at
the vaginal outlet, and these will be quickly followed by the
nose resting upon the cannon bones, and then the head appears,
and by a series of forcible efforts the body as a whole is
gradually pressed through the passage. With comparatively
few exceptions the parturient act in the mare is commenced
and completed without extraneous aid. It is usually effected in
a standing posture, and under normal conditions seldom occupies
more than ten to twenty minutes. The foetal membranes or
■" afterbirtb " may escape with the foetus, or be retained for a
short period until the uterus recovers its power, when further
contraction of its walls suffices to expel them. This regular
course of events, however, is liable to interruption from various
causes, with which the breeder of horses should be acquainted.

In natural parturition the forces engaged in the act are the
contraction of the uterus in the first place and in the first
degree, and the contraction of the muscles of the belly in the
second. By the exercise of this primary and auxiliary force,
feeble and of brief duration at first, but gathering strength and
endurance with each recurring throe or pain, the foetus is
ejected from the uterus. It is on these natural efforts, supple-
mented by one or another of the artificial means presently to be
described, that the obstetrist relies for success in overcoming
impediments to birth.

Natural parturition results when the size and position of the
foetus bear a suitable relation to the genital passage, and the
powers of the dam are in no way impaired by debility or
disease. In the presence of these conditions no extraneous
aid is called for. Perfect quiet, ample room, a clean and airy
box away from the filth and noise of the crew yard, coupled with
judicious supervision without unnecessary interference, are the
chief requirements of the pregnant mare. As we have just
pointed out, parturition in the mare under normal conditions is
an act of brief duration, sometimes occupying only a few
minutes and seldom exceeding half an hour. The preparatory
widening of the passage for the escape of the foal is brought
about by the outward pressure of the " water-bladder," and the
more completely this is done the more easy will natural delivery
be rendered. This fact is emphasised because the practice of
" letting out the waters " before they have done their work is
far too common, and cannot be too much condemned. In young

The Mare and Foal. 15

mares who have not previously borne a foal, and whose parts
are in their maiden condition, this act on the part of the
attendant may be followed by serious consequences both to the
dam and offspring.

Bifhult Labour.

As we have already seen, under ordinary circumstances the
mare delivers herself without extraneous aid. AVhere, however,
the act of parturition is unduly delayed, and the efforts of
the mare fail to effect delivery, the time will have arrived
when a careful examination should be made of the genital
passage and the parts within it. It is most desirable that
the relief of difficult labour should be undertaken early in
the parturient period, while the mare is in the fulness of
her strength and her throes are vigorous ♦and prolonged.
In the absence of a veterinary surgeon the person who under-
takes this duty should be selected on account of his former
experience, general intelligence, and tact, added to which
nothing is more valuable than a long arm and a strong one.
Some stud grooms and cowherds are very clever manipulators,
and readily recognise the parts of the foetus with which
their hands come into contact. This is of the first importance
as a means of bringing the foal into a position favourable to
delivery. As a safeguard against injury to the mare the hands
and arms of the operator should be thoroughly cleansed and
well saturated with oil, in which a little carbolic acid has been
previously mixed. The nails, if overgrown, should be cut down
short, so that no injury may be done to the delicate parts within.
These preliminaries over, the hand is carefully introduced into
the vagina and carried forward into the uterus. After the
genital parts have been examined for any possible obstruction,
such as tumours, constrictions, deformities, &c., the situation
and condition of the frotus, the position of the limbs and the
kind of presentation, are then to be determined. |If the presenta-
tion is found to be a natural one — i.e., both fore limbs and head
fair for the passage — and all else besides f;wourable to delivery,
inability to foal will be found to result either from a dispropor-
tion between the size of the fa3tus and the passage, or to consti-
tutional weakness and lack of strength on the part of the dam.
In regard to the limbs presented there should be no mistake
as to their being fore limbs, nor should any doubt exist as to
their belonging to the same fa3tus. In certain malpositions,
and in the case of twins, a hind limb and a fore limb may first
come to hand, and even where two fore limbs present themselves
one may belong to one foetus and the other to another. In either

16 %e Mare and Foot.

of these cases delivery would not only be impossible, but any
attempt to bring it about would add very considerably to the
difficulty of the situation, if it did not jeopardise the life of
both dam and oSspring. Whether the presentation be a for-
ward or a backward one, the same precautions should be
observed to guard against these untoward results.

Employment of Force in Delivery,

The amount of extraneous force necessary to effect delivery
will depend upon circumstances. It may be only as much as a
fairly strong man can alone supply, or it may require the com-
bined efforts of two or several. Whether it be the one or the
other, there are certain rules of guidance in the application of
the force used that should be strictly observed.

In the first place, it should be steady, regular, and con-
tinuous— in other words, " a long pull, a strong pull, and a pull
all together." Jerky and spasmodic traction is not only in a
large measure force thrown away, but is actually injurious both
to the dam and offspring, for in failing to co-ordinate with the
efforts of the animal it delays delivery and tends to disarrange
and damage the soft and sensitive parts of the passage.

Whether the force employed be manual or mechanical, it
should be so timed as to commence with each throe or labour-
pain as it occurs, so that the outward effort and the inward
effort shall combine and operate simultaneously. So long as the
mare is able to render assistance and her powers bear a fair
proportion to the energy required, this rule should be rigidly
observed. As to the direction which the outward force should
take, this is a matter of very considerable importance. At the
outset, and until the head has passed through the vulva, the line
of traction should be directly backwards. At this time the
withers will be entering the pelvic inlet, and in so doing tend
to interfere with the onward movement of the foetus by jamming
against its upper boundary. To guard against this the traction
should now be slightly inclined downward. As the shoulders
come into the pelvic outlet the resistance will be materially
increased, and may be best overcome by pulling first to one side
and then to the other; and the same movement may be
practised where, as sometimes occurs, the hips are unusually
wide and drag in the passage.

Protracted labour, whether it results from disproportion of
size between the foetus and the passage, or from malposition or
other causes, inevitably tends to weaken the powers of the mare
and to materially discount the efforts of putside help. In this

The Mare and Foal. 17

case the strength must be upheld by the administration of
stimulants, and a short period of rest must be allowed when
exhaustion threatens. It should, however, be pointed out that
in all cases of this kind there should be no lack of assistance
present. Plenty of force early in the task, while the mare is
fresh and full of energy, is of all requirements the most
essential to success. Many mares are annually lost from neglect
of this provision, and the protracted abuse to which it leads.
Veterinary surgeons rightly complain that, if delivery is not
rendered altogether impossible, the life of the mare is often
jeopardised by the " pulling about " she has suffered for want
of sufficient and well-directed force at the outset.

Abnormal Presentations and Malpositions of the F(etus.
Anterior Presentations.

The obstacles to delivery are many and various. Some of
them are connected with the foetus, others with the mare, while
in exceptional cases both contribute to render parturition pro-*
tracted and troublesome, or even impossible. For reasons, some
of which remain to be discovered, the position, or form of presenta-
tion of the young to the uterine outlet, is liable to variations of an
extreme character, rendering delivery not only difficult but
dangerous alike to the mare and the offspring, one or both of
which are frequently sacrificed in the attempt. Thus, instead
of the fore feet first entering the passage as in the natural form of
presentation, they are sometimes found to be turned backward
and resting beneath the elbows. In this position the head is
presented alone, and the tendency of the throes is to drive the
bent knees into the passage, where they become wedged and im-
movable, or against the brim of the pelvis, where they offer an
obstinate resistance to delivery. A modification of this presenta-
tion, and one more difficult to deal with, is that where the head
is fair for the passage but both the fore legs are directed back-
wards beneath the abdomen, and the feet opposed to the flank ;
or it may be that one fore leg is presented with the head in a
natural position while the other is carried back towards the hind
ones.

The head, like the extremities, is also subject to certain
forms of deviation from the normal position and direction,
whereby labour is seriously protracted, and in some cases
rendered impossible. Such examples will be serious in propor-
tion to the degree and kind of displacement existing. In this
connection it is found that the head may be flexed upon the
neck, and doubled under the brisket, between the two fore legs

B

18 The Mare and Foal.

which occupy the passage ; or it may be deflected to the
right, or to the left, so as to rest on the side of the chest,
or still further back towards the abdomen ; or it may be carried
upward and backward to the full length of the neck. In rare
instances the foetus is brought into the extraordinary and almost
unalterable position of having the head and all four limbs directed
towards the passage. Besides these abnormal positions of the
foetus in its forward presentations there are also others equally
difficult and embarrassing to the veterinary obstetrist in the
breech or backward presentations. Of these the first and most
tractable is that in which the hind limbs are directed backward
with the feet in the passage, and the body extended in a forward
direction with the back uppermost. A less favourable position
results when, in addition to a backward presentation, the foBtus
is found to be lying on its back. Here delivery is attended
with considerable, although not necessarily, insuperable diffi-
culty, so long as the hind limbs are accessible, and can be
brought into the vaginal passage. The chief obstacles to
delivery in this position are the hocks and the croup, which
may successively become jammed against the brim of the pelvis.

One of the most difficult and dangerous presentations, both
as regards dam and foetus, is that in which the croup and
buttocks first approach the pelvic inlet, while the hind limbs
are extended forward beneath the abdomen. A less serious,
though always troublesome, form of posterior presentation
results when, instead of the hind limbs being extended back-
wards in the line of the pelvic outlet, they are directed forwards
in such a way that the hocks are flexed at an acute angle on
the lower thigh, and the latter on the upper thigh.

Besides these and other malpositions of the foetus there are also
many and various malformations, the result of either disordered
development or disease, which oppose and render abortive the
normal efforts of delivery. Thus in the one we have the
different forms of monstrosities in which the extremities, or the
head, or both, are numerically in excess, or the spine is partially
double. These forms of obstruction are much less frequently
met with in the mare than in the cow, but when existing they
form serious obstacles to delivery, and the life of the mare
will often depend on their being early discovered and promptly
dealt with.

Obstructions, the result of disease, are seen more especially
in those cases where the head or the abdomen of the foal is
increased " in volume by the presence of large quantities of
fluid, constituting in the one case hydrocephalns, or dropsy of
the brain, and in the other di-opsy of the belly. Moreover,

The Mare and Foal. 19

a universal dropsy of the entire body may exist and render
parturition impossible without expert help. Besides deformities
and diseases of the foetus, birth may be more or less interfered
with by excessive general development, when the foetus is
found to have grown out of proportion to the dimensions of the
genital passage. In this connection Dr. Fleming observes
there are instances recorded of the foetus of the cow and mare
weighing 117, 165, and 189 pounds. It may therefore be
readily understood that the greatly exaggerated volume which
this weight represents must meet with much resistance in
passing through a canal which in ordinary circumstances gives
exit to a foetus weighing from 56 to 80 pounds.

Impediments not less serious than those which appear in the
foetus may also occur in the dam. Of the latter, some are physio-
logical and others structural. Of the first kind illustrations are
found in those cases where, as a result of general weakness or
exhaustion, the expulsive efforts of the parent are altogether
insufficient to effect the discharge of the foetus. The mechanical
impediments resulting from disease, deformity, and displacement
of the maternal parts are too many and varied to allow of more
than a bare reference to examples of the several groups. As
a whole they represent a source of considerable trouble and
loss to the breeder, but they cannot be said to be of frequent
occurrence individually. In the matter of disease, obstruction
to delivery may be induced by tumours affecting the pelvis, or
others growing in or out of the walls of the uterus or the
vaginal passage, in rare instances also in the cavity of the
bladder. Eigidity of the neck of the uterus as the result of
past injury is also among the causes of difficult parturition
arising out of disease. Deformity of the maternal organs finds
expression in the bones of the pelvis, either as a congenital
condition or as a consequence of fracture or some such deform-
ing disease as rickets. It has also been observed that the
uterus, for reasons but little understood, sometimes, though
rarely in the mare, becomes twisted on itself in such manner
and degree as to occlude the outlet and prevent the escape of
the fcetus. The pregnant uterus is also liable to displacement
when, as in rupture of the walls of the belly, it loses its natural
support, and, falling from its place in the abdomen, remains
suspended by the skin.

From a consideration of the foregoing references and illus-
trations the breeder will realise, as he may not have done before,
the difficulties which beset the path of the veterinary obstetrist,
and the danger incurred by delay in seeking his assistance and
advice.

b2

20

The Mm'e and tool.

Rectification of Abnormal Presentation.

It would be impossible in the space allotted to this paper id
consider all the various forms of malposition in which the
foetus may be found, but a brief reference to the more common
ones may be of practical service to those engaged in stud
management. In fig. 6 is depicted an anterior presentation,
with the fore limbs flexed at the knees and the head fair for the
passage. To effect delivery in this case it is necessary to secure
the legs and to bring them into the position of a natural pre-
sentation— i.e. beneath and in advance of the head of the
foetus. For this jourpose the cannon bone must be straightened

Fig. 6. — A.uterior treseutuciou. Head and Kuees iu the Passage.

on the knee and the leg extended. Whether the right or the
left limb should be first dealt with must depend upon its position.
That one which is most easy of access and may be recovered
with the least trouble is the one to be preferred. Where the
head occupies the passage, it will require to be pushed back by
planting the flat of the hand in front of the face. If a further
backward movement is required, it may be effected by means of
a crutch applied to the front of the chest. At the same time
the hand is carried along the under side of the neck, until the
forearm is reached and grasped, and after being pushed as far
as may be required in a backward direction, it is then raised
upward, so that the leg may be brought bodily forward. Th©

The Mare and Foal.

21

cannon is now seized, the knee is pushed up towards the neck,
and the hand, drawing the limb forward, gradually moves
towards the pastern, which it grips, and after bending the
fetlock -joint draws the foot carefully into the passage. The
limb should now be secured by cords and the recovery of the
next one proceeded with, after which delivery may be effected
in the usual way.

As already pointed out, a more difficult presentation is met
with where, as in fig. 7, the head is presented and the fore-limb
or limbs are carried back beneath the abdomen towards the
flanks. Here the advantage of a long arm and a strong one
will be plainly obvious, for the success of the operation in this.

Fig. 7. — Anterior Prespiitiiti

Head anJ Que Fore Limb in Position.

as in the case last referred to, will depend upon the forelegs
being secured and brought into position. If the head is in the
passage, it must be put back ; the hand is then passed along the
under part of the neck until the forearm is reached, and brought
up as before. Failing to accomplish this, a backward direction
may be given to the foal by underpacking the forefeet of the dam
with litter, so as to raise the front of the body. When the fore-
arm is secured the hand should be passed downward as far as
possible towards the knee ; a good hold of the limb is then taken,
and while the lower end of the arm is being raised to the pelvic
inlet, the upper end will be forced backward. At this time it may
be desirable to push the body of the foetus back into the uterus
with a crutch implanted against the breast, so as to make room

22

The Mare and Foal.

for the further upward and forward movement of the leg. As
the limb comes towards the pelvis the hand will now seize the
shin and proceed to bring the foot into the passage, as described
in the last presentation. Should it occur that the arm cannot
be grasped, either from its not being sufficiently within reach
or from cramp or fatigue on the part of the operator, an
attempt should be made to pass a cord round it by means of a
suitable instrument, as shown at fig. 20, p. 31. In its absence
a small hooked walking-stick, carrying a cord through a hole in
the handle, may be used, and while the limb is being acted upon
by assistants the operator will engage himself in raising and
guiding it into position.

Malposition of the Head.

Downward deviation of the head presents itself in various
degrees, from a slight bending upon the neck to that extreme

Fig. 8. — Anterior Presentation. I'\>re-Leg.s in Position, Neck bent downward on itself.

condition of displacement depicted in fig. 8, where the head
is doubled under the body, while the neck is presented to the
pelvic inlet and blocks the way to delivery. The difficulty
attaching to this and other deviations of the head arises out of
the great length of the foals neck, which allows it to be carried
out of reach. In the matter of adjustment, the trouble to be
encountered will be in accordance with the degree of backward
displacement. This may be no more than to bring the nose

Tlifi Mare and Foal.

23

against tlie Lrim of tlie pelvis, but sufficient to interfere witli
natural delivery. Here it is only required to introduce the
band into the uterus, and on reaching the nose to carry it round
the chin, or pass the fingers into the mouth and by a steady pull
raise the head into the passage and complete delivery in the
usual way. When, however, the head is situated deep down
under the brisket, and the poll is firmly fixed against the pelvic
brim, or the neck encroaches on the passage, the task becomes
both difficult and embarrassing. In this position rectification
will be assisted if the hind-quarters of the dam are elevated by
under-packing with litter, so as to give the foetus a downward
inclination. Should the neck present itself to the passage, the

Fig. 9. — Anterior Preseutatiou. Fore-Legs in Position, Head and Neck deflected to the Left.

body will require to be forced backward by means of a powerful
arm, or, failing in this, crutches applied to the front of the
shoulders in order that room may be provided for the forward
movement of the head. To raise the latter, advantage must
be taken of such parts as come within reach to which traction
may be applied. Thus, the ears will be first accessible, or
blunt hooks or crotchets may be anchored on to the orbits, or
passed behind the lower jaw, or into the angle of the mouth.
If capable of adjustment, a cord round the neck may also afford
assistance. It should be borne in mind that in attempting to
rectify this form of presentation, the backward force applied to
the body should be exercised simultaneously with that acting
upon the head. Mechanical ingenuity, tact, anatomical know-

24

The Mare and Foal.

ledge and discernment are all necessary in dealing with this
difficult form of presentation.

Lateral displacement of the head (fig. 9) may be either to the
right or to the left. The head may be simply bent upon the
neck, or the neck may be bent upon itself and the head carried
backward to the side of the shoulder or the chest, or descend
towards the floor of the uterus. In whatever degree the devia-
tion may exist, the presentation is at all times difficult and often
an impossible one to correct. Especially is this the case with
the foal, for reasons already stated. Referring to tliis form of
disj)lacement, Dr. Fleming observes : " The principal aim is of
course to get hold of the head, adjust it, bring it into a favour-

FiG. 10.— Breech Presentation. Legs Fair for Delivery.

able position in the genital canal, and then terminate delivery.
But this indication cannot always be carried out, especially
when the head is beyond reach. With regard to adjustment,
the better plan appears to be as follows. Cord the presenting
fore-feet, push the foetus into the uterus so as to clear it from
the inlet, pushing either on the flexed neck or chest, and not
directly forward but rather obliquely to the side opposite that
to which the head inclines, so as to bring this round to the
inlet. If the fore limbs are in the way of the operator they
may also be pushed back into the uterus. The head is then to
be sought for and twisted in such a way as to bring its under
hjurface uppern^ost." Tq effect this latter change requires an

TJie Mare and Foal.

25

amount of dexterity in manipulation and in the use of mechanical
appliances only possessed by the experienced accoucheur, and
when professional assistance can be obtained it should not bo
attempted by the amateur.

Posterior or Breech Presentations.

In this form of presentation the more common obstacles to
delivery arise out of the position occupied by the hind ex-
tremities. Where, as in fig. 10, they are extended in the
passage, and the croup of the foetus is in apposition with the
spine of the dam, delivery is most favoured, and although this

Hock Presentation.

may be effected by the natural efforts of the mare, such cases
should always receive prompt assistance when the necessity
arises. There is nothing here in the matter of position to
rectify. All that is necessary is to aid by force, as may be
necessary, the expulsive throes of the dam.

Very different is the case of what is known as hock presen-
tation (fig. 11), when, instead of the feet being projected into
the genital canal, as in the presentation last referred to, they
are carried beneath the belly, while the hocks occupy the
passage, or they, together with the breech, are jammed in the
pelvic inlet. In the latter condition especially the obstacle is
always a formidable one, and in the mare frequently insur-
mountable. To effect delivery requires that the hind limbs shall

26 The Mare and Foal.

be brought into the genital canal and fully extended. Before
this can be done, however, the necessary room must be pro-
vided by forcing the buttocks of the foal away from the
passage. Here, again, some assistance will be derived from
raising the hind-quarters by under -packing with litter or
other means. By thus giving the body of the dam a down-
ward inclination from back to front, the foal will more readily
respond to pressure from behind. This may be applied either
with the hand, or a crutch (lig. 12) brought to bear steadily
but persistently upon the buttocks a little below the tail. The
intervals between the throes or straining should be chosen for
action, when there is no resistance to the forward movement of
the fa3tus into the uterus. Wben the passage has been suffi-
ciently cleared an attempt must be made to recover the legs,
and bring them one by one into position. To do this the palm
of the hand should be planted against the under side of the
point of the hock, and the second thigh ibrcibly pressed in an
upward and forward direction. If a cord is now passed round

M^^^m

■X9aMi^ms»Mi^'Si!SMBB^mmmimmsm\

^ Fifi. 12.— Crutch or Repellcr.'

the hock, and handed to an assistant, the limb may be steadied
in position, while the operator, grasping the shin bone, will,
with outside assistance, draw the leg towards the pelvic inlet.
As progress in this direction is made the" hand is to be moved
along the cannon towards the fetlock joint. The foot is then
seized and the pastern forcibly flexed, and the leg lifted into
the passage and extended. When the buttocks by being forced
back towards the passage again interfere with adjustment of
the legs, the crutch or repeller must be brought into use, and it
may also be desirable to carry the cord down to the pastern
when additional force is required.

Still more difficult and dangerous is the presentation given
in fig. 13. This position, at all times serious, is rendered even
more so by the throes of the mare, which tend to push the pre-
sented parts backward into the passage and to force the hind
legs forward beyond the reach of the operator. Early recogni-

' This form of repeller is used wben it is required to bring force to bear on
the buttocks, in which case the centre-piece is passed into the anus.

The Mare and Foal.

27

tion, therefore, of this malposition is of the first importance, and
the absence of any appearance of the feet in the passage should
lead to prompt exploration of the foetus and the engagement of
professional help. The difficulties to be overcome in this form
of presentation are very considerable at all times, and often
insuperable. With the croup wedged in the pelvic inlet and
the hocks beyond reach, the chances of readjustment and
delivery are remote. Here, as in the last position referred to,
the body of the foal must be forced into the uterus by means
of the repeller, and the passage cleared for the upward and
backward movement of the legs. An attempt should now be
made to get a cord round the hock by means of the curved

Fig. 13. — Thigh and Croup Presentation.

porte-cord and by forcible traction to draw it towards the pelvis.
Where this can be done the further course of action would be
such as we have described in dealing Avith the case last referred
to. In some few instances where the hind limbs could not be
recovered, delivery has been effected without change of position.
This requires either to pass a cord round each of the thighs and
draw it up to the flank or to fix one round the body, as shown
in fig. 13.

Equally difficult and dangerous are the presentations
depicted in figs. 14 and 15. In the former no parts have entered
the passage, but the neck is presented to the pelvac inlet, while
the head and fore-linibs are carried backward beneath the body.

28

Tlie Ma/re and Foal.

In the latter the passage is occupied with both the fore and
hind limbs, as well as the head. It need hardly be said that
the rectification of such formidable malposition should only be
attempted by the expert. The various illustrations of malpre-
sentatiou are from Lehndorff's " Handbuch fur Pferdeziichter."

Mechanical Aids to Delivery.

It would hardly be possible, in the space allotted to this
article, to consider the many and various devices — mechanical,
medical, and surgical — which the veterinary expert employs, in
correcting and removing the numerous and varied forms of

FiG. 14.— Anterior Presentation. Head and Fore Extremities turned back.

obstruction which complicate and oppose delivery. There are,
however, certain devices and general principles of action with
which all who are in any way concerned with horse-breeding
should be acquainted, and which may here be briefly considered.
As we have already seen, the foetus may present itself to the
genital passage in a variety of ways, all tending to render delivery
difficult, and often dangerous to both dam and offspring. To
bring about a rectification of these malpositions and presentations
with reasonable despatch and safety requires not only a know-
ledge of anatomy and physiology, but a large and varied
experience of the technique of obstetrics in which the manipu-
lation of the parts, and the selection, adjustment, and use of
ir^struments and appliances, are of the highest importancp.

The Mare and Foal.

•i9

These are qualifications which cannot be imparted by any wiitten
description, but must be acquired by experience and practice.
When the position of the foetus has been determined and the

Fig, 15. — Head and all Four Legs Presented.

necessary change in the whole or any part of it has been decided
upon, the mode of procedure will require to be corsidered. In

R^NOLO 8 S0NS_L0-<OUN_

Fi(i. IC— Sharp Crotchet.

the first place rectification of malposition will be attempted by
means of the hands alone, and, failing this, one or more of the
various appliances employed in obstetric practice will be resorted

30

The Mare and Foal.

to. In addition to ropes and cords, these comprise sharp and
blunt pointed hoolcs (figs. 16 and 17) — some attached to ropes,
and others fixed to handles — crotchet-forceps (figs. 18 and 19),
pulleys, and other mechanical aids to delivery. Nor must it be
forgotten that considerable assistance may sometimes be derived
from placing the body of the mare in certain special positions.
In one case, as we have seen, it may be necessary to raise the hind
quarters, so as to throw the fretus forward, while in another the
oiDposite attitude is required to be enforced.

As to the means of effecting these changes of posture, much
will depend upon the extent to which they are needed. A con-

FiG. 19. — Blnnt Crotchet Forceps.

siderable inclination either one way or the other can be given to
the body by underpacking the fore or hind legs respectively
with litter ; but where it is required to give the hind quarters a
distinct upward tendency — which, by the way, seldom occurs
— pulleys acting from a beam will need to be resorted to.
In the employment of mechanical appliances for the purposes
of delivery, it is of the first importance that the operator
sliould make himself acquainted with the parts that most
readily and usefully lend themselves to bring the whole
into proper position ; and it should be an invariable rule of
procedure, where help of this kind is needed, to secure with

The Mare and FoaL 31

ropes or otliei' means all parts, whatever they may be, which first
present themselves in the passage. By adopting this course the
operator is at liberty, while deciding as to what parts are to come
first, to return any one or all of them into the uterus, with the
assurance of again recovering them should necessity arise. More-
over, where the head is thrown to one side and nothing but the
fore legs present, it may be desirable to put the legs back until
the head is brought into position. In such-like cases, the legs,
havingbeen secured, may be brought into the passage at any time,
whereas if unsecured they may pass out of reach, or be forced
during the throes of the dara into some difficult position, in
recovering them from which much time would be lost. The body
and extremities of the foal offer many points for the adjustment
of ropes, cords, and hooks as means of traction. When the
head is accessible, a light headstall may be applied to it ; or a
stop noose may be put round the neck, or a running noose
introduced into the mouth and carried over the poll, or a cord
may be affixed to the lower jaw, and so on, according to the re-
quirements of the case and the facilities which offer for adjust-

Pio. 20,— Porte-Cord.

ment of the one or the other. It should, hov/ever, be observed
that while the head forms a most substantial base for the
application of force, the lower jaw is likely to be severely damaged,
or even broken, unless the amount of traction applied to it is
judiciously regulated.

Besides the use of ropes, there are certain parts ot
the head into which hooks may be fixed, after other and less
heroic means have failed to secure a hold. If, for example,
the head be turned back, and the angle of the mouth cannot
be reached by the finger, a blunt hook mounted on a suitable
rope or handle may be pushed forward, and anchored on
to the cheek. In difficult cases, when the last-named part
cannot be reached, the orbit of the eye will aflbrd a favourable
point into which to insert the finger or a blunt hook, or in
difficult cases even a pointed one may be employed. >Should
the latter be adopted, the amount of force used must be
carefully graduated, or the instrument will be made to tear out
and may seriously damage the uterus. In fixing hooks into the
orbit care should be taken not to injure the eye, unless the foal

32 ^le Mare and toal.

is dead or the mare in danger, when no consideration of this kind
should influence the operator.

When the hind part of the body is presented, and the
posterior limbs are advanced beneath the belly of the foal,
ropes may be passed between the legs and brought round the
thigh, or the bend of the hock, or both in succession, as
progress is made in raising the limbs towards the natural
outlet. For this purpose various forms of porte-cord are used,
of which the one shown in fig. 20 is perhaps the most useful.

Double hooks or crotchet-forceps, blunt or pointed as may be
required, may also be brought into use, both in anterior and
posterior presentations, when no sufficient hold can be secured by
any other means. These instruments may be made to penetrate
the tissues and take a firm hold of deep-seated tendons, or be
anchored on to bones and ligaments. Equally useful in the
rectification of abnormal presentations are the various forms of
repeller or crutch (fig. 12, p. 26), by means of which the body
of the foetus as a whole may be pushed back, in order to make
room for the advance of misplaced extremities, and to secure
them by means of ropes or other appliances.

In connection with mechanical aids to delivery, it remains
to be said that in their employment the strictest regard should
be paid to cleanliness, and all ropes and appliances used for
parturition purposes should be well scalded and disinfected.

The Treatment of Brood Mares.

Early Mating of Mares.

The perennial question as to the age at which mares should
commence their stud career is as green to-day as it was thirty
years ago, and there are plenty of men of large experience who
believe and act upon the dictum that the " dictates of nature "
should be promptly complied with, and that at the early age of
two the mare should go to service. To this suggestion there
can be no objection if the breeder has no desire to enter the
race for supremacy, and has no ambition to produce a " horse
of the century," or add to the excellence of the general stock.
It is urged by those who practise this system of early mating —
and who does not ? — that it is economical, since at a period when
young mares must perforce lead a more or less idle life they may by
this means be made to yield some immediate return for the outlay
bestowed upon them. This is perfectly true, and it is hardly to
be expected that consideration for the higher principles of
breeding will be allowed to stand in the way of that narrow butj
urgent margin of profit obtained by the average breeder.

The Mare and Foal. 33

There can be little doubt that mares born early in the year
and well forward in growth at two years old are much less
retarded in development at this time, and more likely to produce
a good foal, if well done, than others less favourably situated ;
but the fact remains that the practice is not conducive to the
best interest of our horse stock, and the writer has no hesita-
tion in affirming that in respect to size, frame, constitution
and bone, it is distinctly prejudicial. It is not contended that
mares at this age do not now and again breed horses of the
highest class. Instances to the contrary are to be found in
every breed.

Among others of the Shire breed, for example, is that grand
horse Bury Victor Chief, who was the produce of Bury Daisy at
three years old. Among the Hackneys, Garton Duke of Con-
naught, Langton Duke, Langton Performer, A^igorous, Astonish-
ment, Orange Blossom, and Dorothy Derby II., are all out of
three-year-old mares. Bub these and such other examples as are
to be found form a veiy small proportion of the total of good
horses of the respective breeds, and include a still smaller pro-
portion of the best. While recognising, therefore, the possible
and occasional success of early breeding, such statistics as our
various stud-books afford will, I believe, lend no sort of encourage-
ment to the practice, if they do not actually condemn it.

To say when a mare should not be put to the stud does
little to advance the argument, and leaves the question very
much where it was. It remains, therefore, to indicate at what
age this may be permitted with the greatest prospect of suc-
cess in the production of the best and the improvement of the
whole. In this connection we might point to mares in every
variety who have produced high-class horses when stinted at three
years old, and still more who have given us produce above the
average at the same age ; but a full consideration of the question
warrants the conclusion that the best results would follow were
mares allowed to commence their stud career a year later. At
this period growth is drawing near to completion, the organs of
reproduction have acquired size and stability, and the physio-
logical energy hitherto engaged in building up the frame may
now be more largely devoted to maturing the fcetus. At the
present time, when want of size in our working horses is so
universally recognised, breeding from babies can hardly be
regarded as a commendable practice.

Wlien Foals should Fall.

To so regulate the mating of mares that the foals shall bS
dropped at a Suitable season is a rhaCCer of the greatest coucerla

G

34 The Mare and Foal.

to the breeder of horses. In these days of horse shows, with
their numerous and costly prizes, medals, and challenge cups,
great temptation is offered to the breeder of pedigree stock to
strive after early produce, and to resort to a system of forcing
and pampering which, while productive of a limited and tem-
porary success, cannot be otherwise than disastrous to the
general well-being of the horse. As to the particular month of
the year when foals should be encouraged to come, a great deal
will depend upon the soil, locality, and climate in which they
are to be reared, and, naturally, opinions on this question vary
with the variations of experience gained under different local
conditions. In a climate so uncertain and trying as ours, early
foaling is distinctly prejudicial to the life and health of the
offspring, and it is not too much to say that a large share of the
loss and disappointment that breeders experience under ordinary
conditions is due to this cause. Some consider the advantage
of an early colt to be a good set-off against the risk entailed, and
the latter part of February or the beginning of March is the time
arranged for foaling to commence. With the prevailing winds
from the east or north-east at this season of the year, cold rains
and snowstorms, little sunlight, and a scanty supply of rank
herbage, both mare and foal must either be subjected to confine-
ment for several weeks, or face the rigours of the season and
attendant risks. Nothing conduces so much to the health and
well-being of the dam, and to the growth and stability of the foal
in the first period of its life, as an abundance of spring grass and
the vivifying influence of the solar rays. These desiderata can-
not be hoped for as a settled condition until the month of April
has well advanced, and it is from this time onward, through
May and June, that the best and strongest foals will be dropped
and most successfully reared. The best food that -can be pro-
cured, and the most perfect stable and management that can
be designed, are poor substitutes for the liberty, pure air, and
rich, succulent herbage of advanced spring.

Foals dropped late in the summer are at an equal disadvan-
tage with those that appear too early. The grass at this time
is losing its goodness, and the milk of the dam is indifferent
both in quantity and quality. Besides, the nights are getting
cold and damp, and, worse than everything, the youngster will
be shedding its coat at a time when it should possess its winter
suit. All this tends to lower the vitality of the individual, to
check growth, and enfeeble development. If foals are to grow,
and shape, and make good horses, they must bask in the sun-
shine of summer and receive an abundant supply of the rich
milk and ripe herbage it affords. Moreover, growth, to be

The Mare andj Foal. 35

attended with substantial development, must be continuous,
and uninterrupted by the poverty and inclemency of both spring
and autumn.

Management of In-Foal Mares.

Not the least important branch of stud management is that
which deals with the care and protection of mares during the
period of pregnancy, and it is not too much to say tliat a
considerable percentage of the sickness and mortality ordi-
narily prevailing in our breeding-studs results from causes of
a common and preventable character. Of these some are
especially conspicuous, and perhaps none more so than the
prevailing and rapidly extending system of undue feeding,
fattening, and pampering which mares of the heavy breeds
especially are subjected to in the course of their show career.
This is an evil so obvious to everyone concerned in horse-
breeding, and so universally admitted by all, that neither
evidence nor argument is called for here. Were it otherwise,
ample testimony would be found in the stud-books of our heavy
breeds. Here it is clearly shown that the productiveness and
breeding merit of our great champion mares staud at an almost
irreducible minimum, and the limited number of successful pro-
duce among their oftspring is such as to leave no doubt as to
the pernicious effects of the "getting up," and "letting down'
to which they are subjected in the course of their show career'
The obesity in which the great bulk of our show mares are
found during the exhibition season is a state altogether in-
consistent with the exercise of the full raeasnre of their pro-
ductive powers. "With e'^'^ry organ in the body encumbered
with fat and impeded in function to the verge of disease, it
would be strange indeed if the fcBtus did not suffer in point of
size and constitution. Nor does the mischief of this iujnrious
practice end here, for the danger to both dam and foal where
any impediment to parturition arises is multiplied many fold,
— firstly, by diminishing the room naturally available for the
passage of the foetus ; and secondly, by lowering the vitality and
strength of the dam, and adding to the difticulty of delivery.
It is not only in its irumediate effects that this practice proves
hurtful but, long after it has been discontinued, sterility, or a
disposition to abort — one or the other^ — is oiten left behind, while
the capacity to reproduce, in the offspring, that vigour of growth
and frame which characterises the parent is frequently weakened
beyond recovery.

Good general health is unquestionably the bodily condition
most conducive to productiveness in the dam and growth in

c 2

36 The Mare and Foal.

the young, and this state can only be acquired and main-
tained in its fullest measure by a judicious system of liberal
feeding and apportionment of suitable work. It must, however,
be recognised that while the former may, and should, be within
the reach of all who aspire to horse-breeding, the latter is for
obvious reasons impossible of universal adoption. Mares kept
exclusively for breeding purposes lead a life of idleness — in
what is usually, but erroneously, regarded as a natural state. As
to pasturing brood mares much might be said, but it will be
sufficient to note the chief points in which it may fail of success.
Not the least important of these is the nature of the country.
Steep hills and rough ground should certainly be avoided, and
especially so where the mares are big and roomy, and in all
cases when pregnancy is far advanced. Very naturally, to
any suggestion of this kind may be opposed the condition of
mountain ponies. Mountain ponies, however, are neither big
nor roomy, nor are they highly bred, or highly fed, or highly
domesticated. Their susceptibility to outside impressions can-
not be compared with that resulting from the long years of culti-
vation and artificial treatment of our improved breeds. Besides,
there is no evidence to show that even these denizens of the
mountains do not suffer as breeding animals from the physical
conformation of the country they inhabit.

Of still greater importance to the well-being of the brood
mare is the nature of the soil from which she draws her sustenance.
That best adapted to stad purposes is such as will neither fatten
nor starve, but supply a steady growth of herbage of a sound and
nutritive character throughout the greater portion of the year.
Low-lying, damp situations, where the grass comes sour and rank,
where the soil is wet, and dense fogs prevail in the cold nights
of spring and autumn, are alike conducive to abortion and pre-
judicial to health. At all times the winter grazing of pregnant
mares needs considerable care and attention on the part of the
manager, and the resort to dry, nourishing diet should not be
too long delayed. As to when it should be commenced will
depend upon the nature and quality of the herbage, the size of
the pasture, the number of stock upon it, the state of the season,
but above all upon the condition of the mares. The last-named
should never be allowed to get low. Poverty on grass is the worst
form of poverty, not only because it is usually attended with
exposure, but also because of the tendency which the cold, in-
different herbage of the autumn and winter possesses of lower-
ing the temperature of the bod}^. This kind of treatment not only
predisposes to abortion, but at the same time retards the develof)-
inerit of the foetus, and tends to impair its vitality and render

The Mare and Foal, 3t

the foal an easy prey to any disease that may overtake it at the
period of birth.

Wording and Breeding.

The view may not be universal, but it is very generally held
that nothing conduces so much to the production of strong,
healthy offspring as a reasonable amount of work under judicious
management of the mare. A certain element of risk, it is true,
always attends the active employment of pregnant animals, and
especially those engaged in farm work, but with common care
these are far outweighed by the benefits conferred on the dam
and produce. With well apportioned work and a liberal supply
of good food, foals are not only dropped bigger and stronger,
but they resist exposure to adverse influences, and thrive and
grow much better than those from idle, ill-conditioned mares.

As to the stage of pregnancy when mares should cease to
work, different people entertain different ideas, but the question
is surely far more one of management than one of opinion. It is
common enough for mares to work right up to the time of par-
turition, and especially among little men who depend for their
livelihood on the labour of their mares. But in these cases self-
interest lends its force to management and largely determines
the success of the enterprise. As a general system, such a
course would be fraught with the greatest danger, but there can
be no doubt where common care is observed in the selection and
appointment of work, together with good general management,
pregnant mares are all the better for use up to within three or
four weeks of the time of foaling; when work is discontinued, daily
exercise should be substituted, or, if available, some brief, light
employment. The late Mr. James Martin — a rare authority, by
the way, on blood and breeding — once observed to the writer :
" I have foaled down eighteen mares this season. All have
worked nearly up to the time of foaling, and without a mishap
to either mare or foal." Such a result is not likely to be of
common attainment, but it is most assured under the influence of
reasonable, well-regulated work, and generous but careful treat-
ment. In-foal mares should, however, be guarded against severe
exertion, such as drawing heavy loads in deep ground or on hilly
roads, or backing, or trottiug at fast pace ; nor should they be
made to undergo long fasts or suffer fatigue. As pregnancy
advances, and the calls of the growing fcetus on the nutritive
resources of the dam become more and more considerable, so
should the amount of work demanded of her be diminished, and
the food ration undergo suitable adjustment. To assert that the

38 The Mare and Foal.

observance of such details should be among the commonplaces
of every stud is only to suggest a state of things that, to say
the least of it, is far from universal, technical education notwith-
standing.

In the stable pregnant mares should be provided with plenty
of room to permit them to lie down and extend themselves over
a o-ood bed of soft litter. The floor of the stable should not slant
too much in a backward direction. When separated only by
bails their companions should be quiet and free from vice.
Breeding mares, however, never perhaps do better than when
turned into the crew yard at night with a dry shed for protection
from the weather and plenty of dry litter, provided they are on
good terms with each other. Our cold and changeable climate
has often been urged against this exposure of working animals,
but experience teaches that with an adequate food supply the
open yard is far more conducive to health than the atmosphere of
the average stable, which is usually made filthy by the studious
exclusion of outside air, and the deliberate confinement of that
which is within. Moreover, the denizens of the open yard know
nothing of those extremes of temperature the sudden alterna-
tions of which are so fruitful of disease, and while being at all
times fitter for their work, they are also much less susceptible
to sickness than those who spend their nights in the stuffy filth-
laden air of a stable deprived of all means of ventilation.

When the weather permits, this kind of management allows
the mare's being turned to grass for a few hours each day
during the later weeks of pregnancy, without the risk attaching
to animals more closely stabled. A bite of spring grass before
parturition prepares for the more complete change of food
which is shortly to take place, and protects the foal from those
often fatal attacks of diarrhoea which result when mares are
suddenly transferred from hard corn to pasture — from the close
stable to the open field.

Food and Water.

Whatever may be the surroundings of the brood mare, she
should receive an ample supply of good wholesome food, which
should be regularly given. Long fasts, especially when associated
with excessive work and fatigue, are distinctly inimical to foetal
life, and are often accountable for premature birth and sporadic
acts of abortion. As an ingredient of the winter food, working
mares should receive a liberal supply of pulped roots, and an
occasional ration of bran, but on no account should the former
be given to excess, or when in a state of decay. The pregnant
animal is specially liable to digestive trouble, and for this

lOhe Mare and Foal. 30

reason every care is demanded in her regimen. In some parts
of the country potatoes are given as a substitute for roots, and
in small quantities nothing can be said against them ; but
without careful supervision they may become a source of dire
mischief, seeing that in certain conditions of decay they are
capable of developing a poison as deadly as arsenic. Coarse,
indigestible fodder, mouldy and mowburnt hay, are not the
least harmful of degraded aliment, and should be altogether
withheld from the breeding mare.

It is hardly necessary to insist that the supply of water
be wholesome, if not pure, and it is not less important that it be
regularly given. Long spells of work without water lead
to drinking to excess, which in itself is a common source of
trouble, but still more hurtful when the water which is con-
sumed is cold and hard, as commonly supplied from the chalk.
The familiar practice of allowing mares to " drink their fill "
at the trough when returning from work heated and tired is
much to be deprecated ; the more so as pregnancy advances.
A small quantity with the " chill off," to be followed by a full
allowance after a brief rest and a little food, is more consistent
with good management and security.

Brood mares should never be allowed to drink from ponds
or ditches when low in droughty weather. In this condition
the water they consume is not only saturated with the products
of decomposition, but also with large quantities of decomposing
organic matter. Moreover, it is in this state, when the beds of
ponds and ditches become worked up with the feet, that the
ova and larva? of the most deadly of equine parasites gain
access to the body. The writer is repeatedly being called upon
to investigate losses resulting from this cause, and too often
has witnessed the wreck of most valuable studs. In seasons
of drought ponds and streams in the condition indicated should
be fenced off, and the water carted from a clean source, or lifted
into tubs without disturbing the underlying mud. Moreover,
it should not be forgotten that the periodical cleansing of water
courses and receptacles would do much to secure our breeding
mares and their progeny against this fruitful source of sickness.
This does not apply only to ponds and ditches, but to troughs
and tanks, which often abound in filth. In advising the
cleansing of the former, it should be understood that the common
practice of dressing pasture land with the matter removed is
full of danger to brood mares and their offspring, and indeed
to horse stock generally, since any parasites or their ova that
may exist in it are rendered immediately accessible to them
while grazing.

40 The Mare and FoaL

Effect of Raihvay Travelling on Brood Mares.

The prevailing desire on the part of many to mate theii*
mares with the best sires has been much encouraged in recent
years by the more favourable terms and facilities offered for
their conveyance and return over our various lines of railway.
On the whole this may be regarded as a distinct benefit, espe-
cially to those who necessarily desire to keep down expenses,
but it cannot be considered altogether an unmixed good. Long
journeys inflicted on nervous, fretful young mares not infre-
quently cause them to refuse service or to prematurely part
with the fruits of conception. Moreover, nursing-mares of
excitable temperament, when long absent from their foals, are
liable to return with the udder charged with unwholesome milk.
Unless, therefore, the spirit of economy be tempered with
discretion, not only may money be thrown away, but the life of
the foal imperilled or sacrificed. Consequently, when mares are
required to travel long distances to service, the udder should be
emptied previous to leaving, and again on returning, before the
foal is allowed to suck. Neglect of these precautions is some-
times followed by a troublesome and even fatal diarrhoea in the
oSspring. On reaching home a feed of scalded bran with which
is mixed half a teaspoonful of carbonate of soda will prove
serviceable in guarding against this untoward result.

Management of the Mare after Foaling.

"Where large numbers of mares have to " foal do\vn," com-
prising old and young, healthy and strong, to say nothing of
varied temperament, habits, and vices, management after foaling
demands a considerable amount of care and watchfulness on the
part of the responsible head.

Mares which have been at the stud for some time generally
know how to discharge the duties of their office, and if all has
gone well in foaling, there is little to trouble about. With
young mares, however, fresh to the business, certain special pre-
cautions require to be observed. Fretful and irritable animals
should be waited upon only by their common attendant until
they have become reconciled to their new condition and the
excitement resulting from parturition has passed away.

While the foal is " getting its legs," the permeability of the
teats should be tested, as it sometimes occurs that one or both
have no outlet for the milk, and the defect usually remains to
be discovered when the foal has been reduced to the verge of
starvation. At the same time attention will be given to the

The Mare and Foal. Ait

state of the gland and the quantity and quality of the milk it
promises to afford. This precaution is specially called for in the
case of mares foaling before their time is up. In such cases
there is often a scarcity of milk for a day or two, and the
necessity of drawing it from another source will require to be
considered. Surplus milk from another mare will be found
useful here when it is procurable.

If the afterbirth has come away it should be promptly re-
moved from the box, and buried sufficiently deep that dogs may
not exhume it. In too many instances it finds its way into the
crew yard, whence it is hurried off by dogs into the " home
field," where possibly other in-foal mares are pastured, and
provoked to excitement and, it may be, premature parturition.

In the matter of food, a little warm oatmeal gruel is perhaps
the best restorative, to be followed by a small feed of well-scalded
bran, a little malt-meal and two or three tablespoonfuls of
linseed oil. Mares advanced in years and those in low condi-
tion are materially benefited by a pint of good beer or an
ounce or two of whisky where foaling has been protracted and
difficult. So soon as the foal can stand, the box should undergo
a thorough cleansing. All the litter fouled by the discharges of
the mare should be removed, and after the floor has been freely
dressed with some disinfecting powder, a fresh supply of clean
litter is to be given. The danger of decomposing organic
matter in the foaling box is too little appreciated, and so long
as it is permitted so long must the breeder count on the diseases
incidental to filth and putrescence. The risk attaching to
uterine discharges is not limited to that which falls to the
ground, but equally serious consequences may result from that
other portion which, by trickling down between the thighs, or
first soiling the tail, ultimately finds its way on to the udder
and teats, and finally into the stomach of the foal. This and
other descriptions of putrid matter adhering to the teats are
productive of the worst and most destructive forms of diarrhoea.
Many of those mysterious attacks of this ailment attributed to
all sorts of possible and impossible causes arise out of the inges-
tion of putrid filth taken in the act of sucking. Not only may
this poisonous stuff find its way on to the udder by trickling
down the perineum,' but it may also be transferred from the
filth-laden tail, or be gathered from the sodden litter on which
the mare may lie.

This leads us to suggest the desirability of safeguarding the
foal by repeated sponging of the udder during the few days the
uterine discharges continue, and further to thoroughly wash and
cleanse the tail of the dam after parturition. These precautions,

42 The Mare and Foal.

always desirable, are rendered especially needful where difficulty
has been experienced by the mare in foaling.

For several days, or it may be weeks, depending upon the
season and state of the weather, the mare and foal will be kept
in confinement. During this time the former should receive a
liberal ration of crushed oats, bran and hay chaff, to which may
be added a little malt-flour and salt.

For the first two days after foaling the mare should be care-
fully protected from exposure and draughts, but since she is
soon to go to grass, over-heating of the stable requires to be
strictly guarded against by free but duly regulated ventilation.
Through neglect of this precaution both mare and foal are
sometimes exposed to dangei'ous extremes of temperature, not
rarely resulting in fatal pneumonia. To keep a foaling stable
too cool is pardonable, to overheat it is culpable. At the earliest
opportunity consistent with safety both should be turned to
grass. Midday, when the sun is up, the ground fairly dry, and
the air not too fresh, is the most suitable time for the initial
turn-out. The first impulse of a foal when liberated from con-
finement is to gallop and gambol until overheated and fatigued,
and many a fatal attack of pneumonia has followed the subse-
quent rest on wet ground and exposure to cold, biting winds.
A paddock with shelter from the north and east is much to be
desired. Early spring is a period when the weather is given to
rapid and extreme changes. Sudden clouding, cold winds and
driving rains quickly succeed to bright warm sunlight, necessi-
tating a return to shelter and protection. In a few days, how-
ever, with suitable cover at night, foals will adapt themselves to
a complete outdoor life. Where in the case of early foals a
turn-out is not permissible for some time, both mare and foal
should have daily exercise. If the weather does not admit of
its being taken out of doors, then a barn, covered yard, or shed
may be used. A little movement causes foals to " straighten
up " much more quickly than they otherwise would do, and to put
them fairly on their legs.

As to how far grass will require to be supplemented with
manger food when the turn-out is made will depend upon a
variety of circumstances, the more important of which are the
weather and the quality and stage of growth of the pasture.
When the one is cold and the other backward a liberal daily
ration of dry food should be provided, and, in any case, young
mares that enter on their breeding career at two and three
years old — as is now too much the practice — should receive a
generous allowance of dry food until grass comes to its best and
the season is well advanced; and the same may be said for old

The Mare and Foal. 43

mares who enter on their maternal duties late in life, and whose
yield of milk is often very limited in amount and not always of
the best quality.

In all cases, but more especially in those referred to above,
not only should the mares be liberally fed, but the foals should
also be encouraged to share in the manger food of the dam, so
that any deficiency of milk supply occurring as the season ad-
vances may be promptly compensated by an addition to the corn
ration. Loss of flesh and stunted growth in the offspring of the
young and immature, as also in those of old and worn-out
mares, are common consequences of neglect of this simple pre-
caution. It may here be noted that continuous stocking of
pastures with horses from year to year is a practice that never
fails to bring trouble to the breeder sooner or later, whatever
may be said of it on the ground of expediency. Besides fouling
the soil and exciting abortion it tends to the scattering and
accumulation of parasitic life in favoured spots, and the ultimate
development of verminous disease, especially in the young. The
danger becomes considerably increased where the enclosures
are small, and more so if in addition they are wet and retentive
of moisture. Mares, and foals too, are benefited by a good
range of open ground, and a periodical change of pasture.
Over-stocking and confinement in small enclosures are much to
be deprecated. By the one the herbage is rendered rank and
foul, while the other deprives the mare and foal of those short
spells of exercise which conduce so much to health, condition and
action. Pastures grazed with bullocks alternate years, or thinly
stocked with horses and bullocks at the same time, are the most
suited to the requirements of the brood mare.

The Treatment of Foals.

Attention to the Foal after Birth,

As a rule, the umbilical cord or " navel string " is broken
from the afterbirth in the act of foaling. Occasionally, however,
the foal is born enclosed in its membranes, with which it con-
tinues to be connected. In the latter case no time is to be lost
in removing the youngster from its enclosure lest by excluding
air from it too long suffocation ensue. The next step will be to
divide the cord and free the one from the other. Before doing
this some light string soaked in carbolised oil should be procured,
and the hands of the operator, as well as the knife he employs,
should both be thoroughly washed and well carbolised. This
having been done, a carbolised ligature is now tied tightly round

44 The Mare and Foal.

the cord about an inch from the belly to prevent escape of blood.
The cord is then cut through with a knife below the string,
after which the navel should be freely dressed with carbolised oil
or some equally efficient antiseptic. After protracted labour, or
when the foal has been unduly confined in its membranes, it is
sometimes found either exhausted to the point of extinction or
threatened with suffocation. In these conditions any mucus or
watery matter contained in the nostrils should be promptly re-
moved, the legs and body should be briskly rubbed with wisps
of hay, and artificial respiration is to be resorted to where the
breathing becomes feeble and disposed to arrest. Restoration
of the respiratory function in these cases may sometimes be
facilitated by applying to the nostrils a bottle containing smelling
salts, or, failing this, the fumes of tobacco may be used in the
same way. As breathing becomes re-established, warm flannel
wraps will prove a useful restorative, and a teaspoonful of
brandy given in a little of the mare's milk will assist in the
same direction.

After the lapse of half an hour the foal when free from
such mishaps is ready with a little help to get on its legs, and
when the dam has licked it over it may be conducted to the
teat. A little milk drawn from the mare and rubbed over the
gland will attract the foal by its odour, and sometimes save a
good deal of trouble in starting it on its " milky way." Ill-
nourished, weakly foals may be some time ere they rise to the
teat, in which case careful supervision becomes necessary to
avoid accident, and a little milk drawn from the dam and fed to
it by hand will assist in helping it to its feet. These sickly
youngsters often present a very misshapen appearance, with their
bent knees and hocks, arched back, and depending head, but if
the dam is a generous milker and supplied with good living,
they soon begin to " straighten up." When these conditions
are not fulfilled growth becomes impaired, the body stunted, and
the limbs more or less permanently deformed.

Foals Prematurely Born.

It sometimes occurs that the foal, for some reason or other,
that may or may not be apparent, is born before its time. As
to what should be done with such creatures will depend upon
their lineage and prospective value, as also upon the stage of
gestation when they quit the dam and the strength and vigour
they exhibit at the time. If birth is four or five weeks prema-
ture there is little hope of any good being done with them, and
others less forward are always a source of considerable trouble.

The Mare and Foal. 45

They are necessarily small, ill-developed and feeble, and require
the greatest care and attention. For some time they are unable
to stand, and cannot therefore feed themselves. They exhibit a
constant desire for sleep, and, as a matter of management, every-
thing should be done in this respect to satisfy the requirements
of nature. The breathing is always more or less hurried in these
immature youngsters, sometimes so much so as to give the idea of
some grave lung disease, but under favourable conditions the
respiratory function gradually approaches the normal standard.

Where it is decided to rear a foal of this kind it should be
removed from the mare so soon as she has thoroughly cleansed
it, and placed in a warm, dry apartment ; if the latter is capable
of being artificially heated so much the better. The body should
then be covered with a couple of warm blankets and kept per-
fectly quiet, so that sleep may not be interrupted. So much milk
as the mare affords is to be taken from her every half hour and
given to the foal directly out of a clean vessel previously warmed.
A feeding-bottle for this purpose may be easily extemporised with
a quill, a little worsted, a perforated cork, and a pint bottle, or the
milk may be sucked from the finger. Whichever system is
adopted cleanliness is of the first importance as a means of guard-
ing against diarrhoea, which, when once established in these
fragile things, is very difficult to arrest. It must be understood
that this periodical feeding will require to be carried on during
the night until the foal acquires sufficient strength to return to
the mare and help itself, but the intervals between meals may
be gradually lengthened out a little after the first twenty-four
hours.

If, as sometimes occurs, the mare does not " come to her
milk " at once, cow's milk must be substituted under conditions
prescribed below for " Hand-rearing Foals." An enema of milk-
warm water with a little glycerin may be given to empty the pos-
terior bowel if no feeces are discharged during the first four hours,
and, if necessary, a second injection should be administered later
on. At this period of the foal's existence purgatives should be
as far as possible withheld, lest the sensitive bowels be unduly
excited and fatal diarrhoea induced.

Hand-rearing Foals.

Notwithstanding the most scrupulous care in stud manage-
ment, disease will now and again assert itself, and, either by
hopelessly damaging the udder or destroying the mare, leave
the produce dependent for its food supply on some extraneous
Source. Ah to whether hand-rearing ia a desirable course to

46 The Mare and Foal.

pursue will very much depend on the age, character, and breed-
ing of the offspring. The more youthful it is when deprived of
its parent, the greater the amount of trouble it will give, whether
its other properties be good, bad, or indifferent ; and those who
undertake the task of ministering to the wants of these un-
fortunate youngsters must be prepared for no inconsiderable
sacrifice of time, to say nothing of comfort, as well as for in-
convenience and expense.

To procure a foster-mother is always a difficult task, and
sometimes a most costly one. It does, however, now and again
occur that a mare will lose her foal, and a foal will lose its
mother, about the same time in the same district, and in such
cases it is a mutual, if unequal, advantage to the persons con-
cerned to bring the survivors together. When this can be done
all the trouble contemplated above is removed; although lit
must be admitted that the transference of a newly born foal to
a strange mare is not unlikely to be attended with digestive
disorder and diarrhoea at first, and especially if the former has
not received the first laxative milk of its dam, and the latter
should have foaled several days prior to entering upon her
fostering duties.

Failing a substitute, the next best source of food supply is
the cow. Here again some consideration must be given to
selection of the most suitable subject whence to obtain the milk ;
for, if the task of hand rearing is to be undertaken, it must be
entered upon and pursued in such a way as to safeguard success
at all points.

Although, as will "be seen from the figures given below,
the same constituents are found in the milk of the cow as
enter into that of the mare, the actual and relative proportions
of these constituents differ to a considerable extent in the two
cases. In order, therefore, to approximate the composition of the
one to that of the other, and to render it more suitable to the
requirements of the foal, water must be added to reduce the
proportions of casein and fat ; and at the same time the de-
ficiency of sugar must be made up by the addition of a suitable
quantity of the domestic article. At first the proportion of water
to cow's milk should be one part of the former to two of the
latter ; but as time goes on one part to three will be found more
to the purpose. The following figures are percentages : — -

Cow's Milk

Marc's Milk

Water

87-0

88-0

Fat

4-fi

1-0

Casein

4-0

1-6

Sugar

3-8

8-9

Salts , ■

0-6

0-5

The Mare and Foot, 47

Thus it will be seen that while the fat and casein of the
cow's milk is largely in excess of that of the mare's, the sugar
of the mare's milk far exceeds that of the cow's.

Next in importance to a judicious selection of milk is the
desirability of its being transferred immediately from the cow
to the foal while still warm. To maintain the natural tempera-
ture (100° F.) it should be drawn from the cow into a vessel
previously warmed, and afterwards diluted with water raised to
100° F. Cold, stale milk at this tender age is sure to provoke
diaiThoea, and not unlikely to bring about a fatal result. Clean-
liness in the vessels used and the handling of the milk should
be strictly observed ; and, above all, its administration must be
frequent, and regular both as regards quantity and time. At
first half a pint should be given every half-hour, and gradually
increased as time goes on, while the intervals between each meal
may be extended accordingly ; but it must be remembered that,
to be successful, the indications of Nature must be closely ob-
served and acted upon. Neglect in this matter can have
but one result — viz., failure.

In commencing this system of rearing from birth attention
should be directed to the state of the bowels at the outset.
Should the foal not have received the first milk of its dam , con-
stipation is more than likely to exist, and should be corrected
by the administration of a small dose of castor oil and an enema
of glycerin and water. Where the milk of a newly calved cow
can be procured, its purgative properties may be sufficient in
itself to unload the bowels, in which case farther interference
becomes unnecessary. Once having commenced with the milk
of a particular animal, it is most desirable that no change be
made, if possible to guard against it ; and the milk of a young
cow freshly calved is much to be preferred to that of a stale old
one.

Weaning Foals.

To wean a foal is not a very difficult matter, but to effect its
severance from the mare with the least possible amount of
trouble and loss requires a little consideration and some care.
Few allow their mares to wean their own foals, and all are not
agreed as to how and when the separation should be efiected.
There can be no doubt that the longer a foal can have the benefit
of its mother's milk the better it will thrive and grow — all other
things of course being favourable — but it has to be remembered
that stud mares are usually performing the double duty of
breeding and suckling at one and the same time, building up a
new organism within, and ministering to the wants of a more

48 y/ie Mare and Foal.

perfected one without, and to this is not unfrequently added a
certain amount of daily work. Within proper limits these
services may be carried on simultaneously, with but little inter-
ference with the economy of the dam or the growth of the foetus
she carries, but as the latter attains to higher development, and
its demands upon the nutritive resources of the former become
greater, the drain upon the system entailed by suckling is not
only detrimental to the mare but also to the young she bears.
Protracted nursing therefore in the interest of the born can only
be carried on at the expense of the unborn. For all practical
purposes it may be said that under 'prober management foals are
ready to leave the mare when about five months old. In some
instances where — from constitutional weakness, or from debility
resulting from disease — they are weak and backward in growth,
it may be desirable to continue them with the dam for a few
weeks longer, but whenever the necessity for such a course arises
the food supply of the mare should be increased accordingly, and
all demands upon her for work should cease. Moreover, mares
which have continued to nurse their foals into the autumn must
have special consideration in their winter management, and, in
addition to good food and plenty of it, require to be protected
from severe weather. Such animals should be wintered in a
warm yard and not turned out until spring.

To the foal the loss of the easily assimilable mother's milk is
of considerable moment, and the change so soon noticeable in its
coat and condition after being withdrawn from the dam is a
good index of the fact. To guard against loss of condition the
foal should early be taught to feed from the manger, and should
be supplied with an extra quantity of corn, bran, and chaff, for
a fortnight or three weeks before the separation takes place. In
this way its desire for milk will be less keenly felt and its loss
of it more readily overcome when the separation takes place. As
to whether this separation should be effected completely and at
once, or by allowing the foal to return to the mare at increasing
intervals during the lapse of a few days, is a question upon
which there is no complete agreement ; and although in the
hands of some the former system appears to be attended with a
fair amount of success, we consider the latter to be the more
rational and the best calculated to safeguard the health of dam
and offspring. Whether the one system or the other be adopted,
the mare will benefit by being placed on a spare diet for a short
time in order to check the secretion of milk and bring the
gland to a passive state. Any difficulty in this respect must be
met by drawing the udder now and again as may be required,
aild putting the mare to gentle work.

The Mare and Foal. 49

Some Common Ailments of Foals.

The first fortnight or three weeks after birth is the most
critical period in the life of a foal. At this tender age, when
least capable of offering resistance, he is specially liable to be
overtals;en with accident and disease. As regards disease,
derangements of the digestive system are, perhaps, the more
common ailments, but the mortality from respiratory disorders
as the result of cold, and blood-poisoning as the result of
exposure to filth, are very much in evidence, even in some of
our best and most fashionable studs. That the prevalence
of these affections can be largely curtailed by judicious manage-
ment and foresight is best realised by a knowledge of the
sickness rate and death rate in difi'erent establishments under
different systems of management.

Const^}^ation.

This affection is not uufrequently found to exist at the time
of birth, for although no solid food has entered the mouth of
the foal during utero-gestation, the intestines always contain
more or less of a yellowish-brown or greenish-brown substance
known as " meconium," and which the foal usually discharges
soon after birth. This is the solid residue of the secretions
formed by the intestines and the liver, and which has ac-
cumulated in the bowels during fcetal development. It is a
common practice with some to anticipate constipation by ad-
ministering a dose of castor oil to all foals soon after birth ; but,
in face of some disagreeable experiences of the custom, it is
not, in the writer's opinion, a desirable course to recommend,
for just as there are cases disposed to constipation at birth, so
are there others in which the bowels are too seriously relaxed
to endure the further irritation entailed by a dose of oil. Indeed,
we have known several valuable foals lost by converting into an
acute and fatal diarrhoea what was originally a simple relaxed
state of the bowels. Constipation at birth is more especially
noticed in early fuals, when the dam has lived in confinement
on hard food with little or no succulent aliment.

If the bowels are normally active the foal will empty himself
ia the course of the first two hours after birth. Where this
does not take place, an enema of milk-warm water, with a little
soap and glycerin dissolved in it, should be given, and repeated
half-an-hour later. Any sign of restlessness, whisking the tail,
straining without a motion, or looking towards the flank, should
be promptly followed by a dose df castor oil, which will usually

D

50 The Mare and Foal.

afford speedy relief. Should the bowels not respond, no time
should be lost in seeking professional advice.

Diarrhoea.

This is one of the most common of foal ailments ; and, in
addition to a heavy mortality, many promising youngsters who
live through it are every year hopelessly dwarfed by its abiding
effects on the digestive canal. Of the many and various causes
that conduce to it some have reference to the mare herself, and
others are of an extraneous character. In connection with the
former we have already noticed the baneful effects of the
uterine discharges when permitted to foul the udder. There
can be no doubt, too, that under certain conditions the milk of
the dam is liable to acquire properties which irritate and inflame
the delicate membrane which lines the alimentary canal.

This is specially noticeable in sudden and complete changes
from one description of diet to another, in the use of unwhole-
some food and filth-laden water, and not less so where excessive
work is iuiposed upon the dam, associated as it usually is with
excitement and long absence from the foal. Moreover, the milk
of mares " in use" frequently relaxes the bowels, and may provoke
an acute attack of diarrhoea. An undue proportion of fat in
the lacteal fluid has also been known to give rise to the same
result. The fact should not be overlooked that a short supply
of milk from the dam, or milk when yielded of an inferior
character, may drive the foal to take manger food to excess
before the puny stomach is capable of digesting it.

Many outbreaks of diarrhoea in foals may be traced to
this cause, especially in the offspring of old mares who have
been put to the stud late in life. Indigestion in the mare is not
infrequently the precursor of this disease in the offspring.
Foals confined in close stuffy boxes, deep in fermenting manure,
are specially liable to diarrhoea under the influence of slight
inducing causes.

To identify and remove the cause is in this, as in all other
diseases, of the first importance. Food and water will naturally
claim attention with the object of removing anything that may
seem objectionable from the one or the other, or, if needs be,
effecting a complete change in both.

In the early period of the attack, while the bowels are still
free from inflammatory action, a dose of castor oil may be of
service by causing the removal of any objectionable matter they
may contain. A mixture of bicarbonate of potash, precipitated
chalk, aromatic spirit of ammonia, and oil of peppermint, given

The Mare and Foal. 51

every three or four hours, is a useful corrective. When the foal
gives evidence of pain, a little tincture of opium may be added
to the prescription. A teaspoonful of bicarbonate of potash
given to the mare night and morning, or oftener, and a feed or
two of barley while the foal continues sick, are useful adjuncts
to treatment. It should, however, be remembered that while it
is most desirable to have such means of relief available for the
moment, it is equally important that no time be lost in seekino-
professional help. Changes in these sickly youngsters are fre-
quently rapid and severe, and all the skill and foresight of the
expert is sometimes required to guard against fatal complica-
tions. If the foal refuses the teat, the mare should be milked
out from time to time, so that when appetite returns the secre-
tion may be fresh and wholesome.

Cold and Pneumonia.

Foals born in the early season, when Weather changes are
rapid and severe, are often the victims of cold, resulting in inflam-
mation of the lungs. This is notably so when they are turned out
of hot, badly ventilated stable3 into the open pasture, and, after
taking the customary gallop, extend themselves while heated
on the damp, cold ground. Pneumonia is usually preceded by
catarrh, or common cold, when the foal is heard to cough, and
appears dull and listless ; the coat stares, a discharge issues from
the nose, and although a desire for food still remains, the teat
is taken without relish. In pneumonia these symptoms are
supplemented by quick breathing, a high temperature of the
body, cold extremities, congested membranes, and prostration.

Whenever symptoms of cold appear at this tender age, the
foal should be promptly transferj-ed to a warm box, free from
draught, and well supplied with clean dry litter and pure air. If
the bowels are constipated an enema of milk-warm water, in
which a little soap and glycerin has been dissolved, may be
administered, and repeated once or oftener, as the case may
require. When the cough is troublesome, a weak mustard j^laster
should be applied to the throat and along the windpipe, or, if
the breathing be embarrassed, to the sides of the chest. Foals
do not readily tolerate clothing, but where no resistance is made
a light rug may bo thrown over the body, but in no case should
the foal be excited or worried into submission. As to medical
ti-eatraent this is a matter requiring special knowledge and dis-
crimination, and should l)e left- entirely to the veterinary expert.
Good nursing may well take the place of empirical physicing,
which at this tender age is fraught with the greatest danger.

52 The Mare and Foal.

Joint III (Pijcemic Arthritis).

This might be very fairly described as a disease that mostly
kills and always maims, if it does not completely disable, its victim.
Although commonly described as " joint ill," it is not to be
regarded as a mere local affection. The disease of the joints so
commonly identified with it is like the eruption in small-pox — a
mere local expression of a general derangement of the system
arising out of the introduction of infective matter into the blood
stream — or, in simple terms, it is a form of blood-poisoning
manifesting itself by a febrile state of the body and the develop-
ment of abscesses in and about the joints, and also in one or
several of the internal organs. It usually occurs between the
age of one and four weeks. Sometimes it runs a rapid course
and kills in a few days, or it may assume a less acute form and
extend over several weeks. Whether it be the one or the other
matters but little — the result is commonly death or irreparable
damage.

Until a few years ago the origin of "joint ill" was al-
together unknown. Since, however, the more intimate study of
pathology, a rational explanation has been rendered possible,
and it is now believed that the wound resulting from the tearing
away of the umbilical cord or navel string from the body of the
foal is the door by which organisms of a destructive character
gain entrance to the broken blood-vessels, and thence find their
way into the blood- stream and become distributed over the system.
After settling down in the tissues of the joints — or it may be the
liver, lungs, and other organs — they undergo rapid multiplication,
resulting in the development of abscesses and destruction of the
invaded parts.

The onset of the disease is marked by dulness, fever, and
stiffness in one or more of the limbs. This is soon followed
by a hot and painful swelling of the joints, intense lameness,
and great suffering and prostration. Abscesses sooner or later
form and break, and the affected joints are seriously damaged,
or altogether disorganised. When the lungs are involved, the
breathing becomes quick and embarrassed, and the disease runs
a rapid and fatal course.

Treatment in this affection is rarely found to be of much
avail, but the best results may be expected from measures of
prevention when thoroughly carried out. To intercept and
destroy the invading organisms until the " navel -wound " has
completely healed is the real object to be accomplished. In
this connection, therefore, it is of the first importance that those
lessons of cleanliness which we have insisted upon elsewhei'e in

The Mare and Foal. 63

respect to the foaling box be strictly observed. Where, as is
sometimes the case, the umbilical cord requires to be ligatured,
it should first be freely dressed with antiseptic solution, and
nothing in the shape of dirt in its widest sense should be
allowed to come into contact with it. The string employed for
tying it to prevent bleeding should have been previously steeped
in carbolised oil, and not, as is usually the case, taken from any
dirty source accessible at the time. Not only so, but the hands
must be clean and well disinfected before the operation is under-
taken.

Whether the cord requires to be tied or not, the " navel "
wound should be dressed five or six times a day with carbolised
oil until completely healed. It cannot be too forcibly insisted
on that as this is a disease identified with filth, its prevention
can only be assured where the rules of cleanliness are strictly
carried out.

Umbilical Hernia,

This consists in an escape of some portion of the intestina
through the umbilicus, or navel opening. It is usually spoken
of as " rupture," but in a large majority of cases it is the result
of imperfect closure of the navel orifice, in consequence of which
the bowel is allowed to pass through the walls of the belly, and
to rest in a pouch formed outwardly by the skin and inwardly
by a protruded portion of the lining membrane of the abdomen.
In some instances it is the consequence of rupture taking place
before or after the opening has become firmly healed over.

In whichever way it may occur it is recognised as a soft,
round, fluctuating swelling. Sometimes it is small and soon
disappears altogether without interference. At others it becomes
progressively larger as time goes on, and, in weakly foals
especially, may reach a considerable size. There is no consti-
tutional disturbance or suSering attendant upon this defect,
unless, as now and again happens, the extruded bowel becomes
strangulated.

Whenever hernia appears, and shows a disposition to enlarge,
it should receive prompt attention. A pad of tow or cotton-wool
attached to a roller should be applied to the swelling and
secured in position by a crupper, collar band, and side tapes.
While this is being done the little patient should be kept in the
stable as quiet as possible. Should it fail to be effective, a
repetition of blisters over the part may have the desired result,
or it may be necessary to ligature or clamp the pouch of skin
after returning the bowel into the abdominal cavity ; but these
latter methods will require to be carried out under professional

54 The Mare and Foal.

advice. Early treatment in this disorder is most essential, as
it is while the opening in the belly is small that the greatest
prospect of a speedy cure is offered.

Sires and their Work.

To render the services of a sire productive in the fullest measure
requires, among other things, that the laws of life and health
shall be strictly observed, and his sexual work adjusted and
regulated to his peculiar capacity. Experience teaches that the
reproductive powers of horses, as of other animals, differ, not
only in different individuals, but at different periods in the life
of the same animal ; and it is of the first importance to the
success of the breeding stud that something like a reasonable
estimate of the average sexual capacity of a sire should be under-
stood, so that abuse may be avoided, his services prolonged,
and the number and value of his produce enhanced.

That a horse well-grown and healthy should enter on his
stud career at two years old is pretty generally conceded, but
the great disparity of opinion and practice existing among
breeders and owners as to the number of mares he should re-
ceive clearly shows the necessity of some common understanding
on the subject. The number of mares sometimes allowed to
horses at this age is almost incredible, and the view seems to find
favour with many that what a colt can do should be the measure
of what he should do, and it is no rare occurrence for forty, fifty,
and sixty mares to receive service from these baby sires during
their first season. That they may be fairly fruitful under such
a strain there are examples to show ; but the general result of
such a practice is not only to check growth and physical
development, but to lay the foundation for sexual weakness and
disappointment in the following season, and it may be to produce
an abiding weakness of the reproductive function or even
permanent incapacity to get stock. Moreover, the offspring of
horses so over-taxed are at the best but doubtful blessings to
the breeder, and many a farmer can tell how his money and the
stud services of a good mare have been thrown away by the
incautious use of these overworked youngsters.

Having regard to health interests, to quality of produce, and
endurance at the stud, a horse at the age in question should not
be allowed more than ten to fifteen mares, and it would be much
to his advantage, as it would to that of all young sires, if the season
were allowed to get well advanced before commencing service.
'At this time grass will be plentiful and good, mares will " come
keen " to the horse, the chance of returning will be materially

The Mare and Foal. 55

diminislied, and the horse's services correspondingly lightened.
As to older stallions, the same discrepancy of practice obtains with
them as with the more juvenile section, and many a good horse is
prematurely used up or falls a victim to disease as the outcome of
unbridled abuse. The number of mares a horse should receive from
three years old upwards allows of no fixed rule being laid down.
Very much will depend upon gi'owth and development, and
even more on natural vigour of constitution and sexual capacity,
which latter can only be known by experience. Some horses
almost complete their upward growth at two years, while others
a,t that age have made but little progress.

This is a matter of the first importance, and should receive
the fullest consideration in assessing the work of young sires.
It should ever be borne in mind that at the time when growth
is most active the reproductive function is least capable of being
sustained in any undue demand that may be made upon it.

The difference in the capacity of horses for stud work
is remarkable. We have known some in the heyday of their
life and throughout their stud career to display the most feeble
desire for service, although in no way failing in fruitfulness,
while others have combined with an extraordinary capacity for
service an equally remarkable productiveness and endurance.
Many stallions, and some of great celebrity, have been known to
serve from 200 to 260 mares in one season, and to leave a fair
proportion of foals. Not less remarkable is the large number of
mares that some horses will serve and " stop " in a short space of
time. Thus it is said of a well-known Shire stallion that, on com-
pleting a heavy season in Lancashire, he was let to a syndicate of
farmers in the South, and on reaching his destination at three
o'clock in the day, there awaited him twenty-three mares, nineteen
of which were in season. The whole of the latter received
service between three and twelve o'clock at night, and thirteen
proved to be in foal. Equally remarkable examples of sexual
vigour and fertility might be instanced, but they only serve to
emphasise the fact indicated above, with which most owners of
stallions are more or less familiar. For reasons ah'eady given
it is difficult to fix a numerical standard of stud-work applicable
to all horses. But for the average sire some such formula as the
following may be accepted as fairly consistent with the best
interests of the horse, his produce, and the owner : —

Age Number of mares

2 years old . . « . , 10 to 15 j

3 ' „ „ 25 „ 30

4 „ „ 45„ 60

6 „ „ , and upwards . . , 70 „ 100

56 The Mare and Foat

With judicious management and reasonable limitation of
stud services, in accordance with condition and constitution, a
horse may continue to get valuable stock to a late period of life.
Much confirmatory evidence of this truth might be adduced alike
from Thoroughbreds, Hackneys, Shires, and others. Among the
former (Thoroughbreds) I find that Birdcatcher was twenty-three
years old when he got Oxford, the sire of that good horse
Sterling, from whom sprang Isonomy. Touchstone was twenty
when he got Lord of the Isles, the sire of Scottish Chief. King
Tom was twenty when he got Princess, the dam of Royal
Hampton. Harkaway was sixteen when he got King Tom, and
the granddam of Princess fell to Bay Middleton when he was
twenty-two. Vedette got Galopin when he was seventeen,
Melbourne got Young Melbourne at twenty, Voltair got Volti-
geur at the same age. Blair Athol fell to Stockwell at eleven,
Newminster got Hermit when sixteen, and Touchstone got New-
minster at the same age, and Rosa Bonheur at twenty-two.
These are but a few of many horses of the highest repute which
have been got late in life from Thoroughbred sires, and many
horses of equal merit in their respective varieties — Hackneys,
Shires, and others — might be found to have descended from sires
not less advanced in years.

Condition in the Sire.

Whether a stallion be young or old, it is of the first import-
ance that he be submitted to a thorough preparation for the
season before him. Condition, if in a less degree, is as much a
necessity of the sire as of the hunter or the race-horse, and
without it it is hopeless to expect to realise the full benefit of his
sexual powers. This conclusion would hardly seem warranted
in view of the helpless state of obesity in which many of our
horses start out on their season's work, but it is amply justified
by everyday experience.

Want of condition not only renders reproduction uncertain,
but lays the individual open to attack from all sorts of diseases
and accidents of a crippling or even destructive nature, and to
none more than that bane of stallions, laminitis. Eighty per
cent, of the cases of this disease occur at the beginning of the
season, when every organ in the body is overburdened with
fat, and the muscles devoid of that healthy tone by which the
feet are relieved from undue impact of superimposed weight.

Walking exercise, and plenty of it, during six weeks or two
months prior to commencing stud work, with substantial fare,
good stabling and careful management, are indispensable to

Tlie Mare and Foal. 57

continuous good service. In regard to exercise, it must be said
that men entrusted with this duty should be young and active,
and have no excuse for loitering or wasting time on the road.

When a horse commences his season fat and wanting con-
dition, his stud work is greatly multiplied, especially if at
the outset he has a large influx of mares. In this state his early
services are often abortive, and require to be repeated again and
again, so that the vigour and condition with which he should
have started is never attained. Young horses especially are
made to suffer by neglect of this first principle of stud manage-
ment.

On more than one occasion we have known valuable sires dis-
posed of, on account of their inability to get foals, which have yet
become sure foal getters in the hands of their new owners. A
little physic, plenty of exercise, and good hard keep was the only
assignable reason for the change from sterility to fertility. With
judicious management horses " on the road " will uphold their
condition as the season goes on, and far exceed in fruitfulness
those that " stand " at home. How much the vitality and strength
of the offspring depend upon the vigour of the sire at the time of
copulation is an unknown quantity, but no one will fail to
realise the importance of their physiological relations. It is
distinctly to the advantage of stud horses that they be regularlv
fed, and that ample time be allowed for digestion to advance
before going to service. Neglect of this precaution is account-
able for many of those attacks of indigestion, twisted bowels
and ruptured stomach, from which stallions so frequently
suffer. Nor is it less important that, as far as practicable, horses
on the road should do their work in the early morning and cool
of the evening, so that the depressing effects of midday heat may
be avoided.

Teasers. — Temperament in stallions is a very varying quality,
not only as between one horse and another, but in the same horse
at different periods of life. While some horses approach their
mares with comparative coolness, others are thrown into a state
of ungovernable excitement whenever they are brought in sight
of them, and the ordeal of " trying " mares by horses of the
latter description is sometimes carried on with the greatest
difficulty, and not without danger to both horse and attendant.
In these cases the animal is mad to get to his mare, and rears
and plunges, and breaks out into profuse perspiration, not
unfrequently with the result that the service is abortive. In
such circumstances the preliminary " trying " should be done by
an old horse, or " teaser," so that the one selected for service
may come to his work fresh and fruitful, and be spared the

58 The Mare and Foal.

undue excitement to which he is otherwise exposed. Moreover,
quite apart from temperament, the constant excitement of
" teasing," where horses are called upon to serve large numbers
of mares, is in itself prejudicial alike to health and sexual
vigour. Valuable sires are best considered, and their services
rendered most enduring and effective, when this office is
relegated to another. Where horses are slow to come to their
mares, a few minutes' walk in the service-yard before they are
brought into contact will in some cases be desirable.

Drugging. — It is satisfactory to know that the old practice
of drugging horses, so generally adopted twenty years ago, is
fast dying out. This is no doubt due to that higher intelligence
in regard to animal life and health which is now possessed by
the average horseman, and the higher appreciation on the part
of horse owners themselves of the serious consequences resulting
from it. Old customs, however, die hard, and there are still
some who believe that the sexual function may be quickened
and upheld by the administration of drugs. It is only necessaiy
to say that whatever effect they may have in provoking sexual
desire, they are not likely to materially influence the propagation
of the race, but by artificial stimulation to prove hurtful, and
add to the functional debility that called them into use. Rest
from stud work, generous living, and exercise constitute the
only rational response to sexual fatigue.

J. WoRTLEY Axe.

lA Lower Sloane Street, London, S.W.

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Condition of Ewes when tut to the Tup.

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