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The EDITH and LORNE PIERCE
COLLECTION of CANADI ANA

Queen's University at Kingston

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Marine lialogy in Iritish (Eolumbia

By C. McLean Fraser, Ph.D.,

Curator of the Marine Biological Station, Departure Bay, B. C.

(Read Feb. 19, 1913.)

The problem of Marine Biology in British Columbia is a very
extensive one, so much so that it is entirely impossible to give any
adequate idea of its scope in a brief paper such as this. There are
7,000 miles of coast in this province, while if the inlets are included,
together with the shores of the islands, there is an estimated tide-water
line of 35,000 miles. Even the casual observer, who sees the crabs among
the rocks and the shellfish in the sand, must associate the idea of such
extent of coast line with that of a wonderful fullness of life.

Nor can the shore and shallow water claim a monopoly of all that
is of interest. In the territorial waters alone, a depth of 200 fathoms
or over is reached in many places. The possibility of bathymetrical
variation is thus as great as that due to geographical distribution.

The province affords the richest hunting ground for rare and valu-
able game in the temperate regions of the world today, and the same is
probably true, in an economical as well as in a biological sense, of the
British Columbia waters. The Japan Current, the most beneficent of
caterers, gathers the choicest morsels from the whole of the North
Pacific to furnish the food supply for the inhabitants of these waters,
hence the wealth, the prodigality, in variety and in quantity, shown
already in the case of the food fishes, but just as true of a host of other
forms.

With all this extent and with all this richness, what has been done
towards taking advantage of the wealth? Very little. Not that those
who have worked have not done their work well, but that there have
been so few laborers for so vast a field. The pioneers have hewed out
a little clearing and have gathered a harvest of knowledge. The rich-
ness of the region is becoming recognized, and already the forerunners
of large forces are coming or are here.

Who were these pioneers and what is the value of the work they
have done? In any field that is new geographically, if biology is to
obtain a permanent foothold, the taxonomist must first be called upon
to classify the commonest forms, so that the classes, orders, genera,
species, most abundantly represented, may be made known, after which
investigators in other branches of the science, knowing what material is

50 PAPERS READ BEFORE THE B. C. ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

available, may carry out research work in their own particular lines.
But here a great difficulty comes in. So many systematic papers have
been published for each class, and even in some cases for each order,
of plants and animals, that only those who have made an intensive study
of special classes, are at all likely to have literature complete enough
to do satisfactory work in classification in that field. What a hopeless
task, therefore, it is to undertake to get together the literature neces-
sary for the classification of all marine life. In very few of the world's
libraries is there any pretence of doing anything of the kind. Even in
many of the largest scientific libraries on this continent there is not
literature enough to make it possible to attack successfully even a single
class. An investigator in a new field, with only his own library to
consult, has little chance to give exhaustive treatment to the classifica-
tion of a great variety of forms.

How is the difficulty overcome? Only in one practical way, which
is by collecting specimens and sending them to authorities for identifi-
cation. This is what some of the pioneers in B. C. biology did ; and
in so doing they became familiar with the names, general appearance
and something of the life history of such a host of forms that it seems
a marvel how their knowledge was obtained and retained. These men
are of the type often spoken of as the "old time naturalist." Unfor-
tunately there are too few of them at the present day. Some of them
had to depend largely upon their own unaided efforts ; but others were
supported by such institutions as the Geological Survey and the Natural
History Society. Chief among them may be mentioned Dawson, Rich-
ardson, Lord, Lyall, Taylor, Newcombe and Macoun. To all of these
and to their assistants, the biologist of the present day owes much.
All of them are too well known to require any other eulogy than the
mention of their names.

In the last decade, the good work started by the pioneers men-
tioned has been continued under circumstances more favorable than
those under which they labored. In 1901, the Minnesota Seaside Sta-
tion was established at Port Renfrew, on the west coast of Vancouver
Island, largely through the instrumentality of Miss Tilden, who, in
years previous, had done much alga collecting in the Vancouver Island
and Puget Sound regions. Much good work, especially in marine
botany, was done at that station. But later Miss Tilden's interest
was transferred to the algae of the South Seas ; and no regular work
has been attempted since 1907. At about the same time as the Min-
nesota Station was established, Professor Kincaid of the University of
Washington began exploring among the San Juan Islands. At first

PAPERS READ BEFORE THE B. C. ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 51

this was done largely on his own responsibility ; but later the interest
of the university authorities was aroused to such an extent that a fine
station was established on San Juan Island near Friday Harbor. The
interest continued to grow. The co-operation of the biological depart-
ments of other universities and colleges has made the expansion very
noticeable, until now the institution is largely attended during the
summer months and much good work is being done. This is not a
B. C. station ; but it is so near the boundary that any information
obtained from material from the San Juan waters is as useful to us
in British Columbia as it is to the State of Washington, and no review
of the work done in these waters would be complete without mention
of Professor Kincaid, who is one of the most omnivorous collectors of
the present day. Five years ago the Dominion Station was established
at Departure Bay, near Nanaimo, largely on account of the representa-
tions made by the late Mr. Taylor, the first president of this Academy.
Since its establishment it has been adding its quota to the biological
knowledge of the region. The facilities for carrying on investigations
are improving year by year ; but more men are needed to make use of
the facilities that are afforded. Finally the Provincial Department of
Marine and Fisheries has inaugurated a policy of engaging men to carry
on research along lines that are largely economic but none the less scien-
tific. Gilbert and Thompson have started in already ; and I am cred-
ibly informed that provision will be made for others to follow. Besides
all of these, the various officers of the Marine and Fisheries Depart-
ments, federal and provincial, in connection with their regular duties,
have added much to the knowledge of the life history, habits, etc., of
many inhabitants of the sea. We know little about their work unless
we consult the blue books; but it is of none the less value on that
account. The more co-operation there is between men of this class and
others engaged in biological work, the greater will be the benefit to
both and to the province at large.

While due credit must be given to those who have spent so much
time in becoming acquainted with general conditions, it must not be
forgotten that much of their knowledge could not well have been cor-
related without the assistance of the specialists in taxonomy, who gave
of their time and their energy to classify material sent them, with little
to remunerate them but the love for their work. These should cer-
tainly have mention in a review of this nature. A complete bibliography
covering the whole field would give the best idea of what work has
been done ; but that cannot be given in the present paper. It is pos-
sible only to mention in a general way something of what has been
accomplished. While some biologists, like Whiteaves, for example,

52 PAPERS READ BEFORE THE B. C. ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

have done systematic work in several classes, the work of each indi-
vidual has been usually confined to one class, or at most, to one sub-
kingdom. Consequently it seems best to consider the sub-kingdoms
individually to cover the ground in the shortest time.

I shall begin with the investigators in marine botany. In this the
most important work has been done in connection with the Minnesota
Station, by MacMillan, Tilden and assistants. Within the last five
years Macoun has collected much. Some of this he classified himself,
but much of it he sent to Collins for diagnosis. Almost all this work
has been done on the algae. As far as I am aware, no work has been
published on the Protophyta.

In the animal kingdom, the same may be said of the Protozoa as
of the Protophyta, although a description of some local species is likely
to be found in Cushman's "North Pacific Foraminifera." Many of the
Protozoa occur in the plankton, which has received some incidental
treatment, but no serious consideration. Other species may be found
attached to Metazoan species or to seaweed, and hence may have been
observed often enough, but only with a passing interest.

The Porifera or sponges are well represented. On these Lambe
has done a great deal of work and has published several papers. The
collection made by Macoun and assistants for the Geological Survey
is at present with von Lendenfeld, who is preparing a report containing
a reference to these species.

The Ccelenterate sub-kingdom is very extensive, and has been
worked up by classes. In the early days, Hincks and Allman reported
on hydroid material collected by Dawson and Richardson. Later Clark,
Hartlaub, Nutting, and Calkins published papers on hydroids from these
and contiguous waters. I have done some work on these myself, and
hope to have a more complete report ready in the near future. Little
has been done on the Medusae, though some B. C. species find mention
in papers by Agassiz, Bigelow and Mayer. McMurrich is working on
a collection from Departure Bay at present. He has reported on the
Actinians also. Apparently the Alcyonarians are not numerous. •'• A
description of most of the species is found in the papers by Nutting and
Torrey, though they have not been described from these waters espe-
cially. The Ctenophores are pretty well covered in papers by Torrey
and Bigelow.

In the large Annelid group there has been little done, although
there seems to be a great abundance and variety of material. Potts and

PAPERS READ BEFORE THE B. C. ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 53

Pixell collected at the Departure Bay station in 1911; but I have seen
no published report of the results obtained.

Parker's heterogeneous sub-kingdom, the Molluscoida, has been
much neglected. The Bryozoa are very plentiful, but no satisfactory
report on them has been prepared. Hincks reported upon some mate-
rial collected by Dawson in the neighborhood of Queen Charlotte
Islands, and Robertson has made mention of some B. C. species in her
Pacific Coast papers; but the great mass of them remain untouched.
The Brachiopods have received incidental treatment by some of the
conchologists, but that is all. Some species of the erratic Phoronid
group have been studied by Pixell.

Like the Ccelenterata, the sub-kingdom Echinodermata is very ex-
tensive, and is abundantly represented in this region. The Asteroidea
or starfish have received a great deal of attention from Verrill, who has
an extensive report nearly ready at the present time. Fisher has done
and is doing much work in the group, and earlier Whiteaves made
some reports. Clark's large work on the "Ophiurians of the North
Pacific" includes most of the B. C. species of brittle stars. I know of
no papers bearing directly on the B. C. echinoids, which include the
sea urchins, cake and heart urchins, although several species are abund-
ant. The same is true of the holothurians or sea-cucumbers ; but some
of Fisher's papers may include some of the species. The few species of
crinoids or sea-lilies are probably all described by Clark.

In the Arthropoda only the Crustacea are marine. Some orders of
these have been well looked after; but others have been entirely neg-
lected, the latter including chiefly the smaller forms usually found in
the plankton. Smith and Bate have done some general work on the
class. Taylor prepared a paper on the Malacostraca for the Marine
and Fisheries Report, but it has not appeared in print yet. Rathbun
has reported on the Decapods ; and the papers by Pilsbury on the
Cirripedia or barnacles, and by Richardson on the Isopods, include
many B. C. forms.

The Mollusca has attracted more investigators than any other
invertebrate group, probably because the region offers so good a field,
and because the attractiveness of shells in the gross is more apparent
than it is in most of the other groups. The orders in which the shell
is not pronounced or is entirely absent, have not received the same atten-
tion as the others. The nudibranchs have scarcely been touched, al-
though MacFarland's papers probably cover many of the species. The
cephalopods or cuttle-fish have been described by Berry. Among the

54 PAPERS READ BEFORE THE B. C. ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

conchologists may be included Carpenter, Baird, Lord, Whiteaves,
Smith, Taylor, Newcombe, Hanham, Dall and Bartsch.

Coming now to the Chordata, species of Balanoglossus have been
reported, but I have not seen any of them described. Huntsman has
worked up the ascidians, and Macoun has diagnosed the birds. The
marine mammals, with the exception of the whales that have been ex-
ploited commercially, have received little attention. Naturally, as the
fish are of such economic value, much attention has been paid to them ;
but yet no systematic survey has been made. Most of the species that
have been procured have been taken accidentally, or at best, inciden-
tally, in connection with the fisheries for commercial food fish. Among
those who have contributed to the ichthyology of B. C. are: Lord, Bean,
Jordan, Gilbert, Gill, Evermann, Snyder, McMurrich and Taylor.
Taylor's paper has not yet been published. Many of the Fisheries
Reports give valuable information on this group, in connection with
life history, distribution and economic value.

This list, incomplete though it is, will indicate the widespread
interest that has been set up and maintained on the basis of the work
done by a few naturalists who prosecuted their labors with such zeal
when encouragement and appreciation were sadly lacking. Although
the possibilities for investigation are without limit, a beginning has been
made, and many problems appear right to hand, waiting to afford
results to any and all who will attack them with real desire for accom-
plishment. Some of these that most readily suggest themselves may be
mentioned, not necessarily in the order of their importance.

A general biological survey is very much needed. Heretofore,
owing largely to lack of facilities, observations have been made here
and there, at points isolated from one another, without any system or
co-operation. If all the forces now at work would come to some agree-
ment in that regard, much might be done in a general way in a short
time. If a survey were made it would be possible to find out what
special localities would be best suited for carrying on particular inves-
tigations, so that the time now lost in wandering around looking ^or
material, might be put to a better use. The distribution of all the com-
mon forms would be made known, and many forms of value, hitherto
untouched, would be discovered. This would entail more taxonomic
work in adding species to the lists in the classes already studied, and in
making out lists in classes hitherto neglected. The survey, as far as
it has been carried at present, has been largely in connection with lit-
toral forms and those that can be obtained in 30 fathoms or less. The
plankton, in its way, offers just as rich a field. That the most of the

PAPERS READ BEFORE THE B. C. ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 55

species are microscopic does not detract from their importance. The
protozoa, protophyta, eggs, larvae and such small crustaceans as the
Copepoda, Ostracoda and Cladocera, are of interest in their morpho-
logical relations, and also because they form the food material, directly
or indirectly, for the great mass of marine life. Quantitative and dis-
tributional research on the plankton should hence be of great value. Of
the larger forms, your attention has been called to the classes that have
been most neglected. The lists of Bryozoa, Nudibranchs, Annelids,
etc., should be made as complete as in the classes that have received the
greatest attention ; while many others should receive important addi-
tions. Even among the fish, the chances are that there are many species,
some of them common enough, that are not known. Tide pool and
shallow water forms, except in a few localities, have scarcely been
touched ; and the bottom forms have not received due attention. When
the distribution of the common species is known, it will be an easy
matter to get material for investigators in other branches of the science:
the physiologist, the biochemist, the experimental zoologist and botanist,
the morphologist, the comparative anatomist, the embryologist and the
ecologist will all find something to do. Enough is known already to
start all of them going ; but with a complete survey they would have
a chance to do much better work.

In the working out of heredity problems, the coelenterates and
the echinoderms have received a great deal of attention. I believe I am
correct in saying that nowhere along the shores of this continent at
least, can be found greater numbers or a better variety of these two
classes than can be found in these waters. The sea-urchin has been a
favorite for experiments in fertilization. We have in abundance two
species suited for such work, the smaller green urchin, Strongylocentrotus
drobachiensis, and the large purple one, S. franciscanus. Experiments
concerning the effect of controlled stimuli have been tried extensively
on the starfish. There is scarcely anything more common along the
coast than the starfish ; and if one species does not prove satisfactory,
there is a large enough variety to choose from. The anemone has been
used for similar experiments. It would be impossible to find Metridium
more plentiful than it is on some of the rocks in the Gulf. A species
of Anthopleura and several others beside are more or less abundant.
Co-ordination experiments have been tried on medusae. G onion emus
murbachi has been the great favorite for these at Wood's Hole. Gon'i-
onemus vertcns, which may or may not be the same species, is much
more abundant in the Gulf of Georgia than the Atlantic species is at
Wood's Hole. Many other genera are well represented. Regenera-
tion experiments have been tried on hydroids; and they have been used

56 PAPERS READ BEFORE THE B. C. ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

in heredity problems. We may even say that Weissmannism is founded
largely on the results obtained from the study of that group. We have
them* in plenty. I might quote one case in corroboration. In one haul
of a two-foot hand dredge, down less than five minutes, in Northumber-
land Strait, I obtained 36 species, a number more than one-third a3
great as that which represents all those obtained within a day's trip of
Wood's Hole in 30 years. (I mention Wood's Hole because in all
probability there has been more work done there than at all the other
stations on the continent combined.) Enough has been said to indicate
that the experimental zoologist need not remain idle, and on the same
basis there are plenty of possibilities for the physiologist and biochemist.

The morphologist and the embryologist will find plenty of scope in
working on life history. When it comes down to the facts of the mat-
ter, the life history of comparatively few of the myriads of species, here
or elsewhere, is known. This is particularly true of marine forms. In
the case of those that live continually in the deeper water, it is a very
difficult matter to find out much about them; but even the littoral and
shallow water forms are very little known. One reason for this is,
that owing to the exigencies of climate, it is hard to keep track of even
the most conspicuous forms throughout the year. This is the very rea-
son why scarcely any locality in the temperate zones affords so satisfac-
tory an opportunity to study life history as our own. There is nothing
to hinder the work being carried on throughout the year ; and the species
are so numerous that there is no danger of ever running out of a supply,
because every species, no matter how much it is like its nearest of kin,
has some special feature in its life history that, when known, will help
to unravel the great skein of relationship in which every biologist has a
deep interest.

The study of life history has a great economic value in some cases.
It has been and is very necessary in the case of food fishes. Much work
has been done on the various species of salmon, in connection with the
hatcheries for the early stages, and by McMurrich and Gilbert for the
adults; but much still remains to be done before even an approximately
complete knowledge is obtained of the whole life cycle. Other fish have
scarcely been studied at all. Even from a dollars and cents point Oi
view, it will surely pay to undertake such work. When last year, with
fish value of over thirteen and a half millions, British Columbia easily
led the provinces of the Dominion, is it not worth while to find out
something as to the life history and habits of at least the principal
species that go to produce such a value? Millions of herring are caught

PAPERS READ BEFORE THE B. C. ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 57

in a single night; but nothing is known of the why and the wherefore
of their migrations. If there is any danger of overfishing, should it not
be known? If there is no such danger, the best methods of fishing and
curing should be introduced. Halibut is brought into market, but little
is known concerning it except that it can be caught on certain banks at
certain times. This lack of knowledge is even more decided in con-
nection with other flat fish. Now that trawling has a good chance of
becoming a large factor in the fishing industry, with the British Colum-
bia Fisheries Company already operating successfully off Skidegate, and
the Canada Fish and Storage Company of Prince Rupert with two boats
ready to start and more on the way from Grimsby, an excellent chance
is now afforded for research in that interesting group. A careful search
might reveal further that there are many species of good food fish
readily available which at present are receiving no attention whatever.

While speaking of economic value, other cases may well be con-
sidered ; because the fishes have not a monopoly of commercial value.
Everywhere, reaches, tide-flats and beds of sand and gravel, make
suitable abiding places for innumerable shellfish. Even at present their
commercial value must be taken into account. But that value is as
nothing compared with what it might be. Dr. Stafford, after working
on the oyster for some time, came to the conclusion that not only could
the large eastern oyster thrive in the waters of Vancouver Island, but
that it could reproduce in these waters. Many attempts have been
made farther south to get them to reproduce, but I believe in no case
have the experiments met with success. Oyster farming such as is
done in Japan, in some parts of Europe, and even in some parts of the
Eastern United States and Canada, is a very profitable venture. There
seems no reason why it should not be so here ; but further experiments
must be made before success as a commercial venture is assured. But
the oyster is not the only valuable shellfish. Various clams and scallops
are very desirable as food, while cockles, mussels, limpets and other
similar forms are considered great delicacies in various parts of the
world. The provincial department is going into this matter; it has
shellfish jurisdiction now, and has set Mr. Thompson at the problem
of distribution and extent of the beds of the edible forms. He has
sent in a preliminary report on his work of last summer, and will
continue trie work next summer. Experiments as to edibility, food
value and life history of many of these shellfish would add much to vhe
value of the work now in progress.

What has been said as to the study of shellfish may as truly be
said of crustaceans. Many crabs are caught in some localities; but the

58 PAPERS READ BEFORE THE B. C. ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

marketing of them can scarcely be called an industry here, though there
seems no reason why it should not be. If one visits the fish markets of
New York or Boston, he gets an idea of what a prominent place the
various crabs occupy as food material in the East. Why should it not
be the same in Vancouver or Victoria? The shrimp industry is of
great importance in the State of Washington. It is possible that a
thorough search would reveal just as good shrimp ground in the B. C.
waters as in the waters but very little farther south. The species
caught for market are certainly found farther north in the Gulf. Are
they there in large quantities? As far as appearances go, the condi-
tions seem favorable for the growth of lobsters along many parts of the
coast. A feeble attempt was made to introduce them some years ago,
but as there were no special arrangements for their care, no one knows
whether any of them lived or not. Such experiments as these require
strict and continued attention for years before a satisfactory conclusion
can be reached.

Another problem that affects the fisherman from a different stand-
point may be mentioned. The dogfish is a great nuisance to nets and
lines. The dogfish of the Pacific is much like the dogfish of the Atlan-
tic. The biochemist has made it possible to get value out of the Atlantic
dogfish : he should be able to get similar value out of the Pacific species.
At several points in the Maritime Provinces to the east, reduction works
yield profit from oil and fertilizer. There is room for some such in
the Maritime Province of the west.

While we have the biochemist, there is another problem, a large
one, that we wish him to attack. Owing to the amount of fresh water
that is poured into the sea by rivers, great and small, there is much
variation in the salinity of the water at various points, all the way from
the high percentage of the regular ocean water to the brackish or even
fresh water at the outlets of the rivers. In the case of large rivers,
the influence of the fresh water may extend a long way. The water
of the Fraser crosses the Gulf, on the surface at least, to Gabriola, Val-
dez and Galiano Islands. How does this variation in salinity affect
the forms that come in contact with it? Are there species peculiar to
each degree of variation? Are there variations in the same species? Or
can any difference be noticed? There may not be much difference in
the freely swimming forms, but experience indicates that there, may
be much difference in sessile or slowly moving forms. Nowhere can
greater variety in salinity be found than here, hence nowhere can the
problem be studied to greater advantage. It has its economic value
also; for a slight difference in flavor in an edible species may make

PAPERS READ BEFORE THE B. C. ACADEMY OF SCIENCE 59

the difference between commercial failure and success. The problem
is not confined to animals. It has an even greater bearing on marine
plants, as a greater percentage of these are sessile forms.

Hitherto I have said little directly about plants, but the most of
what I have said applies to the flora as well as the fauna. Animal life
is dependent on plant life, directly or indirectly, for food material ;
hence it is just as necessary to obtain a knowledge of the nature, extent,
and distribution of plants as of animals. In both cases the relation of
each species to its environment and to other species forms a large and
important problem in itself.

From an economic standpoint there are two problems at least, that
loom up large in connection with marine plants. In some parts of the
world, an important industry has been established in obtaining iodine
and its compounds from seaweed. The seaweed is in abundance every-
where here. It might be worth while experimenting as to the possi-
bility of obtaining these substances in quantity enough to be of economic
value. Experiments have been conducted, with how much success I am
not prepared to say, on the Pacific Coast of the United States, with the
idea of obtaining potash from kelp. If that can be done profitably,
there are large enough beds of Nereocystis growing on the reefs every
year to provide any amount of raw material.

It is quite true that financial assistance is needed to supply the
facilities to cope with these larger economic problems. They need gov-
ernment backing. In these days when every progressive government the
world over is becoming more sympathetic towards scientific endeavor,
more cognizant of the results of scientific investigations, the federal and
provincial governments are sure to give due consideration to any feasible
plan to advance such work. It is only reasonable that they should ask
for men who will get results before they will give much encouragement.
A call that has often been issued must be taken up once more, a call for
men, men full of scientific spirit, willing to attack with patience and
zeal the manifold problems of so rich a field. Apparently we must
depend on university trained men, and there are not enough with inter-
est in such work, available. In Britain, as in many of the older coun-
tries, the professional man and the artisan often take up the study of
some science as a hobby, and do some very valuable work. In Canada
and in the United States, "gross materialism" seems to crush out all
desire for any hobby that has not to do with the making or spending
of money.

60 PAPERS READ BEFORE THE B. C. ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

It is the duty as well as the privilege of this Academy, by every
means at its command, to foster a desire to have this work done with
the greatest possible despatch. Every member, besides being fully in-
formed of the needs of his own particular branch of science, should
take a sympathetic interest in all the other branches. Doubtless he
does so. In considering marine biology, this discussion may help to
give further insight into the possibilities for profitable research. If
your interest is aroused, show it by placing the situation fairly before
others who by their personal efforts or by their influence, can give valu-
able assistance, and by giving encouragement to those who are already
engaged in the work.