MARINE AND
COASTAL

| ECOSYSTEMS
AND HUMAN
WELL-BEING

Synthesis

| A synthesis report based on the findings
of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment

The production of this
report has been made
possible by the support
of the Netherlands
Ministry of Foreign
Affairs-Development
Cooperation

Pin 231%

WR

MARINE AND
COASTAL
ECOSYSTEMS
AND HUMAN
WELL-BEING

Synthesis

A synthesis report based on the findings of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment

Synthesis editorial team
Claire Brown, Emily Corcoran, Peter Herkenrath, and Jillian Thonell

Synthesis team

Jackie Alder, Russell Arthurton, Neville Ash, Salif Diop, Sherry Heileman, Michael Huber,
Francisco Arias-Izasa, Kwame Koranteng, Carmen Lacambra, Karen McLeod, Elvina Payet,
Nishanthi Perera, Lingzis DanLing Tang, Mark Spalding, and Kaveh Zahedi

Extended writing team
MA Coordinating Lead Authors, Lead Authors, Contributing Authors, and Sub-global Coordinators

This report has been
prepared by UNEP-
WCMC at the request of
and with the support

of UNEP’s Division

of Early Warning

and Assessment

United Nations Environment Programme
P.O. Box 30552, Nairobi, Kenya

Tel: +254 (0) 20 7621234

Fax: +254 (0) 20 7623927

Email: uneppub@unep.org

Website: www.unep.org

Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
Website: www.MAweb.org

Copyright © UNEP 2006

Suggested citation

UNEP (2006) Marine and coastal ecosystems and human well-
being: A synthesis report based on the findings of the
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. UNEP. 76pp

Printed by UNEP
A Banson production

The contents of this report do not necessarily reflect the views
or policies of UNEP or contributory organizations. The desig-
nations employed and the presentation of material in this report
do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the
part of UNEP or contributory organizations concerning the
legal status of any country, territory, or city, or its authorities,
or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

ss
CONTENTS

Foreword iti
Preface iv
Reader’s Guide vi
Acknowledgements vii
Key Messages Viii
Summary 1
1 What is the current status of marine and coastal ecosystems and their services 7
Introduction 7H
Ecosystem Services from Marine and Coastal Ecosystems 7
Habitat and Biodiversity Loss 18
Gaps in Knowledge of Marine and Coastal Ecosystems 20
2 What are the drivers of change in marine and coastal ecosystems? 22
Drivers of Change in Marine and Coastal Ecosystems 22
Direct Drivers of Change in Marine and Coastal Ecosystems 22
Indirect Drivers of Change in Marine and Coastal Ecosystems DY
3 Why should we care about the loss or degradation of marine and coastal ecosystems
and their services? 29
Human Well-being and Ecosystem Services 29
Basic Materials for a Good Life 30
Human Health 33
Good Social Relations 34
Security 35
Trade-offs between Conservation and Other Priorities 35
Gaps in Understanding regarding Human Well-being 36
A Look at the Future: The Four MA Scenarios 37

4 What can be done about the loss of marine and coastal ecosystems and their services? 42

Introduction 42
Response Options 42
Evaluating Policy Responses 52
Tools for Policy Options 53
Policy Response Gaps 53
Appendix 1 A Selection of International Mechanisms in the Marine and Coastal Area 55
Appendix 2 Chapters in the Main MA Volumes 56
Appendix 3 Other Useful Resources 58
Appendix 4 Glossary of Terms 60

Appendix 5 Abbreviations and Acronyms 64

I

CONTENTS cont.

Boxes
Box 1.1
Box 1.2
Box 1.3
Box 1.4
Box 1.5
Box 3.1
Box 3.2
Box 3.3
Box 3.4
Box 3.5
Box 3.6
Box 3.7
Box 3.8
Box 3.9
Box 3.10
Box 4.1
Box 4.2
Box 4.3
Box 4.4
Box 4.5
Box 4.6
Box 4.7
Box 4.8
Box 4.9
Box 4.10

Box 4.11

Figures
Figure 1.1

Figure 1.2

Trophic Levels

Ecotourism and Small Island States
Traditional Knowledge Important to -
Environmental Management of Marine and
Coastal Ecosystems

Examples of Coastal and Marine Species
under Threat

General Conditions and Trends of Coastal
and Marine Biodiversity

The MA Definition of Human Well-being
The Benguela Fishery

Island Ecosystem Case Study

Polar Region Case Study

The MA Scenarios

Predictions from the MA Scenarios

Case Study: Fisheries and Tourism in the
Caribbean Sea—Jamaica and Bonaire

Case Study: Dead Zones in the Gulf of
Mexico

Case Study: Predicted Impacts of Global
Warming on the Coastal Zone of Papua
New Guinea

Case Study: No-take Zones in St. Lucia
Large Marine Ecosystems

Case Study: The Mankote Mangrove in St.
Lucia

Effectiveness of International Instruments
Examples of Key International Instruments
Case Study: Challenges for Policy Responses
in the Caribbean

Case Study: Participatory Land Use Planning
in Coastal British Columbia, Canada
Benefits from Marine Protected Areas:
Bahamas and Samoa

Examples of Land Use Planning for Coastal
Protection

Case Study: The National Fisheries Sector in
Chile

Biodiversity in the Gulf of Thailand under
the MA Scenarios

Case Study: The Costs and Benefits of
Retaining or Converting Natural Mangrove
Ecosystems inThailand

Classification of the World’s Oceans’
Identified Four ‘Biomes’ (Polar, Westerlies,
Trade Winds, and Coastal Boundary)
Definition of the Spatial Occurrence of
Marine and Coastal Ecosystems within
the MA

ff MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING

Figure 1.3

Figure 1.4
Figure 1.5

Figure 1.6
Figure 1.7
Figure 1.8

Figure 2.1

Figure 2.2

Figure 3.1

Figure 3.2

Figure 3.3

Figure 4.1

Tables

Table 1.1
Table 1.2
Table 1.3
Table 2.1

Table 2.2
Table 2.3

Table 3.1

Table 4.1

Estimated Global Fish Catches
(1950-2001) by Target Group and

by Biome

Trophic Level Change (1950-2000)
Trend in Mean Depth of Catch and
Mean Distance of Catch from Shore since
1950

The State of Fish Stocks in 1999

Global Distribution of Mangrove Forests
Red List Indices for Birds in Freshwater,
Marine, and Terrestrial Ecosystems,

and for Birds in Forest and
Shrubland/Grassland Habitats

Growth in Number of Marine Species
Introductions

Estimated Total Reactive Nitrogen
Deposition from the Atmosphere (Wet and
Dry) in 1860, Early 1990s, and Projected
for 2050

Spatial Distribution of the Total Value of
Food Production for Crops, Livestock,
and Fisheries in 2000

Collapse of Atlantic Cod Stocks off the
East Coast of Newfoundland in 1992
Conceptual Map of Direct and Indirect
Drivers of the Dead Zone in the Gulf

of Mexico

Economic Benefits under Alternative
Management Practices

Examples of Ecosystem Services
Provided by Different Marine and
Coastal Habitats

Summary of Status of Coastal Habitat
Types

World Fishery Production and Utilization,
1996-2001

Important Drivers in the MA

Drivers of Change in Coastal Ecosystems
Share of World and Coastal Populations
Living within 50 Kilometres of Estuaries,
Coral Reefs, Mangroves, and Seagrass
Consequences of Each Scenario for the
Factors Affecting Hypoxia in the Gulf
of Mexico

Main Policies for the Management of
Open-access Fisheries

FOREWORD

Humankind depends on the oceans and coasts for its survival, with one third of the world’s population living in
coastal areas, approximately 4 percent of Earth’s total land area. Global changes and a range of other drivers are
causing degradation or loss of ecosystem services. Changes to ecosystem services such as food security and
employment of nearly 38 million people in the fisheries industry will cause impacts that will reach far beyond the
coastal zone.

The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) is an international initiative that began in 2001 under the auspices
of the United Nations. The MA establishes a collaborative and scientific approach to assess ecosystems, the services
they provide, and how changes in these sezvices will impact upon human well-being. More than 1,360 leading
scientists from 95 countries carried out the Assessment under the direction of a Board that included representatives
of four international conventions—the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), the United Nations Convention
to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance, and the
Convention on Migratory Species (CMS)—five United Nations agencies, and international scientific organizations,
as well as leaders from the private sector, nongovernmental organizations, and indigenous groups.

This report is a synthesis of the findings from the reports of the MA working groups (conditions and trends,
scenarios, response and sub-global assessments) concerning marine and coastal ecosystems. UNEP-WCMC and
UNEP’s Division of Early Warning and Assessment (DEWA) have coordinated the production of this synthesis
report in recognition that the loss of marine and coastal services has impacts on human well-being.

The aim of this synthesis report is to contribute to the dissemination of the information contained within the
MA to decision-makers and a wide range of stakeholders of marine and coastal ecosystems through seven key
messages. In addition it is envisaged the information contained within this synthesis report will contribute to larger
international processes such as the Global International Waters Assessment (GIWA), Global Biodiversity Outlook
(GBO), the Global Marine Assessment (GMA), Global Environmental Outlook (GEO), the Regional Seas, the CBD
and the Ramsar Convention.

The Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Development Cooperation, kindly funded the preparation and
publication of this report. This synthesis report has only been possible due to the efforts and commitment of the
authors and reviewers, of the MA working groups who contributed their time and knowledge to the development
of the assessment. I would like to express my gratitude to the team that prepared this synthesis report.

I hope that this synthesis report will provide a tool that will help those who hold the responsibility for the
conservation and sustainable use of our marine and coastal ecosystems through the employment of effective policy,
legislative and response options.

Klaus Toepfer
Executive Director,
United Nations Environment Programme

MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING

PREFACE

Se

The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) was carried out between 2002 and 2005 to assess the consequence
of ecosystem change for human well-being and to analyse the options available to enhance the conservation and

sustainable use of ecosystems. The main findings of the MA were released on March 30, 2005.

The human species, while buffered against environmental changes by culture and technology, is ultimately fully

dependent on the flow of ecosystem services. The MA analyses ecosystem services at global and sub-global (local or
regional) scales in terms of current conditions and trends, plausible future scenarios, and possible responses for

sustainable resource use.

What are ecosystems and ecosystem services?

An ecosystem is a dynamic complex of plant, animal, and microorganism communities and the nonliving
environment interacting as a functional unit. The conceptual framework for the MA assumes that people are

integral parts of ecosystems and the Report focuses on examining the linkages between ecosystems and human
well-being and in particular on ‘ecosystem services’, which are the benefits that people obtain from ecosystems.

(See Figure A.) Ecosystem services include:

provisioning services such as food, water, timber, and fibre;

regulating services such as the regulation of climate, floods, disease, wastes and water quality;

cultural services such as recreational, aesthetic, and spiritual benefits; and

supporting services such as soil formation, photosynthesis, and nutrient cycling.

Figure A MA CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK OF INTERACTIONS AMONG BIODIVERSITY, ECOSYSTEM SERVICES,

HUMAN WELL-BEING, AND DRIVERS OF CHANGE

Changes in drivers that indirectly affect
biodiversity, such as population,
technology, and lifestyle (upper right
corner), can lead to changes in drivers
directly affecting biodiversity, such as
the catch of fish or the application of
fertilizers to increase food production
(lower right corner). These result in
changes to biodiversity and ecosystems
services (lower left corner), thereby
affecting human well-being. These
interactions can take place at more
than one scale and can cross scales.
For example, international demand for
timber may lead to a regional loss of
forest cover, which increases flood
magnitude along a local stretch of a
river. Similarly, the interactions can take
place across different time scales.
Actions can be taken either to respond
to negative changes or to enhance
positive changes at almost all points in
this framework. Local scales refer to
communities or ecosystems and
regional scales refer to nations or
biomes, all of which are nested within
global-scale processes.

iV

MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING

Human well-being
and poverty reduction

@ BASIC MATERIAL FOR A GOOD LIFE

= HEALTH
m GOOD SOCIAL RELATIONS
m@ SECURITY

= FREEDOM OF CHOICE AND ACTION

Ecosystem services
= PROVISIONING
(e.g., food, water, fibre, and fuel)

@ REGULATING
(e.g., climate regulation, water, and disease),

= CULTURAL
(e.g., spiritual, aesthetic, recreation,
and education)

= SUPPORTING
(e.g., primary production, and soil formation)

LIFE ON EARTH — BIODIVERSITY

Strategies and interventions

t

Indirect drivers for change

= DEMOGRAPHIC

= ECONOMIC (e.g,, globalization, trade,
market, and policy framework)

= SOCIOPOLITICAL (e.g., governance,
institutional and legal framework)

= SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

m CULTURAL AND RELIGIOUS (e.¢., beliefs,
consumption choices)

Direct drivers for change

@ CHANGES IN LOCAL LAND USE
AND COVER

j@ SPECIES INTRODUCTION OR REMOVAL
i§ TECHNOLOGY ADAPTATION AND USE

= EXTERNAL INPUTS (e.g., fertilzer use,
pest control, and Irrigation)
m HARVEST AND RESOURCE CONSUMPTION

@ CLIMATE CHANGE

@ NATURAL, PHYSICAL, AND BIOLOGICAL
DRIVERS (e.g., evolution, volcanoes)

‘Source: Millennium Ecosystem Assessment.

Marine and coastal systems within the MA context

Most of Earth (70.8% or 362 million km’) is covered by oceans and major seas. Marine systems are highly
dynamic and tightly connected through a network of surface and deep-water currents. The properties of the water
form stratified layers, tides, and currents. Upwellings break this stratification by mixing layers and creating vertical
and lateral heterogeneity within the ocean biome. The total global coastlines exceed 1.6 million kilometres, and
coastal ecosystems occur in 123 countries around the world.

Coastal and marine ecosystems are among the most productive, yet threatened, ecosystems in the world; they
include terrestrial ecosystems (e.g., sand dune systems), areas where freshwater and saltwater mix, nearshore

coastal areas, and open ocean marine areas. In the context of the MA assessment, the ocean (or marine) and
coastal realm has been divided into two major sets of systems: ‘marine fisheries systems’ and ‘inshore coastal
systems and coastal communities’. Marine systems are defined as waters from the low water mark (50m depth) to
the high seas; and coastal systems are defined as <50m depth to the coastline and inland from the coastline to a
maximum of 100 km or 50-metre elevation (whichever is closer to the sea). The MA defines the coastal zone as a
narrower band of terrestrial area dominated by ocean influences of tides and marine aerosols, and defines a marine
area where light penetrates throughout. (See MA Condition and Trends volume, section 19.1 [CT 19.1] for

explanation of the definition.)

MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSY 1S AND HUMAN WELL-BEING

eee
READERS GUIDE

This report is a synthesis of the findings of the MA on marine and coastal ecosystems, taken from the global and
sub-global assessments.

UNEP’s Division of Early Warning and Assessment (DEWA) requested and supported this synthesis report to
contribute to the dissemination of the information contained within the MA to decision-makers and a wide range
of stakeholders of marine and coastal ecosystems. Six other synthesis reports have also been produced for different
audiences: general overview, biodiversity (Convention on Biological Diversity), desertification (UN Convention to
Combat Desertification), wetlands (Convention on Wetlands—Ramsar), the business sector, and the health sector.
These synthesis reports along with the MA technical reports and sub-global assessments are available from
www.MAweb.org.

This synthesis report sets out to provide answers to a series of questions that all stakeholders not just decision-
makers may ask: what is at stake, what is the current status of marine and coastal ecosystems, why should we care
if we lose marine and coastal ecosystems, and what can be done to ensure that marine and coastal ecosystems and
services are conserved. A Summary is available at the beginning of the report. Key messages are highlighted in bold,
while the use of italics refers to a key word to help direct the reader. A list of additional resources is provided in
Appendix 3; a glossary of marine and coastal ecosystem terms is provided in Appendix 4; and Appendix 5 contains
a list of acronyms and abbreviations. The reader should also note that while the MA uses the word ‘system’, this
report has chosen to replace the word ‘system’ with ‘ecosystem’. As a result of extensive interlinkages among
ecosystems, the services they provide, and how we use them, it as been impossible to avoid a certain degree of
duplication of text.

All information contained in this synthesis report is derived from chapters of the MA’s four main assessment
reports, and the report on Ecosystems and Human Well-being; A Framework for Assessment, which sets out the
MA’s conceptual framework (CF) and the approach and methodology adopted for the global assessment and
relevant sub-global assessments. Reference to the chapters contained within these reports is presented in square
brackets, which contain the number of the chapter and, where necessary, the section number, being referenced.
These references are coded as follows: the MA Conceptual Framework [CF]; the Condition and Trends volume
[CT]; the Scenarios volume [S]; the Responses volume [R]; the Sub-global Assessments volume [SG]; and
various Synthesis Reports [SR], particularly the General SR, the Biodiversity SR, and the Wetlands SR. Where
reference is made to the MA Summary for Decision-makers, this is coded as [SDM]. A list of chapters in the main
MA volumes is provided in Appendix 2.

Throughout this report, dollar signs indicate U.S. dollars and measurements are metric (that is, billion equals a
thousand million).

The wording of estimates of certainty, such as for the collective judgment of authors, observational evidence,
modelling results, and theory examined is consistent with the MA and other synthesis reports: very certain (98% or
greater probability), high certainty (85-98% probability), medium certainty (65-85% probability), low certainty
(52-65% probability), and very uncertain (50-52% probability). For example, at least a medium confidence (near
65%) may exist for the comment ‘desalinization could alter biodiversity’. Quantitative qualifiers on the amount of
desalinization and the direction and severity of the biodiversity change must be added to the statement. When this
is not appropriate, the standard MA qualitative scale for the level of scientific understanding is implemented: well
established, established but incomplete, competing explanations, and speculative.

Following the synthesis of information from the MA chapters, scientific and policy experts within the marine
and coastal field and selected MA authors provided review comments (a two-staged review process). To supplement
the review process, the final draft of the synthesis report was made available at the meeting of the Global Marine
Assessment in June 2005. All comments were taken into consideration in finalizing this synthesis report.

vi MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Development Cooperation, kindly provided financial support for
the preparation and publication of this MA synthesis report on marine and coastal ecosystems.

We would like to acknowledge the review panel for providing comment on this synthesis report: Martin
Adriaanse, Tundi Agardi, Margarita Astralaga, Charles Victor Barber, Kevern Cochrane, Nick Davidson, Ed Green,
Stefan Hain, Tom Laughlin, Jackie McGlade, Elizabeth McLanahan, Edmund McManus, Rolph Payet, Henrique
Pereira, Marjo Vierros, Sue Wells, and Christian Wild.

We would also like to further acknowledge all of the MA authors and review editors who contributed to this
report through their contributions to the underlying assessment chapters, which this report is based upon.

We would also like to acknowledge the many donors that provided major financial support for the MA,
particularly: Global Environment Facility, United Nations Foundation, David and Lucile Packard Foundation,
World Bank, Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research, United Nations Environment Programme,
Government of China, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Government of Norway, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, and
the Swedish International Biodiversity Programme. The full list of organizations that provided financial support to
the MA is available at www.MAweb.org.

The synthesis editorial team would also like to thank Ryan Walker for his assistance in collating comments
from reviewers.

MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING vii

a
KEY MESSAGES

u People are dependent on the ocean and coasts and their resources for their survival and well-being. Marine
and coastal ecosystems provide a wide range of services to human society, including food provision, natural
shoreline protection against storms and floods, water.quality maintenance, support of tourism and other
cultural and spiritual benefits, and maintenance of the basic global life support systems. The effects of coastal
degradation and a loss of these services are felt inland and often a long way from the coast.

a The major drivers of change, degradation, or loss of marine and coastal ecosystems and services are mainly
anthropogenic. Important drivers of marine and coastal ecosystems include: population growth, land use
change and habitat loss, overfishing and destructive fishing methods, illegal fishing, invasive species, climate
change, subsidies, eutrophication, pollution, technology change, globalization, increased demand for food,
and a shift in food preferences.

g Marine and coastal ecosystems are among the most productive and provide a range of social and economic
benefit to humans. More than one third of the world’s population live in coastal areas and small islands that
make up just over 4% of Earth’s total land area. Fisheries and fish products provide direct employment to
38 million people. Coastal tourism is one of the fastest growing sectors of global tourism and provides
employment for many people and generates local incomes. For example, reef-based tourism generates over
$1.2 billion annually in the Florida Keys (of the United States) alone.

@ Most services derived from marine and coastal ecosystems are being degraded and used unsustainably
and therefore are deteriorating faster than other ecosystems. Unsustainable use of services can result in
threatened food security for coastal communities due to overexploited fish stocks; loss of habitat that in turn
causes damage to the thriving tourism industry; health impacts through increasing loads of waste released
into coastal waters; and vulnerability of coastal communities to natural and human-induced disasters. The
MA scenarios forecast a great risk of collapse of all major fish stocks and climate change-induced sea-level
rise (with mean value of 0.5—0.7 m).

@ The highly threatened nature of marine and coastal ecosystems and the demand for their services highlight
the need for a local, regional, and global response. A range of options exists to respond to the challenges
that the degradation of ecosystems is posing (for example, implementation of regional and global agreements
or stakeholder participation and capacity development). Addressing uncertainties and elaborating trade-offs
provide useful mechanisms for operational responses.

@ Trade-offs in meeting the Millennium Development Goals and other international commitments are
inevitable. However, implementing the established ecosystem-based approaches (for example, integrated
coastal management) adopted by the CBD, the Convention on Wetlands (Ramsar), and FAO, amongst
others, as well as existing local and regional legislation, policy, and guidelines on the future condition of
marine and coastal ecosystem services could be substantially improved by balancing economic development,
ecosystem preservation, and human well-being objectives.

= Improved capacity to predict the consequences of change of drivers in marine and coastal ecosystems
would aid decision-making at all levels. Long-term and large-area ecological processes are particularly
poorly understood; and yet, in a number of areas, issues and well-defined policies have not been sufficiently
developed. Monitoring of biodiversity change at the ecosystem and species level is essential.

Vili. MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING

SUMMARY

What is the current status of marine and coastal
ecosystems and their services?

Key Message # 1 People are dependent on the ocean and
coasts and their resources for their survival and well-being.
Marine and coastal ecosystems provide a wide range of
services to human society, including food provision, natural
shoreline protection against storms and floods, water quality
maintenance, support of tourism and other cultural and
spiritual benefits, and maintenance of the basic global life
support systems. The effects of coastal degradation and a
loss of these services are felt inland and often a long way
from the coast.

Coastal and marine ecosystems are amongst the most
productive ecosystems in the world and provide many services
to human society; however, many of these ecosystems have
become degraded. Food provisioning in the form of fisheries
catch is one of the most important services derived from
coastal and marine ecosystems. With more than a billion
people relying on fish as their main or sole source of animal
protein, fisheries in developing countries are a particularly
important source of protein. Fisheries and fish products
provide direct employment to 38 million people, with a
further 162 million people indirectly involved in the fisheries
industry (FAO 2004). The state of industrial fisheries is of
concern as many people depend on their existence for food
and employment, with many fisheries being overexploited.
(See Figure 1.) Aquaculture is the fastest-growing food-
producing sector, accounting for 30% of total fish
consumption.

Other provisioning services from these ecosystems
include curios and ornamentals for the aquarium trade,
building materials (for example, for boat construction and
house construction), and bioprospecting (the exploration
of biodiversity for new biological resources, such as
pharmaceuticals).

The seas and coasts around the world are of great spiritual
importance to many people, providing cultural and spiritual
services. Coastal tourism is one of the fastest growing sectors
of global tourism and is an essential component of the
economies of many small island developing states (SIDS).
Much of the economic value of coral reefs is generated from
nature-based and dive tourism, with net benefits estimated at
nearly $30 billion annually. The cultures of many peoples are
closely connected to coasts and oceans, and traditional
knowledge has become an integral part of the dynamics of
island and coastal ecosystems and their management. In
addition, coastal and marine habitats are areas of research and
efforts in education and public awareness.

Marine and coastal ecosystems provide supporting services
in the form of a wide range of habitats. Estuaries, mangroves,
lagoons, seagrasses, and kelp forests serve as nurseries for both
inshore and offshore fish and other species, many of which are
commercially significant. Other habitats such as beaches,
dunes, saltmarshes, estuaries, and mudflats play an important
role in the life cycle of, for example, fish, shellfish, and
migratory birds. Marine and coastal ecosystems play an
important role in photosynthesis and productivity. Through
mixing nutrients from upstream and tidal sources, estuaries are
one of the most fertile coastal environments.

Box 1 SERVICES PROVIDED BY COASTAL AND MARINE

ECOSYSTEMS

The MA recognizes a range of benefits that people obtain from
coastal and marine ecosystems. These ecosystem services include:
provisioning services such as food, water, timber, and fibre;
regulating services such as the regulation of climate, floods,
disease, wastes, and water quality;

cultural services such as recreational, aesthetic, and spiritual
benefits; and

supporting services such as soil formation, photosynthesis, and
nutrient cycling.

MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING al

Figure 1 THE STATE OF FISH STOCKS IN 1999 [CT 4.5.1.5, Figure 4.21]

Ecosystems such as mangroves,
seagrasses, and mudflats provide key
regulating services through shoreline

The state of stocks in 1999

ae : R 1%
stabilization, protection from floods and
soil erosion, processing pollutants, and
stabilizing land in the face of changing D 9%
sea levels by trapping sediments and
buffering land from storms. Marine @) 18%
systems play significant roles in climate
regulation and nutrient cycling. COz Is F 3 47%
continuously exchanged between the
atmosphere and ocean; it dissolves in M WN%
surface waters and is then transported
into the deep ocean.
U 4%
Nl r= 1 = J
0 10% 20% 30% 40% 50%

R= recovering D = depleted O = overexploited
F = fully exploited M = moderately exploited U = underexploited

What are the drivers of change in marine and
coastal ecosystems?

Key Message # 2 The major drivers of change,
degradation, or loss of marine and coastal ecosystems and
services are mainly anthropogenic. Important drivers of
marine and coastal ecosystems include: population growth,
land use change and habitat loss, overfishing and destructive
fishing methods, illegal fishing, invasive species, climate
change, subsidies, eutrophication, pollution, technology
change, globalization, increased demand for food, and a

shift in food preferences.

Within the coastal population, 71% live within 50 kilometres of
estuaries, and in tropical regions, settlements are concentrated
near mangroves and coral reefs. These marine and coastal
habitats have been degraded or transformed, mainly through
anthropogenic impacts.

In particular, coastal habitats have been affected by land use
change and habitat loss, resulting in severe negative impacts on
ecosystems and species. Excessive amounts of sedimentation and
agricultural practices upstream have resulted in degradation of
estuaries. Mangroves have been converted to allow for coastal
zone development, aquaculture, and agriculture. Mudflats,
saltmarshes, mangroves, and seagrasses are commonly
destroyed for port and other industrial and infrastructure
development or maintenance dredging. Coral reefs suffer from
destructive fishing, use of coral for road and building
construction, collection for the ornamental trade,
sedimentation, and dumping of pollutants.

Overfishing and destructive fishing methods, such as some
forms of bottom trawling (for example, the use of heavy gear

2 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING

Figure 2 GROWTH IN NUMBER OF MARINE

SPECIES INTRODUCTIONS

Number of new records of established non-native invertebrate and algae species
reported in marine waters of North America, shown by date of first record, and
number of new records of non-native marine plant species reported on the
European coast, by date of first record [General SR, Figure 1.7].

Number of species
175

| Non-native marine plant species
reported on European coast

Sef eld,

Non-native invertebrates and
150 plants reported in marine
waters of North America

é

125

100

75

50

25

; 2
1790-1819 1820-49 1850-79 1880-1909

Source: Millennium Ecosystem Assessment

$25
1910-39

1970-99

1940-69

on sensitive substrates), dredging, and the use of explosives and
fish poisons such as cyanide impact on marine ecosystems by
physically altering or destroying the systems or changing
community structure and altering trophic and other interactions
between ecosystem components. The global decline of
commercially important fish stocks is well documented, with
many fishery resources being overexploited. Subsidies are
amongst the most powerful drivers of overfishing. The value of
fisheries subsidies as a percentage of the gross value of
production in the OECD area was about 20% in 2002. The
development and operation of aquaculture often has serious
environmental impacts, concerning habitat loss (for example,
removal of mangroves), salinization of adjacent lands, releasing
effluents into the surrounding waters, use of high quality
fishmeal to produce fish, and infectious diseases being spread
into wild fish populations.

Invasive species are expected to grow in importance as a
driver of ecosystem change in marine and coastal areas. (See
Figure 2.) A major source of marine introductions of non-native
species is through the release of ballast water from ships.

Increased nutrient loading from agricultural run-off, sewage,
and burning of fossil fuels is causing widespread eutrophication
of coastal and marine ecosystems. (See Figure 3.) For example,
this nutrient pollution stimulates algal growth and reduces
the quality of light in the water column, leading to a depletion
of oxygen, which reduces the ability of other marine organisms
to persist. This is a particular problem near centres of
human population where pollution through the release
of: often untreated human waste, pollutants such as
persistent organic pollutants, and toxic waste contribute to
the problems.

Climate change is increasingly becoming one of the dominant
drivers of change in vulnerable habitats such as mangroves,
coral reefs, and coastal wetlands, which are especially at risk
from resulting sea-level rises and increased storm events. Coral
reefs are vulnerable to climate-change-induced bleaching. It has
been suggested by many that coral mortality through global
warming will reduce the major coral reefs substantially in a very
short time frame, with one estimate even suggesting that all
current coral reefs could disappear by 2040 due to warming
sea temperatures.

A number of indirect drivers of change in marine and coastal
ecosystem have been identified. Technology change contributes
to overexploitation of fish stocks. The same is true for the shift
in food preferences and globalization, with some marine
products becoming a luxury food, driving up demand and fish
prices. Illegal fishing also contributes to overexploitation and is
particularly due to lack of surveillance, enforcement, and
monitoring. Also, demographic developments in coastal zones
drive changes in ecosystems, with coastal population densities
being nearly three times that of inland areas. An important
ecosystem service, tourism can also have a negative impact upon
marine and coastal areas, for example through people walking
on coral reefs at low tide.

Figure 3 ESTIMATED TOTAL REACTIVE NITROGEN
DEPOSITION FROM THE ATMOSPHERE (WET AND

DRY) IN 1860, EARLY 1990S, AND PROJECTED FOR
2050 (milligrams of nitrogen per square metre per year)

Atmospheric deposition currently accounts for roughly 12% of the
reactive nitrogen entering terrestrial and coastal marine ecosystems
globally, although in some regions, atmospheric deposition accounts for
a higher percentage (about 33% in the United States) [R9, Figure 9.2].

Source: Galloway et al. 2004

MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING 3

ee

Why should we care about the loss or degradation of
marine and coastal ecosystems and their services?

Key Message # 3 Marine and coastal ecosystems are
among the most productive and provide a range of social
and economic benefits to humans. More than one third of the
world’s population live in coastal areas and small islands that
make up just over 4% of Earth’s total land area. Fisheries and
fish products provide direct employment to 38 million people.
Coastal tourism is one of the fastest growing sectors of global
tourism and provides employment for many people and
generates local incomes. For example, reef-based tourism
generates over $1.2 billion annually in the Florida Keys alone.

Key Message # 4 Most services derived from marine and
coastal ecosystems are being degraded and used
unsustainably and therefore are deteriorating faster than
other ecosystems. Unsustainable use of services can result in
threatened food security for coastal communities due to
overexploited fish stocks, loss of habitat resulting in damage
to the thriving tourism industry, health impacts through
increasing loads of waste released into coastal waters, to
vulnerability of coastal communities to natural and human-
induced disasters. The MA scenarios forecast a great risk of
collapse of all major fish stocks, and climate-change-induced
sea-level rise (with mean value of 0.5-0.7m).

Human well-being is closely linked to the availability of the
services that marine and coastal ecosystems provide. The
degradation and loss of many of these ecosystems therefore
gives reason for concern. The decreasing fish stocks threaten
food security in many coastal areas but have implications far
beyond. For example, the decreased availability of fish for
subsistence in West Africa has driven an increase in illegal bush
meat trade, which in turn threatens many species and is thought
to contribute to outbreaks of primate-borne and other viruses in
human populations.

Fisheries and tourism are major sources of employment, often
in developing countries. Loss of habitat and degrading stocks
(see Figure 4) could heavily impact on employment. The massive
coral bleaching in 1998 is expected to result in an estimated
long-term damage over 20 years of between $600 million and $8
billion with costs incurred through declines in tourism-generated
income and employment, decreases in fish productivity, and loss
of reefs functioning as a protective barrier.

Human communities are at risk from the health implications
of degraded ecosystems, with waterborne diseases such as
cholera being on the rise in coastal countries, which can be
related to ciguatera poisoning associated with algal blooms.
Severe health problems are caused by pollution of nearshore
waters where people consume fish or other marine products
contaminated by heavy metals, PCBs, and other toxins.

4 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING

Coastal communities are at risk from natural (for example,
hurricanes, cyclones, tsunamis, and floods) and human-induced
disasters. Losses of habitats such as mangrove forests threaten
the safety of people in 118 coastal countries. Mangroves and
saltmarshes not only serve as a buffer from storm damage, but
also provide areas for fish spawning and nursery areas for both
inshore and offshore capture fisheries; they also absorb heavy
metals and other toxic substances.

What can we do about the loss of marine and coastal
ecosystems and their services?

Key Message # 5 The highly threatened nature of marine
and coastal ecosystems and the demand for their services
highlight the need for a local, regional, and global
response. A range of options exists to respond to the
challenges that the degradation of ecosystems is posing (for
example, implementation of regional and global agreements
or stakeholder participation and capacity development).
Addressing uncertainties and elaborating trade-offs provide
useful mechanisms for operational responses.

Key Message # 6 Trade-offs in meeting the Millennium
Development Goals and other international commitments
are inevitable. However, implementing the established
ecosystem-based approaches (for example, integrated coastal
management) adopted by the CBD, the Convention on
Wetlands (Ramsar), and FAO, amongst others, as well as
existing local and regional legislation, policy, and guidelines
on the future condition of marine and coastal ecosystem
services could be substantially improved by balancing
economic development, ecosystem preservation, and human
well-being objectives.

The MA has identified a number of major options for
responding to the challenges posed by the degradation of the
services provided by marine and coastal ecosystems. These can
be divided into operational and specific responses. (See Table 1.)
Implementing responses necessitates recognizing that trade-
offs and uncertainties will need to be considered along with
addressing the interests of stakeholders. To select the best
response, decision-makers should take into consideration:
available information; implication regarding procedure and
efficiency; effectiveness in producing required results;
stakeholder participation and transparency of outcomes; values
and beliefs of stakeholders; uncertainties; and cross-scale effects.
A range of tools exists that support the application of policy
options. They include multi-criteria analyses, scenarios,
environmental impact assessment, and economic valuation. The
last has been successful in demonstrating the value of protecting
natural coastal wetlands over their conversion for commercial use.
It is important that existing global, regional, and national
legislation, policy, and guidelines are implemented and enforced.

Figure 4 COLLAPSE OF ATLANTIC COD STOCKS OFF THE EAST COAST OF NEWFOUNDLAND IN 1992

This collapse forced the closure of the fishery after hundreds of years of exploitation. Until the late 1950s, the fishery was exploited by
migratory seasonal fleets and resident inshore small-scale fishers. From the late 1950s, offshore bottom trawlers began exploiting the
deeper part of the stock, leading to a large catch increase and a strong decline in the underlying biomass. Internationally agreed quotas in
the early 1970s and, following the declaration by Canada of an Exclusive Fishing Zone in 1977, national quota systems ultimately failed to
arrest and reverse the decline. The stock collapsed to extremely low levels in the late 1980s and early 1990s, and a moratorium on
commercial fishing was declared in June 1992. A small commercial inshore fishery was reintroduced in 1998, but catch rates declined and

the fishery was closed indefinitely in 2003 [General SR, Figure 3.4].

Fish landings in tons
900 000

800 000
700 000
600 000
500 000
400 000
300 000
200 000

100 000

Source: Millennium Ecosystem Assessment

What are the major knowledge gaps?

Key Message # 7 Improved capacity to predict the
consequences of change of drivers in marine and coastal
ecosystems would aid decision-making at all levels. Long-
term and large-area ecological processes are particularly
poorly understood; and yet, in a number of areas, issues and
well-defined policies have not been sufficiently developed.
Monitoring of biodiversity change at the ecosystem and
species level is essential.

Long-term and large-area ecological processes are poorly
understood in marine ecosystems. This lack of knowledge
particularly refers to the oceanic nitrogen cycle, the El
Nifio/Southern Oscillation, basic data on the past and current
extent of marine and coastal habitats, the variability of marine
fish stocks, and the understanding of marine biodiversity in
general.

Most existing biological measures such as indicators do not
reflect many important aspects of marine and coastal

biodiversity, especially those that are significant for the delivery
of ecosystem services.

The information available to assess the consequences
for human well-being of changes in ecosystem services is
still limited, not least due to the nonlinearity of the
relationship between human well-being and ecosystem
services.

Policy responses would benefit from addressing a range of
uncertainties, including the understanding of the benefits and
costs of marine protected areas and the outcomes for ecosystem
conditions of integrated coastal management and integrated
coastal zone management. Improved knowledge would enable
better-defined trade-offs.

Policies are currently weak or widely lacking, particularly in
areas such as the impacts from agriculture in marine and coastal
areas; addressing new and emerging issues (for example, off-
shore wind farms); compliance relating to high-seas initiatives
and agreements; and genetic resources.

Existing policy and legislation often still lack consistent
implementation and enforcement because funding, political will,
and human resources are lacking.

MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING 5

OPERATIONAL AND SPECIFIC RESPONSE OPTIONS AVAILABLE TO ADDRESS THE ALTERATION AND LOSS OF
MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND THEIR SERVICES

<Effectiveness> Type of Required

RESPONSE Effective Promising Problematic Responses Actors
Operational responses

Stakeholder participation in decision-making Xx 1, S GN, GL, NGO, B, C, R
Capacity development Xx | GN, GL, NGO, C, R
Communication, education, public awareness X Ss GN, GL, NGO, C
Alternative income-generating activities X X ES GL, NGO, C
Monitoring X X TK Gl, GN, GL, NGO, C, R
Addressing uncertainty x X I,K GN, GL, C, R
Trade-off analysis X X ILE GN, GL, C
Specific responses

Applying international/regional mechanisms Xx X | Gl, GN

Large marine ecosystems xX X | Gl, GN

Integrated coastal management and planning X X : I, S GN, GL, CR
Marine protected areas X X IS GN, GL, NGO, C
Coastal protection xX xX x i Gl, GN, B
Management of nutrient pollution—runoff, fossil fuel combustion X xX Sane Gl, GN, GL

Waste management—household and industrial sewage X X ib 5, Sp, Gl, GN, GL
Geo-engineering—CO>2 sequestration X lV Gl, GN, B
Economic interventions: market-based instruments X X E GN, B

Fisheries management Xx X | GN, GL, B, C
Aquaculture management xX X | GN, GL, B, C

Key to codings

Type of response

| = institutional and legal

E = economic and incentives
S = social and behavioural
T = technology

K = knowledge

Required actors

Gl = government at a international level
GN = national government

GL = local government

B = business/industry sector

R = research institutions

What Is at Stake?

Humankind depends on the oceans and coasts and their resources
for its survival. Ocean circulation is largely driven by climate, and
it determines not only the distribution and abundance of marine
living resources but also the transfer, through evaporation and
rainfall, of freshwater to the land. Changes in human activities at
the global scale are causing climate warming, which is significantly
altering the occurrence of these resources on which people rely.
The warming is influencing ocean circulation and latitudinal
transport of heat, causing sea level to rise and endangering the
long-term security of people living in low-lying coastal areas.
Rising sea-surface temperatures can also threaten the survival of
coral reefs.

Marine living resources are additionally severely impoverished
by many drivers, including the growth in industrial-scale fishing.
Humankind derives 16% of its animal protein from the sea, but by
1999, 27% of global marine fish stocks had been exhausted or
were overexploited. Continuing overexploitation is jeopardizing
food security and the livelihoods of hundreds of millions of people.

Coastal populations in particular are affected by these changes.

6 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING

NGO = civil society including non-governmental organizations
C = community-based and indigenous people’s organizations

More than one third of the world’s population lives in coastal
areas and small islands, which together make up just 4% of the
total land area, and this population is increasing rapidly. In
addition to the impacts of global change, the expansion of
development activities in coastal areas and their related
catchments is increasingly causing the loss of habitats and
degrading the services that have been available to humans from
the coastal and marine ecosystems. Pollution from agricultural,
industrial, and urban sources far and near is creating ocean dead
zones and costing $16 billion per year, largely in response to
resulting human health problems. People at all levels in society can
help to reverse these trends and improve societal well-being. In
particular, decision-makers in government, industry, and civil
society must raise awareness and instigate appropriate and
cooperative response actions. Changes ranging from adaptation in
farming methods through to the removal of fishing subsidies will
have profound remedial effects. Arresting the further degradation
of coastal and marine ecosystem resources for the benefit of both
present and future generations is an urgent imperative to ensure
greater food security, lower health impacts, and reduce poverty
(and ultimately meet the Millennium Development Goals).

SYNTHESIS

1 What is the current status of marine and coastal ecosystems and their services?

@ Marine and coastal ecosystems provide many services to human
society, including food and other goods, shoreline protection,

water quality maintenance, waste treatment, support of tourism and
other cultural benefits, and maintenance of the basic global life
support systems.

i The provision of these services is threatened by the worldwide
degradation of marine and coastal ecosystems. Fisheries are in
global decline. Coastal habitats have been modified and lost, and in
many cases the rate of degradation is increasing. Habitat loss and
modification result in a loss of ecosystem services and also threaten
biodiversity.

@ There are major gaps in our knowledge of marine and coastal
ecosystems and in methodology to assess and manage them. Data
and knowledge gaps include inadequate understanding of the marine
nitrogen and other nutrient cycles and of the El Nino/Southern
Oscillation (ENSO). The inadequacy of data on the extent and status
of many marine and coastal ecosystems makes it difficult to estimate
the extent of past change and future trends. Inadequate
understanding of variability in fish stocks increases the risk of major
stock collapses. Gaps in methodology include inadequate
development of multi-species fisheries management tools and the
inadequate development of agreed biodiversity indicators.

Introduction

The marine chapter [CT 18] of the MA focuses largely on the
condition and trends of fisheries resources (including nearshore
and deep-seas) and the impact of human use. The MA touches
only briefly on other activities impacting marine ecosystems
such as tourism, mining (for example, gold, diamonds, and tin),
and gas and oil. The reasons for this focus are the huge impact
of fishing over the last 50 years and inadequate information
about other aspects of offshore systems. Figure 1.1 shows the
classification used in the MA and this report of the world’s

oceans. The coastal chapter [CT 19] of the MA focuses on
nearshore habitats and significant associated flora and fauna.
Figure 1.2 illustrates the spatial definition of marine and coastal
ecosystems within the MA.

Ecosystem Services from Marine and Coastal
Ecosystems

The assessment focuses on the linkages between ecosystems and
human well-being and in particular on ‘ecosystem services’ (the
benefits that people obtain from ecosystems). An ecosystem is a
dynamic complex of plant, animal, and microorganism
communities and the nonliving environment interacting as a
functional unit. Maintaining biodiversity underpins all
ecosystem services.

Coastal and marine ecosystems provide a wide range of
services to human beings. These include provisioning services
such as supply of food, fuel wood, energy resources, natural
products, and bioprospecting; regulating services, such as
shoreline stabilization, flood prevention, storm protection,
climate regulation, hydrological services, nutrient regulation,
carbon sequestration, detoxification of polluted waters, and
waste disposal; cultural and amenity services such as culture,
tourism, and recreation; and supporting services such as habitat
provision, nutrient cycling, primary productivity, and soil
formation. These services are of high value not only to local
communities living in the coastal zone (especially in developing
countries) but also to national economies and global trade
(CT 19.3.2]. Table 1.1 provides examples of ecosystem services
provided by various marine and coastal habitats.

Provisioning Services

Provisioning services are the products people obtain from
ecosystems, such as food, fuel, timber, fibre, building materials,

MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING

7

a

medicines, genetic and ornamental resources. Coastal and
marine ecosystems provide a wide range of these services;
they are among the most productive ecosystems in the world
[CT 23.3.3].

\ Fisheries as Food Provisioning in Marine and
Coastal Ecosystems

Food provisioning in the form of fisheries catch is one of the
most important services derived from all coastal and marine
ecosystems. For example, mangroves are important in
supporting fisheries due to their function as fish nurseries.
Fisheries yields in waters adjacent to mangroves tend to be high
[CT 19.2.1.2]. Coral reef-based fisheries are also valuable, as
they are an important source of fisheries products for coastal
residents, tourists, and export markets. In developing countries,
coral reefs contribute about one quarter of the annual total fish
catch, providing food to about one billion people in Asia alone
[CT 19.3.2]. Other ecosystems such as rocky intertidal,
nearshore mudflats, deltas, kelp forests, and beaches and dunes
also provide food.

Overall, coastal and marine fisheries landings averaged 82.4
million tonnes per year during 1991-2000, with a stagnating or
declining trend now largely attributed to overfishing [CT 18.1].
Certain areas of the ocean are more productive than others. The
coastal biome produces approximately 53% (in 2001) of the
world’s marine catches [CT 18.2.2]. The coastal biome is also
the most impacted by human activities. Coral reef fisheries in
this biome, for example are overexploited in many reef systems

around the world. Table 1.2 summarizes the status of
recognized costal habitats.

The mid-twentieth century saw the rapid expansion of fishing
fleets throughout the world, and with it, an increase in the
volume of fish landed. (See Figure 1.3.) This trend continued
until the late 1980s, when global marine landings reached

_ slightly over 80 million tonnes per year, then either stagnated or

began to slowly decline. However, regional landings peaked at
different times throughout the world, which in part masked the
decline of many fisheries [CT 18.2.1].

With fleets now targeting the more abundant fish at lower
trophic levels (called ‘fishing down the food chain’), it would be
expected that global catches would be increasing, rather than,
as is actually occurring, stagnating or decreasing. (See Box 1.1
and Figure 1.4.) The decline in catches is largely due to the loss
of large, slow-growing predators at high trophic levels; these are
gradually being replaced, in global landings, by smaller, shorter-
lived fish, at lower trophic levels. Until a few decades ago,
depth and distance from coasts protected much of the deep
ocean fauna from the effect of fishing. However, fleets now fish
further offshore and in deeper water with greater precision and
efficiency, compromising areas that acted as refuges for the
spawning of many species of commercial interest to both
industrial and artisanal fleets [CT 18.2.1]. (See Figure 1.5.)

Of the four ocean areas—the Atlantic, the Pacific, the Indian,
and the Mediterranean—the Atlantic was the first to be fully
exploited and, eventually, overfished. This process is about to
be completed in the Pacific. There still seems to be some minor

Figure 1.1 CLASSIFICATION OF THE WORLD’S OCEANS’ IDENTIFIED FOUR ‘BIOMES’ (POLAR, WESTERLIES, TRADE-WINDS,

AND COASTAL BOUNDARY)

A black border around each continent indicates the coastal boundary. Each of these biomes is subdivided into biogeographical provinces (BGP)

(CT 18.4, Figure 18.1].

i =

Westerlies

Westerlies

South Polar

8 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING

Figure 1.2 DEFINITION OF THE SPATIAL OCCURRENCE OF MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS WITHIN THE MA
[CT 19.1, Figure 19.1]d i

® Coastal ecosystems

potential for expansion of sustainable capture fisheries in the
Indian Ocean and—against expectations—in the Mediterranean,
although this may be due to environmental changes including
eutrophication [CT 18.2.2].

Although the global decline of commercially important fish
stocks or populations is relatively well documented, little is
known about the ecology of the majority of fish populations.
Most industrial fisheries are either fully or overexploited. (See
Figure 1.6.) Twenty-eight percent of the fish stocks under
various assessment programmes have declined to levels lower
than that at which a maximum sustainable yield (MSY) can be
taken, and a further 47% require stringent management (which
may or may not already be in place) to prevent their declining
into a similar situation. Thus 75% of the assessed fish stocks
need management to prevent further declines and/or to bring
about recovery in spawning stock biomass. Conversely, 72% of
the stocks are still capable of producing a maximum sustainable
yield. Further, trend analysis since 1974 shows the percentage of
underexploited stocks has declined steadily, while the
proportion of stocks exploited beyond MSY levels have
increased steadily over this time period (see section 1.4.2 for
gaps in this methodology). If these data are representative of
fisheries as a whole, they indicate an overall declining trend in
spawning-stock biomass for commercially important fish species
over the last 30 years [CT 4.4.1.5].

During the last four decades, the rise in per capita fish
consumption has been quite rapid for the world as a whole.
Table 1.3 shows fish consumption and production over the last
half of the 1990s. By 2000, average per capita fish supply
reached around 16 kg per year, but growth rates are slowing

(CT 8.2.2.3] and average annual per capita fish supply in 2004
only increased to 16.2 kg (FAO 2004).

Continuation of current fisheries trends, including the build-
up of fishing capacities, poses a serious risk of losing more
fisheries. In numerous cases, however, responses to fisheries
management problems have mitigated or reversed the impact of
fisheries. For example, the introduction of community-based
management of reef areas in the Philippines has resulted in
increased fish landings that ultimately improved the well-being
of those communities. Increasingly effective enforcement
measures for Namibian fisheries and the nationalization of the
fishery sector appear to be contributing to improving
socioeconomic conditions for many coastal communities. In
general, relatively small and often single-species fisheries can be
restored, as has occurred in the Peruvian hake (Merluccius gayi
peruanus) fishery [18.7.1].

™ Aquaculture as Food Provisioning in Marine and
Coastal Ecosystems

Growth in demand for fish as a food source is being met in
part by aquaculture, which now accounts for 30% of total fish
consumption. According to FAO statistics, the contribution of
(freshwater and marine) aquaculture to global supplies of fish,
crustaceans, and molluscs continues to grow, increasing from
3.9% of total global production weight in 1970 to 27.3% in
2000. Aquaculture is growing more rapidly than all other
animal food-producing sectors [CT 26.2.3] and was worth $57
billion in 2000 [CT 18.1]. Demands for coastal aquaculture
have been on the rise, increasing the price of some fish (for
example, salmon) and the need to supply cheap protein, but the

MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING 9

EXAMPLES OF ECOSYSTEM SERVICES PROVIDED BY DIFFERENT MARINE AND COASTAL HABITATS
(X indicates the habitat provides a significant amount, of the service)

ECOSYSTEM SERVICES Coastal Marine
no]

5 g 2 2 £ = g g 2 § sg
88) es cs es 23 0 2 18 Sokah pence
OG ist) oq P=) ea 5p = “i - eue Al
25 = os & 2 oD o © a 2 a = Se oe
BE = 8 = 2 2s B 8 £ 68 HbBaf A488

Biodiversity xX xX X X xX xX X xX X x X

Provisioning services

Food xX X x x X X X xX Xx X xX

Fibre, timber, fuel X xX xX X X X

Medicines, other resources X X X X xX X

Regulating services

Biological regulation x xX X X xX Xx

Freshwater storage and retention X X

Hydrological balance xX X

Atmospheric and climate regulation X Xx X xX Xx X X X X X

Human disease control xX X X X Xx X xX

Waste processing X X xX X X

Flood/storm protection X X X x X Xx Xx X

Erosion control X X X X Xx

Cultural services

Cultural and amenity X X X Xx X xX X X X

Recreational xX X X xX X X

Aesthetics X xX X x

Education and research xX X X X X xX X xX xX X X X

Supporting services

Biochemical X X X X

Nutrient cycling and fertility Xx X X X X X X X X X X

10 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING

SUMMARY OF STATUS OF COASTAL HABITAT TYPES
(many of the habitat types included in this table often overlap in their natural state)

HABITAT TYPE STATUS

Estuaries Substantial loss

Mangroves 35% loss in last two decades
for countries with data

Coral reefs 20% severely damaged and

unlikely to recover (2004 estimate);

COMMENTS
e.g., < 10% natural coastal wetlands remain in California,
with over half of U.S. coastal wetlands substantially altered

>80% loss in some countries

Caribbean and Southeast Asia most degraded

70% are destroyed, critical, or threatened

(2004 estimate)
Intertidal habitats and deltas Substantial degradation
Beaches and dunes Complete loss or degradation
in many places
Major losses in Mediterranean,

Florida, and Australia

Seagrass beds

Kelp forests

Saltmarshes or ponds
Semi-enclosed seas

Other bottom communities

Massive alteration and loss
Becoming highly degraded

doubling of aquaculture production in the last 10 years has also
driven habitat loss, overexploitation of fisheries for fishmeal
and fish oil, and pollution [CT 19, Main Messages].

Export fisheries have also influenced the aquaculture
industry, especially for salmon and shrimp, which are bred to
meet the demands from industrial countries for luxury high-
value seafood. Increased export demand often leads to
expansion of aquaculture practices. In 1998, salmon (much of it
farmed) was the leading fish export commodity of the EU.
Countries (such as Thailand) that are the leading producers of
shrimp (much of it from aquaculture) are also often the leading
exporters [CT 18.3.7].

Coastal areas provide the foundation for the mariculture
(marine aquaculture) industry, which uses coastal space or relies
on wild stock to produce valuable fisheries products, from tiger
prawns to bluefin tuna. Human reliance on farmed fish and
shellfish is significant and growing. Global annual per capita
consumption of seafood averages 16 kilograms, and one third
of that supply currently comes from aquaculture. Globally,
aquaculture production rates have doubled in weight and value
from 1989 to 1998. Much of that growth has occurred in the
shrimp and salmon farming industries [CT 19.3.2.1].
Aquaculture on its own will not stem the overexploitation of
wild capture fisheries.

Freshwater aquaculture is generally considered more
environmentally sustainable than brackish water and marine
aquaculture because of its much greater reliance on omnivore or
herbivore species. Carnivores are found in higher trophic levels
and their culture involves the use of formulated diets containing
a high percentage of fishmeal (in some cases as much as 40% of

Severely impacted by effects of fishing

37% loss on Yellow Sea coast of China since 1950;
43% loss in South Korea since 1918

Degradation expected to accelerate, especially in
Southeast Asia and the Caribbean

Probably none exists in a natural condition

Strong evidence for impacts on ecosystem function
and resilience

Figure 1.3 ESTIMATED GLOBAL FISH CATCHES (1950-2001)
BY TARGET GROUP (TOP) AND BY BIOME (BOTTOM)

Includes adjustment for overreporting [CT 18, Figure 18.3].

50
= 40
x Small pelagic
=
2 30
iS Demersal
= 2d)
2
o
Oo ‘40 Large pelagic
Invertebrate
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
50
40 Coastal
x
5 30
S70
§ Polar
o
iS) 10 Westerlies
Trade-winds

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
Year

MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING 11

a

Figure 1.4 TROPHIC LEVEL CHANGE (1950-2000)

Changes in trophic levels of global and regional catches are considered a better reflection of trends in fisheries than the proportion of fish
stocks that are reported as depleted, overexploited, fully exploited, and moderately exploited. Focusing on trophic levels ensures that an
overestimation of fisheries does not occur [CT 18.2.1, Figure 18.4].

<1

a.

Es No Data Available

Figure 1.5 TREND IN MEAN DEPTH OF CATCH (LEFT) AND MEAN DISTANCE OF CATCH FROM SHORE (RIGHT) SINCE 1950

Both panels show that fisheries catches increasingly originate from deep, offshore areas, especially in the Southern Hemisphere

(CT 18.2.1, Figure 18.5].

m km
40 0 40
LI 400 100
20 20 }
200
x 200 =
356 Sao} 300
= 500 =
& 5 400
-20 ny 1,000 -20 | os = 500
an 2000+ | : z 800+
onl seins tn :

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000

Year Year
Mean Depth Mean Distance from Shore

12 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING

TROPHIC LEVELS [CT 8, Box 8.3] the total ingredients). Fishmeal, especially high-quality fishmeal,
is often derived from fish that are suitable for human

One way to understand the structure of ecosystems is to arrange consumption. Feeding fish to produce fish has a high protein
them according to who eats what along a food chain. Each level conversion rate. It is particularly controversial where fishmeal is
along the chain is called a trophic level. Levels are numbered derived from already depleted capture fisheries, with negative
according to how far particular organisms are along the chain from impacts on the trophic structure. Freshwater fish feeds contain a

the primary producers at level 1 to the top predators at the highest
level. Within marine ecosystems, large predators such as sharks and
Pollock (saithe) are at a high trophic level, cod and sardines are in
the middle, and shrimp are at a low trophic level, with microscopic
plants (mainly phytoplankton) at the bottom sustaining marine life.

minimal amount of fishmeal and are composed of
predominantly low-cost plant proteins [CT 26.1.2.6].

» Bioprospecting

Bioprospecting (the exploration of biodiversity for new
biological resources of social and economic value) has yielded
numerous products derived from species in marine and coastal
ecosystems (for example, antibiotics, antifreeze, fibre optics, and
antifouling paints). Coral reefs are exceptional reservoirs of
natural bioactive products, many of which exhibit structural
features not found in terrestrial natural products [CT 19.3.2.1].
Mangrove forests are good reservoirs for medicinal plants.

The pharmaceutical industry has discovered several
potentially useful substances, such as cytotoxicity (useful for
anti-cancer drugs) among sponges, sea mosses, jellyfish and
starfish [CT 10.2.1]. Cone shells of the molluscan family
Conidae are highly prized for their highly variable toxins
(conotoxins), applicable to many areas of medicine including
pain control, cancer treatment, and microsurgery [CT 10.7.4].

Trophic Level

™ Provision of Building Materials
Many marine and coastal ecosystems provide coastal
communities with construction materials (such as lime for use in

Figure 1.6 THE STATE OF FISH STOCKS IN 1999 [CT 4.5.1.5, Figure 4.21]

The state of stocks in 1999

_—

(0) 10% 20% 30% 40% 50%

R=recovering D = depleted O = overexploited
F = fully exploited M = moderately exploited U = underexploited

Source: FAO

MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING 13

WORLD FISHERY PRODUCTION AND UTILIZATION, 1996-2001 [CT 8, Table 8.4]
2001 data are projections from Fisheries Centre, University of British Columbia

1996 1997

PRODUCTION (million tonnes)

Inland 23.3 25.0
Capture 7.4 7.6
Aquaculture 15.9 eas)

Marine 96.9 97.5
Capture 86.0 86.4
Aquaculture 10.8 es

Total Production 120.2 122.5
Total capture 93.5 93.9
Total aquaculture 26.7 28.6

UTILIZATION
Human consumption 88.0 90.8
Non-food uses 32.2 ShLT/

Population (billions) 5.7 5.8

Per capita fish consumption (kg) 15.3 15.6

mortar and cement) and other building materials from the mining
of coral reefs [CT 19.2.1.4 and 19.5.1]. Mangroves provide coastal
and island communities in several world regions with building
materials for boat construction. The existence of alternative
materials for boat building is not always apparent. Conservation
projects play an important role in highlighting the alternatives and
in providing training on how to use them [CT 19.6].

Regulating Services

Regulating services are the benefits people obtain from the
regulation of ecosystem processes, including air quality
maintenance, climate regulation, erosion control, regulation of
human diseases, and water purification, among others.

Ecosystems such as mangroves, seagrass, rocky intertidal,
nearshore mudflats, and deltas play a key role in shoreline
stabilization, protection from floods and soil erosion, processing
pollutants, stabilizing land in the face of changing sea level by
trapping sediments, and buffering land from storms. Mangroves
have a great capacity to absorb heavy metals and other toxic
substances in effluents, while coral reefs buffer land from waves
and storms and prevent beach erosion. Estuaries, marshes, and
lagoons play a key role in maintaining hydrological balance and
filtering water of pollutants [CT 19.2.1.1]. Dune systems and
seagrass also play a notable role in trapping sediments (acting
as sediment reserves) and stabilizing shorelines.

Marine ecosystems play significant roles in climate regulation
[CT 18.1]. CO is continuously exchanged between the
atmosphere and ocean; it dissolves in surface waters and is then
transported to the deep ocean (the ‘solubility pump’). It takes
roughly one year for CO concentration in surface waters to
equilibrate with the atmosphere. Subsequent mixing of the

14 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING

1998 1999 2000 2001
26.5 28.7 30.2 31.2
8.0 8.5 8.8 8.8
18.5 20.2 21.4 22.4
91.3 98.0 100.2 97.6
79.2 84.7 86.0 82.5
12.0 13.3 14.1 allspal
117.8 126.7 130.4 128.8
87.3 93°2 94.8 91.3
30.5 33.4 35.6 37.5
92.7 94.5 96.7 99.4
25.1 32.2 33.7 29.4
5.9 6.0 6.1 6.1
ABT 15.8 16.0 16.2

surface waters and deep waters is a much slower process
allowing for the uptake of increased atmospheric CO>, over
decades to centuries. Marine plants (phytoplankton) fix CO) in
the ocean (photosynthesis) and return it via respiration. It has
been widely assumed that ocean ecosystems are at steady state
at present, but there is now much evidence of large-scale trends
and variations. Changes in marine ecosystems, such as increased
phytoplankton growth rate due to the fertilizing effect of iron in
dust and shifts in species composition, have the potential to
alter the oceanic carbon sink. The net impact of biological
changes in oceans on global CO) fluxes is unknown [CT
13.2.1]. A case study of the Paracas National Reserve, Peru (a
Ramsar site, that is, designated as an internationally important
wetland) showed the value of indirect use; its value—calculated
through a model accounting for carbon sequestration by
phytoplankton—was $181,124.00 per year [CT 19, Box 19.1].

Cultural and Amenity Services

Cultural services encompass such things as tourism and
recreation; aesthetic and spiritual services; traditional
knowledge; and educational and research services.

" Tourism and Recreation

Among the most important cultural services provided by the
coastal and marine ecosystems are tourism and recreation, but
the capacity of these ecosystems to provide/deliver the services is
being seriously degraded.

Global tourism has been deemed the world’s most profitable
industry, and coastal tourism is one of its fastest growing
sectors. Despite multiple international crises (economic
recession, SARS, terrorist attacks, and the war on terrorism),

international tourism has grown 4—5% in the past decade the aboriginal culture of the Northeast Pacific. The seas and

[23.2.5.2]. Much of this tourism centres on aesthetically coasts are also of great spiritual importance to many people
pleasing landscapes and seascapes; intact healthy coastal around the world, such values are difficult to quantify. For
ecosystems with good air and water quality; and opportunities example, the Bajau peoples of Indonesia and the aboriginal
to see diverse wildlife. Biodiversity plays a key role in the people of the Torres Strait (Australia) have a culture intimately
nature-based tourism industry of many islands and is the major connected to oceans, while many of the native peoples of
tourism attraction for islands. (See Box 1.2.) For instance, coral North America have similar strong ties to coastal ecosystems
reefs support high biodiversity that in turn supports a thriving (Gi 19%322)|:
and valuable dive tourism industry [CT 19.2.1.4] and recreation
industry (such as recreational fishing) [CT 18.4]. Traditional Knowledge
Natural amenities are highly valued by people and contribute The term ‘traditional ecological knowledge’ (TEK) commonly
to human welfare, thus providing significant economic value. refers to the knowledge that indigenous and other traditional
Stretches of beach, rocky cliffs, estuarine and coastal marine peoples have about their environment, which is used to sustain
waterways, and coral reefs provide numerous recreational and themselves and to maintain their cultural identity [CT 23.2.5.1].
scenic opportunities. Boating, fishing, swimming, walking, Our understanding of the tangible benefits derived from TEK,
beachcombing, scuba diving, and sunbathing are among the such as medicinal plants and local species of food, is relatively
numerous leisure activities that people enjoy worldwide and well developed [CT 17, Main Message #2] and covers a wide
thus represent significant economic value [CT 19.3.2.2]. range of subjects, from agriculture, fishing, plants, and forests
Rapid and uncontrolled tourism growth can be a major cause to general aspects of culture [CT 23.2.5.1]. (See Box 1.3.)
of ecosystem degradation and destruction, and can lead to the TEK is an integral part of the dynamics of some island
loss of cultural diversity [CT 23.2.5.2]. For example in several ecosystems and the islanders who live there. Many stories and
small island developing states, freshwater shortage is amplified beliefs of islanders show the role of traditional villages and
by the lack of effective water delivery systems and waste communities in improving the marine environment [CT 23.2.5.1].
treatment, coupled with increasing human populations and The greatest use of TEK on islands relates to sustainable use
expanding tourism, both of which may result in the and management within customary inshore fishing grounds, for
overabstraction of water, contamination through poor example in Fiji, in the customary prohibition on the use of

sanitation and leaching from solid s ae
waste, and the use of pesticides and ’
fertilizers [CT 23.2.3.1]. *%

Tourism development without
proper planning and management
standards and guidelines poses a
threat to biodiversity. This is
compounded by the fact that
environmental impacts are often not
clearly visible until their cumulative
effects have destroyed or severely
degraded the natural resources that
attract tourists in the first place, and
some destinations have only
recognized the costs of environmental
damage after significant and often
irreversible damage has been done
[CT 23.2.5.2].

Biopiracy has also been recorded in
areas used for ecotourism, and the
Maldives and Pacific Island states
have been particularly vulnerable to
such thefts [CT 23.2.5.1].

Cultural and Spiritual

Some species are of considerable
cultural importance, for example
the cultural significance of salmon in

MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING 15

resources (ra’ui) in Rarotonga in the Cook Islands, and in the
village reserves in Samoa in the Pacific. Traditional ecological
knowledge and customary sea tenure are also integrated into the
conservation management of bumphead parrotfish
(Bolbometopon muricatum) in Roviana Lagoon in the Solomon
Islands [CT 23.2.5.1].

TEK has also been of direct benefit in the protection of reefs
from adverse impacts from commercial and recreational
fisheries, scuba diving, snorkelling, aquarium fish collection,
and onshore development. For example, it has helped ensure
sustainable development of the intertidal zone, with a focus on
shellfish gathering and marine tenure in the atoll communities
of western Kiribati, Micronesia, which are under pressure from
population growth, urbanization, extractive technologies, and
expanding market opportunities [CT 23.2.5.1].

\ Education and Research

Marine and coastal ecosystems are areas that have received
attention through research. Rocky intertidal habitats have been
the main focus of research that has provided the foundation for

2 ECOTOURISM AND SMALL ISLAND STATES

[CT 23.2.5.2]

Tourism is an important contributor to or dominates the economies
of many small island states. The Caribbean is the most tourism-
dependent region in the world and accounts for about 50% of the
world’s cruise tourism berths; the Maldives is the most tourism-
dependent country. Tourism based on the natural environment is a
fast-growing component of the tourism industry. In the last decade,
nature (or eco-) tourism, which can be defined as travel to unspoiled
Places to enjoy nature, has emerged as the fastest growing segment
of the industry, with an estimated growth rate of 10-30% annually.
Of the various forms of nature tourism, coastal/marine tourism,
including islands, is the largest component. Biodiversity plays a key
role in the nature tourism development of many islands and is the
major tourism attraction for islands such as Madagascar and Borneo.
Ecotourism extends as far as the sub-Antarctic islands, where special
voyages give tourists the experience of a variety of marine and
pelagic fauna, using the islands as a base.

There is a great potential in many SIDS for the further
development of ecotourism, which is often a small but rapidly
growing share of their market economy. Ecotourism can provide
employment and generate income while helping to protect and
conserve natural resources and contributing to the implementation
of national biodiversity action plans.

Tourism has great potential for biodiversity conservation and the
promotion of the sustainable use of natural resources. In the
Seychelles, for instance, tourism has been a major force and source
of funding for biodiversity management and conservation, as well
as ecosystem rehabilitation. In many cases, tourism Is the only
means by which a management infrastructure can be put in place
on isolated islands to enable conservation activities. Indeed,
well-informed tourists are increasingly the driving force behind the
tourism industry's involvement in biodiversity management.

16 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING

eee

much of our knowledge of predator-prey interactions, keystone
species, and other biological regulations [19.2.1.3].

Education on marine ecosystems is underfunded and
underdeveloped. Further applied multidisciplinary research on
ecosystem function, sustainable yields, and economic valuation
of coastal ecosystems is also needed. Research focused on
fundamental questions about ecosystem function, impacts, and

~ efficacy of management measures will aid decision-makers in

mitigating loss and degradation of these habitats. Fully
protected areas help in this regard because they provide crucial
control sites to test management interventions and allow for
baseline monitoring. Better economic valuations (particularly
quantitative estimates of marginal benefits) are also required to
understand fully the importance of coastal ecosystems

[CT 19.5.2].

Supporting Services
Supporting services include provision of habitats, primary
productivity, nutrient cycling, and soil formation.

© Provision of Habitats and Nurseries

It is important to recognize that many habitats discussed
throughout this report are both regionalized and widespread
throughout the word. Habitats provide a range of services, for
example mangrove forests. (See Figure 1.7.)

A large number of marine species use coastal areas, especially
estuaries, mangroves, and seagrasses, as nurseries. Estuaries are
particularly important as nursery areas for fisheries and other
species, and they form one of the strongest linkages between
coastal, marine, and freshwater ecosystems and the ecosystem
services they provide [CT 19.2.1.1].

In some places, mangroves not only provide nursery areas for
reef organisms but also link seagrass beds with associated coral
reefs. Removal of mangrove can interrupt these linkages and
cause biodiversity loss and lower productivity in reef and seagrass
habitats. Mangroves also have a great capacity to absorb heavy
metals and other toxic substances in effluents [CT 19.2.1.2].

Seagrass is important in providing nursery areas in the
tropics, where it provides crucial habitat for coral reef fishes
and invertebrates. Seagrass is an important source of food for
many species of coastal and marine organisms in both tropical
and temperate regions. Drift beds, composed of mats of seagrass
floating at or near the surface, provide important food and
shelter for young fishes, and the deposit of seagrass castings and
macroalgae remnants on beaches is thought to be a key
pathway for nutrient provisioning to many coastal
invertebrates, shorebirds, and other organisms [CT 19.2.1.5].

Kelp forests and other macroalgae provide specialized nursery
habitats for some species. For instance, the canopy or upper
layers of kelp provides nursery habitat for young rockfish and
other organisms. Kelp communities consist of several distinct
canopy types supporting many herbivores (for example, sea
urchins) [CT 19.2.1.6]. The interaction between sea urchins and
sea otters maintains the kelp forests’ structure.

1.3 TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE IMPORTANT TO ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT OF MARINE AND CO.

ECOSYSTEMS [modified from CT 23.2.5.1]

Fishing
Fishing methods and materials
Knowledge of fish species and their behaviour, migration, and reproduction
Best fishing locations, times, and techniques for each species
Controls on fishing: limited access to fishing areas, taboo areas or seasons, catch restrictions
Changes in fishing resources, effects of overfishing, ‘how things used to be’

General
Traditional names for, and classifications of, species and communities
Calendars related to the weather, to celestial bodies (solar and lunar cycles, appearance or
movement of stars), or to the migration of birds and fish
Weather patterns and prediction, cycles of rain and drought, changes in climate
Natural catastrophes, cyclones, tsunamis, floods; signs and warnings; effects and areas affected
Changes in the environment, former locations and populations of villages
Environmental knowledge: who possessed it, how it was used and transmitted

Estuaries also provide a range of habitats to sustain diverse
flora and fauna. For example, there are many more estuarine-
dependent species than estuarine-resident species [19.2.1.1].
Mudflats are also critical habitat for migrating shorebirds and
many marine organisms, including commercially important
species like the horseshoe crab (Limulus polyphemus) and a
variety of clam species. Soft bottom coastal habitats are highly
productive, and can have a species diversity that may rival that
of tropical forests.

Dunes support high species diversity in certain taxonomic
groups, including endangered bird, plant, and invertebrate
species [CT 19.2.1.3].

All of these ecosystems—beaches, sandy shores, dune
systems, saltmarshes, estuaries, and mudflats—provide feeding
and nesting habitats to numerous species of birds, fish,
molluscs, crustaceans, and other ecologically and commercially
important organisms [CT 19.2.1.1].

Primary Productivity

Marine and coastal ecosystems play an important role in
photosynthesis and productivity of the systems. Marine plants
(phytoplankton) fix CO? in the ocean (photosynthesis) and
return it via respiration. It had been widely assumed that ocean
ecosystems are currently at a steady state; however, there is now
much evidence of large-scale trends and variations. Changes in
marine ecosystems, such as increased phytoplankton growth rate
due to the fertilizing effect of iron in dust and shifts in species
composition, have the potential to alter the oceanic carbon sink
and primary productivity; activities that trigger such changes
should be considered with extreme caution [CT 13.2.1].

© Nutrient Cycling and Fertility

One of the most important processes occurring within
estuarine environment is the mixing of nutrients from upstream
as well as from tidal sources, making estuaries one of the most

Figure 1.7 GLOBAL DISTRIBUTION OF MANGROVE FORESTS

Map A shows mangrove distribution in Latin America, Map B shows mangrove distribution in Africa, and Map C displays mangrove distribution in

the Asia-Pacific region [CT 19, Figure 19.5].

%
~ ‘*

a a

}

b! ‘

e

MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING 17

fertile coastal environments. Mangroves and saltmarshes play a
key role together in cycling nutrients. For example, saltmarshes
in the Red Sea region contribute nitrogen to adjacent mangroves.
Beaches and sandy shores are important in the delivery of land-
based nutrients to the nearshore coastal ecosystem.

Habitat and Biodiversity Loss

Overfishing, destructive fishing practices, habitat loss, pollution,
and other human impacts have resulted in the destruction

and modification of coastal habitats around the world (Table
1.2), reducing their ability to provide these services and
threatening biodiversity. (See Box 1.4 for examples of
threatened species.) Coastal habitats are tightly interlinked,

so that the loss of one habitat can have flow-on effects that
degrade and reduce the services provided by linked habitats.
(See Box 1.5 for general information about condition and
trends of marine and coastal ecosystems.)

Estuaries

Worldwide, over 1,200 major estuaries have been identified
and mapped, with a total area of approximately 500,000 km2.
These 1,200 estuaries, including lagoons and fiords, account for
approximately 80% of the world’s freshwater discharge. Sixty-
two percent of the world’s major estuaries occur within 25 km
of urban centres having 100,000 or more people [CT 19.2.1.1].
There has been a substantial loss of estuarine habitat and
associated wetlands globally. In California (United States), for
example, less than 10% of natural coastal wetlands remain,
while in the United States more generally, over half of original

Box 1.4 EXAMPLES OF COASTAL AND MARINE SPECIES UNDER THR

All seven species of sea turtles are listed under the Convention
on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES).
According to the IUCN Red List, three are critically
endangered, three are endangered, and the status of the
Australian flatback turtle (Chelonia depressa) is unknown

[CT 19.2.2.1 and 19.2.2.2].

The Atlantic grey whale and Caribbean monk seal have been
driven to extinction.

Many dolphins are threatened by bycatch [CT 19.2.2.2.].
Globally, 91% of albatross species, 59% of penguins, 43%

of shearwaters, and 40% of frigate birds are threatened

(CT 19.2.2.3].

Shorebirds are declining worldwide: of populations with a
known trend, 48% are declining and only 16% are increasing.
Overall 45 (34%) of African-Eurasian migratory shorebird
populations are regarded as ‘of conservation concern’ due to
their decreasing and/or small populations [CT 19.2.2.3].

Of the shark, ray, and chimaera species assessed by IUCN,

ee

estuarine and wetland areas have been substantially altered. In
Australia, 50% of estuaries remain undamaged, although these
estuaries are away from current population centres.

Mangroves
Global mangrove forest cover currently is estimated between
16 and 18 million hectares. Much of the coastal population of

~ the tropics and subtropics resides near mangroves; 64% of all

the world’s mangroves are currently within 25 km of major
urban centres having 100,000 people or more [CT 19.2.1.2].
Many of the world’s mangrove areas have become degraded due
to population pressures, widespread habitat conversion, and
pollution. For countries with available data (representing 54%
of total current mangrove area) an estimated 35% of mangrove
forests have disappeared in the last two decades at the rate of
2.1% per year, or 2,834 km? per year, and mangroves have
dramatically declined in nearly every country for which data
have been compiled. In some countries, more than 80% of
original mangrove cover has been lost due to deforestation.

The leading human activities that contribute to mangrove
loss are: 52% aquaculture (38% shrimp plus 14% fish), 26%
forest use, and 11% freshwater diversion. Restoration has been
successfully attempted in some places, but has not kept pace
with wholesale destruction in most areas [CT 19.2.1.2].

Coral Reefs

Coral reefs are highly degraded throughout the world, and it
is likely that there are no pristine reefs remaining. Most
tropical reefs occur in developing countries, and this is where
the most intensive degradation is occurring. Of all the world’s

18% are listed as threatened, 19% near threatened, 37.5% data deficient, and 26% least concern [CT 4.4.2.2]. On the coast

of southern California, the California mussel Mytelus californianus has become very rare, the ochre sea star is now almost never seen,
the once abundant black abalone can no longer be found, and dozens of formally abundant nudibranch species are now rare.

Some species of crocodiles are under threat of extinction, although none of the 23 known species has actually gone extinct.

18 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING

5 GENERAL CONDITIONS AND TRENDS OF COASTAL AND MARINE BIODIVERSITY

An increasing number of studies are highlighting the inherent vulnerability of marine species to overexploitation. Particularly susceptible species
tend to be both valuable and relatively easy to catch as well as having relatively slow population production rates. Thus species such as large

groupers, croakers, some sharks, and skates are particularly vulnerable.

Assessment of the condition and trends of marine biodiversity is limited by a lack of knowledge and previous assumptions of marine fish and
invertebrate abundance. Information on habitat types, as well as species diversity and distributions and the factors that influence them, is only
just emerging, as are methods for measuring diversity and its patterns. Our understanding of the condition and trends of marine biodiversity will
improve significantly if new methods are applied and monitoring activities are put into place [CT 18.3.6.1].

There is, however, increasing evidence of threats to, and the loss of, marine and coastal biodiversity. The World Wide Fund for Nature’s
(WWF) Living Planet Index (LPI), currently one of the best estimate of global population trends, estimates a decline of 30% in the marine
species population index between 1970 and 2000 [CT 4.4.1]. The status of coastal and sea birds is deteriorating in all parts of the world and
across all major habitat types. The IUCN Red List demonstrates that birds dependent on marine and coastal ecosystems have declined faster

than other birds (see Figure 1.8).

known tropical reef systems, 58% occur within 25 km of
major urban centres having populations of 100,000 or more. In
1999, it was estimated that approximately 27% of the world’s
known reefs had been badly degraded or destroyed in the last
few decades. The coral reefs of the Caribbean Sea and portions
of Southeast Asia have suffered the greatest rates of
degradation and are expected to continue to be the most
threatened [CT 19.2.1.4].

Our knowledge of cold-water coral diversity is limited, with
many new reefs still being discovered. The biggest threat to
deep-sea coral reefs comes from bottom trawling activities.
WWFE suggests that 30-50% of the cold water corals along the
Norwegian coast have already been lost due to bottom
trawling, marine pollution, and oil and gas exploration
[CT 18.3.6.2].

© Intertidal Habitats and Deltas

Food and bait collection (including molluscs and seaweeds)
and human trampling have substantially depleted many of the
organisms in these habitats. In the United States, the rocky
intertidal zone has undergone major transformation in the last
few decades. Similar trends have been observed elsewhere in
the world. Along the Yellow Sea coast, China has lost around
37% of habitat in intertidal areas since 1950, and South Korea
has lost an estimated 43% since 1918 [CT 19.2.1.3].

Deltas are high population and human land use areas and
have been identified, along with estuaries and small islands,
by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change as the
coastal ecosystems most vulnerable to climate change and
sea-level rise.

Figure 1.8 RED LIST INDICES FOR BIRDS IN FRESHWATER, MARINE, AND TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS, AND FOR BIRDS IN

FOREST AND SHRUBLAND/GRASSLAND HABITATS [CT 20, Figure 20.67]

It has been widely assumed that marine fish and
invertebrates are less susceptible to extinction
than most other marine species such as marine
mammals or than terrestrial and freshwater
organisms. However, there is an emerging
consensus that marine fish are no more resilient
to extirpation or extinction than other wildlife
species [CT 18.3.6.1]. The reduced biomass and
fragmented habitats resulting from
overexploitation of marine resources is likely to
lead to numerous extinctions, especially among
large, long-lived, late-maturing species, which
also tend to be valuable and easy to catch. One
well-documented example of localized extinction
is that of the historic fishing grounds ranging from
New England to Newfoundland and Labrador that

100

Xe} so xe)
ab oa (os)

Red List Index (1988 = 100)

No}
nN

deneg >

< dSlOAA

once supported immense fisheries of cod [CT 90
18.3.6.3]. There is also increasing evidence that

many marine populations do not recover from

severe depletion, even when fishing has stopped

[CT 4.3.5].

1988

Source: IUCN

1994 2000 2004

=== Forest «=== Freshwater === Marine
=== Shrubland/grassland == Terrestrial

MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING ‘19

' Beaches and Dunes

Disruptions to the sand balance through activities such as
sand mining, nearshore aggregate extraction, and the
construction of artificial coastal barriers in many locations are
causing the total disappearance of beaches. Encroachment in
dune areas often results in shoreline destabilization, resulting
in expensive public works projects such as the building of
breakwaters or seawalls and sand re-nourishment
(ee 1a,

" Seagrass Beds

Major losses of seagrass habitat have been reported from the
Mediterranean, Florida Bay, and Australia. Present losses are
expected to accelerate, especially in Southeast Asia and the
Caribbean [CT 19.2.1.5].

Increased nutrient input to shallow-water coastal areas with
limited flushing (prime areas for seagrass growth) encourages
the growth of fouling organisms causing algal and epifaunal
encrustation of seagrass blades, limiting the ability of the
seagrass to photosynthesize and in extreme cases smothering the
meadows altogether [CT 19.2.1.5].

" Kelp Forests

The biological communities of many kelp forests have been
so destabilized by fishing that they retain only a fraction of their
former diversity. It is likely that no kelp systems exist in their
natural condition. Fishing impacts can reduce diverse kelp
forests to greatly simplified sea urchin-dominated barren
grounds [CT 19.2.1.6].

™ Saltmarshes or Ponds

Saltmarshes and coastal peat swamps have undergone
massive change and destruction, both in estuarine systems and
along the coast. Saltmarsh subsidence has occurred in part due
to reduced sediment delivery from watersheds. Countries
monitoring changes in peat swamps in Southeast Asia find that
such swamps have declined from 46-100% [CT 19.2.1.1].

™ Semi-enclosed Seas

Semi-enclosed seas are becoming highly degraded.
Freshwater inflows to semi-enclosed seas have been severely
curtailed in most areas, robbing them of recharging waters and
nutrients. A particularly acute case of this degradation has
occurred in the Gulf of California, which now receives only a
trickle of water through the now dry, but once very fertile,
delta of the Colorado River. Poor water quality results from
land-based sources of pollution such as agricultural and
industrial waste. Limited flushing and long recharge times in
semi-enclosed seas means that pollutants are not as quickly
diluted as in the open sea, and eutrophication and toxics
loading often results [CT 19.2.1.8].

©) Other Benthic Communities
Hard bottom and soft sediment seafloor habitats are severely

20 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING

ER

impacted by fishing methods such as bottom trawling and
dredging. This type of human disturbance is one of the most
significant threats to marine biodiversity. Soft bottoms cover
about 70% of the earth’s seafloor and are characterized by
extremely high species diversity. There is now strong evidence
of fishing effects on seafloor communities that have important
ramifications for ecosystem function and resilience. Fishing

~ has already destroyed many hard-bottom communities

[CT 19.2.1.7].

Seamounts interrupting the ocean floor’s soft sediments are
crucial to many pelagic fish species for breeding, spawning, and
as safe havens for juvenile fishes seeking refuge from open
ocean predators. These highly structured and diverse
communities are also extremely vulnerable to fishing impacts
(Gat OPA

Gaps in Knowledge of Marine and Coastal Ecosystems

Gaps in Knowledge and Data

Long-term and large-scale ecological processes are generally
poorly understood, and nowhere is this more true than in
marine ecosystems [S 3.4.6]. For example:

@ There is a lack of understanding of the oceanic nitrogen cycle,
including biological No fixation and N2O production. This
makes predicting the impacts of anthropogenic N inputs very
difficult [S 3.4.6].

@ The El Nifio/Southern Oscillation, deriving from
interactions between the ocean and the atmosphere in the
Pacific, strongly influences the oceanic productivity in the
eastern Pacific. It alternates on a period of between two to
seven years. Understanding of this phenomenon has
substantially improved over recent years, but it remains
difficult to make predictions about its occurrence and
impacts [S 3.4.4].

Basic data on the past and current extent and status of many
marine and coastal ecosystems are not available or are of
questionable quality. This makes accurate calculations of
change and trends difficult. For example, in relation to the
adequate delineation of coastal inland water, in particular
wetlands, the following has been noted: ‘The extent and
distribution of inland waters is unevenly or even poorly known
at the global and regional scales, due to differences in
definitions as well as difficulties in delineating and mapping
habitats with variable boundaries due to fluctuations in water
levels’. In many cases comprehensive documentation at the
regional or national levels does not exist. Larger wetlands,
lakes, and inland seas have been mapped along with the major
rivers, but for many parts of the world, the valuable and
smaller wetlands are not well mapped or delineated. Mapped
data contain many inaccuracies and gaps as well as differences
due to scale and resolution. An example is northern Australia,
where estimates of the area of inland water ecosystems from 10
data sources varied from 0-98,700 km? [CT 20.3.1].

Assessment of the extent of and change in inland water
habitats at the continental level is compromised by the
inconsistency and unreliability of the data. This is especially so
when referring to smaller systems [CT 20.1].

Marine fish stocks are highly variable. Inadequate
understanding of this variability greatly compounds the
difficulties of fisheries management [CT 18.8.1]. It has not so
far been possible to predict the critical thresholds beyond which
a fish stock will collapse, and the major stock collapses that
have happened in recent decades have been a surprise, even to
those involved in monitoring and managing these stocks
[CT 18.7.2]. With the unpredictability of these thresholds,
precautionary approaches such as marine protected areas and
reductions in fishing effort (and therefore fishing mortality) are
likely to safeguard against such thresholds being reached
(CT 18.8.2].

In general, our knowledge of biodiversity is uneven, with
particular gaps in knowledge regarding the status of marine
biota, along with freshwater biota, tropical ecosystems, plants,
invertebrates, micro-organisms and subterranean biota. There
are strong biases towards the species level, large animals,
temperate ecosystems, and components of biodiversity used by
people [CT 4, Main Message #3]. There is also limited
knowledge of the subdivision of species into populations with
distinct characteristics that are of evolutionary importance and
of potential human use [CT 18.2.6.4]. Recent initiatives such
as Census of Marine Life are increasing the rate at which new
knowledge on marine life is becoming available [CT 18.2.6.1].

Gaps in Methodology to Assess Ecosystem Services
Assessment of fisheries has been dominated by single-species
approaches, such as the widely applied maximum sustained
yield (MSY) concept. These approaches look at target fish
populations in isolation from the ecosystem. The MSY
approach has been criticized for failing to recognize the role of
trophic interactions and risking sharp population declines [S
3.5.2, 4.8]. Single-species approaches will continue to have a
role in evaluating the dynamics of exploited stocks, but they
need to be complemented by multi-species models [S 4.8].

Existing biodiversity indicators do not adequately reflect
many important aspects of biodiversity, especially those that
are significant for the delivery of ecosystem services [CT 4.5.1],
and there is no agreement (at the time of writing) on a
complete set of indicators to be used for the 2010 target,
whose aim is ‘to achieve by 2010 a significant reduction of the
current rate of biodiversity loss at the global, regional, and
national level as a contribution to poverty alleviation and to
the benefit of all life on earth’. There are no comprehensive
global-scale measures to assess success in meeting the target.
Available evidence, however, indicates that it is unlikely to be
met: trends are still downwards for most species and
populations, and the rate of decline is generally not slowing.
This is also true for aggregate indices such as the Living Planet
Index and the Red List Index [CT 4.5.3].

MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING

2 What are the drivers of change in marine and coastal ecosystems?

@ Anthropogenic causes are the major drivers of change,
degradation, or loss of marine and coastal ecosystems and services.
@ The direct drivers of change in marine and coastal ecosystems are:

land use change;

development of aquaculture;

overfishing and destructive fishing methods;

invasive species;

pollution and nutrient loading (eutrophication); and

climate change.
@ The major indirect drivers of change in marine and coastal
ecosystems are:

shifting food preferences and markets;

subsidies;

illegal fishing;

population growth;

technology change; and

globalization.
@ Terrestrial drivers also impact upon marine and coastal ecosystems.

Drivers of Change in Marine and Coastal Ecosystems

An array of anthropogenic and natural impacts has degraded,
altered, or eliminated coastal and marine ecosystems. Drivers
may either directly or indirectly impact upon ecosystems. The
strongest drivers of change in marine and coastal ecosystem are
land use change and habitat loss, fisheries, invasive species,

pollution, nutrient loading (eutrophication), and climate change.

Although terrestrial drivers also cause change to the marine and
coastal ecosystems and services, they are not the primary focus
of this discussion. Climate change and the introduction of
invasive alien species are highlighted as the two direct drivers of
change in marine and coastal ecosystems that are most difficult
to reverse [CT 4.3.1]. Table 2.1 lists the important direct and
indirect drivers identified in the MA overall, while Table 2.2

DIRECT DRIVERS

22 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING

onomic —

presents a typology of drivers of change in coastal systems and
ecosystem services.

’ Direct Drivers of Change in Marine and Coastal

Ecosystems

Land Use Change and Habitat Loss

Land use change and habitat loss and destruction have degraded
or altered marine and coastal ecosystems in many areas and
have a direct negative impact on biodiversity [CT 4.3]. Natural
land cover has changed drastically under the pressure of
growing human populations and consequent exploitation of the
land mass and its offshore regions. On some islands, the impact
has exceeded the critical point (that is, impacting human well-
being), particularly along the coastal fringe [CT 23, Main
Messages].

Excessive amounts of sedimentation due to land disturbance
have been a global problem and coastal-marine habitats have
been severely degraded. Sedimentation has also caused or
accelerated infilling of many wetland habitats and lakes. It is
possible that the retention of inland water systems would have
ameliorated the impact of sedimentation on coastal ecosystems
[CT 20.2.2].

In estuarine habitats, poor management and the destruction
of large areas of an estuary’s watershed often lead to
degradation of estuaries. Agricultural and grazing practices that
destroy natural riparian habitats have resulted in floods, and
changes to freshwater flows through river impoundment and
diversion have altered sediment delivery. Recent estimates
suggest worldwide sediment delivery (and thus delivery of
important nutrients) to estuaries has been reduced to 30% of
original levels due to diversion and damming. Further,
urbanization of watersheds interrupts natural flows of both
freshwater and nutrients and increases pollution [CT 19.2.1.1].

IMPORTANT DRIVERS IN THE MA

INDIRECT DRIVERS

DRIVERS OF CHANGE IN COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS [CT 19, Table 19.5]

DIRECT DRIVERS

Coastal development

(ports, urbanization, tourism-related development, industrial sites)

Destructive fisheries
(dynamite, cyanide, bottom trawling)

Coastal deforestation
(especially mangrove deforestation)

Mining
(coral, sand, minerals, dredging)

Civil engineering works

Environmental change brought about by war and conflict

Aquaculture-related habitat conversion

Eutrophication from land-based sources
(agricultural waste, sewage, fertilizers)

Pollution: toxics and pathogens from land-based sources
Pollution: dumping and dredge spoils
Pollution: shipping-related

Salinization of estuaries due to decreased freshwater inflow

Alien species invasions

Climate change and sea-level rise

Ove 5 SETS
mit

Directed take of low-value species at high volumes exceeding
sustainable levels

Directed take for luxury markets (high value, low volume)
exceeding sustainable levels

Incidental take or bycatch

Directed take at commercial scales; decreasing availability of
resources for subsistence and artisanal use

INDIRECT DRIVERS

Population growth; poor siting due to undervaluation; poorly developed
industrial policy; tourism demand; environment refugees and internal migration

Shift to market economies; demand for aquaria fish and live food fish;
increasing competition in light of diminishing resources

Lack of alternative materials; increased competition; poor lack of
implementation of existing ones

Lack of alternative materials; global commons perceptions

Transport and energy demands; poor public policy; lack of knowledge about
impacts and their costs

Increased competition for scarce resources; political instability; inequality
in wealth distribution

International demand for luxury items (including new markets); regional demand
for food; demand for fishmeal in aquaculture and agriculture; decline in wild
stocks or decreased access to fisheries (or inability to compete with larger-scale
fisheries)

Urbanization; lack of sewage treatment or use of combined storm and sewer
systems (CSS); unregulated agricultural development, loss of wetlands and other
natural controls

Lack of awareness; increasing pesticide and fertilizer use (especially as
soil quality diminishes); unregulated industry

Lack of alternative disposal methods; increased enforcement and stiffer penalties
for land disposal; belief in unlimited assimilative capacities, waste as a commodity

Substandard shipping regulations; no investment in safety; policies
promoting flags of convenience; increases in ship-based trade

Demand for electricity and water; territorial disputes

Lack of regulations on ballast discharge; increased aquaculture-related
escapes; lack of international agreements on deliberate introductions

Insufficient controls on emission; poorly planned development
(vulnerable development); stressed ecosystems less able to cope

Population growth; demand for subsistence and market (food and medicinal)
industrialization of fisheries; improved fish-finding technology; poor regional
agreements, lack of enforcement, breakdown of traditional regulation
systems, subsidies

Demand for specialty foods and medicines, aquarium fish, and curios; lack of
awareness or concern about impacts; technological advances; commodification

Subsidies; bycatch has no cost

Marginalization of local peoples; breakdown of traditional
social institutions

MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING 23

ae

Mangroves have been converted to allow for coastal zone
development, aquaculture, and agriculture, including grazing
and stall feeding of cattle and camels (which in Pakistan, for
instance, is the second most serious threat to mangrove
ecosystems). Mangrove forests are also affected by removal of
trees for fuelwood and construction material, removal of
invertebrates for use as bait, changes to hydrology in both
catchment basins or nearshore coastal areas, and excessive
pollution [CT 19.2.1.2].

Mudflats and saltmarshes are commonly destroyed during
port and other infrastructure development or maintenance
dredging, and coastal muds in many areas are highly
contaminated by heavy metals, polychlorinated biphenyls
(PCBs), and other persistent organic pollutants (POPs), leading
to mortality and morbidity in marine species and human health
impacts. Beaches and sandy shores have undergone massive
alteration due to coastal development, pollution, erosion,
storms, alteration to freshwater hydrology, sand mining,
groundwater use, and harvesting of organisms [CT 19.2.1.3].

Coral reefs are at high risk from many kinds of human
activity, including destructive fishing (for example, use of
cyanide to stun and capture fish and explosives); collecting for
the marine ornamental trade; diving; snorkelling; walking on
reefs during low tide; tourism; collecting for use in construction
and lime production; overfishing for both local consumption
and export; inadequate sanitation and poor control of run-off
leading to eutrophication; dumping of debris and toxic waste;
land use practices leading to siltation; oil spills; and degradation
of linked habitats such as seagrass, mangrove, and other coastal
ecosystems [CT 19.2.1.4]. Similar processes affect seagrasses,
but habitat conversion for algae farming is a major cause of
damage to seagrasses globally [CT 19.2.1.5].

Development of Aquaculture

Aquaculture often has serious environmental impacts, issues
concerning sustainability, and trade-offs between land uses. As
discussed above, aquaculture is not considered to be sustainable if
wild fisheries capture is used for feed [CT 8.2.1]. The rapid
increase in coastal aquaculture has led to the loss of many
mangrove ecosystems, typically through conversion to shrimp or
prawn farms. This destruction of mangrove is particularly wasteful
and costly in the long term, since shrimp ponds created out of
mangrove forest lose their productivity over time and tend to
become fallow within 2-10 years. Historically, abandoned shrimp
ponds were rarely restored, but new policy directives and a shift in
the aquaculture industry are helping to make aquaculture less
destructive and more prone to supporting restoration and/or
regrowth in some parts of the world [CT 19.2.1.2].

Aquaculture operations have impacts on water quality and
salinization of adjacent agricultural lands, although effluents
from freshwater aquaculture are less polluting than those from
brackish water and marine aquaculture [CT 26.2.2.3].
Discharge from aquaculture facilities can be loaded with
pollutants which degrade the surrounding environment,

24 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING

including excess nutrients from uneaten fish feed and fish waste,
antibiotic drugs, and other chemicals, including disinfectants
such as chlorine and formaline, antifoulants such as tributyltin,
and inorganic fertilizers such as ammonium phosphate and
urea. The use of antibiotics and other human-made drugs can
also have serious health effects on humans, the ecosystem, and
other species [CT 7.4.5.2].

Infectious disease is currently a serious problem in
aquaculture, not only to the fish being farmed but to wild
populations as well. When infected farmed fish escape from
aquaculture facilities, they can transmit these diseases and
parasites to wild stocks. Infectious salmon anemia (ISA), a
deadly disease affecting Atlantic salmon, poses a serious threat
to the salmon farming industry. Norwegian field studies
observed that wild salmon often become heavily infected with
sea lice (parasites that eat salmon flesh) while migrating through
coastal waters, with the highest infection levels occurring in
salmon-farming areas [CT 4.3.4].

The expansion of the shrimp industry in Ecuador has brought
about economic growth and employment, but it has also
changed the allocation and flow of labour, reduced flexibility
and diversity of household economies, and brought about large-
scale loss of mangroves.

Overfishing and Destructive Fishing Methods
Overfishing and destructive fishing methods such as trawling
(for example, use of heavy gear on sensitive substrates),
dredging, and the use of explosives and poisons such as cyanide
impact on the marine ecosystems in two ways: by changing
community structure and altering trophic and other interactions
between ecosystem components and by physically modifying
habitats, notably when trawlers erode biogenic bottom
structures. Once altered, ecological states may be impossible to
restore to former conditions [CT 18.2.6.2]. A large number of
marine species use coastal areas, especially estuaries, mangroves,
and seagrasses, as nurseries. Thus modifying coastal habitat and
coastal pollution, as well as inshore fishing, can adversely
impact offshore fisheries by reducing the supply of recruits to
the offshore adult stocks [CT 18.3.2]. Area closures and the
halt of destructive fishing have resulted in improvements to the
fisheries, especially in coral reefs. Overall, however, the trend is
that overfishing and habitat destruction continue throughout
the world [CT 18.4.1.3].

Fisheries bycatch is a major threat to biodiversity. Turtles
[CT 19.2.2.1], seabirds [CT 19.2.2.3], and sharks [CT 4.4.1.5],
for example, all suffer declines due to bycatch from pelagic
longline fisheries. It is well documented that the main driver for
adult mortality among albatrosses, the seabirds showing the
most dramatic current population declines, is caused by pelagic
longline fisheries in the southern oceans.

Invasive Species
Invasive species have been recognized as a major driver of
ecosystem change and are expected to grow in importance,

Figure 2.1 GROWTH IN NUMBER OF MARINE SPECIES INTRODUCTIONS

Number of species
175

| Non-native marine plant species
reported on European coast

Non-native invertebrates and
150 plants reported in marine
waters of North America

125

100 }

0
1790-1819 1820-49 1850-79 1880-1909
Source: Millennium Ecosystem Assessment

1910-39

contributing to species extinction and the deterioration of
ecosystem services. This is due to the expected increase of
unintended introductions of non-native organisms as a side
effect of growing global trade. The exchange of non-native
species between the Baltic Sea in Europe and the North
American Great Lakes region has been well studied. A high
proportion of the 100 or so non-native species in the Baltic
region derive from the Great Lakes; and in the latter region,
75% of the recent arrivals of the 150 non-native species come
from the Baltic Sea. Some of those species have even been
introduced to the Baltic Sea from other regions. (See Figure
2.1.) A major source of marine introductions of non-native
species is the unintentional release through the ballast water
from ships [S 10.5].

The introduction of alien species—in some cases intentional
(for example, species released for hunting or introduced as a
biological control) but more commonly unintentional (for
example, introduced with traded goods such as lumber or in the
ballast water of ships)—has the effect of homogenization and in
many cases extirpation of native endemic species and habitat
alterations [CT 4.3.2]. Introductions of exotic mammals (for
example, rats, cats, rabbits, pigs) have had substantial impacts
on many island ecosystems, particularly on seabirds nesting

1940-69

Number of new records of established non-
native invertebrate and algae species
reported in marine waters of North America,
shown by date of first record, and number of
new records of non-native marine plant
species reported on European coasts, by
date of first record [General SR, Figure 1.7].

1970-99

safely on the ground or in burrows. These mammals generally
reduced, and in some cases drove to extinction, populations
of marine birds, waterfowl, and other ground-nesting birds,
through either habitat alteration or direct predation

(CT 25.3.6].

There is also now strong evidence in several marine
ecosystems that species richness increases invasion resistance.
Diverse ecosystems more completely utilize resources such as
available space. In experimentally assembled benthic (sea floor)
communities, decreasing the richness of native taxa was
correlated with increased survival and percent cover of invading
species. Open space was the limiting resource for invaders, and
a higher species richness buffered communities against invasion
through increasing temporal stability (for example, reducing
fluctuations of open space) [CT 11.4.1].

Pollution and Nutrient Loading (Eutrophication)
Eutrophication, or nutrient pollution, has become a driver of
change for coastal and marine ecosystems. The nutrients
(nitrogen and phosphorus) come from three main sources:
agricultural run-off, sewage, and burning of fossil fuels.
Through the stimulated growth of algae, eutrophication leads to
a depletion of oxygen (creating “dead zones’), which reduces the

MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING 25

Figure 2.2 ESTIMATED TOTAL REACTIVE NITROGEN
DEPOSITION FROM THE ATMOSPHERE (WET AND
DRY) IN 1860, EARLY 1990S, AND PROJECTED FOR 2050

ana! Cos al || eS eS ee eee ee ee ele

Source: Galloway et al. 2004

(milligrams of nitrogen per square metre per year) Atmospheric
deposition currently accounts for roughly 12% of the reactive nitrogen
entering terrestrial and coastal marine ecosystems globally, although
in some regions, atmospheric deposition accounts for a higher
percentage (about 33% in the United States) [R 9.1, Figure 9.2].

26 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING

a depletion of oxygen (creating ‘dead zones’), which reduces the
survival of other marine organisms, including fish. There are
several marine areas of low oxygen. Some of this variation can
be clearly seen in the rates of nitrogen deposition, which are far
higher in Europe, East and South Asia, eastern North America,
and southeastern South America than elsewhere in the world

[S 8.7; 9.3]. (See Figure 2.2.)

Eutrophication is pervasive close to most of the world’s large
estuaries and all centres of human population, and the resulting
ecosystem changes are difficult (though perhaps not impossible)
to reverse once algae take over benthic habitats or cause shifts in
trophic structure [CT 19.2.1.1]. Maintenance of an adequate flow
of good-quality water is needed to maintain the health of inland
water ecosystems as well as estuaries and deltas [CT 20.6].

Agriculture is the major user of industrially fixed nitrogen,
and only a fraction of this fertilizer is used and retained in food
products [CT 26.2.1.4]. Poor control of run-off of the excess
nitrogen leads to biodiversity loss in inland water, coastal, and
marine systems through eutrophication [CT 19.2.1.4 and
26.2.1.4]. Nitrogen loads in rivers eventually find their way to
the coastal zone, where they also cause eutrophication
[S9.3.7.1.2]. Phosphorus transportation into aquatic ecosystems
is the principal cause of blue-green algae blooms in reservoirs,
and the anoxia in the Gulf of Mexico is one example of
eutrophication attributable to nutrient enrichment
[CT 26.2.2.3].

Sewers convey human waste out of urban locations, often
releasing it untreated in local waterways or coastal waters.
Human waste not only poses a health risk for people, who might
ingest the contaminated water, but also causes eutrophication and
damages aquatic ecosystems downstream [CT 27.2.3.2]. Other
pollutants, such as persistent organic pollutants, accumulate in
marine mammals, seabirds, top carnivores, and predatory fish
and are passed on to humans through consumption. POPs are
stable, fat-soluble, carbon-based compounds that volatilize at
warm temperatures and are transported towards the poles by
wind, water, and wildlife [CT 25.2.3].

Based on projections for food production and wastewater
effluents, an increase of 10-20% of global river nitrogen flow to
coastal ecosystems in the next three decades can be expected,
following a global increase of 29% during the period 1970-95.
In the Indian Ocean, the increase is likely to be faster than in the
previous three decades; in the Pacific and Atlantic oceans, river
nitrogen flow will continue to increase, but at a slower rate than
in the last three decades in the Pacific and the Atlantic [S 9.3].

Climate Change

Climate change is becoming the dominant driver of change,
particularly in vulnerable habitats such as mangroves, coral
reefs, and coastal wetlands, which are especially at risk from
resulting sea-level rises. Both recent empirical evidence and
predictive modelling studies suggest that climate change will
increase population losses [CT 4, Main Message #10]. For
example, changes in the non-breeding distribution of coastal

rising mid-winter temperatures; and seabird breeding failures
in the North Sea in 2004 have been linked to a northwards shift
in plankton distribution driven by rising sea temperatures
[CT 19.2.2.3].
Coral reefs are vulnerable due to coral bleaching (which

sometimes causes coral mortality) and the spread of pathogens
leading to the spread of coral diseases. It has been suggested
that global warming will reduce the world’s major coral reefs in
exceedingly short time frames—one estimate suggests that all
current coral reefs will disappear by 2040 due to warming sea
temperatures [CT 19.2.1.4].

Changing wind patterns and sea temperatures impact
oceanographic processes, including upwellings (for example,
Benguela) and surface currents (for example, Gulf Stream), as
well as nutrient availability affecting primary productivity.
Recent results from monitoring of sea temperatures in the
North Atlantic suggest that the Gulf Stream may be slowing
down and affecting abundance and seasonality of plankton that
are food for larval fish. Declining larval fish populations and
lower adult fish stocks will impact the ability of overexploited
stocks to recover [CT 18.3.1]. In the Arctic, regional warming
interacts with socioeconomic change to reduce subsistence
activities by indigenous and other rural people, the segments of
society with the greatest cultural and economic dependence on
natural resources. Warming has reduced access to marine
mammals (less sea ice) by people dependent on subsistence
activities and made the physical and biotic environment less
predictable [CT 25, Main Message #5].

In the oceans, sea surface temperature increase reduces the
solubility of CO} in the ocean and tends to increase vertical
stratification (layering) and to slow down global ocean
circulation. Stratification slows the mixing into deep layers of
excess carbon in the surface water. Stratification further reduces
nutrient input into the surface zone and leads to a prolonged

residence time of phytoplankton at the surface, near light.
Models indicate the net effect is reduced phytoplankton
productivity. Models estimate that the combined effect of
warming and circulation changes on ocean physics and biology
will reduce the oceanic CO? uptake (that is, ability to absorb)
by 6-25% in 1990-2050, thus providing a positive climate
feedback (that is, increased warming) [CT 13.5.2].

Changes in ocean circulation, pH, and temperature are also
likely to have additional effects on ocean biology that have not
been quantified in these models and that may induce further
CO) feedbacks. These include changes in the community
structure, net production, and bio-calcification. The effect of bio-
calcification is estimated to increase the ocean carbon sink by
less than 2.5%. The quality and magnitude of biological changes
will vary over space and time and is highly uncertain. While the
combined inorganic and biological changes tend to reduce global
uptake of anthropogenic carbon, the global net effect on carbon
uptake of the ocean biological changes alone is unknown.
Altered size and timing of phytoplankton blooms due to climate
change can also potentially reduce fish production [CT 13.5.2].

Indirect Drivers of Change in Marine and Coastal
Ecosystems

Demand, Fish Prices, and Shifting Food
Preferences

Marine products are in demand as a luxury food, as a
subsistence food source for many coastal communities, and as
feed for aquaculture and livestock. Per capita consumption of
fish is increasing rapidly—total fish consumption has declined
somewhat in developed countries, while it has nearly doubled
in the developing world since 1973 [CT 8, Main Message #9].
The growing demand and corresponding increase in prices has
contributed to overfishing [CT 18.3.3].

MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING

SHARE OF WORLD AND COASTAL POPULATIONS LIVING WITHIN 50 KILOMETRES OF
ESTUARIES, CORAL REEFS, MANGROVES, AND SEAGRASS

Based on spatially referenced population data; due to overlap of some habitat types, figures do not add up to 100%

[CT 19, Table 19.4].

Subtypes Population Share of ey Population
(%

Estuaries 1 598 940 542 27 {

Coral reefs 710 583 010 12

Mangroves 4 030 295 102 18

Seagrass 1 146 100 829 19

Total 5 996 803 192

Persistent and widespread misconceptions about the ability of
marine fish populations to withstand and recover from fishing
continue to undermine initiatives to address the root causes of
these problems [CT 18.3.8].

Subsidies

Financial subsidies are considered to be one of the most
significant drivers of overfishing. The value of fisheries subsidies
as a percentage of the gross value of fish production in the
OECD area was about 20% in 2002 [CT 8.4.1.2.2]. In most
cases, government subsidies have resulted in an initial increase
of overall effort (number of fishers and size of fleet), which
translates into increased fishing pressure and overexploitation of
a number of species. While it appears that the number of fishing
vessels and fishers stabilized in the late 1990s, other subsidies
(for example, cheap fuel subsidies) can keep fleets operating
even when fish are scarce. Without such subsidies, many of

these fisheries would cease to be economically viable [CT
18.3.2].

Illegal Fishing

This practice exists due to high profits; lack of surveillance,
enforcement, and monitoring; tolerance due to the economic
conditions or social obligations within a country; and cheating
in some fisheries that are supposedly regulated. It has led to the
introduction of international on-board observers in some
fisheries to attempt to bring an end to these. It is now widely
agreed that independent surveillance is an essential part of any
fishery management and enforcement plan [CT 18.3.6].

Population Growth

Human pressures stress many of the most ecologically
important and valuable ecosystems within the coastal zones.
(See Table 2.3.) This is not accidental, as these habitats and the
ecosystems services they provide present many of the ‘pull’
factors that resulted in initial settlement on the coast as well as
subsequent migration to it. Fifty-eight percent of the world’s
major coral reef systems occur within 25 km of urban centres
greater than 100,000 people; 62% of major estuaries occur near
such urban centres, and 64% of major mangrove forests occur

28 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING

Share of Coastal Population
(%)
71
31
45
49

near major centres. This means that pressures from
urbanization, including habitat conversion as cities and their
areas of influence grow, are affecting the majority of these key
coastal habitats [CT 19.3.1].

Demand for fish as a food source and various other products
from the sea are driven by population growth, human migration
toward coastal areas, and rising incomes and hence demand for
luxury seafood [CT 18.1]. There has been a decrease in the rate
at which interior populations are increasing relative to coastal
populations. If population growth is divided land area, we
observe the highest value in the coastal zone, where over the
1990s population grew by 23.3 people per square kilometre
[CT 5.3.4]. Coastal population densities are nearly three times
that of inland areas: in 2000, population density in coastal
areas was 99.6 people per km2, while in inland areas density
was 37.9 people per km2. At the turn of the millennium nearly
half (49.7%) of the world’s major cities (having more than
500,000) people were found within 50 kilometres of the coast.
Growth in these cities since 1960 was significantly higher than
in inland cities of the same size. It is increasingly difficult for
coastal ecosystems to accommodate the increased collective
demands of growing populations and markets [CT 19.3.1].

Technology Change

The incorporation of an enormous array of electronic devices
facilitating fish detection, including the introduction of radar
and acoustic fish finders on fishing vessels, culminating with the
introduction of GPS technology and detailed seabed mapping
that occurred at the end of the cold war have contributed to
overexploitation [CT 18.3.5].

Globalization

Fish represent the fastest growing food commodity entering
international trade. Accordingly, fish and fish products
represent an extremely valuable source of foreign exchange to
many countries. Traditional local fish foods are, in many cases,
no longer available to local consumers due to their inability to
match the prices that can be obtained by shipping the products
elsewhere. An example is Senegal, where exports have disrupted
local supplies of fish [CT 18.3.7].

3 Why should we care about the loss or degradation of marine and coastal

ecosystems and their services?

Coastal areas are characterized by high productivity and high
human well-being but also high vulnerability to natural disasters,
diseases, and pollution. Island communities are particularly
vulnerable to changes in marine and coastal services and habitat
conditions.

More than a billion people rely on fish as their main or sole
source of animal protein, especially in the coastal zone of
developing countries. The reliance and demand for food fish, the
overcapacity of the global fleet, and overfishing results in declining
food availability in the long term. Decreased availability of seafood
and other resultant impacts of ecosystem services degradation have
implications that reach far beyond the coastal zone.

@ Fisheries and fish products provide direct employment to nearly
38 million people. The fishing sector has declined as a source of
employment in many industrial countries, but in many developing
countries and island communities there is still a strong traditional
dependence on marine and coastal resources for employment.

i The global economic costs related to pollution of coastal waters is
$16 billion annually, much of which is due to human health impacts.
@ Other benefits—such as spiritual and cultural values and
tourism—are threatened. Spiritual and cultural values are as
important as other services for many local communities. Global
tourism is one of the world’s most profitable industries and much of
it is linked to coastal and marine ecosystems.

@ Coastal communities are at risk from a range of natural disasters.
This risk increases as coastal and marine ecosystems are degraded.

Human Well-being and Ecosystem Services

Over historical time frames, human well-being has on aggregate
improved by several orders of magnitude. Incomes have
increased, populations have grown, life expectancies have risen,
and political institutions have become more participatory. In the
global aggregate, human well-being continues to expand,
although there are variations across geographical regions.

Changes in ecosystem services influence all components of
human well-being. The degradation of ecosystem services
disproportionately affects the poor, although even wealthy
populations cannot be fully insulated from the effects of
degradation. The MA has defined well-being as the basic
material needs for a good life, health, good social relations,
security, and freedom of choice and action. Many of these
elements of well-being are difficult to measure or are not
measured adequately, often causing uncertainty or gaps in our
understanding. (See Box 3.1.)

Coastal and marine ecosystems are among the most
productive ecosystems in the world and provide a wide range of
services to human beings. Coastal ecosystems tend to be
characterized by high human well-being; however, coastal
communities are at risk from natural disasters and diseases

Box 3.1 THE MA DEFINITION OF HUMAN WELL-BEING

The basic materials for a good life include adequate income,
household assets, food, water, and shelter. Considerable effort goes
into measuring and monitoring these dimensions of well-being.
Although great effort goes into these measurement efforts, they

do not provide a complete enough picture to support a full
understanding of the distribution of well-being and its relationship
to ecosystem services [CT 5.2.1].

Freedom is defined as the range of options a person has in deciding
on and realizing the kind of life to lead. At a broad scale, only a few of
the many specific phenomena that are relevant to this dimension of
well-being are measured at all, and many of those that are measured
are problematic [CT 5.2.2].

Human health is measured in a variety of ways, and knowledge about
broad trends and patterns concerning health is good. Life expectancy,
infant mortality, and child mortality are measured fairly intensively [CT
Ay Silh,

Humans enjoy a state of good social relations when they are able
to realize aesthetic and recreational values, express cultural and
spiritual values, develop institutional linkages that create social capital,
show mutual respect, have good gender and family relations, and have
the ability to help others and provide for their children [CT 5.2.4].

Humans can be said to live in a state of security when they do not
suffer abrupt threats to their well-being. Some of the most salient
threats are organized violence, economic crises, and natural disasters.
Comparable measures of organized
violence are available for
international warfare and civil war,
but generally not for banditry and
other forms of crime. Natural
disasters are not measured well,
though various international
organizations and research centres
are seeking to improve
measurement. The most glaring
deficiency in efforts to measure
natural disasters is in the area of
human impacts. Although some
insurance companies undertake
considerable efforts to quantify
insured economic losses due to
natural disasters, many of the
grossest effects on human well-being gagews
are not insured economic losses, but
rather loss of life and shelter in poor
communities [CT 5.2.5]. (Further
information on natural disasters can
be found in CT 6 and CT 16.)

MAKINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING 29

[CT 5, Main Message #3]. Coastal inhabitants on average
experience higher well-being than those of inland communities.
Of the world’s total gross national product of approximately
$44 trillion, 61% comes from coastal areas within

100 kilometres of the coastline. Whereas per capita GNP in
1999 averaged only $4,018 across all inland areas, per capita
GNP in the 100-kilometre coastal area was nearly four times as
much at $16,035 globally. However, we should not lose sight of
the fact that fishing communities in many developing countries
are among the very poorest. Infant mortality and life expectancy
indices are also thought to be relatively better in coastal areas.
This situation partly explains why rates of population increase
are highest in coastal areas [CT 19.3.1].

Marine and coastal ecosystems are also an important source
of economic benefits, with capture fisheries alone worth
approximately $81 billion in 2000; aquaculture $57 billion in
2000; offshore gas and oil $132 billion in 1995; marine
tourism, much of it in the coast, $161 billion in 1995; and trade
and shipping $155 billion in 1995. Much of this value comes
from the overexploitation of marine and coastal ecosystems.

Basic Materials for a Good Life

Food Provision

More than one sixth of the world’s population relies on fish as
their main or sole source of animal protein. Global annual per
capita consumption of seafood averages 16 kilograms. Fisheries
are a particularly important source of protein in developing
countries. The supply of wild marine fish as a cheap source of
protein for many countries is declining. Annual per capita wild
marine fish consumption in developing countries (excluding
China) has declined from 9.4 kilograms per person in 1985 to
9.2 kilograms in 1997 [CT 18 Main Message #7].

i

Overfishing threatens human well-being through declining
food availability in the long term, since fewer fish are available
for consumption and the price of fish increases. This is a
particular issue in the developing world, where the combination
of overfishing and degradation or conversion of habitats is
aggravated by export-driven fisheries that overexploit their
resource base, diverting food away from the domestic market
[CT 18.5.1]. This is of major concern if the Millennium
Development Goal of eradicating poverty and hunger (MDG 1)
is to be achieved, as many areas where overfishing is a concern
are also low-income food-deficit countries (LIFDCs). For
example, in West Africa, the exclusive economic zones (EEZs)
of Mauritania, Senegal, Gambia, Guinea Bissau, and Sierra
Leone all accommodate large distant-water fleets, which catch
significant quantities of fish.

Much of the fish is exported or shipped directly to Europe
while compensation for access is often low compared to the
value of the product landed [CT 18.4.1.4]. Similarly, in several
small Caribbean islands, seafood consumption is higher than
local production and must be satisfied by imports. This pattern
holds true for countries such as Haiti (70% higher than local
food production), Jamaica (78%), Martinique (80%). The
composition of imports in these small island states is dominated
by dried, salted, and smoked fish, but fresh, chilled, and frozen
products are also imported, mainly by countries with a tourism
industry [CT 23.2.2].

The decreased availability of marine fisheries can have
implications that reach far beyond the coastal zone. For
example, the decreased availability of coastal and freshwater
fish for subsistence fisheries in West Africa has driven an
increase in the illegal bush meat trade. This trade, in turn, has
imperilled many endangered species in the region and is thought
to contribute to outbreaks of primate-borne and other viruses in

Figure 3.1 SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE TOTAL VALUE OF FOOD PRODUCTION FOR CROPS, LIVESTOCK,

AND FISHERIES IN 2000

Indicates where the major calorie and
protein sources of the world are
concentrated. Note the high production
values of both marine and terrestrial food
sources around Asia [CT 8, Figure 8.2].

Terrestrial Production

Marine Production

(dollars/sq. km /yr) (dollars/sq. km /yr)
300,000 200,000
0 0

30 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING

human populations [CT 19.2.3]. Such
long-distance connections are evident
elsewhere in Africa. For example, the
warming of the Indian Ocean has caused
recent droughts in the Sahal, directly
affecting millions of people through
increased crop failure [CT 19.2.3].

Conflicts can arise between users with
different property rights, largely driven by
overexploitation of the resource. Marine cS
ecosystems are often described as
‘commons’ (for everyone’s use). While this
may hold true for the open ocean, complex
property rights exist in many coastal areas.
The property rights in question can be
traditional (aboriginal), historical/local,
and commercial (that is, government sells
the right to access resources). The
boundaries between these rights are
frequently unclear in the absence of
effective management or enforcement and,
in some cases, generate conflicts [CT 18.6].
For example, the small islands of the
Pacific, Caribbean, and Indian oceans have
narrow coastal shelves surrounded by deep waters. A simple
fishing pressure index based on estimates of the number
of people actively fishing (according to FAO) per kilometre of
coastline suggests that fishing pressure is greatest in the
China-Philippines area.

Overfishing in the near shore of these islands has led
artisanal fishers to venture further offshore to access pelagic
resources such as the large tunas. This has led to encounters and
conflict with the already well-established industrial factory ships
of more industrialized countries and/or other island states
fishing in these waters using longlines or purse seines to exploit
these resources. These conflicts over marine resources are
increasingly being arbitrated through the provisions of the
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)
[G8 23.2.2]:

Another example is the growth of shrimp farming and the
consequent damage of such aquaculture on mangroves (see CT
19.). In Honduras, social conflict has increased between shrimp
farm concession holders and those who are not concession
holders but believe that shrimp farms are intruding on
government-reserved natural resources [CT 5.5].

The ecosystem service of food production contributes by far
the most to economic activity and employment. In 2000, the
market value of global food production was $981 billion, or
roughly 3% of gross world product (although it is a much
higher share of GDP within developing countries). Of this,
marine and coastal fisheries (wild and aquaculture) contribute
$124.2 billion, or 12% of world food production [CT 8,

Table 8.1].
Poor people historically have lost access to ecosystem services

-
aad AK ad

&

disproportionately as demand for those services has grown.
Coastal habitats are often converted to other uses, frequently
for aquaculture ponds or cage culturing of highly valued species
such as shrimp and salmon. Despite the fact that the area is still
used for food production, local residents are often displaced,
and the food produced is usually not for local consumption but
for export [CT 18.5.1]. However, food production in terrestrial
ecosystems is higher than in marine ecosystems. (See Figure 3.1.)

Fish products are heavily traded, and approximately 50% of
exports are from developing countries. Exports from developing
countries presently offset much of the shortfall of supply in
European, North American, and East Asian markets [CT
18.4.1.4]. Trade has increased the quantity and quality of fish
supplied to wealthy countries, in particular the United States,
European countries, and Japan, despite reductions in marine
fish catch [CT18.4.1.1].

Employment
Fisheries and fish products provide direct employment to nearly
38 million people (FAO 2004), with approximately 15 million
fishers employed aboard decked and undecked fishing vessels in
the marine capture fisheries sector [CT 18.1]. However the
fishing sector has declined as a source of employment in many
industrial countries [CT 18.4.1]. For example, in Canada, the
collapse of the cod fishery resulted in severe unemployment
compounded by restrictions on subsistence fishing [18.5.1].
Although the fishing sector has declined as a source of
employment in many industrial countries, many developing
countries and small island communities still have a strong
traditional dependence on marine and coastal biodiversity for

MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING 3 a

ae

Box 3.2 THE BENGUELA FISHERY [SAfMA sub-global assessment, Box 5.5]

The Benguela fishery lies almost entirely within the economic zone of three countries: South Africa, Namibia, and Angola. These countries
cooperate closely in the management of fish stocks to ensure that they persist. A contributing factor to the longevity of the fishery is its
dependence on small pelagic fish, which live for a year and recruit annually in large numbers, compared to fisheries based mostly on
high-trophic-level, long-lived fish.

Following the inception of commercial fisheries during the early twentieth century, and especially from about mid-century, the combined
catch of the five main species in the Benguela system grew to a peak around 1970 and then declined. In recent years, many of the stocks
have shown a gradual recovery. However, the collapsed anchovy and pilchard stocks off Namibia have not recovered. Several marine fish
species harvested on the west coasts have shown large fluctuations in the stock (see Figure), the causes of which are poorly understood.

In the case of the Namibian anchovy, the increasing frequent southward intrusion of warm tropical water, a phenomenon similar to (but
apparently unconnected with) the El Nifio in the Pacific Ocean, may be associated with their decline. In the case of the other species,

overfishing is the probable main factor causing the fluctuations.

1400
1200
1000
orse Mackerel 800
600

400

Total catch (1000 tons)

100 Pilchard 200

700
_ 600
wn
5
2 500
S)
S
i=)
= 400
=
g
S 300
©
3 200
Qa,
Y
0
1986 1988 1990 1992

0
1998

1994

1996

Trends in Marine Fish Catches in the Benguela Large Marine Ecosystem (LME) off the west coast of Southern
Africa. This system provided 44% of the total catch in the region during the 1990s. The fluctuation in stocks
appears to be synchronized with stock fluctuations in other major fisheries around the world, and is therefore

suggested to be partly influenced by the climate system [CT 8, Figure 8.2].

employment. The reliance on and demand for food fish, the
overcapacity of the global fleet, and overfishing result in
declining food availability in the long term. (See Box 3.2.)

The early 1990s collapse of the Newfoundland cod fishery
(see Figure 3.2) due to overfishing resulted in the loss of tens of
thousands of jobs and has cost at least $2 billion in income
support and retraining [General SR 3]. Globally, the bulk of
people employed in fisheries are poor and many are without
alternative sources of work and subsistence.

Tourism also is a major source of coastal employment. Loss of
habitat can impact heavily on local employment. For example,
the total damages for the Indian Ocean region over 20 years
(with a 10% discount rate) resulting from the long-term impacts
of massive coral bleaching in 1998 are estimated to be between
$608 million (if there is only a slight decrease in tourism-
generated income and employment results) and $8 billion (if
tourism income and employment and fish productivity drop
significantly and reefs cease to function as a protective barrier).

32 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING

Other Marketable Goods
A global picture of the potential economic value associated with
the coastal zone can be built up by aggreggating a number of
existing valuation studies. A preliminary estimate of the total
economic value of ecosystem services provided by global
ecosystems showed that while the coastal zone covers only 8%
of the world’s surface, the goods and services provided by it are
responsible for approximately 43% of the estimated total value
of global ecosystem services: $12.6 trillion (1997 dollars). While
controversial, this preliminary study made it abundantly clear
that coastal ecosystem services do provide significant
contribution to human well-being at a global scale.
Furthermore, it demonstrated the need for additional research
and indicated the fact that coastal areas are among the
ecosystems most in need of additional study [CT 19.3.2].
Coastal ecosystems provide other types of marketable goods
such as genetic, medical, and ornamental (aquarium trade)
resources. Coral reefs have been shown to be an exceptional

Figure 3.2 COLLAPSE OF ATLANTIC COD STOCKS OFF THE EAST COAST OF NEWFOUNDLAND IN 1992

This collapse forced the closure of the
fishery after hundreds of years of
exploitation. Until the late 1950s, the
fishery was exploited by migratory

Fish landings in tons
900 000

800 000

seasonal fleets and resident inshore
small-scale fishers. From the late
1950s, offshore bottom trawlers began
exploiting the deeper part of the stock,
leading to a large catch increase and a
strong decline in the underlying
biomass. Internationally agreed quotas
in the early 1970s and, following the
declaration by Canada of an Exclusive
Fishing Zone in 1977, national quota
systems ultimately failed to arrest and
reverse the decline. The stock collapsed
to extremely low levels in the late
1980s and early 1990s, and a
moratorium on commercial fishing was
declared in June 1992. A small
commercial inshore fishery was
reintroduced in 1998, but catch rates
declined and the fishery was closed
indefinitely in 2003 [General SR,
Figure 3.4].

700 000
600 000
500 000
400 000
300 000
200 000

100 000

reservoir of natural bioactive products, many of which exhibit
structural features not found in terrestrial natural products [CT
19.3.2.1].

Biological monitoring is an industry developing in response
to the necessities of tracking down sources of pollution across
large geographical areas. This would normally require vast
resources in terms of conventional instrumentation but the
status of the environment can also be monitored by using
organisms that routinely ‘sample’ the environment, such as
aquatic or marine filter-feeding animals (for example, paddle
worms, sea squirts) [CT 10.2.7].

Some marine species have been overharvested for natural
products research such as cone shells of the molluscan family
Conidae for their highly variable toxins (conotoxins) for
application to many areas of medicine [CT 10.7.4].

The market price of seafood products is often used as a proxy
when calculating the value of ecosystems. The annual market
value of seafood supported by mangroves, for example, has been
calculated to range from $750 to $16,750 (1999 dollars) per
hectare [CT 19.3.2.1]. The wide range indicates the varying
importance of different seafood and is not an accurate indication
of the worth of mangroves. Due to their function as nurseries,
fisheries yields in waters adjacent to mangroves tend to be high;
annual net values of $600 per hectare per year for this fishery
benefit have been suggested [CT 19.2.1.2]. Coral reef-based
fisheries are also valuable: the coral reef-based fisheries in
Southeast Asia, for example, generate $2.4 billion per year.

0
1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000

Source: Millennium Ecosystem Assessment

Mangrove forests are estimated to provide an annual net
benefit of $15 per hectare for medicinal plants, and up to $61
per hectare for medicinal values. Similarly large economic
benefits are calculated for the shoreline stabilization and erosion
control functions of mangroves [CT 19.2.1.2].

Human Health

Human communities are also at risk from the health
implications of degraded ecosystems. Cholera and other
waterborne diseases are on the rise in coastal countries, and
may be related to declining water quality, climate, and
eutrophication-driven algal blooms. Algal blooms (including red
tides) have caused neurological damage and death in humans
through consumption of affected seafood. The toxins in red tide
species may be accumulated in marine organisms and cause a
number of different types of toxic effects to humans [CT
19.3.1]. The incidence of diseases of marine organisms and
emergence of new pathogens is increasing, and some of these,
such as ciguatera, harm human health [CT 19.3.1]. Cholera
impacts human well-being directly by increasing human
morbidity and mortality rates, but it also has severe economic
impacts in coastal countries. For instance, tuna coming from
countries having incidences of cholera are required to be
quarantined; this restriction affects many of the major tuna
producing and exporting countries [CT 19.3.1].

Human health effects are also caused by pollution of

MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING 33

nearshore waters, whereby humans consume fish or other
marine products that contain heavy metals, PCBs, POPs, and
other toxins that have bioaccumulated in the food chain.
Chronic exposure to heavy metals and other bioaccumulating
pollutants may not cause death in large numbers of people, but
their cumulative effect can lead to reproductive failure and
significantly decreased well-being [CT 19.3.1]. UNEP and the
Water Supply and Sanitation Council estimate the global
economic costs related to pollution of coastal waters is $16
billion annually (www.wsscc.org), much of which is due to
human health impacts [CT 19.3.1]. Coastal waters in both
industrial and developing countries are frequently contaminated
with sewage [CT 14.2.1.5].

Good Social Relations

Spiritual and Cultural Values

Spiritual and cultural values of ecosystems are as important as
other services for many local communities. Human cultures,
knowledge systems, religions, heritage values, and social
interactions have always been influenced and shaped by the
nature of the ecosystem and ecosystem conditions in which
culture is based. People have benefited in many ways from
cultural ecosystem services, including aesthetic enjoyment,
recreation, artistic and spiritual fulfilment, and intellectual
development [CT 17, Main Messages].

The degradation of marine and coastal habitats affects the
well-being of all people in many ways that cannot be measured
in economic terms. Open space, proximity to clean water, and
scenic vistas are often cited as primary attractors of residents
who own property and live within the coastal fringe. Even for
people who live far inland with no direct reliance on coastal
areas, surveys show that humans maintain strong spiritual
connections to the sea and care about its condition. Additionally,
for many cultures, such as First Nations of the Pacific Northwest
of North America, coastal species such as salmon are of
considerable importance and often define the ‘quality of life’
of people with a cultural tradition of harvesting the sea
[CT 18.4.1.2].

ISLAND ECOSYSTEM CASE STUDY

a

Tourism and Recreation

Natural amenities are highly valued by people and contribute to
human welfare, thus providing significant economic value.
Much of what people value in the coastal zone—natural
amenities (open spaces, attractive views), good beaches for
recreation, high levels of water quality, protection from storm
surges, and waste assimilation/nutrient cycling—are provided by
key habitats within coastal ecosystems. Stretches of beach,
rocky cliffs, estuarine and coastal marine waterways, and coral
reefs provide numerous recreational and scenic opportunities.
Boating, fishing, swimming, walking, beachcombing, scuba
diving, and sunbathing are among the numerous leisure
activities that people enjoy worldwide and thus represent
significant economic value [CT 19.3.2.2]. The seas and coasts
are also of great spiritual importance to many people around
the world, although such values are difficult to quantify. For
example, the Bajau peoples of Indonesia and the aboriginal
people of the Torres Strait (Australia) have a culture intimately
connected to oceans, while many of the native peoples of North
America have similar strong ties to coastal ecosystems [CT
19.3.2.2].

Reef-based tourism generated over $1.2 billion annually in
the Florida Keys (of the United States) alone and the Great
Barrier Reef (Australia) attracts 1.6 million visitors each year
and generates over $1 billion annually in direct revenue [CT
18.6]. Much of this tourism centres on aesthetically pleasing
landscapes and seascapes; intact healthy coastal ecosystems with
good air and water quality; and opportunities to see diverse
wildlife. Tourism and recreational values are particularly high
for semi-enclosed seas, many of which are becoming highly
degraded (for example, Gulf of California, Black Sea, Baltic Sea,
and large parts of the Mediterranean Sea). Many of the world’s
great civilizations sprang up along the shorelines of these seas,
and thus they have historically provided food, trade routes, and
waste processing services to their burgeoning populations [CT
19.2.1.8]. Harmful algal blooms, including red tides, can be
quite costly in these areas. For example, a bloom in 1989 cost
the Italian tourism industry $11.4 million [CT 19.3.1]. Another
important activity associated with tourism is recreational

Island communities are particularly vulnerable to changes in marine and coastal services and habitat conditions. Many small islands have a
strong traditional dependence on marine and coastal biodiversity for their food, employment, tools, building materials, industry, medicine,
transport, and waste disposal. With increasing human population pressures through high migration and reproductive rates, island ecosystems
face several serious issues both in the immediate and near future [CT 23, Main Message #1]. Overfishing has already deprived island
communities of subsistence fishing and caused conflicts in many tropical islands across Asia. Island states and their exclusive economic zones
comprise 40% of the world’s oceans and earn significant foreign exchange from the sale of offshore fishery licences, but this situation cannot
last forever [CT 23, Main Message #3]. One of the most important roles of fisheries in island states is the employment opportunities it offers for
thousands of people in a region where high levels of unemployment continue to be a major concern. The fisheries sector on small island
developing states in the Caribbean provides stable full-time and part-time direct employment for more than 200,000 people and indirect
employment for another approximately 100,000 people in the secondary sector (processing, marketing), boat building, net making, and other
support industries [CT 23.2.2]. Islands also face increased problems of coastal and beach erosion due to inappropriate forms of coastline
engineering and tourism development that often use coral and beach sand as building material [CT 23.3.3].

34 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING

fishing. For example, there is a growing population of
recreational fishers within the Caribbean where dozens of
international, regional, and national fishing tournaments are
held each year [CT 23.2.5.2].

Much of the economic values of coral reefs (with net benefits
estimated at nearly $30 billion each year) are generated from
nature-based and dive tourism. Coral reef-based recreational
fisheries generate over $100 million annually. The annual
recreational value of the coral reefs of each of six Marine
Management Areas in the Hawaiian Islands in 2003 ranged from
$300,000 to $35 million [General SR 3]. ‘Willingness to pay’
studies in the Indian Ocean suggest that health of coral reefs is
an important factor for tourists: tourists were willing to pay, on
average, $59-$98 extra per holiday to experience high-quality
reefs. In Jamaica and Barbados, destruction of coral reefs has
resulted in dramatic declines in visitation; loss of revenue
streams subsequently led to social unrest and even further
tourism declines (MA Subglobal Assessment—Caribbean Sea). In
Florida, reef degradation is rapidly changing the structure of the
tourism market, from high-value, low-volume tourism towards
larger numbers of budget travellers [CT 19.3.2.2].

Despite the value of coastal areas to the tourism industry,
coastal tourism development also contributes to the continued
degradation of these ecosystems. For example, it often uses
habitats such as estuaries, mangroves, marshes, and atoll
lagoons for waste disposal, reducing their capacity to provide
ecosystem services such as waste processing and coastal
protection. Tourism development also results in conversion of
habitat to accommodate infrastructure, resulting in loss of dune
systems, wetlands, and even coral reefs [CT 19.4.1].

Security

Natural Disasters

Coastal communities are at risk from natural disasters such as
hurricanes, cyclones, tsunamis, and storm surge flooding, as
well as losses incurred from both sudden and chronic shoreline
erosion. Losses of habitats such as mangrove forests (35% have
disappeared in the last two decades) threaten the safety of
people living in the 118 coastal countries where mangroves
occur. Mangroves not only serve as a buffer from storm damage
for these communities, but also serve to absorb heavy metals
and other toxic substances in effluents [CT 19.2.1.2]. Projected
sea-level rise due to climate change (1-2 mm/yr over the next
century) is expected to have serious consequences for millions of
people living on low-lying islands, atolls, or flood-prone areas
like much of Bangladesh [CT 19.3.1] through the effects of
flooding and coastal erosion. In turn, flooding and coastal
erosion will have serious consequences for the tourism industry
[CT 23, Main Messages #9].

Erosion
A fifth of the coastline of the newly enlarged European Union is
eroding away due to human-induced causes, in a few cases as

Box 3.4 POLAR REGION CASE STUDY

In polar regions, products derived from locally available fish
and wildlife resources often offer important sources of cash
that supplement wages and transfer payments from
governments. However, subsistence economies are vulnerable
to declines in global markets for these commodities; examples
include seal or muskrat pelts (as changes in cultural values
reduced global demand for furs), salmon (as fish farming
increased alternative supplies), and reindeer antler (as cultural
change in Asia reduced demand). When world market prices
are high, regional resource management institutions may be
unable to respond to the increased incentives for unregulated
or illegal harvest (for example, Kamchatka salmon, Greenland
cod) or overgrazing by reindeer. On the other hand, government
policies to conserve stocks may prevent Arctic people from
taking advantage of the only viable commercial activities
available (as with the International Whaling Commission ban
on commercial whaling) [CT 25.4.2].

much as 15 metres (49 feet) shoreline erosion inland per

year. Erosion threatens homes, roads and urban infrastructure,
and the safety of individuals, and affects biodiversity as well
[CT 19.6]. Coastal erosion can have significant economic
consequences. For example, in the United States alone, coastal
erosion of dunes and beaches costs $500 million in property
loss annually [CT 19.2.1.3].

Trade-offs between Conservation and Other Priorities

Trade-offs in meeting Millennium Development Goals and
other international commitments are inevitable. There is
strong evidence that the condition of inland waters and
coastal ecosystems has been compromised by the conventional
sectoral approach to water management and, if continued,
will jeopardize human well-being. In contrast, through
implementation of the established ecosystem-based approaches
adopted by the Convention on Biological Diversity, the
Convention on Wetlands (Ramsar), FAO, and others, the future
condition of water provisioning services could be substantially
improved by balancing economic development, ecosystem
preservation, and human well-being objectives [CT 7, Main
Message #6].

A ‘business as usual’ approach is projected to lead to
continued loss of habitats and species, with attendant changes
to ecosystem services and negative impacts on many coastal-
dependent industries and coastal communities. Yet enough is
known to change the current approach and begin to
systematically develop strategic plans for more effective
protection and more sustainable use of coastal ecosystems
[CT 19.6].

Boxes 3.3 and 3.4 demonstrate some of the vulnerabilities
for two particular marine influenced regions.

MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING

35

Gaps in Understanding regarding Human Well-being

Human well-being depends on ecosystem services but also on
the supply and quality of social capital, technology, and
institutions. These factors mediate the relationship between
ecosystem services and human well-being in ways that remain
contested and incompletely understood. The relationship
between human well-being and ecosystem services is not
linear. When an ecosystem service is abundant relative to the
demand, a marginal increase in ecosystem services generally
contributes only slightly to human well-being (or may even
diminish it). But when the service is relatively scarce, a small
decrease can substantially reduce human well-being [SG 3.4].
The degradation of ecosystem services represents a loss of a
capital asset. Both renewable resources such as ecosystem
services and nonrenewable resources such as mineral deposits,
soil nutrients, and fossil fuels are capital assets. Yet traditional

Box 3.5 THE MA SCENARIOS [Biodiversity SR]

It is important to remember that no scenario will match the future as it
actually occurs. None of the scenarios represents a ‘best’ path or a
‘worst’ path. There could be combinations of policies and practices that
produce significantly better or worse outcomes than any of these
scenarios. The future will represent a mix of approaches and
consequences described in the scenarios, as well as events and
innovations that could not be imagined at the time of writing [S 5].

The focus on alternative approaches to sustaining ecosystem
services distinguishes the MA scenarios from previous global scenario
exercises. The four approaches were developed based on interviews
with leaders in NGOs, governments, and business on five continents,
on scenario literature, and on policy documents addressing linkages
between ecosystem change and human well-being. The approach to
scenario development used in the MA consists of a combination of
qualitative storyline development and quantitative modelling based on
assumptions about the evolution of indirect drivers such as economic
and population growth [S 6].

The Global Orchestration scenario explores the possibilities of a
world in which global economic and social policies are the primary
approach to sustainability. The recognition that many of the most
pressing global problems seem to have roots in poverty and inequality
evokes fair policies to improve the well-being of those in poorer
countries by removing trade barriers and subsidies. Environmental
problems are dealt with in an ad-hoc reactive manner, as it is assumed
that improved economic well-being will eventually create demand for,
and the means to achieve, environmental protection. Nations also
make progress on global environmental problems, such as greenhouse
gas emissions and the depletion of pelagic marine fisheries. However,
some local and regional environmental problems are exacerbated.

The results for ecosystem services are mixed. Human well-being is
improved in many of the poorest countries (and in some rich ones), but
a number of ecosystem services deteriorate by 2050, placing at risk
the long-term sustainability of the well-being improvements.

The Order from Strength scenario examines the outcomes of a
world in which protection through boundaries becomes paramount.
The policies enacted in this scenario lead to a world in which the rich

36 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING

a

national accounts do not include measures of resource
depletion or of the degradation of renewable resources. As a
result, a country could cut its forests and deplete its fisheries,
and this would show only as a positive gain to GDP despite
the loss of the capital asset. Moreover, many ecosystem
services are available freely to those who use them
(freshwater in aquifers, for instance, or the use of the
atmosphere as a sink for pollutants), and so, again, their
degradation is not reflected in standard economic measures
[General SR 3].

The information available to assess the consequences of
changes in ecosystem services for human well-being is
relatively limited. Many ecosystem services have not been
monitored and it is also difficult to estimate the relative
influence of changes in ecosystem services in relation to other
social, cultural, and economic factors that also affect human
well-being [General SR 3].

protect their borders, attempting to confine poverty, conflict,
environmental degradation, and deterioration of ecosystem services
to areas outside the borders. These problems often cross borders,
however, impinging on the well-being of those within.

The Adapting Mosaic scenario explores the benefits and risks of
environmentally proactive local and regional management as the
primary approach to sustainability. In this scenario, lack of faith in
global institutions, combined with increased understanding of the
importance of resilience and local flexibility, leads to approaches that
favour experimentation and local control of ecosystem management.
The results are mixed, as some regions do a good job managing
ecosystems but others do not. High levels of communication and
interest in learning lead regions to compare experiences and learn
from one another. Gradually the number of successful experiments
begins to grow. While global problems are ignored initially, later
in the scenario they are approached with flexible strategies based
on successful experiences with locally adaptive management.
However, some ecosystems suffer long-lasting degradation.

The TechnoGarden scenario explores the potential role of
technology in providing or improving the provision of ecosystem
services. The use of technology and the focus on ecosystem services
is driven by a system of property rights and valuation of ecosystem
services. In this scenario, people push ecosystems to their limits of
producing the optimum amount of ecosystem services for humans
through the use of technology. Often, the technologies they use are
more flexible than today’s environmental engineering, and they allow
multiple needs to be met from the same ecosystem. Provision of
ecosystem services in this scenario is high worldwide, but flexibility is
low due to high dependence on a narrow set of optimal approaches.
In some cases, unexpected problems created by technology and
erosion of ecological resilience lead to vulnerable ecosystem services,
which may break down. In addition, success in increasing the
production of ecosystem services often undercuts the ability of
ecosystems to support themselves, leading to surprising interruptions
of some ecosystem services. These interruptions and collapses
sometimes have serious consequences for human well-being.

The reliance of the rural poor on ecosystem services is
rarely measured and thus typically overlooked in national
statistics and in poverty assessments, resulting in inappropriate
strategies that do not take into account the role of the
environment in poverty reduction [General SR 3].

A Look at the Future: The Four MA Scenarios

The MA explores the future for ecosystem services and human
well-being through four different plausible scenarios. Scenarios
are a means to explore future changes that are difficult to
describe using the extrapolation of known current or past
trends to analyse how ecosystems might respond to different
future policy regimes and a range of drivers affecting ecosystems
and human well-being. The four scenarios—Global
Orchestration; Order from Strength; Adapting Mosaic; and
TechnoGarden—cover a wide range of possible developments
for the years up to 2050. (See Box 3.5.) It is likely that the real
future will not mirror one of the scenarios but will rather
consist of a mix of the elements of all four scenarios.

Cross-cutting Issues across the Four Scenarios
Due to the lack of basic information on marine and coastal
ecosystems, the MA scenarios cover only some of the major
drivers of change in those ecosystems. The following sections
explore those changes for some factors affecting ecosystem
change and ecosystem services. Fisheries, eutrophication, and
climate change (with the accompanying sea-level rise and
coastal protection) are amongst the strongest drivers (see
Chapter 1 for information on other drivers), while biodiversity
is a fundamental key ecosystem service in the coastal and
marine realm. Box 3.6 highlights the major predictions of the
scenarios.

5 PREDICTIONS FROM THE MA SCENARIOS

All scenarios predict:
An increase in demand for fish for food and a massive
decline, if not a collapse, of the major fish stocks over the
next decades. The decline of fish stocks under the scenarios in
the next decades is of major concern and will impact upon
achieving Millennium Development Goal 1, eradication of extreme

poverty.

Climate-change-induced sea-level rise. The scenarios
variously predict a 50-70 cm rise with a further rise in the next
century. Sea-level rise is expected to have severe impacts for
coastal communities under all scenarios except the Adapting
Mosaic scenario. As poverty is concentrated in the coastal
zone, this will have repercussions for MDG 1.

Increase in eutrophication of coastal and marine
ecosystems. The scenarios differ in their ability to address dead
zones of hypoxia.

Cross-cutting Issue 1: Fisheries
Across all four scenarios, an increase in the demand for fish
as food is forecasted, accompanied by a decline of fish stocks

that differs among the scenarios. The forecasts for industrial
and developing countries differ substantially. Uncertainties in
the interpretation of recent fish stock trends make forecasting
difficult.

A range of factors will determine future wild capture
fisheries. They include changes in the degree of overfishing due
to fisheries mismanagement; fishing subsidies affecting the catch
at the fisheries level; climate and climate variability, causing
shifts in species distributions and abundance; and population
growth and food preferences affecting the demand for marine
products [S 9.4.3]. Other interactive effects are also occurring,
such as eutrophication and coastal development.

In the Global Orchestration scenario, many of the world’s
major fisheries collapse between 2030 and 2050. The scenario
expects some global cooperation in managing species, but open
borders and reduced trade barriers would lead to
insurmountable obstacles to effective monitoring of many
stocks, which would be exploited unsustainably and severely
overfished [S 8.3]. However, economic incentives, regulation,
and the creation of marine protected areas help to establish
sustained catches in some areas of industrial countries. This also
applies to some developing countries with stable governance,
but the race against climate changed-induced degradation of
coral reefs and other marine areas does hamper such efforts.
Illegal fishing, corruption, and lack of enforcement lead to
overexploitation of fish stocks in developing countries with
poor governance.

High-seas fisheries are expected to rise in importance under
the Global Orchestration scenario, driven by industrial
countries. This relates mainly to pelagic sources, while deep-sea

MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING 3 7

ee

fisheries on seamounts and deep-sea corals cease. Many more
high-seas marine protected areas will finally become established.

Coastal aquaculture is forecasted to expand in both industrial
and developing countries. In the latter more than the former,
aquaculture is accompanied by negative impacts on the
environment and small-scale coastal fisheries. High-seas
aquaculture is slowly on the rise, with costs for technological
development limiting its expansion during the first decades of
the 21st century. Conflicts about access rights on the high seas
ultimately lead to the formation of a global oceans commission
[S 8.7].

In the Order from Strength scenario, global issues such as
climate change or marine fisheries are very difficult to address.
Hence, climate change, sea-level rise, and events such as the El
Nino/Southern Oscillation severely impact the fishing options
for poor countries and, within those, in particular the poor
coastal communities. While global agreements become almost
impossible to establish, some regional agreements succeed in
providing protection for fish stocks, mainly in regions of
industrial countries and regions that receive assistance from
those. This would include, to a limited extent, the closure of
areas to fisheries and the formation of marine protected areas.
These industrial countries reduce their outflow of fish products
to secure food security and social benefits within their own
boundaries.

In the scenario, aquaculture expands rapidly, bearing high
costs for biodiversity, coastal protection, and related ecosystem
services. The lack of control of high-seas fisheries leaves high-
sea fish stocks unprotected and, hence, stocks reach the stage of
collapse rather quickly [S 8.4; S 8.7].

Under the Adapting Mosaic scenario, the world fish catch
may decline severely by 2020—the tragedy of the Global
Commons. Coastal communities and those depending on marine

resources in developing countries suffer from the decline in
protein supply. In the longer term, however, industrial countries
manage to improve conditions of marine and coastal ecosystems,
through phasing-out of destructive fishery practices, formation
of marine protected areas, and construction of artificial coral
reefs. Some developing countries, through assistance from
regional bodies and some industrial countries, achieve
stabilization of coastal and marine ecosystems, while countries
with poor governance face further stock collapses. Top predators
are likely to vanish from most marine ecosystems.

Aquaculture will only slowly expand in industrial countries
and those developing countries with good governance, due to
the reliance on wild-caught fishmeal. In developing countries
with poor governance, aquaculture may be likely to be forced
to expand, but the high economic costs, accompanied by major
impacts on ecosystem services, eventually lead to it being
abandoned.

Further expansion of fisheries into the high seas is not
controlled, due to the lack of global agreements. But the high
costs eventually limit high-seas fisheries, particularly for those
industrial countries that manage to develop sustainable near-
coast fisheries and freshwater aquaculture [S 8.5].

The TechnoGarden scenario forecasts an increased regulation
of high-seas fisheries, addressing the severe stock declines.
Ranching of important fish such as tuna helps in managing the
stocks. The focus on global solutions tends to leave small-scale
fisheries neglected, and local resource users are in danger of
losing their income. In industrial countries, fishery practices are
improved with the help of technology. This is particularly
relevant for high-value fish for food species such as large
shrimp, salmon, and cod. Technology allows for a massive
expansion of aquaculture, with less and less need for wild-
caught fishmeal and the development of feed alternatives.

3.7 CASE STUDY: FISHERIES AND TOURISM IN THE CARIBBEAN SEA—JAMAICA AND BONAIRE [S 12.4.3]

Many ecosystem services are provided by the Caribbean Sea.
Two of the most prized are fisheries and recreation. The Caribbean
attracts about 57% of scuba diving tours worldwide. In the 1950s,
1960s, and 1970s, Jamaica was the prime dive location, and hard
corals covered as much as 90% of shallow coastal areas. By the
late 1960s, chronic overfishing had reduced fish biomass by about
80% compared to the previous decade. Then, in the early 1980s,
two extreme events hit Jamaican coral reefs, causing their collapse.
In 1980, Hurricane Allen broke many large elkhorn and staghorn
corals into pieces. In 1983, an unidentified disease spread
throughout the Caribbean and killed 99% of black spined sea
urchins (Diadema antillarum), the primary grazer of algae on the
reefs. Without the ecosystem services provided by grazing fish or
sea urchins, fleshy macro-algae came to dominate coral reefs
(more than 90% cover) in just two years. The lucrative dive tourism
industry in Jamaica declined.

When the sea urchin mass mortality occurred throughout the
region, most sites suffered algal overgrowth, but a few sites—like
Bonaire—did not. With abundant grazing fish, Bonaire had no

38 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING

reported algal overgrowth. In Bonaire, the Reef Environmental
Educational Foundation has recently generated statistics from
about 60,000 coral reef fish surveys, which rate seven dive sites
in Bonaire among the top 10 worldwide for fish species
richness, with over 300 species. Bonaire banned spear fishing
from its reefs in 1971. In 1979, the Bonaire Marine Park was
created. In 1992, active management of the park started with
the introduction of mandatory permits for divers, bringing in
about $170,000 a year to support protected area management.
Economic activities (dive operators, hotels, etc.) connected with
the park attract about 10,000 people annually; such activities
are valued at over $23 million per year. In contrast, the cost of
park management is under $1 million per annum. In this case,
regulating provision of one service (the fishery) maintained
resilience in the ecosystem and led to a long-term gain in
provision of recreation as well as a stable, long-term fishery.
These synergistic interactions among ecosystem services allow
for the simultaneous enhancement of the supply of more than
one ecosystem service.

CONSEQUENCES OF EACH SCENARIO FOR THE FACTORS AFFECTING HYPOXIA IN THE GULF OF MEXICO
[S 8, Table 8.8]

ay, be

Farming Decrease in area; no change Increase in area; increase
in nutrients; some in fertilizer use; limited
improvement in land improvement in land
management; constant or management; increased
minor decrease in nutrient nutrient runoff
runoff

Managing Management of river for Some local addition of

the river barges eliminates some riparian buffers and
wetlands and increases wetlands combined with
channelization; some decrease in wetlands and
increase in wetlands and building levees; increased
buffers elsewhere; no change Proportion of nutrients.
in proportion of nutrients entering Mississippi
entering Mississippi

Managing Investment in human well- Some area abandoned;

the river delta

being in delta results in many
local improvements; however,
river channelization leads to

regulation of river; further
decrease in delta despite
some local increases in

Increase in area; less
fertilizer use; better land
management practices;
less nutrient runoff

Some levee removal
driven by farming and
flood protection; restored
wetlands and riparian
buffers; decreased
proportion of nutrients
entering Mississippi

Local projects, but
disagreements about what
to do about the river;
slightly increased flow

Decrease in area; less
fertilizer use; better land
management practices;
less nutrient runoff

Levee removal and re-
engineering of floodplains
with ecologically
sophisticated levees and
engineered wetlands;
decreased proportion of
nutrients entering
Mississippi

Federal ecological
re-engineering of the delta
leads to greatly increased
area of wetlands

only small increases in flow wetland

through delta

Changes Slow growth in area Substantial growth in area
in hypoxia

Changes Sport fishery persists, Fishery eliminated

in fishery commercial fishery closed

due to low profitability

Offshore aquaculture is developed for high-value fish such as
tuna. Technological solutions, however, remain vulnerable to
surprise events such as the spread of diseases and pests.
Corporations from the industrial world take over substantial
parts of developing-country fisheries, which export large
amounts to the developed world. International aid is required to
support the collapsing fishing communities in developing
countries. The expansion of aquaculture counters this impact to
some extent. Aquaculture in the developing world focuses more
on lower-value fish, to support food security and provide cheap
export products. Large tracks of coastal land are lost to
aquaculture, with impacts on ecosystem services such as erosion
control and storm and flood protection.

High-seas fisheries face further losses of stocks and tend
increasingly to focus on aquaculture operations outside of
national exclusive economic zones. This sector is completely
dominated by industrial countries able to afford the new
technologies [S 8.6].

The case study on fisheries and tourism from Jamaica
and Bonaire (see Box 3.7) demonstrates how natural factors
and management decisions influence the development of
ecosystem services, a link that has been used extensively by the
four scenarios.

through the delta

Initial increase in area, Reduction in area

then gradual decline

Local management and
improvement of fishery

Fishery increased and
combined with delta;
aquaculture maintained

© Cross-cutting issue 2: Eutrophication

Eutrophication is a major driver of loss of ecosystem services
in the marine and coastal zone. A drastic example of the
effects of eutrophication on marine and coastal ecosystems
is the Gulf of Mexico, where agricultural run-offs created,
by 2002, an area of hypoxia of more than 20,000 km’. (See
Box 3.8.)

The hypoxia zone in the Gulf of Mexico would be reduced
most in the TechnoGarden scenario, due to improved
agricultural practices and better management of the Mississippi
river, the Mississippi delta, and New Orleans. The Adapting
Mosaic scenario predicts an initial increase in the amount of
the dead zone, but due to local efforts the situation would be
reversed slowly. Under the Global Orchestration scenario,
positive and negative impacts would equal each other, and in
effect, the hypoxia zone would increase further. The cumulative
effects of the Order from Strength scenario makes it the worst
for the future development of the dead zone in the Gulf of
Mexico [S 8.7.9]. Table 3.1 summarizes the consequences of
each of the four MA scenarios for these main factors. Climate
change will not be very different across the scenarios; warming
of the Gulf and increased rainfall in the catchment area will
worsen the situation in the hypoxia zone.

MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING 39

Box 3.8 CASE STUDY: DEAD ZONES IN THE GULF OF MEXICO

Five factors have been identified that influence the extent of the hypoxia zone in the Gulf of Mexico: climate, agricultural management in
the Mississippi catchment area, the management of the Mississippi river, the management of the Mississippi river delta and New Orleans,
and fishing practices. These factors largely depend on decisions that have been taken, often decades ago, far away from the Gulf itself.
Figure 3.3 shows the direct and indirect drivers of this process.

Figure 3.3 CONCEPTUAL MAP OF DIRECT AND INDIRECT DRIVERS OF THE DEAD ZONE IN THE GULF OF MEXICO

The colours represent different levels of direct and indirect drivers influencing the dead zone [S 8, Figure 8.7].

Population, economics, inequality Wetlands mgmt
Flood control, levees

Managing the Managing
the Mississippi
River

Delta & New
Orleans

Hurricanes

Dead zone in
Gulf of Mexico

Landscape
context (buffers)

Temp in gulf

Agriculture

in US Midwest

Precipitation
in Midwest

|
i

Ag practices

fertilizer

as the protection of society from storm and related damage
through natural buffers such as coral reefs, mangrove forests,

tim

) Cross-cutting Issue 3: Sea-level Rise and Coastal
Protection

Climate change is expected to impact (through sea-level rise)

severely on coastal wetlands, with substantial losses for

estuaries, deltas, and tidal flats as well as accelerating coral
bleaching through the increase of sea surface temperatures.
This effect is least developed in the TechnoGarden scenario

(Wetlands SR 5]. The four scenarios predict a mean global

sea-level rise of between 50 cm (TechnoGarden) and 70 cm
(Global Orchestration).

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has

described how climate change affects the sea level. Warmer air
temperatures result in an expansion of ocean water and a

melting of ice from ice caps and glaciers. In addition, stronger

winds in the landward direction will also contribute to sea-level
rise along the coastline.

Coastal protection as an ecosystem service can be described

40 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING

and sand bars. The future of this service depends particularly on
the degree of sea-level rise and sea surface temperature.

In the Global Orchestration and the Order from Strength
scenarios, coastal protection for industrial countries—focused
on the repair of damage after it occurrs rather than an active
ecosystem management system for prevention—is likely to
remain about the same. In developing countries, coastal
protection is expected to suffer severely in both these scenarios.
Under the Adapting Mosaic and the TechnoGarden scenarios,
ecosystem management actively addresses coastal protection,
which will generally improve. In developing countries, however,
the efforts under the TechnoGarden scenario are frequently
hampered by unforeseen responses of ecosystems, and in effect,
coastal protection is likely to remain rather unchanged [S 9.5].

Developing countries are likely to be more negatively

impacted by climate change-induced sea-level rise. This is due,
amongst other reasons, to sea-level rise requiring new technical
solutions such as more efficient dykes and flood gates, which
are more affordable in industrial than in developing countries
[S 9.5]. Other impacts of global warming on coastal zones

are shown in the case study from Papua New Guinea. (See
Box 3.9.)

™ Cross-cutting Issue 4: Biodiversity

Forecasts for biodiversity in marine and coastal ecosystems
are severely hampered by the lack of ecological knowledge.
Often, even information on the species level is missing.
Methodologies such as species-area curves, proven useful for
terrestrial ecosystems, do not necessarily work for marine
systems for many reasons, including the fact that species
extinctions are rarely observed [S 10.4].

The MA has developed the four scenarios in the coastal and
marine realm for three different areas, the Gulf of Thailand, the
Central North Pacific, and the northern Benguela upwelling
ecosystem. For biodiversity, the MA uses an index for biomass
that takes the number of species and the number of individuals
(biomass) into account. A high value represents a high evenness
(even distribution of biomass across a high number of species),
a low value the domination of very few species amongst a low
number of species [S 10.4.1].

The northern Benguela upwelling current is a highly
productive upwelling system off the coast of Southern Africa,
with a rich diversity, supporting small, medium, and large
pelagic fisheries. The four scenarios all foresee only small
changes in the biomass index for the North Benguela, despite
differences in emphasis on supporting employment
Opportunities and ecosystem management.

In the Central North Pacific, fisheries are focusing on tuna.
Small tunas have increased in the area with the decline of their
large top predators. The TechnoGarden and Global
Orchestration scenarios are able to maintain the initial level of
biomass diversity, while the Order from Strength scenario
predicts an initial decrease, but then a recovery of the biomass
index, mainly due to changes in drift net fishing. The Adapting
Mosaic scenario allows the index to rise initially due to the
closure of turtles fishery and the focus on tuna fishing. With the
rebuilding of the most valuable tuna stocks by 2030 increasing
the value of fisheries, the overall biomass diversity begins to
decrease again. In summary, in the Central North Pacific
system, biomass diversity could be increased if the management
imperatives for increasing the value of fisheries were
substantially reduced [S 10.4].

The most efficient way to rebuild marine biodiversity is an
ecosystem-focused policy. Efforts to increase the value of
individual stocks and thus increasing their value for fisheries
appear to result in a decline of biodiversity. (See Box 3.10
for an example of an ecosystem-based approach in St. Lucia
that focuses on marine reserves within a wider zone of
fisheries management.)

Box 3.9 CASE STUDY: PREDICTED IMPACTS OF GLOBAL WARMING

ON THE COASTAL ZONE OF PAPUA NEW GUINEA
[PNG sub-global assessment, 8.2]

The direct impacts of global warming on the coastal zone of Papua New

Guinea (PNG) have been assessed in a report covering the whole of the
South Pacific region, and may be summarized as follows:

Temperature rise with no decrease in humidity will increase the
relative strain index for coastal PNG, with deterioration in human
comfort, and increased stress and lower productivity for manual
workers. There will be higher demand for building air conditioning,
increased energy use, and hence increased cost of work productivity.

Waterborne vector diseases (malaria, dengue fever, filariasis)
and skin fungal diseases may have prolonged seasonal virility in
coastal areas.

Limestone-based soils are likely to become less fertile as increased
temperature changes sodium/calcium ratios.

Ecosystems particularly vulnerable to global warming will be coastal
forests, especially mangroves, seagrasses, and coral reefs.

CASE STUDY: NO-TAKE ZONES IN ST. LUCIA [S 12.4]

The Soufriére Marine Management Area, created in 1995 along 11

km of the coast of St. Lucia in the Caribbean, includes five small
marine reserves alternating with areas where fishing is allowed.
Roughly 35% of the fishing grounds in this area have been set aside
and protected. The initial cost of restricting access to fishers in about
a third of the available area (a decline in a provisioning ecosystem
service) has been easily compensated for by the benefits. As may be
expected, fish biomass inside the reserves tripled in just four years,
but, more importantly, biomass in the fished areas doubled during

the same period, and remained stable thereafter. In less than the
typical term of an elected governmental official, the fishery recovered

and landings increased. There is growing evidence from around the
world supporting marine reserves and fishery closures as an effective

tool for managing fish, one of the most important provisioning

ecosystem services. Wise local management of fisheries averted a
negative impact, possibly for the long term.

MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING 41

eee

4 What can be done about the loss of marine and coastal ecosystems

and their services?

@ The MA explores a wide range of responses to the human impact
on ecosystems. Operational responses are important to consider for
all policy options, whereas specific responses relate to sectors.

@ The operational response options include the following:
stakeholder participation in decision-making from global to local
levels;
development of stakeholder capacity;
communication, education, and public awareness, and the
empowerment of communities;
generating alternative incomes;
monitoring of biophysical and socioeconomic effects of responses,
addressing of uncertainties, such as basic knowledge of
biodiversity and ecosystem processes; and
addressing trade-offs among uses of ecosystem services.

@ The specific response options include the following:
international and regional mechanism that may focus on
biodiversity, fisheries, habitat loss, or wider aspects of
sustainable development;
successful implementation of international agreements;
integrated coastal management requiring a holistic view including
land-based and freshwater influences;
marine protected areas;
coastal protection against storms and floods through provision of
natural barriers;
management of nutrient pollution and waste at source point;
geo-engineering for CO sequestration;
economic interventions such as financial incentives, taxes,
and subsidies;
fisheries management; and
aquaculture management.

@ Important tools for applying policy options include multicriteria

analysis, scenarios, environmental impact assessment, and

economic valuation.

@ Effort needs to be made in the implementation and enforcement

of existing legislation and policy.

Introduction

People have been influencing ecosystems as long as humankind
has existed, and there has always been a challenge to address
human impacts on the ecosystems and the services they provide.
The recent dramatic scale of harmful impacts, however, many of
them visible beyond local, national or regional boundaries,
underlines the need for increasing the regulation of human
activities, with a need to choose the appropriate response
level—local, national, regional or global. It is essential however,
that existing relevant policies and legislation are also
implemented and enforced. This chapter examines the main
responses that societies have recently applied for regulating their
interaction with coastal and marine ecosystems. A distinction is

42 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING

made between operational and specific responses, with the
former not being bound to specific sectors but being important
to consider for all policy options. The responses are outlined
below, indicating their effectiveness, the type of responses, and
the required actors.

Response Options

In the following paragraphs, a response is considered to be
effective when its assessment indicates that it has enhanced the
particular ecosystem service and contributed to human well-
being without significant harm to other ecosystem services or
harmful impacts to other groups of people. A response is
considered promising either if it does not have a long track
record to assess but appears likely to succeed or if there are
known means of modifying the response so that it can become
effective. A response is considered problematic if its historical
use indicates either that it has not met the goals related to
service enhancement (or conservation and sustainable use of
biodiversity) or that it has caused significant harm to other
ecosystem services. Labelling a response as effective does not
mean that the historical assessment has not identified problems
or harmful trade-offs. Such trade-offs almost always exist, but
they are not considered significant enough as to negate the
effectiveness of the response. Similarly, labelling a response as
problematic does not mean that there are no promising
opportunities to reform the response in a way that can meet its
policy goals without undue harm to ecosystem services.

The typology of responses presented in the following
paragraphs is defined by the nature of the intervention, classified
as follows: institutional and legal (I), economic and incentives (E),
social and behavioural (S), technological (T), and knowledge and
cognitive (K). Note that the dominant class is presented. The
actors who make decisions to implement a response are
governments (G) at different levels, such as international (GI)
(mainly through multilateral agreements or international
conventions), national (GN), and local (GL); the business/industry
sector (B); and civil society, which includes nongovernmental
organizations (NGO), community-based and indigenous people’s
organizations (C), and research institutions (R). The actors are
not necessarily equally important [General SR, Appendix B].

Operational Responses

™ Stakeholder Participation in Decision-making
Effectiveness: Effective

Type of response: Institutional and legal (I), social and

behavioural (S)
Required actors: National government (GN), local government

4.1 LARGE MARINE ECOSYSTEMS [CT 19.5.2]

Regional agreements are thought to be a more effective way to manage shared coastal and marine resources, especially when such agreements
capitalize on better understandings of costs and benefits accruing from shared responsibilities in conserving the marine environment. Large marine
ecosystems (LMEs) have been put forward as a logical way to frame area-based approaches of many agreements and mechanisms. The world’s
seas have been divided into 64 LMEs, with each LME covering an area of around 200,000 km2 and characterized by specific bathymetry,

hydrology, productivity, and trophically dependent populations.

Using an LME framework ensures a holistic approach by facilitating a process where issues both environmental and sociopolitical are first
considered at a regional level through the creation of an action plan and then addressed again through a series of national planning exercises.
Such planning can take into consideration many of the different response options available to decision-makers.

Several recent international instruments refer to LMEs, and the geographic units serve as the basis for some global assessments, such as
UNEP’s Global International Waters Assessment (GIWA). In many parts of the world, however, the political constituency for nations to cooperate to
conserve large-scale ecosystems Is lacking, though this situation may well be improving.

(GL), nongovernmental organization (NGO), business/industry
(B), community groups (C), research institutions (R)

Stakeholders include government bodies, local and indigenous
communities, nongovernmental organizations as well as the
private sector, the latter particularly in the case of industrial
fisheries [CT 18.9]. Local-level involvement has in many cases
proven to improve the recovery of coastal ecosystems. Local or
indigenous perspectives might provide for alternative management
priorities [R 3.5]. Key steps to improve participatory processes are
to increase the transparency of information, improve the
understanding of the issues, improve the representation of
marginalized stakeholders, engage them in the establishment of

policy objectives and priorities for the allocation of services, and
create space for deliberation and learning accommodating multiple
perspectives [R 7]. The case studies on the Mankote Mangrove in
St. Lucia (Box 4.2) and the village fish reserves in Samoa (Box 4.7)
provide examples of successful stakeholder participation.

| Capacity Development

Effectiveness: Effective

Type of response: Institutional and legal (1)

Required actors: National government (GN), local government
(GL), nongovernmental organizations (NGO), community
groups (C), research institutions (R)

CASE STUDY: THE MANKOTE MANGROVE IN ST. LUCIA [R 17, Box 17.2]

The Mankote Mangrove constitutes 20% of the total mangrove area in St. Lucia. Uncontrolled charcoal harvesting through excessive tree loggings
created a severe environmental decline of the mangroves, which posed a serious threat to many of the ecosystem services that the mangrove
provided, including water quality, coastal stability, bird habitat, and fish breeding. Locai communities, consisting primarily of poor people, undertook
the practice of harvesting charcoal. These communities had no legal right to use the publicly owned mangrove resources. With no possibility for
substitution, the loss of access to the mangroves by these poor populations due to resource depletion or degradation would have created

permanent loss of their only source of income.

To address this problem, the following solution was implemented:

The local communities were organized into informal cooperatives and given communal legal and exclusive rights to harvest the charcoal.
They were involved in monitoring the programme, to get accurate information on the overall health of the mangrove.
Measures to increase the supply of wood outside the mangrove reserve were put in place, as were alternative job options for charcoal

harvesters, including in tourism.
The effort yielded the following results:
The decline in the Mankote Mangrove was halted and reversed.

The density and size of trees increased.
Charcoal harvests were maintained.

The range of employment options for the poor population somewhat increased.

This is a clear case where a property and legal rights approach made sense, because the subsistence harvesters were the primary source of the
problem due to uncontrolled harvesting of charcoal. The use of formal rights to the resource gave the poor an incentive for long-term management
of the mangrove as an asset over which they had control. The introduction of a monitoring programme further improved the level of and access to

information they had about the general condition of the mangrove.

MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING 43

4

-
A

Management of marine and coastal ecosystems and the

associated impacts on human well-being is often inadequate,
leading to conflicts and a decrease in services. A particular
challenge is provided by the need to take into account the
impacts of external influences on the marine and coastal
systems, such as climate change or land-based pollution and
degradation [CT 19.1]. A crucial component of such an
approach is the development of capacity.

Communication, Education, and Public Awareness

Effectiveness: Effective

Type of response: Social and behavioural (S)

Required actors: National government (GN), local government
(GL), nongovernmental organizations (NGO), community
groups (C)

MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING

Communication, education, and public awareness are important
components of successful ecosystem management, ensuring that
decision-makers, managers, and other actors fully understand
the background to and implications of their activities.
Communication, education, and public awareness bear
particularly good results when accompanied by efforts to
empower communities to take decisions on the management of

“ecosystems [R 5.2.9]. Providing the human and financial

resources to undertake effective work in this area is a
continuing barrier [R 5]. The Mankote mangrove in St. Lucia
provides an example of the successful use of communication
and public awareness raising in a coastal context.

(See Box 4.2.)

Alternative Income-generating Activities

Effectiveness: Promising, problematic

Type of response: Economic and incentives (E), social and
behavioural (S)

Required actors: Local government (GL), nongovernmental
organizations (NGO), community groups (C)

It is increasingly recognized that some human activities are no
longer appropriate or sustainable in marine and coastal
ecosystems and alternative forms of income generation (AIGAs)
are needed for those users who will be directly affected.
Developing AIGAs requires a long-term commitment from all
actors and considerable effort to build capacity, change
attitudes, provide a social net and financial resources to ensure
that users do not return to their former livelihoods. The case
study on the Mankote mangrove in St. Lucia (Box 4.2)
illustrates an example of alternative income-generation.

Monitoring

Effectiveness: Effective, promising

Type of response: Institutional and legal (I), technological (T),
knowledge and cognitive (K)

Required actors: Government at an international level (GI),
national government (GN), local government (GL),
nongovernmental organizations (NGO), community groups (C),
research institutions (R)

Monitoring is a crucial component of any management
strategy. It is best used by applying indicators. Given the
substantial deficiencies in understanding marine and coastal
ecosystems, the development of indicators for biophysical
and socioeconomic responses to management measures is
currently limited. Indicators for institutional and governance
responses are available to an even lesser degree [Wetlands SR
6.3; R 18.3]. The involvement of the community in the
monitoring of ecosystems is key to the success. Monitoring
plays an important role in the Mankote mangroves in St. Lucia.
(See Box 4.2.)

™ Addressing Uncertainty

Effectiveness: Promising, problematic

Type of response: Institutional and legal (I), knowledge and
cognitive (K)

Required actors: National government (GN), local government
(GL), community groups (C), research institutions (R)

To a larger degree than terrestrial ecosystems, marine
systems confront decision-makers, ecosystem managers,
and researchers with a high degree of uncertainty.
Uncertainty results from a lack of understanding of coastal
and marine ecosystems [CT 4; S 3.4.6: S 4.8; R 6.2.3],
particularly about:
knowledge of deep-sea biodiversity, including taxonomy
and ecosystem composition;
W patterns of endemism;
@ habitat data such as long-term and large-area ecological
processes;
W understanding of the oceanic nitrogen cycle; and
H population dynamics and related recovery potential
of commercially exploited resources.

A precautionary approach, taking these uncertainties into
account, is needed for policy responses in the coastal and
marine realm.

©) Trade-off Analysis

Effectiveness: Promising, problematic

Type of response: Institutional and legal (I), economic and
incentives (E)

Required actors: National government (GN), local government
(GL), community groups (C)

Trade-offs between ecosystem services will be essential in the
future to make equitable and sustainable use of the world’s
resources. Policy decisions will need to address trade-offs
between activities that impact coastal and marine well-being
and land uses such as fisheries, agricultural production, water
quality, and upstream barriers to water flow to coastal zones.
The lack of understanding of ecosystem services, including their
economic values, contributes to difficulties in finding the right
balance [CT 19.5.1]. Tools for addressing trade-offs include, for
example, environmental impact assessment (see page 53) and
the zoning of areas, which has been applied in many terrestrial
areas, but less so in marine and coastal systems.

Specific Responses
© Applying International/Regional Mechanisms

Effectiveness: Promising, problematic
Type of response: Institutional and legal (1)

Required actors: Government at an international level (GI),
national government (GN)

There is a multitude of global and regional agreements,
instruments, and programmes facilitating international
cooperation concerning the conservation and sustainable use
of marine and coastal ecosystems [C18, 19; R5, 15]. (For a
list of agreements see Appendix 1; for two examples, see Box
4.3). Their effectiveness is dependent on government
commitment to build the capacity to implement and enforce
compliance of the provisions of the instrument [C18, 19;
RS, 15]. (See Box 4.4.) This includes the
availability/provision of human and financial resources.
Better coordination among conventions across national
jurisdictions and on the high seas would increase their
usefulness. Attention is needed on integrating these
instruments into national and local institutions. Local
stakeholders can take advantage of international instruments
to gain wider exposure for their issues and concerns. (For a
case study on the governance challenge for the Caribbean
region, see Box 4.5.)

EFFECTIVENESS OF INTERNATIONAL
INSTRUMENTS

An analysis of the compliance by 11 European and North American
countries with treaties and conventions that apply to North Atlantic
Fisheries found that compliance has very little to do with sustainable
fisheries management [C 18.6]. Many of the stocks such as tuna,
cod, and herring managed by the various instruments are
overexploited, threatened, or collapsed.

Instrument
(see Appendix 1 for full titles)

Average Compliance
Score (%)

UNCLOS 79
Fish Stocks 47
Compliance 33
NAFO. 68
NEAFC 81
ICCAT 54
ICES 52
CFP 49
Coop Agreement 41
NSS herring 78
Capelin 71

MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING 45

Box 4.4 EXAMPLES OF KEY INTERNATIONAL INSTRUMENTS

United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea

The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) regulates all aspects of the resources of the sea and the uses of the ocean, such
as navigational rights, territorial sea limits, economic jurisdiction, legal status of resources on the seabed beyond the limits of national jurisdiction,
passage of ships through narrow straits, conservation and management of living marine resources, protection of the marine environment, a marine
research regime, and (a more unique feature) a binding procedure for settlement of disputes between States.

UNCLOS gives national sovereignty to nations over their marine resources within 200 nautical miles of their coasts, while outside of the 200
mile limit, conservation and management of marine resources becomes a collaborative effort between nations accessing those resources. UNCLOS
provides the framework to develop agreements such as the Straddling Stocks and Compliance Agreements to deal with high seas issues.

The FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries
The code includes technical guidelines as well as recommendations to:

apply an ecosystem approach to fisheries;

manage stocks using the best available science;

apply the precautionary principle, using conservative management
approaches when the effects of fishing practices are uncertain;

avoid overfishing and prevent or eliminate excess fishing capacity;
minimize waste (discards) and bycatch;

prohibit destructive fishing methods;

restore depleted fish stocks;

implement appropriate national laws, management plans, and means
of enforcement;

monitor the effects of fishing on all species in the ecosystem, not just
the target fish stock;

work cooperatively with other states to coordinate management policies
and enforcement actions;

recognize the importance of artisanal and small-scale fisheries and the
value of traditional management practices; and

integrate fishery management into coastal area management.

Article 9 of the FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries sets
principles and guidelines for the sustainable development and
management of aquaculture.

The Code of Conduct is a voluntary instrument and its effectiveness
depends on the willingness of countries to implement it.

Box 4.5 CASE STUDY: CHALLENGES FOR POLICY RESPONSES IN THE CARIBBEAN

The Caribbean Sea comprises territorial waters and coastal areas of 33 bordering countries and territories, which makes a coordinated approach to
management of the area extremely difficult. Players are not only those countries and territories, but also the colonial powers from North America
and Europe; international institutions such as UNEP UNDP World Bank, and the Organization of American States; international NGOs; the Western
Central Atlantic Fisheries Commission of the FAO (WECAFC); donor agencies; and regional intergovernmental organizations such as the Association
of Caribbean States (ACS) and the Caribbean Community (CARICOM).

The scale of problems such as overfishing, pollution, and expanding tourism is not matched by an appropriate managerial response, as
management is organized along the lines of individual countries or political blocks such as CARICOM.

The existing governance framework makes for much complexity, presenting many challenges such as the lack of harmonization. This extends into
the nongovernmental sector where NGOs are not well integrated into the policy analysis and decision-making process. On the other hand, the
diversity of the governance structure offers a variety of opportunities for exercise of authority in relation to shared issues and interests. However, it
has been suggested to create another decision-making body at the highest regional intergovernmental level.

Globally, the United Nations has recently addressed attention to the Caribbean Sea, stressing, in UN Resolution 57/216, the need for a
comprehensive and integrated approach to the management of the Caribbean Sea. This Resolution offers a high-level and up-to-date common
policy basis upon which wider Caribbean states might take concerted action among themselves and upon which they might enlist global
cooperation in an effort to meet the objectives of the policy.

Source: Caribbean Sea sub-global assessment, 1.3 and 6.2.

46 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING

© Linking the Integrated Management and Planning
of River Catchments and Coastal Areas (integrated
coastal management and planning)

Effectiveness: Effective, promising

Type of response: Institutional and legal (I), social and behavioural (S)
Required actors: National government (GN), local government
(GL), community groups (C), research institutions (R)

An integrated approach to coastal management requires a holistic
view that includes land-based and freshwater influences, and the
necessary political, economic, and social conditions [CT 19.5.2].
Land use planning and inshore resource management—including
zoning, catchment management, and impact assessments—are
linked to integrated coastal zone management (ICZM)
horizontally (across sectors) and vertically (across levels of
government) [R 15.5.3]. This approach to management and
planning provides a balance among the users and ecosystem needs
which is often found by exploring the trade-offs that are needed.
ICZM deals with the drivers of coastal change through three
major ways [R 15.5.3]:
@ addressing conflicts between uses and users of natural
resources;
M regulating increasing demands on coastal resources by
improving management and planning processes; and
M@ promoting institutional changes relating to decision-making
about coastal zones through more inclusive decision-making,
capacity-building, and inter-agency coordination.

The case of coastal planning in British Columbia (see Box 4.6)
provides an example of how a participatory process supports
integrated coastal management.

| Marine Protected Areas
Effectiveness: Effective, promising

Type of response: Institutional and legal (I), social and
behavioural (S)

Required actors: National government (GN), local government
(GL), nongovernmental organizations (NGO), community
groups (C)

Marine protected areas (MPAs) can be defined as areas of the
ocean designated to enhance conservation of marine resources;
marine reserves are those protected areas of the ocean that are
completely protected from all extractive and destructive activities
[R 5.2.6]. MPAs are important in conserving biodiversity and
managing marine and coastal ecosystems, as well as in
contributing to the sustainable use of marine resources. MPAs
that exclude extractive activities (marine reserves) tend to lead to
increases in the density, biomass, individual size, and diversity of
vertebrate species, thus conserving biodiversity and reducing the
risk of extinction for some marine species. Networks of reserves
are necessary for long-term fishery and conservation benefits;
and increased reserve size, up to an optimal maximum
depending on objectives, tends to lead to increased benefits, but
even small reserves often have positive effects. Some coastal
areas under some form of community management can yield
better results for biodiversity and human well-being than
officially recognized areas [CT 19.5.2]. Box 4.7 provides
examples of successful marine protected areas in the Bahamas
and Samoa. Notwithstanding their potential benefits, marine
protected areas need to be properly designed and managed in
order to achieve their objectives. Enforcement of MPAs can be
problematic and to be effective they must enjoy the full support
of all stakeholders.

9 CASE STUDY: PARTICIPATORY LAND USE PLANNING IN COASTAL BRITISH COLUMBIA, CANADA

In coastal British Columbia, the economy strongly depends on natural resources. Uncertainties about land resource use issues led the Provincial
Government to initiate a major planning process for the central and north coasts and the Haida Gwaii/Queen Charlotte Island area. Its purpose was
to enable all parties—the Provincial Government, First Nations, local governments and communities, the forestry, fishing, tourism, and mining
sectors, environmental groups, and others—to reach agreement on the future development and conservation of land resources. In 2001, this

process established:

a government-to-government relationship between the Province and the First Nations,

a commitment of all land-use planning to promote ecosystem-based management,

the Coast Information Team (CIT), an independent body providing the best available information and expertise for ecosystem-based development.
The CIT consisted of scientists, practitioners, and traditional and local experts, overseen by a Management Committee and supported by a

secretariat.

The CIT was tasked to produce information to support. governments and participants in the planning processes reach decisions that achieved

ecosystem-based management, and specifically to provide:
an ecosystem-based management framework;
regional and subregional analyses;
a hydro-riparian decision tool;

technical support for pilot projects investigating local applications of ecosystem-based management;
additional information to assist Land and Resource Management Plans and First Nations’ Land Use Plans.

Source: Coastal British Columbia sub-global assessment, 1.3-1.5.

MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING 47

Box 4.7 BENEFITS FROM MARINE PROTECTED AREAS: BAHAMAS AND SAMOA [R 5, Box 5.1]

Bahamas

The Exuma Cays Land and Sea Park (45,620 ha) was established in 1958 covering both the terrestrial and marine environments associated with
these islands. The Park became a no-take fisheries reserve in 1986. Research has shown that the concentration of conch in the park is 31 times
greater than outside the park, providing several million conchs per year to areas outside the park available to be harvested by fishers. Additionally,
tagged grouper from the Exuma Park have been caught off both north and south Long Island (Bahamas), indicating the Park is replenishing grouper
stocks in areas as far as 250 km away. Tagged spiny lobsters from the Exuma Park are found replenishing the marine environment of Cat Island,
100 km away. The success of fisheries resource replenishment in the Exuma Park led the government to announce a policy decision in 2000 to
protect 20% of the Bahamian marine ecosystem, doubling the size of the national protected areas system.

Samoa

In the Pacific Island of Samoa, as in many countries in the tropics, catches of seafood from coastal areas, lagoons, and inshore reefs have been
decreasing over the past 10 years. Reasons for this decline include overexploitation, the use of destructive fishing methods (including explosives,
chemicals, and traditional plant-derived poisons), and environmental disturbances. In order to address this problem, the Samoan Fisheries Division
initiated in 1995 a community-based extension project in 65 villages which recognized the village fono (council) as the prime agency responsible
for actions. A large number of villages (38) chose to establish small village fish reserves in part of their traditional fishing areas and decided to
actively support and enforce government laws banning the use of explosives and chemicals for fishing. Some villages also set minimum size limits
for capturing fishes. While many of the village reserves are small (ranging from 5,000 to 175,000 m2), their number and the small distance among
them forms a network of fish refuges. In just a few years, fisheries stocks have increased 30-40% and there are signs of recovery in reefs
previously affected by destructive fishing methods. As the fish reserves are being managed by communities which have direct interest in their
success, prospects for long-term sustainability of this initiative are high.

Marine protected areas and reserves are one tool of several
for fisheries management, and an adaptive approach, allowing
for assessment and modification as new information and
challenges arise, is required [CT 18.7.4].

The benefits of marine protected areas for adjacent areas and
fisheries are difficult to assess, due to problems in measuring
those impacts and the fact that few marine protected areas have
been in existence long enough [R 5.2.6; 6.3.6]. However, it has
been demonstrated for some cases that fish larvae or adults,
migrating outside of the reserve, increase the yields for
fishermen in surrounding areas [R 6.3.6]. Despite the
uncertainties over these impacts, marine protected areas and
reserves, and particularly networks of such areas, if managed

48 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING

well, are most likely to become a very important tool in the
management of many fisheries and the sustainable use of
ecosystems, adding value to other approaches [R 6.3.6].
Methods for design and location need further development.

~ Coastal Protection

Effectiveness: Effective, promising, problematic

Type of response: Technology (T)

Required actors: Government at an international level (GI),
national government (GN), business/industry sector (B)

Land use planning and habitat conservation that protect natural
barriers such as mangroves and intertidal flats are soft or
nonstructural measures for coastal protection. Soft measures are
more flexible, cost-effective, and sustainable, particularly in the
light of climate change-induced increases in flood and storm
events. Expensive hard or structural measures such as
embankments and dykes remain necessary in certain cases. The
restoration of lost or damaged ecosystems remains a major—
and expensive—challenge for coastal protection, facing the
difficulty of anticipating future disturbances [R 11.1; R 11.3;R
17.2.4]. A number of examples of the use of land use planning
for coastal protection are provided in Box 4.8.

© Management of Nutrient Pollution: Runoff and
Fossil Fuel Combustion

Effectiveness: Effective, problematic

Type of response: Institutional and legal (I), technological (T)
Required actors: Government at an international level (GI),
national government (GN), local government (GL)

Box 4.8 EXAMPLES OF LAND USE PLANNING FOR COASTAL PROTECTION [R 11, Box 11.2]

Florida

The Standard Building Code (SBC) or the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) governs construction along or near the Florida coastline.
Compliance with these codes makes individuals and businesses within the communities eligible to purchase flood insurance. In the 1980s, Florida
reinforced the stipulations contained in the SBC and the NFIP by establishing the Coastal Construction Control Lines (CCCL), which defines specific
areas along the coastline that are subject to flooding and erosion. The CCCL was adopted throughout Florida between 1982 and 1991 and reflects
storm impact zones over a 100-year period. Distinctions were made between two categories of structures based on the CCCL regulations: (1)
structures located seaward of the CCCL that were built prior to enactment of the CCCL regulation were categorized as non-permitted structures at risk
of sustaining hurricane damage; and (2) structures built after the adoption of the CCCL require a special building permit to certify that the builder will
adhere to a more rigid set of building standards designed to reduce the risk of structural damage that can be sustained during a hurricane.

Canada
New Brunswick completed remapping of the entire coast of the province to delineate the landward limit of coastal features. The setback for new
development is defined from this limit. Some other provinces have adopted a variety of setback policies, based on estimates of future coastal retreat.

Barbados

A national statute establishes a minimum building setback along sandy coasts of
30 m from the mean high-water mark; along coastal cliffs the setback is 10 m from
the undercut portion of the cliff.

Aruba and Antigua
The setback is established at 50 m inland from high-water mark.

Sri Lanka

Setback areas and no-build zones are identified in a Coastal Zone Management Plan.
Minimum setbacks of 60 m from mean sea level are regarded as good planning
practice.

United Kingdom
In 1998, the House of Commons endorsed the concept of managed realignment as the
preferred long-term strategy for coastal defence in some areas.

United States

The states of Maine, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and South Carolina have
implemented various forms of rolling easement policies to ensure that wetlands and
beaches can migrate inland as sea-level rises.

Australia

Several states have coastal setback and minimum elevation policies, including those
to accommodate potential sea-level rise and storm surge. In South Australia,
setbacks take into account the 100-year erosional trend plus the effect of a 0.3 m
sea-level rise to 2050. Building sites should be above storm surge flood level for the
100-year return interval.

A number of methodologies to reduce the nitrogen pollution of
coastal waters have been elaborated [R 9.5.1; R 9.5.5; R 9.5.6].
Coastal nutrient pollution should be addressed at its sources,
including runoff and leaching from agricultural fields,
concentrated animal feeding operations, fossil fuel combustion,
and urban sources. Watershed, river basin, and national, if not
international, levels are most suitable to take effective action to
reduce the nitrogen (N) input into coastal waters. Wetlands acting
as sinks of both nitrogen and phosphate can help enormously in
reducing coastal water pollution; hence wetland conservation and
restoration need to be taken more seriously. A related option is to
allow for higher N-load limits for N-insensitive ecosystems and

lower N-load limits for ecosystems that are highly N-sensitive.
Alternatively, specific N-input levels could be set up for individual
coastal rivers and bays. Site-specific approaches add significantly
to general N-input reductions as they take the sensitivities of
individual sites into account.

Waste Management: Household and Industrial
Sewage

Effectiveness: Effective, problematic
Type of response: Institutional and legal (I), economic and
incentives (E), social and behavioural (S), technological (T)

MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING 49

Ol

Required actors: Government at an international level (GI),
national government (GN), local government (GL)

Control of waste pollution of oceans and coastal waters has
become a major instrument in managing marine and coastal
ecosystems, particularly in developed countries that have the
resources and abilities needed. Instruments to address waste
pollution of coastal and marine ecosystems range from a change
in production and consumption patterns, the strengthening of
reuse and recycling systems, and improved waste management
facilities to the use of wetlands for managing sewage sludge and
waste water as well as dumping at sea and ballast water
management. Issues of governance structures, institutional
arrangements, civil society involvement, and poverty would need
to be integrated into waste management strategies [R 10.3; R
10.4; R 10.6]. Pollution by waste in the high seas has become an
even more challenging issue with the discovery of biodiversity-
rich and complex ecosystems such as deep-sea vents.

Geo-engineering: Carbon Dioxide Sequestration
Effectiveness: Problematic
Type of response: Institutional and legal (I), technological (T)

Required actors: Government at an international level (GI),
national government (GN), business/industry sector (B)

MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING

For mitigation of climate change, increasing the biological
sequestration of carbon dioxide in the oceans has been
proposed [C18]. Currently, the effects of such measures are
hard to predict on a larger scale. The main methodology would
be the fertilization of low productivity marine waters with
iron. That would stimulate the growth of phytoplankton that
in turn would fix larger amounts of carbon dioxide.

Experiments with this approach have demonstrated significant

changes in the biological community composition but the
medium to long-term impacts are unknown. There is also a
risk of algae outbursts leading to anoxia and the large-scale
production of methane, a powerful greenhouse gas [CT 18.8.4;
R 13.5.4].

Economic Interventions: Market-based Instruments

Effectiveness: Promising, problematic

Type of response: Economic and incentives (E)

Required actors: National government (GN), business/industry
sector (B)

Economic interventions (market-based instrument) such as
subsidies, taxes, and financial incentives have a long history
with respect to the marine ecosystems, with consequences
varying with countries and the application of the instrument.
Some incentives—including subsidies for fisheries and coastal
development—have had unwanted side effects, while others
have reduced the impacts of fishing or coastal development
[CT 18.5.2]. Incentives might be provided in the form of fees
for the right to fish or for nonexploitative fishing alternatives
such as sports fishing and tour guiding; fiscal expenditure on
retraining of fishers; and incentives for investment in
alternative economic activity in fishing communities such as
small-scale tourism. Perverse incentives in fisheries continue to
be inadequately addressed. They refer to, for example, size
limits for landed fish, encouraging undersized bycatch to be
discarded at sea, and decommissioning schemes that result in
fleet modernization [CT 18.4]. It remains a major challenge for
marine and coastal management to introduce payments for
ecosystem services such as coastal protection. So far these
services are undervalued [Wetlands SR 6.4].

Fisheries Management

Effectiveness: Promising, problematic

Type of response: Institutional and legal (1)

Required actors: National government (GN), local government
(GL), business/industry sector (B), community groups (C)

Fisheries management options range from strict enforcement of
regulations that include the establishment and implementation
of quotas, gear restrictions and spatial closures, programmes to
address unreported and unregulated catches, and
decommissioning schemes. MPAs can help to enhance fisheries

Fishing effort regulation

Decommissioning schemes

Total quotas or Total allowable catches
(TACs)

Rations

Licence systems

Individual quotas (IQs)

Individual transferable quotas (ITQs)

Taxes or landing fees

Bilateral agreements

MAIN POLICIES FOR THE MANAGEMENT OF OPEN-ACCESS FISHERIES [Based on R 6, Table 6.3]

In this policy, one of the inputs in the index for fishing effort is restricted (for example, number of
days at sea). Effort regulation is usually used with other regulations to ensure that the negative
impacts of reduced effort (e.g. increased gear efficiency) are minimized. Regulations are most
effective when there are enforcement programmes in place and the consequences of breaking the
regulations act as a deterrent.

The purpose of this policy is to bring the capacity in line with catch potentials. This is done by
reducing the fleet capacity through subsidized buy backs. This option needs to be carefully
considered so that the overall fishing capacity of the fleet is reduced and not redistributed.

In this policy, a total quota is imposed on the fishery and when this quota has been filled, the
fishery is closed. The total quota is often recommended to be set at a level where catches can be
sustained. Total quotas have in some cases been used in conjunction with individual quotas (IQs),
for example, in the case of Iceland and New Zealand.

Under a rations policy, the total quota is distributed in short time intervals on vessels, reflecting
seasonal variations in catch possibilities. Rations are used for some species in Denmark.
However, the system of rations creates huge information requirements.

A licence system normally specifies who can enter the fishery, how much can be caught and the
weight of this catch. The purpose is to control the catch of each individual vessel. This policy
response can have negative consequences if practices such as high-grading are not managed.

This policy sets a nontransferable individual annual quota that cannot be changed during the
year and may, therefore, be thought of as a property right. Indeed property rights regulation is
very popular within fisheries; property rights regulate more than 55 fisheries in the world.

Under this policy, the individual quotas (IQs) are made transferable between fishermen. ITQs are used
in, for example, Iceland, the Netherlands, and New Zealand. ITQs generally benefit the fisheries, but
the economic and social consequences to some fishers can be negative for some fisheries.

In this policy either fishing effort or catch is used to compile the tax. In practice taxes are not
popular among fishermen and there are severe implementation problems.

Agreements where one country allows foreign fishing vessels into its EEZ can generate economic
and social benefits to the country with minimal impact on marine ecosystem services. The
effectiveness of these agreements in delivering the potential benefits is high in developed
countries, and much more variable in developing countries. The provisions that are negotiated
need to be carefully considered and resources allocated to enforce the terms of the agreement
by the parties.

3 CASE STUDY TIONAL FISHERIES SECTOR IN CHILE [R 17, Box 17.3]

In the fisheries sector in Chile, fish stocks started depleting greatly after the industry was privatized in 1973. Particularly affected were artisanal
fisherman who, under the individual transferable quota (ITQ) system, cannot compete with industrial fisheries in the market and lose their
livelihoods. To address this issue, individual transferable quotes were implemented for separate subclasses of fisheries and limited to

industrial/commercial fishers.

The success of the programme is unclear. As structured, the ITQs policy has protected industrial-country fishing interests, but reduced the
potential benefits of the market-based quotas. The issue of artisanal fishermen has not been properly addressed, and regular updating of
information about fishery health remains a problem. The small percentage of total catch currently covered suggests that ITQs are not yet addressing

the higher goal of protecting Chilean fisheries.

The rationale for using these measures was two-fold: to apply regulatory efforts more consistently and to control access rights.

MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING 51

management measures. The FAO Code of Conduct for
Responsible Fisheries provides voluntary guidelines for
managing fisheries. (See Box 4.3.) Implementation of the Code
could be strengthened by national implementation plans [R
6.3.6]. Increasingly, an ecosystem-based approach to fisheries
management is being emphasized. (See Box 4.9 for a case study
of the national fisheries sector in Chile.) Which policies to
apply depends on the social and institutional context of
particular fisheries. (See Table 4.1 for a summary of the main
policies available to manage open-access fisheries.)

Aquaculture Management

Effectiveness: Promising, problematic

Type of response: Institutional and legal (I)

Required actors: National government (GN), local government
(GL), business/industry sector (B), community groups (C)

The impact of aquaculture in contributing to the Millennium
Development Goal of eradicating extreme poverty and hunger
(MDG 1) on other ecosystem services can be managed if the
establishment of aquaculture facilities (land-based or offshore)
is done in the context of integrated coastal management and
broad fisheries management policies and the operation of these
facilities is in line with the FAO Code of Conduct for
Responsible Fisheries, which provides principles and
guidelines for the sustainable development and management
of aquaculture.

Genetically modified fish raise environmental concerns, such
as risks of genetic pollution or outcompeting of wild stocks,
and need to be addressed through strict controls, including the
application of sterile animal techniques that prevent
reproduction of genetically modified fish [R 6.3.4; R 6.3.6].

MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING

Other Response Options
New response options are being continually developed; while

some are still untested, they may prove to be powerful
mechanisms in the future. Future response options may include
integrated ocean management, ocean zoning, and a range of
ocean policies.

Evaluating Policy Responses

Responses need to take into account the trade-offs and the
uncertainties. They also need to address the interests of
stakeholders, with a view to support vulnerable and weak
stakeholders who are often found in the communities most
affected by environmental change. The following guidelines
could support the evaluation and selection of appropriate
response options [R, Table 18.1]:

@ Use the best available information about the social, economic,
political, technological, and institutional context.

@ Use the best available ecosystem/biophysical information.

@ Consider concerns and implications regarding procedural and
outcome efficiency.

@ Strive for effective procedures and results.

@ Consider equity concerns and implications, including for
stakeholder participation and a transparent outcome; strive
for consensus among stakeholders.

lf Use the best available information about values, beliefs, and
aspirations of stakeholders.

@ Pursue accountability through clear responsibility assignments
during and after the decision process.

@ Consider concerns and implications for vulnerable
groups/communities.

@ Consider uncertainties, allowing for policy corrections as new

information becomes available or values or positions of
stakeholders change.

@ Consider cross-scale effects, allowing for incorporation of
constraints from higher decision-making levels and for
exploring decision needs at lower decision-making level.

@ Take an adaptive approach that incorporates mechanisms to
monitor and review the effectiveness and to make changes to
the process in a timely and responsive manner.

Tools for Policy Options

Multicriteria analysis (MCA) is a decision support tool guiding
stakeholders in considering the merits of different management
strategies and in determining management priorities. It enables
decision-makers to assess the relative merits of various policy
options by using mathematical programming techniques to
select options based on objective functions with explicit weights
that stakeholders apply. MCA can reflect multiple goals or
objectives for the resources; however, it has large data needs
and can use unrealistic characterization of decision-making. It
has been used to explore regional trade-offs in the design of
protected areas systems [R 5.2.4; R 15].

Scenarios are storylines that may or may not be harmonized
with quantitative modelling. They show plausible futures,
which can be used to explore the consequences of specific
policy directions; they are not projections or predictions of
what will happen. The storylines are often developed through
consensus of experts as to how ecological, economic, and
social systems will react under a given set of drivers that are
based on distinct conditions. When quantitative models are
used to model the storylines, scenarios can be powerful tools
to explore the consequences of major policy shifts that might
be considered by decision-makers. Scenarios were used
extensively in the MA, and Box 4.10 illustrates how they were
used to explore the development of biodiversity in the Gulf of
Thailand under the four scenarios [S 8, 9, and 10].

Environmental impact assessment (EIA) is a tool used by
countries and financial and lending institutions such as the
World Bank and the regional development banks to assess
management interventions. It is a structured process that enables
managers and decision-makers to evaluate the ecological, social,
and economic impact of policy decisions [R 15].

Economic valuation refers to the net benefits of one policy
response over another; it is often used to evaluate which option
is the preferred one. They are often used in trade-off analyses.
The market and nonmarket value of the ecosystem services
should be used in valuation studies where possible. Cost
information and direct value information is often available, but
information on benefits or nonmonetary values is usually
limited. The case study from Thailand (Box 4.11) is an
example of the use of economic valuation studies.

) BIODIVERSITY IN THE GULF OF THAILAND

UNDER THE MA SCENARIOS [S 10.4]

The Gulf of Thailand, a shallow tropical coastal shelf system, has
experienced heavy exploitation over the last decades. Large long-
lived fish species have widely vanished and fisheries concentrate
on invertebrates. All four scenarios foresee a decline in biomass
diversity for the Gulf of Thailand, with few species dominating the
system. Under the TechnoGarden scenario, ecosystem
management allows for a temporary increase in species diversity
beginning in 2010. A turn in
policy focus on producing
fishmeal for the increasingly
important aquaculture
leaves the biomass diversity
rapidly decreasing between
2030 and 2050. Similar
changes are foreseen by the
Global Orchestration and
the Adapting Mosaic
scenario, while the Order
from Strength scenario lets
the biodiversity index
decline steadily over the
next 50 years.

Policy Response Gaps

The following list of policy response gaps relate to issues that
policy so far has not or has only inadequately addressed.

It is recognized that the list may not necessarily be complete
and that there are likely to be other policy response gaps.
The reasons for many of the gaps range from the issues

being insufficiently understood to the lack of political
commitment.

B Dealing with genetic resources within marine and coastal
national jurisdictions. Marine and coastal areas may have
considerable potential for bioactive compounds; however, many
governments have not developed policies to ensure that these
resources are used for the benefit of wider society. Similarly, the
introduction of industries such as aquaculture also has the
potential to impact on the genetic vigour of fish stocks, and few
governments have policies or regulations in place to deal with
such issues.

® Lack of integration across sectors. Policies are often lacking
in dealing with a range of impacts such as inclusion of
agricultural issues in marine and coastal areas so that an
integrated response can be developed.

® Policy responses to high-seas conservation issues. There is no
single international agency which is mandated to coordinate the
many options for planning and management of the high seas;
until an approach is developed to undertake such tasks, the high
seas and associated resources will continue to be threatened by
inappropriate exploitation practices.

MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING 53

Box 4.11 CASE STUDY: THE COSTS AND BENEFITS OF RETAINING OR CONVERTING NATURAL MANGROVE ECOSYSTEMS

IN THAILAND

Relatively few studies have compared the total economic value of ecosystems under alternate management regimes. The total economic
value (TEV) of managing a natural mangrove more sustainably was compared with converting it to other uses. In the case of aquaculture,
the benefit of managing the ecosystem more sustainably exceeded that of the converted ecosystem.

Although conversion for aquaculture made sense in terms of short-term private benefits, it did not once external costs were factored in.
The global benefits of carbon sequestration were considered to be similar in intact and degraded systems. However, the substantial social
benefits associated with the original mangrove cover—from timber, charcoal, non-wood forest products, offshore fisheries, and storm
protection—fell to almost zero following conversion. Summing all measured goods and services, the TEV of intact mangroves was a
minimum of $1,000 and possibly as high as $36,000 per hectare, compared with the TEV of shrimp farming, which was about $200 per

hectare (see Fig. 4.1).

Figure 4.1 ECONOMIC BENEFITS UNDER ALTERNATIVE

MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

Net Present Value in dollars per hectare

es Sustainably managed ecosystems

B Converted ecosystems

Intact wetland

4 000 Sustainable
forestry
3 000
Intensive
farming Small-scale

farming

Traditional

Intact forest use

mangroves |

Shrimp Unsustainable
farming timber harvest

Wetland
Canada

Tropical Forest
Cameroon

Mangrove Tropical Forest
Thailand Cambodia

Source: Millennium Ecosystem Assessment.

© Consistent policy measures to encourage compliance relating
to high-seas initiatives (for example, fish stock and compliance
agreements). Although there are internationally agreed plans of
action, how they are implemented varies between countries.

© Understanding of the benefits and costs of MPAs. There are
few quantitative studies on the benefits and costs of marine
protected areas, especially outside of tropical areas in national
waters, for decision-makers to draw on.

© Understanding of uncertainty and the methods to quantify it.

The nature of working in marine environments makes it
difficult to capture long-term data or to ensure that the
methods used are consistent, in turn this makes it difficult to

54 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING

measure uncertainty and to test methods to measure
uncertainty, thus often hindering implementation of novel/new
policy responses. In the face of uncertainty, management
approaches that are robust to the uncertainties and are
consistent with the requirements of the precautionary approach
must be implemented.

® Valuation studies for a range of marine resources and
activities so that trade-off analyses and other policy responses
can be better measured and assessed. Globally there are few
studies that provide information on the direct and indirect

use values of marine and coastal resources except for
commercial fisheries.

© Understanding of the outcomes for ecosystem conditions of
ICZM. Assessments of the impacts of integrated coastal zone
management have largely focused on processes rather than
outcomes.

®@ MPA and ICM success stories. Scaling up is difficult because
there are few examples of marine protected areas and integrated
coastal management success stories. Policy responses at
international and national levels have fewer examples or success
stories and even fewer evaluations, especially of lessons learned
from mistakes.

& Long-term monitoring of the impacts of policy options.

The collection of long-term trend data is critical to assessing
the effectiveness of particular policy responses as well as their
appropriateness.

& Understanding of why current policies to prevent oil spills are
ineffective. Oil spills are still causing severe impacts on coastal
ecosystems, after a long history of failed attempts at addressing
them.

§ Proactive or adaptive policy frameworks that have the ability
to deal with managing new/emerging issues quickly and
effectively. An example is the lack of an effective policy
framework for off-shore wind farms.

Ultimately, the continuing degradation and loss of the
services provided by marine and coastal ecosystems that we
depend on are putting human well-being at risk. It is the
responsibility of every one of us—guided by the millennium
development goals—to help halt and reverse these trends to
ensure that these benefits are available for both present and
future generations.

APPENDIXES

APPENDIX 1

A SELECTION OF INTERNATIONAL MECHANISMS IN THE MARINE AND COASTAL AREA

Global Legally Binding Agreements
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC)

Convention on Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar
Convention)

UNEP Regional Seas Programme with the Regional Seas
Conventions and Action Plans

Convention on International Watercourses
International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships

International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships’
Ballast Water and Sediments

World Trade Organization’s Agreement on Sanitary and
Phytosanitary Measures

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild
Fauna and Flora (CITES)

International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling (ICRW)
Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild
Animals (CMS), with the following agreements:

m Agreement on the Conservation of Cetaceans of the Black Sea,
Mediterranean Sea and Contiguous Atlantic Area (ACCOBAMS)

= Agreement on the Conservation of Small Cetaceans of the Baltic and

North Seas (ASCOBANS)
m Agreement on the Conservation of Seals in the Wadden Sea

m Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels

= Memorandum of Understanding Concerning Conservation Measures

for Marine Turtles of the Atlantic Coast of Africa

= Memorandum of Understanding on the Conservation and
Management of Marine Turtles and Their Habitats of the Indian
Ocean and South-East Asia (IOSEA)

Other Global and Regional Mechanisms

Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine
Environment from Land-based Activities (GPA)

United Nations Conference on Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly
Migratory Fish Stocks

European Water Framework Directive
Land-Ocean Interactions in the Coastal Zone Initiative (LOICZ)
FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries

FAO International Plans of Action on reducing seabird bycatch;
conserving shark fisheries; reducing fishing capacity; and
reducing illegal, unreported, and unregulated fisheries

The International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) and its Operational
Networks, including the International Coral Reef Action
Network (ICRAN) and the Global Coral Reef Monitoring
Network (GCRMN)

The Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living
Resources

The Johannesburg Plan of Implementation of the World Summit
on Sustainable Development (WSSD)

Inter-American Convention for the Protection and Conservation
of Sea Turtles (IACPCST)

MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING 55

APPENDIX 2

CHAPTERS IN THE MAIN MA VOLUMES

Ecosystems and Human Well-being:
a Framework for Assessment

CF 1 Introduction and Conceptual
Framework

CF 2 Ecosystems and Their Services

CF 3 Ecosystems and Human Well-being

CF 4 Drivers of Change in Ecosystems
and Their Services

CF 5 Dealing with Scale

CF 6 Concepts of Ecosystem Value and
Valuation Approaches

CF 7 Analytical Approaches

CF 8 Strategic Interventions, Response

Options, and Decision-making

Current State and Trends:

Findings of the Condition and Trends
Working Group

Summary

Cr i

CT 2. Analytical Approaches for Assessing
Ecosystems and Human Well-being

MA Conceptual Framework

CT 3. Drivers of Change (note: this is a

synopsis of Scenarios Chapter 7)

CT 4 Biodiversity

CT 5 Ecosystem Conditions and Human
Well-being

CT 6 Vulnerable People and Places

CT 7 Fresh Water

CT 8 Food

CT 9 Timber, Fuel, and Fiber

CT 10 New Products and Industries from
Biodiversity

CT 11 Biological Regulation of Ecosystem
Services

CT 12 Nutrient Cycling
CT 13 Climate and Air Quality

CT 14 Human Health: Ecosystem
Regulation of Infectious Diseases

CT 15 Waste Processing and Detoxification

CT 16 Regulation of Natural Hazards:
Floods and Fires

CT 17 Cultural and Amenity Services
CT 18 Marine Fisheries Systems

CT 19 Coastal Systems

CT 20 Inland Water Systems

CT 21 Forest and Woodland Systems
CT 22 Dryland Systems

CT 23 Island Systems

CT.24 Mountain Systems
CT 25 Polar Systems

CT 26 Cultivated Systems
CT 27 Urban Systems

CT 28 Synthesis

Scenarios: Findings of the Scenarios
Working Group

Summary

Sal MA Conceptual Framework

Se Global Scenarios in Historic
Perspective

$3 Ecology in Global Scenarios

S4 State of Art in Simulating Future
Changes in Ecosystem Services

SS Scenarios for Ecosystem Services:
Rationale and Overview

S6 Methodology for Developing the
MA Scenarios

S7 Drivers of Change in Ecosystem
Condition and Services

$8 Four Scenarios

SB) Changes in Ecosystem Services and
Their Drivers across the Scenarios

$10 Biodiversity across Scenarios

$11 Human Well-being across Scenarios

$12. Interactions among Ecosystem
Services

$13 Lessons Learned for Scenario
Analysis

S14 Policy Synthesis for Key

Stakeholders

Policy Responses: Findings of the
Responses Working Group
Summary

Ri MA Conceptual Framework

R2 Typology of Responses

R3 __ Assessing Responses

R4 __ Recognizing Uncertainties in

Evaluating Responses
RS Biodiversity
R6 Food and Ecosystems
R7 _ Freshwater Ecosystem Services

R8 Wood, Fuelwood, and Non-wood
Forest Products

R9 Nutrient Management

R10 Waste Management, Processing, and

Detoxification

56 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING

a

R11 Flood and Storm Control

R12 Ecosystems and Vector-borne
Disease Control

R13 Climate Change

R14 Cultural Services

R.15 Integrated Responses

R16 Consequences and Options for
Human Health

R17 Consequences of Responses on
Human Well-being and Poverty
Reduction

R18 Choosing Responses

R19 Implications for Achieving the

Millennium Development Goals

Multiscale Assessments: Findings
of the Sub-Global Assessments
Working Group

Summary

SG 1 MA Conceptual Framework

SG 2. Overview of the MA Sub-global

Assessments

SG 3 Linking Ecosystem Services and
Human Well-being

SG 4 The Multiscale Approach

SG 5 Using Multiple Knowledge Systems:
Benefits and Challenges

SG 6 Assessment Process

SG7_ Drivers of Ecosystem Change

SG 8 Condition and Trends of Ecosystem
Services and Biodiversity

SG9_ Responses to Ecosystem Cjamge
amd Their Impacts on Human Well-
being

SG 10 Sub-global Scenarios

SG 11 Communities, Ecosystems, and

Livelihoods
SG 12 Reflections and Lessons Learned

Sub-Global Assessments
SG-Caribbean Caribbean Sea

SG-CBC Coastal British Columbia
SG-SafMA Southern African Assessment
SG-Portugal Portugal Assessment
SG-PNG Papua New Guinea

Millennium Ecosystem Assessment

Publications

Technical Volumes

(available from Island Press)

Ecosystems and Human Well-being:
A Framework for Assessment

Current State and Trends: Findings of the
Condition and Trends Working Group,
Volume 1

Scenarios: Findings of the Responses
Working Group, Volume 2

Policy Responses: Findings of the Responses
Working Group, Volume 3

Multiscale Assessments: Findings of the
Sub-global Assessments Working Group,
Volume 4

Our Human Planet: Summary for
Decision-makers

Synthesis Reports
(available at www.Maweb.org)
Ecosystems and Human Well-being:

Synthesis
Ecosystems and Human Well-being:
Biodiversity Synthesis
Ecosystems and Human Well-being:
Desertification Synthesis

Ecosystems and Human Well-being:
Human Health Synthesis

Ecosystems and Human Well-being:
Wetlands Synthesis

Ecosystems and Human Well-being:
Opportunities and Challenges for
Business and Industry

MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING

APPENDIX 3

OTHER USEFUL RESOURCES

a

Below is a selected list of additional resources. Many of the sources included below will be able to point readers towards more detailed
information, in addition to the chapters in Appendix 2.

Global Resources

Convention on Wetlands

(Ramsar Convention): A number of
resources such as guidelines for
environmental impact assessment and
communication and public awareness may
be downloaded from the website:
www.ramsar.org. Information about
mangroves
(www.ramsar.org/types_mangroves.htm)
and coral reefs
(www.ramsar.org/types_coral.htm) is also
available.

Global Biodiversity Outlook 2001: A
periodic report on biodiversity published by
the Secretariat of the Convention on
Biological Diversity. Copies are available
upon request from the Secretariat:
www.biodiv.org/gbo/default.asp.

Global Environmental Outlook (GEO):
A participatory and regionally distributed
assessment process with a strong capacity
building component: www.unep.org.geo.

Global International Waters Assessment
(GIWA): A comprehensive and integrated
global assessment of international waters,
their ecological status, and the causes

of environmental problems in 66 regions
of the world: www.giwa.net.

Global Programme of Action for the
Protection of the Marine Environment
from Land-based Activities: A source

of conceptual and practical guidance to

be drawn upon by national and/or regional
authorities for devising and implementing
sustained action to prevent, reduce, control,
and/or eliminate marine degradation from

MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING

land-based activities:
www.gpa.unep.org/about/index.html.

The Joint Group of Experts on the
Scientific Aspects of Marine Environmental
Protection (GESAMP): Covers all scientific
aspects on the prevention, reduction, and
control of the degradation of the marine
environment to sustain life support systems,
resources, and amenities. Reports may be
downloaded from http://gesamp.imo.org.
Of particular interest is report number 70,
A Sea of Trouble, and number 71,
Protecting the Oceans from Land-based
Activities.

International Coral Reef Initiative Forum
(ICRIForum): Provides a range of various
on-line resources related to coral reefs. Its
purpose is to concentrate the various kinds

of information related to reefs that members
might find helpful: www.icriforum.org.

International Geosphere-Biosphere
Programme (IGBP): Not exclusively marine,
but has produced a number of scientific
reports for marine and coastal ecosystems,
that may be downloaded from:
www.igbp.kva.se/cgi-bin/php/frameset.php.

IUCN Marine Programme: Provides
information and links to other marine
sources. Publications may also be
downloaded: www.iucn.org/themes/marine.

Land-Ocean Interactions in the Coastal
Zone (LOICZ): Engages in research such as
basin studies to inform the scientific
community, policy-makers, managers, and
stakeholders on the relevance of global
environmental change in the coastal zone.
A numbers of tools and studies can be
downloaded from www.loicz.org.

Large Marine Ecosystems of the World
(LME): A global effort to improve long-
term sustainability of resources and the
environment. Reports and data are available
to download

www.edc.uri.edu/Ime.

Millennium Development Goals (MDGs):
The eight MDGs aim to substantially
improve the lives of people around the
world by 2015:
www.un.org/millenniumgoals.

Millenium Ecosystem Assessment (MA): All
chapters and reports are available to
download, and information and findings
from the various sub-global assessments of
the MA: www.MAweb.org.

Small Island Developing States Network:
Aims to link SIDS to information and

communication technologies to ensure
sustainability of their resources.
Information and key documents may be
downloaded from: www.sidsnet.org.

The Global Ocean Observing System
(GOOS): A permanent global system

for observations, modelling, and analysis
of marine and ocean variables to support
operational ocean services worldwide:
http://ioc.unesco.org/goos.

The State of World Fisheries and
Aquaculture (SOFIA): Produces reports
(available electronically) every two years
with the purpose of providing a
comprehensive, objective, and global view
of capture fisheries and aquaculture,
including associated policy issues:
www.fao.org/sof/sofia/index_en.htm

UNEP-World Conservation Monitoring
Centre: The marine programme has
produced a number of reports on marine
and coastal issues as part of its biodiversity
series. These may be downloaded from:
Wwww.unep-wemc.org
/resources/publications/sUNEP_WCMC_bio_

series.

WWE Marine and Coastal Ecosystems
Programme: Various reports produced by
WWE can be downloaded from:
www.wwf.org.uk/researcher/issues/livingseas
/index.asp.

Regional Resources

After the Tsunami, Rapid Environmental
Assessment: A UNEP-produced report on
the environmental impact of the tsunami
that occurred in the Indian Ocean on 26
December 2004. Is available to download
from:
www.unep.org/PDF/Tsunami_assessment_re
port/TSUNAML report_complete.pdf.

MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING 59

Bay of Bengal Large Marine Project: A
regional project focusing on the marine and
coastal areas within the Bay of Bengal.
Information and reports can be downloaded
from:
www.fao.org/fi/boblme/website/index.htm.

European Iron Fertilization Experiment
(EIFEX): A project focusing on adaptation
strategies of Southern Ocean (SO)
phytoplankton to iron limitation prevalent
in the high nutrient — low chlorophyll
(HNLC) regions of the SO. Further
information may be found at: www.ifm-
geomar.de/index.php?id=2079&L=1.

Regional Seas Programme: An action-
oriented programme that focuses not only
on the mitigation or elimination of the
consequences but also on the causes of
environmental degradation. Regional action
plans can be downloaded from
www.unep.org/water/regseas/regseas. htm.

National Resources

Bangladesh

Bangladesh coastal policy: An example of a
national coastal policy including
downloadable documents may be found at:
www.iczmpbangladesh.org.

United States of America

The PEW Ocean Commission: A scientific
examination of America’s oceans. A full
report is available to download at
www.pewtrusts.org/pdf/env_pew_oceans_fin
al_report.pdf and individual scientific
reports are also available to download from
www.pewtrusts.org.

U.S. Commission on Ocean Policy:
Produced recommendations for a
coordinated and comprehensive national
ocean policy. Documents are available to
download from:
www.oceancommission.gov.

APPENDIX 4

GLOSSARY OF TERMS

Abundance The total number of individuals
of a taxon or taxa in an area, population,
or community. Relative abundance refers
to the total number of individuals of one
taxon compared with the total number of
individuals of all other taxa in an area,
volume, or community.

Adaptation Adjustment in natural or human
systems to a new or changing
environment. Various types of adaptation
can be distinguished, including
anticipatory and reactive adaptation,
private and public adaptation, and
autonomous and planned adaptation.

Alien species Species introduced outside its
normal distribution.

Aquaculture Breeding and rearing of fish,
shellfish, or plants in ponds, enclosures,
or other forms of confinement in fresh or
marine waters for the direct harvest of
the product.

Bio-calcification The laying down of
calcium carbonate by living tissue.

Biodiversity (a contraction of biological
diversity) The variability among living
organisms from all sources, including
terrestrial, marine, and other aquatic
ecosystems and the ecological complexes
of which they are part. Biodiversity
includes diversity within species, between
species, and between ecosystems.

Biological diversity See Biodiversity.

Biomass The mass of tissues in living
organisms in a population, ecosystem, or
spatial unit.

Biome The largest unit of ecological
classification that is convenient to
recognize below the entire globe.
Terrestrial biomes are typically based on
dominant vegetation structure (e.g.,
forest, grassland). Ecosystems within a
biome function in a broadly similar way,
although they may have very different
species composition. For example, all
forests share certain properties regarding

nutrient cycling, disturbance, and biomass

that are different from the properties of
grasslands. Marine biomes are typically
based on biogeochemical properties.
The WWF biome classification is used in
the MA.

Biopiracy The predatory use of biological
resources by corporation. Particular
activities usually covered by the term are:
unauthorized use of biological resources;
unauthorized use of traditional

60

communities’ knowledge on biological
resources; unequal share of benefits
between a patent holder and the
indigenous community whose resource
and/or knowledge has been used; and
patenting of biological resources with no
respect to patentable criteria.

Bioprospecting The exploration of
biodiversity for genetic and biochemical
resources of social or commercial value.

Capital asset An asset that is recorded as
capital, i.e., property that creates more
property.

Capture fisheries See Fishery.

Carbon sequestration The process of
increasing the carbon content of a
reservoir other than the atmosphere.

Cascading interaction See Trophic cascade.

Catch The number or weight of all fish
caught by fishing operations, whether the
fish are landed or not.

Coastal system Systems containing terrestrial
areas dominated by ocean influences of
tides and marine aerosols, plus nearshore
marine areas. The inland extent of coastal
ecosystems is the line where land-based
influences dominate, up to a maximum of
100 kilometres from the coastline or 100-
metre elevation (whichever is closer to the
sea), and the outward extent is the 50-
metre-depth contour. See also System.

Community (ecological) An assemblage of
species occurring in the same space or
time, often linked by biotic interactions
such as competition or predation.

Community (human, local) A collection of
human beings who have something in
common. A local community is a fairly
small group of people who share a
common place of residence and a set of
institutions based on this fact, but the
word ‘community’ is also used to refer to
larger collections of people who have
something else in common (e.g., national
community, donor community).

Cultural services The nonmaterial benefits
people obtain from ecosystems through
spiritual enrichment, cognitive
development, reflection, recreation, and
aesthetic experience, including, e.g.,
knowledge systems, social relations, and
aesthetic values.

Decision-maker A person whose decisions,
and the actions that follow from them, can
influence a condition, process, or issue
under consideration.

MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING

Deforestation Conversion of forest to
non-forest.

Desertification Land degradation in drylands
resulting from various factors, including
climatic variations and human activities.

Diversity The variety and relative
abundance of different entities in a
sample.

Driver Any natural or human-induced factor
that directly or indirectly causes a change
in an ecosystem.

Driver, direct A driver that unequivocally
influences ecosystem processes and can
therefore be identified and measured to
differing degrees of accuracy. (Compare
Driver, indirect.)

Driver, indirect A driver that operates by
altering the level or rate of change of one
or more direct drivers. (Compare Driver,
direct.)

Ecosystem A dynamic complex of plant,
animal, and microorganism communities
and their non-living environment
interacting as a functional unit.

Ecosystem approach A strategy for the
integrated management of land, water,
and living resources that promotes
conservation and sustainable use. An
ecosystem approach is based on the
application of appropriate scientific
methods focused on levels of biological
organization, which encompass the
essential structure, processes, functions,
and interactions among organisms and
their environment. It recognizes that
humans, with their cultural diversity, are
an integral component of many
ecosystems.

Ecosystem assessment A social process
through which the findings of science
concerning the causes of ecosystem
change, their consequences for human
well-being, and management and policy
options are brought to bear on the needs
of decision-makers.

Ecosystem change Any variation in the
state, outputs, or structure of an
ecosystem.

Ecosystem function See Ecosystem process.

Ecosystem management An approach to
maintaining or restoring the composition,
structure, function, and delivery of services
of natural and modified ecosystems for the
goal of achieving sustainability. It is based
on an adaptive, collaboratively developed
vision of desired future conditions that

integrates ecological, socioeconomic, and
institutional perspectives, applied within a
geographic framework, and defined
primarily by natural ecological boundaries.

Ecosystem process An intrinsic ecosystem
characteristic whereby an ecosystem
maintains its integrity. Ecosystem
processes include decomposition,
production, nutrient cycling, and fluxes
of nutrients and energy.

Ecosystem services The benefits people
obtain from ecosystems. These include
provisioning services such as food and
water; regulating services such as flood
and disease control; cultural services such
as spiritual, recreational, and cultural
benefits; and supporting services such as
nutrient cycling that maintain the
conditions for life on Earth. The concept
“ecosystem goods and services’ is
synonymous with ecosystem services.

Endangered species Species that face a very
high risk of extinction in the wild. See
also Threatened species.

Endemic (in ecology) A species or higher
taxonomic unit found only within a
specific area.

Endemism The fraction of species that is
endemic relative to the total number of
species found in a specific area.

Equity Fairness of rights, distribution, and
access. Depending on context, this can
refer to resources, services, or power.

Eutrophication The increase in additions of
nutrients to freshwater or marine systems,
which leads to increases in plant growth
and often to undesirable changes in
ecosystem structure and function.

Fishery A particular kind of fishing activity,
e.g., a trawl fishery, or a particular
species targeted, e.g., a cod fishery or
salmon fishery.

Freedom The range of options a person has
in deciding the kind of life to lead.

Globalization The increasing integration of
economies and societies around the
world, particularly through trade and
financial flows, and the transfer of
culture and technology.

Global scale The geographical realm
encompassing all of Earth.

Governance The process of regulating
human behaviour in accordance with
shared objectives. The term includes both
governmental and nongovernmental
mechanisms.

Gyres A major circular moving body of
water. It is created as boundary currents
get deflected by winds and the Coriolis
Effect. There are five gyres in our world
ocean. Two gyres occur in each of the
Pacific and the Atlantic Oceans and one
in the Indian Ocean. They flow clockwise
in the Northern Hemisphere and counter-
clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere.
(Source: Ocean World Glossary
http://oceanworld.tamu.edu/students/curre
nts/currents4.htm)

Health, human A state of complete physical,
mental, and social well-being and not
merely the absence of disease or infirmity.
The health of a whole community or
population is reflected in measurements
of disease incidence and prevalence, age-
specific death rates, and life expectancy.

High seas The area outside national
jurisdiction, i.e., beyond each nation’s
exclusive economic zone or other
territorial waters.

Human well-being See Well-being.

Indicator Information based on measured
data used to represent a particular
attribute, characteristic, or property of a
system.

Inland water systems Permanent water
bodies other than salt-water systems on
the coast, seas, and oceans. Includes
rivers, lakes, reservoirs, wetlands, and
inland saline lakes and marshes. See also
System.

Institutions The rules that guide how people
within societies live, work, and interact
with each other. Formal institutions are
written or codified rules. Examples of
formal institutions would be the
constitution, the judiciary laws, the
organized market, and property rights.
Informal institutions are rules governed
by social and behavioural norms of the
society, family, or community. Also
referred to as organizations.

Interventions See Responses.

Invasive alien species An alien species
whose establishment and spread modifies
ecosystems, habitats, or species.

Island systems Lands isolated by
surrounding water, with a high
proportion of coast to hinterland. The
degree of isolation from the mainland in
both natural and social aspects is
accounted by the isola effect. See also
System.

MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING 61

Keystone species A species whose impact
on the community is disproportionately
large relative to its abundance. Effects
can be produced by consumption (trophic
interactions), competition, mutualism,
dispersal, pollination, disease, or habitat
modification (nontrophic interactions).

Land cover The physical coverage of land,
usually expressed in terms of vegetation
cover or lack of it. Related to, but not
synonymous with, land use.

Landscape An area of land that contains a
mosaic of ecosystems, including human-
dominated ecosystems. The term cultural
landscape is often used when referring
to landscapes containing significant
human populations or in which there
has been significant human influence on
the land.

Landscape unit A portion of relatively
homogenous land cover within the local-
to-regional landscape.

Marginal benefits Extra benefits arising
from increased consumption of a
commodity.

Marine system Marine waters from the
low-water mark to the high seas that
support marine capture fisheries, as well
as deepwater (>50 metres) habitats. Four
sub-divisions (marine biomes) are
recognized: the coastal boundary zone;
trade-winds; westerlies; and polar.

Market-based instruments Mechanisms that
create a market for ecosystem services in
order to improve the efficiency in the way
the service is used. The term is used for
mechanisms that create new markets, but
also for responses such as taxes,
subsidies, or regulations that affect
existing markets.

Mitigation An anthropogenic intervention to
reduce negative or unsustainable uses of
ecosystems or to enhance sustainable
practices.

Nutrient cycling The processes by
which elements are extracted from their
mineral, aquatic, or atmospheric sources
or recycled from their organic forms,
converting them to the ionic form in
which biotic uptake occurs and ultimately
returning them to the atmosphere, water,
or soil.

Nutrients The approximately 20 chemical
elements known to be essential for the
growth of living organisms, including
nitrogen, sulphur, phosphorus, and carbon.

Open access resource A good or service
over which no property rights are
recognized.

Population, human A collection of living
people in a given area. Compare
Community (human, local).

Poverty The pronounced deprivation of
well-being. Income poverty refers to a
particular formulation expressed solely
in terms of per capita or household
income.

Prediction (or forecast) The result of an
attempt to produce a most likely
description or estimate of the actual
evolution of a variable or system in the
future. See also Projection and Scenario.

Primary productivity The amount of
production of living organic material
through photosynthesis by plants,
including algae, measured over a period
of time.

Projection A potential future evolution
of a quantity or set of quantities, often
computed with the aid of a model.
Projections are distinguished from
‘predictions’ in order to emphasize that
projections involve assumptions
concerning, for example, future
socioeconomic and technological
developments that may or
may not be realized; they are therefore
subject to substantial uncertainty.

Property rights The right to specific uses,
perhaps including exchange in a market,
of ecosystems and their services.

Provisioning services The products
obtained from ecosystems, including, for
example, genetic resources, food and
fibre, and freshwater.

Public good A good or service in which the
benefit received by any one party does
not diminish the availability of the
benefits to others, and where access to
the good cannot be restricted.

Realm Used to describe the three major
types of ecosystems on Earth: terrestrial,
freshwater, and marine. Differs

fundamentally from biogeographic realm.

Regime shift A rapid reorganization of an
ecosystem from one relatively stable state
to another.

Regulating services The benefits obtained
from the regulation of ecosystem
processes, including, for example, the
regulation of climate, water, and some
human diseases.

Relative strain index An index looking
at air temperature and vapour pressure
in defining climatic limits for human
well-being.

Resilience The level of disturbance that an
ecosystem can undergo without crossing a
threshold to a situation with different
structure or outputs. Resilience depends
on ecological dynamics as well as the
organizational and institutional capacity
to understand, manage, and respond to
these dynamics.

Responses Human actions, including
policies, strategies, and interventions, to
address specific issues, needs,
opportunities, or problems. In the context
of ecosystem management, responses may
be of legal, technical, institutional,
economic, and behavioural nature and
may operate at various spatial and time
scales.

Riparian Something related to, living on, or
located at the banks of a watercourse,
usually a river or stream.

Salinization The build-up of salts in soils.

Scale The measurable dimensions of
phenomena or observations. Expressed in
physical units, such as metres, years,
population size, or quantities moved or
exchanged. In observation, scale determines
the relative fineness and coarseness of
different detail and the selectivity among
patterns these data may form.

Scenario A plausible and often simplified
description of how the future may
develop, based on a coherent and
internally consistent set of assumptions
about key driving forces (e.g., rate of
technology change, prices) and
relationships. Scenarios are neither
predictions nor projections and
sometimes may be based on a ‘narrative
storyline’. Scenarios may include
projections but are often based on
additional information from other
sources.

Security Access to resources, safety, and the
ability to live in a predictable and
controllable environment.

Service See Ecosystem services.

Species An interbreeding group of
organisms that is reproductively isolated
from all other organisms, although there
are many partial exceptions to this rule in
particular taxa. Operationally, the term
species is a generally agreed fundamental

MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING

taxonomic unit, based on morphological
or genetic similarity, that once described
and accepted is associated with a unique
scientific name.

Species diversity Biodiversity at the species
level, often combining aspects of species
richness, their relative abundance, and
their dissimilarity.

Species richness The number of species
within a given sample, community, or
area.

Stock (in fisheries) The population or
biomass of a fishery resource. Such stocks
are usually identified by their location.
They can be, but are not always,
genetically discrete from other stocks.

Storyline A narrative description of a
scenario, which highlights its main
features and the relationships between the
scenario’s driving forces and its main
features.

Strategies See Responses.

Subsistence An activity in which the output
is mostly for the use of the individual
person doing it, or their family, and
which is a significant component of their
livelihood.

Supporting services Ecosystem services that
are necessary for the production of all
other ecosystem services. Some examples
include biomass production, production
of atmospheric oxygen, soil formation
and retention, nutrient cycling, water
cycling, and provisioning of habitat.

Sustainable use (of an ecosystem) Human
use of an ecosystem so that it may yield a
continuous benefit to present generations
while maintaining its potential to meet
the needs and aspirations of future
generations.

Sustainability A characteristic or state
whereby the needs of the present and
local population can be met without
compromising the ability of future
generations or populations in other
locations to meet their needs.

System In the Millennium Ecosystem
Assessment, reporting units that are
ecosystem-based but at a level of
aggregation far higher than that usually
applied to ecosystems. Thus the system
includes many component ecosystems,
some of which may not strongly interact
with each other, that may be spatially
separate, or that may be of a different
type to the ecosystems that constitute the

majority, or matrix, of the system overall.
The system includes the social and
economic systems that have an impact on
and are affected by the ecosystems
included within it. For example, the
Condition and Trends Working Group
refers to ‘forest systems’, ‘cultivated
systems’, ‘mountain systems’, and so on.
Systems thus defined are not mutually
exclusive, and are permitted to overlap
spatially or conceptually. For instance, the
‘cultivated system’ may include areas of
‘dryland system’ and vice versa.

Taxon (pl. taxa) The named classification
unit to which individuals or sets of
species are assigned. Higher taxa are
those above the species level. For
example, the common mouse, Mus
musculus, belongs to the Genus Mus, the
Family Muridae, and the Class
Mammalia.

Taxonomy A system of nested categories
(taxa) reflecting evolutionary
relationships or morphological similarity.

Threshold A point or level at which new
properties emerge in an ecological,
economic, or other system, invalidating
predictions based on mathematical
relationships that apply at lower levels.
For example, species diversity of a
landscape may decline steadily with
increasing habitat degradation to a
certain point, then fall sharply after a
critical threshold of degradation is
reached. Human behaviour, especially at
group levels, sometimes exhibits threshold
effects. Thresholds at which irreversible
changes occur are especially of concern to
decision-makers.

Trade-off Management choices that
intentionally or otherwise change the
type, magnitude, and relative mix of
services provided by ecosystems.

Trend A pattern of change over time, over
and above short-term fluctuations.

Trophic level The average level of an
organism within a food web, with plants
having a trophic level of 1, herbivores 2,
first-order carnivores 3, and so on.

Uncertainty An expression of the degree to
which a future condition (e.g., of an
ecosystem) is unknown. Uncertainty can
result from lack of information or from
disagreement about what is known or
even knowable. It may have many types
of sources, from quantifiable errors in the

data to ambiguously defined terminology
or uncertain projections of human
behaviour. Uncertainty can therefore be
represented by quantitative measures
(e.g., a range of values calculated by
various models) or by qualitative
statements (e.g., reflecting the judgment
of a team of experts).

Urbanization An increase in the proportion

of the population living in urban areas.

Valuation The process of expressing a value

for a particular good or service in a
certain context (e.g., of decision-making)
usually in terms of something that can be
counted, often money, but also through
methods and measures from other
disciplines (sociology, ecology, and so on).
See also Value.

Value The contribution of an action or

object to user-specified goals, objectives,
or conditions. Compare Valuation.

Vulnerability Exposure to contingencies and

stress, and the difficulty in coping with
them. Three major dimensions of
vulnerability are involved: exposure to
stresses, perturbations, and shocks; the
sensitivity of people, places, ecosystems,
and species to the stress or perturbation,
including their capacity to anticipate and
cope with the stress; and the resilience of
the exposed people, places, ecosystems,
and species in terms of their capacity to
absorb shocks and perturbations while
maintaining function.

Watershed (also catchment basin) The land

area that drains into a particular
watercourse or body of water. Sometimes
used to describe the dividing line of high
ground between two catchment basins.

Well-being A context- and situation-

dependent state, comprising basic
material for a good life, freedom and
choice, health and bodily well-being,
good social relations, security, peace of
mind, and spiritual experience.

Wetlands Areas of marsh, fen, peat land, or

water, whether natural or artificial,
permanent or temporary, with water that
is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or
salt, including areas of marine water the
depth of which at low tide does not
exceed six metres. May incorporate
riparian and coastal zones adjacent to the
wetlands and islands or bodies of marine
water deeper than six metres at low tide
lying within the wetlands.

MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING 63

APPENDIX 5

ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

ACCOBAMS - Agreement on the
Conservation of Cetaceans of the Black
Sea, Mediterranean Sea and Contiguous
Atlantic Area

ACS — Association of Caribbean States

AIGA - alternative forms of income
generation

ASCOBANS - Agreement on the
Conservation of Small Cetaceans of the
Baltic and North Seas

CARICOM - Caribbean Community

CBD - Convention on Biological Diversity

CCCL - coastal construction control lines

CF — Conceptual Framework

CITES — Convention on International Trade
in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna
and Flora

CMS - Convention on the Conservation of
Migratory Species of Wild Animals (Bonn
Convention)

CSS - combined storm and sewer systems

CT - Condition and Trends volume of the
MA

DEWA - Division of Early Warning and
Assessment (UNEP)

EEZ — exclusive economic zone
EIA — environmental impact assessment
ENSO - El Nino/Southern Oscillation

FAO - Food and Agriculture Organization
(United Nations)

GCRMN - Global Coral Reef Monitoring
Network

GDP - gross domestic product

GEO - Global Environment Outlook

GESAMP - The Joint Group of Experts on
the Scientific Aspects of Marine
Environmental Protection

GIWA — Global International Waters
Assessment

GMA - Global Marine Assessment

GNP - gross national product

GPA — Global Programme of Action for the
Protection of the Marine Environment
from Land-based Activities

GPS — Global Positioning System

ICCAT — International Commission for the
Conservation of Atlantic Tuna

ICRAN - International Coral Reef Action
Network

ICRI - International Coral Reef Initiative

ICRW — International Convention for the
Regulation of Whaling

ICZM - integrated coastal zone
management

IGBP — International Geosphere-Biosphere
Programme

IOSEA — Memorandum of Understanding
on the Conservation and Management of
Marine Turtles and Their Habitats of the
Indian Ocean and South-East Asia

IPCC - Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change

IQ - individual quota

ISA — infectious salmon anaemia

ITQ - individual transferable quota

IUCN — World Conservation Union

LIFDC — low-income food-deficit countries

LME - large marine ecosystems

LOICZ —- Land-Ocean Interactions in the
Coastal Zone

LPI - Living Planet Index

MA — Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
MCA - multicriteria analysis

MDG - Millennium Development Goal
MPA - marine protected area

MSY —- maximum sustainable yield

NAFO - North West Atlantic Fisheries
Organization

NEAFC - North East Atlantic Fisheries
Commission

NGO — nongovernmental organization

Ge

OAS - Organization of American States
OECD - Organisation for Economic Co-
operation and Development

PCBs — polychlorinated biphenyls
POPs — persistent organic pollutants

R — Responses volume of the MA

S - Scenarios volume of the MA

SDM - Summary for Decision-makers (of the
MA)

SIDS - small island developing states

SG - Sub-global Assessment volume of the MA

SOFIA - State of World Fisheries and
Aquaculture (FAO)

SR — Synthesis Report (of the MA)

TEK - traditional ecological knowledge
TEV — total economic value

BC - University of British Colombia

IN — United Nations

INCCD — United Nations Convention to
Combat Desertification

UNCLOS - United Nations Convention on

the Law of the Sea

UNDP - United Nations Development

Programme

UNEP - United Nations Environment

Programme

UNFCCC - United Nations Framework

Convention on Climate Change

ere

WCMC - World Conservation Monitoring
Centre (of UNEP)

WCPA — World Commission on Protected Areas

WSSD — World Summit on Sustainable
Development

WWE — World Wide Fund For Nature

' The Millennium Development Goals commit the international
community to a commonly accepted framework for measuring
development progress. The eight goals set targets on overcoming
poverty, illiteracy, hunger, lack of education, gender inequality, child
and maternal mortality, disease, and environmental degradation.

64 MARINE AND COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN WELL-BEING

Picture Credits

Front cover: Songpanich Pairat/UNEP
Inside front cover: Adel Bouajina/UNEP

Page v Bong Fung Gee/ UNEP

Chapter 1

Page 1 Dawee Chaikere/UNEP
Page 7 Susan M Davis/UNEP

Page 10 Alvaro Izurieta/UNEP

Page 15 David Fleetham/UNEP

Page 17 Ngyuyen Quoc Thinh/UNEP
Page 18 J.M. Pinto/UNEP

Page 21 Shoukyu Utsuka/UNEP

Chapter 2
Page 27 Songpanich Pairat/UNEP

Chapter 3

Page 29 Cheng Foh Onn/UNEP
Page 31 Yoshiaki Kawachi/ UNEP
Page 37 Narbeburu/ UNEP

Page 41 UNEP

Chapter 4

Page 44 Robert Yin/UNEP

Page 46 Marcello Tewkes/UNEP
Page 48 UNEP

Page 49 Stephen Dalla Costa/UNEP
Page 50 UNEP

Page 52 L. Wright/UNEP

Page 53 UNEP

Appendixes

Page 55 UNEP

Page 57 Jack Jackson/UNEP
Page 58 Demi Ivo/UNEP

Page 63 Anthony Pigone/UNEP
Page 64 Alvaro Izurieta/UNEP

Inside back cover: Prasit Chansareekom/UNEP
Back cover: UNEP

UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre
219 Huntingdon Road, Cambridge CB3 ODL,
United Kingdom
Tel: +44 (0) 1223 277314
Fax: +44 (0) 1223 277136
Email: info@unep-wcmc.org
Website: www.unep-wemc.org

Millennium Ecosystem Assessment

WWW.unep.org
United Nations Environment Programme
P.O. Box 30552, Nairobi, Kenya
Tel: +254 (0) 20 7621234
Fax: +254 (0) 20 7623927
Email: uneppub@unep.org
Website: www.unep.org

February 2006
DEW/0785/NA