Marine Science Affairs

— A Tear of Broadened Participation

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THE THIRD REPORT OF THE PRESIDE
TO THE CONGRESS ON MARINE RESOURCES
AND ENGINEERING DEVELOPMENT

I

JANUARY 1969

Marine Science Affairs

— A Tear of Broadened Participation

THE THIRD REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT
TO THE CONGRESS ON MARINE RESOURCES
AND ENGINEERING DEVELOPMENT

JANUARY 1969

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office
Washington, D.C. 20402. Price $1.25

January 17, 1969.
To THE Congress of the United States:

The sea holds new promise for the enhancement of men's lives — for eco-
nomic and social betterment and for world peace and understanding.

Since enactment of the Marine Resources and Engineering Development
Act three years ago, the United States has embarked on a concerted national
enterprise to realize that promise. We engaged the ideas, encouraged the
participation and focused the investments of our Federal Government, states,
industry and universities on more effective and intelligent use of the marine
environment.
We sought to:

— Enhance the many uses of our seashore and coastal waters by direct-
ing national attention to the need for skillful management of this
Coastal Zone;
— Expand our knowledge of the seas by launching the International

Decade of Ocean Exploration;
— Promote world order and understanding by strengthening the frame-
work of international law and cooperation governing ocean activities;
—Foster national security by advancing the Navy's technological capa-
bilities to operate within the ocean;
— Stimulate the economy by encouraging development of marine

energy and food resources ;
— Combat malnutrition in developing countries by extracting new

sources of protein from the sea;
— Protect the life and property by safer maritime practices and measures

to prevent pollution;
— Strengthen our base of research and education in marine sciences by
supporting Sea Grant and other university programs.
While modern science and technology afford powerful means to translate
marine potentialities into realities, the economic, social, legal and political
considerations are equally decisive in utilizing the seas to achieve the goals
and aspirations of our society. To this end, the National Council on Marine
Resources and Engineering Development under chairmanship of the Vice
President has illuminated goals, formulated priorities and coordinated and
advanced our Federal marine policies and programs.

The Council's Third Report on Marine Science Affairs relates the sea
to our people's diversified endeavors, summarizes progress during the past
years and sets forth major recent accomplishments of the eleven Federal
agencies engaged in marine sciences. In Fiscal Year 1970, I am requesting
that $528 million be provided to build on these achievements.

The report is commended to all who look to the future for ways to rein-
force our country's vitality and strength.

iii

As our population crowds along our coast, as many nations extend their
interests toward distant seas, as new scientific discoveries reveal more of the
world around us, we must take bold and imaginative steps to enable this
and future generations to enjoy the full bounty of the sea.

t^Udl^ —

The White House

IV

The Vice President,
Washington, D.C., January 15, 1969.
Dear Mr. President:

I am pleased to forward the Third Annual Report of the National Coun-
cil on Marine Resources and Engineering Development entitled "Marine
Science Affairs — A Year of Broadened Participation."

This Report highlights Government-wide progress toward goals of the
Marine Sciences Act of 1966 ". . . to develop, encourage, and maintain
a coordinated, comprehensive, and long-range national program in marine
sciences for the benefit of mankind . . ." Building on strengths and accom-
plishments of the separate Departments and agencies in advancing our
policies and programs, the Council has endeavored to :

— relate our ocean activities more directly to the needs and aspirations

of our people;
— ^widen the opportunities for economic growth, world order, and en-
hanced quality of living for all citizens, by bringing marine sciences
more directly into the mainstream of public policy;
— foster the transition from scientific study of the ocean to intensified
application of scientific discoveries and higher-level policy concern;
— clarify Government-wide policies, priorities, and milestones and selec-
tively advance priority programs such as international cooperation,
the War on Hunger, Coastal Zone planning and management, and
the Sea Grant Program ;
— focus the resources of eleven Federal agencies toward common objec-
tives, through improved internal management; and
— reduce institutional impediments that retard effective development
of marine resources.
Although the Federal Government provides much of the leadership and
support for ocean research and exploration, active participation by others is
essential. State and local governments are responsible for the skillful manage-
ment of our crowded shorelines. Private industry provides the entrepreneur-
ship and capital to develop marine resources. The universities extend the
forefront of scientific knowledge and train needed manpower. Finally, other
nations are also rapidly moving seaward. Thus, we have intensified our con-
sultations with all marine interests — at home and abroad — recognizing the
necessity for broad participation and collective action in achieving marine
science goals.

This Report describes Federal marine science programs and budgets, pro-
posed for Fiscal Year 1970, for the following major purposes: international
cooperation, military security, fisheries, transportation. Coastal Zone activi-
ties, health, and non-living resources. Complementing these efTorts is a broad
base of supporting activities: research and engineering, manpower and edu-
cation, environmental services, and exploration and mapping. In addition,
we have provided some unity to these diverse marine science activities in a
chapter on marine geography that portrays man's present and projected uses
of the seas.

To advance our Nation's stake in the sea. Federal funding for Fiscal Year
1970 is proposed at $528 million.

Under your leadership, this Nation has developed a new awareness of the
importance of our coastal lands and ocean resources. We have begun a new

venture seaward, in the quest for fuels, food, and minerals — and for the
natural beauty of the seashore.

We have taken new steps to reaffirm the freedom of the seas and have
sought to insure that the deep ocean floor will be used for the benefit of all
mankind. Your proposal for the International Decade of Ocean Exploration
has been welcomed by the United Nations General Assembly and provides
new opportunities for international cooperation in exploring the oceans and
the ocean floor.

All who have contributed to our progress have been inspired by the prom-
ise of contributions of the sea to a better life.

Each of us is to some extent an explorer — eager to probe the mysteries of
our planet, unable to resist the drama of the undersea world. The sea, too
often taken for granted, offers fresh opportunities for individuals — and for
nations — to explore our last geographical frontier, together.
Sincerely,

The President,
The White House,
Washington, D.C.

VI

PREFACE

A Report to the President from the National Council
on Marine Resources and Engineering Development,
January 1969

This Report to the President on Marine Science Affairs is prepared in ac-
cordance with Public Law 89-454, the Marine Resources and Engineering Develop-
ment Act of 1966, which states that the President shall transmit to the Congress
an annual report including (a) a comprehensive description of the activities and the
acconiplishments of all the agencies and departments of the United States in the field
of marine sciences during the preceding fiscal year, (b) an evaluation of such activities
in terms of the objectives set forth pursuant to Public Law 89-454, (c) such recom-
mendations for legislation as the President may consider necessary or desirable for the
attainment of the objectives of Public Law 89-454; and (d) an estimate of funding
requirements of each agency and department of the Federal Government for marine
science activities during the succeeding fiscal year.

The Marine Resources and Engineering Development Act was amended by P.L.
89-688, the National Sea Grant College and Program Act of 1966, which also requires
an annual report by the President on sea grant colleges and programs.

This Report on Marine Science Affairs is submitted to the Congress in response
to both requirements. It was prepared by the National Council on Marine Resources
and Engineering Development. The Council, located in the Executive Office of the
President, is composed of:

CHAIRMAN :

Hubert H. Humphrey, the Vice President

members:

Dean Rusk, the Secretary of State
Paul R. Ignatius, the Secretary of the Navy
Stewart L. Udall, the Secretary of the Interior
C. R. Smith, the Secretary of Commerce

(Alexander B. Trowbridge until March 1, 1968)
Wilbur J. Cohen, the Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare

(John W. Gardner until March 1, 1968)
Alan S. Boyd, the Secretary of Transportation
Glenn T. Seaborg, Chairman, Atomic Energy Commission
Leland J. Haworth, Director, National Science Foundation

observers:

Thomas O. Paine, Acting Administrator, National Aeronautics and
Space Administration

(James E. Webb until October 7, 1968)
S. Dillon Ripley, Secretary, Smithsonian Institution
William S. Gaud, Administrator, Agency for International Devel-
opment
Charles J. Zwick, Director, Bureau of the Budget
Arthur M. Okun, Chairman, Council of Economic Advisors
Donald F. Hornig, Director, Office of Science and Technology

executive secretary:
Edward Wenk, Jr.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

INTRODUCTION 1

I. MARINE SCIENCES AND NATIONAL GOALS 5

Marine Science Opportunities 6

The Federal Response to the Challenge of the Oceans 7

The Federal Marine Science Budget for FY 1970 10

II. A PERSPECTIVE FOR MARINE SCIENCE AFFAIRS 15

The Global Geography of the Ocean 16

The Great Commercial Highway 18

The Confluence of Man and Sea 24

A Storehouse of Critically Needed Protein 27

A Growing Source of Fuels and Minerals 31

Intensified International Interest in the Oceans 37

A Shield and a Bond for National Security 38

Exploring New Frontiers 40

Perspective for the Future 43

III. EXPANDING INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION AND UNDER-

STANDING 49

Developing a Legal Regime for the Seabed 51

Broadening Marine Science Activities of the U.N. Agencies 54

Cooperating on a Regional Basis 56

Improving International Fishery Arrangements 58

Fostering Bilateral and Multilateral Cooperation 60

Seeking Future Opportunities 62

IV. ENHANCING BENEFITS FROM THE COASTAL ZONE 63

Opportunities for Conservation and Recreation 66

Enhancing Water Quality 69

Improving Coastal Engineering Activities 70

Encouraging Planned Use of the Coastal Zone 73

Strengthening Multiagency Programs 74

Program for the Great Lakes 76

Multiple Use of the Chesapeake Bay 77

Need for a Strengthened Institutional Framework 77

V. STRENGTHENING MILITARY PROGRAMS FOR NATIONAL

SECURITY 81

The Scope of the Naval Oceanographic Program 82

The Fiscal Year 1970 Budget 83

Ocean Surveys for Defense Systems 84

Marine Science and Technology in Support of Defense Systems 85

Undersea Search, Rescue, Recovery, and Man-in-the-Sea 86

Biomedical Research and Development 88

Activities of the Advanced Research Projects Agency 89

Page

VI. ACCELERATING USE OF FOOD FROM THE SEA 91

State of the U.S. Fishing Industry 93

A New Emphasis To Revitalize Our Fishing Industry 95

Using Food from the Sea in the War on Hunger 98

Developing FPC Technology 100

Looking to the Future 101

VII. ENCOURAGING DEVELOPMENT OF NON-LIVING RE-
SOURCES 103

Federal Programs To Facilitate Resource Development 105

Three Areas of Increasing Emphasis 109

VIII. FACILITATING TRANSPORT AND TRADE 113

Supporting Maritime Transportation Development 114

Channel and Harbor Improvement 116

Improving Navigation Aids 116

Research and Action To Reduce Pollution 118

Preparing for Port Development and Redevelopment 121

IX. LAUNCHING AN INTERNATIONAL DECADE OF OCEAN EX-
PLORATION 125

Illustrative Types of Projects and Objectives 127

Enhancing International Collaborative Programs 128

Developing National Programs 130

Planning in the United States 130

X. ADVANCING THE SEA GRANT PROGRAM 135

The Long-Term Policy Framework 1 36

Criteria for Sea Grant Support 1 38

National Response to the Program 140

XI. FORMULATING ARCTIC POLICIES AND PROGRAMS 143

Developing an Arctic Policy 144

Expanding Arctic Research Capabilities 146

A Framework for Scientific Activities 147

XII. UNDERSTANDING AND SURVEYING THE OCEAN ENVIRON-
MENT 151

Mapping, Charting, and Geodesy 151

Ocean Observation and Prediction 155

Development of Buoy Technology 157

Advancing Spacecraft Oceanography 158

Planning Ahead 1 59

XIII. INFORMATION MANAGEMENT 163

Environmental Data Labyrinth 164

Environmental Data Repositories of Federal Agencies 164

New Steps To Strengthen Information Management 169

Collecting Management Information 171

XIV. RESEARCH, MANPOWER, AND ENGINEERING 173

Recent Scientific Advances 1 74

Federal Funding of Research and Facilities 175

Research Areas of Special Emphasis 177

Manpower Training and Education 1 80

Providing Opportunities for the Disadvantaged 182

The Growing Importance of Ocean Engineering 182

Engineering Developments To Promote Safety at Sea 186

21

Page

XV. NATIONAL POLICY PLANNING AND COORDINATION 189

Developing a Concerted National Effort 190

Preparation of Council Reports 192

Communicating with Non-Federal Institutions 197

A National Advocate for Marine Sciences 200

XVI. LOOKING AHEAD 201

FIGURES

Fig. No.

I-l The Marine Science and Technology Dollar, FY 1970 13

ll-l The Global Sea 17

II-2 Generalized Geological Cross Section of Continental Margin 18

1 1-3 Principal Oceanic Liner Trade Routes Directly Related to U.S. Inter-
ests

II-4 Projections of Oceanborne Trade 22

II-5 Merchant Fleets of the World 23

II-6 Increased Urbanization Projected for Year 2000 26

II-7 Projected Animal Protein Gap in the Developing Countries 28

II-8 Catch of Seafoods by Leading Countries • 29

11-9 World Catch by Major Fishing Areas 30

11-10 U.S. Market for Fishery Products 30

II-l 1 Projected Demand for Offshore Gas and Petroleum 31

11-12 International Flow of Petroleum 33

11-13 Worldwide Offshore Drilling Activity 34

11-14 U.N. Bodies with Responsibilities in the Marine Sciences 39

11-15 Selected Intergovernmental Regional Organizations Active in Marine

Sciences 39

11-16 U.S. Participation in Collective Defense Arrangements 41

11-17 Navy Support of U.S. Response to Incidents Abroad 42

III-l Location of Region of Fisheries Interest off Iceland 61

IV-1 Landward Limit of the Coastal Zone 64

IV-2 Shilshole Bay Marina, Puget Sound, Washington 65

IV-3 Federal Funding for Marine Science, Use of Coastal Zone 67

IV-4 Restoration of Wrightsville Beach, North Carolina 72

IV-5 Geographic Limits of Chesapeake Bay Model for Hydraulic and Eco-
logical Studies '8

V-1 SEALAB III 87

VI-1 U.S. Supply of Fishery Products 92

VI-2 Phasing Chart for Food-from-the-Sea Demonstration Program 100

VI I-l Comparative Federal Revenue from Onshore and Outer Continental

Shelf Oil, Gas, and Minerals ■ ■■■ 104

VI 1-2 Federal Funding in Marine Science for Development of Non-Living

Resources 106

VIII-1 Present Coverage and Proposed Future Sites for OMEGA Navigation

System 1 1"

VIII-2 OCEAN EAGLE Oil Spill 119

VIII-3 Offshore Loading Facility for World's Largest Tankers 122

IX-1 Location of Ocean Data Stations 129

X-1 Institutional and Project Sea Grants 1*1

XI-1 New Coast Guard Sub-Polar Research Ship l'^7

XI-2 Arctic Research Laboratory, Barrow, Alaska 1^*9

XII-1 Status of Knowledge of Regional Offshore Geology 152

XII-2 Status of Knowledge of Living Resources of the Continental Margin . . 153

XII-3 Deployment of U.S. Oceanographic Fleet, October 3, 1968 154

XI 1-4 Ocean Features Revealed From Apollo 7 Photograph 160

XIII-1 Flow of Selected Foreign Marine Data to U.S. Scientists 165

xi

Page

XIV- 1 Funding for Oceanographic Research 176

XIV-2 Deep Sea Brining Ship GLO MAR CHALLENGER 179

XV-1 Participants in the Marine Sciences 198

TABLES

Table No.

I-l Total Federal Mzirine Science Program by Major Purpose 11

1-2 Total Federal Marine Science Program by Department and Inde-
pendent Agency 12

1-3 Total Marine Science Program by Function 12

II-l Countries with Extensive Adjacent Shallow Ocean Areas 19

II-2 Commercial Vessel Casualties and Associated Deaths and Injuries,

Fiscal Year 1968 24

II-3 Growth in Selected Coastal Recreational Activities 25

II-4 Losses From North Atlantic Tropical Cyclones 27

II-5 Petroleum Potential of Continental Shelves of the World 32

II-6 United States and World Land Reserves and Resources of Some

Metals and Nonmetals That Occur on Continental Shelves 36

II-7 World Naval Fleets: Selected Categories 44

II-8 Selected Milestones in Ocean Exploration 46

III-l U.S. Contributions to Selected Intergovernmental Organizations for

Marine Programs 57

III-2 U.S. Contributions to International Fishery Commissions 59

VI- 1 Food from the Sea in the War on Hunger 102

VII-1 Value of Mineral Production from Oceans Bordering the United

States, 1960-67 105

VII-2 Recent Marine Mining Activities 108

VIII- 1 Funding for Ocean Transportation 1 14

X-1 Sea Grant Funding Levels 140

XI- 1 Federal Funding for Arctic Resezirch and Development, FY 1968. ... 147

XII-I Funding for Mapping, Charting, and Geodesy 153

XII-2 Funding for Ocean Observation and Prediction 156

XIII-1 Funding for Marine Data Centers 166

XIII-2 Selected Marine Data Center Files 167

XIV-1 Graduate Degrees in Ocean Science and Engineering 180

XIV-2 Funding for General Purpose Ocean Engineering 183

XV-1 Committees of the Marine Sciences Council 193

XV-2 Reports of the Marine Sciences Council 194

XV-3 Contracts Awarded by the Marine Sciences Council 195

XV-4 Congressional Testimony on Government-wide Issues 196

APPENDICES

A. FEDERALMARINESCIENCEPROGRAM, FISCAL YEARS 1968, 1969,

AND 1970 205

A- 1 Total Federal Marine Science Program by Major Purpose —

Summary and Detail by Sub-Purpose and Agency 205

A-2 Total Federal Marine Science Program by Department and Inde-
pendent Agency 211

A-3 Total Federal Marine Science Program by Function — Summary

and Detail by Agency 212

A-4 Special Analysis: U.S. Continental Shelves (Including Trust Ter-
ritories) 219

A-5 Special Analysis: The Great Lakes 219

A-6 Special Analysis : Estuaries 220

A-7 Special Analysis: Excess Foreign Currency Programs 220

xii

Page

B. FEDERAL LEGISLATION AND CONGRESSIONAL RESOLUTIONS

RELATED TO MARINE SCIENCES 221

B-1 Selected Legislation of the 89th and 90th Congresses 221

B-2 Marine Resources and Engineering Development Act of 1966. . . . 222

B-3 National Sea Grant College and Program Act of 1966 227

B-4 Senate Concurrent Resolution 72 — International Decade of Ocean

Exploration 232

C. ACTIVITIES OF INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS AND

OTHER NATIONS 233

C-1 Resolutions Adopted by the United Nations General Assembly. . . 233
C-2 Draft Resolutions Submitted and Principles Supported by the

United States in the Ad Hoc Seabed Committee 242

C-3 Resolutions Adopted by the Economic and Social Council 245

C^ Breadth of Territorial Seas and Fishing Jurisdictions Claimed by

Selected Countries 248

Xlll

INTRODUCTION

During the past two and one-half years, national attention has been in-
creasingly focused on the potential of the seas and on the importance of
policies and programs to use the seas more effectively. The Federal Govern-
ment has endeavored to provide the necessary stimulus and support and
the leadership to meet public purposes and scientific opportunities — to pro-
mote economic growth, enhance the quality of our environment, and con-
tribute to international peace and security through our ocean endeavors.
Since mid- 1966:

— The President has issued more than 20 policy statements including
goals, priorities, and plans to mobilize our resources for intensified
marine activities.
— The Congress has held more than 100 hearings and enacted more than
two dozen new laws to promote broader, safer, and more rational
use of the oceans and their resources.
— The United States has cosponsored five Resolutions adopted by the
U.N. General Assembly, calling for broader international coopera-
tion to explore and to develop the oceans and their resources for the
benefit of mankind.
— The National Council on Marine Resources and Engineering Develop-
ment has acted on more than 65 major ocean policy issues at 15
plenary sessions.
— The Commission on Marine Science, Engineering, and Resources has
issued a major report on a national marine science program to meet
present and future needs, including a recommendation for the estab-
lishment of a new independent Federal agency to serve as the focal
point for civilian ocean affairs.

Marine Science Affairs

— California, Washington, Florida, and other States, industrial associa-
tions such as the National Security Industrial Association, profes-
sional societies, and other non-governmental bodies have taken steps
to strengthen and broaden the marine science activities within their
purview.
Underlying this re-awakened effort to realize more clearly our role as a
maritime power is the mandate of the Marine Resources and Engineering
Development Act of 1966 "to develop, encourage, and maintain a coordi-
nated, comprehensive, and long-range national program in marine sciences
for the benefit of mankind to assist in :

— protection of health and property;

— enhancement of commerce, transportation, and national security;
—rehabilitation of our commercial fisheries ; and
— increased utilization of these and other resources." ^
This mandate of the Congress and the President further identifies eight
objectives related to these goals:

— the accelerated development of the resources of the marine

environment;
— the expansion of human knowledge of the marine environment;
— the encouragement of private investment enterprise in exploration,
technological development, marine commerce, and economic utiliza-
tion of the resources of the marine environment;
— the preservation of the role of the United States as a leader in

marine science and resource development;
— the advancement of education and training in marine science;
— the development and improvement of the capabilities, performance,
use, and efficiency of vehicles, equipment, and instruments for use
in exploration, research, surveys, the recovery of resources, and the
transmission of energy in the marine environment;
— the effective utilization of the scientific and engineering resources
of the Nation, with close cooperation among all interested agencies,
public and private, in order to avoid unnecessary duplication of
effort, facilities, and equipment, or waste; and

^ Following are some abbreviations and definitions generally used in the marine
sciences field:

The Act is customarily called the Marine Sciences Act.

The National Council on Marine Resources and Engineering Development is usually
abbreviated to the Marine Sciences Council.

The Commission on Marine Science, Engineering, and Resources is usually re-
ferred to as the Marine Sciences Commission.

Marine science is a term employed in Public Law 89-454 to describe scientific re-
search, engineering, and technological development related to the marine environment.

The marine environment is considered to include the oceans, the Continental Shelf
and estuaries of the United States and its territories, the Great Lakes, and the re-
sources of the oceans and Great Lakes.

Introduction

— the cooperation by the United States with other nations and groups
of nations and international organizations in marine science activities
when such cooperation is in the national interest.

Initial governmental efforts to respond to these challenges were described
in the First Annual Marine Sciences Report of the President, released
in 1967, entitled "Marine Science Affairs — A Year of Transition." The
Report emphasized the transition from scientific oceanography to applica-
tion of these scientific discoveries and the transition from considerations
largely at the program level to a new concern and responsibility at the policy
level of government. The Second Annual Report, entitled "Marine Science
Affairs — A Year of Plans and Progress," presented a broad range of policy
considerations relating the potential of the oceans to major national goals
and to action programs to aid in their achievement. It laid the basis for
intensified government-wide planning efforts and for increased emphasis
on selected priority areas such as the War on Hunger, international coopera-
tion, and implementation of the Sea Grant Program.

During the past year, the Marine Sciences Council has endeavored to
ensure that early initiatives were being supported and to develop a more
rational institutional framework to sustain a long-term program. Major
national purposes have been more clearly enunciated and impediments to
progress have been isolated, including both gaps in scientific knowledge
and barriers arising from institutional conflicts, neglect, or obsolescence.
Marine science has been more effectively injected into the mainstream of
public policy, and our maritime presence is being revived to serve the press-
ing needs of our society. A new emphasis has been placed on rational develop-
ment of our Coastal Zone — the margin where the sea meets the land and the
people — through cooperative programs with the States, on formulating a
deliberate and concerted policy for Arctic development, and on steps to pro-
vide a framework of international law and of cooperation which will mitigate
conflicts as nations utilize the marine environment more intensively.

This Third Annual Report, entitled "Marine Science Affairs — A Year of
Broadened Participation," summarizes accomplishments in 1968, describes
our policies and programs, and identifies our goals and milestones. It should
complement the report of the Commission on Marine Science, Engineering,
and Resources, released on January 11, 1969. Although there has not been
time yet to consider the Commission's findings and recommendations in
detail, they are referred to the incoming Administration for study and
implementation as appropriate.

The first chapter of this Annual Report summarizes the major policy rec-
ommendations of the Marine Sciences Council and describes the FY 1970
Federal marine sciences budget — by agency, by public purpose, and by
marine science function. The next chapter discusses this Nation's stake in the
oceans in terms of marine geography — a physical, social, economic, and
political geography. Man's present diverse uses of the sea are expressed

329^66 O— 69-

Marine Science Affairs

quantitatively wherever possible, with selective projections of future growth.
These challenges as to more effective use of the sea are followed in subse-
quent chapters by details of the Federal Government's response in carrying
out the Marine Sciences Act. Because almost all maritime activities involve
more than a single agency, the remainder of the Report follows the pattern
of earlier years of delineating the Federal program by categories of purpose,
rather than by agency.

The next six chapters describe Federal programs in marine sciences that
serve the following purposes :

—expanding international cooperation and understanding;

— enhancing benefits from the Coastal Zone;

- — strengthening military programs for national security;

— accelerating use of food from the sea;

- — encouraging development of non-living resources; and

— facilitating transport and trade.
Three chapters then follow devoted to special new programs or policies :

— launching the International Decade of Ocean Exploration proposed
by the President ;

— advancing the Sea Grant Program; and

— formulating policies and programs for the Arctic.
Three chapters are then devoted to basic activities oriented to broad support
of a number of major purposes :

— exploring the ocean environment ;

— information management ; and

— research, manpower, and engineering.
Each of these 12 chapters sets forth priority areas recommended by
the Council to the President. To place these special areas in perspective, the
Report also discusses ongoing efforts and associated funding for the Govern-
ment as a whole and recent accomplishments within Federal agencies re-
sponsible for marine science operations. Finally, each of the twelve chapters
discusses the activities of the Marine Sciences Council in setting government-
wide goals, identifying priorities, and clarifying agency responsibilities,
especially for programs crossing agency lines.

The responsibility for developing a sense of unity and direction in marine
resources and engineering development involving numerous and varied mis-
sions, agencies, and institutional relationships was explicitly conferred on
the President by the Marine Sciences Act. Chapter XV describes the policy
planning and coordinating machinery that was provided by legislation to
advise and assist the President and the new lines of communication that
have been established between the Federal and non-Federal sectors.

The Report concludes with a brief discussion of the unfinished business im-
mediately ahead in terms of unresolved policy issues.

"/ cannot say that I am in the slightest degree impressed by your big-
ness or your material resources as such. Size is not grandeur, and
territory does not make a nation. The great issue . . . is, what are
you going to do with these things? — thomas huxlev

Chapter I

MARINE SCIENCES AND
NATIONAL GOALS

From its earliest days this Nation has turned to the seas — for transporta-
tion and commerce, for national defense, and for natural resources.

Now 75 percent of our population lives in the States bordering the oceans
and the Great Lakes, and 45 percent of our urban population, together with
much of our industry, is concentrated in coastal counties. Many millions
more visit the seashore — for swimming, boating, fishing, and relaxation, and
coastal terraces of our sprawling urban areas have become the hub of many
of our commercial and private endeavors.

Maritime shipping continues to intensify off our coasts — with a grow-
ing demand for expanded port, harbor, and navigation facilities. As inter-
national commerce grows at an ever increasing rate, the world's maritime
industry is called upon to continue to accommodate the bulk of our foreign
trade.

Ocean resources are playing a rapidly increasing role in our economic
prosperity. Dramatic discoveries of promising new oil and gas fields off
Alaska, California, and the Gulf Coast are certain to make major contri-
butions to our economy. We have become the world's most lucrative market
for fishing products. Also, hundreds of our small coastal communities depend
heavily on a healthy fishing industry.

It is in the oceans that many of the expanding national interests of more
than 100 coastal nations converge as they move farther from their
coasts in the conduct of maritime and naval activities and in the search for

Marine Science Affairs

new resources. Thus, there is an urgent need in ocean affairs to prevent
conflicts and disputes and a unique opportunity to promote international
understanding — through collaborative development of a framework of law
to guide ocean activities and through joint working projects to understand
and develop the ocean and its resources. With present political uncertainties,
our sea-based strategic deterrent and our naval presence provide stabilizing
forces that enhance orderly economic and political growth within the in-
ternational community.

Finally, the oceans provide a vast laboratory for scientific inquiry that
will advance our understanding of fundamental environmental characteris-
tics and processes. Improvements in our ability to understand, and possibly
eventually to control, ocean and weather phenomena can affect the lives
of many — the farmer, the resort owner, the ship captain, and the ordinary
citizen.

Marine Science Opportunities

In spite of this growing intimacy of our society with the influences of the
oceans, we have only begun to recognize the benefits of being a coastal
nation. Among the opportunities and problems of our growing involvement
wdth the sea are :

— Less than 10 percent of our Continental Shelf has been systematically
explored although we are confident that abundant oil and mineral
resources lie in other areas of the Shelf.

— Only a small portion of the fishery stocks off our coasts are being
fully exploited, and of the total U.S. consumption of fish products
less than one-third is provided by U.S. fishermen.

— Only 6 percent of our international maritime commerce travels in
U.S. flag vessels.

— Only one-third of our coast has sufficiently detailed storm warnings
in spite of the tens of millions of dollars of destruction annually in
these areas.

— 20 million children live in metropolitan areas within sight of poten-
tial water recreation areas but are often denied their use.

— -Only 3 percent of our ocean and Great Lakes coastline has been set
aside for public use or conservation in spite of rapidly growing
demands for such areas.

- — Pollution of our oceans and estuaries will increase many fold by the
year 2000 unless there are drastic changes in waste handling; mean-
while, more than 50 million Americans engage in ocean swimming.

National Goals

fishing, and boating, and many millions more are also directly af-
fected by degradation of the quality of our coastal waters.

— The average age of our port structures is 45 years and the average
age of our merchant ships is 20 years even though there is an urgent
need to respond to the rapid changes in the character of ocean
cargoes and technologies of cargo handling.
And on the international scene :

— Protein deficiencies plague millions in a number of the developing
countries located near abundant fishery resources which could pro-
vide economical sources of protein.

— Unilateral acts to extend claims of national sovereignty great dis-
tances seaward threaten to erode the fundamental principle of free-
dom of the seas.

— Pollutants are gradually spreading to distant reaches of the seas as
nations only slowly become concerned with maintaining the quality
of ocean waters.

The Federal Response to the Challenge off the Ocean

During the past year the Marine Sciences Council has turned its primary
attention to policy issues which can significantly affect economic growth,
the development of our coastal environment, national security, and inter-
national understanding. Beginning with the President's call for expanded
international cooperation in ocean exploration in his State of the Union mes-
sage, the year was characterized by a new determination to establish a sound
policy framework for carrying forth a program to meet the goals set forth
in the Marine Sciences Act, namely, to :

— strengthen our economy by identifying new sources of food, fuel,
and mineral resources; by encouraging innovation in marine tech-
nology; and by enlarging U.S. participation in the world's maritime
activities ;
— enhance the quality of urban living by arresting degradation and
erosion of the shoreline, fostering rational waterfront development,
and expanding water recreation opportunities ;
— strengthen world understanding and security through international
cooperative marine endeavors, international legal arrangements to
avoid potential conflicts, and an unexcelled defense capability to
deter aggression ; and
— foster education and training of oceanographers, engineers, techni-
cians, and those from other professions through collaboration with
and assistance to our universities and technical institutes.

Marine Science Affairs

To assist in meeting these goals, the Council considered the following
policy issues during 1968:

1. Strengthening the base for launching the International Decade
of Ocean Exploration, proposed by the President, which should provide
a broader and more effective framework for mobilizing the capabilities
of many nations in concerted efforts to understand ocean phenomena
and discover new ocean resources. Domestic and international planning
are increasing to provide for a more rational delineation of ocean re-
search and exploration priorities and responsibilities, and for improve-
ments in the quantity, usefulness, and timeliness of data exchanged
between scientists at home and abroad.

2. Improving the international organizational structure for planning,
coordinating, and carrying out marine science programs of interest to
the international community which are currently fragmented among
a multiplicity of international organizations. The central role of the
Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission is being clarified and
its ties with other marine science organizations strengthened to enable
it to serve as a focal point for coordinating international ocean research
activities.

3. Developing a legal regime for the deep ocean floor which will
encourage private investment in development of seabed resources, re-
duce the possibilities of international conflicts and disputes, and promote
U.S. security, economic, political, and scientific interests. A key step
of the international community has been the establishment of a Com-
mittee of the U.N. General Assembly as a forum for considering a
seaward limit of national jurisdiction and an international regime gov-
erning seabed activities beyond this limit. Consideration of seabed arms
control measures should be primarily the responsibility of the Eighteen
Nation Disarmament Committee.

4. Taking steps to encourage the States to carry out more effective
programs of planned use of the Coastal Zdne which take into account
the many varied potential uses of our limited shoreline that is rapidly
being subjected to more intensive human activities. State planning and
decision making processes should be strengthened and made more re-
sponsive to both national and local needs, and multi-state issues should
be given greater consideration in Coastal Zone planning and
management.

5. Exploring with all interested parties the desirability and character
of a possible intergovernmental commission for the Chesapeake Bay
which is beset by conflicts between the many users of the estuary. Also,
multidisciplinary research activities concerning the impact of these con-
flicting uses are being focused around a hydraulic model of the Bay.

6. Broadening the coordinating responsibility of the International
Joint Commission for activities in the Great Lakes since any change in

8

National Goals

the character of the Lakes, such as pollution, water levels, and ice con-
ditions, has an impact on both the United States and Canada.

7. Intensifying deep ocean technology research and development to
enable the Na\7 to respond to increasing demands for operations in
deep water and to provide advanced engineering knowledge upon which
the Navy can draw to meet requirements of future military systems.
This effort is also contributing to a general engineering capability to
meet present and future civilian needs.

8. Strengthening the harvesting sector of the domestic seafood in-
dustry, which in many areas cannot successfully compete with foreign
fishing fleets off our coasts due to high costs of domestic fishing opera-
tions. Possible steps are being considered to (a) assist States in modify-
ing laws and regulations that limit the efficiency of our fishermen, (b)
improve the fishing vessel subsidy program, and (c) increase oppor-
tunities for vertical integration of the fishing industry.

9. Advancing development of fish protein concentrate technology as
an integral part of the Food-from-the-Sea Program to expand the use
by developing countries of fishery stocks which now lie dormant near
many areas of malnutrition. Construction and operation of an FPC
demonstration plant in the United States should assist commercial
development of economical production processes, while overseas market
development activities should facilitate commercial investments and
ready acceptance of FPC in needy areas.

10. Encouraging private industrial development of fuels and minerals
increasingly needed in the United States and worldwide which have
been identified on the Continental Shelf and Slope. Programs are
directed to a reevaluation of offshore leasing policies, protection of
the environment from possible harmful side effects of extraction activ-
ities, and reconnaissance surveys of the Continental Shelf.

11. Instituting new measures to insure safety of life and property as
maritime activities and congestion increase along our coasts and on the
high seas. Specific steps include (a) implementation of the newly de-
veloped National Contingency Plan in the event of a pollution emer-
gency, (b) development of a worldwide navigation plan incorporating
advanced land and satellite-based technology to serve non-military
needs, (c) improvement of safety standards for offshore structures,
(d) designation of additional sea lanes to assist in the flow of ocean traf-
fic, and (e) establishment of safe procedures and rescue services for
civilian submersibles and underwater activities.

12. Preparing for development and redevelopment of our ports and
harbors which are too often characterized by obsolescent facilities and
waterfront slums. It will be necessary to incorporate new technology
into a national port system that will serve ocean shipping of the future,
very likely to be chara>cterized by much deeper draft bulk carriers,

Marine Science Affairs

containerization, and express and feeder services. A conceptual frame-
work is being developed to provide the basis for a major study of future
port requirements to be conducted in cooperation with all interested
parties.

13. Formulating policies and programs for the Arctic, an area re-
ceiving increased international attention in view of its strategic im-
portance and emerging resource potential. Preliminary steps are being
taken towards enunciation of a national Arctic policy and designation
of appropriate mechanisms to carry forth such a policy, and capabilities
are being strengthened for Arctic and subpolar marine research.

14. Emphasizing Sea Grant investments for training specialized man-
power, particularly ocean engineers and technicians, that will be needed
for technological development of marine resources in the 1970's. The
program will assist in responding to regional maritime needs by estab-
lishing research and training centers in State and private universities,
community colleges, and technical schools, and research results will be
disseminated to industry and the public.

15. Fostering marine applications of new technology which can
benefit science and industry. Development of buoy technology to collect
oceanographic and meteorological data as a basis for later decisions on
a worldwide ocean data station network is being accelerated, and
spacecraft already programed for other purposes will conduct obser-
vations of sea ice, currents, temperature patterns, and surface waves.

16. Improving capabilities for management of marine science infor-
mation which is critical for successful research and development activ-
ities through broader use of automated equipment at the National
Oceanographic Data Center, a comprehensive study of data needs to
provide a framework for an expanded environmental data program,
and preparation of catalogs of current research projects.

17. Strengthening the Nation's base of marine research and tech-
nology which undergirds many aspects of the total national effort. Pro-
grams include support of educational institutions to accommodate the
rising student enrollments in marine sciences; improvement of national
facilities for testing, standardization, and calibration of oceanographic
instruments ; and improvement of civilian underwater communications.

The Federal Marine Science Budget for FY 1970

The proposed FY 1970 Federal program, military and civilian, totals $528
million, up about 12 percent over FY 1969 and about 22 percent over FY
1968. All of the Federal activities identified within the scope of marine

10

National Goals

science, engineering, technology, and resources development are detailed by
major purpose in Table I-l, by department and independent agency in Table
1-2, and by function in Table 1-3. Figure I-l graphically shows where the
Federal marine science and technology funds are spent. Details by Federal
organization, major purpose, and function are given in Appendix A. Many
of the programs are described in detail in subsequent chapters of this Report.

Table I-l — Total Federal Marine Science Program by Major Purpose '

(In millions of dollars)

Estimated Estimated President's
FY 1968 FY 1969 Budget

FY 1970

1 . International Cooperation and Collaboration ... 9. 6

2. National Security 1 19. 9

3. Fishery Development and Seafood Technology . . 40.1

4. Transportation. . . 11.1

5. Development of the Coastal Zone 27. 6

6. Health 5. 3

7. Non- Living Resources 7. 3

8. Oceanographic Research * 78. 1

9. Education 7. 0

10. Environmental Observation and Prediction 28. 8

11. Ocean Exploration, Mapping, Charting, and

Geodesy 75. 7

12. General Purpose Ocean Engineering 19. 2

13. National Data Centers 2. 1

9.5

11.7

128. 1

143.0

43.8

44.5

10.6

18.6

29. 1

29.6

5.4

5.3

8.0

8.6

■=93.3

93.5

7.5

9.2

31.6

32. 1

83.0

99. 1

18.3

29.5

2.3

3.2

Total 431.8 471.5 528.0

"Many programs of the Departments of Defense, Commerce, Interior, and Transportation, and other
agencies related to marine science affairs are not included.

' Research beneficial to more than one of the other major purpose areas.

' Includes $14. 5 million for Coast Guard sub-polar oceanographic research ship. Funding for other ships
Is included in the relevant major purpose category.

11

Marine Science Affairs

Table 1-2 — Total Federal Marine Science Program by Department and

Independent Agency "

(In millions of dollars)

Estimated Estimated President's
FY 1968 FY 1969 Budget

FY 1970

Department of Defense

Department of the Interior

National Science Foundation

Department of Commerce

Department of Transportation

Atomic Energy Commission

Department of Health, Education, and Welfare .

Department of State

Agency for International Development

Smithsonian Institution *

National Aeronautics and Space Administration .

Total

" Many programs of the Departments of Defense, Commerce, Interior, and Transportation, and other
agencies related to marine science affairs are not included.

' Excess Foreign Currency Funds are not included. See Appendix A-7.

Table 1-3 — Total Federal Marine Science Program by Function

Summary

(In millions of dollars)

Estimated Estimated President's
FY 1968 FY 1969 budget

FY 1970

Research and Development 245. 4 248. 3 297. 9

(a) Research (basic and applied)

(b) Development of new equipment and tech-

nology

240.6

262.3

297.9

70.5

76.2

78.2

38. 1

35.0

45.4

33.6

33.4

40.6

15.4

34. 1

32.3

13.8

10.4

11.4

6.5

6.9

6.8

6.6

7.0

7. 1

3.0

2.5

4.6

1.9

1.9

2.0

1.8

1.8

1.7

431.8

471.5

528.0

Investment.

(a) Ships

(b) Major equipment.

(c) Shore facilities . . .

(d) Other

Operations .

116.4
129.0

126.7
121.6

150.6
147.3

55.5

77.8

70. 1

7.6
29.3
13.9

4.7

15. 1

42.4

15.5

4.8

2.3
47.5
13.3

7.0

130.9

145.4

160.0

(a) Surveys 106. 0 1 18. 7 130. 9

(b) Services 18.4 19.5 21.4

(c) Other 6. 5 7. 2 7. 8

Total 431.8 471.5 528.0

12

National Goals

Figure 1-1— The Marine Science and Technology Dollar, FY 1970

(in percent)

National
General Purpose Data Centers International Cooperation
Ocean Engineering 0.6 ^^^ and Collaboration

Ocean Exploration,
Mapping, Charting
and Geodesy / _ „ X / 97 l X National Security

Environmenta
Observation
and Prediction

Education

Oceanograph
Research

ishery Development
Seafood Technology

Transportation

Non-Living 1.0

Development

Resources health of the

Coastal Zone

13

'Ocean, wherein the whale
Swims minnow-small."

WILLIAM ROSE BENET

Chapter II

A PERSPECTIVE FOR MARINE
SCIENCE AFFAIRS

Marine Science Affairs — the title chosen for these Reports — denotes the
evolving relationship between marine sciences and the affairs of man. The
increasing relevance of marine sciences to our society leads us first to con-
sider the broad political, economic, and social fabric of our Nation's
activities, and then to define how the oceans may provide alternative ways
to achieve our goals and aspirations. Marine research and development
programs are visualized as means rather than ends. Thus, progress in marine
science affairs requires us to define public purposes and to formulate public
policies that will guide and stimulate our scientific and engineering efforts
to realize the ocean's potential benefits.

The major challenges that lie ahead do not terminate at the water's edge.
Neither do their solutions. As the world population outraces its food supply,
the sea offers the possibility of significant new sources for food. As world
requirements for energy and minerals grow faster than population, ocean
resources hold the promise of additional riches. As coastal cities become even
more crowded, the oceans can enhance the quality of urban living, particu-
larly if the natural heritage of our shoreline is preserved and if there are
new opportunities for people to refresh themselves at the seashore. Finally,
as the world community of nations continues to explore new avenues to
peace, the ocean suggests additional patterns of cooperation which can
contribute to world order and understanding.

15

Marine Science Affairs

The uses of the sea thus become the primary motivation for expanding
our comprehension of it. While the focus of our research is primarily on
possible applications for national security, economic growth, and attainment
of social goals, we also recognize the inherent human curiosity about the
world around us — the desire to explore and seek adventure. Also, knowledge
and understanding of the seas are sought in order to avert potential con-
flicts between uses of the oceans for different purposes before they arise, and
to settle them if they arise.

To provide a perspective for the Federal Government's $528 million
marine science program described in later chapters, this chapter seeks to
present an abstract of man's uses of the sea. An attempt has been made to
quantity these uses wherever reliable statistics are available although the
presentation is necessarily incomplete.

These uses derive their unity from the common environment in which
they take place — namely, the oceans of the world and their coastal margins.
In brief, this chapter sets forth the present status of the ocean's relationship
to people.

The Global Geography of the Ocean

From space, the earth appears as a globe substantially covered by water.
The vastness of the ocean is sometimes difficult to comprehend. As suggested
in Figure II-l, we know that the sea covers some 140 million square miles
or 71 percent of the earth's surface; continental masses and lesser islands
occupy less than 29 percent of the total surface. These land masses are sur-
rounded by water with depths averaging two-and-one-half miles. The
submarine landscape encompasses vast topographic features including conti-
nental shelves and slopes, canyons, seamounts, and broad abyssal plains.
The deepest trench is further below sea level than the highest mountain
is above.

A generalized geological cross section of the ocean near land is depicted
in Figure 1 1-2 ; it should be recognized that the land-sea profile varies greatly
from place to place.

The underwater extension of the continents to a depth of 100 fathoms
is equivalent in area to approximately one-fourth the area of the continental
land masses. The breadth of these submarine extensions varies from coast-
line to coastline. Offshore the United States, there are about 850,000 square
miles at depths less than 100 fathoms: off Alaska 550,000 square miles, off
the Atlantic Coast 140,000 square miles, off the Gulf Coast 132,500 square
miles, and off the Pacific Coast 26,500 square miles. Table II-l identifies

16

Perspective

o

(A

«

e

5

£

17

Marine Science Affairs

Figure 11-2— Generalized Geological Cross Section of Continental Margin

selected countries of the world which border extensive ocean areas of depths
less than 1,000 fathoms.

These physical attributes of the oceans provide a partial understanding
of man's life; for geography affects use, and man relies on the seas for trans-
portation and commerce, food, fuel and minerals, recreation, waste disposal,
and security.

The Great Commercial Highway

Of all the uses of the sea, the one which is indispensable to modem society
IS maritime transport. Today's maritime trade routes form lifelines for the
exchange of raw materials and manufactured goods vital to the economy
of almost every nation. Additionally, a nation's merchant marine can be a
profitable enterprise, providing a source of wealth, earning foreign exchange,
and enhancmg national prestige. It can constitute a military resource and

18

Perspective

Table 1 1-1 — Countries with Extensive Adjacent Siiaiiow Ocean Areas

Approx. area (square miles)

Approx.
coastline
(miles) (Less than 100 (Between 100-

fat horns)

1000 fathoms)

Argentina 2, 415

Australia (including New Guinea) 20, 125

Indian Ocean Islands N.A.

Brazil 4,255

Burma 1, 414

Canada 12, 650

China (Mainland) 4, 025

Denmark N.A.

Faeroe Islands 178

Greenland 5, 750

France 1, 591

Indian Ocean Islands N.A.

Pacific Ocean Islands N.A.

Iceland 1,242

India 3, 162

Indonesia 23, 000

Ireland 759

Malaysia 2, 127

Mexico 5, 750

New Zealand 3, 185

Norway 1, 897

Portugal (including dependencies) N.A.

South Mrica 1, 644

South West Africa 897

Spain 1,725

Atlantic dependencies N.A.

Thailand 1,495

U.S.S.R 26,450

U.K 3,220

Bahamas 1, 610

Falkland Islands N.A.

Indian Ocean Islands N.A.

Pacific Ocean Islands N.A.

U.S 13, 112

Venezuela 1, 150

Vietnam 995

331,000

827, 500

2,648

264, 800

83,412

926, 800

264, 800

N.A.

7,944

79,440

54, 284

23, 832

38, 396
29, 128

105, 920
503, 120

47, 664
165,500
132,400

79,440

39, 720
79,440
60,904
26, 480
26, 480
31,776
99, 300

, 324, 000
52, 960

48, 988
39, 720
63, 552
22, 508

860, 600

35, 748

111,216

52, 960
556, 080
112,540

90, 032

26, 480
397, 200

39, 720
N.A.

52, 960
331,000

12, 578
140, 344
152, 260
152, 260

66, 200
N.A.

29, 128
N.A.

66, 200
529, 600
152,260
185,360
101,948

59, 580

60, 904
34, 424
19, 860

926, 800
99, 300
25, 156

139,020
72, 820
68, 848

440, 000
39, 720
55, 608

N.A.— Not readily available.

Note: These estimates are for illustrative purposes only. They will vary widely depending on assumptions
concerning seaward extension of international boundaries, effect of irregularities in ocean floor contours,
demarcation of shallow areas adjacent to several countries, and other factors.

Source: Departments of State and Navy.

serve national and international political purposes. History has shown that
nations which trade with each other develop enduring cultural bonds and
political and economic ties.

The need for maritime transportation is increasing. The growth of world
population, the expansion of economic activity, and the accompanying in-

19

329-466 0—69-

Marine Science Affairs

crease in the international exchange of goods and services inevitably enlarge
worldwide requirements for transporting goods and people over the principal
oceanic trade routes. Figure II-3 depicts the principal trade routes of par-
ticular importance to the United States. Furthermore, many of the develop-
ing" countries require increasing sea transport to carry more finished goods,
fossil fuels, and raw materials essential for their increasing populations. As
shown in Figures II-4 and II-5, the more advanced nations have considered
the development of maritime transportation essential, and oceanborne trade
will grow rapidly in the decades ahead.

Maritime transportation is also essential to national security. While air
movement is becoming increasingly important, especially for high value,
low density cargo the bulk of worldwide intercontinental commerce and
military goods still move over the sea.^ Today, 97 percent of U.S. military
tonnage is transported to Vietnam by ship. Other military assistance and
foreign aid programs also rely heavily on sea transportation.

A collateral benefit of marine transportation in some countries is the
shipbuilding industry's contribution to the economy. For example, by the
end of 1968, ships of 200,000 tons and upwards were being built in seven
Japanese dry docks. Two more docks will begin service in 1971. Most growth
in ship construction capacity during the next three to five years is expected
in Europe. Eight massive building ways are now being operated, planned,
built, or completed in Britain, France, Portugal, Italy, Germany, and
Scandinavia.

Because of the rapidly increasing size of ships, particularly of bulk carriers,
the actual number of ships in the world fleet is expected to grow more slowly
than in the past. The number of supertankers larger than 200,000 DWT
is expected to comprise one-half of the total world tonnage capacity by
1973. By 1983, tankers in the 400,000 to 600,000 DWT category may com-
prise 10 percent of total world tonnage capacity.

' Costs per ton mile of various ships and aircraft

Speed in Cost in
Vehicle knots cents per

ton mile

Current Airfreight

1970 Airfreight.

Conventional Cargo Lines.

Container Ship

50,000 DWT Tanker.

100,000 DWT Tanker

200,000 DWT Tanker

400

30

550

20

20

1.0

20

0.65

16

0.18

16

0.11

16

0.08

Note: Costs for unsubsidized ship and aircraft for typical trans-Atlantic route, including handling
the cargo on and off the vehicle, but not including packaging or inland transportation.

Source: Benford, H. "Ocean Transport— an Outline of Commercial Requirements for Ships,"
Midwest Research Seminar in Meteorology and Oceanography, May 1966.

20

Perspective

21

Marine Science Affairs

Figure 11-4 — Projections of Oceanborne Trade

Million Long Tons

■i"^™^ TOTAL WORLD OCEANBORNE TRADE i

■

6,000

■ ■ ■ U.S. OCEANBORNE TRADE (EXPORT-IMPORT) g

\

5,000

- /

4,000

— ^r

i

1

3,000

2,000

- ^r

1,000

^^^^^^ ^

1

U — ^— — ^^^^— ^— — ^— ^^-^^^^^^^ - —

1950 1960 1970 1980 19

90

Year

SOURCE: DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION

■■

22

Perspective

Figure II 5 -Merchant Fleets off the World*

FLEET SIZE

Number of Vessels

2,500

2,000

1,500

1,000— ^ vV^ UNITED STATES'^

G^^?^-

500 s^

DEADWEIGHT TONNAGE

Millions of Tons

40

1961

1964

1967 1968

1961

1964

1967 1968

(Dec.)

(Dec.)

(JuneXNov.)

(Dec.)

(Dec.)

(JuneXNov.)

^Oceangoing sTeam and motor ships of 1000 gross tons or more. Exclude
ships operoting exclusively on inland woterwoys and special ships such
OS channel ships, icebreakers, military ships, etc.

2 Only privately-owned U.S. ships ore included, U.S. government ships,
excluding the reserve fleet, rose from 64 vessels in 1961 to 201 vessels
in 1967 but this largely reflects activation of reserve ships for war duty.

Sources: Merctiant Fleets ot the World, 1961. 1964. 1967. 1968. Maritime
Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce,

23

Marine Science Affairs

Likewise the industry is evolving new techniques. Most non-bulk com-
modities will be moved in unitized loads in the future. By 1973, 23 percent
of all U.S. flag cargoes may move in container ships. By 1983 that figure
should increase to over 40 percent of all liner cargoes. By using high speed
container ships in single point-to-point transoceanic shuttle service, with
efficient intermodal integration moving loads between shore and ship, total
delivery time may be reduced sufficiently to compete more favorably on a
time-cost basis with air freight.

But as ocean traffic increases, so do its hazards. Statistics on commercial
vessel casualties and associated deaths for FY 1968 are presented in Table
1 1-2. They provide an insight of the implications of growing ocean traffic
and the urgency of greater safety measures.

Table 11-2 — Commercial Vessel Casualties and Associated Deaths and
Injuries, Fiscal Year 1968

Nature of casualty

Collisions Groundings Heavy weather

damage

Vessel casualty (ships):"

Number of casualties

Number of vessels involved .

Number of deaths/injuries

Vessels totally lost

409

525

164

742

656

175

2/7

0/1

0/0

10

39

29

" In general, includes vessels over 100 gross tons.
Source: Department of Transportation.

The Confluence of IVIan and Sea

The most intensively used and most accessible part of the ocean environ-
ment is the Coastal Zone — the margin where the land, the water, and the
people meet and interact. This Coastal Zone encompasses a broad variety
of physical features ; it is characterized by dynamic interaction of wind, tides,
currents, waves, storms — and land; it supports a rich variety of flora and
fauna. The great natural beauty of the shore holds fascination for everyone.

This region has great values for man. The Coastal Zones of the world
historically have been the important sites of industry and commerce. The
development of port cities has provided springboards of national culture.

24

Perspective

Increases in coastal population and attendant demands for land, food and
water, energy, and recreation are giving rise to greater pressures for inten-
sive and often conflicting uses of a nation's coastal regions.

By the year 2000, the U.S. population will increase by about 60 per-
cent while GNP and disposable personal income are expected to increase
three- to four-fold. Thus, production of goods and demand for services will
far outstrip population increase. This rising standard of living, together with
the growing coastal concentrations of our population shown in Figure 1 1-6,
will add to the competition for the Nation's limited coastal resources, with
the development of marine industries contributing to coastal economics.^

As significant as the rapid growth of urban population is the sharp rise
in leisure time available for recreational use. With nearly one-third of the
Nation's population concentrated in the major coastal cities and more than
double that number near the shoreline, it can be expected that coastal areas
will be subject to increasing pressure for recreation. Table II-3 summarizes
the dramatic rise expected in coastal recreation participants.

Table 11-3 — Growth in Selected Coastal Recreational Activities

Participants
Type of Recreation (millions)

1964 1975

Swimming 33 40

Surfing 1 4

Skin diving 1 3

Pleasure boating 20 50

Sport fishing 8 16

National Park and Forest recreation 18 44

Source: Departments of Commerce, Interior, and Transportation.

This increased use of the Coastal Zone will contribute to employment,
land development, and investment at a very high rate. But accompanying
these developments will be the problems of public access to coastal lands,
waste disposal, and natural degradation of the coastline. Modern industrial
societies create liquid, gas, and solid wastes at rates faster than the population
growth itself. Coastal populations will of necessity increase their total annual
expenditures to dispose of liquid and solid municipal wastes.

- Table H-8 of "Marine Science Affairs — A Year of Plans and Progress," March
1968, presents statistics on employment in selected marine industries on our coasts.

25

Marine Science Affairs

■z

-z. 0

o

«a; cNj

—

OQ 2

= 00

2: s
< 0

0 0

00 CSJ

> LU

^5

D

M

k

e
k

e
e

a

c

IB

i

3

cc^::

•^iil

^l

0

_1<

<o

il^

i
1

26

Perspective

Pollution presents serious economic consequences. For example, it is
estimated that 10.7 million acres of our bays and estuaries could be used
for shellfish culture; even today pollution prevents the use of more than
10 percent of these waters. In some areas commercial shad and oyster fisher-
ies have been destroyed because of polluted rivers and estuaries.

Weather also affects coastal activities. The hazards and losses from hurri-
canes, storms, wave-induced erosion, and floods are serious. Table 1 1-4
summarizes losses from North Atlantic tropical cyclones.

Table 11-4 — Losses from North Atlantic Tropical Cyclones

Year

Loss of life in
United States

Damage in United

States (millions of

dollars)

Loss of life in all
areas including
United States

Damage in all

areas including

United States

(millions of dollars)

1943-1947.
1948-1952.
1953-1957.
1958-1962.
1963-1967.

140

402.9

1,205

439.9

29

117.9

315

149.9

827

I, 924. 8

3,586

2, 608. 8

139

736.8

627

1, 106.8

206

2, 188. 2

8,653

3, 243. 6

Source: Department of Commerce.

A Storehouse of Critically Needed Protein

One of the ocean's great resources is food. More effective use of the living
resources of the ocean can provide better and less expensive food to help
alleviate the world hunger problem, provide a wider variety of nutritious
foods for affluent societies, and stimulate economic opportunities at home
and abroad by a competitive fishing industry'.

Many developing areas of the world are critically short of animal protein.
The developing world's protein gap is depicted in Figure II-7. Protein
malnutrition can have a devastating effect on the growth of school children,
and today one-half of the world's population lives in countries where protein
malnutrition is endemic.

The ocean's living resources offer hope for alleviating a portion of the
nutrition crisis. Fish are approximately 15 percent protein; they contain
a favorable balance of amino acids required in human diets. Conservative
estimates indicate the world fish catch can be increased at least four times
without depleting stocks. This unused potential of fish protein could meet a
significant fraction of present and future world needs.

27

Marine Science Affairs

Figure 117 — Projected Animal Protein Gap in the Developing Countries

Million Metric Tons
40

30

REQUIREMENTS VS. SUPPLY

FAO LONG-TERM
REQUIREMENTS
TARGET

AVAILABLE
SUPPLY

0

1962-64

1970

1980

1990

2000

Year

BASED ON HIGH POPULATION ESTIMATES

SOURCE: FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION

Currently, six nations are catching approximately 57 percent of the total
world fish catch. Figure 1 1-8 shows the growth of these catches, while Figure
11-9 depicts the major fishing areas of the world.

In the United States many harvesting sectors of the fishing industry are
in decline. While the U.S. fish catch has remained relatively constant for the
past 30 years, the processing and marketing portions of the industry have
grown steadily, supplied by increasing U.S. fish imports and expansion of
U.S. fish processing firms into areas abroad for raw materials.

Yet the use of fishery products in the United States for all purposes has
increased steadily over the years in both absolute and per capita terms. The
annual U.S. fish utilization of 70 pounds per person is among the highest
in the world. Figure 11-10 shows the growth of the U.S. market and the
mounting share of the U.S. demand for fish being satisfied by imports.

28

Perspective

Figure 11-8 — Catch off Seafoods by Leading Countries

Billions of Pounds

20

18 —

16

PERU

\

JAPAN

U.S.S.R

'., —

V""

UNITED STATES

* "/

NORWAY

\

J L

J L

0
1956 '57 '58 '59 '60 '61 '62 '63 '64 '65 '66 '67

NOTE: LIVE-WEIGHT BASIS

SOURCE; FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION; DEPARTMENT OF INTERIOR

29

Marine Science Affairs

Figure 11-9 — World Catch by Major Fishing Areas

0».mONS

Figure 11-10— U.S. Maricet for Fishery Products

Billions of Pounds (Round Weight)
40

2000

SOURCE; DEPARTMENT OF INTERIOR

30

Perspective

A Growing Source of Fuels and Minerals

Minerals and fuels arc essential to the world's industrial economy. In the
last 30 years the U.S. has consumed more minerals and fuels than the entire
world used in all previous history. Competition for low cost mineral raw
materials will intensify as both developed and developing nations step up
their industrial economies and encourage the processing of their own ores.
To assure that the United States has an adequate and dependable supply of
minerals and fuels, existing resource bases must continue to be diversified
and the discovery rates of new economical sources increased.

Projected world and U.S. energy demands to the year 2000, as well as the
estimated quantities of offshore oil and gas required to satisfy these demands,
are summarized in Figure II-l 1. The United States is the heaviest consumer

Figure 11-11 — Projected Demand for Offshore Gas and Petroleum

300

250

200

g o 150

c —

100

50

ONSHORE GAS & PETROLEUM
OFFSHORE GAS & PETROLEUM
OTHER ENERGY SOURCES

WORLD

WORLD

TOTAL'

ENERGY

DEMAND

U.S.

U.S.

1967

SOURCE: DEPARTMENT OF INTERIOR

1985

31

Marine Science Affairs

of petroleum, relying both on imports and domestic production. Similarly,
Western Europe is a heavy consumer, producing less than 10 percent of the
oil it consumes. Figure 11-12 portrays the patterns of international oil trade
that have developed to satisfy disparities in supply and demand.

The reserves of crude oil on the Continental Shelves of the world to
partially meet this demand are described in general terms in Table 1 1-5.
The reserves in North America are considered adequate to sustain offshore
production for a number of years, and recent discoveries off the coasts of
Alaska, California, and the Gulf States suggest that additional deposits may
soon be located.

Exploration of the U.S. Continental Shelf has accelerated in recent years,
resulting in dramatic increases in offshore oil and gas production. In 1967,
offshore petroleum production had doubled 1964 levels, representing 13 per-
cent of total domestic production and satisfying 7 percent of total domestic
demand. Similarly, offshore drilling is taking place throughout the world as
shown in Figure 11-13. In 1967, the Free World produced 0.86 billion
barrels of offshore crude oil, almost double the production of 1964. This
is slightly less than 7 percent of Free World demand. Natural gas produc-

Tabie 11-5 — Petroleum Potential of Continental Shelves of the World

(Areas in thousands of square miles)

Excellent potential <: Fair potential ''

Percent Percent

Region Shelf Percent of Percent of

area ' Area of total world Area of total world

Shelf of excellent Shelf of fair Shelf

region Shelf region area
area

Total World 10,763 188 1.8 100.0 1,657 15.3 100.0

North America 2,140 40 1.9 21.3 315 14.7 19.0

South America 910 20 2.2 10.6 150 16.5 9.1

Middle East, Asia 200 40 20.2 21.3 65 32.5 3.9

East Indies Islands (includ-
ing Philippines) 1,350 35 2.6 18.6 305 22.6 18.4

Iron Curtain Countries 2,718 35 1.3 18.6 385 14.2 23.2

Other areas' 3,445 18 5.2 9.6 437 12.7 26.4

"Adapted from Offshore Magazine.

' Areas to depth of 1000 feet of water.

' "Excellent Potential" rating is given to areas containing or in continuity with excellent producing areas
and with like geology.

'' "Fair Potential" rating is given to areas containing or in continuity with fair producing areas, or when
geology is similarly favorable for commercial production.

• Includes Europe, Africa, Far East, Oceania, and Antarctica.

32

Perspective

33

Marine Science Affairs

tion totaled 1 .63 trillion cubic feet, slightly less than 6 percent of Free World
demand. Ten years ago only five countries conducted offshore drilling;
today over 80 countries are interested in the resources of their Continental
Shelves.

Income to the Federal Government derived from offshore leases and
royalties is discussed in Chapter VII.

The demand for minerals is also increasing rapidly. The U.S. domestic
demand for many minerals is expected to double by 1985 and perhaps triple
by 2000. Between 1966 and the year 2000, world consumption of non-fuel
minerals may increase five-fold. Competition for the world's mineral resources
will become more intense as industrialization of the developing countries
progresses.

While the mineral industries of the United States are among the most
heavily capitalized and technologically advanced, the combination of high
wage scales and depletion of high-grade domestic reserves of some minerals
is making the United States a high-cost mining economy. In recent years
domestic mining industries have frequently encountered difficulty in com-
peting with cheaper foreign sources of supply. Clearly, in the future, if
mineral demands are to be satisfied without increase in market cost, larger
quantities of some commodities will have to be imported. At the same time,
in important instances, the United States produces minerals that compete
successfully for markets abroad.

Cumulative U.S. and world demand versus U.S. and world reserves and
resources for about 30 mineral commodities that may occur on the Conti-
nental Shelf is depicted in Table II-6. It is evident from these data that new
sources of supply for many mineral commodities will be needed to meet the
projected demands and insure the security and economic viability of the
United States.

The oceans represent such a potential source. Extensive deposits of
phosphorites; metalliferous muds rich in copper, zinc, and other metals; man-
ganese nodules containing cobalt, nickel, and copper; gold, tin, platinum,
and other heavy minerals; and sand and gravel exist on and beyond the
Continental Shelf. But present knowledge of the extent of these resources
and their distribution is limited.

The growing worldwide demand for resources, the unexplored areas of
the Continental Shelf with geological continuity with adjacent land areas
which have yielded mineral wealth, and the scattered positive indications
that resources exist, all direct attention to learning more about non-living
resources under the sea. The Continental Shelf is thus a logical focus for a
new era of systematic surveys to determine the presence, distribution, and
richness of seabed deposits.

34

Perspective

35

329^66 O— 69-

Marine Science Affairs

Table 11-6 — United States and World Land Reserves and Resources of
Some Metals and Nonmetals That Occur on the Continental Shelves

Commodity

Minable

reserves °

Resources >>

Projected cumulative
demand, 1966-2000

(rounded from

Bureau of Mines

estimates)

United
States

World

(including

U.S.)

United
States

World
(including

U.S.)

United
States

World

(including

U.S.)

45

5,800

300

9,600

M40

840

(')

i')

1, 000, 000

1,650,000

360, 000

540, 000

0

2,000

8

(')

22

74

86

210

65

(')

/140

400

50

2,200

(0

(')

600

1,300

50

1.000

400

(0

670

2,370

0

(0

0

{')

1,700

3,600

8,000

250, 000

100, 000

250, 000

6,400

35, 000

0

3,800

1,000

15, 000

50

450

250

60,000

1,400

(')

« 14, 500

31,700

12, 000

48, 000

48, 000

(0

500

2,000

1,400

72, 000

5,000

C)

300

1,100

3

280

(0

(.')

/144

250

5

(')

(0

5

.5

1

1,400

5,500

500

(0

/ 14, 000

31, 000

(')

(')

500

2,000

690

2,600

9

5,600

43

11,400

/ 3, 200

9,200

Aluminum (bauxite, millions,
long tons)

Beryllium (short tons, equiv.
beryl)

Chromium (millions, long tons,
chromite)

Copper (millions, short tons)

Cobalt (thousands, short tons)-..

Gold (millions, troy ounces)

Industrial diamonds (million

carats)-.

Iron ore (millions, long tons)

Manganese ore (millions, long

tons)

Nickel (thousands, short tons)...
Phosphate (millions, long tons).-
Potash, (miUions, short tons,

KjO)

Platinum group (millions, troy

ounces) .

Rare earths (millions, short tons)

Silver (millions, troy ounces)

Sulfur (milUons, short tons) -

Tin (thousands, long tons)

Titanium (millions, short tons,

TiOs) 100

Thorium (thousands, short tons,

Th02) 0

Tungsten (thousands, short tons). 70

Uranium (thousands, short tons,

UsOs) 210

Vanadium (thousands, short tons) . 200

Zircon (millions, short tons) . 6

500

(')

(")

100

82

200

1,000

5

15

1,500

200

(0

620

2,040

742

675

2,700

1,500

3,750

3,500

1,300

20, 000

650

1,000

30

{')

(')

3.0

10

" Minable reserves are materials that may or may not be completely explored but that may be quantita-
tively estimated and are considered to be economically exploitable at the time of the estimate.

"> Resources are materials other than reserves that are prospectively usable and include undiscovered
recoverable resources as well as those whose exploitation requires more favorable economic conditions.

« Unknown. <* Vast. • Several billion. / Demand figures include a significant quantity of recycled
metal. » Very large.

Source: Department of Inteilor.

36

Perspective

Intensified International Interest in the Oceans

Most of the world's 138 nations front on the oceans and are
increasingly attempting to gain their stake in the sea. Many of these
countries are new and developing and are entering the international ocean
arena for the first time. All these nations — and the landlocked countries as
well — are interested in the new possibilities the seas hold for improving their
economies. With nations using the sea more intensively, national rivalries and
conflicts could arise to inhibit the development of marine resources.

Mounting international interest and activity in the oceans are clearly
reflected in the results of a U.N. poll last year of its member States requesting
information on ocean activities. Of 58 nations responding to the
questionnaire :

— 52 were doing some basic or applied marine research ;

—42 had nautical charting programs ;

— 16 operated position fixing systems or performed related navigational
services ;

— 20 monitored or forecast physical ocean conditions ;

— 12 monitored and forecast pollutants;

— 37 explored, monitored, and forecast fish stocks;

— 21 undertook submarine geological and geophysical surveys; and

— 19 were concerned with modifications of coasts and channels.
As to using the sea :

— 45 engaged in fishing;

— 9 exploited offshore petroleum and gas resources ;

— 14 used the ocean for recreation;

— 13 exploited minerals from ocean water and the seabed;

— 5 extracted sand and gravel from the sea;

— 4 utilized the ocean for power ; and

— 7 disposed of wastes in the ocean.
The prospect of exploiting the seas has been magnified in the activities and
discussions of the international community, particularly in the General
Assembly of the United Nations, which is now a main focus for interna-
tional ocean interest. The desire of nations to obtain membership on the
recently created 42-nation U.N. Standing Committee on the Seabed and
the unanimous U.N. endorsement of an expanded international program
of ocean exploration with an increased role for the Intergovernmental
Oceanographic Commission stirred unprecedented interest in the oceans
last fall at the United Nations. Figure 11-14 identifies the U.N. bodies with
major responsibilities in the marine sciences.

As examples of the interest of nations in these activities, 55 countries
participate in the activities of the FAO Committee on Fisheries, 60 countries
are members of the Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative Organiza-

37

Marine Science Affairs

tion, and the membership of the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Com-
mission has increased by 50 percent to more than 60 in less than three years.

Over the years men have learned to cooperate in using the
seas, particularly in the use of nearby seas that influence several adjacent
nations. Figure 11-15 presents a selected group of intergovernmental regional
organizations developed in recent years and now active in promoting
cooperative marine activities. But the mounting interest of the world com-
munity, new technological achievements and new uses of the seas, and the
changing political complexion suggest that the ocean may become more
important than ever before as a source of national power and dispute. While
the oceans can yield world-wide benefits, they can also create global havoc.
Intensified ocean activities must be conducted within a framework of law
and cooperation or they will inevitably lead to conflicts and debilitating
rivalries.

New issues are emerging. Already, as shown in Appendix C-4, some
coastal States have asserted national jurisdiction hundreds of miles seaward,
eroding the traditional freedom of navigation of the seas. As man moves into
the deep oceans he encounters new questions of jurisdiction over the seabed,
and he seeks new legal principles to guide its development and use. As high
seas fishing stocks become accessible to more nations, tradition is giving way
to internationally reached agreements. As use of the ocean increases, the
chances of disturbing the natural balance of the seas multiply — particularly
through pollution which acts to the detriment of all users.

Thus, a view of the oceans requires not only an appraisal of scientific
and technological opportunities, but also an awareness of changing national
relationships and interests. The accelerating pace of oceanic developments
makes it necessary for nations to intensify their efforts to promote world
understanding and peace, to reduce conflict and rivalry, and to advance
world order through increased multilateral, regional, and bilateral coopera-
tion in the oceans. This unique arena where the interests of nations con-
verge offers multiple opportunities for cooperative endeavors, and in the
years ahead increased use of the oceans will be to a very large extent depend-
ent upon successful statesmanship.

A Shield and a Bond for National Security

A nation's strength springs from many sources — political, economic, mili-
tary, and scientific^ — and all aspects of national growth in a sense contribute
to national security. Historically the oceans have played important military
roles as a shield for defense, a springboard for attack, and a lifeline for sup-

38

Perspective

Figure 11-14— U.N. Bodies With Responsibilities in the Marine Sciences

INTERCOVERNMENTA

OCCANOCRAPHIC

COMMrSSION

FOOD AND
AGRICULTURE
ORGANIZATION

WORLD

METEOROLOGICAL

ORGANIZATION

INTERGOVERNMENTAL
MARITIME CONSULT-
ATIVE ORGANIZATION

INTERNATIONAL BANK

-FOR RECONSTRUCTION

AND DEVELOPMENT

INTERNATIONAL

' TELECOMMUNICATION

UNION

U.N. CONFERENCE

ON TRADE
AND DEVELOPMENT

ECONOMIC
>— COMMISSION FOR ASIA
AND THE FAR EAST

Figure 11-15— Selected Intergovernmental Regional Organizations
Active in Marine Sciences

1. Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East
(Committee for Offshore Prospecting)

2. Indo-Pacific Fisheries Council

3. North Pacific Fur Seal Commission

4. International North Pacific Fisheries Commis-
sion

5. International Pacific HaUbut Commission

6. International Pacific Salmon Fisheries Com-
mission

7. Inter-American Tropical Tuna Convention

8. International Joint Commission

9. Great Lakes Fishery Commission

10. International Commission for the Northwest
Atlantic Fisheries

11. International Council for the Exploration of the
Sea

12. North East Atlantic Fisheries Commission

13. Organization for Economic Cooperation and
Development

14. North Atlantic Treaty Organization (Science
Committee)

15. Organization of American States

16. International Commission for Conservation of
Atlantic Tuna (not yet established)

17. Fisheries Committee for the Eastern Central
Atlantic

18. South West Atlantic Fisheries Advisory Com-
mission

19. International Commission for the Scientmc
Exploration of the Mediterranean Sea

20. General Fisheries Council for the Mediterranean

21. Indian Ocean Fishery Commission

39

Marine Science Affairs

port. Naval power has long been a primary source of military strength and a
strong arm of foreign policy. The use of the seas by nations has, to a large
extent, been directly related to the development of effective naval forces.

Since the earliest days of this Nation, naval activities have played an
important role in our security. Long coastlines expose our flanks to the seas
on both sides of the continent. Wide ocean expanses have separated us
from many of our allies and our adversaries. Strength at sea has long been
one of the cornerstones of U.S. collective security arrangements, some of
which are depicted in Figure 11-16.

Today's Navy has several primary missions — to provide a strategic deter-
rent, to help prevent and contain limited wars and, when needed, to support
diplomatic activities. To carry out their missions, U.S. sea-based forces pro-
vide capabilities for deployment of submarines armed with nuclear missiles,
anti-submarine operations, amphibious operations, bombardment and air
support for ground operations, operations to protect essential shipping, and
ocean surveillance. Figure 11-17 illustrates recent naval support of U.S.
responses to incidents abroad.

The size and prestige of the U.S. and Soviet Navies should not obscure the
existence of many other fleets. As summarized in Table 1 1-7, 10 countries
have aircraft carriers; 15 possess cruisers; and more than 30 have destroyers.
More than 40 new coastal nations have emerged since World War II, and
the purchase of patrol boats and corvettes by many of them underscore the
importance attached to a military presence on the seas. In the years ahead
the submarine is likely to play an even greater role than now in carrying
forth the Navy's mission. The Soviet Union and Mainland China have both
expanded their submarine forces, and a number of the developing nations
are acquiring older submarines to enhance their naval stature.

The efTectiveness of naval operations — on, under, and above the sea —
critically depends upon a total weapon system capability, including effec-
tive navigation systems, command and control systems, detection and
tracking systems, and the weapons themselves. The achievements of the
U.S. Navy in the marine sciences are essential in providing its fleet with
the necessary technological base in all of these areas. The navies of many
countries seek a similar capability.

Exploring New Frontiers

For man to use the ocean, he must understand it. Before he can fully
accomplish the tasks outlined above — increase the sea's food output, extract
its fuel and minerals, improve conditions in the Coastal Zone, forecast the
weather, or enhance world security and peace — ^he must study and explore

40

Perspective

41

Marine Science Affairs

Figure 11-17 — Navy Support of U.S. Response to Incidents Abroad

1. 1946 A Navy force visited Athens to assist the Government of Greece.

2. 1948-1949 During the Berlin Airlift, naval tankers and supply ships carried large quantities of aviation

gasoline to Bremerhaven, Germany, to support the Airlift.

3. 1950-1955 Large naval units carried allied forces overseas to help sustain South Korea, maintain

control of adjacent waters, and provide air and gunfire bombardment and logistic support.

4. 1954 The Navy assisted in evacuating hundreds of thousands of refugees from North to South

Vietnam.

5. 1955 At the request of the Republic of China, the Seventh Fleet evacuated troops, civilians, and

tons of material from the Tachen Islands off the Chinese mainland.

6. 1956 The Sixth Fleet evacuated American and allied nationals when the Suez-Middle East situ-

ation became critical.

7. 1957 The Sixth Fleet deployed in the eastern Mediterranean to support Jordan.

8. 1958 The Sixth Fleet lifted and provided air cover for 1,800 Marines who were landed near

Beirut at the request of Lebanon.

9. 1959-1960 Seventh Fleet units were alerted near Laos to render assistance to the U.N. Fact Finding

Commission.

10. 1960 At the request of Nicaragua and Guatemala, Navy warships and aircraft were positioned to

provide assistance.

11. 1960-1961 Atlantic Fleet units transported U.N. troops to quell civil disorder in the Congo and carried

emergency supplies to relieve starvation.

12. 1961 Supported by large Navy task forces, the U.S. began a long-term buildup of strength in

South Vietnam to deter aggression there.

13. 1961 When East Germany erected the Berlin Wall, the Navy activated Reserve ships and men to

meet possible crises.

14. 1962 The Atlantic Fleet quarantined Cuba and continued surveillance operations until the

quarantine was lifted.

15. 1963 Navy forces went to the Caribbean when the Dominican Republic threatened to invade

Haiti endangering U.S. citizens.

16. 1964 The Maddox and Turner Joy destroyed attacking North Vietnamese PT boats in the Gulf

of Tonkin.

17. 1965 The Navy stood by to evacuate U.S. citizens from the strife-torn Dominican Republic.

18. 1965-1968 The Navy is assisting allied forces to enable South Vietnam to maintain its independence.

42

Perspective

the world oceans. But to some extent exploration and research are also
a purpose themselves. Each of us has a latent curiosity about the world
around him, and scientific discovery becomes a purpose of society — at least
of the affluent societies. Indeed exploration, science, and invention are a
feature of American culture.

As shown in the list of exploration milestones in Table 1 1-8, great strides
have been made in recent years in surveying distant ocean reaches. But
we have only begun to venture into the vastness of the seas. Knowledge
of the ocean and its resources is exceedingly limited. Because of the very
size, complexity, and variability of the marine environment, scientific
investigations of vast scope will be required if knowledge of this environ-
ment is to increase within a reasonably short period.

World interest in the oceans is growing and nations are moving to
strengthen their marine science capabilities — to extend their exploration
capabilities. In the past few years a number of nations. Including Canada,
France, Germany, Japan, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, and
the United States have made significant steps to increase their ocean and
underseas research capabilities.

Perspective for the Future

We have only begun to realize the promise of the ocean. The preceding
pages have described uses of the sea today, with a glimpse of uses tomor-
row. In an environment where so little is known, and where technologies
are in their infancy, it would be folly to attempt definitive long-range
prediction. But it is clear that as the world's population grows rapidly, the
sea can provide new sources of nutritious food. Untapped mineral and
energy resources of the sea can help meet growing demands of the world's
expanding economy. New understanding of the processes of the ocean — the
great regulator of weather and climate — can benefit agriculture, shipping,
travel, health, and recreation.

The following chapters discuss what the Federal Government is doing to
meet these challenges.

43

Marine Science Affairs

Table 11-7— World Naval

Country

Aircraft,
escort,

helicopter
carriers

Submarines

Conven-
Nuclear tional

Cruisers

De-
stroyers

Destroyer
escorts,
frigates

Corvettes

Patrol
vessels,

sub
chasers

Argentina

1

2

2
2

3

9
9

4

10

3

Australia

Belgium

2
10

Brazil .. .._

1

4
2

2

9

6

2

1

. 23

1

1

13

15

2

4

6

3

3

3

3

28

24

4

4

14

11

1

Bulgaria --

8

Burma

2

5

Canada.-. _

1

4

Ceylon

Chile...

China, Republic of

2

2

4
5
4
3

2
5

2
23

China (Mainland)

34

28

Colombia.

Cuba

2
4
5
2
3

14

Denmark .

4

Dominican R ._

2

7

Ecuador ...

Egypt - ...

13

6

Finland --.

4

France _

4

23
12

2

20
10

14

Germany (FRQ) ...

7

Germany (Soviet Zone)

41

Greece

1

3

8
3

7
1

13

India . _.

2

1

Indonesia

Iran

12

3
3

12

Iraq

3

Israel ..

4

7
7

8

24

1

1
12
18

8

1

Italy

Japan

3

25

7
20

Korea (Republic of)

Korea (North)

9

6
15

Malaysia..-

1
8
8
5
5
2

Mexico

21
12

1

Netherlands..

1

6

2

12

New Zealand .

1

Norway

15
1

Pakistan ..

1

5

Paraguay

Peru

4

2

2

3

2
6

Philippines

6

Poland .

11
3

5

1

8

Portugal- .. _

12

1

14

Rumania ._

3

South Africa. .

2

18
8

6

8

10

5

Spain _ _

1

8
19

1
1

6

2

Sweden -

o

Thailand

14

Turkey __ ...

7

5

10
43

10
22

9

6

United Kingdom

Uruguay

3

71
3

284

100

6

4

USA

USSR

Venezuela

56

80
50

127

350

1

37
20

378

120

3

10

40

300

12

Vietnam .--

6

2

Yugoslavia

4

3

3

o

Source: Jane's Fighting Ships, 1967-1968, edited by Raymond V. B. Blackman. Copyright (c) 1967 by
Jane's Fighting Ships Publishing Co., Ltd. Used with permission of McGraw-Hill Book Co. These data
include reserve fleet ships.

44

Perspective

Fleets: Selected Categories

Gunboats,

Motor

Landing

Trans-

torpedo

Mine-

Mine- launches.

ships

Survey

port and

Oilers

Country

boats, fast

layers

sweepers river

and

ships

supply

patrol boats

gunboats

craft

ships

10
450

14

100

1

10

8

46

4

14

30

5

1

6

4

48
226

1

13
40

42

16

8

24

62

8

13

2

5
- 101

47

3

69
109

2

19

6

64

21

6

100

176
350

62

26

5

10
S

2

2

52

22

16

8

26

11

3
43

6
11

2
7

25
38

5

21

32

10
18
ii

8
30

7

264

120

12

17

10

3

2

5

4
1

6

4

10

16

8

1
3

6

9

38

246

230

4

33

7

12

19

38

1

1

26

165

75

55

45

50

3

1

1

2

Argentina.

Australia.

Belgium.

Brazil.

Bulgaria.

Burma.

Canada.

Ceylon.

Chile.

China, Republic of.

China (Mainland) .

Colombia.

Cuba.

Denmark.

Dominican Rep.

Ecuador.

Egypt.

Finland.

France.

Germany (FRG).

Germany (Sov).

Greece.

India.

Indonesia.

Iran.

Iraq.

Israel.

Italy.

Japan.

Korea (Republic of)

Korea (North).

Malaysia.

Mexico.

Netherlands.

New Zealand.

Norway.

Pakistan.

Paraguay.

Peru.

Philippines.

Poland.

Portugal.

Rumania.

South Africa.

Spain.

Sweden.

Thailand.

Turkey.

United Kingdom.

Uruguay.

USA.

USSR.

Venezuela.

Vietnam.

Yugoslavia.

45

Marine Science Affairs

Table 11-8 — Selected Milestones in Ocean Exploration

INTERNATIONAL ACTIVITIES

Date

Program

Event

1949

Inter-American Tropical

Tuna Commission.

1950

Operation Cabot Gulf

Stream Survey.

1951

International Convention

for the Northwest Atlantic

Fisheries.

1953

International North Pacific

Fisheries Commission.

• 1955

Operation NORPAC

1956

Operation EQUAPAC ....

1957

International Council of

Scientific Unions.

1958

Antarctic Treaty

1957-1958

International Geophysical

Year.

1958-1960

Law of the Sea Confer-

ences, Geneva.

1962-1965

International Indian

Ocean Expedition.

1960

UNESCO Oceanoeraphic

Program.

1963 International Cooperative

Investigation of the
Tropical Atlantic.

1967 International Convention

for Investigation and
Conservation of Atlantic
Tuna Resources.

1967 Indian Ocean Fisheries

Commission.

1967 Integrated Global Ocean

Station System.
1967-1968 Operation EASTROPAC.

1968 International Decade of

Ocean Exploration.

First international cooperative mechanism
for tuna research.

One of first international, multi-ship
surveys.

First meeting to enhance fisheries explora-
tion and conservation.

Japanese, Canadian, U.S. compact for
oceanic research and fisheries regulation.

Japanese, Canadian, U.S. cooperative
survey of North Pacific Ocean.

Japanese, French, U.S. cooperative survey
of Equatorial Pacific.

Establishment of Scientific Committee on
Oceanic Research.

Established framework for Antarctic activi-
ties, particularly polar research.

35 nation, 80 ship cooperative program of
synoptic oceanographic observations.

Conventions reinforced principle of free-
dom of seas and provided broad frame-
work for ocean activities.

23 nation, 40 ship cooperative, Indian
Ocean research and charting activities.

Establishment of Intergovernmental Ocean-
ographic Commission to coordinate inter-
national oceanographic activities.

7 nation, 14 ship study of seasonal abun-
dance of living resources.

Preparation of convention to foster rational
conservation and fishery development.

Promotes fishing exploration and de-
velopment.

Initiation of international planning and
coordination.

5 nation, 12 ship cooperative international
study of large-scale, air-sea interactions
and living resources.

U.N. General Assembly endorsement and
steps initiated for national and inter-
national planning.

46

Perspective

Table 11-8 — Selected Milestones in Ocean Exploration — Continued

NATIONAL ACTIVITIES

Date Program Event

1946-1952 Alaska King Crab Fishery. . Exploration and development.

1947 Offshore oil production. . . . First producing well drilled in offshore oil

field off Louisiana.
1952 R/V Hugh Smith Discovery and charting of subsurface cur-

rents leading to recognition of equato-
rial undercurrents as a permanent feature
of oceanic circulation systems.
1 954 Development of Outer First Federal lease sale of Outer Continental

Continental Shelf. Shelf lands off Louisiana.

1957 USCGC Storis, Bramble, First deep draft transit of Northwest Pas-

and Spar sage in cooperation with Canada.

1958 USS Nautilus First under-ice transit to North Pole.

1960 USS Triton First underwater circumnavigation of the

world.

1961 Bathyscaphe Trieste First deep sea research vehicle to descend

to bottom of world's deepest ocean
trench. (35,800 ft.)

1961 Project Mohole First successful deep ocean drilling experi-

ment in water depth of 10,000 feet.

1962 FLIP Experiments with first large stable deep

ocean research platform.

1963 Data Monitoring by Na- First use of satellite communication for ship

tional Oceanographic to shore relay of oceanographic data.

Data Center.

1963 R/V Cham First operational use of shipboard general

purpose computer.

1963 Location of USS Thresher. . . First successful effort in locating and

identifying objects on the deep ocean
floor.

1964 Oceanographic Buoy First use of radioisotopic power in un-

Development. manned oceanic weather buoy.

1964 R/V's Conrad, Vema First use of satellite navigation by private

oceanographic ships.

1964 NIMBUS I First remote sensing of oceanic surface

phenomena from spacecraft.

1965-1968 SEALAB Experiments Manned underwater laboratories.

1968 Glomar Challenger Discovery of indications of oil in Gulf of

Mexico at depth of 1 1,700 feet.

47

'The dim, dark sea . . . that divides and yet unites mankind."

HENRY W. LONGFELLOW

Chapter III

EXPANDING INTERNATIONAL
COOPERATION AND UNDERSTANDING

The oceans are inherently international; they define the coastlines of
more than 100 nations. Moreover, new ocean technologies are projecting
national interests seaward as more countries become able to conduct mari-
time and naval activities farther from their coasts, exploit previously inac-
cessible ocean resources, and expand ocean exploration activities into distant
seas and to deeper reaches of the seabed. As marine interests and operations
of the nations of the world intensify and converge and competition for
resources increases, international cooperation becomes essential to prevent
and mitigate conflicts and rivalries and to foster world order and inter-
national economic development.^

Motivation for cooperative endeavors also lies in the need for more and
better information about the sea. Many nations share experience and capa-
bilities in marine science and technology. The United States — and all
nations — can derive maximum benefit from this collective capability if
nations share the responsibilities and the results of expanding ocean research.

' The increasing worldwide interest in marine sciences is reflected in the following
five Council publications: "Marine Science Activities of the Nations of .Africa,"
"Marine Science Activities of the Nations of East Asia," "Marine Science Activities
of Canada and the Nations of Europe," "Marine Science Activities of the Nations of
Latin America," "Marine Science Activities of the Nations of the Near East and South
Asia." These and other Council publications are listed in Table XV-2 together with
information concerning their availability.

49

Marine Science Affairs

Indeed, both because of the international character of scientific study of
the seas and the common property aspect of deep ocean resources, a multi-
national approach to the peaceful uses of the seas is not only desirable but
necessary.

In recognition of this need, the Marine Sciences Act gives special emphasis
to international cooperation, including recognition of a leadership role of
the United States.- Accordingly, the United States has sought to widen under-
standing of its plans to expand its activities under the Marine Sciences Act
to encourage other nations to determine how the oceans could contribute
to their development, and to promote collaborative endeavors by :

— encouraging increased cooperation among ocean scientists of all

nations and broadened dissemination of scientific results ;
— collaborating with other nations in developing and using new marine

technologies within a framework of mutual benefit ;
• — strengthening the capabilities of the developing nations to use the
oceans and their resources as pathways to economic progress, recog-
nizing that assistance must be shared by other nations and inter-
national organizations;
— supporting activities of the many bodies of the United Nations system
and other international organizations engaged in oceanic activities
and efforts to improve the international organizational structure;
• — strengthening international ocean programs and projects which foster
cooperation among neighboring nations to meet common interests
and problems ;
— pursuing a strengthened code of international law which will pre-
serve the traditional freedoms of the seas, insure that nations have
equitable opportunities to participate in the development of the
wealth of the oceans, and anticipate and prevent potential conflicts
arising out of expanding maritime interests ; ''
— fostering international legal, financial, and political arrangements
to promote investment in marine development and facilitate a fruitful
partnership between public and private interests in marine matters;

" As international policy objectives. Section 2 of the Act states : "The preservation of
the role of the United States as a leader in marine science and resource development."
Also, ". . . The cooperation by the United States with other nations ... in marine
science activities when such cooperation is in the national interest." Section 6 of the
Act states: "The Council, under the foreign policy guidance of the President and as he
may request, shall coordinate a program of international cooperation in work done
pursuant to this Act, pursuant to agreements made by the President with the advice
and consent of the Senate."

^ The following Council contract reports discuss many of the international law con-
siderations: "Law for the Sea's Mineral Resources", "Fishery Policy and International
Law", "International Legal Problems of Scientific Research in the Ocean". These and
other reports prepared by contractors for the Council are listed in Table XV-3 to-
gether with information concerning their availability.

50

International Cooperation

— encouraging mutual restraint among nations so that the oceans do

not become the basis for military conflicts;
— considering questions of arms limitations on the seabed and ocean

floor; and
— taking steps to reduce pollution and other activities which could
adversely affect the ecological balance of the seas.
This policy framework reflects the distinctive contributions that ocean
activities make to certain foreign policy goals: enhancing the prospects for
a stable and lasting peace, curbing the growing economic gap between the
developed and developing nations, strengthening regional cohesiveness in
many areas of the world, and providing new sources of critically needed
protein for an expanding world population. Steps taken internationally to
advance these policies have included visits by senior U.S. officials abroad,
conferences with foreign visitors, and support of numerous international
activities.

Developing a Legal Regime for the Seabed

The most potentially far reaching international issues considered by the
Marine Sciences Council during the past year were the International Decade
of Ocean Exploration, described in detail in Chapter IX, and the legal status
of the seabed of the deep ocean. Following the introduction of a pro-
posal by Malta in the fall of 1967, the U.N. General Assembly undertook
an "Examination of the question of the reservation exclusively for peaceful
purposes of the seabed and the ocean floor, and the subsoil thereof, under-
lying the high seas beyond the limits of present national jurisdiction, and the
use of their resources in the interests of mankind." The United States
actively participated in the debate.*

On December 18, 1967, the General Assembly established an Ad Hoc
Committee of 35 members to prepare a study on the peaceful use of the
deep ocean floor, including:

— a survey of past and present activities of the U.N. and its related agen-
cies and other intergovernmental bodies with regard to the deep
ocean floor;
— a survey of existing international agreements concerning the seabeds ;

* The position taken by the United States followed the course set by President John-
son in July 1966 when he said: "Under no circumstances, we believe, must we ever
allow the prospects of rich harvest and mineral wealth to create a new form of colonial
competition among the maritime nations. We must be careful to avoid a race to grab
and to hold the lands under the high seas. We must ensure that the deep seas and the
ocean bottoms are, and remain, the legacy of all human beings."

51

329-466 O — 69 5

Marine Science Affairs

— an account of the scientific, technical, economic, legal, and other as-
pects of the deep ocean floor; and
— an indication regarding the practical means to promote international
cooperation in the exploration, conservation, and use of the deep
ocean floor.
The Ad Hoc Committee met three times during 1968, and considered
background papers prepared for the Committee by the U.N. Secretariat,
the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC), and other U.N.
specialized agencies. Its final report illuminated many of the emerging con-
flicts of interest and reflected a heightened awareness of the technical and
legal problems associated with exploiting the deep ocean floor. Expectations
of early and large returns from resources of the deep seabed became tempered
with . realism.

During the fall of 1968, the General Assembly reviewed the Committee's
report, and after extensive debate in the Political Committee of the General
Assembly three Resolutions cosponsored by the United States were adopted.
The Resolutions:

— establish a 42-member Standing Committee on the Peaceful Uses
of the Seabed and the Ocean Floor Beyond the Limits of National
Jurisdiction, which will expand the studies carried out earlier by the
Ad Hoc Committee;
— urge measures to prevent pollution of the oceans; and
— support the U.S. proposal for an International Decade of Ocean Ex-
ploration within the framework of a comprehensive long-term pro-
gram of scientific investigation and call on the IOC to play a leading
role in coordinating the program.
The General Assembly also adopted a fourth Resolution which requested
the Secretary General to study the question of establishing international
machinery to promote exploration and exploitation of seabed resources and
their use; the United States considered this proposal premature and there-
fore abstained.^

During the deliberations of the General Assembly and the Ad Hoc Com-
mittee, the United States submitted a number of additional proposals, in-
cluding (a) a draft Resolution containing a declaration of principles on
the use of the deep ocean floor; (b) a draft Resolution referring to the
Eighteen Nation Disarmament Committee the question of arms limitations
on the seabed and ocean floor with a view to defining those factors vital to a
workable, verifiable, and effective international agreement which would pre-
v'cnt the use of this new environment for the emplacement of weapons of
mass destruction; and (c) a suggestion to establish international marine
preserves, i.e., major types of unmodified ocean habitats such as a deep

^ These four Resolutions and the 1967 Resolution establishing the Ad Hoc Com-
mittee are included in Appendix C-1.

52

International Cooperation

trench, an atoll, or a group of table mounts, to serve as ecological baselines
and as areas for scientific research. The United States also supported a less
extensive declaration of principles submitted by a number of delegations/'

In setting forth our position, the United States called for action looking
toward international agreement that there is, and will remain, an area of
the seabed and deep ocean floor beyond national jurisdiction. Taking into
account the Geneva Convention of 1958 on the Continental Shelf, there
should be established, as soon as practicable, an internationally agreed pre-
cise boundary delineating the area beyond national jurisdiction. Exploitation
and use of the natural resources of the seabed and ocean floor prior to the
establishment of a boundary should not prejudice the location of that
boundary.

With regard to the regime for the area beyond national jurisdiction, the
United States also took the position that no State should claim or exercise
sovereignty or sovereign rights over any part of the area, and the area should
not be subject to national appropriation by claims of sovereignty, by use or
occupation, or by any other means. There should be no discrimination in the
availability of the area for exploration, scientific research, and use by all
States and their nationals. The U.S. position also asserts that internationally
agreed arrangements governing the exploitation of resources of the area
should be established as soon as practicable. Such arrangements should
include provision for the orderly development of resources; conditions condu-
cive to making of investments; preserving the integrity of investments in
the area made prior to agreement on such arrangements; the dedication as
feasible and practicable of a portion of the value of the resources recovered
from the deep ocean floor to world and regional community purposes; and
accommodation among the commercial and other uses of the deep ocean
floor and marine environment.

Finally, the United States expressed the view that the seabed and deep
ocean floor beyond national jurisdiction should be used exclusively for
peaceful purposes in accordance with the U.N. Charter. Since this does not
preclude military activities generally, specific limitations on designated
military activities will require the negotiation of a detailed arms control
agreement. Military' activities not precluded by such an agreement would
continue to be conducted in accordance with freedom of the seas and
exclusively for peaceful purposes.

The development of these principles and further evolution of policy re-
garding jurisdiction over the deep seabed involve a number of considerations
of national interest — security, economic growth, incentive for private invest-
ment, balance of payments, scientific research, aid to developing nations, and
others. These diverse interests find their advocacy in different departments

' The draft Resolutions and the less extensive declaration of principles arc included
in Appendix C-2.

53

Marine Science Affairs

of the Federal Government. Conflicts in viewpoint are inevitable. To assist
in formulating consistent Government-wide policies of international interest
the Committee on International Policy in the Marine Environment was
established by the Secretary of State at the request of the Vice President to
examine the major international ocean policies. The Marine Sciences Council
has requested all agencies to consult with the Department of State before
undertaking any seabed activities which could have international implica-
tions. For example, the Departments of State and the Interior consult in
advance on the issuance of offshore oil and gas permits and leases with
possible international implication.

The Council has also consulted with the Arms Control and Disarmament
Agency concerning positions relating to seabed arms control.

Because future international arrangements for the deep ocean floor will
have an important eflfect on a variety of public and private interests, and
to insure that all interests are given full consideration, the Government, in
the continuing development of its position, has sought the views of repre-
sentatives of the mineral, petroleum, maritime, and fishing industries, scien-
tists and scholars, and others with special qualifications. Also, concerned
Members and Committees of the Congress have been regularly consulted by
the Department of State and other agencies.

Broadening Marine Science Activities of the U.N. Agencies

Many of the U.N. bodies in which the United States participates have
expanded their marine science activities '^ to deal on a global scale with
the same variety of maritime functions and issues with which the U.S. Gov-
ernment deals within its separate agencies. Internationally, however, no
single organization provides a complete overview of ocean activities, al-
though the U.N. General Assembly partially assumes that role.

Two reports were issued by the U.N. Secretary General in 1968 in response
to Resolutions introduced by the U.S. and adopted by the Economic and
Social Council (ECOSOC) and the General Assembly in 1966. The first
report on Resources of the Sea describes the potential of marine mineral
resources and marine food resources other than fish. The second report po-
vides a comprehensive survey of the current status of marine science and
technology of the individual U.N. members, with a number of specific
recommendations to further international cooperation in this field.

^ The Council will soon release a report, "International Marine Science Organiza-
tions," which briefly describes the activities of the many concerned international
organizations.

54

International Cooperation

Following consideration of these reports, ECOSOC unanimously adopted
three Resolutions concerning marine science and technology calling for
continuation and expansion of the studies of the Secretary General, urging
international cooperation in strengthening education and training in marine
science and technology, and inviting General Assembly endorsement of
expanded cooperation including the International Decade of Ocean Ex-
ploration.^

Similarly, after debate in the Economic Committee the General Assembly
welcomed the reports of the Secretary General and adopted two Resolutions
which

— endorse the concept of a coordinated long-term oceanographic re-
search program and request the U.N. Secretary General to consider
a comprehensive program based on recommendations of the IOC
and other interested international organizations; and
— call for increased international cooperation in developing, exploiting,
and conserving living marine resources.
Central to the recommendations of the Secretary General was the recog-
nition of the need to intensify the activities of the IOC to enable it to serv^e
as a focal point for coordinating international marine science activities, in
cooperation with other interested international organizations, and particu-
larly the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the World Meteo-
rological Organization (WMO). The United States and other nations have
made specific suggestions for increasing the resources available to the IOC
and for restructuring the organization, and these proposals will probably
be acted on in 1969.

The IOC, with U.S. participation, expanded its activities significantly in
1968 and improved working relations with a number of organizations.
Planning began for several new ocean surveys: an International Coordina-
tion Group for the Southern Ocean study was formed ; the first meeting of
the International Coordination Group for the Cooperative Investigation
of the Caribbean and Adjacent Regions was held in Curacao; procedures
were developed for cooperating with the International Council for the
Exploration of the Seas and the International Commission for Northwest
Adantic Fisheries; and planning began for study of the Mediterranean in
cooperation with the General Fisheries Council for the Mediterranean of
the FAO and the International Commission for the Scientific Exploration
of the Mediterranean Sea. New IOC Working Groups considered legal as-
pects of oceanographic research including a draft resolution to advance
fundamental scientific research for consideration by the IOC m 1969 and

*The text of the U.N. and ECOSOC Resolutions of 1968 are presented in .Appen-
dices C-1 and C-3.

55

Marine Science Affairs

developed the initial framework for the Integrated Global Ocean Station
System (IGOSS).^

The WMO Executive Committee established a Panel on the Meteorologi-
cal Aspects of Ocean Affairs to provide guidance on ocean activities gen-
erally and to provide coordination with IOC, especially in implementation
of IGOSS. The WMO Commission on Maritime Meteorology called for
expanding international cooperation in the exploration of the ocean.

The Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative Organization (IMCO)
took steps toward amending the 1960 Convention on Safety of Life at Sea
and preparing recommendations to member governments designed to im-
prove safety measures and prevent pollution of the seas. IMCO also con-
sidered measures which would authorize coastal State actions on the high
seas. to prevent pollution, but progress in developing recommendations re-
garding the responsibility of shipowners or cargo owners for costs of cleaning
up pollution has been slow.

The FAO supports a broad range of fishery projects in the developing
countries. These projects far exceed the scope of similar projects supported
through bilateral and other multilateral channels. The extent of the U.S.
contribution to these FAO projects is indicated in Table III-l. The FAO's
Committee on Fisheries proposed in 1968 as a further step that its six re-
gional fisheries bodies develop specific regional research and development
projects which could be presented to various multilateral funding agencies
including the U.N. Development Program.

The U.N. Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East accelerated
investigations of the Continental Shelf of four Asian nations, and U.S. Navy
aircraft provided support for geomagnetic surveys.

Cooperating on a Regional Basis

Marine science and technology offer many opportunities for regional co-
operation which can strengthen scientific and economic capacities and pro-
mote regional economic development and political stability. Therefore, the
United States is fostering regional cooperation through bilateral and multi-
lateral arrangements and through the regional activities of the U.N. family
of organizations.

In Europe, regional marine programs can potentially contribute to
strengthening Atlantic alliances, furthering economic integration of Western
Europe, and quickening progress in East-West relations. The NATO
Science Committee's Ad Hoc Study Group on Oceanography has recently

® IGOSS is contemplated as a world-wide system for observing the marine environ-
ment, communicating and processing the data, and disseminating the products in
real-time for use by marine interests. IGOSS would be closely related to and co-
ordinated with the World Weather Watch Programs.

56

International Cooperation

Table II 1-1 — U.S. Contributions to Selected Intergovernmental Organi
zations for Marine Programs

(In thousands of dollars)

FY 1968

FY 1969

FY 1970

Food and Agriculture Organization: "

Regular Budget

U.N. Development Program

FAO Subtotal

U.N. Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization: '

Regular Budget

U.N. Development Program

UNESCO Subtotal

International Maritime Consultative Orga-
nization :

Regular Budget

U.N. Development Program

IMCO Subtotal

International Hydrographic Bureau:

Regular Budget

Total

811
3,400

1,025
3,400

1,025
3,400

4,211

4,425

4,425

117
77

117
114

132
114

194

231

246

103

79

119
79

119
79

182

198

198

11

15

16

4,598

4,869

4,885

<» Fisheries Department.

>> Oceanographic activities, including Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission.

examined and recommended various new initiatives including an interna-
tional buoy program, standardization of instrumentation, and a proposed
manned platform on the Continental Shelf. Also, the Organization for
Economic Cooperation and Development has established a permanent com-
mittee to consider the preservation of materials in the marine environment
as a further stage in strengthening its role in marine sciences, and the
European Economic Community has established a committee on
oceanography.

As part of the action program looking to economic and social betterment
in Latin America, the Presidents of the Americas, in their Punta del Este
Declaration in April 1967, proposed that multinational technological and
scientific training and research institutions at the postgraduate level be
established, and that existing institutions be strengthened. The Secretariat
of the Organization of the American States has proposed, inter alia, a. multi-
national program in marine sciences, consisting of six projects: three in-
volving postgraduate training and three directed to oceanographic research

57

Marine Science Affairs

with a suggested budget of $330,000 for the first year. These proposals are
now under review.

International programs concerning the Great Lakes are discussed in
Chapter IV.

Improving International Fishery Arrangements

The basic fisheries policy of the United States is to increase, consistent
with sound conservation principles, the utilization of the living resources of
the sea for the benefit of mankind. As a corollary, the United States seeks
to insure freedom of access of all countries to the living resources of the
high seas, subject to the obligation to apply eflFective conservation measures
when needed. Recognizing, however, that a strict application of this principle
may in some cases result in inequitable hardships for coastal fishermen,
our policy provides in such instances for recognition of the special eco-
nomc interests of the coastal State in fisheries beyond jurisdictional waters.
Such recognition is an important element of U.S. proposals for solution of
international fishery problems in various areas including the North Atlantic,
the North Pacific, and the Southeast Pacific.

The United States actively participates in eight international fishery
commissions identified in Table III-2. These commissions are responsible
for research and management practices concerning fish stocks which provide
an annual catch to U.S. fishermen valued at more than $200 million. Addi-
tionally a number of bilateral arrangements have been concluded con-
cerning other fishery stocks. Among the many developments in 1968 within
the commissions and bilateral arrangements were :

— continuation of agreements with the USSR and new agreements
with Japan concerning king crab fishing in the Eastern Bering Sea,
fishing gear conflicts off Alaska, fishing activities in the Northeastern
Pacific, and cooperative fishery research projects in the Bering Sea;
continuation of an agreement with the USSR concerning fishing
off the mid-Atlantic States;
— an agreement with Mexico concerning fishing of each country in the
fishery zone of the other and related fishery data exchanges and co-
operative research programs;
- — substantial increase in the quota for eastern Pacific yellowfin tuna;
— entry into force of comprehensive conservation regulations cover-
ing the entire area of the International Convention for the North-
west Atlantic Fisheries and consideration of a U.S. proposal to add
economic and technical considerations to regulation of the fishery;

58

International Cooperation

Table III-2 — U.S. Contributions to International Fishery Commissions

International Fishery Commissions

President's
budget, FY

1970 (in
thousands

of dollars)

U.S. Share

of budget

(percentage)

Approximate
value of U.S.

catch at
fishermen's
level (1957)
(in millions
of dollars)

214

50

10

386

50

6

427

96

47

7

7

90

1

6

1

K063

68

6

23

33

67

4

25

5

10

(0

(«)

2. 135

International Pacific Halibut Commission . .

International Pacific Salmon Commission . .

Inter- American Tropical Tuna Commission .

International Commission for the Northwest
Atlantic Fisheries

International Whaling Commission

Great Lakes Fishery Commission

International North Pacific Fisheries Com-
mission

North Pacific Fur Seal Commission

International Commission for the Conserva-
tion of Atlantic Tuna *

Total »

<■ Includes small amount for travel expenses of U.S. Commissioners and their advisors.
"> Not yet established.
' Not readily available.

— new programs of the International North Pacific Fisheries Com-
mission of coordinated research on ground fish and crab resources
of the Gulf of Alaska and Bering Sea ; and
— agreement on effective conservation of North Pacific whales, and
continuation of an agreed realistic quota for Antarctic whales.
New legislation (P.L. 90-482) included an amendment to the Fisher-
men's Protective Act to extend coverage of the Act to reimburse U.S. fisher-
men for license fees, registration fees, or any other direct charges in addition
to fines imposed by foreign governments for fishing more than 1 2 miles from
foreign coasts. The Act now provides that if any country which has seized
an American vessel fails to make payment in full within 120 days after
receiving notice of a claim, the Secretary of State shall withhold, pending
such payment, an amount equal to such unpaid claim from any funds pro-
gramed for the current fiscal year for assistance to the government of such
country. Also, the Foreign Military Sales Act now provides that the United
States cannot sell defense articles or services to any country that seizes or
fines an American fishing vessel engaged in fishing more than 1 2 miles from
the coast of that country. The Act permits a waiver by the President when
he determines that the sale would be important to the security of the United
States.

59

Marine Science Affairs

Fostering Bilateral and Multilateral Cooperation

Federal agencies support several hundred projects involving bilateral
cooperation, including the following types of programs:

— accommodation of foreign oceanographers on U.S. research platforms

and in U.S. laboratories;
— coordinated research projects involving U.S. and foreign ships;
— support of research conducted at foreign laboratories;
— support of U.S. scientists providing advice to foreign governments;
— training of foreign specialists at U.S. facilities in fishing technology,

military oceanography, and safety at sea;
— cooperation in joint search and rescue missions;
— exchange of navigational aids and information ;
— exchange of the right to reproduce foreign facsimile charts;
— technical assistance in surveying foreign harbors ;
— magnetic aerial reconnaissance surveys of foreign coastal areas;
— support of regional marine specimen collection and sorting activities;
— joint studies of erosion, delta development, and other nearshore

processes affecting the coastline ; and
— risk guarantees for private fishery investment abroad.
In addition the United States participates in a wide variety of multilateral
activities including:

— collection of environmental data through ships of opportunity;
— participation in the Pacific tsunami ^'^ warning system;
— broad dissemination of weather and ocean data including data ac-
quired from satellites;
— conducting the International Ice Patrol;

— support of international banking loans for fishery and port develop-
ment; and
— broadened collection and dissemination of hydrographic data and
charts.
The United States has bilateral science agreements with Italy, Iran, and
Australia for potential cooperation in marine science. The U.S. -Japan
Agreement on Natural Resources has been explicitly expanded to include
marine sciences. An informal understanding is under discussion betw^een
the Marine Sciences Council and France's counterpart, the National Coun-
cil for the Exploitation of the Oceans (CNEXO), for cooperative efforts
between U.S. and French specialists. During the recent visit to the United
States of the Prime Minister of Barbados, the President noted the importance
of a bilateral agreement for a major air/sea interaction experiment

" Seismic sea wave.

60

International Cooperation

involving U.S. research ships, aircraft, spacecraft, and buoys 70 miles east
of Barbados in 1969.

Among other 1968 highlights of our international cooperative endeavors
were :

— Following Council review of the opportunities for foreign j:)articipa-
tion in the Navy's SEALAB III experiments, aquanauts from Eng-
land, Canada, and Australia were invited to participate in the
experiments and observers from 50 countries were invited to visit
the SEALAB III site.

— The Navy has made available to foreign countries the technical
specifications to permit modification of foreign submarines to mate
\vith the Deep Submergence Rescue Vehicle described in Chapter V.

— Preparations were made for participation in the trade exhibit,
Oceanology International '69, in Brighton, England, and for possible
inclusion of an oceanographic exhibit in the U.S. pavilion at the
Osaka World's Fair in 1970.

— Concurrently with efforts to stimulate foreign markets for
U.S. oceanographic products, a review is being undertaken of regu-
lations governing the export of American equipment.

— U.S. aircraft with remote sensing capability delineated the chang-
ing temperature pattern of the ocean surface layer which determines
the location of herring resources vital to the Icelandic economy
(Figure III-l).

Figure III-l — Location of Region of Fisheries Interest off Iceland

1 1 1 r

T — I — I — r

SOURCE; DEPARTMENT OF NAVY

61

IVIarine Science Affairs

Seeking Future Opportunities

International attention is focusing sharply on a cooperative approach
to the use of the oceans, and there are growing opportunities for our marine
science programs to contribute to international understanding through (a)
joint working projects, and (b) multilateral development of legal arrange-
ments to prevent conflicts. Close consultations during the past year with
many countries have demonstrated the broad common interest of the inter-
national community in strengthening collaborative efforts and in setting
aside the oceans as an area free from conflict and dispute.

62

". . . all Americans — of present and future generations — have a right
to enjoy the shoreline experience." — report of the president's com-
mission ON recreation and natural beauty, "from sea to shining
sea"

Chapter IV

ENHANCING BENEFITS FROM THE
COASTAL ZONE

Thirty States, with more than 75 percent of the Nation's population,
are on the coasts of the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, the Gulf of Mexico, and
the Great Lakes. More than 45 percent of our urban population lives in
coastal counties, and almost all of the major megalopoli now projected for
the year 2000 are in the Coastal Zone — the margin where land and water
meet and interact (Figure IV-1) .

Shipbuilding, maritime commerce, and the fishing industry could have
developed only in the Coastal Zone. Our naval strength and our seaward
thrust for offshore oil, gas, and minerals must be based there. Many indus-
tries have found it advantageous to locate there because of proximity to
ocean transport, labor, and product markets. With the demand for outdoor
recreation increasing twice as fast as our burgeoning population, the Ameri-
can people increasingly seek the aesthetic benefits of the Coastal Zone — its

63

Marine Science Affairs

Figure IV-1 — Landward Limit of the Coastal Zone

SOURCE: COMMITTEE ON MULTIPLE USE OF THE COASTAL ZONE.

temperate climate and opportunities for swimming, sport fishing, and boat-
ing. Tens of millions live or vacation at coastal resorts, retirement homes,
and beach cottages. Millions regularly head for beaches on weekends. Many
others find business opportunities there. Figure IV-2 exemplifies the in-
creasing demand for coastal recreation facilities.

Regrettably, any description of the Coastal Zone must also include a
description of deterioration of the environment itself — by pollution of bays
and estuaries, by hurricane damage and wave erosion, and by inadvertent
human abuse of a fragile ecology that forms the habitat of important fish
and wildlife. For example, the Coastal Zone is the most important habitat
of domestic commercial fishery resources supplying 90 to 95 percent of the
total U.S. catch; but our estuaries are being altered, directly threatening
many of these valuable fishery resources.

The scope, diversity, and significance of activities in the Coastal Zone
are so broad that practically all institutions of our society have become in-
volved in its use and management — private individuals who own shore-
land; industrial, conservation, and recreation interests; local and State
governments; and the Federal Government. Despite obvious advantages,
Coastal Zone lands and waters have only rarely been subjected to coordinated

64

The Coastal Zone

-^^^

Figure W^l^Shihhole Bay Marina in Puget Sound, developed jointly by the Port
of Seattle and the Corps of Engineers, is typical of expanding recreational facilities
in the Coastal Zone. The demand for such facilities exceeds then current avMil-
ity; Shilshole is filled to capacity with 1250 boats, and more than 500 boatowners
are on a waiting list for moorage.

planning and controlled development. Further, the planning xvhich has
been done has not always resulted in effective allocation of resource uses
among competitors. As a consequence, the trend has often been toward

65

Marine Science Affairs

single-purpose uses, determined by immediate economic advantages to indi-
viduals, firms, and local governments, without long-term or broader con-
sideration of alternatives.

In the early stages of a shoreline's development, single actions may
have relatively little impact on other potential users. But in time, the
resource base for certain uses is dissipated. Expansion of private ownership
and development has frequently reduced public access to beaches. The phys-
ical destruction of estuarine habitats by dredging and filling has often
decreased a region's fishing potential; and the pollution of estuarine and
coastal waters has begun to destroy much of their usefulness for water
supplies, fish and wildlife, and recreation. What we seek are opportunities
for multiple, compatible uses of our coastal ribbon and for maintaining as
many options for future uses as possible. Science and technology can be-
come tools to assist in accomplishing this goal.

Because of the diversity of Coastal Zone activities in which the Federal
Government has a responsibility, almost every member and observer agency
of the Marine Sciences Council is directly concerned with some aspect of
the Coastal Zone. Figure IV-3 summarizes funding levels for Federal marine
science activities in the Coastal Zone. Other components of the marine
science program related to the Coastal Zone, such as fisheries, port and
channel development, tidal prediction services, and basic research are dis-
cussed in other chapters. Detailed information on Federal funding for Coastal
Zone activities is also presented in Appendices A-4, A-5, and A-6.

Significant advances in Federal activities require an interagency approach
which has been reflected in the emphasis given the Coast Zone, including
the Great Lakes, by the Council.

Opportunities for Conservation and Recreation

The National Park Service system now includes 20 areas contiguous with
a coastline — 1 1 national parks and monuments devoted to resource protec-
tion and nine national seashores and lakeshores for both protection and
recreation. Biscayne National Monument in Florida and Redwood National
Park, which includes a 30-mile stretch of the California coastline, were
authorized for addition to the system by the 90th Congress. Other areas
along the seacoast and the shores of the Great Lakes have been proposed
or are under active consideration. Additionally, in 1968 the National Park
Service participated in the following Federal surveys of potential con-
servation and recreation areas :

— the bioluminescent bays of Puerto Rico ;
— the Canaveral Seashore at the Kennedy Space Center; and
— the Gulf Islands region of Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, and
Louisiana.

66

The Coastal Zone

Figure IV-3 — Federal Funding for Marine Science, Use of Coastal Zone

Millions of Dollars
35

68 '69

70

'68 '69 '70

'68 '69 '70

'68 '69 '70

Total

Conservation and

Water

Coastal

Recreation

Quality

Engineering

The National Wildlife Refuge System includes 42 estuarine refuges, con-
taining 18 million acres devoted to management programs for waterfowl
and other wildlife, and particularly preservation of endangered species.
Approximately 16,000 acres are scheduled for early acquisition for estuarine
refuges under the accelerated Wetlands Acquisition Program.

During FY 1968, 8,000 acres of coastal land were set aside for public use
pursuant to Federal programs. The Bureau of Outdoor Recreation plays a
central role in promoting Federal-State cooperation and coordination in
planning and in the acquisition of lands devoted to public recreation. A
Nationwide Outdoor Recreation Plan will soon be completed and will pro-
vide a framework for Federal, State, and local and private outdoor recrea-
tion programs, including those directed to marine recreation. Also, an inven-
tory of U.S. islands was completed and several thousand identified as
having significant local. State, or Federal recreational potential.

67

329-466 O— 69-

Marine Science Affairs

The Bureau administers the Land and Water Conservation Fund Act of
1965 which was amended last year to authorize use of revenues from the
Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act to assist in assuring the availability of
funds for Federal acquisition of recreational land and for grants to States
for outdoor recreation.^ A portion of these funds has been used to acquire
land for public recreation within the Coastal Zone. All States have prepared
comprehensive Statewide Outdoor Recreation Plans, many of which include
provisions for meeting marine-related recreation needs and the preservation
of significant coastal areas. Based upon these plans, the Bureau has assisted
over 2,000 State and local outdoor recreation projects.

In recognition that more than 20 million people now participate in recrea-
tional boating in coastal waters, the Coast Guard has established an Office
of Boating Safety which will emphasize equipment standards and increased
Federal-State coordination. Also, the Coast Guard has established a member-
ship goal of 100,000 for the Coast Guard Auxiliary by 1973 — a four-fold
increase. The Recreational Boating Safety Bill introduced last year reflects
concern over the need to protect recreational boating participants while at
the same time providing financial assistance to State boating safety programs.
Among the research areas of particular concern are boat construction, fuel
and ignition systems, operator visibility, and boat stability and load capacity.
Also, ESSA provides small craft nautical charts and marine weather forecasts
and warnings.

The activities of the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries in the Coastal Zone
provide additional benefits for water-oriented recreation, including sport
fishing and hunting, for management of fishery resources, and for con-
tributing toward the long-range planning for multi-use development and
management of the Coastal Zone. The Bureau assists other Federal agencies
and States to assess proposed estuarine alterations to prevent damage to the
fishery resources.

Two recent surveys published by the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wild-
life illustrate the increasing importance of saltwater sport fishing. During
1965, 8.3 million anglers spent $800 million to catch 1.7 million tons of
fish. The Bureau's research efTorts in support of sport fishing include bill-
fish tagging programs, preparation of an Atlantic marine fish atlas, and
studies of predators.

The design for the National Fisheries Center and Aquarium, to be
located in Washington, D.C., has been completed and construction is sched-
uled to begin in 1969.

' P.L. 90-401 authorizes an annual appropriation of $200 million and provides for
use of Outer Continental Shelf revenues to make up any diflference between actual
appropriations and $200 million.

68

The Coastal Zone

Enhancing Water Quality

Water quality is one of the crucial determinants of the different uses of a
coastal area. The Federal Water Pollution Control Act calls for the enhance-
ment of the quality and v^alue of the Nation's water resources and for the
prevention, control, and abatement of pollution by establishment of water
quality standards for interstate and coastal waters.^ The Secretary of the
Interior has given substantially complete approval to standards as developed
by 45 States, Guam, the Virgin Islands, Puerto Rico, and the District of Co-
lumbia; standards for other States should also soon be approved.^ Primary
responsibility for enforcement of the standards, which vary with the nature
of the area and the use of the water, rests with the States. If the States fail to
act, however, the Federal Government may bring suit against polluters.

The Clean Water Restoration Act of 1966 (P.L. 89-753) provided for
grants to States, municipalities, or intergovernmental bodies for assistance
in developing projects to demonstrate advanced methods of waste treatment
and purification and discharge control. The Act also provided for a compre-
hensive study of estuaries, including (a) the effects of pollution on various
uses of these areas, and (b) the effects of population and economic develop-
ment on water quality. Extensive public hearings have been held throughout
the country. In addition the Act calls for recommending a national program
for using estuaries, delineating the reponsibilities of the various levels
of government, and clarifying public and private interests. The study has
now reached the stage where the basic studies and analyses necessary to
back up the formal report are commencing. The bulk of the contract data
and the detailed report of State activities and organizations will soon be
available. A National Estuarine Inventory is being developed and recorded
on tape and will contain information on more than 850 estuaries. The report
to the Congress is scheduled for November 1969.

Existing legislation provides the Corps of Engineers under the Refuse
Act of 1899 and the Coast Guard under the Oil Pollution Act of 1961
with authority to act regarding certain kinds of water pollution.

Dozens of bills dealing with water pollution were introduced during
the 90th Congress reflecting the nationwide concern over water quality.

^ The Federal Water Pollution Control Administration administers the Act and
engages in comprehensive planning^ provides technical services, and participates in
enforcement when necessary. Its programs in the Coastal Zone include technical as-
sistance in pollution abatement and construction and planning grants. Several hundreds
of millions of dollars are planned for the period FY 1968 through FY 1970. Although
most of these public work funds are not included in the present definition of the
national marine science program, these activities will have a major effect on the pre-
vention of pollution in the Coastal Zone.

^ Exceptions related primarily to water temperatures and dissolved oxygen.

69

Marine Science Affairs

However, the only coastal waters legislation adopted was P.L. 90-454,
authorizing the Secretary of the Interior in cooperation with the States
to conduct an inventory of the Nation's estuaries and their natural resources.
Funding for the study has been requested. The Water Quality Improvement
Act, proposed by the Administration but which failed to become law,
would have provided for acceleration of construction of additional waste
treatment facilities and extended pollution research programs. Another
Administration bill, the Oil and Hazardous Substance Pollution Control
Act of 1968, would have provided for the polluter to pay cleanup costs in
certain instances.

Other developments in 1968 included :
— broadened investigations of the effects of thermal pollution by AEC
and other agencies and consideration of legislation which would
expand AEC's current regulatory authority related to thermal dis-
charges from nuclear facilities ;
— investigations by the Department of the Interior and Corps of Engi-
neers of the effects of dumping sewage sludge, dredge spoil, and
construction rubble in ocean dumping grounds off New York City;
and
— 23 research projects of the Office of Water Resources Research
directed to a broad range of problems in the Coastal Zone.
Water quality of the Coastal Zone affects health in a number of ways:
suitability of shellfish for human consumption, use of the Coastal Zone for
recreational purposes, and use as a disposal site for wastes.

Activities of the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare concern-
ing marine health problems include (a) conducting and supporting research,
development, field investments, demonstrations, and pilot operations; (b)
providing technical assistance to State and local programs; and (c) man-
power training. Facilities serving the coastal areas are located in Alabama,
Rhode Island, and Washington. Additional construction is underway or
planned in the latter two States.

Improving Coastal Engineering Activities

Coastal engineering involves :

— shore protection and stabilization taking into account the dynamics

of waves, their interaction with the shore and its structures, and the

effect of hurricanes and storms ;
— navigation works for harbors, ports, and waterways to facilitate

movement of vessels ; and
— tidal hydraulics including consideration of currents, circulation, and

sediment movements in estuaries, inlets, and the Great Lakes.

70

The Coastal Zone

Erosion is a common and often severe form of degradation of the coasts,
caused by the action of tides, currents, and hurricane-induced stonn surges
and frequently aggravated by man's misuse of coastal lands. As a conse-
quence, vast areas of valuable land have been essentially lost. Erosion may
also introduce pollutants into the water, and the material deposited may
clog navigation channels and suffocate marine life. Similarly, dredging for
navigation is essential to waterborne commerce but can damage environ-
mental quality — disturbing the habitat of marine or marsh life and affecting
tidal circulation.

These deleterious effects can be controlled somewhat by shore stabilization
and protection and by careful planning for channel and harbor construction,
maintenance, and removal of hazards to navigation — long established func-
tions of the Corps of Engineers. Traditionally, coastal engineering projects
have been authorized and carried out one at a time in response to local
requests. Recently, however, the Corps has adopted a longer- range approach
to setting priorities for such public works.

The 1968 River and Harbor Act (P.L. 90-483) authorized the Corps to
make a study of U.S. coasts to identify areas where erosion presents a serious
problem, describe suitable remedial action, including preliminary cost esti-
mates and priorities, and provide State and local authorities with informa-
tion and recommendations concerning land use.

Research in tidal hydraulics seeks an understanding of the fundamentals
of tidal circulation in estuaries, movement of sediments, and the physical
effects of natural and structural changes. These conditions, such as the
shoaling of an inlet and consequent reduced salinity of bay waters, cause
drastic changes in estuarine ecosystems.

In addition to its own engineering programs, the Corps issues permits
for private construction in navigable waters. Its original regulatory authority
to protect navigation has been expanded to consider other possibly adverse
environmental effects— through the Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act
and subsequent interagency agreements with the Department of the In-
terior. This expanded authority is now being tested in the Federal courts.
Should the courts find that Corps permits cannot be denied on grounds
other than hazards to navigation, consideration of legislation to protect
broader public interests may be warranted.

During the past year the Council endorsed a FY 1970 initiative of
the Corps of Engineers, in cooperation with the Department of the Interior
and other agencies, to expand efforts to assess the impact of water-related
construction activities on coastal ecology. At the same time the Corps will
accelerate its research efforts to develop new techniques and equipment for
restoration of coastal shores, including more economical systems for movmg
offshore sand onto beaches. Figure IV-4 shows the results of one beach
restoration project.

71

Marine Science Affairs

FEBRUARY 1965

'^S^--

t e

—- '~?iMa»»'

f'j / M

JUNE 1965

Figure lW-4—Two views of the southern portion of Wnghtsvtlle Beach, North Caro-
lina, showing its eroded condition in February 1965 and the result of beach
restoration by the Corps of Engineers four months later.

72

The Coastal Zone

Among the 1968 highlights of the Corps of Engineers research program
were :

— completion of inventories of ofTshore sand deposits suitable for beach

use off Horida, New Jersey, and New England and initiation of an

inventory off the south shore of Long Island ;

— development of erosion control techniques, including investigations

of protective coatings of steel sheet pilings, low-cost sand-filled fabric

bags for emergency protection from wave erosion, and experimental

groin structures;

— laboratory and field studies of wave force effects on coastal structures;

— laboratory and field studies to improve design of navigation channels

through tidal inlets;
— planning for new surveys of disposal of drift and other harbor debris
and prevention of shore damage due to navigation projects (P.L.
90-483) ;
— development of criteria for the design of rubble-mound breakwaters

and for determining wave impact forces on breakwaters; and
— development of criteria for the response characteristics of small boat
harbors to the actions of short-period waves.
In addition, predictions of tides, currents, storms, and storm surges in
relation to coastal engineering are carried out by ESSA. Related research
on seabed soil mechanics is also being conducted by the Naval Civil Engi-
neering Laboratory and by universities under contract with the Navy.

Encouraging Planned Use of the Coastal Zone

For the last two years, the Marine Sciences Council has considered that
the multiple use problems of the Coastal Zone required urgent attention to
improve coastal management policies and procedures and to identify more
clearly the potential role of science and technology in assisting in the amelio-
ration of conflicts. The Council therefore gave particular emphasis to
Coastal Zone activities, with the assistance of its Committee on Multiple
Use of the Coastal Zone.^

The following general approach has been endorsed by the Marine Sciences
Council to assist in promoting optimal use of the Coastal Zone:

* Several Council contract reports have been very useful in identifying critical
issues in resolving Coistal Zone conflicts and in providing background information:
"Chesapeake Bay Case Study," "Shoreline Utilization in the Greater Seattle Area,"
"Legal Aspects of Coastal Land-Sea Interface," "Legal Aspects of Use of the Great
Lakes," "Review of Use of the Coastal Zone of Lakes Erie and Superior." Also, a
Department of Commerce study devoted to the interaction of the coastil economy
and ecology has been conducted to aid regional planning commissions.

73

Marine Science Affairs

— strengthen planning and decision-making processes that rely on the

expertise and knowledge of the coastal States, including the Great

Lakes States, and are responsive to national as well as local needs;

— expand the structure for consideration of multi-State issues in Coastal

Zone planning and management ;
— ^broaden Federal policies and programs — without supplanting State
autonomy and responsibility — to encourage the States to develop
and carry out programs of planned use of the Coastal Zone in the
national interest; and
• — develop new mechanisms for acquiring, analyzing, and distributing
management information and environmental data concerning the
Coastal Zone.
This approach emphasizes that the State governments should be the
focal points for planning and managing activities in the Coastal Zone, with
the Federal and local governments supporting the States in carr^'ing out
this responsibility. In view of the inter-state character of many areas of
the marine environment, each State should take into account the plans
and needs of adjoining States, with the appropriate coordinating mechanisms
depending on the region.

Already many Federal agencies support projects designed to foster develop-
ment of the Coastal Zone. More deliberate coordination of these activities
both at the Federal and State level is needed, supplemented as necessary by
additional Federal encouragement of planning and management activities
specifically directed to the Coastal Zone.

Strengthening Multiagency Programs

Based on studies by two interagency task forces to improve existing Federal
programs and policies affecting the Coastal Zone, the Council recommended
that the concerned agencies take further steps in six areas, namely:
1. Strengthening policy planning, coordination, and development, by:
— defining the national interest in the Coastal Zone more clearly and
encouraging enunciation of national goals and objectives in Coastal
Zone development by both the Executive and Legislative Branches;
— strengthening coordination of Federal agencies in the review of pro-
posed Coastal Zone alterations ;
— broadening studies of factors that influence land development in the
Coastal Zone, possibly by a multidisciplinary panel of specialists on
Coastal Zone development available for consultation with the States ;
and

74

The Coastal Zone

— filling present planning gaps for making mass coastal recreation avail-
able near large congested coastal areas and identifying policy gaps
in harbor waterfront restoration.

2. Resolving legal and other questions related to Coastal Zone property,
boundaries, and use, by :

— clarifying the effect of manmade offshore structures on Federal-
State boundaries;

— accelerating the delineation of domestic submerged land boundaries;
and

— continuing efforts to minimize coastal interference between defense
and other uses.

3. Assisting commercial and sport fisheries, by:

— examining the adequacy of laws governing commercial fishing be-
tween the seaward boundaries of the States and the limits of national
jurisdiction;

— developing a model, scientifically-based, State law governing com-
mercial fishing activity for consideration by the States in meeting
problems unintentionally induced by archaic conservation measures;
and

— developing a better system for collecting, processing, and disseminat-
ing statistics on commercial and sport fishing.

4. Enhancing recreational and other uses of the Coastal Zone, by:

— assisting the States in developing model legislation on coastal zoning;
— promptly identifying high value coastal areas essential for public

use and considering a moratorium on disposal of "surplus" Federal

land in the Coastal Zone; and
— seeking legislation to expand beach erosion and hurricane protection

programs.

5. Maintaining the quality of coastal waters, by:

— enforcing water quality standards and other relevant laws to prevent

further degradation of coastal waters ;
— controlling ship-induced pollution in harbors and coastal waters;
— accelerating research to determine the significance and duration of the

effects of major oil spills on marine animals and recreation; and
— devoting increased attention to reducing pollution from insecticides.

herbicides, and fertilizers.

6. Encouraging research, education, and information development and
dissemination, by:

— establishing coastal preserves for ecological research ;

— establishing a central data bank for information and scientific data

on Coastal Zone activities and conditions;
— encouraging training of Coastal Zone planners and managers under

the Sea Grant Program ;
— evaluating the need for a National Institute of Coastal Zone Studies;

75

Marine Science Affairs

— preparing a handbook to serve as a guide for local Coastal Zone

development ;
— developing information and legislation on preserving public access to

the coast ; and
—encouraging expanded research programs to quantify environmental

effects of estuarine and coastal pollution.

Program for the Great Lakes

Because of rapid degradation of the Great Lakes with the exception of
Lake Superior, the Council examined the role of numerous regional agencies
currently engaged in Great Lakes planning and resource management to
endeavor to develop a more coherent approach. Primary among such agen-
cies are the Great Lakes Basin Commission, the Great Lakes Compact
Commission, the Upper Great Lakes Regional Commission, the Great Lakes
Fishery Commission, and the International Joint Commission. Despite the
international nature of the Great Lakes and the importance of recognizing
Canadian interests in any decisions affecting the Lakes, only the Great
Lakes Fishery Commission and the International Joint Commission are in-
ternational in character. Thus, the Council is encouraging steps to broaden
the coordinating responsibility of the International Joint Commission in
areas other than those under the purview of the Great Lakes Fishery Com-
mission, with the U.S. section of the International Joint Commission
strengthened accordingly.

Additionally, the Council reviewed steps of the Department of the Interior
to assist in controlling the alewife population during the summer of 1968
and in developing a long-term alewife research and control program, and
encouraged safeguards against pollution if oil production begins under Lake
Erie.

A number of agencies, individually and collectively, supported the fol-
lowing activities during 1968:

— carrying out of a comprehensive study of the levels of the Lakes;
— completion of pollution control plans for Lakes Erie and Ontario,

including an enforcement conference on Lake Erie ;
— initiation of wave height forecasts four times per day;
— -planning for an International Field Year on the Great Lakes with
four projects: lake meteorology, energy balance, terrestrial water
balance, and water movement;
- — ^comprehensive review of dredging practices and effects of dredging

on water quality;
— establishment of procedures for predicting wave level fluctuations

induced by winds;
— study of legal aspects of Great Lakes resources ; and

76

The Coastal Zone

— request for FY 1970 funds to modify a Coast Guard tender to serve

part time as an oceanographic research platform for scientists from

Great Lakes universities and other institutions.

Also, P.L. 90-419 gives the consent of Congress to the eight-state Great

Lakes Basin Compact, established to promote the "orderly, integrated, and

comprehensive development, use, and conservation of the water resources of

the Great Lakes Basin."

Multiple Use of the Chesapeake Bay

Since early 1967 the Council has been making a case study of the Chesa-
peake Bay, as it may furnish guidance for dealing with similar problems
in other coastal waters. Multi-disciplinary research activities have been
focused around a laboratory authorized for the Corps of Engineers for hy-
draulic and ecological studies that will employ a three-dimensional model of
the Bay on a horizontal scale of 1 : 1 ,000. Figure I V-5 describes the geo-
graphical coverage and field stations that are planned. The model, supple-
mented by mathematical models and critical analysis, should improve and
extend understanding of the physical and biological characteristics of the
Bay and the effects of man's activities on the Bay environment. Of particular
interest will be understanding of the capacity of the Potomac estuary to
absorb pollutants. Projections will be made of the demands that increased
population, economic, and industrial pressures will make on the land-water
system of the Bay area.

At the same time it has been recognized that a more effective inter-
governmental management system is needed to translate results of research
and analysis into meaningful programs to permit orderly development of the
Bay area without further degradation of its natural resources. Therefore, the
Council has recommended consultations among all concerned interests at the
regional, State, and local levels concerning the desirability, character, and
composition of a possible intergovernmental commission for the Chesa-
peake Bay.

Need for a Strengthened Institutional Framework

We have noted the uniqueness of marine science affairs in the Coastal
Zone resulting from intense, varied human uses superimposed on an
intricate, delicate ecology and involving an array of governmental entities to

77

Marine Science Affairs

Figure IV-5 — Geograpliic Limits of Ciiesapeaice Bay Model for Hydraulic
and Ecological Studies

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78

The Coastal Zone

manage the Zone. This severe administrative fragmentation, as well as the
confrontation between different interests, suggests the need for unifying
concepts by which we can deal with these problems.

Much can be accomplished in promoting optimal use of the Coastal Zone
by increased emphasis on existing capabilities and on the use of existing
authorities. However, it is apparent that a more comprehensive approach
to planning and management is now imperative; no longer can there be
delay if we are to reverse the degradation of our limited shoreline and
realize the full benefit of being a coastal nation. Thus, the member agencies
of the Marine Sciences Council are taking steps to encourage the States to
strengthen and expand the necessary institutional framework for carrying
out planned use of the Coastal Zone in the national interest.

79

"Navies are not all for nar." — Matthew fontmne maurv

Chapter V

STRENGTHENING MILITARY PROGRAMS
FOR NATIONAL SECURITY

The marine science programs carried out by the Department of Defense,
and particularly by the Department of the Navy, are principally designed to
maintain and improve the capabilities of our military forces to conduct
their assigned missions relating to national security. In view of growing
world-wide interest in the oceans, both as potential areas of sophisticated
military operations and as a source of living and mineral resources, the
importance of military marine science and technology programs is steadily
increasing. These programs contribute to more than immediate military
purposes. They substantially strengthen our world-wide maritime presence
and augment national political, economic, and scientific capabilities.

Our naval forces play a central role in linking us with our allies, deterring
potential adversaries, and containing limited conflicts. Military marine
science programs are thus directed toward enhancing U.S. capabilities for
strategic deterrence; anti-submarine operations; support of amphibious
operations, mine warfare, and limited ground action; surveillance of the
oceans; and operations to maintain and protect essential shipping.

All military marine science programs are designed primarily to provide
ocean-related scientific knowledge and engineering technology upon which
to base policies, programs, and developmental and operational decisions
related to military security. Military efforts which make substantial contri-
butions to other national needs and goals and which must be described

81

Marine Science Affairs

with them to give a coherent picture of applicable Federal efforts are set
forth as an integral part of other chapters of this Report.

Knowledge gained from military programs is, to the extent permitted by
security considerations, made available in unclassified form for general use.
For example, the Navy's program in mapping, charting, and geodesy pro-
duces data and charts for navigation and world-wide shipping activity.
During the past year all bathymetric data which would not compromise
classified ship operations or installations were declassified and made avail-
able for public use. These data include sounding journals, echograms, col-
lection sheets, small scale charts prepared for inclusion in scientific or
technical papers, and similar information derived from both conventional
and highly precise navigational positioning.

The Navy's programs of ship design and materials development, the most
comprehensive in the Nation, provide knowledge for private shipbuilding
and Federal maritime agencies such as the Coast Guard, the Environmental
Science Services Administration, and the Maritime Administration. Navy
developments in navigation, which range from submerged, acoustic, posi-
tion-keeping devices to systems for locating ship positions precisely on the
earth's surface by means of satellites, have been released for scientific and
commercial use. The programs of the Advanced Research Projects Agency,
directed toward detection of underwater nuclear explosions, provide knowl-
edge of the earth's crust and energy transmission characteristics relevant to
earthquake studies and volcanology.

At the same time a number of programs of civilian agencies contribute to
Navy capabilities. For example, ESSA's conventional nautical charts and
f^SSA and Coast Guard surveys assist in meeting Navy requirements.

The Scope of the Naval Oceanographic Program

The Naval Oceanographic Program is concentrated in three areas : ocean
science, ocean engineering and development, and oceanographic operations.
These programs arc intended to enhance the effectiveness of naval operations
through a better understanding of the world's oceans and their boundaries
and by providing effective materials, equipment, and techniques.

The Ocean Science Program includes the study of the physical, chemical,
biological, and geological characteristics of the oceans. Underwater acoustics
is a major area of conce.rn. Research and exploratory development in these
areas are conducted utifeer the Chief of Naval Research, in his capacity as
the Assistant Oceanographer of the Navy for Ocean Science, utilizing the

82

IVIilitary Programs

numerous Navy laboratories and contracts with private institutions, uni-
versities, and other contractors, and cooperating with other Government
agencies such as the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries.

The Ocean Engineering and Development Program is headed by the
Chief of Naval Development in his capacity as Assistant Oceanographer
of the Navy for Ocean Engineering with responsibility for undersea search,
rescue, salvage, and construction. Inherent in this program is the neces-
sary development effort required to insure that the best materials, tools,
vehicles, habitats, and equipment are available for use in the marine
environment. These programs are carried out in in-house laboratories and
by contract to institutions and to the industrial community. Much of this
entire program directly supports the efforts of the Supervisor of Salvage, who
fulfills the Navy's broad responsibilities for both military and commercial
salvage.

The Oceanographic Operations Program involves direct support of both
naval operating forces and navigators generally through the collection of
environmental data by specially equipped ships, submarines, aircraft, and
buoys, as well as other devices. The transformation of these data into useful
products for Navy use, for other national programs, and, in some cases,
for international distribution, is a responsibility of the Oceanographer of the
Navy. The public obtains scientific and technical information procured,
processed, and disseminated by the Naval Oceanographic Office through
its charts and publications, its library and public information services, its
field offices, and the National Oceanographic Data Center.

Outside the Naval Oceanographic Program, the Navy has numerous
other marine science responsibilities — for example, exchanges of information
with foreign almanac offices; provision of precise time and time interval
capabilities of all military departments; and logistic support of Antarctic
programs.

The Fiscal Year 1970 Budget

Well over one-half of the Federal marine science program is sponsored
by the Navy. Funds proposed for the marine science components of the
military programs, categorized in this Report as programs for national secu-
rity, amount to $143 million for FY 1970, about 27 percent of the total
marine science budget.^ This represents a 12 percent increase over FY 1969,

^ All Navy programs are required for national security, but those that benefit the
National Marine Science Program in other ways as well are categorized in tables of
Appendix A and elsewhere in this Report under other headings.

83

329^66 O— 69 7

Marine Science Affairs

reflecting primarily increased support of fleet operations and priority devel-
opments in military ocean engineering, as follows :

Millions of dollars
— surveying the properties of the ocean and ocean bottom

(Navy) $28.3

— marine science and technology in support of weapon systems

(Navy) 35.3

— development of undersea search, rescue, recovery, and man-
in-the-sea capability — Deep Submergence Systems Project

and closely related efforts (Navy) 77.4

— test and calibration facility for instrumentation (Navy) 1. 8

— marine science in support of safeguards for limited test ban
treaties — VELA program (Advanced Research Projects
Agency) . 2

These data of course do not include much of the Navy's applied research
and development effort, totalling $2.1 billion in FY 1969, the bulk of which
is directed toward development of components for specific weapons systems
and construction of prototype equipment.

Ocean Surveys for Defense Systems

The purpose of these surveys is to obtain comprehensive oceanographic,
hydrographic, and acoustical information about ocean areas of the world
in which our naval forces operate. The surveys provide environmental data
both to support current fleet operations and to design future systems. Ocean-
wide surveys, including mapping and charting programs described in Chap-
ter XII, acquired vast quantities of precise environmental data over
millions of square miles of the North Atlantic and North Pacific Oceans and
the Mediterranean Sea in FY 1968. Over one-half million track-miles of
controlled sounding lines, 300,000 track-miles of gravity data, 150,000
track-miles of seismic sub-bottom profiles, and 260,000 miles of geomagnetic
data were completed. An additional 210,000 miles of airborne geomagnetic
measurements were obtained by the Navy's Project Magnet aircraft.

Fifteen Navy surface ships and four airplanes are assigned full time to
the collection of oceanographic, hydrographic, and other related geophysical
and meteorological data. This large oceanographic fleet is being modernized
by the replacement of converted, obsolescent ships with new ones specifically
designed and instrumented for oceanographic work. In addition to the full-
time fleet, other ships are under contract to the Navy for special oceano-
graphic projects. Still other ships of the Navy and the Coast Guard are
used on an opportunity basis to obtain oceanographic information.

84

Military Programs

Among surveys to be carried out during the next year are : anti-submarine
warfare and undersea warfare surveys in the North Pacific, Gulf of Mexico,
and North Atlantic; mine warfare surveys in the western Pacific and
Mediterranean; and aircraft ice surveys in the Arctic. Wilkes — a highly
automated oceanographic ship — and four new hydrographic survey ships
are scheduled for delivery this year. The increase in the FY 1970 budget
request reflects increased ship operating costs, items needed to equip new
survey ships and upgrade ship equipment, increased efforts in processing
geophysical survey data, and broadened activities to meet increasing fleet
requirements.

Marine Science and Technology in Support of Defense Systems

Marine science and technology activities in support of specific weapon
systems are directed primarily toward exploratory and advanced develop-
ment in underwater sound propagation to support sonar design and sur-
veillance systems. The primary objective is to advance the Navy capability
to seek, detect, identify, and destroy hostile submarine forces, but the
knowledge gained aids in concealing U.S. submarines and thus contributes
to preserving the invulnerability of the Fleet Ballistic Missile System.
Twenty-six projects at 18 Federal and non-Federal laboratories, including
10 private corporations, are coordinated within a comprehensive program
of investigations, of which major elements are :

— acoustical propagation studies of ocean velocity structure, surface

and bottom interactions, absorption, and scattering;
— research related to submarine detection and classification, ocean sur-
veillance, target tracking, weapon homing, and submerged com-
munications using a floating instrument platform ;
— acquisition of data on sea floor properties and structure, acoustical
reflectivity, geomagnetics, and gravity related to anti-submarine war-
fare system performance ;
— field experiments on the spatial and time coherence of sound signals;
— bottom-reflective active sonar and shallow and deep water acoustic

propagation studies in selected areas of the Atlantic ;
— Pacific Ocean investigations of ambient noise, biological scattering,

and other characteristics;
— studies of the variability of ocean currents and temperature struc-
ture with moored instruments and remote sensors to develop mathe-
matical prediction models for ocean currents ;
— -research on the physical and chemical microstructure of the sea relat-
ing to sonar and weapon accuracies ; and

85

Marine Science Affairs

-studies of biologically produced underwater sound — involving more
than 200 fish species — with consideration of geographical, vertical,
diurnal, and seasonal distributions as well as ecological and behavioral
patterns.

Undersea Search, Rescue, Recovery, and Man-in-the-Sea

This program of advanced ocean technology is intended to improve the
Navy's deep ocean operational capability for rescue, search, salvage, explora-
tion, and diving operations. The need for such a capability was again
emphasized in 1968 by the loss of the Scorpion and of a French and an Israeli
submarine.

The Deep Submergence Systems Project (DSSP) has specific mission
requirements for:

— submarine location, escape, and rescue;
— object location and small object recovery;
— large object salvage;
— Man-in-the-Sea; and

— the nuclear powered, research and engineering submersible (NR-1 ) .
Application of deep submergence and ocean engineering technologies
also now appears feasible in the areas of mine warfare, amphibious opera-
tions, undersea command and control systems, advanced undersea strategic
weaponry, and underwater surveillance and reconnaissance.

The Submarine Location, Escape, and Rescue Program will develop the
capability to:

— locate a distressed submarine and retrieve data to assist investigators

in determining the cause and nature of the disablement;
— provide personnel escape techniques from 600 feet; and
— provide an all-weather rescue system operational to submarine col-
lapse depths using Deep Submergence Rescue Vehicles (DSRV's —
small submarines which can either be transported by air or carried
submerged on the deck of a "mother" submarine) .
Completion of the development, design, and construction of two DSRV's
is anticipated in FY 1970 together with construction of launch and repair
facilities at San Clemente Island. The first two DSRV's are scheduled to
become operational in 1970. These vehicles will be battery-powered, have a
crew of three, transport 24 rescuees, and have an operating depth capability
of at least 3,000 feet.

The Small Object Location and Recovery Project aims at a capability
to locate and recover small objects at great depths in relation to the Navy's

86

Military Programs

salvage mission. For this purpose, Deep Submergence Search Vehicles
(DSSV's) are being designed capable of operating at a depth of 20,000
feet for about 30 hours and lifting objects which weigh 250 lbs.

The Large Object Salvage System Project is intended to provide a system
capable of recovering large objects, including intact submarine hulls, from
depths down to 850 feet. Efforts have thus far been limited to feasibility
studies, development of lift hardware, and coordination with SEALAB
experiments. An advanced development effort will not be funded in FY
1970, but exploratory development will continue.

The Man-in-the-Sea Project is directed toward developing new equip
ment to permit man to live and work underwater. Both private industry and
the Navy are developing the equipment and techniques by which divers can
work in the sea longer, at greater depths, with better tools and increased
safety. The goals of accomplishing useful work by increasing diver capa-
bilities, communications, and visibility at 600 feet — then 850 feet and
eventually at least 1 ,000 feet — were brought nearer by such developments as :
— SEALAB III, utilizing saturated-diving techniques, will begin early
in 1969 at a depth of 600 feet, off San Clemen te Island (Figure V-1 ) ;

Figure V-1 — The SEALAB III habitat is shown in its final stages of fabrication, with
the spools which will hold the life support umbilical cables extending to the right.
SEALAB III experiments, scheduled to begin off San Clemente Island, Calijornia, in
early 1969, will extend man's capability to work underwater to a depth of 600 feet.

87

Marine Science Affairs

— initial use of the prototype Navy Mark I and Mark II Deep Dive

System, designed for 1000 feet;
— fabrication of an experimental model communication system that
has shown superior intelligibility to the 600 feet depth with the micro-
phone and electronics contained in the facemask; and
— completion of studies suggesting that (a) in the United States satu-
rated diving may account for 50 percent of all military diving in
1980, (b) divers will have adequate natural visual perception only
5 percent of the time, (c) self-contained communication equipment
capable of 90 percent intelligibility within a range of 2,000 yards at
a depth of 1,500 feet is capable of meeting most diver portable
communications requirements, and (d) compact underwater heaters
are required to protect divers from environmental cooling.
The Navy is constructing a nuclear powered research and ocean engi-
neering submersible (NR-1 ) which combines the long endurance of a nuclear
power plant with the control and instrumentation developed for the DSRV
rescue submersible. Carrying a crew of five plus two observers, the NR-1 will
also provide the technical basis for future development of nuclear-powered,
oceanographic research and survey submersibles to operate at even greater
range and depth. Current scheduling calls for sea trials and operations in
early 1969.

Biomedical Researcli and Development

Advanced biomedical activities of the Navy Bureau of Medicine and
Surgery are developing criteria for life support, health maintenance,
and environmental control at 1,000 feet underwater equivalent pressure.
A joint Navy-Duke University saturation dive to a simulated depth of
1,000 feet was completed in December 1968. During the 77 hours and 30
minutes spent at saturation depth, the divers performed extensive physical
and medical tasks in a normal manner. All observations indicated that
divers can perform well under these conditions if life support systems main-
tain a level of support equivalent to that at the surface. The detailed medical
results of the dive, to be published in the near future, will make available
comprehensive information in such areas as heart rate, respiration frequency,
oxygen consumption, carbon dioxide elimination, partial pressure in arterial
blood of oxygen and carbon dioxide, central nervous system function under
various conditions, and human performance and reaction response at deep
depth.

Priority in FY 1970 will be given to (a) calculation and evaluation of
several sets of decompression schedules for use in four diflferent fleet systems,

88

Military Programs

(b) physiological studies in deep chamber dives, (c) helium speech transla-
tion techniques, (d) acquisition and installation of research equipment at
both in-house and civilian laboratories, and (e) preparation of a long-range
development plan.

Activities of the Advanced Research Projects Agency

To improve our ability to detect, locate, and identify underground and
underwater nuclear explosions, the Advanced Research Projects Agency
(ARPA) has for a number of years conducted a project called VELA. Some
of ARPA's significant marine science efforts during the past year included :
— a seismic calibration experiment off Amchitka Island involving deto-
nation of a 250- ton slurry charge at a depth of 3,000 feet;
— experiments to evaluate the influence of turbulent diffusion and cur-
rents of large subsurface bodies of contaminated water by tagging
subsurface, open-ocean waters with fluorescent dye and following the
resulting pool for five days;
— design, fabrication, and testing of equipment for detonation of

10- to 1,000-ton underwater chemical explosions; and
— -collection and analysis of sea water samples to determine back-
ground levels of radionuclides in selected areas of the Arctic Ocean.
Research and development on detecting, locating, and identifying nuclear
explosions in the ocean has been successful, and this part of the project
VELA is now being phased out with virtually all work directly concerned
with ocean properties to be completed in FY 1969. Other parts of the
VELA project are continuing, including seismic calibration experiments
in the oceans intended to provide information on the earth's crust and
upper mantle.

ARPA will be engaged in advanced marine science and technology as
part of the Agency's mission to demonstrate the feasibility of emerging
technologies for possible military application. ARPA is particularly inter-
ested in technologies which could drastically change our defense posture in
such critical areas as anti-submarine warfare (ASW), forward basing, and
control and use of the sea surface. ARPA will be working closely with the
Navy, although projects of interest tend to have a multiservice applicability.
Two $8 million projects are under serious consideration at this time:
— demonstration of the feasibility of a cost effective, large, ultra-stable

floating platform with potential for advance support; and
— demonstration of the feasibility of very high speed surface effect
vehicles with potential for ASW and convoy protection, and for opera-
tions over shallow water, in certain coastal areas, and over ice.

89

Marine Science Affairs

The use of very high speed surface eflfect vehicles with floating plat-
forms and compatible sensors and weaponry might provide new solutions
to several critical defense problems.

Our Nation's goal is lasting peace, and we seek it by every means, includ-
ing a strong Navy. We have no monopoly, however, on naval forces or
technology. Our present advantage in nuclear propulsion and underwater
technology is a key to maintaining superiority in naval strength, by quality
as much as by numbers. The roots of naval technology must be continuously
reexamined, existing systems refined, and new concepts developed in order
to maintain our sea-based defense forces essential for national security.

90

"There are as good fish in the
sea as ever came out of it."

ENGLISH PROVERB

Chapter VI

ACCELERATING USE OF FOOD FROM
THE SEA

A strengthened fishing industry can contribute to economic development
at home and abroad, improve our balance of trade, broaden our research
and industrial base to explore and use the oceans more effectively, enhance
our stature as a world maritime power, and provide new tools in combatting
hunger and malnutrition in the developing areas of the world.

The United States has become the world's most lucrative market for
fishery products with a two-fold increase in demand during the past
ten years. However, while the fishery catch worldwide and off our coast
has more than tripled during the past two decades, the total catch by U.S.
fishermen has slightly declined, with the United States now sixth among the
world's fishing nations. This problem in U.S. fisheries is further aggravated
by the fact that foreign fishermen take most of the catch from the many
highly productive high seas fishing grounds off the U.S. coast, and about
three-fourths of our domestic demand is satisfied by imports (Figure VI- 1 ) .

The demand for fishery products at home and abroad will continue
to grow, and fishing activities along our coast will probably continue to
intensify in view of the abundance of known nearby resources \vhich are
not now being exploited. Thus, expansion and further improvements in
the vitality of our fishing industry — and particularly a revitalization of
large segments of the harvesting sector of the industry — could contribute to
our economy, provide a wider variety of high quality, low cost, fishery
products, and reduce balance of payments deficits through improved com-

91

Marine Science Affairs

Figure VI-1 — ^U.S. Supply of Fishery Products

Billion Pounds
(Round Weight)
1

4 —

MPORTS

DOMESTIC CATCH

1958 '59

'60

'61

'62

'63

Year

'64

'65

'66

'67

'68''

(II Supply available for domestic consumption and export.

(2) estimated

source: department of interior

petitiveness of U.S. industry. Also, many of our small coastal communities
are almost totally dependent on a healthy fishing industry. For example,
In Alaska 30 percent of the civilian labor force is engaged in fishing which
accounted for 54.5 percent of the processed value of total natural resource
production of the State in 1966.

As world food producers struggle to keep pace with a rapidly expanding
population — and statistics indicate that this disparity is actually in-
creasing rather than decreasing — accelerated development of food from the
sea offers high promise of meeting a part of the growing worldwide need for
animal protein — an unmet need of a billion people currently suffering from
malnutrition. Indeed, in recent years fish consumption has grown world-
wide more rapidly than population. Innovative applications of contemporary
science and technology can turn currently underutilized fishing stocks into
new food sources for developing areas. The United States is thus motivated

92

Food from the Sea

to advance programs which will reduce threats to world order born in areas
of malnutrition, extend our humanitarian traditions, and strengthen the
economies of developing nations which are striving to become self-sustaining
contributors to the world economy.

The Marine Sciences Act states that the U.S. marine science program
should contribute to rehabilitation of our commercial fisheries, to ac-
celerated development of marine resources, and to international cooperation
in the national interest.

Developing food from the sea for the War on Hunger was one of the
first initiatives adopted by the President in relation to the Marine Sciences
Act. Steps were taken to strengthen further a long-range program to exploit
the oceans more fully as a source of food to help feed the undernourished
people of the world through U.S. technology and leadership.

State of the U.S. Fishing industry

During the past two decades there has been a growing dichotomy
between the processing and distribution segment of the fish food industry,
which has grown both domestically and abroad, and the harvesting segment,
large parts of which have remained static. U.S. processing and distribution
firms have established extensive collecting networks for raw and semi-
processed fishery products in more than 30 countries, primarily in the
developing world. This has been accomplished through such instruments as
wholly owned fishing and processing firms in those countries, loan of risk
capital for vessel or plant construction to local entrepreneurs, technical
assistance for technical advances and quality control, and guarantee of
U.S. markets to local enterprises.^ At the same time U.S. food processing
companies have made relatively low capital investments in U.S. flag fishing
vessels. This increasing dependence on foreign sources of primary pro-
duction has contributed to locally depressed incomes and unusually high
unemployment in some localities where U.S. fishermen are centered.

A number of domestic fisheries are making good catches with high eco-
nomic returns. But many others are static — with excess catching capacity,^

^ The Council contract report "Multinational Investment Opportunities in Ocean
Activities" describes some of these activities.

^ In several fisheries, the catching capacity of the fleet is far greater than necessary
to take the sustainable yield for the resource. For example, according to recent studies,
the present annual catch of Georges Bank haddock could be taken with 30 percent
fewer vessels than now used. This would mean that total revenues would remain the
same but that total costs would diminish considerably. Each vessel, now operating at
an average annual loss of $8,000 per year, could instead be earning a profit of
$30,000, and annual income per fishermen would increase from $6,600 to over
$10,000.

93

Marine Science Affairs

obsolescent equipment, low income, and low returns on investment. The
average age of the U.S. fishing vessel in 1966 was 20.3 years. Only four new
vessels have been added to the Boston offshore trawler fleet in the past 16
years, and the average Pacific coast halibut vessel was built 36 years ago.
The vessel costs to Canadian fishermen competing for stocks off U.S. coasts
are often one-half the comparable costs to our fishermen.

Many interrelated factors contribute to these problems, including :

— a tangle of Federal, State, and local laws and regulations, which were
originally designed to conserve species, reduce conflicts among
multiple users of the coastal waters or among groups of commercial
fishermen, or to protect certain limited interests, but which have
increased costs and inhibited efficiency of fishing by retarding appli-
cation of contemporary technology and limiting fishing areas; ^
— more fishermen participating in some fisheries than necessary to make
the maximum sustainable annual catches, with the result that the
share of each participant is reduced ;
— fragmentation within the harvesting segment of the industry into
entrepreneurial units too small to finance technological improvements
and to minimize the impact of the vagaries of supply and demand;
— ^high cost of building vessels in U.S. shipyards ^ and high insurance
rates resulting in large measure from the liberal interpretation of the
laws concerning vessel owner liability for crew injuries;
— separation of harvesting and marketing interests, with the fisherman
often unable to influence the market significantly and stimulate de-
mand for many readily available species, thus relieving increasing
pressures on those limited stocks where a growing demand is causing
a decreasing yield per unit of fishing eff"ort ;
— inadequate knowledge of fish stock distribution, abundance, behavior,
and fishing conditions and related limitations on the number of
species being caught, the areas being fished, and the fishing methods
being used; and
— high vessel casualty rates, resulting in loss of life and property and
high insurance rates.^
One major eff"ect of all these forces working against improved efficiency
in the harvesting of fish has been a reduction in the average output per U.S.

^ These laws and regulations are summarized in the Council contract report "The
Land-Sea Interface of the Coastal Zone of the U.S."

*A 1793 law (46 USC 251) in effect requires that vessels over five net tons en-
gaged in our fisheries must be built in U.S. shipyards. A 1966 subsidy law, intended
to offset the high costs of construction in the United States, has not had a significant
impact and at the same time reduces incentives to lower construction costs.

^ A Study of Cost Benefits and Effectiveness of the Merchant Marine, U.S. Coast
Guard, May 1, 1968, identified fishing vessels as having the poorest safety record of
any group of U.S. vessels.

94

Food from the Sea

fisherman which, since 1964, has fallen below the 1957-59 average. Con-
versely, for the U.S. economy in general, the average output per worker
increased over 30 percent from 1957 to 1967 and, in agriculture — an indus-
try whose products compete with fish in the food market — there has been
a 67 percent increase. These trends are similarly reflected in the comparative
wages for fishermen and for workers in other industries.

A New Emphasis To Revitalize Our Fishing Industry

During the past several years numerous studies have been conducted within
and outside the government to identify more clearly ways to overcome im-
pediments to growth of the har\'esting sector of the seafood industry. Of
particular importance was a March 1968 conference of representatives of
all parts of industr)', partially supported by the Council.® The conference
underscored the need for the Federal Government to reexamine fishing
restrictions that reduce efficiency of the fisherman, consider limiting the
number of fishermen exploiting stocks already being fully harvested, improve
statistics on fisheries, strengthen U.S. policies concerning fishery manage-
ment, and take into account food shortages on a world-wide scale in pro-
moting development of the domestic industry. Private industry was urged
to develop and expand the seafood market and to provide better education
and training in the industry.

In recognition of the many benefits to be realized from a strengthened
fishing industry, the Marine Sciences Council this year endorsed the follow-
ing approach for expanding the catch by U.S. fishermen and for developing
a healthy industry:

1 . Steps should be taken to :

— provide uniform Federal guidelines for fishery conservation and man-
agement that would eliminate unnecessary restrictions and incon-
sistencies and foster selective revisions of State and local laws;

— encourage the development of competitive ships and equipment in
the United States by revising the fishing vessel subsidy program ; and

— encourage increased opportunities for the sale of the catch of U.S.
fishermen and for vertical integration of the U.S. industry.

2. The Bureau of Commercial Fisheries should give increased attention to :

" The Conference on the Future of the U.S. Fishing Industry was held on March 25-
27, 1968, at the University of Washington in Seattle. Sponsored by the University and
industry as well as the Federal Government, it brought together 266 experts from the
diverse segments of the fishing and fish processing industry.

95

Marine Science Affairs

— estuarine ecology, aquaculture/ the technology of extracting concen-
trated fish proteins, expanded knowledge of fish populations on the
Continental Shelf, and development of fish locating and catching
equipment and methodology;
— an improved Federal program of statistics, data processing, and in-
formation dissemination to the fisherman through extension pro-
grams ; and
— assistance to industry to produce clean, safe, and wholesome fishing
products with a level of graded products comparable to those in
meats and poultry.
During FY 1970 the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries plans to study
Federal, State, and local laws that restrict use of efficient gear and foster
economically irrational conservation measures and to develop recommenda-
tions as to desirable modification of these laws that will permit adoption of
technological innovations that lead to higher economic yields. Additionally,
BCF has reorganized its technical support of local fishery programs by
making available a central pool of expertise to respond to a wide variety of
problems.

Successful implementation of cooperative programs of government, in-
dustry, and the scientific community could significantly increase the pro-
portion of fishery products supplied to the U.S. market by the domestic
fleet — benefiting both the consumer and the fisherman as well as the general
economy. Also, our position to negotiate international agreements could be
greatly strengthened through an increased U.S. presence in fishing grounds.
Fishery development and seafood technology programs include :
1. Resource development and management programs, accounting for 62
percent of the FY 1970 BCF marine science budget of $44.5 million. In 1968,
BCF:

— conducted studies of the influence of reef habitats on lobster behavior
off" New England which may lead to a significant increase in lobster
abundance;
— developed transplantation methods that nearly eliminate "winter kill"

of oysters in Long Island Sound ;
— artificially hatched and reared to postlarval stages the four common

commercial shrimp species of the Gulf of Mexico ;
— continued participation in the international cooperative oceano-
graphic and fishery investigations of the eastern tropical Pacific, in-
cluding discovery of unexpectedly high nutrient concentrations in
upper ocean layers south of the Equator ;

^ The Council contract report "The Status and Potential of Aquaculture" surveys
world-wide aquaculture activities and concludes that "farming the sea" can make a
significant contribution to the domestic economy as well as to the War on Hunger.

96

Food from the Sea

— conducted the world's largest fish tagging program to delineate
Atlantic menhaden migrations and provide a basis for estimating
natural and fishing mortality ;

— improved assessment of salmon distribution in the northeastern
Pacific and the efTect of industrially induced thermal variations on
survival of salmonid and other species in the Columbia River ; and

— improved fishery forecasting services in the eastern Pacific.

2. Processing and marketing programs, accounting for 13 percent of the
FY 1 970 budget. In 1 968, BCF :

— inaugurated a program of seafood merchandising workshops ;

— developed an insulated leakproof container for transporting fresh

fish; and
— improved techniques for mechanical peeling of northern shrimp.

3. Advanced technology programs, accounting for 8 percent of the FY
1970budget.ini 968, BCF:

— developed modifications to trawl gear for New England groundfish
which demonstrated a significant increase in catch ;

— developed a new wing trawl to reduce unwanted fish and debris from
catches by the Pacific northwest shrimp industry;

— delineated the calico scallop resource off the east coast of Florida
which is expected to create a major new fishery ;

— tested sonar and aerial photographic techniques for detecting and as-
sessing pelagic fish schools in the Gulf of Mexico;

— increased significantly the catches of alewives and chubs in Lake
Michigan through use of an electrified trawl system and developed
and tested surface nets for removal of dead alewives; and

— developed pond catfish harvesting equipment.

4. Economic research programs, accounting for 2 percent of the FY 1970
budget. In 1968, BCF

— analyzed the impact of imports on the New England groundfish in-
dustry and the U.S. fishmeal industry;

— assisted in initiation of an anti-dumping study of imports which com-
pete closely with New England fishery products ; and

— initiated systems analysis for the New England haddock fishery based
on previous systems analysis sponsored by the Marine Sciences
Council.*

5. International activities. — Details of some of the most significant inter-
national fishing programs for which the Bureau has provided the scientific
data and technical personnel are described in Chapter III. This type of ac-
tivity accounts for about 1 percent of the FY 1970 budget.

In addition to these marine science programs, the Bureau of Commercial
Fisheries is also responsible for three financial assistance programs which

' "A Systems Analysis of Specified Trawler Operations."

97

Marine Science Affairs

are intended to offset, in part, the high costs of ship construction and opera-
tion to American fishermen compared with the costs to some foreign com-
petitors. These programs consist of loans for fishing vessels and gear, fishing
vessel mortgage and loan insurance, and fishing vessel construction differ-
ential subsidies. Two large stem ramp trawlers, each capable of processing
two million pounds of fishery products during a 60 to 90 day trip, were
completed under the subsidy program. They are the first vessels of this
type in the U.S. fishing fleet; one will operate off the Atlantic Coast and
the other off the Pacific Coast. The Bureau also administers three grant-in-
aid programs to the States for research and development as a basis for
more effective management of commercial fishery resources.

The Atomic Energy Commission supports a broad range of advanced
investigations related to the presence of radionuclides in the oceans, their
interactions with organisms, and the use of tracers in oceanic research.
Other research has demonstrated that the ice-storage shelf-life of haddock,
cod, sole, and shrimp can be extended from 7 to 14 days by irradiation.

The Food and Drug Administration has assumed responsibility for the
Shellfish Sanitation Program, a Federal-State-industry program designed
to insure safety of shellfish shipped in interstate commerce through surveil-
lance of water quality, evaluation of sanitation facilities of packers and ship-
pers, and review of State control programs. FDA research programs include
the nutritional and health aspects of marine foods, marine bacterial toxins
and pharmaceuticals, and use of marine life in biomedical research. Related
research of the HEW's Environmental Control Administration includes
studies of the course of viral pollutants in estuaries, their accumulation by
shellfish, and the effectiveness of purification processes in removing these
viruses from shellfish.

The Smithsonian Institution provides essential back-up information on
the kinds of fishery organisms being sampled, produces monographs and
guides to the identity of harvested organisms and those serving as food
for commercial species, provides information on the populations and dis-
tributions of species which might have commercial importance or which
are parasites and predators on useful species, and provides a sorting service
for bulk samples of marine species.

The Coast Guard participates in enforcement of international fishery
arrangements.

Using Food from the Sea in the War on Hunger

In recognition that food from the sea offers considerable promise in
meeting a portion of the world's protein deficiency, the United States
embarked in 1967 on a new Food-from-the-Sea Program with the Agency

98

Food from the Sea

for International Development assuming lead agency responsibility for the
program. Initial objectives included development of competitive commercial
processes for producing FPG.®
The program is intended to :

— determine and develop the potential market for FPC in selected

developing countries;
— establish a viable commercial FPC system in at least one protein-
deficient country; and
— encourage other nations and private interests to establish commercial
fishing industries in the developing countries.
AID has conducted preliminary surveys of the opportunities for develop-
ing FPC capabilities in a number of Latin American, Asian, and African
nations. As a result of these surveys, more intensive studies have been initi-
ated on a bilateral basis in Chile, Korea, and Morocco to determine whether
and in what form FPC-fortified foods can be marketed commercially in
these countries. These studies will continue through FY 1970 and will assist
potential investors in determining the commercial attractiveness of FPC
investments. They encompass :

— market analysis including identification of factors contributing to die-
tary patterns and determination of opportunities for encouraging con-
sumer acceptability of FPC such as introducing FPC into govern-
ment feeding programs;
— supply analysis to determine availability of an adequate supply of

inexpensive underutilized fish stocks; and
— product development and testing to determine the suitability of
FPC in fortifying local foods such as flour, bread, and pasta.
During 1968, AID ordered $900,000 worth of FPC from Alpine Marine
Products Corporation for use in overseas feeding programs conducted by
voluntary agencies. The contract price was 42 cents per pound. This FPC
will be used as an additive in a number of basic foods, complementing the
product development and testing programs in Chile, Korea, and Morocco.
A second purchase is proposed in FY 1970.

' Many abundant fish species can be converted into a nutritious and wholesome
protein concentrate (FPC) that is tasteless and odorless. The FDA has authorized
two processes for producing FPC from hake or hake-like species. FPC is bacterio-
logically and biochemically safe and stable without refrigeration or other special process.
Its protein is easily digestible. It can be easily stored and transported and can be readily
added to a variety of foods commercially consumed in the developing nations. Ten
grams will provide adequate animal protein to meet the daily requirements of one
child. Research is underway to reduce the cost of this daily requirement to less than
one cent per day which is expected to make FPC competitive with other protein
supplements.

99

329^66 O — 69 8

Marine Science Affairs

Figure VI-2 presents the current status and planning for implementing
the program.

Figure VI-2 — Phasing Chart for Food-from-the-Sea Demonstration
Program

BCF Technology & Engineering

I. DEVELOP PROCESS FOR COMIVIERCIAL
PRODUCTION OF FPC

(1) Food Research and Lab Testing in U.S.

(2) Preparation for FDA Approval of FPC
from Hake-Lil<e Fish

(3) Preparation for FDA Approval of FPC
from Fatty Fish

(4) Prototype FPC Plant in U.S.

(a) Design and Construction Phase

(b) Operation Phase

AID - Market Determination

II. DETERMINE FPC POTENTIAL IN LESS-
DEVELOPED COUNTRIES

(1) Pre-Selection Survey for
Demonstration Sites

(2) Feasibility Studies and Basic Product
Development and Testing

(a) Chile & Korea

(b) Morocco

(3) Advanced Product Development
and Testing

Private Sector and Local Government

III. DEMONSTRATION FPC PLANT ABROAD

(1) Design and Construction Phase

(2) Operations

Developing FPC Technology

During 1968 the following accomplishments highlighted the FPC develop-
ment program :

— establishment of a special FPC office in BCF;

— completion of process development for extraction of FPC from lean
fish at laboratory scale and preparation of provisional specifications
and engineering data for the full-scale demonstration plant;
— award of a contract, as authorized by P.L. 90-549, for design,
construction, and operation of a 50-ton per day FPC demonstration
plant at Aberdeen, Washington, which is intended to demonstrate

100

Food from the Sea

feasibility of large-scale FPC processes at reasonable costs and to
provide engineering and economic data to assist private industry in
construction of commercial plants ;
— continuation of studies on safety aspects of processing lean fish;
— conduct of solvent extraction studies in-house and by M.I.T. and
Standard Oil of New Jersey which will provide design parameters
for an efficient recovery system ;
— initiation of laboratory work on extracting FPC from fatty fish; and
— extension of research concerning extraction of FPC by biological
processes leading to more versatile and cheaper products.
In view of the continued promise of FPC as an inexpensive source of
protein, the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries will continue FPC research and
development at a level of $2.2 million in FY 1970. These efforts will in-
clude completion of a prototype process for fatty fish so that industry can
have sound engineering designs as well as control and operating data. Work
to examine and develop new, lower cost biological and other processes for
producing FPC from various fish species will be emphasized.

The FPC development program is intended to provide the knowledge
for sound and systematic transition from laboratory experiments to an
economical and acceptable food production system from fish catching
through consumption. It should provide the basis for the development of
commercially viable operations in this country as well as overseas. The food-
from-the-sea budgets of AID and BCF are presented in Table VI-1.

Looking to the Future

The importance of a healthy fishing industry and of a vigorous Food-from-
the-Sea Program has been widely recognized by government, commercial,
and industrial interests. Delay in taking steps to revitalize the industry will
lead to further gains by other nations in exploiting resources off our coasts,
lost opportunities to turn latent resources into foods, and potential erosion
of our position as a maritime nation. Bold and imaginative measures are
needed to reverse this trend.

Similarly, the problem of hunger has become so serious that innovative
approaches are essential. Consideration might be given to such steps as in-
expensive, small-scale automated units for processing FPC suitable for
operation in isolated coastal regions of developing countries. Optimum
utilization of fishery resources also requires development of integrated sys-
tems for areas where fishing capabilities are limited and fishing conditions
are favorable. Among the possibilities are factory ships operating with
satellite catching fleets supplying very large regional processing plants and

101

Marine Science Affairs

Table VI-1— Food from the Sea in the War on Hunger

(Obligations in thousands of dollars)

Estimated Estimated President's
FY 1968 FY 1969 budget

FY 1970

1,209

2,

,522

2,872

900

0

268

63

0

180

600

15

180

1, 168

243

795

Bureau of Commercial Fisheries (BCF):

Research and development 1, 209 2, 197 2, 197

Demonstration plant 0 325 675

BCF subtotal

Agency for International Development (AID):

FPC purchase

Pilot plants

FPC feasibility study

Subtotal FPC

Fishery surveys 0 70 50

Investment surveys 95 100 100

Center of competence 0 0 500

Benefit (nutrition) study 27 0 0

Central research " 64 0 1 26

Direct fish production'' 0 163 778

General technical assistance " 1, 643 1, 952 2, 269

Subtotal, other items 1,829 2,285 3,823

AID subtotal 2,997 2,528 4,618

Total food from sea 4,206 5,050 7,490

" Agrarian University and unspecified projects.
^ New programs in Vietnam and Eastern Asia.
"^ Mostly United Nations Development Program.

development of large aquacultural systems in fresh, brackish, or salt water
ponds.

As the initial Food-from-the-Sea Program advances, a capability could
be established in a few years to provide protein supplement to 7 to 10
million people. In the longer term, FPC has the potential to meet animal
protein needs of over 200 million — using only a small percentage of the
projected world fish catch.

102

"Rich and various gems inlay
The unadorned bosom of the deep."

JOHN MILTON

Chapter VII

ENCOURAGING DEVELOPMENT OF

NON-LIVING RESOURCES

Ores, minerals, and fossil fuels are basic sources of energ)', construction
materials, metals, chemicals, and fertilizers and are increasingly required
by advancing industrial economies. The importance of offshore petroleum
and natural gas is reflected in estimates that, within two decades, 30 to 40
percent of the domestic and world production will come from offshore
sources. Currently, 15 percent of U.S. production of sulfur comes from off-
shore, and additional areas have been identified in the Gulf of Mexico.
While the potential for offshore solid minerals is still in the exploratory
stage, projections show that U.S. consumption of many commodities will
double by 1980. This motivates offshore exploration for selected minerals
such as gold, silver, platinum, phosphates, and manganese. Additionally, the
demand for sand, gravel, shells, and other construction materials dredged
from nearshore waters is increasing significantly in areas where rapid urban-
ization is simultaneously enlarging the need and excluding land sources of
supply. Of course, the keys to offshore production of any of these com-
modities lie in their actual delineation by surveys and in the development of
suitable extraction technologies that would render costs of difficult offshore
production competitive with conventional onshore operations.

The value of all minerals produced from Federal and State offshore
waters in the past decade exceeds $7.5 billion, including petroleum pro-
duction valued at about $6 billion. Federal bonuses and revenues from de-

103

Marine Science Affairs

velopment of the Outer Continental Shelf (OCS)^ have steadily grown as
shown in Figure VII-1. To illustrate their importance, the $1.7 billion
bonus payments received from three OCS lease sales over an 11 -month

Figure VII-1 — ^Comparative Federal Revenue from Onshore and Outer
Continental Shelf Oil, Gas, and Minerals

Million Dollars
1,500

900

600

300

1956 '57

INCLUDES ALL INCOME - BONUSES. RENTALS, AND ROYALTIES
SOURCE. DEPARTMENT OF INTERIOR

period in 1967-68 slightly exceed the total revenue received from the sale
and production of onshore mineral leases since the mineral leasing program
began in 1920.^ Table VII-1 depicts the value of marine mineral production
along the U.S. coast.

* The Continental Shelf covers approximately 860,000 square miles, one-third
of our present land area. The Outer Continental Shelf is that portion of the Shelf
beyond 3 miles from the coast, except along the Gulf coasts of Florida and Texas,
where it is defined as the area beyond 3 marine leagues.

^ Appendix H of "Marine Science Affairs — A Year of Plans and Progress" presents
detailed statistics on oil and gas extraction on the U.S. Outer Continental Shelf in
recent years.

104

Non-Living Resources

Table VI 1-1 — Value of Mineral Production from Oceans Bordering the

United States, 1960-67

(In millloas of dollars)
Marine Mineral Production by Source

Year

Magnesium

metal and

compounds,

salt and

bromine <■

From wells:
petroleum,
natural gas,
and sulfur >>

Sand and
gravel, zir-
con, feldspar,
cement rock
and lime-
stone <=

Combined

1960.

69. 0

423.6
496.6
620.7
730.8
820.3
933.3
1, 177.7
1, 404. 8

46.8
46.2
44.3
42.5
43.6
51.4
51.6
55.9

539 4

1961.

73 0

615 8

1962.

89 1

754 1

1963.
1964.
1965.

84. 6

94. 5

102. 6

857.9

958.4

1 087. 3

1966.

117.0

1 346 3

1967.

145. 4

1, 606. 1

8-year

total

775. 2

6, 607. 8

382.3

7, 765. 3

» Sea water.

* Ocean subfloors.

' Beaches and seafloors.

Source: Department of Interior.

Federal Programs To Facilitate Resource Development

Offshore resources can play an increasingly important role in attaining
the national objective of insuring an adequate supply for the indefinite
future of minerals and fuels, sufficiently low in cost to stimulate economic
growth and sufficiently dependable to provide for emergency conditions.
A framework of law and public land management is essential to encourage
and facilitate private investment and initiative to develop offshore resources.
Policy decisions in turn must be based on adequate knowledge of the nature
and extent of offshore resources and on a full appreciation of the interaction
of resource exploration and exploitation and the many other uses of the
marine environment. Thus, Federal marine science programs are designed
to expand our general knowledge of the geology and resource potential
along our coasts and, in cooperation with industry, to stimulate the develop-
ment of technologies for delineating potential mineral deposits. Also, Fed-
eral services are directed to mapping and charting, weather and ocean
predictions, and safety of life and property to facilitate private offshore
development.

105

Marine Science Affairs

Federal programs specifically directed at the development of non-living
resources from the marine environment include the marine minerals pro-
grams of the Geological Survey and the Bureau of Mines, marine water
resource studies of the Geological Survey and the Office of Saline Water,
and the resource management functions of the Bureau of Land Manage-
ment with technical assistance from the Geological Survey.^ As shown in
Figure VII-2 these programs amount to $8.6 million requested for FY
1970, compared with $8.0 million appropriated for FY 1969. Programs of
other Federal agencies, particularly the mapping programs of ESSA and
Navy, also contribute to location and identification of shelf resources.

Figure VII-2— Federal Funding in Marine Science for Development of
Non-Living Resources

Millions of Dollars
10

10

'68 '69 '70

'68 '69 '70

'68 '69 '70

•68 '69 '70

'68 '69 '70

Total

Geologic

Marine

Leasing

Fresh Water

Investigations

Mining

and

Source

Research

Management

Studies

^ The Office of Saline Water programs of development and demonstration of desalt-
ing methods are not included herein.

106

Non-Living Resources

1. The Geological Survey's marine program is directed to:

— appraising undeveloped mineral, water, and energy resource po-
tentials of the Continental Shelf and Slope ;
— relating marine geological processes to occurrence of land and ocean

floor resources;
— evaluating hazards to engineering related to seafloor stability;
— supplying geological data essential to the management of marine

mineral resources and wise coastal land use; and
— contributing fundamental data on the origin of the continental
margins and the deep ocean basins.
The Geological Survey currently supports research in-house, at univer-
sities, and at oceanographic institutions, through service contracts with
industry and by cooperative programs with other Federal agencies. Among
the 1968 accomplishments of these programs were:

— Bering Sea — discovery of several large sedimentary basins with indi-
cations of hydrocarbon accumulations and outlining of target areas
where high gold concentrations may occur;
— Oregon-California — identification of gold anomalies in nearshore,

surface sediments;
— Northeastern Atlantic Coast — delineation of large tracts of sand and

gravel of significant economic potential ; and
— Puerto Rico — delineation of offshore canyons which may be suitable
for dumping mining wastes without adversely afTecting the marine
environment.
Additionally, increased emphasis is being given to programs to analyze geo-
logical and geophysical data collected by private companies in the course of
offshore oil and gas exploration and development. With regard to responsi-
bilities in the field of water resources, a new program in hydrology includes
use of mathematical models to describe the movement of solutes in estuaries.
Also, the Office of Saline Water conducts research on the chemistry and
behavior of saline water systems.

2. The Bureau of Mines conducts continuing studies of the U.S. position
with respect to consumption, domestic production, and reserves of more
than 80 mineral commodities, including examination of the economics of
minerals production and acquisition from marine and alternative sources.
The marine program of the Bureau is designed to assist in the development
of technology for the extraction and beneficiation of marine minerals and
the development of equipment and techniques for sampling and delineation
of marine mineral deposits.

During the past year, the Bureau of Mines, in cooperation with the
Geological Survey, completed a research project off the southern coast of
the Seward Peninsula to develop equipment and techniques for obtaining
the deposit characteristic and environmental data needed for reliable evalua-
tion of seafloor placer-type mineral deposits and for defining the initial
problems in the development of a mining system. Over 500 miles of sub-
bottom profile lines were run; 56 holes were drilled; and over 20 tons of

107

Marine Science Affairs

seafloor sediment were processed in shipboard laboratory facilities. Results
indicate that relatively rapid penetration of the shallow ocean floor sedi-
ments can be accomplished from surface ships yielding characteristic sam-
ples which can be processed and analyzed aboard ship. In operation, a hole
could be drilled and complete sample analyses made available within six
hours.

Table VII-2 describes current worldwide marine mining activity.

Table VII-2 — Recent Marine Mining Activities

Resource

Activity ■

Depth (feet)"

Location

Aragonite Dredging . . .

Diamonds Dredging . . .

Gold Exploration .

Exploration.
Heavy metals Exploration .

Exploration.

Exploration .

Iron Exploration .

Iron sands Dredging. . .

Exploration .

150(?)
600-
600-
200-
600-
600-
600-
600-
30-
600-

Manganese Exploration 600-2, 400

Manganese nodules .... Exploration 12, 000 ±

Exploration 12, 000+

Phosphate Exploration (?)

Exploration 600-2,

Exploration

Exploration (in-
active) .

Exploration

Phosphate sands Exploration

Exploration

Sand Dredging

Shell sands Dredging

Shells Dredging

Sulfide muds Exploration

Sulfur Mining (Frasch) .

Tin Exploration

Dredging

Exploration

Dredging

Exploration

Exploration

Titanium Exploration

400

(?)
600 ±

600-
600-
600-
300-
150±

30 ±
000 ±

60 ±
600-
150-
600-
150-
600-
600-
600-

Bahamas.

Southwest Alrica.

Philippines.

Alaska.

Australia.

New Zealand.

Tasmania.

Philippines.

Japan.

Papua and New

Guinea.
Blake Plateau.
Canada (B.C.).
Pacific Ocean.
Union of South

Africa.
Blake Plateau.
India.
California.

Australia.

Mexico.

North Carolina.

New England.

Iceland.

California.

Red Sea.

Louisiana.

Borneo.

Indonesia.

Malaysia.

Thailand.

Great Britain.

Solomon Islands.

Philippines.

<> Dredging operations generally include exploration activity. Does not include mines originating on
land and drilled out under the sea floor.

» Less than is represented by — ; more than is represented by +; approximately is represented by ±.

Source: Department of the Interior.

108

Non-Living Resources

3. The Bureau of Land Management prepares leasing maps, recom-
mends and holds lease sales, issues leases, and approves assignments of lease
interests. The Bureau also issues rights-of-way for pipelines and other needed
facilities and furnishes technical information for securing final determina-
tions of boundaries between Federal and State jurisdictions. Also, a new
mineral economics group has been established to assist in development of
land and OCS leasing and management policies. In 1968, 197 leases were
issued and leasing activity in FY 1969 will include three drainage sales and a
sulfur sale. In addition, calls for sale nominations have been issued in the
Gulf of Alaska and off western Louisiana.

The Geological Survey is responsible for basic geological determinations
and for administration of exploration and production activities, including
surveillance of drilling and production to assure conformance to regulations,
metering of production and collection of royalties, and determination of
the efficiency of utilization. In 1968, approximately 420 geophysical permits
and 25 core hole twinning permits were issued by the Geological Survey
for exploration of the continental margins. Due to overlapping of permit
areas, it is extremely difficult to quantify the area actually explored. It can
be reasonably assumed, however, that the Gulf of Alaska, Bristol Bay, and
lower Cook Inlet, off Alaska, were extensively explored, as were broad areas
off all of the Gulf Coastal States and California, south of the Santa Barbara
Channel. Portions of the remainder of the Pacific and the Atlantic con-
tinental margins were explored; however, they received less attention.

Three Areas of Increasing Emphasis

In FY 1970, 1,400 active leases are projected for the Outer Continental
Shelf, an increase of 30 percent over FY 1969 and 52 percent over 1968.
Industry estimates approximately 1,100 wells will be drilled and 700 new
wells tested for production in FY 1970. In recognition of this increasing
activity on the Continental Shelf, three areas of our marine science pro-
gram deserve particular emphasis :

1. A reevaluation of the legal-financial-administrative framework for
managing offshore oil and gas resources has been undertaken by the Depart-
ment of the Interior. Under review are both the objectives of OCS leasing
policy— the fundamental purposes to be achieved by leasing regulations—
as well as the regulations and procedures themselves. The effectiveness of the
latter is being evaluated through every stage in the leasing process — from
initial exploration activities to the closing of a well — and alternative pro-
cedures are being considered in an effort to find those that will yield the

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Marine Science Affairs

most efficient development of OCS resources at a fair market value and
that will serve producer, consumer, and public interests most equitably.
Particular attention has been given to leasing practices — timing of sales,
procedures for conducting sales, size and tenure of leases, bonus and royalty
terms — in the light of the expanding activities of the Shelf. This study will
provide a basis for analyzing the views of all interested parties prior to deter-
mination of possible policy changes. Data on the geology, exploration, devel-
opment, production, and anticipated national requirements of oil, gas, and
sulfur on the OCS have been assembled as background for the review and
will be published separately.

2. A more deliberate program of environmental protection is being de-
veloped. With regard to offshore oil exploitation, the Geological Survey
will examine whether equipment is adequate to prevent release of oil into
the oceans in case of disaster as well as during normal operations. Building
on industry's widespread consciousness of the need to prevent pollution, in-
creased attention will be devoted to determining that the design characteris-
tics of support equipment and facilities provide for containment of oil
spilled by accident or through equipment failure.

In the area of marine mining, the Bureau of Mines in cooperation with
the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries will intensify studies (a) to develop
an understanding of the ecological effects of potential mineral exploitation ;
(b) to improve understanding of the effects of mining technologies likely to
be employed in selected environments representative of potential mining
target areas, with particular emphasis on turbidity, sediment transport, and
changes in bottom configuration; and (c) to develop a system of environ-
mental monitoring to be employed when mining operations begin. Although
this effort is primarily oriented toward preventing damage to marine life,
emphasis will also be placed on possible beneficial side-effects of marine min-
ing such as releasing trapped nutrients from mined sediments and using
residual material for beach and shoreline restoration projects.

3. The importance of prompt reconnaissance surveys of the Shelf — as a
guide to both resource development and to policy formulation — is clear.
Knowing what is there is a necessary prerequisite to many decisions, public
and private, national and international. Therefore, during the past two
years the Marine Sciences Council has identified as an important next step
the completion of geological, geophysical, and bathymetric mapping of the
U.S. Continental Shelf at reconnaissance scale.

During FY 1970, resource appraisal activities of the Geological Survey
are budgeted at $3.4 million. Bathymetric and geophysical mapping and
other studies of ESSA, which directly contribute to resource mapping, are
budgeted at nearly $13.6 million, and substantial contributions will be made
by the Navy. The program also will include participation by universities, re-
search institutions, and industry as well as the Federal Government.

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Non-Living Resources

Thorough analyses and maps are currently available for only a very
small fraction of our Continental Shelf. In view of the rapidly increasing im-
portance of geological, bathymetric, and geophysical information to the
development and management of offshore resources, studies are planned by
the Geological Survey and ESSA leading to the publication of maps of the
following areas: (a) all of the Shelf at a reconnaissance scale of 1 : 1,000,000
or smaller utilizing information from all cooperating agencies, from private
institutions, and from private industry as available; (b) the most significant
areas of the Shelf at a scale of 1 : 250,000; and (c) selected areas of the Shelf
of high economic potential at a scale of 1 : 62,500. A longer-range goal of
ESSA is bathymetric and geophysical mapping of the entire Shelf at a scale
of 1 : 250,000, a task requiring about 70 ship years. The maps will not only
add impetus to private investment in offshore minerals, but will also provide
an information framework for Federal management of offshore resources
and a far more adequate scientific description of the Shelf than now exists.

Priorities for selecting areas and problems to be investigated for each
region vrill depend on the results of analyses and offshore reconnaissance
work and on knowledge of the adjacent dryland geology. Among the geo-
logical projects of particular interest are : several lines of drill holes along the
Atlantic Shelf; reconnaissance core drilling off Washington-Oregon (petro-
leum) ; and intermediate scale mapping off southern New England (gravel,
petroleum), the Carolinas (phosphates, petroleum), Washington-Oregon-
California (earthquake hazard) , and the Gulf of Alaska (petroleum) . Also,
the joint Geological Survey-ESSA mapping program in the northern Ber-
ing Sea will continue in 1969.

Mapping and resource delineation along our coasts could be one of the
major activities during the early years of the International Decade of Ocean
Exploration which is described in Chapter IX.

In no area of marine sciences is the necessity for and benefits from a
public-private partnership more evident than in the development of non-
living resources. The resources will be developed by the private sector. At the
same time the resources are on public lands and must be developed in the
overall national interest. The policies and programs of the Federal Govern-
ment must thus take into account the rapidly evolving technology becom-
ing available to industry, the economic incentives that motivate private
industry to move seaward, and the many factors that comprise the national
interest in the development of public lands.

Ill

"To the spread of our trade in peace and the defense of our flag a
great and prosperous merchant marine is indispensable."

— -THEODORE ROOSEVELT

Chapter VIII

FACILITATING TRANSPORT AND TRADE

Waterborne transportation is an integral part of our national economy
and is essential in support of national defense requirements. About 90 per-
cent of our foreign trade of $56 billion per year moves by water. However,
U.S. flag vessels currently carry less than 6 percent of our foreign trade
tonnage, and projections indicate that this percentage will decline to less
than 3 percent by 1980. This growing reliance on cheaper foreign carriers
not only reduces the freight revenues accruing to the U.S. merchant marine
and aggravates the balance of payments deficit, but also erodes our status
as a world maritime power.

The advent of more efficient forms of ship transport — supertankers, con-
tainerships, barge-carrying ships — may result in slower growth in the number
of vessels required to serve our waterborne trade and will be a major factor
in planning the number and character of port facilities. Greater concentra-
tion of international shipment activities could result in changes in the pat-
tern of port traffic on each ocean coast based on economies in shipping costs.
These potential developments require urgent consideration of harbor and
port redevelopment plans.

Trends toward specialized ocean transportation services are based on
economies which depend heavily on technological innovations. Thus, marine
research and development activities can assist in strengthening our maritime
capabilities both at sea and in our port areas and enhance the position of the
United States in world trade.

While there is broad agreement on the importance of a strong merchant
marine — in the Executive Branch and Congress, and among shippers, union

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leaders, bankers, and shipbuilders — there are widely divergent views on the
remedy to reverse current trends. The Marine Sciences Act calls for "en-
hancement of transportation" and a brief abstract of some of the marine
science considerations underlying a policy to foster a healthy merchant fleet
is presented, recognizing that this program must be evaluated in the context
of broad national transportation goals.

Supporting Maritime Transportation Development

The Departments of Transportation, Commerce, and Navy support re-
search and development efforts related to shipping concepts, marine equip-
ment, and advanced ship designs that can assist the maritime industry in
improving its competitive position, aid national defense and emergency
capabilities, and reduce government support costs. Funding for these pro-
grams is summarized in Table VIII- 1 .

Table VIII-1 — Funding for Ocean Transportation

(In millions of dollars)

Activity and supporting agency

Vessel and Port Technology "

Department of Commerce (MAR AD) 6. 8 4. 3 10. 1

Channel and Harbor Development Research *

Army Corps of Engineers 2. 9 2. 7 2. 9

Safety, Navigation Aids, Pollution Control «

Department of Transportation (Coast Guard) . 1.4 3. 6 5. 6

Estimated

Estimated

President's

fiscal year

fiscal year

budget

1968

1969

fiscal year
1970

Total 11.1 10.6 18.6

"Limited to R&D and scientific services; excludes funding for capital works or maritime subsidies,
operations, and routine services.

<> Limited to R&D, feasibility studies, and Great Lakes data collection and analysis; excludes about $200
million for channels, harbors, and other projects providing navigation, shore protection, and recreation
support.

' Pollution control does not include funds of the Department of the Interior (FWPCA). These are in-
cluded as a part of "Water Quality Enhancement" under Development and Conservation of the Coastal
Zone in Appendix A-1, and amount to an estimated $4.9 million in FY 1968; $6.2 million in FY 1969; and
$6.7 million in FY 1970.

Among the 1968 accomplishments of the research program of the Mari-
time Administration were:

— development of computer models and analytical techniques to eval-
uate transportation costs and ship designs;

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Transport and Trade

— recommendations concerning shipboard and shoreside maintenance

management ;
— recommendations for use of mobile, self-powered hydraulic cranes

on break-bulk cargo liners;
— design of a standard propulsion plant adaptable to any combination
of maritime nuclear reactor and propulsion machinery currently
available; and
— demonstration of ship-to-shore voice communication via satellite
with a merchant vessel (with cooperation of Navy).
The Maritime Administration plans to devote $10.1 million to marine
science activities in FY 1970 as follows :

— studies of new technology to reduce shipbuilding and port costs

($0.4 million);
— research in hydrodynamics, thermodynamics, and structural dynamics

to reduce ship operating costs ($2.7 million) ;
— investigation of new ship concepts to determine the technical and
economic feasibility of promising advanced marine vehicles and
their associated facilities ($5.8 million) ; and
— studies of ship design related to value engineering, ship perform-
ance, automation, and new types of equipment ($1.2 million).
Contributions of the Coast Guard to facilitating safer maritime shipping
practices in 1968 included:

— static and dynamic experiments, both with models and aboard ship,
concerning loading and behavior of bulk grain aboard ship leading to
revision of international regulations concerning such cargoes;
— completion of studies and consultations with private interests dem-
onstrating the need for legislation requiring bridge-to-bridge radio
telephone communications capabilities for certain classes of vessels;
— beginning of construction of a shipboard fire safety testing facility in
Mobile, Alabama, and U.S. acceptance of new international fire
safety standards for ship design;
— inspections of several vessels under construction in foreign shipyards
for U.S. registry to facilitate certification on arrival in the United
States; and
— development of standard survival-at-sea packages together with
aerial sighting and delivery systems.
Also, legislation was introduced (S. 3751 and H.R. 18537) to update and
unify all the various U.S. Rules of the Road that have evolved during the
past 100 years, and the International Load Line Convention entered into
force in 1968.

A new system of sea lanes, similar to divided highways and designed to re-
duce the incidence of collision in dense traffic areas, was established in the
Southern California area on January 1, 1969, following successful experi-

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Marine Science Affairs

ence with sea lanes at the approaches to New York Harbor, Delaware Bay,
and San Francisco. Sea lanes are projected for Cook Inlet and the Chesa-
peake Bay. Also, a system of fairways leading to all of the principal U.S.
ports in the Gulf of Mexico has been established. These sea lanes and fair-
ways are being delineated on all appropriate coastal charts being prepared
by ESSA.

Channel and Harbor Improvement

The Corps of Engineers has primary responsibility for construction,
maintenance, and protection of channels and harbors ^ and supports re-
search in such areas as channel hydrodynamics, shoaling, stability of break-
waters and jetties, silting of ship channels, harbor surges, wave dynamics,
currents, and sediment movement.

The development of new dredging techniques and equipment to keep
pace with dredging requirements for deeper navigation channels and in-
creased pumping distances to disposal areas should receive particular at-
tention. The Corps has 57 coastal channel and harbor improvement projects
currently underway, for which the total Federal costs are estimated to be
$1.09 billion.^ Congress has authorized (but not funded) another 90 proj-
ects, to cost an estimated $1.1 billion.

Even with these planned improvements, however, many existing chan-
nels will not be adequate to accommodate the deeper draft tankers and dry
bulk vessels now operating. These newer vessels and further technological
advances will necessitate new or improved channel and harbor facilities.
The need for dredging may be reduced by development of ports on a
regional basis or by construction of ofTshore terminal facilities.

Improving Navigation Aids

The Marine Sciences Council endorsed as a priority efTort development of
a national plan for navigation, currently being prepared by the Department
of Transportation (Coast Guard and Federal Aviation Administration),

^ There are now 500 commercial harbors with depths up to 45 feet, approximately
250 small craft harbors, and about 23,000 miles of inland and intracoastal waterways.

^ Major individual projects are New York Harbor, Chesapeake and Delaware Canal,
Mississippi River at the Gulf Outlet, the Sacramento River, connecting channels
in the Great Lakes, and Cross-Florida Barge Canal.

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Transport and Trade

taking into account current and future needs of aviation and maritime
commerce and advanced technology of navigation satellites and electronic
ground-based systems. The plan will identify areas of Federal responsibility
for navigation services, the systems to be operated by the Federal agencies,
and the needed research and development efforts to meet future navigation
requirements. Charting needs will also be considered.

The following activities were undertaken in 1968 by the Coast Guard
in developing the national plan:

— identification of current and future requirements for navigation
aids, available and projected technologies, alternative system con-
figurations, and economic analysis methodology — all related to navi-
gation near our coast and on a global basis;
— consultations with industry, port authorities, pilot associations, and
other non-Federal groups to gain their views on navigation problems
and priorities ;
— preparation of an inventory of end-user investments in navigation
equipment and initiation of cost/benefit evaluations of alternative
navigation systems; and
— review of policy issues related to (a) private electronic aids to navi-
gation, (b) uniformity in navigation standards, and (c) possible
new approaches to funding including local financing and user
charges.
Complementing the development of this national plan are continuing ef-
forts to improve navigation along our coasts and in distant waters. The
following research and development activities in 1968 contributed to our
national capabilities:

— testing and evaluation of the LORAN D system which provides pre-
cise positioning needed for detailed coastal surveys;
— testing of the medium range, highly accurate TRANSLOC system

which is easily transportable and can operate unattended;
— development of floating navigation aids including improvement of

plastic buoys and high strength mooring chains ;
— development of power systems and mooring and servicing tech-
niques for unmanned platforms to replace lightships; and
— exploratory development of a short-range, high precision all-weather
navigation system for harbor approaches.
Concurrently with these efforts, maintenance and improvement of nautical
charts is carried out by ESSA. Surveys of charted waters, followed by
compilation of information on depths, cultural and topographic features,
and the position and characteristics of navigational aids, assure safe naviga-
tion in coastal waters.

Also, the Navy has completed plans for installation of the advanced
OMEGA system on a worldwide basis (Figure VIII-1) which will contrib-

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Marine Science Affairs

Figure Viil-1 — ^Present Coverage and Proposed Future Sites for OMEGA
Navigation System

PRESENT COVERAGE
^ EXISTING STATION
^ TEMPORARY STATION

SOURCE, DEPARTMENT Of NAVY

ute to civilian as well as military shipping. The first demonstration and test of
satellite capability in conjunction with the Navy OMEGA system to locate
and position a ship with relatively good accuracy was carried out during
the past year.

Research and Action To Reduce Pollution

Following the Torrey Canyon oil spill off the southwest coast of England
in 1967, the President directed the Departments of Transportation and
the Interior to prepare recommendations for a national program to deal
with the hazards of oil spills from oceangoing transportation, including
policies, procedures, and programs to prevent disasters from hazardous
cargoes and to mitigate the damage ensuing if a disaster occurs. As shown
in Figure VII 1-2 a similar spillage involving the Ocean Eagle in San
Juan harbor in March 1968 emphasized the importance of these recom-
mendations, which had just been released, and pointed out the role of multi-
agency contingency plans to insure the prompt and efficient mobilization
of national resources in the event of such disasters.

On the recommendation of the Marine Sciences Council, the President
asked the Secretary of the Interior immediately to assume primary responsi-
bility for completing at the earliest possible date multi-agency contingency

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Transport and Trade

plans for resp)onding to pollution emergencies involving oil or hazardous ma-
terials with the understanding that he would work closely with the Secre-
taries of Transportation and Defense in this effort. In the event of an
emergency prior to completion of these plans, the Coast Guard was to
assume on-site command responsibility. Also, an ad hoc committee of offi-
cials of the Executive Office of the President was established to review the
development of the plans.

In the fall of 1968 the President approved the National Multi-Agency Oil
and Hazardous Materials Pollution Contingency Plan which established a
pattern for a coordinated response among the Departments of the Interior,
Transportation, Defense, and Health, Education, and Welfare, and the
Office of Emergency Planning in the event of an oil pollution emergency.
It establishes a national reaction team and provides guidelines for the estab-
lishment of regional contingency plans and reaction teams. A standing
National Inter-Agency Committee will continue to plan the Federal multi-

Figure Wl\l-2— Grounding of the 12,000 gross ton oil tanker OCEAN EAGLE off
San Juan Harbor in March 1968 is one of a series of recent oil pollution incidences
emphasizing the importance of intensified research and development and improved
regulation and enforcement procedures to reduce the possibilities of damage from
massive oil spills.

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Marine Science Affairs

agency response to pollution incidents; define procedures to promote the
coordinated reaction of all Federal, State, local government, and private
agencies to pollution incidents; and consider training of reaction team per-
sonnel, research, development, and test and evaluation activities needed to
support reaction capabilities, and equipment and material stockpiling. A
Joint Operations Team will be activated in the event of a pollution incident
which (a) exceeds the response capability of the region in which it occurs,
(b) transects regional boundaries, or (c) involves national security or a major
hazard to substantial numbers of persons or nationally significant amounts
of property. This team will act as the focal point for national public infor-
mation releases and for information transfer between the on-site teams and
Washington.

The National Contingency Plan provides guidelines for the establish-
ment of regional contingency plans and reaction teams and encourages
the development of local government and private capabilities to handle
pollution incidents. Coordination and direction of Federal pollution con-
trol efforts at the scene of a pollution incident will be accomplished through
a single executive agent predesignated by regional plans. The Coast Guard
will furnish the predesignated Commander for the coastal and contiguous
zone waters, ports, and harbors. Great Lakes, and major inland navigable
waterways, and the Department of the Interior will designate the Com-
mander in other areas. The plan incorporates procedures to make effective
use of the ESSA's prediction services related to tides, winds, river flow, and
sea state that can affect dispersion of oil and other pollutants.

Complementing the development and implementation of the National
Contingency Plan will be FY 1970 efforts of the Coast Guard, Corps of
Engineers, and Federal Water Pollution Control Administration to
strengthen our capability to detect, contain, and ameliorate spills of oil and
other hazardous cargoes. Research efforts endorsed by the Marine Sciences
Council include development of:

— procedures and equipment for containment of oil spills at the source

and in open and rough water;
— techniques for removal of cargoes from troubled vessels using high
capacity air transportable pumps and oil burning technologies, and
development of booms and other devices that can be quickly rigged
and emplaced;
— procedures and equipment for the recovery of spilled pollutants be-
fore they befoul the coast or create fire or safety hazards; consider-
ation will be given to complement existing pumping technology with
flotation devices including appropriate pipelines and containers and
with specially designed tankers or other vessels to serve as bulk
containers ;
— methods of tagging pollutants in order to identify the source and
provide a basis for recovering clean-up costs;

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Transport and Trade

— information on the source of pollutants in the ocean including a

review of current standards governing oil discharges;
— procedures to protect central areas and shorelines including investiga-
tion of the feasibility of (a) sand-filled nylon bags to serve as dikes,
(b) large rubber, plastic, or polyethylene sheets anchored on critical
beach areas, and (c) beach skimming devices with capability of
separating sand from the pollutants ; and
— procedures for increasing safety in harbors, including establishment
of (a) port advisory services, including radio broadcasts of naviga-
tional information, marine traffic activities, and emergencies — with
exp>erimental service initiated in San Francisco, and (b) a national
information center on hazardous cargoes moving in water transpor-
tation, their properties, effects if accidentally released, and protective
measures to be taken in the event of an accidental release.
The proposed funding levels for FY 1970 for these activities are FWPCA —
$1.7 million, Coast Guard — $2.6 million. The Corps of Engineers will par-
ticipate as appropriate.

In addition to the preceding work on corrective aspects, the Coast Guard
has initiated a program of research and regulatory action to prevent pollu-
tion by ship cargoes. Special emphasis is being placed on chemicals because
of their great potential hazard and the present lack of knowledge about
their behavior in the marine environment. The program includes the fol-
lowing activities:

— development of new regulations for bulk chemical carriers with de-
sign requirements based, in part, on pollution potential of the cargoes ;
— revision and extension of the recent Guide to Hazard Evaluation of

Chemicals in Bulk Water Transportation;
— sponsorship of a Bureau of Mines investigation of the behavior and
hazards of massive releases of extremely cold (—258° F) liquefied
natural gas into water in the event of a vessel casualty; and
— control of foreign vessels desiring to carry unusually hazardous car-
goes into and out of U.S. ports and development of international
standards for bulk chemical carriers.

Preparing for Port Development and Redevelopment

Future requirements for U.S. ports and harbors will probably be charac-
terized by:

— limitations on costly channel improvement projects and concentra-
tion of very large bulk vessels at a limited number of deep water
ports constituting major bulk cargo transshipment centers;

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Marine Science Affairs

— innovative offshore or outport terminals to accommodate super-
tankers, with such individual terminals to be capable of supplying
their immediate region or other harbor regions by pipeline, barge,
or small tanker (Figure VIII-3) ;

— concentration of international containership operations in a few
major load center ports on each ocean coast ; and

— concentration of major ocean barge-carrying ship operations in a few
load center ports.

Figure WlU-3—The world's largest ship, the 312,000 DWT SS UNIVERSE IRE-
LAND, berthed at the world's newest offshore oil loading facility ten miles off the
coast of Kuwait. The facility is connected to shore by a 48-inch crude petroleum
submarine pipeline and a 20-inch bunker fuel oil submarine line.

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Transport and Trade

In recognition that these trends must be considered in future port plan-
ning and may necessitate the development of specialized ports and inte-
gration into the overall transportation system, a multiagency research effort
has been directed toward development of a conceptual plan for harbor and
port development studies. The general objectives of the needed studies and
possible division of work among the Federal agencies have been considered
and preliminary order-of-magnitude estimates of time and cost made. It is
firmly recognized that these studies must be performed as a coordinated
effort with States, municipalities, and other non-Federal entities. Prior to
adoption of such proposals, extensive consultations are being held with all
interested parties.

Among the other areas of emphasis in FY 1970 which directly comple-
ment this major study effort to facilitate maritime activities in and near our
ports are :

— studies of specific types of bulk cargo transfer facilities including
offshore ports and artificial islands, isolated shore locations, ship-to-
barge transfer, ocean barge systems, and submarine tankers; and
— analytical and experimental underwater soil mechanics studies re-
lated to construction of artificial islands, causeways, harbors, floating
breakwaters, and other structures.
While advances in science and technology will continue to contribute to
more efficient maritime activities, changes in the institutional framework
appear essential if major progress in strengthening the maritim_e fleet
is to be realized. Administration proposals on maritime shipping policy
to the 90th Congress have not elicited the necessary support, nor have Con-
gressional proposals had Executive Branch support. Nevertheless, the im-
portance of the merchant fleet to our entire oceanic endeavor and the
efficient expenditure of public and private funds warrant a new concerted
effort by all participants to resolve differences and develop policies that
will contribute to economic growth, our international maritime presence,
and our national defense requirements.

123

". . . the science of abyssal research cannot, from its nature, advance
slowly and gradually; it must proceed by strides . . ."

H.M.S. CHALLENGER EXPEDITION, 1885

Chapter IX

LAUNCHING AN INTERNATIONAL
DECADE OF OCEAN EXPLORATION

Following a call for broadened international cooperation in ocean explora-
tion in his State of the Union message, President Johnson on March 8, 1968,
proposed the launching of "an historic and unprecedented adventure — an
International Decade of Ocean Exploration for the 1970's." Recognizing a
rapidly growing wordwide interest in exploiting ocean resources, the im-
portance of understanding ocean processes, and the value of conducting
ocean investigations as a multinational enterprise, he urged that all nations
join together in a concerted, long-term, cooperative program of ocean
exploration on a worldwide basis. He emphasized that such a program
could :

— "expand cooperative efforts by scientists from many nations to probe
the mysteries of the sea ;

— increase our knowledge of food resources, to assist in meeting world-
wide threats of malnutrition and disease ;

— bring closer the day when the people of the world can exploit new
sources of minerals and fossil fuels."
The Decade is envisioned as a period of intensified collaborative planning
among nations and expansion of exploration capabilities by individual na-
tions, followed by execution of national and international programs of
oceanic research and resource exploration so as to assemble a far more
comprehensive knowledge of the sea in a reasonably short time.^

^ The Council report "International Decade of Ocean Exploration," May 1968,
has been distributed throughout the United States and abroad as a basis for discussion
of the concept of the Decade at international and national meetings.

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Marine Science Affairs

The Decade should contribute to the economic and scientific development
of all participants. Data about distribution and richness of resources, par-
ticularly new sources of food critically needed in the developing areas of the
world, should accelerate their development. Thus, emphasis should be placed
on identification and assessment of food and mineral resources as well as on
investigation of natural ocean processes.

Existing patterns of effective scientific cooperation provide experience on
which to develop expanded and more systematic efforts of the future. The
success of such an endeavor will depend in large measure on the extent to
which various nations contribute their particular expertise and capabilities,
assume a share of responsibility for the program, develop their manpower
and facilities, and disseminate to others the results of scientific and other
discoveries.

Effective exploration of the oceans can best be achieved through both
research and surveys, balanced to solve specific scientific problems and to
systematically collect data on a broad regional or world ocean basis. The
Decade does not by any means suggest exploration of every square mile of
the world's ocean, nor investigation of every conceivable ocean phenomenon.
However, during the Decade the nations of the world can identify the most
promising geographical areas and lines of scientific inquiry, set priorities,
and agree on distribution of effort.

The Decade is not merely a continuation of past efforts but has several
unique aspects. The proposal :

— anticipates a sustained, long-term exploration of the sea, planned and
coordinated on a global basis, in contrast to the sporadic efforts of
the past, developed project by project;
— is oriented as much toward delineation of marine resources as toward
science, and is thus broader than past scientifically oriented oceano-
graphic research programs ;
— envisages more deliberate coordination of the many interested inter-
national organizations, such as the Intergovernmental Oceanographic
Commission, Food and Agriculture Organization, and World Mete-
orological Organization so that planning and coordination of world-
wide exploration will not be unnecessarily splintered among compet-
ing agencies; and
— foresees an intensified effort toward more systematic collection of
data and prompt dissemination, with particular attention to adop-
tion of internationally agreed-upon standards to maximize the value
of the data as a commodity for exchange. As more sophisticated data
processing equipment comes into use, particular attention should also
be given to the compatibility of national data collection and process-
ing techniques and to common procedures for calibrating oceano-
graphic instruments.

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Decade of Ocean Exploration

Finally, participation by a larger number of countries in ocean explora-
tion is being encouraged, especially those which have a maritime geography
but which may have previously lacked interest, trained manpower, or capa-
bilities to explore the oceans, even near their own shores. In this way, devel-
oping nations should be able to share the capabilities of the more developed
countries, to acquire contemporary technology for their own use, and to
increase opportunities to identify contiguous marine resources.

Illustrative Types of Projects and Objectives

As a point of departure for international discussions, consideration might
be given to the following kinds of projects:

— surveys of selected ocean areas, principally from oceanographic ships,
complemented by increasing use of other platforms such as space-
craft, buoys, submersibles, and ships of opportunity;
— intensive study of designated ocean areas of limited expanse;
— research directed to specific ocean phenomena ;
— development of improved worldwide (a) instrument calibration, and
(b) data collection, processing, storage, and distribution facilities
and services to facilitate international exchange of data;
— assistance in strengthening the technical capabilities of the develop-
ing nations to participate in exploration programs, including man-
power training ; and
— provision of precise navigation aids and use of other advanced tech-
nological capabilities.
Illustrative of the types of objectives for such collaborative endeavors that
might be considered internationally are these examples:

1. Exploration of Living Resources

— assessment of living resources useful to man in poorly charted regions

of the world ocean ;
— assessment of current utilization of known fishery stocks ; and
— acquisition of knowledge relating living resources to their environ-
ment in order that greater efficiency in their capture and con-
servation can be achieved.

2. Exploration of the Ocean Floor

— determination of the geological structure and mineral and energy
resource potential of the world's continental margins;

— preparation of topographic, geological, and geophysical maps of
selected areas of the deep ocean floor; and

— coring and drilling on the continental margins and deep ocean floor
in selected areas.

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Marine Science Affairs

3. Exploration of Ocean Processes

— study of scales of motion in the sea, temperature variations, and the

dynamics of ocean current systems;
— investigations of various surface boundary processes, such as the

growth and propagation of ocean waves; and
— investigations of evolutionary processes of ocean basins.

4. Assistance to the Developing Nations

— mapping of selected areas of the Continental Shelf of developing

nations; and
— surveys of the coastal fishery resources of the developing nations.
In preparing the concept of a Decade, the United States has not attempted
to prejudge the scope, specific international projects, nor the international
planning and coordinating arrangements. Interested nations and interna-
tional organizations should work out these details collaboratively. The
United States therefore has initiated discussions with nations throughout
the world on the concept of the Decade.

Enhancing International Collaborative Programs

International scientific cooperation has been widespread in oceanography
for many years. It is against this background of scientific interest and experi-
ence in collaborative projects that a long-term continuing program of ex-
ploration, worldwide in character, would be built. Current programs spon-
sored by international organizations, together with existing and planned
bilateral and multilateral cooperative exploration endeavors, would provide
an excellent starting point for the Decade.

Figure IX-1 shows the relative density of one type of ocean exploration
activity conducted throughout the world to date.

During the late 1950's, the International Geophysical Year was a major
stimulus in expanding earlier efforts, and since that time a number of
collaborative ocean exploration projects have been developed and suc-
cessfully carried out, e.g., the International Indian Ocean Expedition,
the International Cooperative Investigation of the Tropical Atlantic, and
the Cooperative Study of the Kuroshio. Their success has encouraged present
consideration by the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of new
cooperative programs in the Caribbean and Mediterranean Seas and in the
North Atlantic and Southern Ocean which can provide initial building
blocks for the Decade.

Surveys and assessments of fishery stocks in Asia, Africa, and Latin
America, supported by the Food and Agriculture Organization, are having
a significant impact on economic development in those areas. A number of

128

Decade of Ocean Exploration

Figure IX-1 — A computer-generated plot of the location of oceanographic data sta-
tions where Nansen casts have been made illustrates the geographical coverage of
ocean exploration activities to the present. Physical-chemical data from the 363,752
stations are filed at the National Oceanographic Data Center. Data come from many
nations.

important international fisheries are being successfully conserved through
the programs of international fishery commissions. Furthermore, limited
studies carried out by the commissions are contributing to our understand-
ing of world fishery resources.

Of particular importance to the success of many international endeavors
has been the contribution of non-governmental scientific organizations and
institutions in developing the scientific basis for many programs and taking
part in their implementation, especially through the International Council
of Scientific Unions. Direct and personal arrangements between the scien-
tists of different nations have similarly added to the international storehouse
of knowledge.

Adoption of a Resolution by the U.N. General Assembly supporting the
Decade highlighted the broad support the proposal has received during the
past year (Chapter III).

The following U.N. bodies have also supported the Decade:
Economic and Social Council
Ad Hoc Committee on the Seabed

Bureau and Consultative Council of the Intergovernmental Ocean-
ographic Commission

129

Marine Science Affairs

Executive Committee of the World Meteorological Organization and

its Commission for Maritime Meteorology
Council of the Food and Agriculture Organization
In addition bilateral discussions were held with many coastal States con-
cerning the proposal and the response was universally favorable. The Coun-
cil's Executive Secretary traveled to Moscow, London, Bonn, and Oslo to
elaborate on the proposal, and also discussed details in Washington with
officials from a number of other countries.

Consultations to formulate specific national commitments will be a con-
tinuing and lengthy process. The positive interest of a substantial number
of governments was indicated by the cosponsorship by 28 nations of the
U.N. Resolution endorsing the Decade. Many are well aware of the need
for careful preparatory planning, including the identification of specific
areas for investigation, but would like to avoid a proliferation of new inter-
national bodies for implementation of the Decade. Also there is a recognition
of the need to continue and expand bilateral and regional arrangements,
where appropriate, within the overall context of the Decade.

Three important steps are now required internationally to implement the
Decade concept:

— development of a multinational organizational framework for plan-
ning and cooperation;
— identification of specific projects to be carried out; and
■ — commitments by individual nations of their individual exploration
capabilities to cooperative endeavors.

Developing National Programs

During the Decade all nations would be encouraged to identify how the
oceans can contribute to their own scientific and economic development,
and accordingly:

— develop their capabilities for exploring the oceans;
— expand national ocean exploration programs; and
— share with other nations experience and scientific data acquired from
these national programs.
At the present time most nations are primarily interested in ocean explora-
tion programs close to home shores— exploration of the Continental Shelf
and of coastal fishery stocks — and these programs receive the bulk of national
financial support. Even though nations are moving farther out to sea every
year, in the near future much of the world's ocean exploration activity will
probably continue to be coastal, of interest primarily to individual nations.
However, sharing of experiences and data can benefit others. Of course,

130

Decade of Ocean Exploration

the greatest benefits are derived from the pooUng of resources and the
sharing of responsibihties through planning and implementing specific
collaborative projects. This is particularly true in the deep oceans where,
because of the high cost of operations, it is desirable to coordinate plans
internationally to insure that areas with the highest potential interest to
the most users are given priority attention.

Planning in the United States

In the United States, the National Council on Marine Resources and
Engineering Development has been assigned the responsibility by the Presi-
dent for coordinating on a government-wide basis ocean exploration activi-
ties and for developing a coordinated national exploration plan. As an
initial step, the Council has turned to the scientific and engineering com-
munities to assist in developing specific proposals. The Council contracted
for the National Academy of Sciences and National Academy of Engineer-
ing to conduct a study and prepare recommendations concerning:

(1) scientific and ocean engineering goals for the Decade;

(2) priorities among these goals;

(3) capabilities required to achieve these goals in terms of man-
power, marine data (including standards as appropriate), instrumen-
tation (including calibration as appropriate), sea and shore facilities,
and funds;

(4) program elements of the Decade including objectives, milestones,
priorities, and timing ; and

(5) end products of the Decade such as charts, maps, research
reports, atlases, and benefits to be expected in terms of advancements in
science and engineering as well as contributions toward the goals and
objectives of P.L. 89-454.

The Academies have preliminarily identified the following exploration
programs to be of particular interest during the next ten years:
1. Geology and N on-Living Resources:
— geological-geophysical surveys of North American Continental Shelves

and the eastern Atlantic continental margin;
— assessment of the mineral resource potential of small ocean basins,
such as the Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean, Mediterranean, and the East
Indies area;
— dredging, coring, profiling, and related studies of oceanic ridges and
trenches, such as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and the Peru-Chile Trench ;
and
— surveys of selected Pacific sites of manganese nodules and phosphorite
deposits.

131

329-46« O — 69 10

Marine Science Affairs

2. Fisheries:

— assessment of the fisheries production potential of the Gulf of Mexico,
Gulf of Alaska, and equatorial eastern and central Pacific;

— ecological and related studies leading to improved management of
fisheries of the northwestern Atlantic ;

— assessment and increased development of fishery resources of the
Arabian Sea, offshore southern Chile and Argentina, and in the
Indonesian Archipelago ; and

— investigation of the potentially rich euphausiid resources of the Ant-
arctic Ocean.

3. Biological Studies:

— application of recently developed techniques to studies of food chains
in the sea; and

— development of new techniques for measuring biological factors and
for modeling ecosystems using computers for areas such as Georges
and Grand Banks, the Gulf of Alaska, the Gulf of Mexico, the eastern
and central equatorial Pacific, the South Pacific gyre, the western
Arabian Sea, and the Antarctic Ocean.

4. Physics and Environmental Forecasting:

— investigation of 1,000 to 3,000 mile, cold and warm anomalies related

to "centers of action" in the North Pacific;
— studies of large-scale, long-term air-sea interaction and meso-scale

interaction in subtropical upwelling regions;
— systematic ocean coverage of deep temperature, salinity, and oxygen

measurements; and
— geochemical "benchmark" surveys of selected trace substances on
meridional traverses in the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans.
The Academies' final report will be released by the Council this year to
assist in further development of the Decade concept, both nationally and
internationally. This report, together with the Ten- Year Plan for Ocean
Exploration which is being developed as described in Chapter XII, wall be
used in government-wide Decade planning. Additionally, economic analyses
of the benefits to be derived from alternative types of Decade programs will
be conducted. Also, representatives of the major non-Federal industrial and
scientific interests concerned with ocean exploration will have an opportu-
nity to review Decade plans on a continuing basis, thus providing for broad
national participation in the development of the program.

As a first step, those types of on-going programs that will contribute to
accelerated exploration activities during the Decade and the most promising
areas for new program emphasis during FY 1971 will be identified.
Also, efforts will be made to identify long lead-time items such as ships and
data processing equipment that might require funding early in the Decade.
At the present time the United States supports many Decade-related pro-
grams through about 30 percent of the Federal marine science budget. About

132

Decade of Ocean Exploration

half of these programs are of broad international interest. The scale and
pace of development of internationally oriented ocean exploration programs
by the United States will depend in large measure on the international in-
terest and participation in the Decade and the benefits that are derived from
the collaborative programs as they develop. If the Decade is broadly sup-
ported on an international basis, it is likely that the expenditures will increase
more rapidly during the later years of the Decade than during the early
1970's as the mobilization of the resources of many nations accelerates.

In the Legislative Branch, Senate Concurrent Resolution 72, adopted last
year by the Senate, sets forth objectives and expectations of the Decade.^

The Resolution is included in Appendix B-4'

133

"Science can only give us the tools in a box . . . but of what use to us
are miraculous tools until we have mastered the human, cultural use
of them?"

-FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT

Chapter X

ADVANCING THE SEA GRANT PROGRAM

Progress in marine sciences in the 1970's depends in large measure on
an expanded base of manpower, especially engineers and technicians, broad-
ened applied research capabilities, and improved mechanisms for informa-
tion transfer. The National Sea Grant College and Program Act ( Public Law
89-688), which was signed into law on October 15, 1966, was a major
innovative step to meet our future needs, and the President has emphasized
the importance of this new partnership between the Federal Government
and the Nation's universities. The Sea Grant Program can become a corner-
stone of long-term investments to strengthen our capabilities through multi-
disciplinary approaches to marine resource development. The program aug-
ments existing programs with special emphasis on developing regional
capabilities to work on regionally oriented problems.

The Sea Grant Act charges the National Science Foundation with initiat-
ing, developing, and supporting Sea Grant programs. The legislation directs
the Marine Sciences Council to advise the Foundation with respect to
policies, procedures, and operations.
The Sea Grant Program has three explicit objectives :

— to accelerate training and education of specialized manpower, espe-
cially ocean engineers and technicians required by industry and gov-
ernment which are not being developed through existing programs;
— to initiate and support applied research, in predevelopment stages,
particularly related to recovery and use of marine resources; and

135

Marine Science Affairs

— to disseminate knowledge and information about marine resource
development to all interested and concerned sectors of the Nation
through extension and advisory services.

To accomplish these objectives, there are two modes of support, institu-
tional and project. Institutional support is intended to help selected aca-
demic institutions evolve into a network of "sea grant colleges" with a
wide range of environmental, economic, and technological orientations.
These institutions will be expected to provide regional leadership in ocean
research and development, and serve as the "seed bed" for a growing national
program. Moreover, sea grant colleges, with university-wide commitment
to the objectives of the program, can develop the needed competence to deal
with applied marine research problems on a much broader interdisciplinary
front through the blending of social science skills, particularly in law and
economics, with those from the engineering and natural sciences. Sea Grant
Project support is directed to individual projects related to marine resource
development. Such projects can involve specialized scientific or engineering
research, studies, education, advisory, or training activities.

As a matter of policy, the Council and Foundation have agreed that the
Sea Grant Program should be largely oriented to national purposes, such as
those dealing with food from the sea, ocean-related environmental forecast-
ing, Continental Shelf exploitation, and multiple use of the seacoast. Thus,
many government agencies can participate in and benefit from the program.
For example, ESSA has taken preliminary steps to establish regional marine
specialists at sea grant colleges, and the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries
participates in aquaculture projects supported by the program.

The Long-Term Policy Framework

The following general policies and guidelines have been established to
implement the Act :

1. Geographic Factors — Geographic dispersal of institutional and project
support is considered in evaluating Sea Grant proposals. Proximity to sea-
shore and ocean access, while clearly enhancing pursuit of certain types of
marine research, is not a requisite to participation in some aspects of the
program. In accordance with the Act, obligations made through grants or
contracts to institutions in one State in any fiscal year may not exceed 15
percent of the total amount appropriated in that year.

Six Sea Grant institutions are now supported by NSF. As additional capa-
bilities are mobilized, one might be established in each coastal and Great
Lakes State or region if better served collectively. In addition to considering

136

Sea Grant Program

support for sea grant colleges according to local and regional needs, support
will also be given to institutions specializing in programs of particular nation-
wide importance.

2. Cooperative Efforts — Participants in the program are being encouraged
to undertake cooperative programs with other institutions, with business and
industry, with State and local governments, and with Federal laboratones.
A major goal of the program is to mobilize collective resources, foster local
channels of communications, and establish new patterns of collaboration
beyond the limits of any single Sea Grant institution.

Industrial firms in widely diverse fields can participate in the program,
enabling students to pursue on-the-job training in conjunction with their
normal educational programs. Industrial requirements can help to shape
the direction of the program and, indeed, the NSF looks to industry for
suggestions and ideas essential to planning. Thus, the Sea Grant Program
can help to support existing industries through provision of trained man-
power, new techniques, and concepts.

3. Emphasis on Applied Activities — While basic scientific studies will be
supported if the eventual application of results seems reasonably clear, applied
research, including legal, economic, sociological, business administration, and
similar fields important to marine resource development or utilization are
being stressed.

4. Manpower Training — There is a corresponding emphasis on training
engineers and technicians. Institutions receiving Sea Grant support either
directly for education and training or indirectly through support of research
or development projects involving graduate assistants may, by 1975, be
instrumental in turning out annually 100 to 300 ocean engineers at the grad-
uate level,. 100 to 300 ocean engineers at the bachelor's level, and 500 to 900
ocean technicians. Thus, within the next decade, available technical man-
power could be doubled over a broad spectrum of disciplines.

5. Need for Innovation — The intent of the Act would not be fulfilled by
strict adherence to traditional approaches in research or resource develop-
ment. The Nation's academic institutions have contributed substantially to
imaginative and productive innovation in other fields of endeavor, and this
trend will be nurtured in the development of marine resources.

6. Matching Costs — To stimulate local and regional involvement and
commitment, the Act stipulates that the total amount of Federal payments
under a grant to or contract with a participant in the program shall not exceed
663^^ percent of the total cost of the program. For the purpose of computing
the amount of matching funds, the salaries, supplies, and indirect costs
provided by the participant from non-Federal sources are included. Sea
Grant funds may not be used, however, for the purchase or rental of any
land or the rental, purchase, construction, preservation, or repair of any
building, dock, or vessel.

137

Marine Science Affairs

7. Industrial Participation — The Sea Grant Program is also attempting
to encourage industrial involvement in several ways. While industry is not
funded directly, cooperative programs between institutions and industry are
feasible. In some instances, funds or facilities might be provided by industry
to an institution conducting a Sea Grant Program. This arrangement assists
the institution in providing the necessary matching funds and the resulting
research data and manpower can help meet industry's needs. In other in-
stances, a firm's specialized facilities may be used in either research or edu-
cation programs by a participating institution.

Criteria for Sea Grant Support

Institutional support is intended to assist institutions of higher education
which have broad-based competence and interest in ocean science and edu-
cation to further strengthen this base through additional major programs
devoted to increasing utilization of marine resources — both in the institu-
tion's geographic region and in the Nation. Activities receiving institutional
support may involve any schools or departments of a university or college
which can contribute to achieving Sea Grant objectives, in addition to
schools or departments engaged in activities commonly associated with the
marine environment. For example, consideration can be given to a school
of law through study of the legal aspects of marine resource development;
a medical school through study of various aspects of the physiology and hu-
man engineering of marine resource recovery techniques ; a school of phar-
macy through programs in the field of marine pharmacology ; a department
of journalism through specialized advisory services; a home economics de-
partment through home utilization of marine foods and advisory services
most useful to homemakers; and schools or departments of business adminis-
tration, economics, sociology, psychology and political science through
marine resource development studies emphasizing the contributions of these
disciplines.

Criteria for determining institutional awards include :

— a history of significant, marine-related activities in research and edu-
cation, and demonstrable success in those activities ;
— availability of the necessary facilities including laboratories, ships,

and docks;
— a capacity and an intention of the host institution to adopt the Sea
Grant mission as a major goal, as demonstrated among other things
by the full commitment of responsible senior officials to the program,
including a full-time program director/coordinator;

138

Sea Grant Program

— a staff recognized in the marine community for leadership and
scholarship, including regular participation by faculty from allied
departments;
— ability to match the Federal contribution by providing at least one-
third of the cost of Sea Grant activities;
— a defined study curriculum, capacity for growth, the ability to plan
and execute a complex program of high quality, and provision for
multi-institutional collaboration; and
— location in a region with marine related industry with planning de-
voted at least partly to regional problems such as utilization of local
marine resources.
Sea Grant Project support is intended to advance scientific, engineering,
and technological know-how, especially at the stage where scientific discovery
first blends into a possible social application, but also where practical eco-
nomic benefits are still uncertain. This mechanism also provides a means
for responding to varied and changing research needs of the Federal
Government. It is of particular importance in complementing programs of
agencies not having broad extramural programs and in supporting research
on topics crossing agency lines that fails to gain strong single agency ad-
vocacy. Support in this category can encompass more than research. The
legislation also permits support of symposia and conferences for the develop-
ment of innovative educational curricula and for new programs needed for
training of critical or specialized technological skills.

Public or private institutions of higher education and other institutions,
laboratories, and public or private agencies may be eligible for Sea Grant
Project support. Criteria on which awards are based include:

— the merit of the project and its potential for contributing to the broad

objectives of the national Sea Grant Program ;
— the proposing institution's demonstrable competence and experience

in the project field, or in a closely related field ;
— the full commitment of responsible officials of the institution to a

well-managed project;
—the qualifications of the principal investigator or the program

manager ;
— availability of the necessary facilities ; and

— ability of the proposing institution to provide at least one-third of
the project cost.
To review both institutional and project support proposals, the Founda-
tion has established two non-governmental, technical advisory panels. Co-
ordination with other Federal programs has been assured through reviews
of the program by the Marine Sciences Council and particularly its Commit-
tee on Marine Research, Education, and Facilities.

139

Marine Science Affairs

National Response to the Program

During FY 1968, 78 formal and 87 informal proposals were received.
The 78 formal proposals were submitted by 55 institutions in 28 States,
with the heaviest concentration of formal proposals in the fields of food
from the sea, engineering and ocean engineering, and advisory services. By
contrast, very few formal proposals have been received in the fields of
minerals and drugs from the sea, law, economics, political science, or
recreation.

In FY 1968, total funding for the Sea Grant Program amounted to $5
million, which supported 27 Project Grants, and Institutional Grants at
Oregon State University, University of Rhode Island, University of Wash-
ington, University of Hawaii, Texas A&M University, and University of
Wisconsin (Figure X-1 ) .

The Marine Sciences Council advises the Foundation with respect to Sea
Grant policies, procedures, and operations. The Council thus reviewed and
endorsed plans for strengthening Sea Grant programs in FY 1970 at a
higher level of budgetary support than in previous years as shown in
Table X-1.

Table X-1 — Sea Grant Funding Levels

Total

Institutional Project support
support

FY 1968:

Research $3, 007, 200 $1, 665, 900 $1, 341, 300

Education and training 1, 610, 000 500, 000 1, 1 10, 000

Advisory services 382, 700 379, 700 3, 000

Total, FY 1968 4,999,900 2,545,600 2,454,300

FY 1969:

Research 3, 500, 000 2, 600, 000 900, 000

Education and training 2, 000, 000 1, 220, 000 780, 000

Advisory services 500, 000 480, 000 20, 000

Total, FY 1969 6,000,000 4,300,000 1,700,000

FY 1970:

Research 6, 100, 000 3, 900, 000 2, 200, 000

Education and training 2, 500, 000 2, 100, 000 400, 000

Advisory services 1, 400, 000 1, 200, 000 200, 000

Total, FY 1970 10, 000, 000 7, 200, 000 2, 800, 000

140

Sea Grant Program

Figure X-1 — Institutional and Project Sea Grants

NATIONAL SEA GRANT PROGRAM
FY 1968

INSTITUTIONAL PROGRAMS PROVIDE
INTERDISCIPLINARY RESEARCH
EDUCATION. AND INFORMATION
SERVICES IN:

Aquacultute

Diugs and Exliacts

Fisheties

Food Science and Technology

La*

Maime Economics

Mineial Resources

Ocean Engineetmg

Oceanopaptiy

Pollution Control

RESEARCH PROJECTS WERE UNDERTAKEN IN:

(1) Managemenl ol marine resources-
algae* , shrimp*, pompano*. lobster

(2) New uses ol marine resources-
proteins, drugs (rom the sea

(3) Ocean engineering - Ollshoie Plattorm Stability

(4) Beneficial uses ot pollutants

(5) Rational basis for marine resources
laws and regulations

EDUCATIONAL GRANTS SUPPORTED:
Conferences on problems of training technicians
and ocean engineers

Career counseling programs for high school students
Curriculum development:

(a) Undergraduate ocean engineering

(b) Graduate ocean engineering

(c) Technician training

* Co-sponsored by industry

IN COOPERATION WITH

y

FEDERAL RESEARCH
ORGANIZATIONS

STATE RESEARCH
ORGANIZATIONS

INDUSTRY

OTHER EDUCATIONAL
INSTITUTIONS

6 INSTITUTIONAL AND 2 MULTIPLE - PROJECT GRANTS

12 RESEARCH AND 1 3 EDUCATIONAL PROJECT GRANTS

^

Source : National Science Foundation.

141

'The direction of building is North." — vilhjalmur stefansson

Chapter XI

FORMULATING ARCTIC POLICIES AND

PROGRAMS

Awareness of the great economic potential and strategic importance of
the Arctic is rapidly increasing in the United States and other countries
bordering that region. While the Arctic region/ especially the land area,
has been reconnoitered sufficiently to identify its importance, further devel-
opment and exploitation of this area will depend in large measure on an
explicit determination to devote more attention and resources in our Arctic
programs. In view of the large marine portion of the Arctic, the Marine
Sciences Council undertook a reappraisal of U.S. Arctic policy as it relates
to marine activities.

The Arctic is the "last frontier" in the northern hemisphere in terms of
the world's limited natural resources and space for an expanding world
population. In spite of the extremely adverse climate, modem technology —

* The Arctic region is here defined as the land area surrounding the North Pole,
to the southern limit of continuous permafrost, and the Arctic Ocean and adjacent
waters. The U.S. Arctic, or Arctic Alaska, is defined sis that land and Continental Shelf
north and west of the Yukon River. The Arctic region, some 8.3 million square miles,
centers on the Arctic Ocean and includes almost 3 million square miles of continuous
permafrost land. The Arctic Ocean itself covers 5.4 million square miles, an area 50
percent larger than the United States, and connects the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.
A perennial, floating icepack extends from the North Pole to the edges of the Ocean.
The mean monthly temperatures for this region range from minus 40° F. to plus
50» F.

143

Marine Science Affairs

clothing, shelter, transportation systems, and operational techniques —
makes possible year-round human occupancy and work.

The Arctic region, consisting largely of international areas subject to the
high seas regime affording freedom of transit, is important to the development
of the United States and the North American continent. It affords the short-
est distance between the continents of Eurasia and North America. The
Arctic Ocean may take on increased significance as the technologies of
underice, icepack, and aerospace operations are more fully developed and
as the economic potential of the Arctic littoral is realized.

Oil and gas of the Arctic can help meet U.S. strategic requirements if
energy reserves from foreign sources are cut off in times of emergency. An
alternate supply of petroleum could also ease the dependence of our
major allies on Mideast and African oil. While the plentiful strategic and
precious metals in the Arctic are not being intensively exploited, they are
likely to be in the long term as the world's population expands and other
sources are depleted. Also, economic development of Arctic resources may
be a promising way to improve urgent social and economic problems of the
indigenous population of Alaska.

Scientific observations in the Arctic are of key importance because that
region critically influences global weather patterns and ocean circulation,
permafrost and sea ice properties, upper atmospheric phenomena, and ul-
timately all marine and terrestrial ecosystems. In addition, archaeological,
social, and anthropological investigations of native populations would be of
great scientific interest.

Internationally, the Arctic Ocean makes us neighbors to four other na-
tions— U.S.S.R., Norway, Denmark, and Canada. Although Finland,
Sweden, and Iceland do not abut the Arctic Ocean, they too share our con-
cern over exploration, development, settlement, and exploitation of the
Arctic region. Japan has shown increased interest in Arctic resources as
manifested by investment and commerce, primarily with Alaska and Can-
ada, in far northern resources such as timber and oil. The environmental
hazards, high costs, and limited U.S. expertise make international coopera-
tion in Arctic exploration very attractive.

Developing an Arctic Policy

The Marine Sciences Council developed and endorsed the following
statements as a point of departure in considering a national Arctic policy,
which must be developed on a broader basis than only marine sciences, and
in considering mechanisms for carrying forth such a national policy.

144

Arctic Policies and Programs

It should be the objective of the United States to achieve the following:
1. A leading U.S. position in the Arctic that will satisfy its political,
scientific, economic, and other interests.
2. The economic development of Alaska including its Continental Shelf to :

a. Increase the availability of its natural resources.

b. Encourage the growth of private investment .

c. Minimize inflationary effects on the Alaskan economy.

d. Maximize the opportunities for development for the population
of Alaska.

e. Minimize disturbances of the ecology of the region and ensure con-
sideration of the conservation of its resources.

3. An intermodal transportation system to enhance the growth and
support of our scientific, economic, and other activities in the area.

4. An improved capability to inhabit and operate in the Arctic.

5. Mutually beneficial cooperation with our Arctic neighbors and other
nations in exploration, exploitation and scientific studies.

6. Free exchange among all nations of technical and economic data
regarding the Arctic.

7. A fuller understanding of the marine and terrestrial Arctic environ-
ment through broad programs of scientific research.

8. In conjunction with other economic, social, and political objectives,
assure a capability to perform those operations necessary to the successful
conduct of national defense.

Federal agencies having responsibilities for Arctic affairs should, subject
to coordination as appropriate by the Secretary of State, initiate actions
as follows:

1. Provide or utilize appropriate mechanisms within the Executive
Branch for national policy planning, review, and coordination of Arctic
activities.''

2. Conduct the necessary research and engineering development to oper-
ate effectively in the Arctic, including such activities as :

a. Development of environmental sciences to promote the safe and
effective use of the physical environment.

b. Development of materials and designs for structures, vehicles, plat-
forms and systems capable of supporting safe operations on land
and on, under and within the icepack.

c. Studies of the ecological implications of proposed undertakings.

d. Development of adequate power sources for operation in the Arctic.

3. Advance and improve the health, nutritional and educational standards
of the native citizens.

* Among the organizations which currently are planning and coordinating Arctic
activities are the Federal Field Committee for Development Planning in the Arctic,
the Council's Committee on Marine Research, Education and Facilities, and the
Interagency Arctic Research Coordinating Committee.

145

Marine Science Affairs

4. Enhance the education and training of technical and professional
personnel for Arctic work.

5. Evaluate the impact of individual agency programs in Alaska in terms
of the ability of the Alaskan economy to handle the aggregate impact of
these programs without harmful inflation.

6. Accelerate the development of a comprehensive understanding of the
mineral and biological resources of the Arctic region and of associated
technical, economic and social problems.

7. Encourage, support, and conduct broad fundamental research pro-
grams to develop a fuller understanding of the Arctic environment.

8. Investigate the feasibility of developing an intermodal transportation
system for the Arctic through public and private investment which will:

a. Provide access to all Arctic areas.

b. Provide a system capable of transporting passengers and cargoes.

c. Extend the shipping season to and from Arctic Alaska and the Arctic
region.

9. Promote international cooperation in exploration, research, safety,
health and welfare and other activities which will be beneficial to all
countries.

Expanding Arctic Research Capabilities

Eleven Federal departments and agencies with a total FY 1968 budget of
more than $20 million (Table XI-1) involving some 600 to 700 people,
including scientists and technicians, are engaged in programs of Arctic
science, resource development, health and welfare, and military research
and development. U.S. research programs represent a broad spectrum of dis-
ciplines including oceanography, glaciology, earth sciences, meteorological
and ionospheric sciences, and the biological sciences. Technical activities in-
clude surveying and mapping, natural resource inventories, weather observa-
tions, ice observations from ships and aircraft and eventually from satellites,
reclamation, transport, and construction.

Eleven Federal and federally supported facilities serve as centers for most
of this work.

In 1967 and 1968 the development of capabilities to conduct oceano-
graphic research in polar and subpolar areas was selected by the Coun-
cil as an area deserving priority attention. Last year the Council recom-
mended that a replacement Coast Guard ship authorized for the Interna-
tional Ice Patrol be especially designed and equipped so that oceanographic
research in the high latitudes could be expanded. This ship, depicted in Fig-
ure XI-1, is scheduled for commissioning in 1970. Complementing this new

146

Arctic Policies and Programs

Table XI-1 — Federal Funding for Arctic Research and Development,

FY 1968

(In thousands of dollars)

Total
research

Logistics
Marine supporting
sciences marine
sciences

Department of Army 919

Department of Navy 2, 075

Department of Air Force 1, 574

Department of Transportation 63

Department of Commerce 68 1

Department of Agriculture 380

Department of HEW 1, 896

Department of Interior 1, 171

National Science Foundation 2, 216

National Aeronautics and Space Administration 1, 467

Atomic Energy Commission 20 1

(2,075)

1,966

(63)

6,237
74

(823)

(612)

Total 12, 643 (3, 573) 8, 277

Source: Interagency Arctic Research Coordinating Committee.

Figure XI-1 — The new Coast Guard oceanographic research ship WHEO 701 has
been specially designed for research activities in the high latitudes in addition to
its duties for the International Ice Patrol.

147

829^66 O — 69-

-11

Marine Science Affairs

capability for research in subpolar areas has been the completion of a pre-
liminary design for a medium class polar ice breaker with a significantly
greater capability than ice breakers currently operating in the U.S. fleet. Al-
ternative designs have been model-tested and design parameters have been
computerized for analyzing tradeoffs. Also, ice breakers currently in service
have been instrumented to develop additional data. Meanwhile, the facilities
for the Navy Arctic Research Laboratory at Barrow, Alaska, have been
expanded (Figure XI-2).

A Framework for Scientific Activities

To provide a more coherent framework for these activities the Council
has stated that scientific objectives of Arctic marine research programs
should include a better understanding of :

— the interactions between the atmosphere, ice cover, and ocean
waters and the role of these interactions in global atmospheric and
oceanic circulation;
— the Arctic Ocean climate and its relation to glaciation of the con-
tinents ;
— the geological character and structure of the Arctic region and its

role in the evolution of the continents and their shelves;
— the formation and modification of Arctic coastal and submerged

features ;
— the character and distribution of the biota and its variations;
— the ecosystems of the Arctic, their productivity, and the impact of

human activity;
— the physical properties and behavior of Arctic ice ;
— the physical and chemical characteristics of Arctic water masses and

their relation to the global ocean ;
— the geographic and temporal variations of polar cap atmospheric

and ionospheric events; and
— the acoustical characteristics of the Arctic seas.
Research and exploration will thus continue to undergird our Arctic
activities. All considerations require improved understanding of the air,
sea, and land environments and the predictability of the dynamic processes
of air, ice, and water and their interactions. New knowledge is needed to
construct and operate facilities, roads, harbors, and vehicles to open this
territory. Engineering studies are needed to gain the know-how and to de-
velop improved technical applications which give man the ability to cope
with and use the environment.

148

Arctic Policies and Programs

F- • ■ . ^^tf^JW^^'^ ^ ""i^'

^_~-

m.jrnjgf

■ lawffji''-

Figure XI-2 — The new Arctic Research Laboratory complex of the Office of Naval
Research, shown in the foreground, was completed in September 1968 and can
accommodate 85 people. This facility, fronting on the Arctic Ocean at Barrow,
Alaska, supports research in the biological and physical sciences, including oceanog-
raphy.

The search for resources has only begun : geological, geophysical, and geo-
chemical maps necessary to mineral exploration and prospecting have yet
to be made; the Continental Shelf area is almost entirely unexplored; Arctic
equipment and techniques for mineral extraction need to be developed.
Bulk transport systems which can cope with the Arctic environment are
needed to carry the products to market. At present there is no deep water
port facility in Arctic Alaska. These are but a few of the challenges of the
Arctic Basin which face Federal agencies, the State of Alaska, industry, and
the scientific and engineering communities.

149

"The sea never changes and its works, for all the talk of men, are
wrapped in mystery." — Joseph Conrad

Chapter XII

UNDERSTANDING AND SURVEYING THE

OCEAN ENVIRONMENT

The rate at which we increase the harvest of ocean resources, promote
safe maritime navigation, and improve the accuracy of forecasts of environ-
mental conditions affecting activities on both land and at sea is critically
dependent on the growth of our efforts to explore, map, and measure the
seas. The identification and assessment of ocean resources and features
through systematic exploration will also aid in establishing Federal-State
development and regulatory policies and provide basic knowledge for con-
sideration of international legal questions related to ocean resources. More
accurate, timely, and longer range forecasts of climate and weather condi-
tions, storms, waves, ice, tidal waves, tides, coastal surf and currents, storm
surges, floods, and ocean temperatures will benefit national defense and
expanding commercial and recreational marine activities; reduce the de-
struction of life and property in the Coastal Zone and at sea ; enhance indus-
try, agriculture, water management, and other land activities affected by
weather and nearshore ocean conditions; and contribute to the advance-
ment of science.

Mapping, Charting, and Geodesy

This section deals with those features of the oceans which vary slowly
with time so as to permit preparation of maps for understanding and use

151

Marine Science Affairs

of the oceans. The oceans are largely unexplored beyond the gross shape and
structure of the sea floor, and maps for science, economic development, and
national defense are often inadequate. Needs are multiplying for a wide
variety of maps delineating biological stocks, mineral resources, and physical
and geophysical characteristics of the sea and seabed. Figures XII-1 and
XII-2 describe the current extent of our knowledge of regional geology and
living resources close to U.S. shores.

Mapping, charting, and geodesy account for roughly 19 percent of the
marine science funding (Table XII-1). Over 30 ships in the Federal
oceanographic fleet are engaged in ocean surveying activities. A number of
agencies conduct mission oriented surveys, with ESSA and Navy supporting
most of the effort and providing most of the widely used general purpose
maps. The objectives of ESSA's Continental Shelf mapping program are
briefly described in Chapter VII and Navy activities are summarized in
Chapter V. Additionally, ESSA conducts a deep sea mapping program
(SEAMAP) intended to provide 1:1,000,000 scale bathymetric and geo-
physical mapping of 30 percent of the world's deep oceans for economic and
scientific purposes. Another long-range goal is development of a capability
to permit recharting of all U.S. coastal waters on a 50-year cycle.

Figure XII-1 — Status of Knowledge of Regional Offshore Geology

SOURCE: DEPARTMENT OF INTERIOR.

152

Surveying the Ocean Environment

Figure XII-2 — Status of Knowledge of Living Resources of the Continental
iVIargin

Table XI 1-1 — Funding for Mapping, Charting, and Geodesy

(In millions of dollars)

Estimated Estimated President's
Agency fiscal year fiscal year budget

1968 1969 fiscal year

1970

Department of Defense 58. 6 63. 5 78. 5

Navy (57.9) (62.7) (77.7)

Corps of Engineers" (0. 8) (0. 8) (0. 8)

Department of Commerce 16. 8 19. 1 20. 2

NASA 0.3 0.4 0.4

Total 75.7 83.0 99.1

" Charting of the Great Lakes.

The worldwide deployment of the U.S. oceanographic fleet engaged in
a variety of research and exploration activities on October 3, 1968, is illus-
trated in Figure XII-3.

153

Marine Science Affairs

154

Surveying the Ocean Environment

Among the 1968 highlights of Federal programs in mapping, charting,
and geodesy in addition to those noted in Chapter V were :

—initiation of bathymetric, gravity, and magnetic surveys in the Norton
Sound area off Alaska (ESSA) ;

— completion of a continuous geophysical profile across the South
Pacific (lat. 35° S.) which revealed previously unknown submarine
volcanoes and mountain ranges (ESSA) ;

— identification of two fracture zones and a major sea channel dis-
covered in the Aleutian abyssal plain (ESSA) ;

— completion of hydrographic surveys off Vietnam, Guam, and the
Mariannas, and in Subic Bay, Philippines (Navy) ;

— preparation of experimental photogrammetric maps with closely
spaced contour intervals from data obtained by submersibles (Navy) ;

— development and testing of high speed hydrographic sur\'eying tech-
niques using faster launches and automated data acquisition and
positioning equipment (ESSA and Navy) ;

— investigations of ocean conditions affecting the north polar front
between 160° and 180° west longitude (ESSA) ; and

— initial survey of the Weddell Sea to classify the flow of Antarctic
waters (Coast Guard) .

Ocean Observation and Prediction

About 6 percent of the Federal effort in marine sciences is devoted to ob-
servations related to understanding and predicting the ocean environment,
largely dealing with time-dependent variables. The Navy, ESSA, Coast
Guard, NASA, Corps of Engineers, and Atomic Energy Commission fund
the activities as shown in Table XI 1-2, with the programs of the Bureau
of Commercial Fisheries described in Chapter VI.

A broad range of marine forecasting services for defense forces has been
developed by the Navy in response to worldwide military security require-
ments. These include:

— sea surface and water column temperature, salinity, and sound veloc-
ity prediction for anti-submarine warfare;
— sea ice observations and forecasting for fleet operations and seaborne

logistics ;
— sea state prediction for fleet operations and spacecraft recovery at

sea and for Coast Guard activities on the Great Lakes ;
— nearshore environmental prediction, including beach breaker and

surf forecasts, for mine warfare and amphibious operations; and
— high seas and coastal marine weather forecasts to support fleet
operations.

155

Marine Science Affairs

10.5

11.6

11.5

(10. 2)

(11.3)

(11.2)

(0. 3)

(0.3)

(0.3)

6.2

5.8

6.0

9.7

12.0

12.7

1.5

1.4

1.3

0.9

0.8

0.6

Table Xil-2. — ^Funding for Ocean Observation and Prediction

(In millions of dollars)

Estimated Estimated President's
Agency fiscal year fiscal year budget

1968 1969 fiscal year

1970

Department of Defense

Navy

Corps of Engineers

Department of Commerce (ESS A) . . .

Department of Transportation (Coast Guard) . .

NASA

Atomic Energy Commission

Total 28.8 31.6 32.1

Environmental prediction services operated by ESSA for civilian use
include :

— high seas, coastal, and Great Lakes marine weather forecasts;

— tropical storm, hurricane, and storm surge warnings and forecasts;

— tide and tidal predictions from a network of 122 stations along the

coast and within major embayments ;
— publication of charts showing tidal current patterns for each hour

of the cycle in major U.S. harbors and estuaries;
— breaker and surf forecasts for the beaches of southern California ; and
— tsunami warnings.
Specific achievements in 1968 included:

— establishment of VHF-FM radio stations in Norfolk, Atlantic City,

and Tampa to provide coastal weather broadcasts (ESSA) ;
— activities of computer-produced 24- and 48-hour sea state predic-
tions for the North Atlantic and North Pacific (ESSA) ;
— establishment of a pilot estuarine flushing and non-tidal current

prediction service for the Penobscot Bay (ESSA) ;
— development of computer-produced charts for tsunami arrival times

in the Pacific (ESSA) ;
— completion of a Federal Plan for Marine Meteorological Services

(Commerce) ;
— initial forecasts of wave heights four times daily in the Great Lakes

(ESSA) ;
— testing of a numerical hydrodynamical model for water level and

current predictions in harbors (Navy) ;
— development of a "live atlas" — new data formats and application

of computer technology — which reduces time for scanning North

Atlantic ocean ographic stations from 9 hours to 11 minutes (Navy) ;

156

Surveying the Ocean Environment

— improvement in ocean prediction services, including broader use
of fleet ships for data collection^ refinement of sound propagation
models, and expanded use of air-dropped expendable sensors (Navy) ;
and
— continuous measurement of inshore wave action at 23 stations on
the U.S. coast to assist coastal engineering activities (Corps of
Engineers) .
Also, the Joint Chiefs of Staff established a Special Assistant for Environ-
mental Services to improve coordination of Defense Department environ-
mental activities, including marine activities.

Development of Buoy Technology

Preliminary studies have indicated that oceanographic buoys appear to be
a cost-effective means for acquiring synoptic data on ocean and atmospheric
conditions needed to achieve major gains in environmental forecasting.^
Therefore, in 1967 the Council recommended that the Coast Guard be
assigned lead-agency responsibility for further research, development, test-
ing, and evaluation to advance data buoy technology and determine system
requirements preparatory to a future decision on establishing a National
Data Buoy System.

During 1968, the Coast Guard intensified its efforts to refine user re-
quirements for marine environmental information, to study the dynamics
of the marine phenomena to be measured, to analyze the role of data buoys
in relation to other data collection systems, to develop needed analytical
tools, to develop a satellite data relay capability, and to study the manage-
ment of high frequency communication channels assigned for transmission
of oceanographic data. The broad approach endorsed by the Council to be
carried forward in FY 1970 is designed to lead to the procurement and de-
velopment of a prototype system of 35 unmanned telemetering buoys

^ A recent major study, funded jointly by Federal agencies, concluded that systems
of data buoys with wide geographical coverage are technically feasible and the most
cost-effective means of satisfying a large number of government-wide operational
and research requirements for marine meteorological and oceanographic data. The
study analyzed and categorized four sets of requirements for marine data: (a) global
(deep ocean, large scale — 300 to 500 mile grid) ; (b) coastal North America (medium
scale — 50 to 200 mile grid) ; (c) Great Lakes and estuaries (territorial U.S. waters,
small scale — 10 to 50 mile grid) ; and (d) research requirements (all areas, various
scales from large to very small scale grid). The study showed that a substantial
saving is possible if buoy systems are designed and operated to serve national require-
ments for data acquisition as opposed to single agency requirements.

157

Marine Science Affairs

moored in deep water, a shore based communication capability, a vessel
modified to service the buoys, and the necessary shore support by FY 1974.
The development and deployment of this limited pilot system should provide
additional experience on which to base decisions on the extent and timing of
implementation of follow-on operational systems. Specifically, $9.8 million
requested for FY 1970 is intended for:

— state-of-the-art investigations of buoy technology ($4.5 million) ;

— concept formulation for a prototype deep ocean/coastal system ($4
million) ;

— exploratory development of sensors and alternative approaches to
high risk components ($0.8 million) ; and

— systems management and support ($0.5 million) .
Additional related activities include commencement of the first experi-
ment using "monster" and other buoys - to study the mechanisms of forma-
tion and progression of large persistent thermal anomalies which develop
in the surface waters of the North Pacific and progress across the ocean.
Also, the test of the Coast Survey Marine Observation System (COSMOS)
was completed successfully by recovering the platform in excellent condition
after its second year on station in 5,000 feet of water 100 miles off Los
Angeles.^

Advancing Spacecraft Oceanography

Last year the Council requested NASA to assume lead agency responsi-
bility for coordination of sensor technology, techniques for space oceanog-
raphy, and testing of new developments. Recently NASA established the
Earth Resources Survey Program Review Committee (ERSPRC) to pro-
vide a formal inter- agency mechanism for (a) reviewing and analyzing the
total earth resources program including spacecraft oceanography, (b) pro-
viding advice and recommendations to NASA on both the current and
future responsiveness of the NASA research and development program to
user agency requirements, and (c) providing advice and recommendations
to user agencies to achieve maximum integration of requirements and cor

'The initial experiment requires mooring two "monster" buoys (12.2 meter
diameter) and eight smaller, catamaran-type "bumblebee" buoys (4.9 by 2.j meters)
in the central North Pacific for several years.

' The COSMOS platform on which various instrument capsules can be mounted
is normally moored about 100 feet below the sea surface by three steel cables anchored
to the bottom at 45°. The catenary is reduced by attaching glass spheres along the
cable at close intervals, thereby substantially lessening the vertical mobility of the
positively buoyant platform.

158

Surveying the Ocean Environment

relation of effort. This Committee thus assists NASA and the Council in
coordinating spacecraft oceanography activities.

Among the 1968 results in developing techniques for observations from
both spacecraft and aircraft sponsored by NASA, Navy, and ESSA were:
— improvements in automated processing of NIMBUS infrared data
for mapping sea surface temperature gradients and positions of cur-
rent boundaries, meanders, and eddies in the North Atlantic Ocean ;
— enhancement of color photography obtained by aircraft, Apollo 501,
Apollo 502, and Gemini flights showing the high correlation between
nearshore ocean depth contours and film density gradients;
— analysis of data obtained during hurricane BEULAH in the Gulf of
Mexico confirming previous experimental results linking the pres-
ence of sea foam with a marked increase in thermal radiometric
response ;
— demonstration of infrared radiometry techniques to locate from air-
craft strong thermal gradients that are frequently indicative of fish
feeding areas;
— initiation of work to relate sea surface temperatures obtained from

radiometric data and those obtained from in situ measurements;
— improvements in computer processing of sea ice imagery and develop-
ment of infrared techniques for sea ice mapping; and
— initial use of ruby lasers on Navy aircraft for imaging sea ice topo-
graphic profiles and use of neon-helium lasers to profile ocean surface
waves. ^
Figure XI 1-4 shows one of a set of photographs of particular interest to
the marine science community obtained from the Apollo 7 flight on Octo-
ber 15, 1968.

Planning Ahead

In recognition of the growing importance of programs to observe and
predict oceanic conditions, the Council endorsed the preliminary draft of
a 5-year Federal Plan for Marine Environmental Prediction (MAREP)

* Council contract, "The Potential of Observation of the Oceans from Spacecraft,"
evaluates the future potential of satellities for ocean observations. The study report
projects the technological state-of-the-art for observation of sea surface temperature,
sea ice, and wave height for the next 5 years, analyzes requirements and related costs
and describes benefits that could be achieved. The Council report, "United States
Activities in Spacecraft Oceanography," prepared by NASA and the Naval Oceano-
graphic Office, assisted by other interested agencies, presents information about the
potential of satellite observation to assist scientists and engineers in planning for
possible participation in future programs.

159

Marine Science Affairs

Figure XII-4 — As seen by the crew of Apollo 7 on October 15, 1968, the waters
around the islands of Socotra and The Brothers, caught in the sun's reflection,
reveal complex surface phenomenon impossible to obtain by ordinary means.
Situated just off the east African coast and north of one of the strongest upwelling
areas in the world, the islands form a deflective barrier to the northeastward move-
ment of the cold, upwelled water. The vortices, slicks, swells, and other lines which
are visible reveal current direction, internal waves, and regions of convergence and
divergence. Such information is invaluable in understanding the oceanography of
one of the world's largest undeveloped fishing regions.

prepared by its Committee on Ocean Exploration and Environmental Serv-
ices. This plan is currently being refined and should serve as guidance to
agencies for the development of future Federal programs related to ocean ob-
servation and prediction. The plan identifies ongoing projects, present and
future requirements, and programs for strengthening and expanding current
activities. It is also expected to present the needs, benefits, program rationale
and strategy, implementation targets, and specific projects in five categories :

160

Surveying the Ocean Environment

program planning and coordination, system design, early implementation,
new technology development and implementation, and theoretical oceano-
graphic and applied research.

It is anticipated that the plan will be publicly released when completed
to encourage broader understanding and discussion of our national efforts
in these fields. MAREP planning is continuing under a small, interagency
planning group established by the Council to strengthen development of the
initial plan, to commence overall system analyses and design of a composite
Federal program for marine environmental prediction, and to assist with
technical matters related to planning U.S. participation in the Integrated
Global Ocean Station System.^

The Council's Committee on Ocean Exploration and Environmental
Services is also preparing a Ten- Year Plan for Ocean Exploration (TYPOE)
that is expected to provide a framework for considering national needs for
and benefits from ocean exploration, goals, and priorities. Also, it should
provide guidance in developing Federal programs and determining when
exploration should be conducted, by whom, and with what milestones. When
completed, TYPOE should be a significant contribution in developing plans
for U.S. participation in the International Decade of Ocean Exploration. At
that time, TYPOE activities will be integrated with the planning for the
Decade described in Chapter IX.

^ The Fifth Session of the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission in Octo-
ber 1967 endorsed development of IGOSS, with platforms such as ships, buoys, satel-
lites, coastal towers, etc., to provide environmental data from ocean areas to all
countries in a form convenient for use. Two phases are being planned: Phase I
(1968-71 approximately) will use existing technology. Phase II (from about 1971)
will increasingly incorporate modern developments, especially moored ocean buoys
IGOSS is to be planned and operated closely with the World Weather Watch.

161

"Knowledge is of two kinds. We know a subject ourselves, or we know
where we can find information upon it." — samuel johnson

Chapter XIII

INFORMATION MANAGEMENT

Information responsive to the diverse needs of scientists, engineers, and
program planners is critical to the success of ocean-oriented activities. Sev-
eral types of information are needed :

— environmental data concerning the nature of the oceans and the
interactions of man's activities with the marine environment (real-
time and archival data including biological, geological, and chemi-
cal specimens) ;
— bibliographic and documentary information ;
— program management and budget information about past, present,

and projected research activities ; and
— statistical, economic, and demographic information concerning man's
activities that impinge on or are affected by the marine environment.
Information requirements as well as data collection and distribution are
common to numerous Federal and non-Federal organizations. Producers and
users of data now include more than 30 bureaus in 15 Federal departments;
30 coastal and Great Lakes State governments concerned with developing
and regulating the use of marine resources; 250 Federal, State, academic,
and private laboratories involved in marine research; 1,100 merchant ships;
100,000 commercial fishermen; several million sport fishermen; tens of thou-
sands of marine data users in oil and other industrial firms; tens of millions
of recreational swimmers and boaters in the coastal and Great Lakes States;
hundreds of thousands of Navy and Coast Guard men in our fleets; and
more than 7,000 scientists, engineers, specialists, technicians, and others
engaged in marine research and development activities. Thus, the Marine

163

329-466 0—69 12

Marine Science Affairs

Sciences Council has during the past two years given high priority to im-
proving government-wide capabilities for handling all types of maritime
information produced by an expanding national program to meet the spe-
cialized needs of a wide variety of users.

Environmental Data Labyrinth

Collecting, processing, and distributing marine environmental data are
functions currently performed within a complex, loosely structured frame-
work which has evolved over time in response to a variety of separate and
sometimes unique requirements. While the collection and use of environ-
mental data previously involved a small number of research scientists, in-
tensified interest and activity in the oceans now demands more complete,
accurate, and timely data for science, economic development, defense, and
other interests.

The modes of data transfer are almost as numerous as the uses of the
data. For example: ocean scientists may obtain data directly from col-
leagues to supplement data collected personally or acquired from scientific
journals or centralized data banks; government agencies design their data
systems to respond to specific agency missions, utilizing, with increasing fre-
quency, highly automated processing facilities as a central link; industrial
organizations are developing selective information dissemination techniques
to serve individual employees and units while exercising tight control over
public release of proprietary data about ocean resource distribution; and
the general public turns to maps and bulletins concerning nearshore weather
conditions.

The "data problem" and associated costs thus become more serious as data
traffic increases, more variables are measured and must be inter-related
faster, and the data commodity must be shared with a broader, more diver-
sified clientele. Additionally, international exchange of data is becoming
more important (Figure XIII-1).

Environmental Data Repositories of Federal Agencies

Several Federal agencies maintain data repositories. Table XIII-1 shows
funding for four of the larger centers; Table XIII-2 indicates the extent
of some of these data files.

164

Information Management

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1.6

1.7

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(*)

0. 1

0. 1

0.2

0.2

0.2

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Table XI 1 1-1 — Funding for Marine Data Centers

Activity Estimated Estimated President's

FY 1968 FY 1969 budget FY 1970

National Oceanographic Data Center

National Weather Records Center »

Great Lakes Data Center

Smithsonian Oceanographic Sorting Center. .

Total 2. 1 2.3 3.2

" Supplemented by funds transferred from other agencies for reimburseble projects.
b Less than $50,000.

The National Oceanographic Data Center (NODC) , a facility established
in 1960 to serve inter- agency needs, is under the administrative management
of the Navy. Policy and technical review are provided by an advisory board
with representation from each of the ten Federal funding agencies and the
National Academy of Sciences. NODC is collocated with World Data Center
A for Oceanography and receives, compiles, processes, and stores ocean-
ographic data from both foreign and domestic sources and disseminates
these data to U.S. and foreign organizations and institutions engaged in
marine science activities.

Some specific accomplishments during the past year were :
— continued procurement of advanced computer capability, including
a high-speed automatic plotter, a digitizer (analog to digital), an
aperture card camera, and equipment for converting digital data
from source documents directly to magnetic tapes;
— initiation of the National Marine Data Inventory (NAMDI), com-
piling detailed information from 600 cruises of U.S. research and
survey vessels in 1967 with the information converted to computer-
compatible form;
— significant reduction in the backlog of unprocessed data ;
— establishment of NODC liaison offices at Woods Hole and Scripps

Oceanographic Institutions; and
— response to 2,200 information/data requests, an increase over 1967
of 35 percent.
Based on Council evaluation and approval, NODC budgets are proposed
to increase from $1.7 million in FY 1969 to $2.5 million in FY 1970. Planned
activities for FY 1970 include continued development of computer pro-
grams and software to be more responsive to requests for services; techniques
for handling large volumes of data from expendable bathythermographs,
salinity-temperature-depth recorders, manned and unmanned buoys, and
satellites; and new data bases, including those for subsurface currents, sea
ice, bottom photographs, and ocean engineering.

166

Information Management

Table XI 1 1-2 — Selected Marine Data Center Files

National Oceanographic Data Center

Data type

July 1967

July 1969

Bathythermograph :

Digitized 515,000 604,000

Analog 400, 000 500, 000

Expendable Bathythermograph : Digitized 15, 000

Salinity-Temperature-Depth : Analog 3, 000

Oceanographic Station 375, 000 415, 000

Geological 18, 000 « 24, 000

Biological 8, 000 M2, 000

Surface Current 2, 500, 000 2, 500, 000

Environmental Science Services Administration

Data type

Units

Estimated
total holdings

Estimated

annual

accumulation

Tides Station-years 3, 000

Currents Stations

Soundings and Shoreline Survey sheets 35, 000

Surveys.

Fathograms Linear survey miles 2, 000, 000

Geodetic Control <= Points ! 400, 000

Aerial Photos <= Prints 2, 000, 000

Magnetics <= Linear survey miles 2, 000, 000

Gravity « Linear survey miles

Seismic Profiles Linear survey miles

180

100

2,500

150,000

1,250

20, 000

200, 000
50,000
10, 000

Smithsonian Oceanographic Sorting Center

Data type

Samples
received

Specimens
sorted

Number of
shipments

Algae 4,970

Geology 4,800

Invertebrates 4, 870

Plankton 17, 100

Vertebrates 3, 850

4,310

188

562

14

5,710,000

251

1 1, 400, 000

239

657, 000

494

<• Unprocessed backlog— 81,000.
' Unprocessed backlog— 40,000.
« Figures represent only marine data holdings and not total ESSA holdings.

The primary Department of Defense marine data repositories include the
Nautical Chart, Bathymetry, Gravity, and Geomagnetics Library and the
Fleet Numerical Weather Center. Automated source index systems have
been recently installed in all of these facilities and automated plotters to

167

Marine Science Affairs

portray computer-generated information graphically are now operational.
Consideration is being given to storing all bathymetric and geomagnetic
data in digitized form and, as automated data processing systems are installed
on all Navy survey ships, data reduction to digitized form can keep pace
with data collection. Other Defense Department facilities are responsible
for gravity and geodetic data, and rapidly expanding automated data
processing capabilities will eliminate existing backlogs of unprocessed data
by FY 1971. The Navy's Fleet Numerical Weather Center at Monterey,
California, is the hub of the Naval Environmental Data Network and the
center for an environmental forecasting program which covers most of
the Northern Hemisphere. The broad range of forecasts provided by this
center is used by a wide variety of military and civilian organizations. For
rapid data exchange, a data link is being established between NODC and
Monterey.

The Great Lakes Data Center, operating under the Corps of Engineers, has
a program directed toward processing, storage, retrieval, and dissemination
of:

— hydraulic and hydrologic data (water level) ;

— oceanographic data (physical, chemical, and biological) ;

— hydrometeorological data (precipitation) ; and

— hydrographic data (depth) .
Data provided by the Great Lakes Center assist in regulating the levels and
overflow of Lakes Superior and Ontario and the flow over Niagara Falls and
determining the division of water for hydroelectric power between the United
States and Canada. Such data are also used extensively in research on fish-
eries, pollution, shore processes, currents, and ice formation and movement.
During FY 1970 services of the Center, augmented by additional automatic
data processing equipment, will provide new monthly publications of water
temperature data.

The ESS A National Weather Records Center is the major repository for
marine meteorological data, including sea surface temperature and ocean
wave data. The observations are forwarded from 2,100 merchant ships and a
much smaller number of fixed stations, such as ocean station vessels and light-
ships, in accordance with procedures adopted by the World Meteorological
Organization and provide a broad basis for climatological analysis. Satellite
photographs and nephanalyses also are included in the data file. Several new
publications are planned by the Center, including a Series of Atlases for U.S.
Coastal Waters out to 250 miles offshore in support of intensified activities
on our Continental Shelf; Climatological Summaries for U.S. Lightships to
assist vessels approaching lightships; Climatological Summaries for Ocean
Station Vessels; and a Historical Sea-Surface Temperature Project in support
of fisheries research and studies of air-sea interaction. Equipment acquired
in 1968 now permits experimental automation of most stages of data-han-
dling processes from acquisition of raw data aboard ship to final graphics.

168

Information Management

Environmental data management efforts of the Department of the Interior
relate to (a) the statistical reporting system of the Bureau of Commercial
Fisheries, including collection, compilation, and publication of data on the
volume of catch by species, area of capture, type of gear and craft used, and
number of fishermen involved (Chapter VI), (b) the data collection and
analysis activities of the Geological Survey, and (c) the storage and retrieval
system of the Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, originally
designed to automate water quality data produced by Federal, State, and
local monitoring programs and subsequently expanded to include project and
other management information.

The Smithsonian Oceanographic Sorting Center processes biological and
geological specimens for scientists throughout the world. The Center receives
samples of marine algae, plankton, invertebrates, and vertebrates from
oceanographic expeditions and biological field stations, sorts the samples into
taxonomic groups, and forwards them to researchers in the United States
and abroad. During the past year a petrographic laboratory was established,
and a new automatic data processing and retrieval system was successfully
tested. Also, the Smithsonian Institution continued to operate its Mediterra-
nean Marine Sorting Center in Tunisia with specialists in France, Italy,
Malta, Rumania, Yugoslavia, and the host country contributing samples.

The data management program of the Coast Guard includes collection
and reduction of data acquired from research vessels, ice breakers, and
ocean stations; collection and transmittal of ice observations and related
predictions to International Ice Patrol headquarters; analyzing and filing
data from automated data collection systems ; and planning for data aspects
of the National Data Buoy System.

New Steps To Strengthen Information Management

A number of characteristics of our current information practices retard
effective flow of data from producer to user:

— inconsistent practices among producer groups in taking oceanographic
measurements and presenting data, and by users in identifying re-
quirements and criteria for accepting and rejecting data;
— lack of awareness of many potential users of information sources,
in view of the multiplicity and diversity of Federal, State, industry,
and university organizations ; and
— lack of automated data-handling facilities and compatible measuring
instruments.
Additionally, the nature of marine endeavors complicates data manage-
ment problems due to :

169

Marine Science Affairs

— the large geographic and vertical domain of the marine environ-
ment from which data must be collected ;
— difficulty of installing and maintaining data collection platforms and

instruments in the ocean ;
— difficulty in transmitting data from distant ocean areas to shore-
based facilities ; and
— availability of new data collection techniques — buoys, satellites, and
advanced instrumentation — which increase the volume of useful
data but overload the existing data service facilities.
To meet these deficiencies, the Marine Sciences Council, in 1967, initiated
a comprehensive data management study on contract, jointly funded by
nine agencies. A Data Management Advisory Panel from industry and the
scientific and engineering communities as well as Federal agencies was
appointed by the Executive Secretary to develop requirements and to monitor
the study. The study being conducted by System Development Corpora-
tion is now in its second phase and will be completed during the current
fiscal year. It will identify and forecast data requirements, delineate a
national data program and a transition plan to improve coordination of exist-
ing marine data and information service functions, and determine cost
estimates for the principal components and alternatives.

The study has surveyed and analyzed nine data user and producer com-
munities: fishing; ocean engineering; research; environmental forecasting;
merchant shipping; industrial operations; naval planning and operations;
recreation, conservation, and education; and State and regional planning
and management. On this basis, the following steps have been completed:
— description of the producer and user communities;
— identification of the purposes for which data are collected and used ;
— classification and evaluation of explicit data and identification of

priorities ;
— determination of the adequacy of existing data products and services

and the need for improvements;
— estimation of data acquisition and service costs and user benefits

derived from services ; and
— delineation of the nature of data flow between diverse producers and
users.
The complex problems associated with the flow of marine science data
from acquisition to use are being approached by planning for data handling
over the next ten years. If not resolved, an intensification of the problems
of poor service, slow response time, and excessive costs will continue into
the future. The data study should provide the means to determine how
data functions and activities should be organized and conducted to achieve
the required progress in providing the kinds and quality of services needed
by all sectors of the marine science affairs community.

170

Information Management

Collecting Management information

The Council has given explicit recognition to the four kinds of marine
data and infonnation mentioned earlier. As a next step, the Council con-
sidered the need for accessible, comprehensive, definitive, and fully descrip-
tive information about current research activities in the marine sciences.
Program planners and managers in all sectors — Federal, State, academic,
and private — require this information to identify gaps in research and
development and to prevent inadvertent duplication of effort. Research
proposal evaluation teams need to know how an intended project relates to
others in the same area. For the individual scientist, rapid and compre-
hensive access to background information about ongoing activities can stim-
ulate the selection and orientation of new projects.

To strengthen this element of information management, the Council
requested the Science Information Exchange (SIE) to undertake continu-
ous collection and dissemination of information about current unclassified
research activities in the marine sciences as part of its primary mission.
All Federal agencies and 350 non-Federal organizations with marine science
programs were asked to review procedures for promptly submitting sum-
maries of current projects to SIE. Also SIE was awarded a Council contract
to prepare a catalog of about 2,500 current marine science projects to be
released in the near future.

Meanwhile, the Council staff continued its role as the focal point for
collecting and analyzing program and budget data concerning Federal
research programs and for gathering data on the total national effort. These
activities are reflected in the budget tables presented throughout this Report.
Also, the individual agencies. Council staff, and Council Committees have
expanded efforts to collect and analyze statistical information bearing on
uses of the sea.

171

"The scientific spirit . . . is perhaps the most profoundly distinguishing
feature of our civilization." — ^barbara ward

Chapter XIV

RESEARCH, MANPOWER, AND
ENGINEERING

The foundation of our national marine science affairs program is a
strong and vigorous base of scientific research — techniques and speciahzed
knowledge of the classical scientific disciplines focused on unique problems
of the ocean environment, a growing pool of highly talented manpower,
and a creative engineering capability to translate scientific discover)' into
practical application. During the past decade Federal policies and programs
have sustained development of this foundation — a Federal effort spread
over many scientific and engineering disciplines and involving a wide variety
of institutions.

The most significant advance in ocean sciences during the past 10 years
has been the development of a national capability to study the ocean and
ocean floor on a global basis. A key element has been the major increase in
the number and quality of people and observation platforms available for
that endeavor, but the heart of this accomplishment has been the intellectual
synthesis of many fragments of data into a set of unified concepts of the
marine environment.

Major advances in modem technology and engineering have provided
more powerful tools to conduct research in the oceans and to answer scien-
tific questions. This engineering should also provide a bridge to transfer sci-
entific discovery to utilization and management of ocean resources. With our
modem fleet of research ships and supporting laboratory facilities, we
are able to observe, measure, and understand phenomena on a scale and

173

Marine Science Affairs

scope never before possible. Scientists in submersibles and aqualungs can
make direct observations in surface layers as well as deep within the oceans.
Improved geophysical tools such as seismic profilers, magnetometers, and
gravimeters enable us to "see" geological features in greater detail and at
greater distances below the bottom. Continuous recording devices make
possible the automatic determination of many ocean parameters. Improved
satellites, ships, aircraft, buoys, navigation systems, computers, and other
devices have greatly increased our ability to collect and analyze data from
the oceans.

Recent Scientific Advances ^

Recent technological advances have enabled us to obtain a new under-
standing of fundamental marine geological and geophysical phenomena.
A striking achievement was the discovery of a ridge-rift system throughout all
ocean basins, with its associated magnetic reversals and high heat flow. From
this discovery has evolved the important new concept of sea floor spreading,
which provides an important key for finally solving the problem of the origin
and development of ocean basins and continents as well as for unraveling
the earth's structural history and continued evolution on a global scale. Also,
the recently developed capability to drill through the complete sedimentary
column wherever it is relatively thin into underlying basement rock in the
deep ocean basins adds a new and important dimension to our understanding
of the geology and resource potential of ocean basins.

In physical oceanography, investigations of fluid dynamics in rotating
frames are providing a basis for eventual development of numerical models
of oceanic circulation. Also, an array of new devices — expendable bathy-
thermographs, salinity-temperature-depth recorders, and thermistor chains —
is being used to obtain rapid and more detailed observations of the physical
characteristics of the ocean. We can forecast temperatures in the oceans;
we have discovered strong subsurface currents; we are able to observe tides
in the deep ocean ; we have increased our understanding of the overall energy
budget of surface gravity waves in the ocean; and we have made many
advances in our understanding of the physical processes that govern water
contamination in estuaries and coastal regions.

In biological oceanography, a major achievement has been the develop-
ment of a mathematical model, still undergoing refinement, which pre-
dicts phytoplankton, zoopl^nkton, and nutrient salt concentrations in the

^ Prepared with assistance of the Committee on Oceanography of the National
Academy of Sciences.

174

Research, Manpower, and Engineering

upper, photic layer from phosphate concentrations at depth, mixing rates,
and temperature. Recently developed techniques for determining the bio-
logical productivity of the sea have now been employed routinely in all of
the major oceanic regions. We have a qualitative and quantitative under-
standing of the transfer of energy and matter within the "food web" of living
organisms in the sea. New observations of ocean circulation, distribution of
nutrients, and the interrelationships of organisms to physical and chemical
variable* have provided knowledge that allows the prediction of new ex-
ploitable stocks of fish. In the deep sea, new measurements of dissolved and
particulate organic carbon show convincingly that both of these constituents
are uniformly distributed at depths below a few hundred meters, both ver-
tically and geographically.

In the field of geochemistry, new radiochemical techniques to determine
sediment age have extended the useful limits of these measurements from
about 30,000 years to 50 to 100 million years. Studies of manganese nodules
suggest that the growth rates are of the order of a few millimeters per million
years. Investigations of marine sediments have demonstrated that their
mineral content reflects their source environment rather than their deposi-
tional environment, and thus give indications of the major terrestrial source
regions for deep sea sediments. Finally, recent analytical refinements have
established beyond doubt that man-made pollution has already affected
surface layers of the ocean, everywhere.

Federal Funding of Research and Facilities

These accomplishments have been made possible by investments in re-
search conducted primarily at academic institutions over the last decade.
Maintaining that support has been a Federal responsibility — one that has
been difficult to implement during the past year when overall limitations on
Federal expenditures were required by the Congress. Every sector of Federal
activity has felt this necessary fiscal limitation, and every effort has been
made to balance available funds among competing demands and between
in-house and extramural activities.

The total Federal support of basic and applied marine research, including
work performed by universities, industry, and government, is shown in Fig-
ure XIV-1. Research proposed for FY 1970 is about $24 million greater and
research ship operation costs about $1.8 million greater than the appropria-
tions for FY 1 969. Many of these programs are discussed in other chapters.

The Navy, primarily through the Office of Naval Research, supports
marine science research at almost 100 universities and colleges, private
laboratories, and a dozen Navy laboratories. The Navy Ocean Science

175

Marine Science Affairs

Figure XIV-1 — Funding for Oceanographic Research

Millions of Dollars

150

Mission - Related Research

1 1 Basic and Applied Research

1 1 Beneficial to Several National Goals

SMITHSONIAN
TRANSPORTATION
COMMERCE
AEC

NSF
DEFENSE

100

—

-

/.
//

// y /

^--^

bU

n

1967 1968

" Does not include ship construction.

1969

1970

Program represents a balance of multi-disciplinary research and develop-
ment activities sponsored by the Office of Naval Research, the Naval Ma-
terial Command, the Naval Oceanographic Office, the Bureau of Medicine
and Surgery, and the Naval Weather Service Command to meet the Navy
needs for understanding the ocean environment. Also, eight projects in
marine sciences are included in the Department of Defense THEMIS pro-
gram to assist in the development of new academic centers of excellence.
The National Science Foundation has increasingly supported marine re-
search, facilities, and education at universities and oceanographic institu-
tions. The NSF program :

— provides funds for ship construction and conversion ;

— supports the construction of laboratory buildings, docking facilities,
and other shore installations;

— supports basic research grants ;

— assumes responsibility for approximately half of the ship operating
costs at educational institutions;

176

Research, Manpower, and Engineering

—provides management for the U.S. Antarctic Oceanographic Research

Program;
— funds a special program of deep ocean sediment coring; and
— supports special studies, fellowship^, and conferences.
While the size of the research programs of other agencies is not as large
as the Navy and NSF programs, they, too, contribute both to meeting
the needs of individual agencies and to strengthening the national research
base. Among the many programs included in the multi-goal research cate-
gory are research on air-sea interaction, mathematical modelling and field
investigations of ocean dynamics and the geological and geophysical struc-
ture of ocean basins (ESSA), radionuclide investigations (AEC), studies
related to phenomena of currents (Coast Guard), and worldwide marine
biological and geological expeditions and specimen analysis at facilities in
the United States and abroad (Smithsonian).

In considering future needs and opportunities of marine research, it is
becoming apparent that sharply increasing attention must be given to three
problems : stability in support to academic institutions, adequacy of funding
to cover ship operations and supporting facilities, and increased attention
to nearshore ecology.

Research Areas of Special Emphasis

Four areas of federally supported research will receive special emphasis
in FY 1970:

1. Air-Sea Interaction.- — A numerical ocean-atmosphere interaction
model has been developed which extends from depths of a few hundred
meters in the ocean layer to heights of about a kilometer in the atmospheric
layer. The principal processes included in the model are eddy fluxes in
stratified flow, mixing due to wind-generated waves on the sea surface, and
cloud-dependent radiative heating. Parallel to the model development, an
instrument development program is continuing to improve capabilities for
measuring the important parameters in the lower atmosphere and upper
ocean.

As part of the Federal program for air-sea interaction research, a Bar-
bados Oceanographic Meteorological Experiment — BOMEX — will be con-
ducted from May to July 1969 in the area east of Barbados with funding
and participation by seven Federal agencies.^ During the past year an instru-

^ Departments of Commerce, Defense, Interior, and Transportation, Atomic Energ>'
Commission, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, and National Science
Foundation.

177

Marine Science Affairs

ment evaluation field project in the vicinity of Barbados served to test and
evaluate equipment to be used in the 1969 BOMEX effort and collect pre-
liminary meteorological /oceanographic data.

2. Antarctic Oceanography.— Ocesinographic studies will continue in the
southern oceans, between latitude 45° S. and the shores of Antarctica. The
Eltanin will be committed to multi-disciplinary research efforts during the
FY 1970 season in the southern Indian Ocean area south of latitude 45° S.,
an area which was not included in the International Indian Ocean Expedi-
tion. The new research vessel Hero, to be based in Antarctica, will be
operating in the Antarctic Peninsula areas. It will concentrate on biologi-
cal trawling, including studies of the population and distribution of the
krill, and investigations of seals and whales. The ice breaker Glacier will
continue investigating bottom water movement, taking cores, and collecting
oceanographic data in the Weddell Sea. All of these programs are being
carried out in cooperation with Chile, Argentina, and other nations interested
in the area.

3. Deep Ocean Drilling. — The purpose of the Ocean Sediment Coring
Program is to obtain core samples by drilling entirely through the sediment
layer of the deep ocean floor to explore the uppermost layer of the earth's
crust under the sea. The program involves scientists and technologists from
academic institutions, private industry, and government agencies. While it
was planned primarily to advance basic science, the discovery of petroleum
in the deep ocean floor of the Gulf of Mexico during the first few weeks of
drilling has industrial and technological implications. Also, a bore-hole was
drilled in the floor in more than 17,000 feet of water, within the first few
weeks, and at other locations more than 2,500 feet of deep ocean sediment
were successfully penetrated.^

The program will include reconnaissance surveys of the Atlantic and
Pacific Ocean basins from the Glomar Challenger shown in Figure XIV-2.
It envisages investigations of mid-ocean ridges, rift escarpments, abyssal
plains, and continental rises. The preliminary analysis of the core material

'On Aug. 19, 1968, in 11,720 feet of water, drilling penetrated the seabed to a
depth of 472 feet and bottomed in material consisting of calcium sulfates (gypsum
and anhydrite), pyrite, lime, and free sulfur, the typical minerals of the caprock of a
salt dome. In addition, partly in the caprock and partly in a sandy bed just above it,
the cores indicated presence of liquid petroleum and some gas. The hole was im-
mediately plugged and cemented to prevent seepage of the oil. In addition, a bore-
hole was drilled in the floor in 17,567 feet of water (a drilling record for a free-floating
platform) east of San Salvador, and samples of Jurassic sediments, 15 million years
older than any sedimentary rock previously found in the deep oceans, were obtained
from the San Salvador site.

178

Research, Manpower, and Engineering

Figure Xl\'~2^'l he new deep sea drilling ship GLOMAR CHALLENGER, is cur-
rently carrying out a program for drilling between 40 and 60 holes in water depths
ranging from 5,000 to 20,000 feet in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. This program,
involving government, industrial, and academic scientists, is directed to gaining
new insights into the history and nature of the ocean basin through investigation of
sediments and basement rock to depths of 2500 feet below the ocean floor.

and samples will be distributed to individual scientists who will pursue
individual specialized research projects.

4. Utilization of Deep Suhmcrsiblcs. — The United States has an existing
fleet of industry-owned, deep submersibles which represents a significant
capability for ocean research and exploration. Recognizing the potential
of these submersibles to contribute to both science and marine resource de-
velopment and thus to strengthen initial programs for the International
Decade of Ocean Exploration, the Council recommended and the Navy
established a program to lease submersibles from industry for exploration
projects of government-wide interest. It is tentatively planned that submersi-
bles will be leased centrally for use by government and academic scientists
who demonstrate a priority requirement for the use of these facilities. The
Office of Naval Research will sponsor the program with $3 million requested
for FY 1970, and the Council's Committee on Marine Research, Education,
and Facilities will monitor the program.

179

329-466 O — 69-

-13

Marine Science Affairs

Manpower Training and Education

In recent years, the Federal Government as a matter of national policy
has assumed a major responsibility for the support of training and education
through a wide range of fellowships, training grants, research, and institu-
tional programs. Graduate enrollments and the number of degrees granted
annually in the field of oceanography have increased substantially during
recent years as shown in Table XIV-1, a gratifying product of investments
in oceanography in the early 1960's. Support for education of marine science
technicians and ocean engineers, however, appears to have lagged behind
needs. The importance of technicians may have previously been underesti-
mated. Similarly, a need has developed for additional systematists to assist in
analyzing marine data.

Table XIV-1 — Graduate Degrees in Ocean Science and Engineering

Academic year

Number

of
schools '^

Marine Science '

Degrees granted (enrollment
in parentheses)

M.S.

Ph. D.

Ocean Engineering >>

Number

of
schools '

Degrees granted (enroll-
ment in parentheses)

M.S.

Ph.D.

1960-61 27 63(160) 44(117)

1961-62 25 53(243) 51(224)

1962-63 27 62 (301) 44 (322)

1963-64 32 115(419) 61(345)

1964-65 34 125(460) 85(452) 2 1(1) (2)

1965-66 38 135(560) 90(549) 4 11(27) 4(20)

1966-67 42 192(791) 114(602) 7 18(57) 5(36)

1967-68'i 50 294(1034) 172(754) 8 53(152) 11(63)

" Includes schools offering marine-related basic science.

' Includes schools offering marine options to basic engineering curricula.

' Offering the Master's Degree; the number offering Doctorates is slightly smaller.

<* Degrees granted in 1967-68 were estimates by the Institutions.

Source: Committee on Marine Research, Education, and Facilities.

Federal support of education in the marine sciences is carried on pri-
marily through programs of the National Science Foundation and HEW's
Office of Education. The principal NSF programs are :

— Graduate Education Development Programs

— ^Traineeships and Fellowships Programs

- — College Teacher Programs

— -Undergraduate Education Development Programs

— Undergraduate Student Programs

— Secondary School Teacher Programs

■ — Pre-college Education Development Programs

— Secondary School Student Programs

180

Research, Manpower, and Engineering

The major Office of Education programs are :

— Fishery trades and industry support for vocational education

(George Barden Act)
— College teacher fellowships (National Defense Education Act)
— Higher education facilities in support of marine science (Higher

Education Facilities Act)
— Equipment grants in support of undergraduate education in the

marine sciences (Higher Education Act)
— Supplementary projects in marine science in elementary and second-
ary education (Elementary and Secondary Education Act) .
In addition, the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries has sponsored several
graduate fellowships and the Smithsonian Institution provides stipends for
academic year and summer research training. These four agencies support
programs as follows :

(In millions of dollars)

FY 1968 FY 1969 FY 1970

Department of Health, Education, and Welfare 1.2 1.5 1.5

Department of the Interior 0. 1 0. 1 0. 1

Smithsonian Institution (") (") (")

National Science Foundation b 2. 0 1.5 1.5

» Less than $50,000.

" Sea Grant funds also supported education and training (Table X-1).

Additionally, a significant part of the research grants of several agencies is
used to support graduate students.

The Departments of Commerce, Defense, and Transportation support
graduate training and education for their civilian employees to aid in career
development. In addition, the Navy operates its own two-year postgraduate
school at Monterey, California, and sends selected officers to civilian schools
for oceanographic specialization. The Coast Guard operates an oceano-
graphic technician school which will be expanded to a 21 -week program
this year. Federal programs are funded as follows :

(In millions of dollars)

FY 1968

FY 1969

FY 1970

Department of Commerce

0. 1

0. 1
1.6
0.2

0. 1

Department of Defense

1.4

1.8

Department of Transportation .

0. 2

0.2

One concern is whether the demand for talent may outstrip the supply.
No precise methodology exists for projecting needs, and supply is hard to
estimate because of field switching by more than half of the present par-

181

Marine Science Affairs

ticipants. There is nevertheless a need for a basic core of individuals trained
in ocean sciences as well as provision of postdoctorate opportunities for those
based in classical disciplines. A special study of these needs for the Inter-
national Decade of Ocean Exploration is planned.

Providing Opportunities for tlie Disadvantaged

The Council recognized that expanding manpower requirements in the
marine sciences, particularly for technicians, ofTer new opportunities for
disadvantaged persons. During the summer of 1968 about 1,000 disadvan-
taged persons participated in the marine science programs of Federal agencies
within the framework of the Youth Opportunity Campaign, the Neighbor-
hood Youth Corps, and similar programs. Also, grants of the Department
of Labor and Office of Education, totalling more than $300,000, are being
used for training 120 unemployed young people in the Washington, D.C.,
area as oceanographic aides. The decommissioned ESSA survey ship Explorer
has been tied up in Washington as a training facility for this project.

After a preliminary survey of these and other opportunities, the Council
directed its Committee on Marine Research, Education, and Facilities to
further enhance technician job opportunities by :

— developing definitions of marine technicians in terms of duties and

education and training required ;
— developing curricula guides for training marine technicians ; and
— developing, in cooperation with the Department of Labor, an im-
proved description of marine-related jobs to be included in Labor's
Occupational Outlook Handbook.
Also, the Committee was directed to develop programs to :

— place disadvantaged high school youths in jobs as science aides in
scientific and engineering research laboratories to develop college
motivation, in cooperation with Federal marine laboratories; and
— encourage major marine industries to create jobs for the disadvan-
taged and hard-core unemployed by setting up secondary manufac-
turing concerns.

Tlie Growing importance of Ocean Engineering

As we emphasize more effective use of the sea, the role of ocean engineer-
ing in bridging the gap from scientific discovery to practical application takes
on increased significance. General purpose ocean engineering is a term

182

Research, Manpower, and Engineering

adopted for engineering research and development that can be applied to a
variety of purposes, often spanning the missions of two or more Government
agencies. However, the inventory of modern, reliable, "ocean-engineered"
components and operating systems is relatively sparse in this newly developing
area. Further, insufficient experience exists to enlarge it quickly. Our ocean-
engineered devices and systems have not yet approached high levels of de-
sign reliability and versatility. This is largely because the special problems
associated with engineering in the ocean and the need for thorough testing
and development procedures have been adequately recognized only recently.
Although ocean engineering capabilities continue to lag behind needs,
growing recognition of the importance of this field has been reflected in many
advances. Table XIV-2 presents the funding for Federal programs cate-
gorized as ocean engineering in this Report. The ocean data buoy program
is discussed in Chapter XII, and coastal engineering activities are described
in Chapter IV.

Table XIV-2 — Funding for General Purpose Ocean Engineering

(In millions of dollars)

Activity and supporting agency

Ocean engineering (Defense)

Ocean data buoy program (Coast Guard)

Nuclear power (Atomic Energy Commission) . .
Instrumentation facility (Navy) "

Total 6 20. 4 19. 5 31.3

a Item included as a National Security subcategory in Appendix A.

* An additional $5 million, approximately, is spent each year on Naval instrumentation
development and is included within other major purpose categories.

1. Deep Ocean Technology Development. — The Navy program con-
tinues to be the cornerstone of the Federal efTort. It includes advanced
engineering related to material, power, propulsion, fabrication, soils, vehicles,
habitats, and instrumentation. The focal point for this program is the
Council-endorsed Deep Ocean Technology Project — proposed by the Navy
as a 10-year program to provide validated technical options in support of
future naval systems.

Work is currently underway in unmanned recovery systems, submersible
electric drive systems, massive glass development, titanium pressure hulls,
hydraulic fluids, and sea floor engineering. The Cable Controlled Under-
water Research Vehicle (CURV III) prototype system, consisting of a
submersible vehicle, control van, and support platform, is scheduled to be in

183

Esti-
mated
FY 1968

Esti-
mated
FY 1969

Presidint's
budget
FY 1970

11.2

13.2

14.4

0. 1

0.6

9.8

7.9

4.5

5.3

1.2

1.2

1.8

Marine Science Affairs

the water for check-out early this year. The CURV III will be a research
and development tool suitable for adaptation to many types of undersea
work as well as weapon recovery to 7,000 feet. This is an interim goal in
the long-range plan to develop remote unmanned work systems for 20,000
feet.

A Deep Ocean Test Instrument Placement and Observation System is now
ready for service. It has a 7,000-foot depth capability, is equipped with a
TV camera, still cameras, a data and command telemetry package, and
flood lights, and can provide 15 KW electrical power on the bottom. This
device will provide for monitoring and control of engineering investigations
on the sea floor.

The recent loss of two SNAP- 19 nuclear generators from an aborted
NIMBUS space launch and their subsequent recovery in 300 feet of water,
using a submersible, off the California coast emphasized the importance
of an ocean engineering capability.

Other developments in the Navy program during 1968 included:

— environmental testing of electric motors and insulating fluids to
study electrical characteristics as affected by contaminants and pres-
sure cycling;
— initiation of a development plan for glass pressure hulls;
— testing of explosion-actuated anchor with a holding power of 50,000

pounds in 1,300 feet of water;
— progress in fabrication techniques for using titanium in deep sub-
mergence vehicles ;
— laboratory testing of a 5j/2-foot diameter, clear plastic sphere in-
tended to carry an observer to a depth of 600 feet;
— development of semi-automatic, portable, ultrasonic testing devices

for detecting internal discontinuities in hulls and hull weldments;
— launching of the deep research vehicles Sea Cliff and Turtle with a

depth capability of 6,500 feet; and
—initiation of construction of an ocean simulation laboratory, capable
of testing entire unmanned diving systems and equipment subsystems
to depths of 2,000 feet.
Of particular interest is an industry-government program, TEKTITE,
sponsored by the General Electric Company and by Interior, Navy, Coast
Guard, NASA, and the Smithsonian Institution, to place four scientists on
the ocean floor under saturated diving conditions for a period of 60 days.
This program will provide data on man living and working under stressful,
isolated conditions in a shallow water, ambient temperature habitat. New
engineering technology in the emplacement and operation of large habitats
on the ocean floor will be developed, with operation of the program sched-
uled this year near the Virgin Islands.

Complementing government efforts during the past year were sub-
mersible development activities of industry, marked by the completion of

184

Research, Manpower, and Engineering

Lockheed's Deep Quest; General Motors' Deep Ocean Work Boat; and
Grumman's Benjamin Franklin, which is scheduled to explore the Gulf
Stream in 1969.

2. Power for Underwater Tasks. — EfTective, reliable power sources tailored
to the mission involved are essential to all ocean systems; requirements will
range from microwatt to multikilowatt capacities, from days to years of
service life, and from use in fixed installations to submersibles.

The AEC program to develop radioisotope power sources continued in
1968 with emphasis on radioisotope power sources in a range of 10 to 100
watts capable of 5 to 10 year unattended operation. Several 10-watt deep
ocean prototype devices (SNAP-21 ) were fueled and are being prepared for
environmental testing. These units incorporate high performance static
thermoelectric converters which have demonstrated stable operation under
laboratory conditions for periods approaching 10,000 hours. Important
progress was also made in the design and development of similar radio-
isotope devices in the 50 to 100 watt range (SNAP-23) which are intended
for use in ocean buoys and in remote terrestrial environments. In regard
to high powered multikilowatt power requirements associated with fixed
underwater laboratory stations and active ASW sonar networks, AEC has
initiated preliminary design studies and program planning relating to the
development of strontium-90 or cobalt-60 radioisotope power plants and
small pressurized water reactors.

Testing hydrogen-oxygen fuel cells and hydrazine-hydrogen peroxide fuel
cells under deep ocean conditions continued in Navy laboratories, and con-
tracts were let to two companies leading to design and development of a
fuel cell power system for deep submergence vehicles.

3. A National Instrumentation Facility. — The Council recognized that
there is no central oceanographic instrumentation facility to serve Federal
and non-Federal interests. Basic standards for instrument measuring do
not exist; calibration of instruments is not uniform; information on instru-
ment design and performance is not readily available ; the general reliability
level of instruments is low; and there is a need for a stronger national focal
point for participating in development of international standards. While
the Naval Oceanographic Instrumentation Center has attempted to meet
national needs, this service has been limited by uncertain interagency use,
possible pre-emption by priority Navy needs, and lack of capability to meet
expanding demands for services.

The Council has approved recommendations to strengthen instrumenta-
tion capabilities by establishing a National Oceanographic Instrumentation
Center, on an interim basis, composed of the following elements :

— The National Bureau of Standards will begin to establish a capability
to perform primary oceanographic instrumentation standards
functions.

185

Marine Science Affairs

— The Naval Oceanographic Instrumentation Center will undertake
national coordination and information exchange functions and will
continue its national instrument development test and calibration
functions to the extent permitted by Navy budgets and reimbursable
tasks.
— An Advisory Board of representatives of Federal agencies and a Con-
sultative Committee including representatives of the academic and
industrial sectors are being established.
4. Gaps in Technology. — In the military field, the development of deep
ocean technology is uneven — partly because the strategic uses and the need
for deep ocean capabilities have not been clearly identified. For example,
fixed military installations at depths down to 6,000 feet may become desirable
over the next 5 to 10 years, yet power supplies and a number of other
developments required for such projects are not yet available. Man-in-the-
Sea capability has progressed rapidly, but there is still need for efTective hand
tools, communication and navigation for swimmers in water which is some-
times opaque, and additional pressure test facilities.

While ocean engineering for recovery of offshore petroleum products con-
tinued to advance in many respects, an inadequate base of marine technology
exists for most non-military applications. Accurate position fixing on the
surface and under the sea, reliable instrumentation, a better understanding of
seabed soil mechanics, technology for power sources, and improved dis-
semination of engineering information are some of the more urgent needs.

Engineering Developments To Promote Safety at Sea

In recognition of the intensified activities along our coasts, the Council
endorsed three engineering programs designed to facilitate safe maritime
activities and assigned to the Coast Guard lead agency responsibility for
these programs.

1. Safety within the Sea. — To insure that expanding activities of civilian
submersibles are conducted safely, minimum requirements for safe opera-
tions are being considered. Measures might include inspection of undersea
vessels and structures, licensing of operators, and development of a
capability to rescue personnel from submersibles in distress. In carrying
out this program, the Coast Guard established a special projects office
which is considering draft legislation concerning minimum safety regulations
for submersibles regardless of size, tonnage, or number of passengers. Such
regulations could provide reassurance to those interested in utilizing sub-
mersibles for further exploration and work at sea, thus making submersibles
a more marketable item. Criteria will be formulated in FY 1970 to facilitate

186

Research, Manpower, and Engineering

safe design and construction of submersibles. Specific research will be di-
rected toward the effect of pressure hull penetrations, development of test
models and full-scale sections for evaluation, determination of life support
equipment and emergency procedures, and investigation of requirements for
submersible environmental control. Also, the Coast Guard is cooperating
with industry in developing an interim capability to rescue a distressed
submersible by use of other non-governmental submersible facilities.

2. Study of Acoustic Frequency Allocations. — The Coast Guard has
initiated a study of future non-military needs for underwater acoustic
frequencies and the necessity for frequency standardization and regulation,
including consideration of distress signals and general underwater com-
munication. The National Academy of Sciences is assisting in the study
which will be completed this year.

3. Safety on the Continental Shelf. — Conflicts between various coastal
activities will increase with expanding activity, with resultant hazard to life
and property. Many of these pursuits are beyond the purview of or are only
vaguely covered by existing safety legislation. Therefore, the Coast Guard
is considering steps, including the possible need for additional legislation,
consistent with international law and practice, related to:

— establishment of design standards and certification procedures for
Continental Shelf structures and devices to reduce the likelihood of
collapsing structures, bursting oil containers, or other structural
accidents;

— elimination of wrecks, debris, pollutants, and litter on the Conti-
nental Shelf which may be a hazard to life or property or an inter-
ference to useful activity; and

— minimizing conflicts among the various activities including shipping,
transfer of liquid or gases in pipelines, fishing, recreation, drilling,
pumping, and storing materials underwater or at the surface.
These measures will contribute to the development of the Coastal Zone
discussed in Chapter IV.

187

"We must sail sometimes with the wind and sometimes against it —
but we must sail, and not drift, nor lie at anchor."

OLIVER WENDELL HOLMES

Chapter XV

NATIONAL POLICY PLANNING AND
COORDINATION

From the foregoing discussion it should be clear that marine science affairs
embrace a wide range and diversity of public purposes, institutions, special-
ized bodies of knowledge, and Federal activities that are parts of the missions
of 11 departments and agencies. A need was recognized within the Congress
as early as 1960 to turn this fragmented, frequently unsteady, and loosely
knit collection of programs into a broadly based, coordinated, and con-
tinuing national effort. Some members of Congress also believed there was
an absence of a sense of urgency and of a sustaining focus for national
leadership.

Enactment on June 17, 1966, of the Marine Resources and Engineering
Development Act (P.L. 89-454) thus became a turning point in Federal
administration of marine science affairs. More than 30 legislative proposals
since the 86th Congress were combined to provide:
— a clear statement of national purpose ;
— a new emphasis on Presidential leadership ;

— an interim cabinet-level Council to assist the President m policy
planning and coordination with a full-time professional staff inde-
pendent of agency ties; and
— a public advisory Commission to identify the Nation's stake in the
oceans and to recommend the next steps for the national program.
P.L. 89-454 also gave the President responsibility for implementing the
legislation by:

189

Marine Science Affairs

— developing a comprehensive marine science program involving
Federal agencies working in cooperation with the entire spectrum of
non-Federal organizations including State and local governments, pri-
vate research institutions, and industry;

— conducting long-range studies of the potential benefits to our economy,
security, health, and welfare from ocean activities and of the legal
aspects of resource management; and

— evaluating the total national program in terms of the legislative
mandate and reporting annually to the Congress on accomplishments,
budgets, and needed legislation.

Developing a Concerted National Effort

To advise and assist the President with these tasks the statutory National
Council on Marine Resources and Engineering Development was promptly
activated. Since its initial session August 17, 1966, the Council has met 15
times. The Vice President, who serves as Chairman, has presided at 12
sessions.

The Council has endeavored to: (a) identify unmet needs and oppor-
tunities to which Federal marine science programs could be directed, especi-
ally gaps in programs that cross agency lines; (b) recommend priorities
on a government- wide basis by selecting areas deserving additional emphasis;

(c) identify impediments to progress and strategies for their circumvention;

(d) develop policies by which the objectives and programs of one agency
will not inadvertently conflict with equally valid but independent activities
of another; (e) recommend^ — in those cases where missions of several agen-
cies may overlap — that one agency assume a lead responsibility for govern-
ment-wide planning, guiding, coordinating, and assuring fiscal support;
(f) coordinate — through a committee structure — programs which are of
concern to many agencies; (g) insure that the appropriate resources of the
Federal Government are brought to bear on mutually agreed upon goals;
(h) evaluate programs so as to eliminate marginal activities; and (i) develop
background, legal, economic, and technological studies for identifying al-
ternative policies and criteria for choice.

The Council has also carried out policy planning functions for the Sea
Grant Program, established by P.L. 89-688 and administered by the National
Science Foundation, and coordinated Federal programs of international
cooperation, such as the International Decade of Ocean Exploration.

The Council Chairman developed a number of concepts concerning the
Council's role and method of operating :

190

National Policy Planning

— The Council's key function should be to assist the President in carry-
ing out his statutory leadership responsibilities, not to serve as an
operating agency.
— It should aid in strengthening the programs of the agencies and in
coordinating activities so as to foster an enterprise stronger than the
sum of its parts.
— Its scope of activity, in keeping with the spirit of the legislation to take
into full account all the uses of the oceans, should be broader than the
programs of scientific oceanography which had been coordinated by
its predecessor, the Interagency Committee on Oceanography of the
Federal Council for Science and Technology.
— The Council should give high priority to the institutional framework
and governmental processes by which science converges with consider-
ations of law, socio-economics, and public policy and should seek new
ideas within and outside government.
Also underlying the Council's activities have been three fundamental
concepts, namely:

— While the Government provides much of the leadership and support
for ocean research and exploration, the development and exploitation
of marine resources is the responsibility of private enterprise.
— State and local participation is critical to the successful management

of activities in the coastal marine environment.
— In view of the inherently international character of the oceans, a
multinational approach to many uses of the sea is essential.
A major consequence of the establishment of the Council has been the
elevation of major issues of national importance to consideration at a gov-
ernment-wide policy level and selection of those priority matters deserving
Presidential attention. These priority recommendations have reached the
President in the context of broadly based national goals as well as in terms
of agency missions and priorities.

Some 65 policy issues have been considered by the Council. The Council's
action has in turn been reflected in Presidential statements, new initiatives
set forth in this and the two previous Annual Reports, and special budgetary
emphasis. In brief, the Council has considered its major functions to be iden-
tification of goals from numerous and diffuse alternatives; mobilization of
fragmented, and often dormant, resources into a coherent multiagency
framework directed toward these goals; and formulation of priorities and
action programs to achieve these goals.

To assist in preparing recommendations on issues requiring Council-level
action and to foster exchange of information and coordination of policies
and programs, the Council established four interagency committees which
report to the Vice President: Marine Research, Education, and Facilities;
Ocean Exploration and Environmental Services; Food from the Sea; and
Multiple Use of the Coastal Zone. Additionally, at the request of the Vice

191

Marine Science Affairs

President, the Secretary of State established a fifth committee on Inter-
national Policy in the Marine Environment to serve the mutual interests of
the Council and the Department of State. The responsibilities of these com-
mittees are outlined in Table XV-1, and some of their activities have already
been discussed in relation to specific policy issues.

The Marine Sciences Council's professional staff of 13 persons includes
specialists in ocean sciences, engineering, national security affairs, public
administration, law, economics, and international relations. The Council
staff assists in identifying policy issues, developing and analyzing back-
ground material, and proposing alternatives for Council deliberation and
action. Also, 40 percent of the Council's budget is used to obtain additional
advice through contract studies and from more than 70 consultants.

Preparation of Council Reports

Another major task of the Council has been preparation of these Annual
Reports to the President which he transmits to the Congress as called for in
P.L. 89^54. The report includes :

— a description of government-wide programs with funding and activi-
ties delineated by purpose as well as agency ;
— an evaluation of agency programs in terms of statutory objectives;
— an abstract of individual agency accomplishments, including a prog-
ress report on implementation of earlier Council initiatives;
— justification for new Federal initiatives and the marine science pro-
gram as a whole ;
— recommendations for new legislation ; and

—discussion of unresolved issues— especially those deserving further
study by non-Federal as well as Federal interests.
After drafting by the Council staff, the Report is reviewed by Council
members and observers. At that time unresolved issues, unclear jurisdic-
tions, and controversial programs are clarified and resolved.

By its scope and content, the Report serves as a planning document to
assist the Federal Government at various echelons to focus on common
goals. It is intended to aid Congress in relating diverse elements of the
program presented to more than 20 appropriations subcommittees and an
equal number of legislative subcommittees concerned with the complex
matrix of marine science affairs. The Report should also assist industry,
academia, State and local governments, and foreign nations concerned with
relating their goals and programs to our national effort.

As indicated in Table XV-2, the Council has also released reports and
general background information concerning activities such as oceano-

192

National Policy Planning

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193

Marine Science Affairs

graphic ship operating schedules, university curricula in oceanography,
potential of spacecraft oceanography, and marine science activities of some
100 countries. In addition, a number of contract studies have been under-
taken to develop information and analytical tools for policy planning of
programs that cross agency lines (Table XV-3) .

Table XV-2 — Reports of tlie Marine Sciences Council

Title Date

Marine Science Affairs — A Year of Transition: The First Report February 1967 *

of the President to the Congress on Marine Resources and

Engineering Development.

Aquatic Sciences in the Great Lakes Area March 1967 "

Oceanographic Ship Operating Schedules, 1968 July 1967 "

University Curricula in the Marine Sciences, Academic Year August 1967 "

1967-1968.
Addendum to University Curricula in the Marine Sciences, Aca- August 1967**

demic Year 1967-1968.

United States Activities in Spacecraft Oceanography October 1967 *

Marine Science Affairs — A Year of Plans and Progress: The February 1968*

Second Report of the President to the Congress on Marine

Resources and Engineering Development.

Marine Science Activities of Canada and the Nations of Europe April 1968 "

Marine Science Activities of the Nations of East Asia April 1968*

Marine Science Activities of the Nations of Latin America April 1968"

Marine Science Activities of the Nations of the Near East and April 1968"

South Asia.

Marine Science Activities of the Nations of Africa April 1968"

Oceanographic Ship Operating Schedules, 1968 April 1968''

International Decade of Ocean Exploration May 1968 "

Oceanographic Ship Operating Schedules, September 1968- August 1968''

February 1969.
Marine Science Affairs — A Year of Broadened Participation: The January 1969 "

Third Report of the President to the Congress on Marine Re-
sources and Engineering Development.

" For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office,
Washington, D.C. 20402.

" Available from Council's Committee on Marine Research, Education, and
Facilities, Building 159-E, Room 476, Navy Yard, Washington, D.C. 20390.

Thus a key role of the Council has been to inform interests other than
those in the Executive Branch about marine science affairs. One major
element of this information function concerns testimony before the Con-
gress. Apart from individual consultations, since August 1966 the Council's
Executive Secretary has been requested to testify, as summarized in Table
XV-^, to:

— interpret and support the President's government-wide program;
— support budgets of the Council;

— support individual agency appropriations that have government-
wide benefits; and
— explain the Administration's position on such matters as the Inter-
national Decade of Ocean Exploration.

194

National Policy Planning

Table XV-3 — Contracts Awarded by the Marine Sciences Council

Subject

Contractor

Amount Report No.

International legal prob-
lems of ocean research.
Law for sea's minerals. . .

Potential of spacecraft

oceanography.
Potential of aquaculture ....

Encouraging marine re-
source development.''

Systems analysis of specified
trawler operations.

Non military needs for
underwater technology.

International law and fish-
ery policy.

Multiple use of Chesapeake
Bay.

Economic potential of U.S.
continental margin.

Management of marine data
systems.

Evaluation of marine re-
source statistics.

Outline of marine legal
conflicts.

International Indian Ocean
Expedition.

Legal aspects of coastal
land-sea interface.

Legal aspects of Great Lakes
resources.

Seminar on liability aspects
of marine activities.

Multiple use of the Greater
Seattle Harbor.

Conference on future of
fishing industry.

Multiple use of Lakes Erie
and Superior.

Multinational investments in
marine sciences.

Catalogue of marine re-
search.

Science and engineering
aspects of Decade of
Ocean Exploration.

Gulf of Mexico Research
and Environmental
Program.

William T. Burke, Ohio State $7, 100

University.
Louis Henkin, Columbia Law $10, 000

School.
General Electric, Valley Forge, $59, 433

Pa.
American Institute of Biological $30, 756

Science, Washington, D.C.
National Planning Assoc, $30, 000

Washington, D.C.
Litton Industries, Beverly Hills, $89, 373

Calif.
Southwest Research Institute, $63, 000

San Antonio, Tex.
Paul W. Dodyk, Columbia Law $7, 425

School.
Trident Engineering Associates, $31, 112

Annapolis, Md.
Economic Associates, Inc., $70, 000

Washington, D.C.
System Development Corp., $75, 000

Santa Monica, Calif.
Surveys & Research Corp., $6, 400

Washington, D.C.
William L. Griffin, Washing- $4, 200

ton, D.C.
Robert G. Snider, State College, $6, 000

Pa.
Albert Garretson, New York $20, 000

University Law School.
do $20,000

American Trial Lawyers Asso- $1, 000

elation. New York, N.Y.
Management & Economics Re- $35, 235

search. Inc., Palo Alto, Calif.
University of Washington, $5, 000

Seattle, Wash.
National Planning Association, $41, 194

Washington, D.C.
Institute of Politics and Plan- $25, 000

ning, Washington, D.C.
Smithsonian Institution, Wash- $43, 186

ington, D.C.
National Academies of Sciences $50, 000

and Engineering, Washing-
ton, D.C.
Gulf Universities Research $ 1 0, 000

Corp., Houston, Tex.

PB 17772

PB 177725

PB 177726

PB 177767
PB 177768
PB 178203

PB 178661
PB 178662
PB 178687

PB 179427

PB 179844

PB 180118

AD 673992
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"Reports available from the Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific and Technical Information, Springfield,
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' Jointly sponsored with National Science Foundation.

195

329-466 O — 69-

-14

Marine Science Affairs

Table XV-4 — Congressional Testimony on Government-Wide Issues'*

Date

Topic

Conunittee

10/10/66 Council program and budget for

Fiscal Year 1967.

10/17/66 Council program and budget for

Fiscal Year 1967.

3/13/67 Council program and budget for
Fiscal Year 1968.

3/17/67 Council program and budget for
Fiscal Year 1968.

8/17/67 Review of Council activities on

first anniversary of Council.
10/1 1/67 H.R. 13273, to extend deadline
for Commission report and
lifetime of the Council.
1 1/28/67 S. 1262, to authorize Corps of
Engineers shoreline study.

2/19/68 H.R. 15224, improvements for

Coast Guard including research
vessel.

3/ 7/68 Council program and budget for
Fiscal Year 1969.

3/13/68 Council program and budget for
Fiscal Year 1969.

4/ 9/68 H.R. 15490, to increase appro-
priation for FPC pilot plant.

5/27/68 H.R. 1 1584, et al, to establish
system of marine sanctuaries.

6/24/68 H.R. 13781, to extend authorization
of the Sea Grant Program.

6/26/68 S. 3030, et al, to enable BCF to
proceed with FPC plant.

7/29/68 H. Con. Res. 803, to express con-
currence with objectives of
International Decade of Ocean
Exploration.

House — Subcommittee on Supple-
mental Appropriations (*)

Senate — ^Subcommittee on Defi-
ciencies and Supplementals(*)

House — Subcommittee on Interior
and Related Agencies (»)

Senate — Subcommittee on Interior
and Related Agencies (»)

House — Subcommittee on Ocean-
ography C^)

House — Subcommittee on Ocean-
ography (b)

Senate — Subcommittee on Flood
Control, Rivers and Harbors ("=)

House — 'Subcommittee on Coast
Guard, C &GS, and Navigation (•>)

Senate- — Subcommittee on Interior
and Related Agencies (*)

House — Subcommittee on Interior
and Related Agencies (»)

House — Subcommittee on Fisheries
and Wildlife Conservation (*>)

House — Subcommittee on Ocean-
ography (t")

Senate — Committee on
Commerce

House, Subcommittee on Fisheries
and Wildlife Conservation (b)

House — Subcommittee on Ocean-
ography (b)

♦Testimony by Executive Secretary, Marine Sciences Council.
(») Committee on Appropriations.
(•>) Committee on Merchant Marine and Fisheries.
(<=) Committee on Public Worlds.

196

National Policy Planning

Communicating with Non-Federal Institutions

In addition to Federal participation in conferences and other meetings
involving the marine science community throughout the country, the Council
sponsored several meetings to bring the views of the non-Federal sector more
directly into the mainstream of public policy. As indicated in Figure XV-1,
the marine science community involves a very large number of organizations.

In January 1968 representatives of 12 leading mining firms were invited
to present views on the appropriate role of Federal agencies in encouraging
the development of marine minerals in relation to technology for delineating
and extracting marine minerals and an administrative-legal-financial frame-
work for encouraging offshore private investment. Also in January more than
40 senior representatives of government, industry, and our universities
exchanged views on the International Decade of Ocean Exploration.

A March conference at the University of Washington, partially supported
by the Council, assembled more than 250 representatives of all parts of the
seafood industry (Chapter VI). In April, the Directors of non-Federal
marine research laboratories exchanged views with the Vice President and
senior government officials on programs such as the International Decade of
Ocean Exploration, the Sea Grant Program, and Federal support of aca-
demic research. In October, representatives of the following organizations
presented their views on national marine policies to Council and agency
officials: National Petroleum Council, American Mining Congress, National
Fisheries Institute, American Merchant Marine Institute, Aerospace Indus-
tries Association of America, Marine Technology Society, National Security
Industrial Association, and National Federation of Independent Business.

In November, a symposium in Williamsburg, Va., organized by the Coun-
cil's Committee on Multiple Use of the Coastal Zone provided a forum to
gain the views of more than 60 representatives of State and local govern-
ments, as well as individual specialists, on steps for improving governmental
mechanisms which will enhance use of the Coastal Zone. These views were
carefully evaluated in preparing many of the Council recommendations
included in Chapter IV, with particular attention to Federal incentives
which will encourage the States to develop and carry out programs for
rational use of the Coastal Zone in the national interest.

The 22 States fronting the Atlantic Ocean, Gulf of Mexico, and Pacific
Ocean and the eight States bordering the Great Lakes have created numerous
and varied State executive structures for policy and decision-making and
administration of marine activities. These mechanisms include Governors'
advisory councils and committees and State commissions, authorities, depart-
ments, divisions, bureaus, and boards. The bodies may have purely advisory

197

Marine Science Affairs

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198

National Policy Planning

functions or regulatory, enforcement, or management authority related to
recreation, commercial fishing and living resources, waste disposal, non-
living resources, maritime commerce, and conservation. While authorities
frequently overlap in individual States, most States usually vest commercial
fishery and conservation responsibilities in single agencies and grant mari-
time commerce planning and regulatory powers to port authorities or com-
missions. Pollution control is becoming an increasing area of State concern.

These coastal States participate in a large number of interstate arrange-
ments, compacts, and bodies. These interstate institutions deal largely with
fisheries, commerce, transportation, water resources, conservation, and pol-
lution to serve a coordination or communication function. While their im-
pact is real, it is frequently restricted by staffing and budget limitations. At
a November meeting in Miami devoted to Coastal Zone planning and
management, representatives of 18 States adopted a Resolution calling for
establishment of an organization of maritime States.

The close relationships between government agencies and the National
Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering are re-
flected in a contract between the Marine Sciences Council and the Acad-
emies concerning the scientific and engineering aspects of the International
Decade of Ocean Exploration as described in Chapter IX.

To assist in identifying and coordinating the many diverse marine
activities being conducted by Federal and non-Federal institutions, the
Marine Sciences Council has supported steps to improve information transfer
within the marine community (Chapter XIII). Specific Council actions
include : a comprehensive data management study, an inventory of Federal
and non-Federal research, and discussions with information centers to urge
that more of their products be tailored to the needs of marine scientists and
program planners.

A number of non-governmental organizations continue to provide advice
to the member agencies of the Council. The Departments of State and
the Interior have actively sought the views of the extractive industry and
many other private interests concerning the evolution of a legal regime for
the seabed, an issue of particular industrial interest. Also, the maritime
industry has been closely involved in the development of our domestic and
international shipping policies.

Advice is broadly sought from all of the foregoing constituencies in
order to assist in evaluation of Federal agency programs. Each year task
groups of consultants are convened in mission-oriented panels, representing
the spectrum of marine science interests, to receive agency presentations
and then to provide to the Council a candid analysis of strengths and
weaknesses, including recommendations as to further steps to meet statutory
objectives.

199

Marine Science Affairs

A National Advocate for Marine Sciences

The Marine Sciences Act reflected Congressional concern over the need
for high-level advocacy for the field. Notwithstanding the popularity that the
field enjoys and the heightened popular interest in the scientific mysteries of
the oceans, there had been no central advocate within the Federal family
for examining and responding to the question of "What portion of the
Nation's energy and wealth should be devoted to ocean endeavors?" Thus,
in addition to its primary responsibility of assisting the President in carrying
out the provisions of the Marine Sciences Act, the Council has served as an
advocate — acting through its Chairman, its members, and its Executive
Secretary, who in communications with members of Congress, speeches,
public articles, communications to oceanographic institutions, and talks with
foreign leaders have urged wider understanding of the relationship of the
oceans to people and their concerns.

The Marine Sciences Act gave permanent responsibility to the President
to advance this field. The Council was given only interim authority to advise
and assist the President until June 30, 1969, so as not to inadvertently
inhibit the Marine Sciences Commission in its analysis. Thus, in marine
sciences, options for the future are completely open. Decisions may be
required as to more permanent policy planning and coordinating machinery,
requirements for a new Federal operating agency, and means whereby
public and private interests may be blended and the necessary capital
attracted to advance the Nation toward the long-range objectives.

200

"Knowledge and understanding of the oceans promise to assume greater
and greater importance in the future. This is not a one-year program —
or even a ten-year program. It is the first step in a continuing effort to
acquire and apply the information about a part of our world that will
ultimately determine conditions of life in the rest of the world."

JOHN F. KENNEDY

Chapter XVI
LOOKING AHEAD

Man's uses of the oceans date back to primitive extraction of salt and fish
and exploration by raft and sailing canoe. Now we are in the midst of sig-
nificantly new advances in mastery of the sea. The future holds even greater
promise because of expanding scientific discoveries about the natural world
around us, and because of innovations afforded by 20th century marine
technology. To take advantage of these opportunities, we must clearly
identify benefits, enunciate objectives, and effectively mobilize requisite
technical resources. But while ideas and plans are necessary, they are not
sufficient. Also required are venture capital, both public and private, and
involvement of our many concerned socio-economic-political institutions.

Earlier chapters of this Report cast Federal efforts in oceanic exploration
and research in broad terms to show how policy and institutional factors
promote uses of the sea to serve major goals of the Nation, and of society
itself.

The time frame in which these programs and budgets were discussed
however, has primarily been the present and the near-term future of FY
1970.

To complete the perspective, this brief concluding chapter sets forth the
unfinished business which warrants attention on the Nation's agenda, in the
longer term. These views emerge from issues that became more clearly
illuminated during the past year, and from a realistic appraisal of an in-
creasing range of options offered by the marine environment to meet public
purposes. They are presented not only in terms of what is scientifically or

201

Marine Science Affairs

technically possible, but also what is socially or economically desirable, and
finally, what is feasible in the context of considerations that go beyond
marine science affairs.

While the responsibility for leadership must largely rest on the Federal
Government, our ocean activities embrace the States, industry, the academic
world and other nations and involve complex interrelationships and inter-
dependencies among these participants. The subtitle of this report "A Year
of Broadened Participation" reflects special efforts during the past year to
develop a more viable partnership of all concerned interests.

These activities and institutions may be thought of as being in two
classes: the first are knowledge-generating; the second are knowledge-
consuming. Effective articulation between the two is obviously required
to match needs and opportunities. Policy planning has focused on imperfect
articulation between participants, to identify and where possible dissolve
inadvertent impediments to the smooth application of marine discoveries.

Within the Federal Government, interaction between knowledge pro-
ducers and knowledge consumers has operated most effectively in the case
of the Navy. This agency has had the clearest and strongest requirements for
marine environmental data and historically has been this country's major
sponsor of marine research, both basic and applied. Our progress in civilian
fields has largely stemmed from this naval research base. Today, the Navy
still funds more than one-half of the Federal marine science program.

In the case of civilian uses of the sea, however, we have been far less
effective in matching scientific and technological capabilities to our needs.
The number and variety of participants, their frequent competition of in-
terests, the need to introduce non-technical considerations of law, finance,
and foreign relations, and the setting of priorities in a more public forum
have been accompanied by new communication problems between science,
technology, and marine affairs.

As a consequence, virtually all of the issues that follow are focused on
strengthening the civilian component of marine affairs. They have been
selected from a substantially larger set of issues for long-term developments
in marine science affairs, and are set forth as questions:

1. How should marine related, civilian activities be organized in the
Federal Government — and policy planning and coordination carried out for
the President — to implement the mandate of P.L. 89-454 and to assure
requisite leadership, meaningful priorities, and appropriate partnership with
States, other nations, American industry, and science?

2. How may more effective use of coastal waters and land be achieved for
public and private purposes — with due consideration for heightened State
involvement, and improved Coastal Zone research capabilities — to foster
prudent resource management?

3. What are the alternative legal arrangements dealing with the seabed
boundaries of national sovereignty, and international disposition of rights

202

Looking Ahead

and benefits beyond national sovereignty that will preserve traditional con-
cepts as to freedom of the seas; and what further steps will best serve the
many diverse interests of the United States and the world community?

4. What longer-range steps are required in marine exploration and
research to:

a. implement the International Decade of Ocean Exploration;

b. strengthen ocean environment observation and prediction capabili-
ties;

c. provide stable support for multi-purpose academic research institu-
tions and develop them as national facilities;

d. utilize research capabilities originally developed for other missions;
and

e. coordinate ocean and atmospheric science and services?

5. What additional steps should be taken to realize the potential of FPC
in the War on Hunger — to translate technical potential into an economi-
cally and socially viable enterprise?

6. What legislative steps are needed to strengthen the domestic fishing
industry?

7. How may support of a balanced, civilian marine technology be under-
taken as a specific mode of government assistance to an emerging marine
industry, particularly in those research and development areas where in-
vestment involves high initial cost or long deferred returns on investments?

8. What is the role of the U.S. flag merchant marine in contributing to
national security and economic development, and what steps are needed
to strengthen this element of a maritime presence?

In posing these questions, we should not lose sight of the great number
of marine science issues that have been dealt with over the past three years
and the goals and milestones set forth in this and two prior Reports of the
President. Their full achievement has necessarily been limited by economic
constraints that affected all components of the Federal budget because
of the extraordinary demands of the Vietnam conflict and required defer-
ment of many otherwise meritorious programs.

Collectively these short-run and longer-run issues concern the stake that
this Nation — and the world — has in the sea.

Toward better comprehension of the portent for the future, the Presi-
dent appointed on January 9, 1967, the public advisory Commission on
Marine Science, Engineering, and Resources provided for in P.L. 89-454,
with Dr. Julius Stratton designated Chairman. This Commission has been
at work for two years, and their comprehensive report was released on
January 11, 1969. While their findings and recommendations could not be
considered in detail by this Administration, they were deemed to warrant the
most serious attention by the next Administration, by the Congress, and by
interested public and private bodies.

203

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A— FEDERAL MARINE SCIENCE PROGRAM,
FISCAL YEARS 1968, 1969, AND 1970

Appendix A-1 — Total Federal Marine Science Program" by Major
Purpose — Summary and Detail by Sub-Purpose and Agency

Summary

(Millions of dollars)

Estimated Estimated President's
FY 1968 FY 1969 budget

FY 1970

1 . International Cooperation and Collaboration . . .

2. National Security

3. Fishery Development and Seafood Technology. .

4. Transportation

5. Development of the Cozistal Zone

6. Health

7. Non-Living Resources

8. Oceanographic Research *

9. Education

10. Environmental Observation and Prediction.

11. Ocean Exploration, Mapping, Charting, and

Geodesy.

12. General Purpose Ocean Engineering

13. National Data Centers

Total 431.8 471.5 528.0

' Many programs of the Departments of Defense, Commerce, Interior, and Transportation and other
agencies closely related to marine science are not included.

>> Research beneficial to more than one of the other major purpose areas.

' Includes $14. 5 million for Coast Guard sub-polar oceanographic research ship. Funding for other ships
is included in the relevant major purpose categories.

205

9.6

9.5

11.7

119.9

128. 1

143.0

40. 1

43.8

44.5

11. 1

10.6

18.6

27.6

29.5

29.6

5.3

5.4

5.3

7.3

8.0

8.6

78. 1

«93. 9

93.5

7.0

7.5

9.2

28.8

31.6

32. 1

75.7

83.0

99. 1

19.2

18.3

29.5

2. 1

2.3

3.2

Marine Science Affairs

Appendix A-1 — Total Federal Marine Science Program by Major
Purpose — Summary and Detail by Sub-Purpose and Agency — Continued

Detail by Sub-Purpose and Agency

(Millions of dollars)

Estimated Estimated President's
FY 1968 FY 1969 budget

FY 1970

1. International Cooperation and Collaboration. . . 9.6 9.5 11.7

(a) Department of State (6. 6) (7. 0) (7. 1 )

( 1 ) Contributions to international

organizations for marine

science program activities ... 4. 6 4. 9 4. 9

(2) International fishery com-

missions (U.S. share) 2. 0 2. 1 2. 2

(b) Agency for International Development. (3.0) (2.5) (4.6)

(1) Marine food resources for

developing nations 3.0 2.5 4. 6

2. National Security 119.9 128.1 143.0

(a) Department of Defense » (119.9) (128.1) (143.0)

( 1 ) Problem oriented surveys for

defense systems 19.5 24.1 28.3

(2) Marine science and tech-

nology in support of specific

defense systems 29.9 34.0 35.3

(3) Undersea search, rescue, re-

covery, and man-in-the-sea . 68. 7 68. 6 77. 4

(4) Navy Instrumentation Center. 1.2 1.2 1.8

(5) Capital investment for ship

construction 0. 0 0. 0 0. 0

(6) Marine science in support of

"safeguards" for the Limit-
ed Nuclear Test Ban Treaty
of 1963 0.6 0.2 0.2

3. Fishery Development and Seafood Technology . 40. 1 43. 8 44. 5

(a) Department of the Interior (40. 1 ) (43. 8) (44. 5)

(1) Fishery resources assessment,

development, and manage-
ment 31.0 33.5 33.4

(2) TechniccJ and economic as-

sistance to the commerciaJ

fishing industry 7. 9 7. 8 8. 2

(3) Fish protein concentrate 1.2 2.5 2.9

See footnotes at end of table.

206

Appendices

Appendix A-1 — Total Federal Marine Science Program by Major
Purpose — Summary and Detail by Sub-Purpose and Agency — Continued

Detail by Sub-Purpos« and Agency — Continued

(Millions of dollars)

Estimated Estimated President's
FY 1968 FY 1969 budget

FY 1970

4. Transportation 11.1 10. 6 18. 6

(a) Depaitment of Commerce (6. 8) (4. 3) (10. 1 )

( 1 ) Reduction of shipbuilding and

port costs 0. 6 0. 0 0. 4

(2) Reduction of ship operating

costs 1. 6 1.6 2. 7

(3) Advanced ships £ind systems. . . 3.6 1.6 5.8

(4) Ship design 1. 0 1.1 1. 2

(b) Department of Defense (2. 9) (2. 7) (2. 9)

(1) Channel and harbor develop-
ment 2. 9 2. 7 2. 9

(c) Department of Transportation (1-4) (3. 6) (5. 6)

( 1 ) Search and rescue 0. 3 0. 6 0. 7

(2) Aids to navigation 0. 7 0. 6 1.5

(3) Merchant marine safety 0.3 0.8 0.8

(4) Oceanography, meteorology,

and polar operations ^ 0. 1 0. 5 0. 6

(5) Marine \&w enforcement *... 0.0 1. 1 2.0

5. Development and Conservation of the Coastal

Zone 27.6 29.5 29.6

(a) Shore stabilization and protection (1-5) (1.5) (1.5)

( 1 ) Department of Defense

a. Beach erosion control
and hurricane storm

surge protection .... 1.5 1.5 1.5

(b) Marine pollution management (7. 4) (9. 0) (9. 0)

(1) Department of Defense ((1.7)) ((2.2)) ((1.6))

a. Pollution and flushing
of bays, estuaries,

and the Great Lakes. 1.7 2.2 1.6

(2) Department of the Interior. . ((5.7)) ((6.8)) ((7.4))

a. Water quality enhance-
ment 5. 7 6. 8 7. 4

(c) Recreation and conservation (18. 7) (19. 0) (19. 1)

(1) Department of Defense ((1.5)) ((1.5)) ((1.4))

a. Recreation beaches
and small craft har-
bors 1.5 1.5 1.4

See footnotes at end of table.

207

Marine Science Affairs

Appendix A-1 — Total Federal Marine Science Program by Major
Purpose — Summary and Detail by Sub-Purpose and Agency — ^Continued

Detail by Sub-Purpose and Agency— Continued

(Millions of dollars)

Estimated Estimated President's
FY 1968 FY 1969 budget

FY 1970

5. Development and Conservation of the Coastal
Zone — Continued

(c) Recreation and conservation

(2) Department of the Interior... ((17.1)) ((17.3)) ((17.4))

a. Planning for acquisi-

tion of marine based

recreational areas. . . 0. 1 0. 1 0. 1

b. Development of ma-

rine areas for rec-
reation 12.0 11.3 11.4

c. Conservation of ma-

rine locales, game-
fish and wildlife 5. 0 5. 9 5. 9

(3) Department of Transporta-

tion ((0.1)) ((0.2)) ((0.3))

a. Search and rescue .... 0. 1 0. 2 0. 3

6. Health 5.3 5.4 5.3

(a) Department of Health, Education, and

Welfare (5. 3) (5. 4) (5. 3)

(1) Nutritional and health as-

pects of marine foods 1.6 1.7 1.8

(2) Marine bacterial toxins and

pharmaceuticals 0. 6 0. 7 0. 6

(3) Use of marine life in biomed-

ical research 2. 4 2. 4 2. 4

(4) Health problems related to

marine pollution 0. 7 0. 6 0. 5

7. Non-Living Resources 7.3 8.0 8.6

(a) Department of the Interior (7. 3) (8. 0) (8. 6)

(1) Geologic investigations and

resource appraisal 2. 8 2. 9 3. 4

(2) Mining research 1.3 1.5 0. 9

(3) Marine sources and interrela-

tionships for supply of

freshwater 2.3 2.5 3.0

(4) Leasing and management of

mineral resources 0. 9 1.1 1.3

See footnotes at end of table.

208

Appendices

Appendix A-1 — Total Federal Marine Science Program by Major
Purpose — Summary and Detail by Sub-Purpose and Agency — Continued

Detail by Sub-Purpose and Agency — Continued

(Millions of dollars)

Estimated Estimated President's
FY 1968 FY 1969 budget

FY 1970

8. Oceanographic Research 78. 1

(a) Department of Defense

(b) Department of Commerce

(c) National Science Foundation

(d) Department of Transportation

(e) Smithsonian Institution '^

(f) Atomic Energy Commission

9. Education

(a) Depairtment of Defense

(b) Department of Commerce

(c) Department of the Interior

(d) National Science Foundation

(e) Department of Health, Education, and

Welfare

(f) Department of Transportation

10. Environmental Observation and Prediction . . .

(a) Department of Defense

(b) Department of Commerce

(c) Atomic Energy Commission

(d) Department of Transportation

(e) National Aeronautics and Space Ad-

ministration

11. Ocean Exploration, Mapping, Charting, and

Geodesy

(a) Department of Defense

(b) Department of Commerce

(c) National Aeronautics and Space Ad-

ministration

See footnotes at end of table.

93.9

93.5

30.5

35.4

39.8

3.4

3.7

3.7

33.8

30.7

39.6

3.8

17.4

3.3

1.6

1.6

1.6

5.0

5. 1

5.5

7.0

7.5

9.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

0. 1

0. 1

0. 1

0. 1

0. 1

0. 1 -

4.0

4.0

5.5

1.2

1.5

1.5

0.2

0.2

0.2

28.8

31.6

32. 1

10.5

11.6

11.5

6.2

5.8

6.0

0.9

0.8

0.6

9.7

12.0

12.7

1.5

1.4

1.3

75.7

83.0

99. 1

58.6

63.5

78.5

16.8

19. 1

20.2

0.3

0.4

0.4

209

Marine Science Affairs

Appendix A-1 — Total Federal Marine Science Program by Major
Purpose — Summary and Detail by Sub-Purpose and Agency — Continued

Detailed by Sub-Purpose and Agency — Continued

(Millions of dollars)

Estunated Estimated President's
FY 1968 FY 1969 budget

FY 1970

12. General Purpose Ocean Engineering 19. 2 18. 3 29. 5

(a) Department of Defense

( 1 ) Deep ocean technology . .

(b) Atomic Energy Commission

( 1 ) Nuclear power

(c) Department of Transportation

(1) Data buoy systems

13. National Data Centers

(a) National Oceanographic Data Center "*. 1.6 1.7 2. 5

(b) Smithsonian Oceanographic Sorting

Center 0.3 0.3 0.4

(c) Great Lakes Data Center 0. 2 0. 2 0. 2

(d) National Weather Records Center 0. 0 0. 1 0. 1

11.2

13.2

14.4

7.9

4.5

5.3

0. 1

0.6

9.8

2. 1

2.3

3.2

" AU Department of Defense funds (except Corps of Engineers) relate primarily to National Security al-
though for this special analysis some funds have been allocated to other purpose areas.

'New program category. Item 4(c)4 includes the International Ice Patrol and Item 4(c)5 contains
Pollution Detection and Control, categories utilized in last year's report.

' Appropriated Excess Foreign Currency Funds are also used to support marine research. (See
Appendix A-7.)

<> Includes National Science Foundation support for World Data Center A of $60,000. $75,000, and $76,000,
respectively, for the three years.

210

Appendices

Appendix A-2 — ^Total Federal Marine Science Program" by Department
and Independent Agency

(.Millions of dollars)

Estimated Estimated President's
FY 1968 FY 1969 budget

FY 1970

Department of Defense

Department of the Interior

National Science Foundation

Department of Commerce

Department of Transportation

Atomic Energy Commission

Department of Health, Education, and Welfare . .

Department of State

Agency for International Development

Smithsonian Institution ^

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

Total

240.6

262.3

297.9

70.5

76.2

78.2

38. 1

35.0

45.4

33.6

33.4

40.6

15.4

34. 1

32.3

13.8

10.4

11.4

6.5

6.9

6.8

6.6

7.0

7. 1

3.0

2.5

4.6

1.9

1.9

2.0

1.8

1.8

1.7

431.8

471.5

528.0

" Many programs of the Departments of Defense, Commerce, Interior, and Transportation, and other
agencies, closely related to marine science are not included.

<■ Excess Foreign Currency Funds are not included. See Appendix A-7.

329-^66 O— ^9-

-15

211

Marine Science Affairs

Appendix A-3 — Total Federal Marine Science Program by Function-
Summary and Detail by Agency

Summary

(Millions of dollars)

Estimated Estimated President's
FY 1968 FY 1969 budget

FY 1970

Research and Development 245. 4 248. 3 297. 9

(a) Research (basic and applied)

(b) Development of new equipment and

technology

Investment

(a) Ships

(b) Major equipment

(c) Shore facilities

(d) Other

Operations

(a) Surveys

(b) Services

(c) Other

Total 431.8 471.5 528.0

116.4
129.0

126.7
121.6

150.6
147.3

55.5

77.8

70. 1

7.6
29.3
13.9

4.7

15. 1

42.4

15.5

4.8

2.3

47.5

13.3

7.0

130.9

145.4

160.0

106.0

18.4

6.5

118. 7

19.5

7.2

130.9

21.4

7.8

Detail by Agency

(Millions of dollars)

Estimated Estimated President's
FY 1968 FY 1969 budget

FY 1970

245.4

248.4

297.9

132.8

133.0

155.9

A. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

Total

1. Department of Defense

(a) Department of the Navy (123. 8)

(1) Research 30.5

Regulcu: program (28. 1 )

(Research ship operating

costs) ((6. 1))

Institutional development

program (2. 4)

(2) Development of new equip-

ment and technology 93. 3

(Ship operating costs) (6. 9)

(123. 9)

35.4

(32. 4)

((6.7))

(3.0)

88.5
(8.1)

(147.4)
36.8
(33. 3)

((7.8))

(3.5)

110.6
(8.8)

212

Appendices

Appendix A-3 — Total Federal Marine Science Program by
Function — Continued

Detail by Agency— Continued

(Millions of dollars)

Estimated Estimated President's
FY 1968 FY 1969 budget

FY 1970

(8.7)
3.5

(8.3)
3.4

5.2

4.9

(0.4)
0.4

(0.2)
0.2

0.0

9.5

(5.2)
3.8

2.6

38.2

(27. 8)
18.9

(2.8)

(0.2)

0.0

A. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT— Continued

1. Department of Defense — Continued

(b) Department of the Army (8. 4)

(1) Research 3.4

(2) Development of new equip-

ment and technology 5. 0

(c) Advanced Research Projects

Agency (0. 6)

( 1 ) Research 0. 2

(2) Development of new equip-

ment and technology .... 0. 4

2. Department of Commerce 11.4

(a) Environmental Science Services Ad-

ministration (4. 7)

(1) Research 3.6

(2) Development of new equip-

ment and technology.... 1.1 1.4 1.2

(b) Maritime Administration (6. 7) (4. 3) (9. 6)

(1) Research 2. 4 1. 7 5. 4

(2) Development of new equip-

ment and technology 4. 3

3. Department of the Interior 34. 2

(a) Bureau of Commercial Fisheries... (24.9)

(1) Research 17.0

(Research ship operating

costs) (2. 5)

(2) Development of new equip-

ment and technology 7. 9

(b) Geological Survey (2. 9)

(1) Research 2.9

(Research ship operating

(costs) ^0. 2)

(2) Development of new equip-

ment and technology 0. 0

(c) Office of Saline Water (1.9)

(1) Research 0.6

(2) Development of new equip-

ment and technology 1.3

14.8

(5.2)
4.0

4.2

38.0

(27. 1)
18.3

(3.0)

8.9

8. '»

(2.8)

(3.1)

2.8

3. 1

(0.2)

0.0

0.0

(1.9)

(2.6)

0.6

0.8

1.3

1.8

213

Marine Science Affairs

(1.6)
1.6

(1.7)
1.7

(1.8)
1.8

0.0
(0.9)
0.4

0.0

(1.1)
0.5

0.0
(0.6)
0.3

(0.3)

(0.4)

(0.2)

0.5

0.6

0.3

(2.0)
2.0

(2.9)
2.9

(2.8)
2.8

Appendix A-3 — Total Federal Marine Science Program by
Function — ^Continued

Detail by Agency— Continued

(Millions of dollars)

Estimated Estimated President's
FY 1968 FY 1969 budget

FY 1970

A. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT— Continued

3. Department of the Interior — Continued

(d) Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife . ,

( 1 ) Research

(2) Development of new equip-

ment and technology

(e) Bureau of Mines

( 1 ) Research

(Research ship operating

costs)

(2) Development of new equip-

ment and technology

( f ) Federal Water Pollution Control Admin-

istration

( 1 ) Reseju-ch

(2) Development of new equip-

ment and technology 0.0 0.0 0. 0

4. National Science Foundation

( 1 ) Research

(Resezu-ch ship operating
costs)

5. Atomic Energy Commission

( 1 ) Research

(Research ship operating
costs)

(2) Development of new equip-

ment and technology

6. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. .

(a) Consumer Protection and Environ-

mental Health Services

( 1 ) Research

(b) National Institutes of Health

( 1 ) Research

(c) Office of Education

( 1 ) Research

33. 1

33.3

42.0

33. 1
(8.6)

33.3
(8.6)

42.0
(8.8)

13.8

10.4

11.4

5.9

(0.3)

7.9

5.9
(0.3)
4.5

6. 1

(0.3)

5.3

6.5

6.9

6.8

(2. 7)
2.7

(2.6)
2.6

(1.2)
1.2

(2.8)
2.8

(2.6)
2.6

(1.5)
1.5

(2.7)
2.7

(2.6)
2.6

(1.5)
1.5

214

Appendices

Appendix A-3 — Total Federal Marine Science Program by
Function — Continued

Detail by Agency— Continued

(Millions of dollars)

Estimated Estimated President's
FY 1968 FY 1969 budget

FY 1970

A. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT— Continued

7. Department cf Transportation 3. 6 6. 7 18. 6

(1) Research 2.9 5.1 15.5

(Research ship operating costs) (2. 2) (2. 7) (3. 2)

(2) Development of new equipment and

technology 0. 7 1.6 3. 1

8. Smithsonian Institution

( 1 ) Research

9. Department of State

( 1 ) Development of new equipment and
technology

10. National Aeronautics and Space Adminis-
tration

( 1 ) Research

B. INVESTMENT

Total

1 . Department of Defense

(a) Department of the Navy (32. 3) (47. 9) (49. 2)

(1) Ships (new construction of

surface ships) 4. 7 0. 0 0. 0

(2) Major equipment 25. 9 40. 9 45. 4

(3) Shore facilities 1.7 7.0 3.8

(b) Department of the Army (0. 3) (0. 3) (0. 2)

(1) Shore facilities 0.3 0.3 0.2

1.6

1.6

1.6

1.6

1.6

1.6

6.6

7.0

7. 1

6.6

7.0

7. 1

1.8

1.8

1.7

1.8

1.8

1.7

55.5

77.8

70. 1

32.6

48.2

49.4

2, Department of Commerce 2. 0 0. 9 1.1

(a) Environmental Science Services Ad-

ministration (1.9) (0.9) (0.6)

(1) Ships 0.0 0.0 0.0

(2) Shore facilities 0.2 0.0 0.0

(3) Major equipment 1.7 0. 9 0. 6

(b) Maritime Administration (0. 1 ) (0. 0) (0. 5)

(1) Shore facilities 0.1 0.0 0.5

215

Marine Science Affairs

Appendix A-3— Total Federal Marine Science Program by
Function — Continued

Detail by Agency— Continued

(Millions of dollars)

Estimated
FY 1968

Estimated
FY 1969

President's
budget
FY 1970

B. INVESTMENT— Continued

3. Department of the Interior 10. 3

(a) Bureau of Commercial Fisheries

(1) Ships

(2) Shore facilities

(3) Major equipment

(b) Geological Survey

( 1 ) Shore facilities

(2) Major equipment

(c) Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife

( 1 ) Shore facilities

(2) Major equipment

(3) Other

(d) Bureau of Mines

(1) Ships

(2) Shore facilities

(3) Major equipment

(e) Bureau of Outdoor Recreation

( 1 ) Shore facilities

4. National Science Foundation

(1) Ships

(2) Shore facilities

5. Department of Transportation

(a) Coast Guard

(1) Ships

(2) Major equipment

6. Agency for International Development

(1) Other

9.7

10.4

(2.4)

(2.1)

(3.2)

0.5

0. 1

0.0

1.9

2.0

3.2

0.0

0.0

0.0

(0.4)

(0.4)

(0.2)

0.2

0.2

0. 1

0.2

0.2

0. 1

(2.1)

(2.9)

(2.7)

0.4

0.6

0.3

0.0

0.0

0.0

1.7

2.3

2.4

(0. 4)

(0.4)

(0.3)

0.2

0.2

0.0

0. 1

0. 1

0.2

0. 1

0. 1

0. 1

(5. 0)

(3.9)

(4.0)

5.0

3.9

4.0

4.7

1.4

3.0

0.7

0.0

2.0

4.0

1.4

1.0

2.9

15. 1

1.6

(2.9)

(15.1)

(1.6)

1.5

14.8

0.3

1.4

0.3

1.3

3.0

2.5

4.6

3.0

2.5

4.6

216

Appendices

Appendix A-3 — Total Federal Marine Science Program by
Function- -Continued

Detail by Agency— Continued

(Millions of doUars)

Estimated Estimated President's
FY 1968 FY 1969 budget

FY 1970

C. OPERATIONS

Total 130.9 145.4 160.0

1. Department of Defense 75. 2 81.1 92. 6

(a) Department of the Navy (75. 0)

(1) Surveys 70.2

(Survey ship operating costs) . . ( (24. 1 ) )

(2) Services • 3. 4

(3) Other (Education) 1.4

(b) Department of the A.rmy (0. 2)

( 1 ) Services 0. 2

(80. 9)

(92. 4)

75.9

86.6

((22.3))

((24.3))

3.4

4. 1

1.6

1.8

(0.2)

(0.2)

0.2

0.2

2. Department of Commerce 20. 2 23. 1 24. 7

(a) Environmental Science Services
Administration

( 1 ) Surveys

(Survey ship operating costs). .

(2) Services

3. Department of the Interior

(a) Bureau of Commercial Fisheries

( 1 ) Surveys

(Survey ship operating costs).

(2) Services

(Service ship operating costs).

(b) Geological Survey

(1) Other

(c) Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife . .

( 1 ) Surveys

(2) Services

(3) Other

(d) Federal Water Pollution Control Ad-

ministration

( 1 ) Surveys

(2) Services

(e) Bureau of Land Management

( 1 ) Services

(f) National Park Service

( 1 ) Services

(20.2)
19.9

(23. 1 )
22.7

(24. 7)
24.3

((6.6))
0.3

((7.9))
0.4

((8.6))
0.4

26.0

28.3

29.8

(13.7)
6.0

(14.8)
6.6

(15.1)
6.7

((1.2))
7.7

((1.1))
8.2

((1.3))
8.4

((0.3))
(0.8)
0.8

((0.3))

(1.1)

1. 1

((0.3))

(1.4)

1.4

(4.7)
0.4

(5.0)
0.7

(4.9)
0.6

0. 1

0. 1

0. 1

4.2

4.2

4.2

(2. 9)
0.8

(3.3)
0.9

(3.9)
1. 1

2. 1

2.4

2.8

(0. 2)
0 2

(0.3)
0.3

(0.5)
0.5

(3. 7)
3.7

(3.8)
3.8

(4.0)
4.0

217

Marine Science Affairs

Appendix A-3 — ^Totai Federal Marine Science Program by
Function — Continued

Detail by Agency — Continued

(Millions of dollars)

Estimated Estimated President's
FY 1968 FY 1969 budget

FY 1970

C. OPERATIONS— Continued

4. National Science Foundation 0. 3 0. 3 0. 4

( 1 ) Services

5. Department of Transportation

(a) Coast Guard (8.9) (12.3) (12.1)

(1) Surveys 8.7 11.9 11.6

(Survey ship operating costs) . . ( (7. 8 ) ) ( ( 1 0. 7 ) ) ( ( 1 0. 7 ) )

(2) Services 0.1 0.1 0.1

(3) Other Operations 0. 1 0. 3 0. 4

6. Smithsonian Institution

( 1 ) Services

7. Atomic Energy Commission:

(1) Services (<•) (») (<»)

• Less than $50,000.

0.3

0.3

0.4

8.9

12.3

12. 1

0.3

0.3

0.4

0.3

0.3

0.4

218

Appendices

Appendix A-4 — Special Analysis: U.S. Continental Shelves (Including

Trust Territories)

(Millions of dollars)

Estimated
FY 1968

Estimated
FY 1969

President's
budget
FY 1970

Smithsonian Institution 0. 1

Department of Commerce 15. 0

Atomic Energy Commission 2. 9

Department of Transportation 0. 1

National Science Foundation 0. 5

Department of the Interior 30. 5

1 . Bureau of Commercial Fisheries (18. 5)

2. Geological Survey (3. 4)

3. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife. ..... (0. 9)

4. Bureau of Mines (1-1)

5. Bureau of Land Management (0. 2)

6. Office of Saline Water (0. 7)

7. National Park Service (5. 7)

Department of Defense 6. 7

1 . Department of the Army (3. 1 )

2. Department of the Navy (3. 6)

Total 55.8

0. 1

0. 1

16.0

16.6

3.0

2.9

0. 1

0. 1

1.0

1.0

26.0

27.7

(17.0)

(17.4)

(3.6)

(4.1)

(0.9)

(0.8)

(1.2)

(0.7)

(0.3)

(0.5)

(0.8)

(1.1)

(2.2)

(3.1)

8. 1

8.4

(3.2)

(3.0)

(4.9)

(5.4)

54. 3

56.8

Appendix A-5 — Special Analysis: The Great Lakes

(MLUions of dollars)

Estimated Estimated President's
FY 1968 FY 1969 budget

FY 1970

Department of Commerce

Department of Transportation

Department of State

National Science Foundation

Department of the Interior

1 . Bureau of Commercial Fisheries

2. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife

3. National Park Service

Department of Defense

1 . Department of the Army

2. Department of the Navy

Total

0. 1

0. 1

0. 1

0. 1

0. 1

0. 1

1.0

1.0

1. 1

0.2

0.7

0.7

4.9

4.8

6.0

(2.2)

(2.6)

(2.6)

(2.2)

(1.6)

(1.6)

(0.5)

(0.6)

(1.8)

3.7

3.8

3.6

(3.6)

(3.7)

(3.5)

(0.1)

(0.1)

(0.1)

10.0

10.5

11.6

219

Marine Science Affairs

Appendix A-6 — Special Analysis: Estuaries

(Millions of dollars)

Estimated Estimated President's
FY 1968 FY 1969 budget

FY 1970

Smithsonian Institution

Department of Commerce

Atomic Energy Commission

Department of Transportation

National Science Foundation

Department of the Interior

1 . Bureau of Commercial Fisheries

2. Geological Survey

3. Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife

4. Federal Water Pollution Control Admin-

istration

5. Office of Saline Water

6. National Park Service

Depjirtment of Defense

1 . Department of the Army

2. Department of the Navy

Total

0. 1

0. 1

0. 1

0.6

0.6

0.7

0.4

0.4

0.4

(")

(<•)

(«)

0.6

1.0

1.0

20.8

22.3

24.0

(7.8)

(7.1)

(7.1)

(0.6)

(0.6)

(0.5)

(5.3)

(7.1)

(7.0)

(4.9)

(6.2)

(6.7)

(0.7)

(0.7)

(0.8)

(1.5)

(0.6)

(1.9)

4.0

4.4

4.4

(2.2)

(2.3)

(2.2)

(1.8)

(2.1)

(2.2)

26.5

28.8

30.6

■" Less than $50,000.

Appendix A-7 — Special Analysis: Excess Foreign Currency Programs"

(MUlions of dollars)

Estimated Estimated President's
FY 1968 FY 1969 budget

FY 1970

1 . Fishery Development and Seafood Technology :

(a) Department of the Interior:

( 1 ) Fishery resources assessment, de-
velopment, and management 0. 1

2. Oceanographic Research:

(a) Department of Commerce (ESSA) C")

(b) Smithsonian Institution:

( 1 ) Specimen research

3. Data Centers:

(a) Smithsonian Institution:

( 1 ) Service operations 0. 2

Total 1.0

0.7

0.2
0. 1
0.8

0.2

0.0
0. 1
1.5

0.3

1.3

1.9

" Excess Foreign Currency funds reported herein are not included in any of the other funding tables.
' Less than $50,000.

220

Appendices

APPENDIX B— FEDERAL LEGISLATION AND CONGRESSIONAL
RESOLUTIONS RELATED TO MARINE SCIENCES

Appendix B-1— Selected Legislation of the 89th and 90th Congresses

Public Law 89-72 (July 9, 1965) — Federal Water Project Recreation Act, provided
uniform policies with respect to recreation, fish, and wildhfe benefits, and costs of
federal multi-purpose water resources projects.

Public Law 89-80 (July 21, 1965) — Water Resources Planning Act, provided for
coordinated planning of water and related land resources, through the establish-
ment of a water resources council and river basin commissions, and provided funds
to the states to increase state participation in such planning.

Public Law 89-99 (July 30, 1965) — Exempted oceanographic research vessels from
application of certain inspection laws.

Public Law 89-234 (October 2, 1965) — Water Quality Act of 1965, estabhshed the
Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, provided grants for research and
development, increased grants for construction of sewage treatment works, and
required establishment of water quality criteria.

Public Law 89-298 (October 27, 1955) — Omnibus rivers and harbors act which
included a study of water utilization and control of Chesapeake Bay and construc-
tion of a large scale model for this purpose.

Public Law 89-302 (October 30, 1965) — Authorized use by the Secretary of the
Interior of land at La Jolla, California, donated by the University of California,
for a marine biological research laboratory.

Public Law 89-454 (June 17, 1966) — Marine Resources and Engineering Develop-
ment Act of 1966, established a national policy to advance marine sciences and
created a cabinet level Council and advisory Commission.

Public Law 89-658 (October 14, 1966) — Established a contiguous fishing zone be-
yond the territorial sea of the United States.

Public Law 89-670 (October 15, 1966) — Provided for a Department of Transporta-
tion which would include the Coast Guard.

Public Law 89-688 (October 15, 1966) — National Sea Grant College and Program
Act of 1966, added a Title II to P.L. 89-454 authorizing grants to institutions
to operate programs of applied research, training and education, and information
dissemination; amended by P.L. 90-477, August 1 1, 1968.

Public Law 89-701 (November 2, 1966) — Authorized funds to determine practicable
and economic means for the production of fish-protein concentrate which would
include construction and leasing of experimental FPC plants.

Public Law 89-753 (November 3, 1966) — Clean Water Restoration Act of 1966, pro-
vided for Federal assistance to and cooperation with groups developing water
quality control and pollution abatement programs and authorized a national
estuarine pollution study.

Public Law 90-18 (May 19, 1967) — Provided for the participation of the Depart-
ment of the Interior in the construction and operation of a large prototype desalting
plant in southern California.

Public Law 90-137 (November 14, 1967) — Foreign Assistance Act of 1967, amended
the 1961 Act to authorize, among others, a program to demonstrate the potential
and encourage the use of fish and other protein concentrates as a practical means of
reducing nutritional deficiencies in less-developed countries and areas. The President
was urged to use at least $2,500,000 of the total funds authorized by the Act for this
particular program.

221

Marine Science Affairs

Appendix B-1 — Selected Legislation of the 89tli and 90th Congresses — Con.

Public Law 90-205 (December 15, 1967)— Amended the Act of October 4, 1961,
relating to the acquisition of wetlands for conservation of migratory waterfowl,
to extend for an additional eight years the period during which funds may be
appropriated under that Act, and for other purposes.

Public Law 90-242 (January 2, 1968) — Amended the Marine Resources and Engi-
neering Development Act of 1966 to extend the time for the Commission to render
its report to January 9, 1969 and authorize the Council until June 30, 1969.

Public Law 90-268 (March 16, 1 968 ) —Amended the Merchant Marine Act of 1936
to provide for study of means to encourage development and implementation of
new concepts for the carriage of cargo, including containerization.

Public Law 90-401 (July 15, 1968) — Amended the Land and Water Conservation
Act of 1965 to authorize funding at $200 million a year through FY 1973 and use
of Outer Continental Shelf revenues to make up difference between actual appro-
priation and $200 million.

Public Law 90-419 (July 24, 1968) — Created an eight-state Great Lakes Compact
to develop, use, and conserve the water resources of that basin, and a Great Lakes
Basin Commission.

Public Law 90-427 (July 26, 1968) — Prohibited foreign vessels from engaging in fish-
eries, or in fishing fleet support activities, in the territorial seas of the U.S. and its
territories except as provided by international agreement.

Public Law 90-454 (August 3, 1968) — Authorized the Secretary of the Interior, in
cooperation with the States, to conduct an inventory and study of the Nation's estu-
aries and their natural resources.

Public Law 90-482 (August 12, 1968) — Amended the Fishermen's Protective Act
of 1967 to guarantee owners of fishing vessels all costs incurred during a period of
illegal seizure and detention of vessels including damages to boat and catch.

Public Law 90-483 (September 4, 1968) — Omnibus rivers and harbors act which
included planning for surveys of erosion of the coasts of the United States, exclud-
ing the Great Lakes, disposal of drift and other harbor debris, and prevention of
shore damage due to navigation projects.

Public Law 90-515 (September 26, 1968) — National Water Commission Act, estab-
lished a National Water Commission to review present and future water problems,
consider economic and social consequences of water resources developments, advise
of matters referred to it by the President and the Water Resources Council, and to
submit a final report in not for than 5 years.

Public Law 90-549 (October 4, 1968)— Amended PL 89-701 to reduce the number
of experimental plants authorized for the development of fish protein concentrate
to one plant to be provided either through construction or leasing and thus author-
ized sufficient funds for completion of one demonstration plant.

Appendix B-2 — Marine Resources and Engineering Development

Act of 1966

(Public Law 89-454, June 17, 1966)

AN ACT To provide for a comprehensive, long-range, and coordinated national program
in marine science, to establish a National Council on Marine Resources and Engineering
Development, and a Commission on Marine Science, Engineering and Resources, and
for other purpose.^.

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of
America in Congress assembled. That this Act may be cited as the "Marine Resources
and Engineering Development Act of 1966".

222

Appendices

Appendix B-2 — Marine Resources and Engineering Development
Act of 1966— Continued

DECLARATION OF POLICY AND OBJECTIVES

Sec. 2. (a) Jt is hereby declared to be the policy of the United States to develop,
encourage, and maintain a coordinated, comprehensive, and long-range national pro-
gram in marine science for the benefit of mankind to assist in protection of health
and property, enhancement of commerce, transportation, and national security, re-
habilitation of our commercial fisheries, and increased utilization of these and other
resources.

(b) The marine science activities of the United States should be conducted so as
to contribute to the following objectives:

( 1 ) The accelerated development of the resources of the marine environment.

(2) The expansion of human knowledge of the marine envirormient.

(3) The encouragement of private investment enterprise in exploration, tech-
nological development, marine commerce, and economic utilization of the re-
sources of the marine environment.

(4) The preservation of the role of the United States as a leader in marine
science and resource development.

(5) The advancement of education and training in marine science.

(6) The development and improvement of the capabihties, performance, use,
and efficiency of vehicles, equipment, and instruments for use in exploration, re-
search, surveys, the recovery of resources, and the transmission of energy in the
marine environment.

(7) The effective utilization of the scientific and engineering resources of the
Nation, with close cooperation among all interested agencies, public and private,
in order to avoid unnecessar>' duplication of effort, facilities, and equipment, or
waste.

(8) The cooperation by the United States with other nations and groups of
nations and international organizations in marine science activities when such co-
operation is in the national interest.

THE NATIONAL COUNCIL ON MARINE RESOURCES AND ENGINEERING DEVELOPMENT

Sec. 3. (a) There is hereby established, in the Executive Office of the President,
the National Council on Marine Resources and Engineering Development (herein-
after called the "Council") which shall be composed of —

( 1 ) The Vice President, who shall be Chairman of the Council.

(2) The Secretary of State.

(3) The Secretary of the Navy.

(4) The Secretary of the Interior.
(3) The Secretary of Commerce.

(6) The Chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission.

(7 ) The Director of the National Science Foundation.

(8) The Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare.

(9) The Secretary of the Treasury.

(b) The President may name ;o the Council such other officers and officials as
he deems advisable.

(c) The President shall from time to time designate one of the members of the
Council to preside over meetings of the Council during the absence, disability, or un-
availability of the Chairman.

(d) Each member of the Council, except those designated pursuant to subsection
(b), may designate any officer of his department or agency appointed with the advice
and consent of the Senate to serve on the Council as his alternate in his unavoidable
absence.

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Appendix B-2 — Marine Resources and Engineering Development
Act of 1966— Continued

(e) The Council may employ a staff to be headed by a civilian executive secretary
who shall be appointed by the President and shall receive compensation at a rate es-
tablished by the President at not to exceed that of level II of the Federal Executive
Salary Schedule. The executive secretary, subject to the direction of the Council, is au-
thorized to appoint and fix the compensation of such personnel, including not more
than seven persons who may be appointed without regard to civil service laws or the
Classification Act of 1949 and compensated at not to exceed the highest rate of grade
18 of the General Schedule of the Classification Act of 1949, as amended, as may be
necessary to perform such duties as may be prescribed by the President.

(f) The provisions of this Act with respect to the Council shall expire one hundred
and twenty days after the submission of the final report of the Conunission pursuant
to section 5(h).

RESPONSIBILITIES

Sec. 4. (a) In conformity with the provisions of section 2 of this Act, it shall be
the duty of the President with the advice and assistance of the Council to — -

( 1 ) survey all significant marine science activities, including the policies, plans,
programs, and accomplishments of all departments and agencies of the United
States engaged in such activities ;

(2) develop a comprehensive program of marine science activities, including,
but not limited to, exploration, description and prediction of the marine environ-
ment, exploitation and conservation of the resources of the marine environment,
marine engineering, studies of air-sea interaction, transmission of energy, and
communications, to be conducted by departments and agencies of the United
States, independently or in cooperation with such non-Federal organizations as
States, institutions and industry;

(3) designate and fix responsibility for the conduct of the foregoing marine
science activities by departments and agencies of the United States;

(4) insure cooperation and resolve differences arising among departments and
agencies of the United States with respect to marine science activities under this
Act, including differences as to whether a particular project is a marine science
activity ;

(5) undertake a comprehensive study, by contract or otherwise, of the legal
problems arising out of the management, use, development, recovery, and control
of the resources of the marine environment;

(6) establish long-range studies of the potential benefits to the United States
economy, security, health, and welfare to be gained from marine resources, engi-
neering, and science, and the costs involved in obtaining such benefits ; and

(7) review annually all marine science activities conducted by departments
and agencies of the United States in light of the policies, plans, programs, and
priorities developed pursuant to this Act.

(b) In the planning and conduct of a coordinated Federal program the President
and the Council shall utilize such staff, interagency, and non-Government advisory
arrangements as they may find necessary and appropriate and shall consult with de-
partments and agencies concerned with marine science activities and solicit the views
of non-Federal organizations and individuals with capabilities in marine sciences.

COMMISSION ON MARINE SCIENCE, ENGINEERING, AND RESOURCES

Sec. 5. (a) The President shall establish a Commission on Marine Science, Engi-
neering, and Resources (in this Act referred to as the "Commission"). The Commis-
sion shall be composed of fifteen members appointed by the President, including

224

Appendices

Appendix B-2— Marine Resources and Engineering Development
Act of 1966 — Continued

individuals drawn from Federal and State governments, industry, universities, labora-
tories and other institutions engaged in marine scientific or technological pursuits, but
not more than five members shall be from the Federal Government. In addition the
Commission shall have four advisory members appointed by the President from among
the Members of the Senate and the House of Representatives. Such advisory members
shall not participate, except in an advisory capacity, in the formulation of the findings
and recommendations of the Commission. The President shall select a Chairman and
Vice Chairman from among such fifteen members. The Vice Chairman shall act as
Chairman in the latter's absence.

(b) The Commission shall make a comprehensive investigation and study of all
aspects of marine science in order to recommend an overall plan for an adequate na-
tional oceanographic program that will meet the present and future national needs.
The Commission shall undertake a review of existing and planned marine science ac-
tivities of the United States in order to assess their adequacy in meeting the objectives
set forth under section 2 (b), including but not limited to the following:

( 1 ) Review the known and contemplated needs for natural resources from the
marine environment to maintain our expanding national economy.

(2) Review the surveys, applied research programs, and ocean engineering
projects required to obtain the needed resources from the marine environment.

( 3 ) Review the existing national research programs to insure realistic and ade-
quate support for basic oceanographic research that will enhance human welfare
and scientific knowledge.

(4) Review the existing oceanographic and ocean engineering programs, in-
cluding education and technical training, to determine which programs are re-
quired to advance our national oceanographic competence and stature and which
are not adequately supported.

(5) Analyze the findings of the above reviews, including the economic factors
involved, and recommend an adequate national marine science program that will
meet the present and future national needs without unnecessary duplication of
effort.

(6) Recommend a Governmental organizational plan with estimated cost.

(c) Members of the Commission appointed from outside the Government shall
each receive $100 per diem when engaged in the actual performance of duties of
the Commission and reimbursement of travel expenses, including per diem in lieu
of subsistence, as authorized in section 5 of the Administrative Expenses Act of 1946,
as amended (5 U.S.C. 73b-2), for persons employed intermittently. Members of the
Commission appointed from within the Government shall serve without additional
compensation to that received for their services to the Government but shall be re-
imbursed for travel expenses, including per diem in lieu of subsistence, as author-
ized in the Act of June 9, 1949, as amended (5 U.S.C. 835-842) .

(d) The Commission shall appoint and fix the compensation of such personnel
as it deems advisable in accordance with the civil service laws and the Classification
Act of 1949, as amended. In addition, the Commission may secure temporary and
intermittent services to the same extent as is authorized for the departments by sec-
tion 15 of the Administrative Expenses Act of 1946 (60 Stat. 810) but at rates
not to exceed $100 per diem for individuals.

(e) The Chairman of the Commission shall be responsible for (1) the assignment
of duties and responsibilities among such personnel and their continuing supervision,
and (2) the use and expenditures of funds available to the Commission. In carrying
out the provisions of this subsection, the Chairman shall be governed by the general
policies of the Commission with respect to the work to be accomplished by it and
the timing thereof.

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Marine Science Affairs

Appendix B-2 — Marine Resources and Engineering Development
Act of 1966— Continued

(f) Financial and administrative services (including those related to budgeting,
accounting, financial reporting, personnel, and procurement) may be provided the
Commission by the General Services Administration, for which payment shall be made
in advance, or by reimbursement from funds of the Commission in such amounts as
may be agreed upon by the Chairman of the Commission and the Administrator of
General Services: Provided, That the regulations of the General Services Administra-
tion for the collection of indebtedness of personnel resulting from erroneous payments
(5 U.S.C. 46d) shall apply to the collection of erroneous payments made to or on be-
half of a Commission employee, and regulations of said Administrator for the
administrative control of funds (31 U.S.C. 665(g)) shall apply to appropriations of
the Commission: And provided further. That the Commission shall not be required to
prescribe such regulations.

(g) The Commission is authorized to secure directly from any executive depart-
ment, agency, or independent instrumentality of the Government any information
it deems necessary to carry out its functions under this Act; and each such department,
agency, and instrumentality is authorized to cooperate with the Commission and,
to the extent permitted by law, to furnish such information to the Commission, upon
request made by the Chairman.

(h) The Commission shall submit to the President, via the Council, and to the
Congress not later than eighteen months after the establishment of the Commis-
sion as provided in subsection (a) of this section, a final report of its findings and
recommendations. The Commission shall cease to exist thirty days after it has sub-
mitted its final report.

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION

Sec. 6. The Council, under the foreign policy guidance of the President and as
he may request, shall coordinate a program of international cooperation in work done
pursuant to this Act, pursuant to agreements made by the President with the advice
and consent of the Senate.

REPORTS

Sec. 7. (a) The President shall transmit to the Congress in January of each year
a report, which shall include ( 1 ) a comprehensive description of the activities and
the accomplishments of all agencies and departments of the United States in the field
of marine science during the preceding fiscal year, and (2) an evaluation of such
activities and accomplishments in terms of the objectives set forth pursuant to this
Act.

(b) Reports made under this section shall contain such recommendations for
legislation as the President may consider necessary or desirable for the attainment of
the objectives of this Act, and shall contain an estimate of funding requirements of
each agency and department of the United States for marine science activities during
the succeeding fiscal year.

DEFINITIONS

Sec. 8. For the purposes of this Act the term "marine science" shall be deemed
to apply to oceanographic and scientific endeavors and disciplines, and engineering
and technology in and with relation to the marine environment; and the term "ma-
rine environment" shall be deemed to include (a) the oceans, (b) the Continental
Shelf of the United States, (c) the Great Lakes, (d) seabed and subsoil of the sub-
marine areas adjacent to the coasts of the United States to the depth of two hundred
meters, or beyond that limit, to where the depths of the superjacent waters admit of
the exploitation of the natural resources of such areas, (e) the seabed and subsoil of

226

Appendices

Appendix B-2 — Marine Resources and Engineering Development
Act of 1966— Continued

similar submarine areas adjacent to the coasts of islands which comprise United States
territory, and (f) the resources thereof.

AUTHORIZATION

Sec. 9. There are hereby authorized to be appropriated such sums as may be neces-
sary to carry out this Act, but sums appropriated for any one fiscal year shall not
exceed $1,500,000.

Amendment
(PubHc Law 90-242, January 2, 1968)

AN ACT To amend the Marine Resources and Engineering Development Act of 1966, as
amended, to extend the period of time within which the Commission on Marine Science,
Engineering, and Resources is to submit its final report and to provide for a fixed ex-
piration date for the National Council on Marine Resources and Engineering Development.

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of
American in Congress assembled. That the Marine Resources and Engineering Devel-
opment Act of 1966 is amended as follows:

Subparagraph (h) of section 5 is amended by striking out "eighteen" and inserting
"twenty-four" in lieu thereof.

Sec. 2. Subparagraph (f) of section 3 is amended by striking out "one hundred
and twenty days after the submission of the final report of the Commission pursuant
to section 5(h) ." and inserting in lieu thereof " 'on June 30, 1969.' ".

Appendix B-3 — National Sea Grant College and Program Act of 1966

(Public Law 89-688, October 15, 1966)

AN ACT To amend the Marine Resources and Engineering Development Act of 1966 to
authorize the establishment and operation of sea grant colleges and programs by initiat-
ing and supporting programs of education and research in the various fields relating to
the development of marine resources, and for other purposes.

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of
America in Congress assembled, That the Marine Resources and Engineering Developn
ment Act of 1966 is amended by adding at the end thereof the following new title:

"TITLE II— SEA GRANT COLLEGES AND PROGRAMS

"short title

"Sec. 201. This title may be cited as the 'National Sea Grant College and Program
Act of 1966'.

"declaration of purpose

"Sec. 202. The Congress hereby finds and declares —

"(a) that marine resources, including animal and vegetable life and mineral
wealth, constitute a far-reaching and largely untapped asset of immense potential
significance to the United States; and

227

329^66 O— ^69 16

Marine Science Affairs

Appendix B-3 — National Sea Grant College and Program
Act of 1966 — Continued

"(b) that it is in the national interest of the United States to develop the
skilled manpower, including scientists, engineers, and technicians, and the fa-
cilities and equipment necessary for the exploitation of these resources; and

"(c) that aquaculture, as with agriculture on land, and the gainful use of
marine resources can substantially benefit the United States, and ultimately the
people of the world, by providing greater economic opportunities, including ex-
panded employment and commerce; the enjoyment and use of our marine re-
sources; new sources of food; and new means for the development of marine
resources; and

"(d) that Federal support toward the establishment, development, and opera-
tion of programs by sea grant colleges and Federal support of other sea grant
programs designed to achieve the gainful use of marine resources, offer the best
means of promoting programs toward the goals set forth in clauses (a), (b), and
(c), and should be undertaken by the Federal Government; and

"(e) that in view of the importance of achieving the earliest possible institution
of significant national activities related to the development of marine resources, it
is the purpose of this title to provide for the establishment of a program of sea
grant colleges and education, training, and research in the fields of marine science,
engineering, and related disciplines.

"grants and contracts for sea grant colleges and programs

"Sec. 203. (a) The provisions of this title shall be administered by the National
Science Foundation (hereafter in this title referred to as the 'Foundation').

"(b)(1) For the purpose of carrying out this title, there is authorized to be ap-
propriated to the Foundation for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1967, not to exceed
the sum of $5,000,000, for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1968, not to exceed the
sum of $15,000,000, and for each subsequent fiscal year only such sums as the Con-
gress may hereafter specifically authorize by law.

"(2) Amounts appropriated under this title are authorized to remain available until
expended.

"marine resources

"Sec. 204. (a) In carrying out the provisions of this title the Foundation shall

( 1 ) consult with those experts engaged in pursuits in the various fields related to
the development of marine resources and with all departments and agencies of the
Federal Government (including the United States Office of Education in all matters
relating to education) interested in, or affected by, activities in any such fields, and

(2) seek advice and counsel from the National Council on Marine Resources and
Engineering Development as provided by section 205 of this title.

"(b) The Foundation shall exercise its authority under this title by —

" ( 1 ) initiating and supporting programs at sea grant colleges and other suit-
able institutes, laboratories, and public or private agencies for the education of
participants in the various fields relating to the development of marine resources;
"(2) initiating and supporting necessary research programs in the various fields
relating to the development of marine resources, with preference given to re-
search aimed at practices, techniques, and design of equipment applicable to the
development of marine resources; and

"(3) encouraging and developing programs consisting of instruction, practical
demonstrations, publications, and otherwise, by sea grant colleges and other suit-

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Appendices

Appendix B-3 — National Sea Grant College and Program
Act of 1966 — Continued

able institutes, laboratories, and public or private agencies through marine
advisory programs with the object of imparting useful information to persons cur-
rendy employed or interested in the various fields related to the development of
marine resources, the scientific community, and the general public.
"(c) Programs to carry out the purposes of this title shall be accomplished through
contracts with, or grants to, suitable public or private institutions of higher education,
institutes, laboratories, and public or private agencies which are engaged in, or con-
cerned with, activities in the various fields related to the development of marine re-
sources, for the establishment and operation by them of such programs.

"(d) (1) The total amount of payments in any fiscal year under any grant to or
contract with any participant in any program to be carried out by such participant un-
der this title shall not exceed 6634 per centum of the total cost of such program.
For purposes of computing the amount of the total cost of any such program furnished
by any participant in any fiscal year, the Foundation shall include in such computa-
tion an amount equal to the reasonable value of any buildings, facilities, equipment,
supplies, or services provided by such participant with respect to such program (but
not the cost or value of land or of Federal contributions).

"(2) No portion of any payment by the Foundation to any participant in any pro-
gram to be carried out under this title shall be applied to the purchase or rental of
any land or the rental, purchase, construction, preservation, or repair of any building,
dock, or vessel.

" ( 3 ) The total amount of payments in any fiscal year by the Foundation to partici-
pants within any State shall not exceed 15 per centum of the total amount appro-
priated to the Foundation for the purposes of this title for such fiscal year.

"(e) In allocating funds appropriated in any fiscal year for the purposes of this
title the Foundation shall endeavor to achieve maximum participation by sea grant
colleges and other suitable institutes, laboratories, and public or private agencies
throughout the United States, consistent with the purposes of this title.

"(f) In carrying out its functions under this title, the Foundation shall attempt
to support programs in such a manner as to supplement and not duplicate or overlap
any existing and related Government activities.

"(g) Except as otherwise provided in this title, the Foundation shall, in carrying
out its functions under this title, have the same powers and authority it has under the
National Science Foundation Act of 1950 to carry out its functions under that Act.
"(h) The head of each department, agency, or instrumentality of the Federal Gov-
ernment is authorized, upon request of the Foundation, to make available to the
Foundation, from time to time, on a reimbursable basis, such personnel, services, and
facilities as may be necessary to assist the Foundation in carrying out its functions
under this title.

"(i) For the purposes of this title —

"(1) the term 'development of marine resources' means scientific endeavors
relating to the marine environment, including, but not limited to, the fields
oriented toward the development, conservation, or economic utilization of the
physical, chemical, geological, and biological resources of the marine environ-
ment; the fields of marine commerce and marine engineering; the fields relating
to exploration or research in, the recovery of natural resources from, and the
transmission of energy in, the marine environment; the fields of oceanography
and oceanology; and the fields with respect to the study of the economic, legal,
medical, or sociological problems arising out of the management, use, develop-
ment, recovery, and control of the natural resources of the marine environment;

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Marine Science Affairs

Appendix B-3— National Sea Grant College and Program
Act of 1966 — Continued

"(2) the term 'marine environment' means the oceans; the Continental Shelf
of the United States; the Great Lakes; the seabed and subsoil of the submarine
areas adjacent to the coasts of the United States to the depth of two hundred
meters, or beyond that limit, to where the depths of the superjacent waters admit
of the exploitation of the natural resources of the area; the seabed and subsoil
of similar submarine areas adjacent to the coasts of islands which comprise United
States territory; and the natural resources thereof;

"(3) the term 'sea grant college' means any suitable public or private in-
stitution of higher education supported pursuant to the purposes of this title which
has major programs devoted to increasing our Nation's utilization of the world's
marine resources; and

"(4) the term 'sea grant program' means (A) any activities of education or
research related to the development of marine resources supported by the Founda-
tion by contracts with or grants to institutions of higher education either initiating,
or developing existing programs in fields related to the purposes of this title,
(B) any activities of education or research related to the development of marine
resources supported by the Foundation by contracts with or grants to suitable
institutes, laboratories, and public or private agencies, and (C) any programs
of advisory services oriented towards imparting information in fields related to
the development of marine resources supported by the Foundation by contracts
with or grants to suitable institutes, laboratories, and public or private agencies

"advisory functions

"Sec. 205. The National Council on Marine Resources and Engineering Develop-
ment established by section 3 of title I of this Act shall, as the President may
request —

"(1) advise the Foundation with respect to the policies, procedures, and
operations of the Foundation in carrying out its functions under this title;

"(2) provide policy guidance to the Foundation with respect to contracts or
grants in support of programs conducted pursuant to this title, and make such
recommendations thereon to the Foundation as may be appropriate; and

"(3) submit an annual report on its activities and its recommendations under

this section to the Speaker of the House of Representatives, the Committee on

Merchant Marine and Fisheries of the House of Representatives, the President

of the Senate, and the Committee on Labor and Public Welfare of the Senate."

Sec. 2. (a) The Marine Resources and Engineering Development Act of 1966 is

amended by striking out the first section and inserting in lieu thereof the following:

"TITLE I— MARINE RESOURCES AND ENGINEERING DEVELOPMENT

"short title

"Section 1. This title may be cited as the 'Marine Resources and Engineering
Development Act of 1966'."

(b) Such Act is further amended by striking out "this Act" the first place it appears
in section 4(a), and also each place it appears in sections 5(a), 8, and 9, and insert-
ing in lieu thereof in each such place "this title".

230

Appendices

Appendix B-3 — National Sea Grant College and Program
Act of 1966— Continued

Amendment

(Public I*aw 90-477, August 11, 1968)

AN ACT To amend, title II of the Marine Resources and Engineering Development Act

of 1966

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States
of America in Congress assembled. That title II of the Marine Resources and Engi-
neering Development Act of 1966 is amended as follows:

(1) Section 203(b)(1) of the Marine Resources and Engineering Development
Act of 1966 is amended by inserting immediately after "for the fiscal year ending
June 30, 1968, not to exceed the sum of $15,000,000," the following: "for the
fiscal year ending June 30, 1969, not to exceed the sum of $6,000,000, for the fiscal
year ending June 30, 1970, not to exceed the sum of $15,000,000,".

(2) Section 204(d)(1) of the Marine Resources and Engineering Development
Act of 1966 is amended by deleting the phrase "in any fiscal year" each time it ap-
pears therein.

Appendix B-4 — Senate Concurrent Resolution 72 — International Decade

of Ocean Exploration

Whereas the Congress finds that an unprecedented scientific and technological readi-
ness now exists for exploration of the oceans and their resources;
Whereas accelerated exploration of the nature, extent, and distribution of ocean re-
sources could significantly increase the food, mineral, and energy resources avail-
able for the benefit of mankind;
Whereas improved understanding of ocean processes would enhance the protection of
life and prop>erty against severe storms and other hazards, would further the
safety of maritime commerce, would directly contribute to the development of
coastal areas of the Nation, would benefit the Nation's fishing and mineral ex-
tractive industries, and would contribute to advancement of a broad range of
scientific disciplines;
Whereas realization of the full potential of the oceans will require a long-term pro-
gram of exploration, observation, and study on a world-wide basis, utilizing ships,
buoys, aircraft, satellites, undersea submersibles, and other platforms, advanced
navigation systems, and expanded data processing and distribution facilities;
Whereas the inherently international character of ocean phenomena has attracted the

interest of many nations ;
Whereas excellence, experience, and capabilities in marine science and technology are
shared by many nations and a broad program of ocean exploration can most
effectively and economically be carried out through a cooperative effort by many
nations of the world ; and
Whereas the United States has begun to explore through the United Nations and
other forums international interest in a long-term program of ocean exploration:
Now, therefore, be it
Resolved by the Senate of the United States (the House of Representatives con-
curring) \ That it is the sense of Congress that the United States should participate
in and give full support to an International Decade of Ocean Exploration during the
1970's which would include (1) an expanded national program of exploration in
waters close to the shores of the United States, (2) intensified exploration activities

' Not acted on by the House during 90th Congress.

231

Marine Science Affairs

Appendix B-4 — Senate Concurrent Resolution 72 — international Decade
of Oean Exploration — Continued

in waters more distant from the United States, and (3) accelerated development of
the capabilities of the United States to explore the oceans and particularly the train-
ing and education of needed scientists, engineers, and technicians.

Sec. 2. It is further the sense of Congress that the President should cooperate with
other nations in ( 1 ) encouraging broad international participation in an International
Decade of Ocean Exploration, (2) sharing results and experiences from national
ocean exploration programs^ (3) planning and coordinating international cooperative
projects within the framework of a sustained, long-range international eflfort to investi-
gate the world's oceans, (4) strengthening and expanding international arrangements
for the timely international exchange of oceanographic data, and (5) providing appro-
priate technical and training assistance and facilities to the developing countries and
support to international organizations so they may effectively contribute their share
to the International Decade of Ocean Exploration.

Sec. 3. It is further the sense of Congress that the President in his annual report
to the Congress on marine science affairs pursuant to Public Law 89-454 should
transmit to the Congress a plan setting forth the profK>sed participation of the United
States for the next fiscal year in the International Decade of Ocean Exploration. The
plan should contain a statement of the activities to be conducted and specify the de-
partment or agency of the Government which would conduct the activity and seek
appropriations therefor.

232

Appendices

APPENDIX C— ACTIVITIES OF INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS
AND OTHER NATIONS

Appendix C-1— Resolutions Adopted by United Nations General Assembly

A. 2340 (XXII)

Examination of the Question of the Reservation Exclusively for Peaceful
Purposes of the Sea-Bed and the Ocean Floor, and the Subsoil Thereof,
Underlying the High Seas Beyond the Limits of Present National Juris-
diction, and the Uses of Their Resources in the Interests of Mankind

The General Assembly,

Having considered the item "Examination of the question of the reservation ex-
clusively for peaceful purposes of the seabed and the ocean floor, and the subsoil there-
of underlying the high seas beyond the limits of present national jurisdiction, and the
uses of their resources in the interests of mankind".

Noting that developing technology is making the seabed and the ocean floor, and
the subsoil thereof, accessible and exploitable for scientific, economic, military and
other purposes,

Recognizing the common interest of mankind in the seabed and the ocean floor
which constitute the major portion of the area of this planet,

Recognizing further that the exploration and use of the seabed and the ocean floor,
and the subsoil thereof, as contemplated in the title of the item, should be conducted
in accordance with the principles and purposes of the Charter of the United Nations,
in the interest of maintaining international peace and security and for the benefit of
all mankind,

Mindful of the provisions and practice of the law of the sea relating to this ques-
tion.

Mindful also of the importance of preserving the seabed and the ocean floor,
and the subsoil thereof, as contemplated in the title of the item, from actions and uses
which might be detrimental to the common interests of mankind.

Desiring to foster greater international cooperation and coordination in the fur-
ther peaceful exploration and use of the seabed and the ocean floor, and the subsoil
thereof, as contemplated in the title of the item,

Recalling the past and continuing valuable work on questions relating to this
matter carried out by the competent organs of the United Nations, the specialized
agencies, the International Atomic Energy Agency and other intergovernmental orga-
nizations.

Recalling further that surveys are being prepared by the Secretary-General in
response to General Assembly resolution 2172 (XXI) of 6 December 1966 and Eco-
nomic and Social Council resolution 1112 (XL) of 7 March 1966,

1. Decides to establish an ad hoc Committee to study the peaceful uses of the
seabed and the ocean floor beyond the limits of national jurisdiction composed of
Argentina, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Bulgaria, Canada, Ceylon, Chile,
Czechoslovakia, Ecuador, El Salvador, France, Iceland, India, Italy, Japan, Kenya,
Liberia, Libya, Malta, Norway, Pakistan, Peru, Poland, Rumania, Senegal, Somalia,
Thailand, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the United Arab Republic, the
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, the United Republic of
Tanzania, the United States of America, and Yugoslavia, to study the scope and various
aspects of this item ;

2. Requests the ad hoc Committee, in cooperation with the Secretary-General, to
prepare, for consideration by the General Assembly at its twenty-third session, a study
which would include:

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Marine Science Affairs

Appendix C-1 — Resolutions Adopted by United Nations General
Assembly — Continued

(a) a survey of the past and present activities of the United Nations, the
specialized agencies, the International Atomic Energy Agency and other
inter-governmental bodies with regard to the seabed and the ocean floor,
and of existing international agreements concerning these areas;

(b) an account of the scientific, technical, economic, legal, and other aspects
of this item ;

(c) an indication regarding practical means to promote international coopera-
tion in the exploration, conservation and use of the seabed and the ocean
floor, and the subsoil thereof, as contemplated in the title of the item, and
of their resources, having regard to the views expressed and suggestions
put forward by Member States during the consideration of this item at the
twenty-second session of the General Assembly;

3. Requests the Secretary-General:

(a) to transmit the text of this resolution to the Governments of all Member
States in order to seek their views on the subject;

(b) to transmit to the ad hoc Committee the records of the First Committee
relating to the discussion of this item;

(c) to render all appropriate assistance to the ad hoc Committee, including
the submission thereto of the results of the studies being undertaken in
pursuance of General Assembly resolution 2172 (XXI) and Economic
and Social Council resolution 1112 (XL) and such documentation per-
tinent to this item as may be provided by the United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organization and its Inter-governmental Ocean-
ographic Commission, the Inter-governmental Maritime Consultative Or-
ganization, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations,
the World Meteorological Organization, the World Health Organization,
the International Atomic Energy Agency and other intergovernmental
bodies;

4. Invites the specialized agencies, the International Atomic Energy Agency, and
other intergovernmental bodies to cooperate fully with the ad hoc Committee in the
implementation of this resolution.

18 December 1967

B. 2467A(XXIII)

Establishment of a Standing Seabed Committee

The General Assembly,

Recalling the item entitled "Examination of the question of the reservation
exclusively for peaceful purposes of the sea-bed and the ocean floor, and the subsoil
thereof, underlying the high seas beyond the limits of present national jurisdiction,
and the use of their resources in the interests of mankind",

Having in mind its resolution 2340 (XXII) of 18 December 1967 concerned
with the problems arising in the area to which the title of the item refers.

Reaffirming the objectives set forth in that resolution,

Taking note with appreciation of the report prepared by the Ad Hoc Committee
to Study the Peaceful Uses of the Sea-Bed and the Ocean Floor beyond the Limits
of National Jurisdiction, keeping in mind the views expressed in the course of its work
and drawing upon its experience.

Recognizing that it is in the interest of mankmd as a whole to favour the explora-
tion and use of the sea-bed and the ocean floor and the subsoil thereof, beyond the
limits of national jurisdiction, for peaceful purposes,

234

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Appendix C-1 — Resolutions Adopted by United Nations General
Assembly — Continued

Considering that it is important to promote international co-operation for the
exploration and exploitation of the resources of this area,

Convinced that such exploitation should be carried out for the benefit of man-
kind as a whole, irrespective of the geographical location of States, taking into
account the special interests and needs of the developing countries.

Considering that it is essential to provide, within the United Nations system, a
focal point for the elaboration of desirable measures of international co-operation,
taking into account alternative actual and potential uses of this area, and for the
co-ordination of the activities of international organizations in this regard,

1. Establishes a Committee on the Peaceful Uses of the Sea-Bed and the Ocean
Floor beyond the Limits of National Jurisdiction, composed of forty-two States;

2. Instructs the Committee:

(a) To study the elaboration of the legal principles and norms which would pro-
mote international co-operation in the exploration and use of the sea-bed and the
ocean floor and the subsoil thereof beyond the limits of national jurisdiction and to
ensure the exploitation of their resources for the benefit of mankind, and the ecoriomic
and other requirements which such a regime should satisfy in order to meet the inter-
ests of humanity as a whole ;

(b) To study the ways and means of promoting the exploitation and use of the
resources of this area, and of international co-operation to that end, taking into ac-
count the foreseeable development of technology and the economic implications of
such exploitation and bearing in mind the fact that such exploitation should benefit
mankind as a whole ;

(c) To review the studies carried out in the field of exploration and research
in this area and aimed at intensifying international co-operation and stimulating the
exchange and the widest possible dissemination of scientific knowledge on the subject;

(d) To examine proposed measures of co-operation to be adopted by the inter-
national community in order to prevent the marine pollution which may result from
the exploration and exploitation of the resources of this area;

3. Also calls upon the Committee to study further, within the context of the title
of the item, and taking into account the studies and international negotiations being
undertaken in the field of disarmament, the reservations exclusively for peaceful pur-
poses of the sea-bed and the ocean floor without prejudice to the limits which may be
agreed upon in this respect;

4. Requests the Committee:

(a) To work in close co-operation with the specialized agencies, the International
Atomic Energy Agency and the intergovernmental bodies dealing with the problems
referred to in the present resolution, so as to avoid any duplication or overlapping of
activities ;

(b) To make recommendations to the General Assembly on the questions men-
tioned in paragraphs 2 and 3 above ;

(c) In co-operation with the Secretary-General, to submit to the General As-
sembly reports on its activities at each subsequent session;

5. Invites the specialized agencies, the International Atomic Energy Agency and
other inter-governmental bodies including the Intergovernmental Oceanographic
Commission of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organiza-
tion to co-operate fully with the Committee in the implementation of the present
resolution.

21 December 1968

235

Marine Science Affairs

Appendix C-1 — Resolutions Adopted by United Nations General
Assembly — Continued

C. 2467B (XXIII)

Prevention of Pollution

The General Assembly,

Recognizing that it is in the common interest of all nations that the explora-
tion and exploitation of the resources of the sea-bed and the ocean floor, and the
subsoil thereof, should be conducted in such a manner as to avoid infringement of
the other interests and established rights of nations with respect to the uses of the
sea,

Mindful of the threat to the marine environment presented by pollution and
other hazardous and harmful effects which might result from exploration and exploi-
tation of the areas under consideration,

Desiring to promote eflFective measures of prevention and control of such pol-
lution and to allay the serious damage which might be caused to the marine environ-
ment and, in particular, to the living marine resources which constitute one of
mankind's most valuable food resources,

Recognizing the complex problem of ensuring effective co-ordination in the wide
field of environmental pollution and in the more specific area of prevention and con-
trol of marine pollution,

Noting with satisfaction the measures being undertaken by the Inter-Govern-
mental Maritime Consultative Organization to prevent and control pollution of the
sea by preparing new draft conventions and other instruments for that purpose,

Recalling, in this regard, the progress achieved towards such concerted action
by inter-governmental bodies and the establishment, by the Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization and its Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission, the
Inter-Governmental Maritime Consultative Organization and the World Meteorologi-
cal Organization, of a Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine
Pollution,

Recalling further the competence and continuing valuable contributions of the
other inter-governmental organizations concerned,

1. Welcomes the adoption by States of appropriate safeguards against the dangers
of pollution and other hazardous and harmful effects that might arise from the ex-
ploration and exploitation of the resources of the sea-bed and the ocean floor and the
subsoil thereof, beyond the limits of national jurisdiction, notably in the form of
concrete measures of international co-operation for the purpose of reaHzing this aim;

2. Considers that in connexion with the elaboration of principles underlying pos-
sible future international agreements for the area concerned, a study should be made
with a view to clarifying all aspects of protection of the living and other resources of
the sea-bed and ocean floor, the superjacent waters and the adjacent coasts against
the consequences of pollution and other hazardous and harmful effects arising from
various modalities of such exploration and exploitation;

3. Considers further that such a study should take into consideration the impor-
tance of minimizing interference between the many means by which the wealth of the
ocean space may be harvested, and that it should extend to the examination of the
circumstances in which measures may be underiaken by States for the protection of
the living and other resources of those areas in which pollution detrimental to those
resources has occurred or is imminent;

4. Requests the Secretary-General, in co-operation with the appropriate and com.-
petent body or bodies presently undertaking co-ordinated work in the field of marine
pollution control, to undertake the study referred to in paragraphs 2 and 3 above

236

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Appendix C-1 — Resolutions Adopted by United Nations General
Assembly — Continued

and to submit a report thereon to the General Assembly and the Committee on the
Peaceful Uses of the Sea-Bed and the Ocean Floor beyond the Limits of National
Jurisdiction.

21 December 1968

D. 2467C (XXIII)

Study of International Machinery

The General Assembly,

Having considered the item entitled "Examination of the question of the reserva-
tion exclusively for peaceful purposes of the sea-bed and the ocean floor, and the
subsoil thereof, underlying the high seas beyond the limits of present national juris-
diction, and the use of their resources in the interests of mankind",

Reaffirming that exploration and exploitation of the resources of the sea-bed and
ocean floor, and the subsoil thereof, should be carried out for the benefit of mankind
as a whole, taking into special consideration the interests and needs of the developing
countries.

Recalling that international co-operation in this field is of paramount importance,

Bearing in mind its resolution 2467A (XXIII) establishing the Committee on the
Peaceful Uses of the Sea-Bed and the Ocean Floor beyond the Limits of National
Jurisdiction, and the mandate entrusted to it,

1. Requests the Secretary-General to undertake a study on the question of
establishing in due time appropriate international machinery for the promotion of
the exploration and exploitation of the resources of this area, and the use of these
resources in the interests of mankind, irrespective of the geographical location of
States, and taking into special consideration the interests and needs of the developing
countries, and to submit a report thereon to the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of
the Sea-Bed and the Ocean Floor beyond the Limits of National Jurisdiction for con-
sideration during one of its sessions in 1969;

2. Calls upon the Committee to submit a report on this question to the General
Assembly at its twenty-fourth session.

21 December 1968

E. 2467D (XXIII)

Expanded Cooperation and an International Decade of Ocean Explora-
tion

The General Assembly,

Convinced that the nations of the world should join together, with due respect
for national jurisdiction, in a common long-term programme of exploration of the
ocean as a potential source of resources, which should eventually be used for meeting
the needs of all mankind with due recognition of those of developing countries and
irrespective of the geographical location of States,

Recalling also that in its resolution 2172 (XXI) of 6 December 1966 it requested
the Secretary-General to prepare proposals for ensuring the most effective arrange-
ments for an expanded programme of international co-operation to assist in a better
understanding of the marine environment through science, and to initiating and
strengthening marine education and training programmes.

Recalling further the proposals made by the Secretary-General in his report,
pursuant to resolution 2172 (XXI), as well as the various views expressed during the
consideration of this subject by the General Assembly at its twenty-third session,

237

Marine Science Affairs

Appendix C-1 — Resolutions Adopted by United Nations General
Assembly — Continued

Noting that the Bureau and Consultative Council of the Intergovernmental
Oceanographic Commission of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization considered the proposed International Decade of Ocean Exploration a
useful initiative for broadening and accelerating investigations of the oceans and for
strengthening international co-operation,

Endorsing the objectives expressed in Economic and Social Council resolutions
1380 (XLV), 1381 (XLV) and 1382 (XLV) of 2 August 1968 and recalling particu-
larly the invitation to the General Assembly to endorse the concept of a co-ordinated
long-term programme of oceanographic research, taking into account such initiatives
as the proposal for an International Decade of Ocean Exploration and international
programmes already considered, approved and adopted by the Intergovernmental
Oceanographic Commission for implementation in co-operation with other specialized
agencies.

Aware of the consideration given to the proposal in the Ad Hoc Committee to
Study the Peaceful Uses of the Sea-Bed and the Ocean Floor beyond the Limits of
National Jurisdiction, arising from the contribution which the Decade would make
to scientific research and exploration of the sea-bed and ocean floor, as an important
part of a co-ordinated long-term international programme of oceanographic research,

Seeking to enrich the knowledge of all mankind by encouraging a free flow of
scientific information on the oceans to all States,

1. Welcomes the concept of an International Decade of Ocean Exploration to be
undertaken within the framework of a long-term programme of research and explora-
tion, including scientific research and exploration of the sea-bed and the ocean floor,
under the aegis of the United Nations on the understanding that all such activities
falling under the national jurisdiction of a State shall be subject to the previous con-
sent of such State, in accordance with international law;

2. Invites Member States to formulate proposals for national and international
scientific programmes and agreed activities to be undertaken during the Decade with
due regard to the interests of developing countries, to transmit these proposals to the
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization for the Intergovern-
mental Oceanographic Commission in time to begin the Decade in 1970, and to em-
bark on such activities as soon as practicable ;

3. Urges Member States to publish as soon as practicable the results of all ac-
tivities which they will have undertaken within the framework of the Decade as part
of a long-term co-ordinated programme of scientific research and exploration, and at
the same time to communicate these results to the Intergovernmental Oceanographic
Commission ;

4. Requests the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
that its Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission:

(a) Intensify its activities in the scientific field, within its terms of reference and
in co-operation with other interested agencies, in particular with regard to co-ordinat-
ing the scientific aspects of a long-term and expanded programme of world-wide
exploration of the oceans and their resources of which the Decade will be an important
element, including international agency programmes, an expanded international ex-
change of data from national programmes, and international efforts to strengthen the
research capabilities of all interested nations with particular regard to the needs of the
developing countries;

(b) Co-operate with the Secretary-General in accordance with paragraph 4 of
General Assembly resolution 2414 (XXIII) of 17 December 1968 (Resources of the
sea) in the preparation of the comprehensive outline of the scope of the long-term
programme of oceanographic research of which the Decade will be an important ele-

238

Appendices

Appendix C-1 — Resolutions Adopted by United Nations General
Assembly — Continued

ment, making available its views as to the appropriate relationship between the several
international programmes already considered, approved and adopted by the Inter-
governmental Oceanographic Commission for implementation, the Decade, and the
long-term programme;

(c) Keep the Secretary-General informed of all proposals, programmes and ac-
tivities of which it is informed in accordance with paragraphs 2 and 3 above together
with any comments it may consider appropriate;

(d) Report through appropriate channels to the General Assembly at its twenty-
fourth session on progress made in the implementation of the present resolution.

21 December 1968
F. 2413 (XXIII)

Exploitation and conservation of living marine resources

The General Assembly,

Recalling its resolution 2172 (XXI) of 6 December 1966 requesting the Secretary-
General to prepare proposals for ensuring the most effective arrangements for an ex-
panded programme of international co-operation to assist in a better understanding
of the marine environment through science, and for the development of marine re-
sources, with due regard for the conservation of fish stocks,

Having considered the report entitled "Resources of the sea beyond the con-
tinental shelf" prepared by the Secretary-General under Economic and Social Council
resolution 1112 (XL) of 7 March 1966 and the report entitled "Marine science and
technology: survey and proposals" prepared by the Secretary-General under General
Assembly resolution 2172 (XXI),

Recalling Economic and Social Council resolution 1381 (XLV) of 2 August 1968,

Taking into account the valuable and extensive work accomplished and being
carried out in this field by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations and its Committee on Fisheries, and by other specialized agencies and inter-
governmental organizations concerned, striving towards an increase in the world's food
production.

Deeply concerned that a large proportion of the world's population continues to
suffer from malnutrition and notably from lack of protein,

Mindful of the importance of the living resources of the sea as one of mankind's
most important food resources.

Realizing the increasing importance of maximizing the sustainable yield of the liv-
ing marine resources through conservation and rational development,

Aware of the grave danger of the over-exploitation and depletion of these re-
sources, to which the rapid progress in fisheries technology is contributing,

1. Invites Governments of Member States to increase international co-operation
in the field of development and exploitation of living marine resources outside the
limits of national jurisdiction, having regard to the special needs and interests of the
developing countries and with particular emphasis on the need for rational exploita-
tion and conservation of fish stocks, taking into account the valuable work of the Food
and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and its Committee on Fisheries
and also of regional and other specialized fishery bodies;

2. Urges the United Nations specialized agencies and other intergovernmental
organizations concerned to take measures for the further improvement of international
collaboration, in relation to fisheries development and conservation, and of technical
assistance, where requested by developing countries;

3. Requests the Secretary-General, in collaboration with the Director-General
of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and in consultation

239

IVEarine Science Affairs

Appendix C-1 — Resolutions Adopted by United Nations General
Assembly — Continued

with Governments of States Members of the United Nations and with other inter-
national organizations concerned, to report to the Economic and Social Council at
its forty-ninth session on the specific measures which have been taken by Govern-
ments of Member States and by the international organizations concerned in imple-
mentation of the present resolution, and request the Economic and Social Council
to report thereon to the General Assembly at its twenty-fifth session.

17 December 1968
G. 2414 (XXIII)

International co-operation in problems related to the oceans

The General Assembly,

Reaffirming the considerations set forth in its resolution 2172 (XXI) of 6 De-
cember 1966,

Considering the growing interest of the world community in problems related to
the oceans, as they hold promise of providing a rapidly developing world with in-
creasingly needed resources,

Being aware that the present knowledge of the ocean and its resources and of
the marine environment is limited and incomplete,

Recognizing the need for extensive exploration and research in order to develop
the wealth of the sea for the benefit of all mankind, irrespective of the geographical
location of States, taking into account the special needs and interests of developing
countries,

Having given preliminary consideration to the report entitled "Marine science and
technology: survey and proposals", prepared by the Secretary-General under General
Assembly resolution 2172 (XXI),

Taking into account the comments of the Advisory Committee on the Applica-
tion of Science and Technology to Development,

Recalling Economic and Social Council resolutions 1380 (XLV), 1381 (XLV)
and 1382 (XLV) of 2 August 1968,

Recalling the rep>ort of the Ad Hoc Committee to Study the Peaceful Uses of the
Sea-Bed and the Ocean Floor beyond the Limits of National Jurisdiction,

Taking into account the activities in this field at present being carried out by
the United Nations, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Orga-
nization and its Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission, the Food and Agri-
culture Organization of the United Nations and its Committee on Fisheries, the World
Meteorological Organization and its Panel on Meteorological Aspects of Ocean Af-
fairs, the Inter-Govemmer.tal Maritime Consultative Organization, the International
Atomic Energy Agency and other specialized agencies, and also intergovernmental
organizations, various Governments, universities, scientific and technical institutes and
other non-governmental organizations,

1. Takes note with appreciation of the report of the Secretary-General entitled
"Marine science and technology: survey and proposals";

2. Requests the Economic and Social Council to review further this report at
its forty-seventh session taking into account such views as may be expressed by Govern-
ments of Member States, by the Advisory Committee on the Application of Science
and Technology to Development and by the proposed competent organ of the United
Nations ;

3. Endorses the concept of a co-ordinated long-term programme of oceanographic
research designed to assist in a better understanding of the marine environment through
science and to increase, in the interests of world economic development, the resources
available to all the people of the world;

240

Appendices

Appendix C-1 — Resolutions Adopted by United Nations General
Assembly — Continued

4. Requests the Secretary-General to present to the Economic and Social Council
at its forty-seventh session a comprehensive outline of the scope of this long-term pro-
gramme taking into account such scientific recommendations as may be formulated
by the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of the United Nations Educa-
tional, Scientific and Cultural Organization within its terms of reference and in co-
operation with other interested international organizations;

5. Recommends that the United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural
Organization and its Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission should consider
strengthening the existing marine educational and training programmes and initiat-
ing new programmes in connexion with the implementation of the long-term pro-
gramme of oceanographic research;

6. Recommends further improvement of international co-operation in relation to
fisheries development and conservation, taking into account the important role played
by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and its Commit-
tee on Fisheries as well as the work of regional and other specialized fishery
bodies;

7. Invites Member States and organizations dealing with marine pollution, espe-
cially the Inter-Governmental Maritime Consultative Organization and the Inter-
national Atomic Energy Agency, to promote the adoption of efTective international
agreements on prevention and control of marine pollution as may be necessary;

8. Recognizes the importance of the meteorological aspects of ocean science and
calls upon the World Meteorological Organization to continue its activities in this field,
in close co-operation with other interested organizations ;

9. Invites the Secretary-General, in consultation with the United Nations Develop-
ment Programme, to consider the possibility of extending technical assistance services
to the Governments of Member States which may request them in relation to the de-
velopment of mineral resources of their continental shelf areas ;

10. Calls upon the Secretary-General to pursue the task of collecting and dis-
seminating available information regarding the mineral and other resources of the
sea-bed and ocean floor beyond the limits of national jurisdiction and techniques ap-
propriate for their development and of providing the assistance which the proposed
competent organ of the United Nations may request for the solution of related issues;

11. Requests the Secretary-General, in co-operation with the United Nations Edu-
cational, Scientific and Cultural Organization and its Intergovernmental Oceano-
graphic Commission, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
and its Committee on Fisheries, the World Meteorological Organization, the Inter-
Governmental Martime Consultative Organization, the International Atomic Energy
Agency and other organizations concerned, to report, through appropriate channels,
to the Economic and Social Council and to the General Assembly, at its twenty.fifth
session, on the progress achieved in the implementation of the present resolution.

17 December 1968

241

Marine Science Affairs

Appendix C-2-Draft Resolutions Submitted and Principles Supported by
the United States in the Ad Hoc Seabed Committee

A. U.S. draft resolution containing statement of principles concerning the deep

ocean floor ^

The General Assembly,

Desiring to encourage the exploration, use and development of the deep ocean
floor to the fullest extent possible for the benefit and in the interest of all mankind

Behevmg that such exploration and use of the deep ocean floor will cTntribufe
to mternational co-operation and understanding, contribute

Hpv.1?"''"^'^ '^^V"° T^""")' '"^■^^^^l^^s of geographical location, level of economic
development, or technological capability, should be denied the opportunity to par-
ticipate in the explora tion and use of the deep ocean floor PPortunity to par-

.r.A ^f'^^'"" °f ^^^ importance of promoting the general welfare of all peoples
and of furthering scientific study and the conservation of resources '

R^ciffirrmnS the traditional freedoms of the high seas und'er international law

Recalling its resolution 2340 (XXII) of 18 December 1967

deep ocTan fl:t;° ''''" '°^ '''''' ^"^'^"^^ ^^^ ^°"°-^'^^ ^^^^ — ing the

of thl' T ^*^*' "7 ^^^™ °^ ^^^^^'^e sovereignty or sovereign rights over any part
din ^"^P.^^^^" «"°^- -f^here shall be no discrimination in the availability of the

arrangements shall reflect the other principles contained in thlfstatement of Princ"
pies concerning the Deep Ocean Floor and shall include provision for-
r.fl [■ ;r "'"'^^''^^ development of resources of the deep ocean floor in a manner
res'ourcef; "^""^ °' ^'^ international community in 'the development oTtheL

(b) Conditions conducive to the making of investments necessary for the exolor
ation and exploitation of resources of the deep ocean floor • ^

sources VetlSedTrom t'^'f '"^ P-cticable of a po'rtion of the value of the re-
sources recovered from the deep ocean floor to international community purposes;

floor inim:rTnt«r' ''' ''""""'' ^"' "'^^ "^^^ ^^ ^'^ '^'^ °^^^"

She/\hlrf "h^ll t^ttlT". H^' ^'"'"^ Convention of 1958 on the Continental
Sf bounda^ for th ". "*' ^' T"" ^' P'-^^ticable, an internationally agreed pre-

which coataTstate "^ °'''" ^"'^'"-'^^ ^^"-"^^^ ^"^ ^^soil beyond that over

TxpToitadon of it T"^ ?"''"'" '^'^"'""^^ "^^^^ ^^'^ ^^e purpose of exploration and
oSan floor tha/lr'"°"''"'' ^^P^^^'^'^^n of the natural resources of the
not to prehidtre t'T ^"°' *° establishment of the boundary shall be understood
exploTtadon o hL 7' '"egardless of whether the coastal State considers the

exploitation to have occurred on its "continental shelf";

floor in accordant *^^'; "^*^°"^1« .^^all conduct their activities on the deep ocean
NatLns and fn t. ^f '"^ernational law, including the Charter of the United
proiTtk^Tnlrn-,?" T ''' of maintaining international peace and security and
promoting sterna lonal co-operation, scientific knowledge, and economic development;

of thedeepocelnLr^ta'tes'Sr'""' ^^'^P^-*-" ^ ^he scientific investigation

progrimm^iTon^r'- ' '""u i'"'''^ ^^'^^°"' P^^"^ ^^' ^"^ results of national scientific
programmes concerning the deep ocean floor;

242

Appendices

Appendix C-2 — Draft Resolutions Submitted and Principles Supported by
the United States in the Ad Hoc Seabed Committee — Continued

(b) Encourage their nationals to follow similar practices concerning dissemina-
tion of such information ;

(c) Encourage co-operative scientific activities regarding the deep ocean floor
by personnel of difTerent States ;

6. In the exploration and use of the deep ocean floor States and their nationals:

(a) Shall have reasonable regard for the interests of other States and their
nationals ;

(b) Shall avoid unjustifiable interference with the exercise of the freedom of
the high seas by other States and their nationals, or with the conservation of the
living resources of the seas, and any interference with fundamental scientific research
carried out with the intention of open publication ;

(c) Shall adopt appropriate safeguards so as to minimize pollution of the seas
and disturbance of the existing biological, chemical and physical processes and
balances; each State shall provide timely announcement and any necessary ampli-
fying information of any marine activity or experiment planned by it or its nationals
that could harmfully interfere with the activities of any other State or its nationals
in the exploration and use of the deep ocean floor. A State which has reason to
believe that a marine activity or experiment planned by another State or its nationals
could harmfully interfere with its activities or those of its nationals in the explora-
tion and use of the deep ocean floor may request consultation concerning the activity
or experiment;

7. States and their nationals shall render all possible assistance to one another
in the event of accident, distress or emergency arising out of activities on the deep
ocean floor.

June 28, 1968

B. U.S. draft resolution on preventing the emplacement of weapons of mass destruc-

tion on the sea-bed and ocean floor

The General Assembly,

Desiring that workable arms limitation measures be achieved that will enhance
the p>eace and security of all nations and bring the world nearer to general and com-
plete disarmament,

Requests the Eighteen-Nation Committee on Disarmament to take up the ques-
tion of arms limitation on the sea-bed and ocean floor with a view to defining those
factors vital to a workable, verifiable and effective international agreement which
would prevent the use of this new environment for the emplacement of weapons of
mass destruction.

June 28, 1968

C. U.S. draft resolution on the International Decade of Ocean Exploration

The General Assembly,

Recalling its concern for ascertaining practical means to promote international
co-operation in the exploration, conservation and use of the sea-bed and the ocean
floor, and the subsoil thereof, as manifested in its resolution 2340 (XXII) ,

Recalling as well that in its resolution 2172 (XXI) it requested that the Secre-
tary-General prepare proposals for ensuring the most effective arrangements for an
expanded programme of international co-operation to assist in a better understanding
of the marine environment through science, and for initiating and strengthening
marine education and training programmes,

329^66 O— 69 17

243

Marine Science Affairs

Appendix C-2 — Draft Resolutions Submitted and Principles Supported by
the United States in the Ad Hoc Seabed Committee — Continued

Recalling further the proposals made by the Secretary-General In his report
(E/4487) pursuant to resolution 2172 (XXI),

Noting that the Bureau and Consultative Council of the Intergovernmental Oceano-
graphic Commission of UNESCO considered the prop>osed International Decade
of Ocean Exploration a useful initiative for broadening and accelerating investiga-
tions of the oceans and for strengthening international co-operation,

Noting also the recommendation adopted by the Economic and Social Council
on 2 August 1968, inviting the General Assembly to endorse the concept of a co-
ordinated long-term programme of oceanographic research, taking into account such
initiatives as the proposal for an International Decade of Ocean Exploration and
international programmes already considered, approved and adopted by the Inter-
governmental Oceanographic Commission for implementation in co-operation with
other specialized agencies.

Aware of the consideration given to the proposal in the Ad Hoc Committee to
Study the Peaceful Uses of the Sea-Bed and the Ocean Floor, arising from the im-
portant contribution which the Decade would make to scientific research and explora-
tion of the sea-bed and deep ocean floor,

1. Welcomes and commends to Member States the concept of an International
Decade of Ocean Exploration to be undertaken within the framework of a long-
term programme of research and exploration under the general aegis of the United
Nations ;

2. Invites interested Member States to formulate proposals for national and inter-
national scientific programmes and agreed activities to be undertaken during the
Decade with due regard to the interests of developing countries, to transmit these
proposals to the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission, and to begin such
activities as soon as practicable ;

3. Urges Member States to publish as soon as practicable the results of activi-
ties which they will have undertaken within the framework of the Decade and at the
same time to communicate these results to the Intergovernmental Oceanographic
Commission ;

4. Requests the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission:

(a) To further and co-ordinate, in co-operation with other interested agencies,
an expanded, accelerated, long-term and sustained programme of world-wide explora-
tion of the oceans and their resources of which the Decade will be an element, includ-
ing international agency programmes, expanded international exchange of data from
national programmes, and international efforts to strengthen the research capa-
bilities of all interested nations;

(b) To report through appropriate channels to the twenty-fourth session of the
General Assembly on the progress made in ocean activities undertaken pursuant to
this resolution.

August 26, 1968

D. Draft statement of Agreed Principles proposed for submission to the General
Assembly and supported by the United States

( 1 ) There is an area of the sea-bed and ocean floor and the subsoil thereof,
underlying the high seas, which lies beyond the limits of national jurisdiction
(hereinafter described as "this area");

(2) Taking into account relevant dispositions of international law, there should
be agreed a precise boundary for this area;

244

Appendices

Appendix C-2 — Draft Resolutions Submitted and Principles Supported by
the United States in the Ad Hoc Seabed Committee — Continued

(3) There should be agreed, as soon as practicable, an international regime
governing the exploitation of resources of this area;

(4) No State may claim or exercise sovereign rights over any part of this
area, and no part of it is subject to national appropriation by claim of sovereignty,
by use or occupation, or by any other means ;

(5) Exploration and use of this area shall be carried on for the benefit and
in the interests of all mankind, taking into account the special needs of the develop-
ing countries;

(6) This area shall be reserved exclusively for peaceful purposes;

(7) Activities in this area shall be conducted in accordance with international
law, including the Charter of the United Nations. Activities in this area shall not
infringe upon the freedoms of the high seas.

June 28, 1968

Appendix C-3 — Resolutions Adopted by the Economic and Social Council

A. 1380 (XLV)

Resources of the sea

The Economic and Social Council,

Having considered the report on "Resources of the sea beyond the continental
shelf" prepared by the Secretary-General under Council resolution 1112 (XL) of 7
March 1966,

Realizing fully the importance of the development of the mineral and biological
resources of the high seas beyond the continental shelf for the benefit of all mankind
and especially of the developing countries.

Being aware of the growing interest of the world community in the problems
related to the oceans and their resources as recently illustrated by the adoption of
General Assembly resolutions 2172 (XXI) of 6 December 1966 and 2340 (XXII) of
18 December 1967,

Recognizing that further progress in the development and utilization of the marine
resources will depend greatly on more specific knowledge being gained on the various
characteristics of marine environmental conditions,

Taking into account the view expressed by the Advisory Committee on the Ap-
plication of Science and Technology to Development,

1. Takes note with satisfaction of the report of the Secretary-General, which gives
a preliminary picture of the present available knowledge of marine resources beyond
the continental shelf, of the techniques used for their development and of related
problems ;

2. Recommends that the report be supplemented by information from other
Members of the United Nations and members of the specialized agencies which have
a valuable experience in this field, and that thereafter the desirability should be en-
visaged of issuing it as a United Nations publication ;

3. Invites the Secretary-General, in co-operation with the various organizations
of the United Nations family concerned and in particular with the United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization and its Intergovernmental Oceano-
graphic Commission, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
and its Committee on Fisheries, and the World Meteorological Organization and its
Panel on Meteorological Aspects of Ocean Affairs, to continue to promote further sys-
tematic investigation aiming at improving the present knowledge of marine environ-
mental conditions;

245

Marine Science Affairs

Appendix C-3 — Resolutions Adopted by tlie Economic and Social
Council — Continued

4. Requests the Secretary-General to follow closely new developments which
may occur in fields of marine mineral resources exploration, evaluation and exploita-
tion beyond the continental shelf and the possible implications thereof, and to report
when appropriate to the Council ;

5. Invites the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations to keep
under review developments which may occur in the field of food resources of the sea
beyond the continental shelf.

August 2, 1968
B. 1381 (XLV)

Long-range programme for the exploration of the sea

The Economic and Social Council,

Recognizing that the ocean holds promise of becoming a more important source of
food and minerals for a rapidly developing world, and that man's knowledge of the
ocean and its resources is exceedingly limited.

Having considered the report entitled "Resources of the sea beyond the continen-
tal shelf" prepared by the Secretary-General under Council resolution 1112 (XL) and
the report entitled "Marine Science and Technology" prepared by him under General
Assembly resolution 2172 (XXI) of 6 December 1966,

Taking into account the activities in the fields of research, exploration and de-
scription of the oceans at present being undertaken by the United Nations, the United
Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization and its Intergovernmental
Oceanographic Commission, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations and its Committee on Fisheries, the World Meteorological Organization and
its Panel on Meteorological Aspects of Ocean Affairs, other specialized agencies and
intergovernmental organizations concerned, various governments, universities, scien-
tific and technological institutions, and other non-governmental organizations,

Being aware of the complexity and variability of the marine environment and that
scientific investigations of vast scope will be necessary if knowledge of this environ-
ment is to increase substantially within a reasonably short period.

Convinced that the nations of the world should join together, with due respect
for existing national jurisdictions, in a common long-term programme of exploration
of the ocean as a potential source of resources, which could eventually be used for
meeting the needs of all mankind, with due recognition of those developing countries.

Noting the endorsement by the Bureau and Consultative Council of the Inter-
governmental Oceanographic Commission at its eighth meeting, held in London from
10 to 13 June 1968, of the concept of an expanded accelerated, long-term and sus-
tained programme of exploration of the oceans and their resources, including inter-
national programmes, planned and co-ordinated on a world-wide basis, expanded in-
ternational exchange of data from national programmes, and international efforts to
strengthen the research capabilities of all interested nations,

1. Takes note with appreciation of the Secretary-General's repKjrt entitled "Ma-
rine Science and Technology", and of annex V, relating to marine science and its
application, to the thirty-fourth report of the Administrative Committee on Co-ordi-
nation,

2. Takes note further of the steps which are being taken under the Intergovern-
mental Oceanographic Commission of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization to give consideration to the future administrative and financial
structure of the Commission, as well as to the content of an expanded programme of
exploration of the oceans and their resources ;

246

Appendices

Appendix C-3 — Resolutions Adopted by the Economic and Social
Council — Continued

3. Transmits the Secretary-General's report entitled "Marine Science and Tech-
nology" to the General Assembly for further consideration at its twenty-third session;

4. Invites the General Assembly to endorse the concept of a co-ordinated long-
term programme of oceanographic research designed to increase, in the interests of
world economic development, the resources available to all people of the world, taking
also into account such initiatives as the proposal for an International Decade of
Ocean Exploration and several international programmes already considered, ap-
proved and adopted by the International Oceanographic Commission for implementa-
tion, in certain cases in co-operation with other specialized agencies.

August 2, 1968

C. 1382 (XLV)

Marine science and technology

The Economic and Social Council,

Considering the importance of marine science and technology for optimum utiliza-
tion of the world's natural resources,

Bearing in mind that one of the main obstacles to the development of marine
science and technology is the shortage of experts and qualified personnel, particularly
in the developing countries,

Being convinced that, in order to bring about a better understanding of this sub-
ject, knowledge of it must be promoted among the public in general and particularly
among young people, who will constitute the technicians and research workers of the
future,

Believing that for this purpose it is necessary for the fundamentals of marine
science to be inculcated at a pre-university level of education,

Noting with satisfaction the proposals concerning education and training in
marine science and technology contained in the report of the Secretary-General,

Requests the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
to study appropriate means of imparting a wider knowledge of the sea and its resources
as part of secondary education programmes.

August 2, 1968

247

Marine Science Affairs

Appendix C-4 — Breadtii of Territorial Seas and Fisiiing Jurisdictions
Claimed by Selected Countries

Country

Territorial sea Fishing limit

Other

Albania 10 miles 12 miles

Algeria 12 miles 12 miles

Argentina 200 miles_.

Australia Smiles 12 miles. _

Belgium Smiles 12 miles i.

Brazil 6 miles 12 miles_ _

Bulgaria 12 miles 12 miles..

Burma 12 miles 12 miles..

Cambodia 5 miles 12 miles..

Cameroun 18 miles 18 miles..

Canada S miles 12 miles..

Ceylon 6 miles 6 miles —

Chile 50kilom- 200 miles. ..

eters.

China 3 miles 3 miles

Colombia 12 miles 12 miles

Congo (Kinshasa) Smiles Smiles

Costa Rica S miles

Cuba S miles S miles

Cyprus 12 miles 12 miles...

Dahomey 12 miles 12 miles

Denmark S miles 12 miles i..

Greenland 12 miles...

Faroe Islainds 12 miles...

Dominican Republic 6 miles 12 miles

Ecuador 200 miles... 200 miles..

El Salvador 200 miles... 200 miles..

Ethiopia 12 miles 12 miles...

Federal Republic of 3 miles 12 miles i.

Germany.

Finland 4 miles 4 miles

France Smiles 12 miles..

Gabon 12 miles 12 miles..

Gambia Smiles Smiles

200-mile sovereignty claim not
affecting freedom of navi-
gation or over flight. Conti-
nental Shelf — including
sovereignty over super-
jacent waters.

Continental Shelf to 50 meters
including sovereignty over
superjacent waters.

Claims right to establish con-
servation zones within 100
nautical miles of the ter-
ritorial sea.

"Specialized conference" over
living resources to 200 miles.

100-mile mineral exploration
limit.

6-mile contiguous zone in-
cluding fishing.

See footnote at end of table.

248

Appendices

Appendix C-4 — Breadth of Territorial Seas and Fishing Jurisdictions
Claimed by Selected Countries — Continued

Country

Territorial sea Fishing limit

Other

Ghana 12 miles 12 miles...

Greece 6 miles 6 miles.

Undefined protective areas
may be proclaimed seaward
of territorial sea, and up to
100 miles seaward of terri-
torial sea may be proclaimed
fishing conservation zone.

12 miles..
130 miles.

3 miles

6 miles

12 miles..
12 miles..
100 miles.
12 miles..
12 miles..
12 miles..
12 miles i.

6 miles

12 miles >.
12 miles..

Guatemala 12 miles

Guinea 130 miles

Guyana 3 miles

Haiti 6 miles

Honduras 12 miles

Iceland 4 miles

India 12 miles

Indonesia 12 miles

Iran 12 miles

Iraq 12 miles

Ireland 3 miles

Israel 6 miles

Italy 6 miles

Ivory Coast Smiles

Jamaica 12 miles

Japan 3 miles 3 miles

Jordan 3 miles 3 miles

Kenya 3 miles 3 miles

Korea 20 to 200

miles.

Kuwait 12 miles 12 miles..

Lebanon 6 miles

Liberia 12 miles 12 miles..

Libya 12 miles 12 miles..

Malagasy Republic 12 miles 12 miles..

Malaysia 3 miles 3 miles

Maldive Islands 3 miles 6 miles

Malta 3 miles 3 miles

Mauritania 12 miles 12 miles..

Mexico 9 miles 12 miles..

Morocco 3 miles 12 miles..

Netherlzmds 3 miles 12 miles'.

New Zealand 3 miles 12 miles..

See footnote at end of table.

. - Archipelago concept baselines.

Continental Shelf including
sovereignty over superjacent
waters.

Exception — 6 miles for Strait
of Gibraltar.

249

Marine Science Affairs

Appendix C-4 — Breadth of Territorial Seas and Fishing Jurisdictions
Claimed by Selected Countries — Continued

Country

Territorial sea Fishing limit

Other

Nicaragua 3 miles 200 miles.

Nigeria 12 miles 12 miles..

Norway 4 miles 12 miles..

Pakistan 12 miles 12 miles..

Panama 200 miles... 200 miles.

Peru 200 miles... 200 miles.

Philippines Archipelago

theory.

Poland 3 miles 3 miles

Portugal No claims.. 12 miles i.

Rumania 12 miles 12 miles..

Saudi Arabia 12 miles 12 miles..

Senegal 12 miles 12 miles..

Sierra Leone 12 miles 12 miles..

Singapore 6 miles 3 miles

Somali Republic 12 miles 12 miles. _

South Africa 6 miles 12 miles..

Spain 6 miles 12 miles i.

Sudan 12 miles 12 miles..

Sweden 4 miles 12 miles i.

Syria 12 miles 12 miles..

Continental Shelf including
sovereignty over superjacent
waters.

Plus right to establish 100-
mile conservation zones.
Continental Shelf — includ-
ing sovereignty over super-
jacent waters.

Waters within straight lines
joining appropriate points
of outermost islands of the
archipelago are considered
internal waters; waters be-
tween these baselines and
the limits described in the
Treaty of Paris, Dec. 10,
1898, the United States-
Spain Treaty of Nov. 7,
1900, and U.S.-U.K.
Treaty of Jan. 2, 1930, are
considered to be the
territorial sea.

Plus 6-mile contiguous zone.

Plus 6-mile necessary super-
vision zone.

Tanzania 12 miles

Thailand 12 miles

Togo 12 miles

Trinidad and Tobago 3 miles

See footnote at end of table.

_ 12 miles.

_ 12 miles.

. 12 miles.

. 3 miles..

250

Appendices

Appendix C-4 — Breadth off Territorial Seas and Fishing Jurisdictions
Claimed by Selected Countries — Continued

Country

Territorial sea Fishing limit

Other

Tunisia 6 miles.

12 miles.

Tiirkey

Ukrainian S.S.R

U.S.S.R

United Arab Republic

United Kingdom

Overseas areas

United States of America.

Uruguay

Venezuela

Vietnam

Yemen

Yugoslavia.

6 miles 12 miles..

12 miles 12 miles. _

12 miles 12 miles..

12 miles 12 miles..

3 miles 12 miles i.

3 miles 3 miles

3 miles 12 miles. .

6 miles 12 miles..

12 miles 12 miles..

3 miles 20 kilo-
meters.

12 miles 12 miles..

10 miles 10 miles. _

Territorial sea follows the 50-
meter isobath for part of the
coaist (maiximum 65 miles).

' Parties to the European Fisheries Convention wnlch provides for the right to establish 3-mile exclusive
fishing zone seaward of 3-miIe territorial sea plus additional 6-mile fishing zone restricted to the convention
nations.

Source: Information available to the National Council on Marine Resources and Engineering Develop-
ment as of December 1, 1968.

251

U.S. SOVERNHENT PRINTINS OFFICE: I>e9