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INDIAN NOTES

M

USEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIA

AND MONOGRAPHS

HE YE FOUNDATION

INDIAN NOTES AND MONOGRAPHS

Edited by F. W. Hodge

A SERIES OF PUBLICA- TIONS RELATING TO THE AMERICAN ABORIGINES

material culture of the :menomini

BY

ALAXSON SKINNER

NEW YORK

MUSEUM OF THE AMERICAN INDIAN

HEYE FOUNDATION

1921

C99

■M

T • (

This series of Indian Notes and Mono- graphs is devoted primarily to the publica- tion of the results of studies by members of the staff of the Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation, and is uniform with Hispanic Notes and Monographs, published by the Hispanic Society of America, with which organization this Museum is in cordial cooperation. A list of the publications of the Museum will be sent upon request.

Museum of the American Indian,

Heye Foundation,

Broadway at I55lh St.,

New York City.

iRStitutliMr ikik :: 1921

MATERIAL CULTURE OF THE MENOMINI

BY

ALANSON SKINNER

CONTENTS

PAGE

Preface 1^

I. :Menommi Culture in General

Introduction 23

Religion 28

The :MitaVin Origin jSIyth 38

The Dreamers 41

Pevote 42

The Hereafter 43

Social Organization 46

Tribal Origin :Myth 46

Gentes and Phratries 47

Thunder Gens Names 49

Government 51

Birth and Naming Customs 52

Puberty 54

^Marriage 54

Games 56

Two Hitherto Unrecorded

Games 57

Sign Language 58

Warfare • 59

Societies 64

The :Mita'\vin 64

^Medicines and Bundles 65

The Dreamers 69

The Witches' Society 69

The Wa'bano Cult 71

The Je"sako Cult 71

INDIAN NOTES

M E X 0 M I X I CULTURE

^lita'wape and Te'pape 72

Thunder Cult 73

Buttalo Dance Cult 73

List of Ceremonies 74

Bear Ceremonies 75

^Iytholog\- and Folklore 76

Funeral Customs 7S

^louming SI

n. Housing

Origin of the ^Menomini T}-pe3. ... 83

The Winter Lodge 85

The Summer House 86

The Long-house 87

Construction of the House 88

The Winter Lodge 88

The Simimer House of Bark 93

The Long-house 99

The Fireplace 100

Further Details of Construction 103

Situation of the House 105

Vocabulary- 107

in. Dress

Men's Attire 109

Head-dresses 109

Shirts 113

Leggings 114

Breech-cloths 116

Moccasins 117

Beaded Ornaments 118

Tobacco Pouches 120

An Eagle-feather Dance-bustle. 121

Women's Attire 122

Head-dress 122

Costume 124

Leggings 125

Waists 125

IXDIAX XOTES

CONTEXTS

Xecklaces and Belts 126

Articles of Common Use 127

Personal Adornment 130

diodes of Wearing the Hair. . . . 130

Facial Painting 132

Tattooing 133

ISlutilation of the Bodv 135

Toilet Articles 136

Vocabulary 140

IV. Food and its Preparation

Wild Rice 142

Traditions of the Rice 142

The Harvest 143

Vocabulan* 152

Wild Potatoes and Other \'egetal

Foods 152

Corn and its Preparation 1!>3

Legend of the Origin of Corn. . . 154

Cultivation 156

Preparation 157

Vocabulary 163

;Maple Sugar 164

Legend of the Origin of ^laple

Sugar 164

Sugar Makmg 165

Vocabulary 172

Hunting. Game, and ^Meats 173

INlaEcic and Mvthologv of the

Chase ". ' 173

Customs of the Chase ISO

The Feast of tlie First Game. ISO

The Di\-ision of Game ISl

Deer Hunting 1S2

Bear Hunting 1S7

Other Game 190

Cannibalism 1*^^!

AND :M 0X0 GRAPHS

MENOMINI CULTURE

^lethods of Preparing and Cook- ing Meats 193

Paunch Boiling; Bark Kettles 195

Vocabulary 195

Fishing [[]'[ 195

Legend of the Sturgeon 199

Alethods of Catching Fish 200

Methods of Preparing and Cook- ing Fish 204

Vocabulary 207

V. Means of Transportation

Signs and Superstitions of the

Trail 209

A Belief in Ghosts 209

Pabokowa'o 210

Equipage ." 2II

Snowshoes 212

Horse Trappings 212

Burden-straps 213

Cradles 214

Canoes 216

Birch-bark Canoes 216

Log Canoes 222

Vl. Handicraft

Tanning 224

Preparation of the Skin 224

Tanning Fur 225

Leather ^Making 226

Vocabulary 229

Weaving .' 230

Woven Bags 231

Hulling-bags 237

Yarn Sashes 238

Mats ' 238

Reed Mats 238

IMats for Covering Houses 244

INDIAN NOTES

CONTENTS

Bark Mats 247

String 248

Varieties of String 251

Woven Beadwork 252

Designs 256

Designs on Woven Bags 259

Embroider^" 266

Silk Applique 268

Description of Specimens 269

Porcupine Quill work 274

Antiquity of Floral Motives 276

Metal Working 279

Potter\^ 282

Household Utensils 286

Wooden Bowls 286

Tortoise-shell Dishes 288

Wooden Spoons 289

Shell Spoons 292

Baskets and Boxes 293

Other Receptacles 299

Brooms 301

Fire-drills 301

IMortars 303

Bone Awls 304

Bone Needles 307

An Iron for Quills 308

Vocabulary 309

Weapons 310

War-bundles 310

Warclubs 314

Shields and Knives 319

Bows and Arrows 320

\'ocabulary 330

Sculpture 330

Carving 332

Carving in Relief 337

AND MONOGRAPHS

10

M EN O MINI CULTURE

Painting and Etching

Dyes

Musical Instruments

Drums

Rattles and Jinglers

Whistles and Flutes

Receptacles for Tobacco

Origin of Tobacco

Sacrificial Dishes

Pipes

Vocabulary

Bags and Pouches for Tobacco .

Paraphernalia for Games

VII. Archeology

Types of Specimens from Meno-

mini Sites .• • •

Existing Vocabulary for Ancient

Artifacts

VIII. Ethnogeography

Geographical Band Names .

Some IVIenomini Place Names m

Wisconsin

Bibliographic Notes

Index

340 343 344 344 352 355 357 357 359 360 365 365 367

375

378

379

382 391 394

INDIAN NOTES

. ILLUSTRATIONS

Plates

PAGE

I. IMita'win memorial rites for

Chief Xi'opit Oshkosh. Frontispiece II. Carr3'ing the drum from the ^Medicine Lodge to the grave of Chief Xi'opit Oshkosh 46

III. ^[embers of the ^Medicine Society

assembled about the grave of

Chief Xi'opit Oshkosh 47

IV. Semiannual war-bundle ceremony 60 V. Round winter wigwam 61

\"i. Details of construction of the

square house 92

\'ii. Square bark house 93

VIII. Interior of So'man Jim's bark

house 94

IX. Second view of interior of So'man

Jim's house. 95

X. So'man Jim's house and garden. 98 XI. So'man Jim's war-bundles hung

on the sacred pole 99

XII. The long medicine lodge 102

XIII. Framework of the longlodge . . . 103

XIV. Otter-fur fillet ornamented with

medallions of beadwork 108

XV. Otter-fur fillet made of the entire

skin 109

11

AND MONOGRAPHS

12	ME NO MINI CULTURE
	XVI. Men in dance costumes, wearing fur tnrV>nn«; i iU
XVII. Joe ]\Ioon in ceremonial costume, with yarn sash forming a tur- l.ov! Ill
XIX. Ancient deerskin leggings 11 ^'> XX. Leather legging, elaborately fringed 118-
XXI, A. Beaded broadcloth legging. . . 118 XXT, B. Beaded broadcloth legging... 119 XXII. Tribal style of moccasin 1 19 XXIII. Group of men in costume, show- ing woven bead ornaments. . . 120 XXIV. Eagle-feather dance-bustle 121 XXV. Beaded hair binder, with pen- dants 124 XXVI. Sauk and Fox girl m costume, showing mode of wearing head- drpss side view i^-l
XXVII. Sauk and Fox girl in costume, showing mode of wearing head-
XXVIII. Woman in costume, showing rl va-r»f>r\- nf «iVin\vl IZv")
XXIX. Woman in costume, showing slit skirt 126
XXX. Group of men and women in cos- tume 12/
XXXI. Woman's legging, beaded and
appiiqucu .■■■■, ■.->-) XXXII. Waist, Potawatomi style 1^>5 XXXIII. Bead necklaces, and beaded gar- ^ ter with Thunderbird design, l^i
■v-w\' Tnilpt «;pt l^y)
	INDIAN NOTES

ILLUSTRATIONS	13
XXXVI. Winnowing tray of bark	141
xxxvil. Squashes cut in strips and hung
to dry	154
xxxvm. Mortar and double-ended pestle.	155
xxxix. Bark sap dish and wooden sap
spout	164
XL. Wooden ladle for stirring sap,
and wooden mortar	165
XLi. Snowshoes	210
XLTi. Pack-saddle with carved pommel	211
XLiii. Child's carrying-board or cradle	214
XLi\' . Carrying a child in a cradle	215
XLV. Portaging a birch-bark canoe . . .	218
XLVi. Birch-bark canoe	219
XLvn. Log canoe or dugout	222
XLvm. Cutting the hair from deerskin.	223
XLix. Scraping the deerskin with a
beaming tool	226
L. Wringing the deerskin	227
LT. Stretching the deerskin by hand 228
Lii. Smoking the deerskin	229
Liii. Woman weaving a yarn bag	230
Liv. Bag of closed twined weave and
hulling-bags of open twined
weave	231
LV. Bag of twined and diagonal
twined weaving, obverse and
reverse	234
LVI. Woven bags for storage purposes	235
Lvn. Weaving yarn sashes	238
Lvin. Mat in process of weaving	239
Lix. Reed mat of diagonal weave.
with linked diamond design. .	242
LX. Reed mat of over and under ver-
tical weave, with floral designs	243
AND MONOGRAPHS

14 MENOMINI CULTURE

Lxi. Preparing bark for string 248

LXii. Rolling bark fibers into twine . . . 249

LXiii. Garters of woven beadwork 252

LXiv. Bandoleer and bag of woven

beadwork, and beaded belt . . . 254 Lxv. Bandoleer and bag of woven

beadwork 255

Lxvi. Bandoleer and bag of woven

beadwork 256

Lxvii. Beaded medicine pouch, showing animal designs, obverse and

reverse 257

Lxviii. Beaded cosmetic pouch, obverse

and reverse 258

LXix. Beaded medicine pouch, obverse

and reverse 259

Lxx. Thunderbird designs woven on

bags 262

Lxxi. Animal designs woven on bags.. 263 Lxxii. Ancient designs woven on bags. 264 Lxxiii. Conventionalized realistic de- signs 265

Lxxiv. Conventionalized geometric de- signs 266

Lxxv. Quill embroidery on otter-fur

bags 267

Lxxvi. Quill embroidery on otter tails. 268 Lxxvii. Quilled pouch made of eagle-skin 269 Lxxviii. Floral designs: a, on . breech- clout; b, on cradle-band 272

Lxxix. Birch-bark boxes 273

Lxxx, Silver brooches 282

Lxxxi. Round wooden bowl 283

Lxxxii. Broom made from a cedar post.. 314 LxxxTii. An ancient t}npe of flat warclub. 315

INDIAN NOTES

ILLUSTRATIONS	15
LXXXIV.	Warclubs: a, ball-headed; b,
	hafted; c, flat	318
LXXX\'.	Buffalo-hide ammunition pouch
	and powder horn	319
LXXX^I.	Statue of the god Wa'bano. . . .	330
LXXX\II.	Wooden puppet used for pur-
	poses of magic	331
LXXX\"III.	Wooden puppet used as a love
	charm	332
LXXXIX.	Wooden puppet used as a love
	charm	33o
XC.	Wooden puppets bound together
	as a love charm	334
XCI.	Owl carved in wood	335
XCll.	Carved wooden spoon	336
XCIII.	Carved sacrificial dish of catlin-
	ite	337
XCIV.	Dice carved of bone or antler. .	33S
xcv.	Two heddles carved in relief. . . .	339
XCVI.	War-bundle wrapper of deerskin
	adorned \nth drawings	340
XCVII.	Grave-posts, etched and painted 341
XCVIII.	Drums: a, used in the Woman's
	Dance; b, the water-drum... .	346
XCIX.	Drum and stick of the Wa'bano
	cult	347
c.	Tinv drum of the Wa'bano
	Kime'wun	350
CI.	Plaving the lover's flute	351
CII.	Frame for drving Ki'nikinik. . . .	358
cm.	Pipe-bowls with wooden stems. .	359
CIV.	Tobacco-pouch with flower de-
	sign in beads	364
cv.	Tobacco-pouch of woven yarn. .	365
CVI.	Snow-snake, and ponv-foot la-
	crosse stick	368
c\-ii.	Cup-and-Din came .	369
AND MONOGRAPHS

16	MENOMINI CULTURE
	Figures 1. Wooden pot-hook 102 2. Roach spreaders of antler 112 3. Back comb of German silver 123 4. Necklace of bear's claws 128 5. Silver bracelets ^ 129 6. Modified hair-cut, showing scalp-lock. . 131 7. Toilet set 137 8. Comb-case carved from the antler of a moose, obverse 138 9. Comb-case carved from the antler of a moose, reverse 139 10. PulHng stick for harvesting rice 146 11. Shoulder-yoke used in gathering sap .. . 168 12. Wooden deer call 183 13. Hunter using the deer call 184 14. Jacklight used in hunting game 186 15. Typical canoe paddle 222 16. Beaming tool for scraping deerskin. ... 227 17. Needles made of the ribs of the buffalo 246 18. Hourglass design. . : 260 19. Sacrificial food dishes 260 20. Grave-shed design 260 21. Diamond design 260 22. Spider-web design 260 23. Indented diamonds 270 24. Stepped triangles and diamonds 270 25. Stepped triangle and floral design 270 26. Elongate diamonds 270 27. Oak-leaf and acorn 271
28. Antennae motive 271
29. Antennae, hearts, and diamonds 272 30. Stepped diamond and elongate figure. . 272 31. Rings of beaten metal 281
	INDIAN NOTES

ILLUSTRATIONS

17

32. Metal earring with incised design. .. . 281

33. Pottery jar with pointed base 285

34. Oval wooden bowl 287

35. Round wooden bowl 287

36. Bowl made of tortoise-shell 289

37. Ceremonial ladle 290

3S. Long-handled ladle 291

39. Spoon with straight handle 291

40. Spoon with hooked handle 292

41. Spoon made from the scapula of a

young bear 293

42. Sweet-grass basket ornamented with

cjuillwork 296

43. Sweet-grass basket ornamented with

quillwork 297

44. Bison-hide trunk 298

45. Wooden box used to hold eagle-feathers 299

46. Rawhide pouch for holding porcupine-

quills 300

47. Rawhide pouch for holding porcupine-

quills 300

48. a, Torch in birch-bark case; h, Rope of

cedar-bark used to transport fire. . . . 302

49. Bone awl now used in basketry 304

50. Awl with bone point in wooden grip. . 305

51. Bone and antler handled awls with

metal points 306

52. Snowshoe needles made of bone 307

53. Quill smoother made of antler 308

54. Ball-headed type of warclub 315

55. Grooved stone axe 318

56. Bow with tally notches 321

57. Hafted arrows 324

58. Glue-stick 325

59. Blunt arrow 327

60. Quilled quiver 328

AND MONOGRAPHS

18	MENOMINI CULTURE
	61. Wooden bowl carved to represent a porcupine 336
62. Carved moccasin pitterns 337 63. Canoe paddle, obverse and reverse .... 339 64. Grave-post 342 65. Sorcerer's stake . . 342
66. Anthropomorphic concept of thunder. 343 67. Drumstick for water-drum 346 68. Tortoise charm attached to the. Wa'- bano drum 350 69. Shaman's necklace 351 70. Gourd rattle 352 71. Gourd rattle in conical case of bark. . . 353 72. Deer-hoof and dew-claw rattle 354 73. Flageolet with carved slide 356 74. Sacrificial platter with incised carving . 360 75. Miniature canoe, a charm against drowning 360 76. Ordinary lacrosse stick 367 77. Lacrosse ball 368 78. Shinny stick 368 79. Shinny balls 369
	INDIAN NOTES

m:

PREFACE

THE data on which this article is based were obtained among the Menomoni Indians of Wisconsin during a series of studies extend- ing over eleven years, conducted in behalf of the IMuseum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation, and the American Mu- seum of Natural History. Thanks are due to the latter institution for photographs of specimens collected by the writer, and to the PubHc jMuseum of the City of Milwaukee for photographs taken in the field by Dr S. A. Barrett and illustrations of articles col- lected by him.

Among Indian informants to whom special credit is due for their interest are the fol- lowing, many of whom are deceased. The names of those no longer Hving are marked with an asterisk: Ni'opit Oshkosh,* Pitwa'skum* and wife,*

19

AND MONOGRAPHS

20

MENOMINI CULTURE

Wiu'skasit,* Ke'soa'pomesao* and wife,* Thomas Ko'kosh,* Wa'sikwonat,* Na'tci- wishko,* John Keshena* and wife,* Xaiato- wa'pikineu,* j\Irs John Perrote,* So'man Jim,* Big Jim Pa"monit,* Judge John Perrote,* John Amob, Wa'niskum, James Blackcloud, Dave Wa'pus, Wi'sanokut, Kse'watosa, Kine'sa, Kime'wun Oke'mas, Jane Kii'kak, Antoine Shi'pikau, Louis Ka'kwatc, Phihp Niiku'ti,* Mrs Wiu'skasit, Mrs Kopai'as Weke Hog, Peter and Jim Fish, Matilda Jackson, Joe and Sophie Pecore, Louis Pigeon, Mrs Ni'opit Oshkosh, Nawagi'zikwap, Mrs Naia'towapomi; last, and most important of all, ex-captain of Indian PoHce, John V. Satterlee.

Supplementary data have been gathered from time to time at first hand among the Eastern Cree, 1908-09; the Plains Cree,. 1913; the Northern Saulteaux (Ojibwa), 1909; the Plains Ojibwa, 1913; the Forest Potawatomi, 1912; the Winnebago, 1909; the Eastern Dakota, the Iowa, Oto, Ponca, and Kansa, 1914; the Seminole, 1910; the Seneca, 1904; and the Oneida, 1909. These additional data have been of considerable

INDIAN NOTES

PREFACE

21

aid in making a comparative study of the material culture of the Menomini.

The pronunciation of native terms is indi- cated b}^ the use of the symbols appended, the letters not included having their conti nental values. Sounds indicated b}^ ou letters f and r do not occur.

a as in flat. e as in bet.

a as aw in raw. « as in luck.

an as ow in how. ■ " a whispered terminal u.

ai as in aisle. -''^ a whispered aspirant.

I as in bit. ' glottal stop.

Alanson Skinner.

AND MONOGRAPHS

MATERIAL CULTURE OF THE MENOMINI

By Alanson Skinner

I. MENOMINI CULTURE IN GENERAL

INTRODUCTION

'ai y IN ORDER that the reader may ob- 81-* tain that insight into Menomini ^^^ life which is essential before the material culture of the tribe can be fully appreciated, a brief digest of the writ- er's previous work will be presented before taking up the principal subject of this mono- graph. As a matter of course, details can- not be given, but for the benefit of those desirous of pursuing the subject further, a bibliography pertaining thereto will be found at the conclusion of the paper. It is regrettable that ethnological writings cannot be made to give an adequate idea of the at-

23

INDIAN NOTES

24	MENOMINI CULTURE
	mosphere of Indian life, nor to bring out sufificiently the personality of the people dealt with; therefore a few words concerning the character of the Menomini as they are today may not be amiss. The Menomini, who now dwell on their reservation in north-central Wisconsin, are a typical Algonkian people in language, belonging to the same sub-group as the Sauk and Fox, whose dialects resemble Cree rather than Ojibwa. While two-thirds or more of the tribe of some 1750 souls now profess Christianity, the remainder are either frankly "pagan" or are in sympathy with pagan beliefs. The spread of the " Peyote religion" has been very hmited among them, and has met with such determined opposition on the part of the adherents of all other beliefs, that only a few outlying families connected with the Winnebago and the Potawatomi by marital ties have been converted. Of these, some have since sought and received rein- statement in the ancient tribal rites. From a conservative people, among whom old customs and especially rehgion were in full vigor up to very recently, it has been a
	INDIAN NOTES

CHARACTERISTICS	25
difficult task, at best, to acquire informa- tion. An added difficulty has been the psy- chology of even the most willing informants. In the writer's experience the Algonkian is a mystic, a dreamer, whose ideas are often so vague and uncrystalized that it is difficult for him to express them in words. The Siouan and the Iroquoian Indians, with their more practical minds, are always able to present a concrete idea m comprehensible form, somethmg by which an Algonkian is at times completely baffled. With the IMenomini, therefore, the gain- ing of data has been a tedious process. The writer's first visit to their reservation was made in 1909, and m addition to many sub- sequent trips, he has been and still is in con- stant correspondence with several members of the tribe. By patience and persistent questioning, a mass of definite facts has been elicited. Hostile secretiveness has been virtually overcome through years of associa- tion; for when one has taken part in native feasts and sacrifices, or sat in the ceremonies of the secret societies; when one has assisted in the funeral rites of the dead, hunted and
AND MONOGRAPHS

26	M EN 0 MINI CULTURE
	fished, eaten and slept, with the Hving, inti- macy comes at length. Constant cultiva- tion of friendship with the shamans and eld- ers, assistance of the needy (for no Meno- mini who receives' a kindness feels entirel}^ free of obligation until some favor has been done in return), and adoption into the fam- ily of a leading priest and shaman, have all played their part. Thus have come the data and specimens needed for illustration, often as free tokens of friendship, to form a record of Menomini life. Two fine old men have contributed largely to the success of this undertaking, ex-cap- tain of Indian PoHce, John V. Satterlee, and the late Indian Court Judge John (Sabatis) Perrote. Captain Satterlee in particular has labored incessantly, often without re- muneration, to have the annals of his people made complete. Ordinary exoteric matters of daily life were less difficult to record, especially as many customs could still be observed at first hand. But, conservative as were the Me- nomini, two events in recent years have acted to make a sudden end of the old-time
	INDIAN NOTES

PRESENT STATUS	27
culture. The influenza epidemic of 1919- 20 swept away many members of the Pagan party, especially those elders in whose mem- ories reposed the rituals of the ceremonies. The war with Germany also had a powerful effect on the tribe, though but few of the Menomini, as compared with their Siouan neighbors, the Winnebago, were carried to Europe. The fact that the Government accepted their young men as soldiers, and asked them, on equal terms with their white neighbors, for pecuniary and moral assist- ance, encouraged them to realize their equality with their white compatriots. The Menomini have definitely turned from the old road, and while many will persist in continuing their ancient customs for some years to come, their ranks will lessen with ever-increasing rapidity. The old way is doomed. To those familiar with some bands of the Ojibwa, the Potawatomi, Sauk, Fox, and Winnebago, all of whom have been inti- mately associated with the ]\Ienomini, it win doubtless seem surprising that many customs apparently common to all the Cen-
AND MONOGRAPHS

28

ME NO MINI CULTURE

tral tribes vary greatly from people to people when intensively observed. The phenomenon is quite general; even tribes of the same linguistic stock, closely related politically and socially, are prone to hold startlingly divergent behefs, and to main- tain outwardh' similar yet inwardly incom- prehensible rites and ceremonies.

In concluding, it should be noted that several phases of IMenomini life are yet to be fully studied. The language of the people requires further attention; their music has been neglected and their rich ethno-botany furnishes an alluring field for research.

RELIGION

The present religion of the IMenomini is a complex of ancient and modern behefs. many of which seem confused and contra- dictory. But when examined with attention to the extraneous influences brought to bear on the tribe within historic times, these readily emerge from their obscurity. From the writings of the Jesuits and other early French adventurers, and from modern tribal

INDIAN NOTES

RELIGION	29
practices and traditions, in many cases vir- tually identical with those found in vogue by the first white chroniclers, it becomes apparent that the tribe has always pos- sessed a mass of concepts concerning the universe, which may be stated briefly as follows. The earth is believed to be an island, floating in an illimitable ocean, separating the two halves of the universe into an upper and a lower portion, regarded as the abode of the benevolent and the malevolent pow- ers, respectively. Each portion is divided into four superimposed tiers, inhabited by supernatural beings, the power of whom increases in ratio to their remoteness from the earth. In the highest tier above the earth resides the deity to whom all others are subordinate. The testim.ony of the early writers is unanimous that this being was the Sun, but he is now, probably through missionary influence, personified as the Great Spirit (Mate Hawd'tuk), leaving the Sun in an anomalous position. Beneath the supreme being, in descend- ing order, some say clustered about a cylin-
AND MONOGRAPHS

30	MENOMINI CULTURE
	drical opening in the heavens, are three tiers of bird-like deities. First, in the empyrean, come the Thunderbirds, gods of war. As- sociated with these, in some manner not apparent, is the IMorning Star. Next comes the reahn of the Golden or War Eagles, and the White Swan; and last, in the stratum which touches the earth, birds of all species, headed by the Bald Eagles and various hawks, kites, and swallows. All these birds, regardless of stratum, are servants and messengers of the Great Spirit, any existing species named being thought to be earthly representatives of the Thun- derers. Except for the Sun and the IMorning Star, Httle attention is paid to the heavenly bodies. The Moon is regarded as pos- sessed of power, but is not important. There are also certain minor sacred per- sonages who dwell in the sky-country, among whom are several sisters who preside over the destinies of women, and to whom various colors are appropriate. Their place in the heavenly strata is not fixed. Beneath the earth, there is, in the lowest
	INDIAN NOTES

RELIGION	31
tier, the Great White Bear with a long cop- per tail, who, in addition to being the chief and patron of all earthly bears and the tra- ditional ancestor of the IMenomini tribe, is the principal power for evil. He has, as a servant, a mythical hairless bear. Next, in ascending order, is the great Underground Panther, who figures extensively in the demonology of the Central Algonkian and Southern Siouan tribes. He is represented on earth by the panther and the lynx. Next is the White Deer, prominent in the origin myth of the ^ledicine Dance. Last of all, close to the earth, and often visible to its inhabitants, is the Horned Hairy Serpent, so generally found in North Ameri- can mythology. The earth itself is peopled by a myriad of fantastic hobgoblins. Cannibal giants dwell in the icy region of the north; a malev- olent living skeleton, with death-dealing eyes, haunts the forests after nightfall. Similar to him, but less terrible, is a mys- terious person bearing a sacred bundle upon his back, who, Hke the Wandering Jew, is doomed to travel ceaselessly in expiation of
AND MONOGRAPHS

32

MENOMINI CULTURE

some forgotten sin. He wrestles with Indians from time to time, and, if overcome, grants his conqueror long hfe; if -he is the victor, the days of the vanquished are numbered.

A race of p:,-gmies inhabits remote rocky fastnesses. A well-disposed elf smites peo- ple on the head with a soft warclub, causing sleep. Flying heads and skulls, of varying intentions toward the race of men, exist; and there is a mysterious man who follows and molests belated travelers. Rocks, ponds, and hills have their fancied denizens.' All species of animals are ruled by supernat- ural chiefs, mostly dwelling underground and these, with the Powers of the Under- world, show themselves on earth from time to time. In swamp-holes, lakes, and rivers, under waterfalls, and in lonely hills may be found stray horned snakes, bears, panthers, and, in modern times, dogs, hogs, and horses.

Wringing their living from a reluctant earth filled with such marvelous and often dangerous beings, menaced by the imaginary forces of the Underworld, what wonder that

INDIAN NOTES

RELIGION	S3
the earliest traceable religious observances among the ]\Ienomini and their neighbors are those of propitiation and supplication of the Evil Forces! True, the Good Gods are not forgotten; for instance, it is believed that only the incessant warfare waged by the Thunderers upon the Powers Below pre- vents their constant appearance on earth to the bane of men; but, working on the the- ory that it was wise to placate that which they could in no wise combat, the elders dedicated the greater part of the sacrifices of antiquity to the Nether Gods. At an early date, however, we find that sacred objects and rites, supposed to have been given in dreams to individuals for the bene- fit of the tribe, were known. Chief of these articles were the war-bundles, strong charms for defense and offense. Certain men who succeeded in getting en rapport with the deities, as for example, members of the Wa'hano cult, who are prophets, seers, and jugglers, through the aid of the Morning Star, or of the Je"sako- wuk, who are doctors and diviners through supernatural visions, came to be recognized.
AND MONOGRAPHS

34	MENOMINI CULTURE
•	as did sorcerers, who obtained personal benefits from the Powers of Evil in return for harassing their fellowmen. The matter of getting into communica- tion with the deities, or some of them, was the private concern of every individual of the tribe, male or female, and was accom- plished by fasting, and thus ''incubating," or artificially inducing, dream-revelations when at the age of puberty. In this way were the war and hunting bundles obtained, as well as personal charms, fetishes, and the rituals of various loosely organized cults, such as the ''Buffalo Dance," and the ex- tinct "Thunder Society." Sacrifices of food, clothing, dogs, and, especially, tobacco, were and are constantly made to all supernatural powers, accom- panying petitions for various gifts and blessings. Tobacco is supposed to be highly prized by all the deities, and no prayer is complete without it. Such an offering must be made to all medicine-bags or bun- dles on displaying, opening, or disturbing them. No request for information of the esoteric
	INDIAN NOTES

RELIGION

sort addressed to the elders is valid without being accompanied with the herb. Tobacco is sacrificed by placing it on or near the ob- ject to which it is offered, by throwing it in the air. if the recipient addressed is one of the Powers Above, or burying it in the earth if he be one of the Underworld Gods. It is often smoked, and the pipe or its fumes proffered, but it is almost never cast on the fire for incense.

Traceable to an early beginning, founded wholly on the foregoing beliefs, and inti- mately associated with the tribal origin and cosmogonic myths, are the rehgious teach- ings of the important and little-understood society called the Mitd'icin. In the cosmo- gonic myth we are told that the Great Spirit (Sun) created the earth and caused it to spring up on itself personified as a woman ("our grandmother"), and that she eventu- ally became miraculously pregnant and gave birth to a daughter. The daughter in turn conceived, some say through the agency of the Four Winds, but she was torn asunder in childbirth, having previously borne a be- ing known as the Great Hare {Miitc Wa'pus,

35

AND MONOGRAPHS

36	MENOMINI CULTURE
•	since corrupted into Md"ndhus), a wolf, also known as Na''^patdo, an anthropomorphic personage, and a flint stone, the latter issuing unnaturally and causing her death. Some versions of the myth make her also the mother of all animal kind. Of the children, the Great Hare, who rarely appears except in human form, is by far the most important, for he alone is im- bued with the power of the Great Spirit. He proceeded to prepare the world for its coming occupancy by human tenants through a series of tremendous and heroic deeds, including the recreation of the earth after the flood. Although it seems difficult to reconcile the character of the timorous and foolish hare with that of the great earth-making Culture God, child of the primal forces, if we accept Brinton's hypothesis that among Algonkians the name of the hero was origin- ally compounded not with the word wa'pus, a hare, but with wa'pan, meaning dawn, east, or light (I have here employed the Menomini native terms), and has since be- come confused by oral descent through gen-
	TNDIAN NOTES

RELIGION	37
erations until it has assumed its present form, we have a worthy native conception of a heroic demigod.^ This encourages further speculation. The Menomini, and indeed the Central Algon- kians in general, may well have possessed in their folklore a Hare trickster, corresponding with the Plains Spider or Coyote, who was responsible for the cycle of comic, senseless, and obscene escapades, which now, through this confusion of identity between wa'pan and wa'pus, are appended to the mighty achievements of the Culture Hero-God though utterly foreign to his original char- acter. In this connection it is interesting to note that the more northerly Ojibwa and Cree have a trickster, whose name, Tcika'pis, may conceivably be derived from 'tci wa'pus, or Great Hare, in addition to the Culture Hero-God.2 This theory would at once make clear one of the hitherto inexplicable puzzles of North American mythology, and the solution is rendered the more probable by the fact that it is principally the foolish and unworthy incidents of the dual cycle which are found generally diffused over the
AND MONOGRAPHS

38	MENOMINI CULTURE
	greater part of the continent; the serious cosmogonic, and especially the sacred ritu- alistic myths, being confined to the Central Algonkians, and perhaps not to all of them. The Mita'win Origin Myth Be this as it may, in his endeavors to better existing conditions for the benefit of his human successors, Md"ndhus angered the Evil Gods, who sought to slay him. Failing in this, they did away with his younger brother the Wolf. In revenge, the Great Dawn destroyed some of their num- ber and wounded others, later killing them by substituting himself for their doctor and thus gaining admission to their homes. In order to escape, the remaining Evil Be- ings, in consultation with the Good Powers, decided to offer the Great Dawn their secret knowledge of prolongation of Hfe by the magic and medicinal use of herbs and roots, the hairs of our Earth Grandmother. To this they added the assurance of, if not im- mortality, at least a safe journey and cer- tain admission to the Abode of the Dead,
	INDIAN NOTES

R-ELIGION

through the songs and ritual of the Aledicine Lodge.

Persuaded to accept, through the un- sought soHcitation of Otter, the Great Dawn attended the conference, and was initiated by the Gods in their Celestial Medicine Lodge; the ceremony consisting, in part, of his being attacked in succession by four of the leaders, who "shot" into his body the essence of the power contained in the medi- cine-bags which they carried, these being composed of the animal skins or natures which they had worn, and of which they had divested themselves for the occasion, in order to assume human form. The Great Dawn was slain by this supernatural essence, but was later brought to life, and was then possessed, not only of the power thus in- jected into him, but of more than earthly knowledge. Bidden to carry the rites of the Celestial Lodge to mankind, his ''uncles and aunts," he did appear to them, and intro- duced the still existing Medicine Dance, the ritual of which embodies the dramatization of this myth, and in many fundamental con- cepts so closely resembles the rites of the

39

AND MONOGRAPHS

40	M E N 0 M I N I CV L T T R K
	white society known as the Free and Ac- cepted Masons, that only the undoubted pre-European origin of the Indian fraternity makes suspicion of influence by contact un- tenable. Like the Masons, the Mita'win is a closed organization, which keeps its ritual secret from non-members, even within the tribe. Initiation is by purchase, the candi- date often taking the place of a deceased member, and neither age nor sex bars any- one from membership. To the members of the society the Great Dawn is more than one of the series of tribal gods; he is the principal deity. He is fe- vered as the giver, through the other gods, of life, future existence, curative medicines and formulae; he is patron of the Je"sako doctors and seers, master of game, and donor of the hunting-bundles and charms. Members of the society are called familiarly, among themselves, ''followers of M(i"nd- hus'' and the rites of the lodge and the fra- ternal help it extends to its members are "the ways of the Great Dawn." These are facts with which students of North Ameri- can ethnology have not been familiar,
	INDIAN NOTES

RELIGION	41
though many of them were noted by the earliest explorers. The DREAiffiRS At a very much later period, probably just before the middle of the last century, a new religious cult was introduced among the Menomini, probably by the Potawatomi of the Prairie. This is a society called "The Dancing Men," or "The Dreamers," whose rites are founded on a ritual supposed to have been given to a little girl in a dream, subsequent to a battle between whites and Indians. A spirit appeared to the little fugitive and promised her protection for her people, provided they worshiped the Great Spirit through the medium of a special drum. To do this, a society was formed, having various chapters, each provided with its quota of officers, on the plan of many of the Southern Siouan societies. The asso- ciation holds periodical public ceremonies outdoors, and private performances, mainly to heal the sick, indoors. It is not secret, nor is admission by purchase. The chief paraphernalia are a huge sacred
AND MONOGRAPHS

42

MENOMINI CULTURE

drum and its accompanying pipes, which are constantly attended, day and night, by a member appointed as guard; and the eagle-feather bustle worn during certain of the outdoor dances. Membership does not debar one from the Mitd'win, and of late years, with the gradual decay of the definite functions and titles of the officers as origin- ally conceived, a curious confusion of the tenets of this society with those of the Mitafwin has been noted.

Peyotf

Since 1914, or perhaps a few years earlier, the so-called "Peyote religion" has put in an appearance in certain settlements where members of the tribe are married to Winne- bago or Potawatomi addicts. As the writer has not undertaken the study of this new craze with any of the Hmited number of its :\Ienomini adherents, he is not in a position to speak with authority on the subject. The dogma of the members is reported to be a mixture of pagan and Christian behefs, which seem to be entirely of an ennobhng and uplifting character, but the accompa-

INDIAN NOTES

RELIGION	43
nying ceremonies consist largely in the pro- curing of visions by means of the use of the powerful narcotic peyote, which can have only a deleterious effect on its users. The cult is not secret, but membership in the order precludes any in all other societies, and demands the abandonment of all an- cient practices, with the destruction of their paraphernalia. If its converts increase ma- terially in numbers (which at present seems improbable, owing to the opposition of the conservatives among both Christian and pagan parties, coupled with the antagonism of the government officers attached to the reservation), its success will mean the death- blow to all the ancient customs of the tribe, already decadent, without the compensation of any advantageous or progressive substi- tute. The Hereafter It is beheved that each person is pos- sessed of two separate souls. One, really the ghost, is the intellect, which resides in the head. This spirit Hngers about the graveyard for an indefinite time after the
AND MONOGRAPHS

44	MENOIMINI CULTURE
	funeral, and gives sharp whistling cries at night. Offerings of food are made to it. The other is the true soul, which is immor- tal, and travels over the Road of the Dead (The Milky Way) to the Land of Spirits. One of the principal objects of the Mitd'wln, or Medicine Lodge Society, is to prepare members to make this difficult journey in safety. The road to the Otherworld is broad and plainly marked, but various obstacles and temptations are found along the way, de- signed to lead the unworthy astray. As the length of the pilgrimage is four days and four nights, at the funeral ceremonies the souls of slain enemies are ordered by the warriors who killed them to accompany, guide, and care for the deceased. These ser- vants light the fires and prepare the camps at night. It was for use on the trip to the Otherworld, and not for service in that land, that weapons and utensils were formerly placed in the grave. Just before the Land of the Departed is reached, a river is encountered, over which the only passage is by means of a slippery
	INDIAN NOTES

RELIGION	45
log. A huge dog guards this bridge, and he never permits evildoers, nor those who have maltreated dogs or wolves in life, to cross. Even if an evil soul is allowed to attempt a crossing, it is likely to be precip- itated into the stream and to be swept on eternally. If, however, a soul succeeds in reaching the other side, it is welcomed by the spirits of 'those who have gone before, and joins them in feasting and playing lacrosse forever. The Otherworld is ruled by Na'^'patao, or little Wolf, the brother of Md^ndhus, who was slain by the Powers Beneath. After a soul has been in his care for four days, he sends for it, washes it, and cleanses it of all earthly knowledge. It is then endowed with heavenly lore, and becomes oblivious of most of the facts concerning its previous existence on earth. A year after thedeath of a member of the Mitd'win, his relatives call a meeting of the society and hold a memorial ceremony at which prayers are addressed to Na'^'patdo, requesting him to release the soul of the deceased, that it may return to earth long
AND MONOGRAPHS

46

ME NO MINI CULTURE

enough to participate in a feast of the dead. A person of the same age and sex as the departed is selected to wear the latter's best suit of clothes, preserved for this occasion by the mourners, and to impersonate the returned soul. After the feast the imper- sonator is faced to the west, and the soul is dismissed to return to the realm of Na'^patdo. Often as an alternative a large public ceremony is held (pi. i-iii) , at which the impersonator is initiated into the society to take the place of the dead member.

SOCIAL ORGANIZATION

Tribal Opigin ]\Iyth

According to the tribal origin myth, in the mystical past the Great Underground Bear and its mate came out of the earth near the mouth of the INIenominee river, and there assumed human guise, becoming the tribal ancestors. Later the,v were joined by metamorphosed Thunderers, the beaver, black bear, crane, wolf, bald eagle, and others. As the eagle assisted the bear, and a wave the Wolf, the Bear-Eagle and Wolf-Wave people became partners, and

INDIAN NOTES

SKINNER — MENOMINI CULTURE

CARRYING THE DRUM FROM THE MEDICINE LODGE TO THE GRAVE OF CHIEF NI'OPIT OSHKOSH

_l X

CQ W

^ <=>

CO I

CD CO

< o

>- \-

ORGANIZATION	47
were the ancestors of two groups of linked gentes, the members of which address each other, in each case, as ''nito'tdm.'' Al- though it is thus apparent that the member of each gens are supposedly descended from metamorphosed animals, in ordinary prac- tice the Indians regard actual animals as having been their forefathers. Thus they are related to modern representatives of these animals, and, in consequence, I have heard, for example, an Indian of the Bear gens address a living bear as "brother." Gextes and Phratkies The phratries of the jMenomini with their remembered gentes are seven. The first gens eni>merated in each phratry is the leader of that group and gives it its name. They are: fl. Great Ancestral Bear, Seka'tcokemau I \2. Snapping Turtle, i/?"^a'«a [3. Porcupine, Kitd'mi"' fl. Big Sand (name of a mythical bear), II 1 Ketcina'kau 12. Black Bear, iwa'^e \ ,. , , . [3. Bald Eagle; P/;m'./"i linked gentes
AND MONOGRAPHS

48	ME NO MINI CULTURE
	in ]3. Fox, Wa"ko \4. Dog, And'm [5. Deer, ApW'sos y,. /I. Beaver, Noma' ^^ \2. Muskrat, OstVs Y fl. Crane, Kivuta'tcia \2. Shagpoke, Wapikisu'nien VI 1. Elk, Oma'skos {\. Thunderbird, Ina'mald'^ VII \ 2. War or Golden Eagle, Kine'u [3. Crow or Raven, Ka'kaki'^ Each of these phratnes and its subordi- nate gentes possesses a number of gentile names, both male and female, based on some real or supposed characteristic of the an- cestor of the leading gens, which are be- stowed as honorary titles on members of their appropriate group, and which must be kept constantly in use. The phratries have likewise their pecuHar rites and functions, but these have largely, if not entirely, fallen in desuetude. There are no gens or phratry properties, such as sacred bundles, nor has any gens or phratry any ceremon}^ appro-
	INDIAN NOTES

THUNDER GENS NAMES

49

priate only to itself. There are traces of an ancient dual division of the phratries into the moieties according to the position of the gens and phratry ancestors in the upper or the nether worlds, but this seems to have been unimportant and purely ceremonial.

THUNDER GENS NAMES

These names, hitherto unrecorded, are supposed to be the titles of the Thunder- birds themselves, by which they are known among the gods. They are used by mortal Indians as personal names in the Thunderer gens. There are, no doubt, more of these titles, but they are forgotten or have fallen into disuse. As given in this Hst they are supposed to follow the order of importance, and appearance, of their celestial owners. The writer has placed an asterisk before each name borne by an Indian of his acquaintance. As noted above, similar names were apparently once found in all the gentes.

*^Iudje'kiwis, The eldest brother and leader. Perhaps derived from the Ojibwa, and

AND MONOGRAPHS

50

M E N O AI I N I CULTURE

meaning 'Bad or Evil Wind.' Not only used as a clan name, but as the ordinal name of the eldest son, or, in its feminine form, of the eldest daughter in every fam- ily. Often used colloquially to mean the firstborn, or the heir, especially in myth- ology and folklore.

Ma"nuseo, 'The Leader,' or 'The Greatest.' Some Indian authorities place this Thun- derer before the preceding, but this has no foundation in lore nor usage.

*Wi'skino, 'Bird.' When he appears the rain freezes.

*Wabinima'ki", 'White Thunderbird.'

Sawinama'ki^, 'Red Thunderbird.'

*Kishkinama'kiu, 'Moderator' (Thunderbird), also known as 'One-half a Thunderer,' and 'Finishes Suddenly.' He comes in black clouds, and the weather then clears.

*Ko"naha', 'Cyclone.'

Keska'na'kahum, 'The Tree Breaker.' Snaps off the tree-trunks half-way up.

IMosa'na'se, 'Terrible or Destructive One.' Also called 'IMan-Thunder,' because he is often seen in anthropomorphic form.

We'se'ka'peo, 'The Firm-seated One.' Always looks on while the others storm. Should he ever leave his place and join them, he would destroy the world.

*Wakajona'pe, 'Crooked Beak.'

*Kewutawa'peo, 'Rolling Eyes.' Generally translated, 'Look Around.'

Ina'makiu, 'Thunderbird.'

*Awa'nuhapeo, 'One Seated in Fog.'

Muko'mias, 'Inventor of Hail.'

INDIAN NOTES

G 0 \' E R X :^I E N T

'^Pepakiji'se, 'Little Pot-belly.' Used not only as a Thunderer gens name, but as a nick- name applied to the youngest son in every family, regardless of gens.

GOVERXMEXT

The office of tribal chief was hereditary in the principal family of the Great ^Mythical Bear gens, the members of which are the traditional lineal descendants of the Great Bear himself. The head man in each gentile group or phratry had likewise to be a mem- ber of the principal gens of his group. Phratry councils, gens councils, and tribal councils were held to decide important questions. The duties of all chiefs were purely civil, the war power being vested in the owners of the war-bundles, who were dependent on their personal dream revela- tions for office, and whose authority was limited by their reputation and personality. A civil chief was not debarred from being a bundle-owner, and hence a war-leader, should he receive the proper revelations. The war-leaders, together with all men of notable bravery, whose exploits had won them fame, were required to police the

51

AND MONOGRAPHS

52	:\IENOMINI CULTURE
	camp. An hereditary officer in one of the Bear gentes was their commander. He wore a special badge of authority, and had charge of the peace-pipe, by virtue of which he prevented blood vengeance in cases of intertribal murder, causing the aggrieved parties to withhold their wrath until the case could be formally tried, and the mur- derer, if adjudged guilty, bought off or executed. The warrior police were required to guard the beds of wild rice from premature pickers when the tribe had gathered for the annual harvest, in much the same way that the Oki'tcita "soldiers" of the plains regu- lated the buffalo hunt. BlKTH AND XaMIXG CUSTOMS A woman approaching childbirth with- drew to an outhouse or a small special lodge, and there had her infant, for the blood which attended its arrival was regarded as un- clean, as is that lost during the menses. The child, almost as soon as born, was bound on a cradle-board, and holes were made in its moccasins, so that if any spirit
	INDIAN NOTES

BIRTH AND NAMES

should coax it to leave its parents and return to the Otherworld, whence it came, it would be obliged to refuse, on the ground that its shoes were too poor to undertake so long a journey.

While ordinal names, derived from the Thunderers, are found among the T^Ieno- mini, each child is given a personal name, often by some shaman who is paid for this service. These names may be revealed in dreams, or may be titles acquired from the Powers Above. At a later period in life a youth who has done some brave deed in war may have his name changed by consent of the gens or the tribal council, and fre- quently receives one of the gentile names mentioned in a preceding section.

Children of both sexes were alwa}^s, and to some extent still are, taught to fast when yet very young, in order to enable them to undergo a rather prolonged ordeal at pub- erty. The object of the puberty fast is to induce portentous dreams by starvation. X'isions of this nature include the blessing of the devotee by some god or important animal, with the gift of certain special per

AND MONOGRAPHS

53

54	MENOMINI CULTURE
	sonal, warlike, or supernatural privileges, and prophecy concerning the suppHcant's future. Sometimes some taboo is imposed, or orders issued to perform certain rites periodically. Evil or unpropitious dreams may be refused and new revelations sought, but the reappearance of the same vision four times makes it irrevocable. Puberty A girl undergoing her first menses is obHged to withdraw from society for ten days, and thereafter on each recurrence for several days, or as long as the period de- mands. For this enforced sojourn she is provided with a small lodge and her own peculiar utensils which no one else may touch. During such periods women are considered highly unclean, and hence are supposed to pollute, injure, and perhaps even destroy any person or medicine with which they may come in contact. JMarriage Traditionally all marriage customs were derived from the Great Dawn. Love
	INDIAN NOTES

:^I A R R I A G E

matches were formerly rare, but young men did a great deal of courting at night, going to the lodge and bed of the girl in the midst of her family. Usually, however, parents selected wives for their sons. If a young man proved acceptable to his prospective parents-in-law, presents were given them by his relatives, and the bride went to the young man's wigwam and dwelt with him. Her parents made gifts in return to the groom's relatives at the end of a year, and these had to be of equal or greater value than those they had originally received. Plurahty of wives was once the rule.

Separation was by mutual consent; but in recent times a wife could be given away publicly with a blanket at the Dream Dance. Adultery was cause for divorce, and the woman was sometimes punished by the loss of her nose. The offending man was liable to death at the hands of an aggrieved husband.

The "joking relationship," a formal eti- quette, is still maintained between brothers- and sisters-in-law, uncles aunts, and nieces

55

AND MONOGRAPHS

56

MENOMINl CULTURE

and nephews. The mother-in-law taboo is

also known.

Games

Menomini games are often played for the dual purpose of honoring the gods and of curing the sick, amusement being secondary in a number of cases. Such games are the perquisites of important deities, and are held only to gain their good graces. La- crosse, in particular, is the property of the Thunderers, and is looked upon as mimic warfare. A game can be called only by a man having a Thunderbird as his dream guardian, or who is supposed to be a rein- carnated Thunderer himself. In either case, such a person must give the game peri- odically. x\pparently, betting is not in- dulged in, in connection with this sport, but the giver must fee both sides with gifts of calico or other bright-colored cloth, and must not take part in the play himself, but stay at one side to offer prayers and sacri- fices. Shinny, played exclusively by women, belongs to one of the sets of sacred Sky Sis- ters and is performed under conditions similar to those of lacrosse.

INDIAN NOTES

G A M E S	57
TWO HITHERTO UNRECORDED GAMES A game played solely for the amusement of children, that they might become tired and more readily fall asleep, was called kakatcis katnmoyan. A disc was cut out of bark, a foot or more in diameter, and this the Httle ones were taught to roll before them, like a hoop. A rough game, which not infrequently developed into a free-for-all fight, was called hato'wi, or ato'wi. Two sides were chosen by the players; or members of some friendly visiting tribe, such as the Pota- watomi, played in opposition to the Meno- mini. The object of the sport was to show which of the contestants could best keep his temper. First one side and then the other took turns kicking each others' buttocks. With each kick, delivered with all the force which the moccasin-clad foot of the owner could gather, the name of the game was shouted aloud; in fact, whenever a crowd of Indians had gathered to watch or partici- pate in athletic sports, such as bow-shooting, wrestling, racing, or lacrosse, if any one
AND MONOGRAPHS

58

MENOMINI CULTURE

shouted ''Hato'wir it was customary for the bystanders immediately to begin to play.

A Hst of Menomini games, all of which are widely diffused throughout the Central Algonkian and Southern Siouan tribes, fol- lows:

Lacrosse Moccasin

Snow-siiake Kicking game

Prisoners' base Draw-sticks

Rolling hoops Foot-racing

Shinny Bowl-and-dice

Ice game Cup-and-pin

Throwmg sticks Cat's-cradle Racing ponies

Sign Language A system of signs for blazing forest trails was once in vogue among the Menomini, but has become almost extinct. I have often seen them break over young saplings and bushes, inclining the fallen tops in the direction the party was taking for the bene- fit of an3-one coming behind. The condi- tion of the leaves— fresh, wilted, or dried- helps mark the elapse of time as well. A few signs are made with the hands, appar- ently the remnant of a once more extensive sign language.

INDIAN NOTES

SIGN LANGUAGE	59
Contempt: Raise right fist to the lips, fingers away from the jnouth, throw out first two fingers and bring hand downward and forward with celerity. This gesture may be made with im- punity only to joking relatives. AVcnishment: Right fist raised and placed thumb against mouth; for great surprise, the left fist raised in like manner, the thumb against the infolded little finger of the right. It must be understood that both thumbs are folded in. Horse galloping: Extend right arm horizon- tally with hand clenched, fingers down, rapidly clench and unclench fist. For several horses both hands are used. Lightning or gunshot: Back of right hand slapped smartly in palm of left. / give it to you: Extend right hand, palm downward, raising palm until almost on the same plane as the upright body. There were once other signs, say the old people, but they are all forgotten. None of the above gestures is confined to the Meno- mini tribe in its use. Warfare Although a peace-loving tribe, the Meno- mini were both able and willing to resist invasion and even to carry the fighting into the enemy's country. They drove the Sauk and Fox from their seats on Green bay, and.
AND MONOGRAPHS

60	ME NO MINI CULTURE
	much later, during the Blackhawk war, materially helped the American forces to ex- pel them from the territory east of the Mis- sissippi. They raided the Osage, and, in company with their allies, the Eastern or Santee Dakota, ventured up the JNIississippi to attack the Mandan. All Menomini warfare was conducted through the assistance of the war-bundles, the type example of which was traditionally given the tribe by the Thunderbirds, through the medium of a man named Wata'kwuna. The succeeding examples down to the pres- ent day have been granted to men and even to women as dream revelations. Semi- annual sacrifices are made to the bundles in the spring and the fall, when a public cere- mony with feasting and dancing is held (pi. iv). At this time the bundle-ovvners are masters of the rites, and are fed by attend- ants who place the food in their mouths with wooden skewers. When general war was declared, runners were sent to the various villages of the tribe, bearing tobacco and a string of wampum, painted red, to notify the bundle-owners or
	INDIAN NOTES

>

O llI i>

cc 3

UJ ^

< tc

\\- A R F A R E	61
partizans to gather their warriors. When for this or any other reason a partizan de- cided to go to war, he collected his young men, who were volunteers desirous of ob- taining fame, and led them out of the vil- lage to a secluded spot in the forest. Here a long lodge of boughs was erected, the bundle opened, and its contents displayed. Sacrifices, including a dog feast, were made, and the war dance was performed. The partizan managed these affairs, but did not take part. The war-party then proceeded, with the partizan in advance carrying the war-bun- dle, or having it borne for him by his uncle or a nephew. Thus equipped the leader could neither turn back nor deviate from his path, unless his uncle or his nephew came forward, took hold of him, and forcibly changed his course. When scouts had lo- cated the enemy's camp, it was approached at night. Before attacking, the partizan again opened the war-bundle, and, with its contents spread out before him, sang the songs belonging to the bundle's ritual, to the accompaniment of a deer-hoof rattle, and
AND MONOGRAPHS

62	AI E N 0 M INI CULTURE
	then distributed the sacred contents of his pack among his followers. One, for exam- ple, would receive a root medicine to make him invulnerable, when chewed and sprayed over his body. Another was given a sim- ilar charm to secure invisibility. Another might accept a snake-skin to give him the serpent's power of stealthy approach. The skin of a swallow rendered the bearer as dif- ficult to hit as is that bird in flight; a miniature warclub gave another the ability to strike with the force of the Thunder. Thus fortified, the men encircled the hostile camp, while the partizan stayed behind singing to stupefy the enemy. The attack was commenced just before dawn, when vitality was supposed to be at its lowest ebb. Bows and arrows and war- clubs were used, but shields were not car- ried. Scalps were taken back to the parti- zan, who gave rewards to the successful warriors. The first to kill a foe received a wampum belt. After the attack the war- riors turned homeward, taking time, when out of reach of the enemy, to stretch the scalps on hoops. When the lodge of boughs
	INDIAN NOTES

WARFARE

63

erected on the outward journey was reached, a victory dance was held, and the names of the victors were announced with the nature of their coups.

Among the jMenomini there was no sys- tem of war honors. The greatest deed was to slay a foeman, for which feat alone was granted the right to wear an eagle-feather on the head. For this, and perhaps for scalping a foe, the principals were entitled to have their names changed by vote of council composed probably by the chiefs of the gens of the victor. Usually some gens name "vacant" at the time was awarded.

Following the victory dance the warriors danced with the scalps attached to short wands, after which the nearest female rela- tive of each man, preferably his sister, came forward and made him a present "to wash the blood from his hands," and took the scalp, whooping as she received it. The scalps were then the property of the women, who ornamented and kept them as trophies. If a man had no female relative to receive his scalps, they reverted to the war-bundle and were kept therein until the next semi-

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64	MENOMINI CULTURE
	annual war-bundle feast, when each was given to some renowned warrior to dance with until his female relatives "washed his hands" and took it from him. Bits of scalps are sometimes found attached to charms contained in the war-bundles, and it is probable that the wisps of hair care- fully preserved in these palladia, explained as locks from the heads of former owners, are in many cases really from scalps taken when the bundle was used, having been kept as tokens of its prowess. SOCIETIES The ^NIita'win An idea has already been given of the underlying ritual of the important secret society known as the Mitafwin, or ]\Iedicine Lodge, which is composed of four graded degrees. Admission is by purchase, often to fill a vacancy caused by death, and the ini- tiation is the dramatization of the origin myth, in which the candidate plays the leading role. The chief feature is the pre- tended slaying and bringing to life of the candidate, which is the symbolic presenta-
	INDIAN NOTES

M I T A' W I N	65
tion of the belief that all so initiated will be reincarnated in the Hereafter, In addition to the ritualistic myths of the society, a mass of official and unofficial lore is acquired from time to time by the initiate after he has joined the body, but always by purchase. This is made up of the songs and the formulae accompanying the herb medicines known to the members, and leg- endary data concerning the specific gifts of the various animals to ]\Ia"nabus at the time of the founding of the lodge. Inci- dentally, there occurs in the customs of the lodge one of the few traces of the old tribal dual division previously mentioned, based on the separation of the universe into halves. It is said that formerly mem- bers took their positions on one side or the other of the Medicine Dance structure ac- cording as to whether the medicine-bags they possessed were made of the skins of animals inhabiting the upper or the lower regions. ilEDICINES AND BUNDLES Peculiarly the property of the members of the Mitd'min, yet known through pur-
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66

ME NO MINI CULTURE

chase to many others, is a vast series of medicines, both magical and practical, hav- ing for their ingredients roots, herbs, shells, fossils, stones, claws of animals, and the like. Presumably all these had their origin in dream revelations, but many have been handed down from one member of the society to another from time immemorial, and, except as gifts of "our grandmother, the Earth," or of various gods and animals, through the Great Dawn, their origin is forgotten. Medicines and their sacred formulas, for none are valuable without their particular songs and prayers, can be obtained only by purchase from their own- ers, but as anyone may buy them, they are known, though in lesser degree, beyond the limits of membership in the Mild' win. Their number has been, and constantly is, augmented by accessions from other tribes. The gathering of roots and herbs for medicinal use is always attended by placing tobacco in the holes from which they were dug, with a song or a prayer in honor of Earth Grandmother, whose hairs they are. Besides the actual curing of disease, there

INDIAN NOTES

M I T A' W I N

are medicines for all manner of purposes, a very incomplete list of which may be given here to show their diversity.

There are at least eighteen different love medicines, or charms for gaining the affec- tions of a member of the opposite sex than that of the user; medicine for keeping mar- ried couples faithful; for driving enemies insane; for winning at gambling, racing, etc. A famous good-luck medicine is caUed nkemd'was, which attracts friendship, over- powers enemies, and brings food, wealth, and gifts to the house; witch medicines of many kinds for destroying foes; medicines to thwart sorcerers; for taking game and fish; to guard against snake-bite; and to insure the bearer against injury from the missiles of medicine-bags shot by unknown foes.

Like these medicines, the various sacred bundles are sometimes transferred by pur- chase, but so far as the writer is aware, this is seldom done. All sacred bundles were originally the fruit of the owner's dream revelation, and could never be passed on to other hands with a complete making-over of the power of the first

67

AND MONOGRAPHS

68	MENOMINI CULTURE
	dreamer, even though the buyer had also had a bundle dream; for each vision was charged with special instructions which were apt to differ, and the makeup of the bundle was likewise variable within certain limita- tions. It was customary, however, for people who had not been successful in estab- lishing favorable contact with the gods to go to a bundle-owner and purchase the right to use or to carry certain of the medi- cines and charms contained therein. In- herited bundles theoretically lost some of their power, although instances are re- ported in which identical dreams were vouchsafed father and son. It has been observed that this theoretical loss of power credited to the bundles is seldom admitted in actuality. As all bundles were acquired through dreams, and as dreams cannot be controlled successfully, there was no limit set by custom on the number of bundles of any kind to be found in the tribe; but they were never very numerous. They were, as has previously been stated, personal and not clan property.
	INDIAN NOTES

D R E A M E R S- W I T C H E S

The Dre.\mers

Next of importance to the Mitd'win is the Society of the Dreamers, of which no more than passing mention need be made here, since it has been fully treated under the caption of Religion. It is a modern acquisition.

The Witches' Society

The behef in witchcraft is deeply rooted among the ]Menomini, and it is the constant effort of the shamans and the members of the Mitd'win to combat their activities. Witches and wizards are persons who, through self-mortification, such as fasting and sacrifices, have obtained the patronage of some one of the Evil Powers, in return for which they are obliged to slay members of their own tribe as votive offerings. They attack and destroy their victims by magi- cally transforming themselves into balls of fire, owls, bears, foxes, turkeys, and other animals, and traveling for great distances at night with remarkable speed. Arrived at the lodge of his prey, the sorcerer dis- charges enchanted arrows at him, causing

69

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70	ME NO MINI CULTURE
	disease, and, if the attacks are repeated, death. Witches are known to have magic bundles, the most notorious of which con- tain the entire hide of a bear, or the skin of a horned owl, which are worn when as- suming the shapes of these animals. With the skins is included a bandoleer, or shoulder pouch, covered with tiny bags holding bad medicines, the worst of which are portions of the body of the terrible Horned Hairy Snake. The witches are said to be associated in a society having eight members, four using the bear and four the owl, as mediums of murder. Their rites are said to include a disgusting form of cannibalism, for witches are supposed to haunt the graveyards where their victims are buried, and so magically to obtain the heart and lungs of the mur- dered persons, which they are credited with devouring. Witches also destroy their victims by shooting and stabbing rude effigies of them made on the ground or on birch-bark, or by torturing dolls of grass or wood. They also steal the luck away from hunters, sending their arrows or bullets
	INDIAN NOTES

WA'BANO-JE"SAKO

71

astray; they cause children to drown; and practise other nefarious arts.

The Wa'baxo Cult

This is a group of unattached shamans who resemble the Dakotan Heyoka in some of their practices, especially with regard to immunity from fire and boihng water, though they do not use "backward speech.'' They are prophets, and derive their skill from the Morning Star {Wa'hano, or Wa'panana), or even from the Sun.

The Je"sako Cult

Like the Wa'bano, the Je"sako form a cult by themselves, but are not associated or united. They are diviners and doctors, and in the curing of the sick commence their work by erecting a small, cyhndrical, bark lodge, where they commune with the spirits. The lodge sways from side to side, the wind blows, and voices are heard speaking to the seer, who rephes through the medium of the turtle, who acts as inter- preter.

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72	ME NO MINI CULTURE
	The cause of the patient's illness, invari- ably witchcraft, since disease is unnatural, is made clear to the Je"sako. Sometimes he coaxes the soul of a moribund patient, thought to be already well started on the journey to the Land of the Dead, to return and enter a small wooden cylinder where it is imprisoned and delivered to its relatives. These attach the cylinder to the patient's breast for four days, so that the soul may return to his body. Sometimes the gods inform the Je"sako that his client is aflQicted by a sorcerer's arrow in the flesh, which he proceeds to extract by sucking through a bone tube. He vomits forth the arrow, displays it to the onlookers, and announces that the cure is made. A sorcerer's arrow when thus brought to light will be found to be a maggot, a fly, a quill, or some other small object. Of course, the doctor is well paid for his diagnosis and cure. Mita'wape and Te'pape These are two minor cults similar to the preceding, differing only in having lesser
	INDIAN NOTES

OTHER CULTS	73
powers. They are more numerous than the Je"sakowilk, and derive their strength from dreams of the Great Dawn. There is still another class of like physicians called Tcipi- nini, who derive their power from Na'^patdo, brother of the Great Dawn and Lord of the Realm of the Dead. Thunder Cult A cult of those who have dreamed of the Thunderers was once organized to worship the Thunderbirds through the medium of a large drum, but as the drum was cracked during a thunderstorm, the cult was aban- doned. Buffalo Dance Cult Twice a year, in spring and fall, those who had dreamed of the bison gave a perfor- mance in which the principal participants wore buffalo head-dresses, and imitated this animal. A long tent, Kke that used in the Medicine Dance, was erected, and a row of wooden bowls filled with vegetal foods appropriate to the patron of the rite was placed down the center. Round these the
AND MONOGRAPHS

74

ME NO MINI CULTURE

performers danced, pawing, bellowing, and eating or drinking without touching their hands to the vessels. At the conclusion the dishes were overturned by each wath his head, when a portion of tobacco was found hidden beneath the bowls. This cere- mony in honor of the buffalo' was often given in order to secure the aid of these beasts in healing the sick. The buffalo are credited with great knowledge of herbs and mystic curative powers.

List of Ceremonies

Including the ceremonies and dances al- ready described, the following rites have been noted, many now obsolete being marked with an asterisk.

1. Medicine Dance and attendant cere-

monies.

2. Dream Dance.

3. War Dance.*

4. Victory Dance.*

5. Scalp Dance.*

6. Semiannual War-Bundle Dance.*

' 7. Youth's First Game Dance, or, more prop- erly, Feast.*

8. Harvest or Crop Dance.*

9. All Animals' Dance, in honor of the to-

temic ancestors.*

INDIAN NOTES

CEREMONIES

75

10. Rain Dance, given to the war-bundles in

time of drouth.

11. Dog or Beggar's Dance,* given in the

sugar camps in early spring. The dancers wore birch-bark masks, and brave deeds were recited.

12. Tobacco Dance, perhaps a degenerate

form of the Calumet of Southern Siouan tribes.* 13= Shawano Dance. Said to have been derived from the Shawnee, and perhaps connected with certain Mitd'uin rites for the dead, for during this dance Xa'^^patdo is besought to allow the spirit of the dead man in whose honor the dance is given to return to earth and participate.

14. Circular Dance. A dance performed by

the braves, who count their coups and reenact them.*

15. Woman's Dance. A social dance recently

introduced by the Winnebago, and sel- dom performed.

Bear Ceremonies

The ]\Ienomini had certain ceremonies which they performed when a bear was slain. A deerskin was offered to the Sun and a feast was given. The bear's skull was prepared and cleaned, and was later hung up in the woods. The bones of the animal were kept away from the dogs. ^Members of

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76	ME NO MINI CULTURE
-	the Bear totem, at least, always apologized to a bear before slaying it. ^lYTHOLOGY AND FOLKLORE The mythology of the Menomini has been described at length in an earher portion of this paper, and therefore needs little con- sideration here. A large body of folklore has been collected by Hoffman and the writer: it is typically Central Algonkianin character, but bears strong resemblance to the Ojibwa of the north. Its affiliations cannot be more definitely placed until more is known of the other Central tribes, especially those of Siouan origin. While the subject is too extensive for de- tailed treatment it may be noted that the Menomini themselves divide their folklore and mythology into four classes: First, the cosmogonic myth and the myths concerning the founding of the M ltd' win. These are regarded as highly sacred and secret, and in the case of the Mitd'win myths, which deal with the Culture Hero- God, are the exclusive property of the mem-
	INDIAN NOTES

.AI Y T H 0 L 0 G Y	77
bers of the society, and can be obtained by new members only at a high price. Next come the stories of the Culture Hero as Trickster. These are but tales of buf- foonery and lust, and are not at all in keep- ing with the character of the Hero as brought out in the preceding group. They are extravaganzas without sacred meaning. Their separation in the native category is added reason for supposing that these form part of a cycle the hero of which was the real Great Hare, and a personage dis- tinct from the primal Hero-God with whom he has been confounded by reason of names of similar sound. The trickster stories are much more widely diffused than are the sacred myths among other tribes. The third class is composed of weird and marvelous yarns dealing with the exploits of heroes and wizards, super-animals, can- nibals, living skulls, and animated forces. Alagic is their keynote. These correspond with our fairy tales, and show the Algonki- ans to have a lively and colorful imagination, not inferior to that of Celtic story-tellers. Lastly is a group called by the Indians
AND MONOGRAPHS

78	MENOMINI CULTURE
	"true stories," a designation which is by no means accurate, since they overlap with those of the preceding category. These are principally brief narrations of love, war, ghosts, adventure, witchcraft, and super- natural experiences. A fifth class, not recognized by the na- tives, may be added. It is possible to seg- regate a small group of stories of European derivation by reason of certain entirely for- eign properties and motives. The influ- ence of these on the rest of the groups has been negligible. FUNERAL CUSTOMS When a death occurs, the corpse of the de- ceased is arrayed in its finery, its face painted, and the guests assembled for the wake. This now lasts two days and two nights, but is said to have ended formerly the same day at sunset. The first evening the presiding oflficers enter the house and sing the death-songs to the swish of the gourd-rattle, and this is repeated the fol- lowing night. The next day the corpse is redressed in its second-best clothes and
	INDIAN NOTES

M O R T U A R Y

is laid out in state in the lodge, with calico, tobacco, and other gifts, which are placed near its head. After certain rites the body is carried out of doors through a hole made in the rear of the wigwam or through a window, if the funeral is being held in a house. This is done in order to confuse the ghost, so that it cannot follow the party which carries the corpse to the grave. When the funeral procession reaches the cemetery, the body is laid on the ground, and a feast of the dead, at which all the food must be consumed, is held. At the end of this rite a ceremonial smoke is given for the deceased, and the body is placed beside the grave. The chief mourner now comes forward with a package composed of a new suit of clothes, in the center of which is placed a lock of hair cut from the dead person by one of the attendants. This bundle is carried home and kept in the house for at least a year after the ob- sequies. The bundle receives offerings of food and tobacco from time to time, and is spoken of as if it were the deceased, still ahve.

79

AND MONOGRAPHS

80	MENOMINI CULTURE
	The body having been lowered m the grave, the next of kin steps over it and runs home by a roundabout way, so that the ghost may not follow. Formerly a quan- tity of food, utensils, and weapons were placed in the grave for the use of the soul on the journey to the Otherworld, but this is no longer done. The grave is now filled and a short stake is erected at the head. Warriors are called on to count their coups and to appoint the souls of foes whom they have slain, and over which they are sup- posed to have control, to accompany and assist the soul of the deceased to the Other- world. These men now step forward and recite their exploits. For each coup counted, and at least four are necessary, an attend- ant marks a horizontal line or an X on the grave-post with vermilion. A stick with four bunches of shavings fringing it at inter- vals is also prepared. The totem anirnal of the departed is painted on the post, in- verted, or with head down, to show that it is dead. Somewhat later a long, low house of boards with a ridged roof is erected over the grave with a little door at one end to
	INDIAN NOTES

:\I O R T U A R Y

permit the ghost, which is supposed to hnger about the cemetery, to leave and enter.

For members of the Mita'wln a ceremony is held one year later, often at the grave, when the soul of the dead person is called back to earth and feasted, and then released to return and live forever in the Hereafter. In the rites as performed at the cemetery the Medicine Dance structure is erected at the spot (pi. i) in reverse orientation from that usually employed, and the soul of the deceased, temporarily reincarnated in a new candidate for membership in the society, is conducted to the grave at the end of the ceremony, faced to the west, and dismissed to return alone to the Reahn of Xa'-^patao. After certain other rites (pi. iii) the com- pany returns to the lodge with rejoicing and promiscuous shooting with their medi- cine-bags.

^loURNING

Immediately after a death the mourners blacken their faces, put on old clothes, and allow their hair, to hang disheveled. They

81

AND MONOGRAPHS

82	ME NO MINI CULTURE
	lacerate the fleshy parts of their bodies with flints. In former times a widow or a wid- ower was required to mourn for four years. A man was unclean for the space of a year and could not handle weapons or medicines. A widow's mourning was ended by her hus- band's relatives, to whom she brought pres- ents. They combed her hair and told her she was free. Violation of the mourning rules was punishable by cutting off the nose, the same penalty as was exacted for adul- tery.
	INDIAN NOTES

II. HOUSING

ORIGIX OF THE IMENOMIXI TYPES \Ar I^EN FIRST encountered b}^ the \2_^ French, the JMenomini Indians ^1 resided on the west shore of Green bay, Lake ^Michigan, from the mouth of the IMenominee river south- ward to the mouth of the Fox. This early country is low-lying and damp, for the greater part, except for the elevated sand dunes which border the shores of Green bay. The upland through which the rivers flow is also dry and sandy, and on the shifting dunes the Indians pitched their wigwams. The traces of their prehistoric and, later, historic settlements, may still be observed at Big and Little Suamico, Pensaukee, and on the Oconto, Peshtigo, and Menominee, in particular. These sites have been described in detail by Fox, Schumacher, and Younger, of the Wisconsin Archeolog- ical Societv.3

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84	ME NO MINI CULTURE
	The Green bay shore, where some of the oldest Indians now Hving were born and spent the early years of their lives, was the summer home of the greater portion of the tribe. When winter winds began to blow, they temporarily abandoned their fisheries, ceased their quasi-maritime life, and with- drew inland up the various streams. Here they found shelter from the bitter blasts in the forests and the protected river bottoms. Some scattered families even penetrated to the upper waters of the Wolf on the present reservation, and may have been the makers of the mounds and pits still to be seen there. When the breaking of the ice in the spring freed the rivers for travel, they abandoned hunting and trapping to paddle down to the coast once more. Owing to the diversity of their country and of its living conditions, the INIenomini had at their disposal a variety of materials adaptable for shelter, and it is therefore not surprising that a number of types of houses were developed by the tribe. Two, how- ever, were in ordinary daily service, and these were, and indeed to a certain extent
	INDIAN NOTES

WINTER LODGE

85

are, the quadrangular house of bark for summer, and the semi-globular or dome- shaped lodge for winter use. Both types 'are familiar to students as forms found widely diffused among the Algonkian tribes of forested North America.

The Winter Lodge The semi-globular house, covered with mats or with bark, was the more widely distributed form of the two, and may be considered as the Algonkian lodge ^7;- excellence. It has been noted among the tribes of New England, at least among those of Massachusetts and of Connecti- cut, for the Abenaki and others to the north seem to have preferred the conical type. The round or semi-globular wig- wam was utilized by the tribes of Long Island and coastal New York, but not by the Iroquois. It was in vogue among the Delawares, and aU the Central Algonkians, and was common among many tribes as far south as the borders of the ]\Iuskho- gean or Gulf culture. On the north it is still to be seen, occasionallv, at least

AND MONOGRAPHS

86	M E N 0 M INI CULTURE
	among the Ojibwa and the Eastern Cree, even on the shores of Hudson bay. North- ward, however, as one approaches the Arctic, the conical lodge largely supplants this type. In all this wide sweep of terri- tory variations appear principally in ground-plan (that of the southern reaches inclining to be oval rather than circular), and in roofing material. Along the Atlan- tic coast, sedge-grass and cornhusks were used, as well as the ordinary elm- or cedar- bark and cattail mats. In the north birch- bark was favored. All of the Southern Slouan tribes, and with them may be included the Eastern or Santee division of the Dakota, and the Winnebago, were given to the use of this semi-globular structure, but, like the Algon- kians, the more southerly representatives of the group preferred lodges of oval outline. The Summer House The summer house of bark, with quad- rangular ground-plan, but varying as to the shape of the roof, which was either arched or triangular in cross-section, was almost
	INDIAN NOTES

LONG-HOUSE

as widely distributed as the semi-globular lodge, being found among the Iroquois of New York and Canada, as well as among the Algonkians. The various tribes using these types of lodges did not always observe the seasonal changes nor move from one form of dwelhng to the other.

The Long-house

The long-house, favored by the Iroquois and their Algonkian vassals in the East as a place of dwelling, survives among the Menoraini and other Central Algonkian and Southern Siouan tribes as a ceremonial structure devoted principally to the rites of the Medicine Dance, and, to a lesser extent, to other sacred performances. It too may be an ancient pan-Algonkian sur- vival, as it seems to have been widely dis- tributed among the peoples of this stock at the time of the first colonists. Among the Iroquois it is no longer used as a habita- tion, but the Five Nations still build their council and ceremonial structures in the shape of the long-house, and apply this name to them.

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87

88	ME NO MINI CULTURE
	Among the Menomini the writer has seen and entered bark houses of both semi-globular and ridged types, and has even assisted in erecting one of the long ceremonial structures designed for the Medicine Dance, as recently as the spring and summer of 1920. Of course, log and frame houses are now occupied by the majority of the Indians, and the wigwam as a dwelling-place will soon be a thing of the past. CONSTRUCTION OF THE HOUSE The Winter Lodge In building a round winter lodge or wigwam (pi. v) , about sixteen saplings, each eighteen feet in length and about one and one-half inches in diameter at the butt, are selected and cut. Four of these poles are set upright in the ground so as to form a rectangle three or four feet broad by twelve or fifteen feet long, the latter dimension being intended for the breadth of the house. When these "doorposts" have been erected, the women (for generally two at least are required to build a wigwam of this char-
	INDIAN NOTES*

CONSTRUCTION	89
acter), bend the poles toward the center of the long sides of the rectangle, and lash them together with basswood-bark. To accomplish this, one of the women takes her pack-strap and throws it over the upper end of a pole and bends it down to where she can reach it. She then holds it fast, while the other pulls down the opposite pole. These doorposts having been con- nected, the other poles are set up and arched over them transversely, and all are bound together in the same way. A mat is laid on the floor, in the center, to mark the fireplace. The door usually faces the south, in order to catch the sunlight, and to be protected from wind and rain. When this has been done, a double roof- mat of cattail-flags is taken and its width measured around the side of the lodge, from the bottom of the frame upward, starting at the outside of one of the doorposts, and working around to the other. Guided by this gauge a horizontal ring of saplings is bound around the framework from door- post to doorpost, about three to four feet from the ground, corresponding to roof
AND MONOGRAPHS

90	MENOMINI CULTURE
■	purlins in our houses. Then the operation is repeated, starting above this ring and allowing a few inches less than the wddth of the mat, so that when the coverings are tied on, each successive mat will overlap the one below, and thus shed water. About six mats are needed for the average wigwam. The framework of the lodge having been completed, the mats are tied on the cross- pieces with raw basswoods tring. A rect- angular hole about two and one-half feet square is left open in the roof directly above the fireplace for the egress of smoke. A small rush mat or a piece of elm-bark is fastened to one side of the aperture, so that it can readily be drawn over the hole in case of rain. A mat or an old blaiiket, weighted at the bottom, serves as a door. Except for its shape, the long-lodge used to house the ceremonies of the Medicine Society is built in the same manner. Sometimes birch- or cedar-bark is used to cover a round winter lodge. The bark is cut in suitable sizes by reaching up the bole of a tree as far as possible, and girdling it with an axe or a hoe. Then it is again
	INDIAN NOTES

WINTER LODGE

91

girdled by a serrated cut made near the ground, and the two cuts connected by a perpendicular gash. The bark is then pulled off in a sheet and flattened by being weighted down with stones until ready for use. Sometimes, but rarely, elm-bark, prepared in the same manner, is used for covering a lodge.

Around the inside of the lodge, from door- post to doorpost, a couch or bench is built. Crotched stakes are driven into the ground at intervals, two or more feet out from the wall, and other poles are laid in the crotches, which are two to two and one-half feet above the floor, to form an inner circle. Over these is laid a coarse grill of smaller sticks, and this in turn is covered with boughs of balsam or of other evergreens. On these is placed bedding composed of blankets or bearskins. The inner wall is often lined with reed mats woven in various esthetic designs and gaily colored.

Miscellaneous objects are stored under the wall-couch, or are hung from poles suspended overhead on wooden hooks. Shelves are often built above the couches,

AND MONOGRAPHS

92	MENOMINI CULTURE
	stakes to support them being erected from the floor. The fire is built in the center of the wig- wam, under the smoke-hole. An upright frame of two crotched poles, a yard or less high, supporting a third horizontal bar, is constructed on which to swing the kettle over the fire, or a tripod of poles serves the same purpose. The place of honor is in the rear of the lodge, behind the fire and opposite the door. This is the place accorded to guests. The family medicine-bundles or other sacred objects, if kept in the house, are stored here near the sleeping place of the master of the lodge, or are hung from the ceiling above his head. Special outhouses are not built by the Menomini to contain these treasures, but almost always the man of the family has a sacred pole, ten to twenty feet high, close by, usually in front of the wig\vam. Surmounting this pole is a rude flag, or a representation of some object of importance to the owner, such as his dream- guardian, or a symbol referring to it, carved in wood. These poles are frequently
	INDIAN NOTES

SKINNER — MENOMINI CULTURE

/

DETAILS OF CONSTRUCTION OF THE SQUARE HOUSE

rr^f'rh^"^' TH^I "^^^^''1 '^P^'^^'S^' *• Connecting poles fastened in the ri£^TL t' ^'""^'^'^ "P"-,hts supporting ridgepole; d. Rafters lashed froni wofKor wall'"""' "^ ^ '' '' ««"^°"t^l P^^^ forming lintel; /, Fram^

S U M .AI E R H O U S E 93

painted red, and sometimes on festal occa- sions are hung with feathers or other objects of adornment. From time to time when the weather is fair, the sacred bundles are hung on them to air, but a shorter, special post may be used for this purpose (pi. XI).

A small, dome-shaped lodge, scarcely large enough to accommodate one person, is erected not far from each house. Such lodges are used exclusively by women dur- ing their menses, when it is taboo for them to enter the wigwam or to touch any of the cooking utensils, weapons, or especially the medicines belonging to the family. Men who have any particular charms or supernatural powers are held to be in danger of death if they so much as come in contact with a woman at this time, and even ordinary warriors are liable to grave disaster.

The Summer House of Bark

The quadrangular summer house of bark with ridged roof is built as follows: Poles are cut and peeled, and four upright

AND MONOGRAPHS

04

MENO:^IINI CULTURE

crotched saplings arc sot in the corners of a rectangle about fifteen to twenty-five feet long, by ten to twelve feet broad, as shown in pi. VI. d. Next, four horizontal connect- ing poles are laid in, or fastened close to, the crotches (b). A short, crotched upright is lashed at its butt to the center of each cross-beam at each end of the franie- work, its apex being from seven to eight feet from the ground. The ridge-pole is then laid longitudinally in the crotches, and tied fast with basswood-bark. Not infrequently the forked upright at the rear is run into the ground, since there is no door at this end to be allowed for (c). Next, poles to serve as rafters {d) are lashed from the ridgepole to the longitu- dinal side beams. A pole bound hori- zontally across the front of the frame, at a height of about four or five I'eet, forms a lintel {c). Along the four sides, vertical poles are then set up, extending from the ground to the upper longitudinal beams, and securely tied in place. At inters'als of about a yard apart, horizontal poles are bound to these from end to end (j''.

INDIAN NOTES

1

SKINNER — MENOMINI CULTURE

INTERIOR OF SO'MAN JIM'S BARK HOUSE

SKINNER— MENOMINI CULTURE

SECOND VIEW OF INTERIOR OF SO'MAN JIM'S HOUSE

S U M M E R HOUSE

The whole structure is next covered with overlapping sheets of elm- or cedar-bark, except for an opening about a 3'ard long by two -feet broad left in the apex of the roof for the escape of smoke. Here a movable sheet of bark is attached, to be drawn over the hole in case of rain. The coverings of the lodge are rectangular pieces of bark about three by six feet, flattened, seasoned, and perforated at the corners for attach- ment to the framework with basswood strings. They are placed along the sides of the building with the grain of the bark running horizontally, but on the roof with the grain running vertically, as the bark grows on the tree. Each piece is tied to the frame in such a way that the lashing is protected by the overlapping of the suc- ceeding piece, and the under edge of each is deeply serrated, as noted in describing the process of peeling it from the tree. This is perhaps done to prevent spHtting. Sometimes logs are tied down over the roof- ing to keep the bark from warping or from blowing away (pi. vii).

Both types of lodge are rain-proof, but

95

AND MONOGRAPHS

96	ME NO MINI CULTURE
	the quadrangular form is too open and airy for comfort in winter. The round lodge, however, is comfortably warm in the cold- est weather. In pis. viii and ix ma,y be seen interior views of one of the best-made bark houses it has ever been the writer's privilege to enter, that of So'man (Grape) Jim, or "Wild Jim Crow," in the hard- wood forest west of Neopit, Wisconsin, on the Menomini reservation. The details of the construction of the sleeping platforms, the cracks in the bark, and the camp imped- imenta of reed mats, sphnt baskets, the baby's cradle-board and the like, are visible. The exterior of the same building is shown in pi. vii and x. So'man Jim was a Wa'hano by profession, and did not belong to either the Mitawin or the "Dream Dance." He lived in seclu- sion, and was almost as uncompromisingly distant to other Indians as he was to the whites. These pictures were therefore secured by stealth. He died a few years ago when away from home at Neopit, and having no ties with the fraternal secret order of the Mifa'wiii, which is scrupulous
	INDIAN NOTES

S U M M E R HOUSE	97
about conducting the funeral services of the cult for the dead, he was deposited without ceremony in an unhallowed grave adjoining the local Christian cemetery, where a beer bottle marked the spot when last seen by the writer in 1920. His bark lodge, robbed mysteriously of his sacred bundles and medicines, has fallen to pieces. Another good house of this t3^pe, in the same region, was owned by the father of Kime'wun Oke'mas, whose portrait will be found in the section devoted to Menomini dress (pi. xvi). This lodge was also aban- doned on the death of its owner, but he being a member of the Mitd'wiii, as well as of the Wa'bano and the Je^sako, was properly cared for after his demise. In the shelter of this building, the writer, guided by the dead man's son, one of the few Menomini converts to the "Peyote religion," found the war-bundle and the Je"sako outfit of the former owner, and purchased them for this Museum. Out- side, close to the wall, stood a wooden statue, nearly lifesize, of the war god Wa'-	^
A N D MONOGRAPHS	■

98	MENOMINI CULTURE
'	bano (Morning Star) in human guise, which also became a part of our collection. In pi. X is shown another view of So'man Jim's lodge and outbuilding or arbor, and his garden of native beans and squashes. The cornfield is farther away. PI. xi shows a stake outside the lodge whereon are exposed to the revivifying rays of the sun his war-bundle, gourd-rattles, eagle-feather fan, and Wa'hano drum. A couch is built in the quadrangular house, Hke that already described in the semi-globular lodge. It is two feet high, by the same breadth, or thereabouts, run- ning all along the interior of the walls, and is covered with cedar-bark, and, if avail- able, with boughs of balsam and with skins. The usual poles are suspended from the rafters on which to hang various objects. The fireplace is built in the center of the floor under the smoke-hole. There are no windows, the smoke-hole and the fire serv- ing to light the interior. A mat or an old blanket usually forms the door, but some- times a piece of bark is substituted. Sun-shades or arbors of boughs or of
	INDIAN NOTES

SKINNER — MENOMINI CULTURE

b

SO'MAN JIM'S WAR-BUNDLES HUNG ON THE SACRED POLE

LONG-HOUSE

bark (pi. x) like those in use by the other Central Algonkian and Southern Siouan tribes, were often set up in front of the lodge, and cooking was sometimes done under similar shelters; The conical tipis now occasionally seen among the iMenomini are very recent imitations of Plains types. Small temporary summer sun-shades or lodges, as described by Hoffman, were for- merly made; they were either ridged or semi-cylindrical in shape, covered with bark or with mats, and barely large enough to shelter one man. Little, low-ridged huts of planks are set up over graves (pi. i, m) to accommodate the spirits of the dead.

The Loxg-house

In olden times, bark houses are said to have been made much longer and larger than they are now, to serve as communal dwelhngs. It is still remembered that where two families lived in the same wig- wam, there was a door at each end. No partitions were made, but the house was divided by imaginary boundaries into four quarters or sections, and it was considered

99

AND MONOGRAPHS

100	M E X 0 M I X I CULTURE
	bad taste to overstep these limits, although it was no such breach of etiquette as among some of the northern bands of the Ojibwa that have been visited by the writer. The long-house (pi. xii) now sur- vives only as a ceremonial structure, used for the rites of the ^ledicine Dance in par- ticular. It is rectangular in ground-plan, and about fifty or sixty feet long by ten to fifteen feet wide; it has an arched roof about eight feet high. The frame (pi. xiii) is made of peeled poles arched over hke those in an ordinary round wigwam. This frame is kept standing permanently, and boughs, mats, or, as is more common nowadays, canvas coverings, are brought to roof the structure when it is to be used. The Fireplace Every lodge has its fireplace. ^\hen indoors, it is always placed in the center of the wig^vam. directly under the smoke aperture in the roof. In order to prevent flying sparks from setting fire to the house, an ever-present danger when the roofing of bark or of mats is dry. a round, basin-
	IXDIAX XOTES

I- I R E P L A C E

like pit is often dug in the floor to contain the fire. These holes, as observed by the writer, are about two and one-half to three feet in diameter, and six inches to a foot in depth. Sometimes stones are placed in them to act as supports for kettles. In some cases the fireplace is built up above the surface of the ground with small bowl- ders. This is more commonly done v.-hen the fire is made outside, in warm weather, or when the camp is a temporary one. When thus built outside the wig^-am the fire was often placed under a small shelter or arbor to protect its users from the weather. In lodges in which no fireplace is dug, the reader should understand that the fire is made on the bare earth, with the occasional addition of several good-sized stones as supports for kettles. Both the raised and the sunken types of fireplace, often filled with ashes, bones, and broken or discarded utensils, are common on archeological sites all over eastern United States, and are found in many of the ancient JVIenomini villages. But it should be noted that the remains of deep pits which dot

lOi

AND MONOGRAPHS

102

MENOMINI CULTURE

their old encampments are more likely to prove to be caches for wild rice or corn, or holes dug to bury offensive rubbish.

Kettles are generally swung by a wooden pot- hook (fig. 1) f r o m a

wooden cross-bar elevated over the fire by means of two crotched uprights, about a yard in height. The pot- hook here shown is 9 s in. long.

Grills for smoking fish and drying meat formerly were made as follows: Four crotched sticks, a little over fig. l— Wooden

1, . .,. pot-hook. (Ex-

a yard long, were set upright treme length, 91 in the ground to form the corners of a square or an oblong, in the center of which was the fireplace. The four corner posts were connected by bars on each side, and across these bars were laid

INDIAN NOTES

if

X ^

o2

PS

< s

2^

CONSTRUCTION

N

lengthwise a number of short poles or sticks, on which, in turn, were placed a series of lighter cross-pieces.

FUHIHEE Details of Coxsteuction Some further details concerning the use and construction of native houses bv the iienommi may be of interest. All dwell mgs are generaUy constructed by member^ Of one family, their relatively small size making it unnecessary to call for assistance- '" ';''' "''"'"y lodges can be built by one or two persons. In the case of the long house used for ceremonies, more help fs required, and it is customary for rSny

Indians to gather and hold a "building bee" In building a round house for winler or

n\rdT:";hf''r^^'"°^^^'^«''^-«"-

neeaea, as the roof was so low that the hands. In the square habitation for sum

pieces hrst. to serve as a scaffold.

waIapolird''T"7'-'"'^ "^^<^ f°^ '-hing «as applied when freshly stripped from the

AND MONOGRAPHS

103

104	MENOMINI CULTURE
	tree. In drying, this hardened and shrank, somewhat as the rawhide used by the Prairie tribes does, making a firm grip. For the durability of native lodges no data are available. The framework lasts many years with occasional partial renewals. It was customary to leave this skeleton standing until the time when the house might be needed again, perhaps the follow- ing year. In the forest country it was not necessary to transport poles, as new ones could be obtained almost anywhere it might be decided to set up a temporary camp. Winter lodges could thus be razed or erected in a very short time; indeed the writer has seen Indian women set up such a house in half an hour, not allowing for the time required to select and cut the poles. At most, two or three hours is the limit . under unfavorable conditions. As for the summer houses, I have never seen one erected, but as these were more per- manent structures than the round winter type, in the sense that they stood all the year round and were inhabited periodically, more time, perhaps a day or two, was
	INDIAN NOTES

SITE OF HOUSE	105
required in their construction. When the Indians departed from their summer camps, these quadrangular structures were left intact, because the bark was too bulky to carry, and more could easily be obtained, should they decide not to return. But the cattail mats used for winter lodges, valuable on account of the large amount of labor put into their manufacture, and the relative scarcity of reeds in the dense parts of the pine forests, were stored in a dry place when not in use. Situation of the House In former times the jNIenomini did not live scattered in the forest, often miles from one another, as they do now. In those days the danger of attack by lurking foes from other tribes made concentration imperative, and large villages were fre- quent. This is borne out by conditions noted at their ancient sites on Green bay. Tradition and archeological evidence both show that the lodges were pitched close together, but without formal order. This irregular grouping seems to have been
AND MONOGRAPHS

106	AIENOMINI CULTURE
	usual among the forest tribes, in contra- distinction to those of the prairie, who took pains to form their camps in great circles, wherein the several bands often had their fixed quarters. However, the Menomini elders claim that the members of each of the gentes were similarly segre- gated in their ancient villages. Wigwams were not erected near trees that might fall and crush them, nor where heavy branches, torn off in a storm, might break in the roof. No toilet facilities were provided in the villages, the privacy of the encircling forest sufficing. It was often necessary to move a village when the fire- wood in the vicinity had been consumed. Nowadays the IMenomini are less careful in the situation of their houses than for- merly. In olden times a warm, sunny knoll, preferably of sand, was chosen. Even at present an effort is made to locate the house on dry, high ground. Now as then, drinking water, preferably an ever- flowing spring, must be close at hand.
	INDIAN NOTES

HOUSE TERMS

107

Vocabulary

Wakl'nikon, round, or semi-globular winter lodge.

upa'^^khiika'n, round, or semi-globular winter lodge made of cattail mats (u'paHiuk); hence its popular name, a'pa^'kl, literally, 'a cattail.'

andkaki'kumik, square, summer lodge of bark.

kesauniikakiku'mik, cedar-bark lodge.

iinepioiukd, elm-bark lodge.

wiko' pane andkl'kumik, basswood-bark lodge.

U'i'kisikamik, birch-bark lodge.

miuseku'ka'ii'd wi'kiivam, young hemlock-bark house.

asekani'kamik, prairie-grass lodge.

pokana's ui'konuk, sedge-grass house.

akum'^'icon, temporar}' shelter of mats hung over a cross-bar, and pegged out on the sides.

sdta'k'id'komik, a lodge of cedar- or spruce- boughs, so thickly thatched that they shed water.

apasinikomik, a round lodge built of logs. A temporary structure used for camps.

kino'''tam, a long lodge, shaped like a medicine- dance structure, with an arched or rounded roof. Formerly used as a communal resi- dence.

li'a'nekan, or wanekiltd'o, semi-subterranean house dug into a hillside.

asepd'wi'kiom, a rock house. ]\Iy informants explained this term by stating that in for- mer years, before they were confined to their present reservation, they sometimes lived or camped under, overhanging ledges, or in the mouths of caves where it was light

AND MONOGRAPHS

108

MENOMINI CULTURE

and airy. In other words, they used rock- shelters.

me'tik fkdmik, wooden house, log cabin.

iskwu''^tcmiiposi, doorpost.

upa'siiik, lodge posts.

pimela'pase, a sapling used as a withe or ring around the frame of a winter lodge.

ana'kianuk, beams or joists, in a log cabin.

nawiskii'tiu, or pota'wagun, fireplace.

ta'nahu'an, a couch built around the inner wall of the wigwam.

anago'iiu, the place of honor in the rear of the lodge opposite the door, always reserved for the master of the house and for distin- guished guests.

tasipina'giin, a_ meat-drying scaffold made of bark and tied to its supporting posts with basswood-bark strings.

akotcewa'han,.a. platform in or outside the lodge, used to receive such loads, borne into camp on the backs of the Indians, as were not allowed to touch the ground for ceremonial or sanitary reasons. Also for drying pur- poses.

piyatakanatik, a post outside the lodge to which tobacco sacrifices are attached and sacred articles are tied to sun.

mlta'mu oska pasamawikomik, or mitd'mn oku^dk ospo'towat ('woman out-doors fire-making,' or 'at fire'), two names for the small hut to which women withdraw during their menses. pita'u'ikon, sweat-lodge. mo'nahigan, garden.

INDIAN NOTES

« s

uJ Q E

2 < <

< Ld o

Z CO -a

o =

SKINNER— MENOMINI CULTURE

OTTER-FUR FILLET MADE OF THE ENTIRE SKIN

Photograph by courtesy of the American Museum of Natural History

III. DRESS

A T THE present time the ^Menomini -«V no longer wear native dress habitually, but preserve these costumes for ceremonial or gala use. Moreover, cloth has been accessible to them for so many years that information concerning the leath^ garments which they formerly used is difficult to obtain, although some of the elder Indians still remember when clothing of deerskin was commonly worn.

MEXj'S ATTIRE

Head-dresses

Three general types of men's head-dresses have been observed by the writer; these are head-bands of fur, sashes woven of yarn used as turbans, and the dyed deer's hair roach.

Of the first class the most valued variety is a fillet of dark otter-fur. Xot onlv does

109

AND MONOGRAPHS

110

MENOMINI CULTURE

it present a handsome appearance, but the connection of the otter with the sacred rites and original myth of the Medicine Dance society, and its own supposed supernatural powers, influence the natives in their pref- erence. If the wearer be a warrior these fillets are often ornamented, as is shown in pi. XIV, with rosettes or medallions of beads, and eagle-plumes. Or, if he be a member of the Medicine Dance, bunches of dyed, split, hawk-feathers containing charms are set vertically on one side of the head-dress. Sometimes, indeed, the whole skin of an otter is used (pis. xv, xvi, xxx), the head being bent around and thrust in the vent, the tail forming a flapping ornament on one side. The bare under-surface of the tail is often further enhanced by decora- tions in appKque of ribbon or of beads. This type of head-dress is by no means common as compared with the fillet first described.

The fillet form is sometimes decorated with the tail of the otter sewed on the rear as a pendant, or with streamers of. twisted fur at side and back. In addition to otter^

INDIAN NOTES

SKINNER — MENOMINI CULTURE

MEN IN DANCE COSTUMES. WEARING FUR TURBANS

SKINNER MENOMINI CULTURE

JOE MOON IN CEREMONIAL COSTUME

HEAD-DRESSES

111

skin, other furs are sometimes used, but generally for some special purpose. Fillets of wolf-skin are found in several of the more important hunting-bundles. These are donned for the purpose of giving the wearer the tireless persistency and keen tracking powers of that animal. Head- bands of shagg}' buffalo-skin were formerly worn to battle, the wearer feeling secure in the possession of a bison's strength and courage. For the Buffalo Dance, like head- gear was donned, and the leader of that important rite wore a cap made of the major portion ofvthe skin of a buffalo's head with horns attached.

A common form of head-covering is a yam sash or belt twisted around the brow, with the addition of the customary feather ornaments.

The roach or crest made of dyed deer's hair (pi. xvm), or sometimes of the coarse tufts from the neck of a turkey or the back of a porcupine', is worn,, though sparingly, among the :VIenomini. According to their ideas, it lacks the dignity of the otter-fur band. The roach is attached to the back

AXD M 0X0 GRAPHS

112

MENOMINI CULTURE

Fig. 2.— Roach spreadeis of antler. (Height »f a, S^o in.) Courtesy of the American Museum of Natural History.

INDIAN NOTES

SHIRTS

of the head by drawing the scalp-lock through a hole made in the broad part of its base for this purpose. A little wooden peg thrust crosswise through the hair above the hole prevents it from slipping off. A carved spreader of bone or of antler (fig. 2), or a similar object made of engraved German silver, is used to expand the hair of the roach, and sometimes supports an eagle-feather by means of an attached bone tube used as a swivel. The roaches are usually kept rolled on a stick in a carved wooden box, when not in use. The roach spreaders here figured are in the American Museum of Natural History, and measure respectively 8A in. and 7ii in. in height.

Shirts

:^Ien's shirts were formerly made of tanned deerskin, often dyed brown with butternut juice. They were gailv orna- mented with the colored quiUs of the por- cupine, or sometimes those used in war had an image of the sun painted on the back. None of these garments have survived, although the costume worn by the famous

11,

AND MONOGRAPHS

114

MENOMINI CULTURE

chief Oshkosh is said to have remained in the possession of some of his relatives until stolen by an acquisitive white antiquarian. At the present time the cheap calico shirt of the traders is used, often with the addi- tion of beaded epaulets, and beaded strips on front and back. Ruffles and bright ribbons are added to suit the wearer's taste.

Leggings

The ancient style of man's leg-gear was the deerskin legging. Two pairs of these were obtained for this Museum, one from the late Ke'so.a'pomesao (pi. xix, a), the other from Charlie Dutchman (pi. xix, h). The tailoring of both these pairs is very simple^ A tanned doeskin, trimmed into a rectangular piece, was taken and folded down the center lengthwise of the skin. The open edges were then sewed together, beginning with a narrow margin at the top, or hip, and gradually increasing this until the ankle was reached. Here the residual edges formed flaps five- or six inches wide. One of these flaps was afterward slit

INDIAN NOTES

SKINNER — MENOMINI CULTURE

ROACH OF DEER'S HAIR

SKINNER^MENOMINI CULTURE

ANCIENT DEERSKIN LEGGINGS

LEGGINGS

fine for a fringe, the longest strands being at the bottom; the other was notched or serrated. The sewing shown in pi. xix, b, is not done in a continuous seam, but is knotted at two-and-one-half inch interval with deerskin thongs, the long ends serving as streamers. Both pairs of leggings are made with the outer surface of the skin which once bore the hair turned in, a pecu- liarity which has escaped the writer's atten- tion if extant elsewhere.

In pi. XX is shown another ]\Ienomini legging, one of a pair made in a manner similar to the preceding, but with a more elaborate fringe of much greater length, and ornamented with paint, beadwork danglers, colored yarn, and tassels. This pair, in general appearance, closely re- sembles the ordinary form found widely distributed among the Central Algonkians, Shawnee, Delawares, and Winnebago.

A very beautiful style of ceremonial leggings, used in the long ago, but not now seen, was made of deerskin and decorated with longitudinal strips of otter-fur.

The oldest type of cloth leggings is like

115

AND MONOGRAPHS

116

MENOMINI CULTURE

those exhibited in pi. xxi, a, h. These are made of broadcloth worked with flower designs in beads. They resemble the skin leggings, but have no fringe. The most recent form of cloth leggings lacks the beadwork, but possesses a border of colored silk ribbons, sewed on without much care. These leggings all differ from the trousers of Caucasians in that they are two separate garments, intended to incase the legs and thighs, a breech-clout sufficing in lieu of a seat. The thighs are thus left partially bare, even in the coldest weather.

Breech-cloths

The breech-clouts observed and collected by the writer have usually been plain strips of dark blue or black broadcloth, about two feet broad by four feet long, with vari- colored silk ribbons sewed along the sides and the ends. Some, however, have had floral designs in colored beads similar to those shown on the leggings figured in pL XXI. The garment was made to pass between the legs and over the belt, thus leaving a flapping apron before and behind.

INDIAN NOTES

^AI O C C A S I N S

117

on which the embroidery was displayed fpl. Lxxviii, a).

^loCCASIXS

I :\renomini moccasins are of three types. The first form is a traditional variety of which no examples were secured. This is said to have been a plain shoe made of a smgle piece of deerskin, puckered to a seam runnmg over the toe.

The second type, considered to be the tribal style by the natives, has a broad vamp set in over the instep, to which the upper puckers on all sides (pi. xxn) \ small fringed tag is inserted at the heel, to aid m drawing off the moccasin, and tying- thongs are attached to the ankle-flap in front. In some cases the ankle-flap is abbreviated, doubled over, and sewed fast leaving a seam at the top through which a draw-strmg may be run to tie around the ankle.

The third kind of moccasin resembles that commonly found among the Ojibwa and the Cree at the. present time, and is attributed by the Menomini to an Ojibwa

AXD MONOGRAPHS

118

MENOMINI CULTURE

origin. In it a seam extends over the toe to the upper part, where a small oval vamp is inserted. This form shows the same methods of lacing as the preceding.

Hoffman^ states that the Menomini sole their moccasins with rawhide, or par- fleche, but this must be a slip of the pen on the part of this usually accurate observer, for Hke all the tribes east of the IMississippi, the northern forested country of Hudson bay, and the Mackenzie, the Menomini use only one-piece shoes of soft, tanned leather, and always have, so far as their memories and traditions show. In this matter Hoff- man's own illustrations contradict his text. A superstition is attached to the wear- ing of long tie-strings in winter. It is beheved that in doing this the wearer is trying to prolong the cold weather.

Beaded Ornaments

No modern male costume is complete without various ornaments in the shape of woven beadwork. Pounds and pounds of strung beads are worn about the neck, although this style is more commonly

INDIAN NOTES

SKINNER — MENOMINI CULTURE

p;, . LEATHER LEGGING. ELABORATELY FRINGED Photograph by courtesy of the American Museum of Natural History

SKINNER — MENOMINI CULTURE

PL. XXI, A

BEADED BROADCLOTH LEGGING Photograph by courtesy of the American Museum of Natural History

SKINNER — MENOMINI CULTURE

^^^i^smsi^. ,- -. ,..-.....„^^fe.*^.

BEADED BROADCLOTH LEGGING Photograph by courtesy of the American Museum of Natural History

5KINNER — MENOMINI CULTURE

TRIBAL STYLE OF MOCCASIN Photograph by courtesy of the American Museum of Natural History

0 R X A M E N T S	119
found among members of the gentler sex. ]Many men wear woven belts as shoulder scarfs. A number of woven bead garters, tied together by the fringes, are sometimes donned in the same manner. Bead belts are also worn about the waist, and garters, which have no other function than ornament, are tied outside the leggings below the knee (pi. xxiii, lxiii). There can be no doubt that all this woven beadwork is but a survival of an ancient woven quill technic, still to be found on rare old pieces preserved in medicine- bundles or on medicine-bags. The art is more fully dealt with on pages 252-266. In addition to these articles, bandoleer bags, or shoulder pouches, of woven beads are worn usually in pairs, one on each side (pi. xxiii). The solidly embroidered bags often seen among the Menomini are not made by them, but come by trade or as gifts from the Ojibwa. The ]\Ienomini and the Winnebago in particular always weave their bandoleers; and sometimes baldrics of this type, in which the bag has degenerated into a small flap, are seen.
AND MONOGRAPHS

120	MENOMINI CULTURE
	Yarn sashes vie with beaded belts in popularity, though they are now less com- mon than when the writer's first observa- tions were made. They are worn about the waist, the shoulders, and even twisted around the head as turbans. Garters were likewise woven of yarn, but are now exceed- ingly rare. This woven yarn technic, so say the elders, is a survival of the days when buffalo-wool yarn was available. Articles made of the skin or hair of the buffalo were never plentiful with this tribe, however, and Catlin says that even in his day the Menomini were too far re- moved from the buffalo to have robes, and so used blankets instead.^ Tobacco-pouches Men formerly wore around their necks tobacco-pouches of the skins of small animals, or of yarn woven with beaded designs. This custom, and the articles themselves, will be found more fully described elsewhere in this paper (see pages 365-367.
	INDIAN NOTES

SKINNER — MENOMINl CULTURE

'\l

GROUP OF MEN IN COSTUME. SHOWING WOVEN BEAD ORNAMENTS

SKINNER— MENOMINI CULTURE

EAGLE-FEATHER DANCE-BUSTLE

D A X C E-B U S T L E-

An Eagle-feather Daxce-bustle

In the ceremonies of the Dream Dance Society an ornamented eagle-feather bustle, or "belt," as the Menomini call it, is worn.' PL XXR' shows an example of these regalia used only by officers during the greater part of the Dream Dance rites. It will be noted that the specimen closely resembles the so-called "crow" belt of the Plains tribes. The article is of heavy leather, to which are attached two elaborately deco- rated plumes, the shafts of which are beau- tified by the addition of thin, narrow, wooden strips, wound in alternate bands with colored silk thread. The tips of the plumes, and the bases as well, bear tufts of colored down, and small brass hawk-bells depend at intervals. Below the belt hangs a forked strip of cloth, to which handsome eagle-feathers, adorned with down, ribbons, decorated strips, and sleigh- and hawk-bells are attached. A flap of feathers showing between the forked part of the strip is enriched by the addition of a sohdly beaded disc bearing a "whirlwind" (?) design.

121

AND MONOGRAPHS

122	MENOMINI CULTURE
	The officer who wears this belt also carries iii his hand. a wand of authority. This is a short, slender stick, crooked slightly at the end, and wound with strings of beads of different shades in such manner that spirals of color alternate on it. wo:men's attire Head-deess The typical Central Algonkian woman's head-dress, consisting of a beaded binder of cloth with swinging pendants of woven beads, is rare among the Menomini. An example is shown in pi. xxv; the modes of wearing it in pi. xxvi and xxvii. It is told that the ancient forerunner of this adornment was composed of a rectangular piece of leather, about ten inches by six, soft-tanned, upon which designs w^re quilled at the tw^o ends, in small rectangular spaces, leaving the center blank, as is now the case with the cloth and bead specimens. The woman's hair was braided and doubled up, tied in a "club," and the leather wrapped about it in cylindrical form. Around the center strings were bound, to
	INDIAN NOTES

H E A D-D R E S S

123

which were attached long, narrow stream- ers, woven of colored quills, which almost touched the ground. It will be seen that this is precisely similar to the modern form, except for the materials used.

iModern "pagan" Menomini women frequently wear the hair in a simple braid in which colored ribbons are often inter-

FiG. 3.— Back comb of German silver. (Height, If in.) Courtesy of the American Museum of Natural Historj'.

twined. They also use huge back combs of engraved German silver (fig. 3), of native make. Formerly these combs were made of wood, and, though corroborating data are lacking, perhaps of bone and of antler. The one here figured is in the American ^Museum of Natural History, and measures 8i in. in diameter.

AND MONOGRAPHS

124	ME NO MINI CULTURE
	Costume The women's costume is composed of a shawl of broadcloth ornamented along the borders with broad bands of silk ribbon in conventional floral or other designs, in various colors, handsomely appHqued by cross-stitchings; a silk or calico waist, and a skirt. This latter article is made of a single square piece of broadcloth, red, black, or dark blue in color, decorated in the same way as the shawl or robe, on the lower and the side borders. The skirt is lapped around the waist, covering the legs to midway below the knee, and is held in place by a sash of woven yarn, over which the upper, plain edge of the skirt falls out- ward. The edges of the skirt come together at one side, and are open all the way to the waist, but are usually pinned or tacked together to prevent a sudden gust of wind from exposing the limbs, as shown in pi. xxviii-xxx. The old people say that in early days the skirt was a square piece of tanned deerskin instead of cloth, gaily ornamented with colored porcupine-quills along the sides in lieu of silk applique.
	INDIAN NOTES

SKINNER — MENOMINI CULTURE

BEADED HAIR BINDER, WITH PENDANTS Photograph by courtesy of the American Museum of Natural History

SKINNER — MENOMINI CULTURE

SAUK AND FOX GIRL IN COSTUME. SHOWING MODE OF WEARING HEAD-DRESS. SIDE VIEW

SKINNER — MENOMINI CULTURE

SAUK AND FOX GIRL IN COSTUME. SHOWING MODE OF WEARING HEAD-DRESS, REAR VIEW

SKINNER — MENOMINI CULTURE

PL. XXVIII

^^i^S

WOMAN IN COSTUME. SHOWING DRAPERY OF SHAWL

LEGGINGS

Leggings Women's leggings (pi. xxxi) are short, reaching only from the anlde to the knee, where they are bound at their upper border, just below the joint, with string garters of non-ornamental character. The •lower part of the legging, which is exposed between ankle and skirt, is often prettily beaded, or silk ribbon-work extends all along the side and lower borders.

In ancient times the leggings were made of tanned, dark-dyed deerskin, with beau- tiful quill embroidery in colors, or even bands of woven quillwork. JMoccasins were similar to those worn by men.

Waists Little information concerning the ancient type of upper garment worn by women could be obtained. Some old' Indians think it was a sleeveless poncho-hke shirt, with a hole left at the top for the head. A doeskin was folded over, and sewed together along the sides, leaving openings at the upper corners for the arms. This, they say, might have been attractively fringed

125

AND MONOGRAPHS

126

ME NO MINI CULTURE

along sides and bottom. Whether the tail, legs, and neck of the hide were trimmed off, sHt for fringe, or left as dangling orna- ments, none could recall. Some thought that no upper garment was used at all, s.ave a skin, or rather a fur robe.

Nowadays, a tight-fitting waist of silk or of caHco cut in ''Winnebago" style (pi. xx\^iii) and covered with a profusion of native-made brooches of metal, or a much beruffled waist of "Potawatomi" style (pi. xxxii), is used. It is noteworthy that both varieties bear names ascribing them to foreign sources.

Necklaces and Belts

Short, narrow, bead necklaces, beauti- fully woven on the bias or obliquely (pi. XXXIII, a, c), are still to be seen on :Meno- mini women, although they are rapidly becoming things of the past. The older examples are sometimes woven on horse- hair. Cowrie shells strung together, and long, white glass beads (imitation wampum of the "Dutch" variety) are also worn in great quantities around the neck; a modern

INDIAN NOTES

SKINNER — MENOMINI CULTURE

WOMAN

IN COSTUME. SHOWING SLIT SKIRT

KNIVES

substitute, it is said, for wampum. Bead belts. are worn, though rarely, around the waist and across the shoulders.

ARTICLES OF CO.AniOX USE

-' Knives were constantly carried by both sexes. The woman wore hers at her belt in a plain, leather sheath, or, in modern times, in one studded with brass tacks (pi. XXXR-, a). It was a small, keen knife, useful around the lodge, as well as for defense, and its domestic nature was fur- ther evidenced in many cases by the addi- tion of an awl-case tied to its side. The man's knife, which was more of a fighting and scalping weapon, was kept in a leather sheath beautifully ornamented with dyed porcupine-quills, suspended from the neck b\' a short cord, and swung in front over the chest, where it could be seized on the instant. These fighting knives figure in .Menomini traditional history. The writer has seen chipped stone blades, now regarded as charms, worn around the neck by the Osage, which he beheves mark a survival of this custom among the Siouan people.

127

AND MONOGRAPHS

128

M EN O MINI CULTURE

Nowadays; wars having ceased among

the Wisconsin Indians, the Menomini

wears his hunting-knife at his side; the

sheath being made of plain leather like that

of the woman, or of the

skin of a deer's foot

with the hoofs attached

(pi. XXXIV, b).

Both men and women usually disport earrings, though this is not uni- versal. They never seem to wear more than a single pair. INlen also wear necklaces, a primi- tive one of bear's claws being illustrated in fig. 4.

Bracelets of silver and FIG. 4.- Necklace of German silver cunningly

bear's daws. (Length, wrought by native

^^'"■^ smiths are abundant.

A typical series of these is shown in fig. 5 ; d is an example on which has been etched a rattlesnake, as a fetish against disease and witches; c is formed to represent a strap

INDIAN NOTES

BRACELETS

129

Fig. 5.— Silver bracelets. (Height of rf. If

in.)

AND MONOGRAPHS

130

MENOMINI CULTURE

and buckle. Both bracelets and wrist- or arm-bands are as commonly worn by men as by women.

PERSONAL ADORNMENT iSIoDES OF Wearing the Hair Like their hereditary enemies, the Sauk and Fox, Menomini warriors formerly roached their hair, but for warlike pur- poses only. The hairs were extracted one by one with tweezers probably made from the valves of a fresh-water clam. The roach, composed of the standing hair which remained, was as broad as the palm of the hand in front, but narrower toward the back of the head. A long lock was culti- vated at the center of the crown. Some- times the hair was worn long in a number of braids; again, and more commonly, it was allowed to flow free. By some it was bobbed at the shoulders, but in any case the scalp-lock was retained. This is still the practice among the more conservative Indians. Fig. 6 is a reproduction of a photograph of Kime'wun Oke'mas (Rain Young Chief) showing his scalp-lock coiled

INDIAN NOTES

SCALP-LOCKS

on his crown, although he has otherwise

long snice adopted the white man's hair-cut

The men still eradicate their beards and

mustaches by pulling out each hair with

Fig. 6.-Modified hair-cut. showing scalp-lock.

tweezers made of a coil of spring wire, and women rid themselves of their pubic hairs in the same manner.

AXD MONOGRAPHS

131

132

ME NO MINI CULTURE

Facial Painting

The Menomini still paint the face for religious and gala occasions. The cere- monial paintings are sometimes, but not always, significant. For the various degrees of the Mitd'win there are special markings, which are described in another paper. ^ In the Dream Dance the writer once saw an old man who had the upper half of his face colored yellow with ocher, with small blue spots on his cheeks; others had four hori- zontal stripes of red and black, or yellow and black one and one-half inches wide, under each eye; others again had red daubed on the cheek. It is customary for the members of one of the contendmg sides in lacrosse to put a red mark on one cheek, or on the forehead, to distinguish them- selves from their opponents. Women are apt to place a small, round spot of red on each cheek, and to paint the parting of the hair the same color. In mourning, men and women blacken the entire face with charcoal.

The color red symbolizes happiness.

INDIAN NOTES

;

SKINNER— MENOMINI CULTURE

WOMAN'S LEGGING. BEADED AND APPLIQUED

_l °

> B

2^

5 c

PAINTING

hence its frequent use. Blue and green, for the :\Ienomhn do not distinguish between the two, are sacred paints of holy sky color. The writer could not learn that the ]\Ieno- mini ever painted their bodies, and, indeed this was not necessary, for they have for many generations dressed fully, even for war. Whether the custom of covering the entire body with clothing is ancient may weU be doubted, yet not only this tribe but the neighboring Ojibwa bands at least, count it shameful to appear at any sort of ceremony with the body exposed. This is not at all true of the Sauk and Fox, even today, and it may be strongly suspected that the Winnebago have no aversion to the nude.

Tattooing

Today, at least, the lAIenomini do not tattoo themselves for ornament but only for curative purposes. Persons suffering from chronic headache, for example, often have some local herb-doctor tattoo the fi^re of a Thunderbird over the seat of afHiction.

133

AND MONOGRAPHS

134	M E N 0 :yi I N I CULTURE
	In the summer of 1911, James Black- cloud, a man well along in years, sold the writer a tattooing outfit with complete instructions as to its use. The parapher- nalia consists of the following articles: 1. A small birch-bark dish intended to hold liquid medicines. 2. A tattooing instrument composed of sev- eral needles set in a handle made of the thick, strong quill of some large bird, from which the covering had been stripped. The upper end had been folded over and thrust into a longi- tudinal slit made in its own shaft. The needles were fastened in a row in the distal end. In the hollow tube small seeds, shot, or beads, had been placed to cause it to rattle when used. Hawk-bells were attached to the upper or proxi- mal end. 3. Dried bear's gall, used to fix the coloring pigment. 4. A package of powdered herbs and roots. In using the tattooing outfit, a little of the bear's gall is placed in the bark dish, and dissolved in a quantity of lukewarm water, corresponding in amount to a tablespoon- ful. To this is added some powdered birch-bark charcoal as pigment, and a portion of the powdered roots. These last are called by the Indians s.kunk-root.
	INDIAN NOTES

^ n ^

[ \

SKINNER — MENOMINI CULTURE

PL. XXXIV

a

KNIFE SHEATHS Photograph by courtesy of the American Museum of Natural History

TATTOOING

deer's-ear root (an aquatic plant), red-top root, black root, and yellow root. The compound is applied in a thick paste over the seat of pain, and the figure desired is pricked in through the paste. The latter is then bandaged over the wound caused by the pricking of the needles, and is allowed to remain for four days.

The tattooing needles are said to have been given to mankind by the Thunder- birds, and represent their spears or hght- ning. No songs nor prayers accompanied the packet of utensils, but the user was admonished to think steadfastly of the Thunderers while at work.

Mutilation of the Body

:\Iany have the ears pierced for earrings, which are used by both sexes. Generally only a single pair is worn, but I have seen one old man who had many perforations in each ear. For further discussion of this subject, the reader is referred to the section following.

135

AND MONOGRAPHS

136

MENOMINI CULTURE

Toilet Articles

A Menomini toilet set, collected by Dr S. A. Barrett of the Public Museum of the City of Milwaukee, is shown in pi. xxxv. It consists of a mirror with a battered homemade wooden handle, to which are attached four streamers of fur. Among these pendants is a coil of spring wire, used as tweezers to eradicate facial hair. Before the arrival of the whites, the two attached valves of a clam-shell served the same pur- pose. The first tiny bag shown on the left is a cosmetic holder, fUled with vermilion. Concealed by the decorated top of deerskin is the bag proper, a Httle leather affair shaped like a tiny leg and foot cased in a moccasin with embroidered ankle-flaps. The paint-brush, figured above it, is carved from the tip of a buck's antler not yet out of the velvet, for the distal end still retains a few downy hairs left on to form the brush. The other little leather bags contain differ- ent pigments indispensable for the toilet of a warrior. The woven-bead bag for- merly held tweezers.

INDIAN NOTES

TOILET SETS

Another toilet set is shown in fig. 7. This is interest- ing because the back of the home- made mirror con- tains a small cavity which has been used as a mortar for grinding blue paint. Other paint and medicine mor- tars are made from the tanned skins of gray and fox squirrels, with the hairs removed but the tails retained. The skins serve also as an envelope for the set. Such sets are used espe- cially in the rites of the Mitd'win, and are often to be

AND MONOGRAPHS

138

MENOMINI CULTURE

found among the articles contained in

medicine-bags. None of the above toilet articles seems

to be peculiar to the Menomini, for similar

trinkets have been observ- ed among all the adjacent tribes. The two little woven - bead tweezer- bags shown in fig. 7 seem to be unique, how- ever. The conventional fi g u r e s on them are meant to

Fig. 8. — Comb-case carved from the represent the antler oi a moose, obverse. (Height, 7 1

in.) Courtesy of the American Museum WOOd - duCK,

of Natural History. , ,

the most ornamental of American fowl, and therefore an appropriate decoration.

In figs. 8 and 9 are seen the obverse and

INDIAN NOTES

C 0 M B-C A S E

the reverse of an ancient comb-case carved

from the antler of a moose. The work is

very crude, and it is even possible that it

was done

with- stone

tools. Some

of the figures

incised on its

surface are

said to be

turtles, the

totem of its

maker. A

porcupine's

tail, or rather a portion of one, is at- tached as a comb -clean- er, a com- mon custom. It is thought that such tails were once used as hair- brushes. The specimen here figured is in the American :\Iuseum of Natural History; in height it measures 7f in.

139

Fig. 9.— Comb-case carved from the antler of a moose, reverse. Courtesy of the American Museum of Natural History.

AND AIONO GRAPHS

140	MENOMINI CULTURE
	Vocabulary men's garments Wawiepi'mm, deer-hair roach. miki'k pa"sakip, otter-fur head-band. anu'ki or apd"sos o'kum pipake'wian, leather or deerskin shirt. a' Stan, breech-clout. miti'san, leggings. via'kasinfin, moccasins. ma'kasiniin megisekwu' tawun, beaded moccasins. piikivu'ilta, belt. mtkinuiin, nejcklace. ; oska'sinn nd'kutdo, bear-claw necklace. kdki'katapian, beaded garters. For clothing and other objects embroid- ered with porcupine-quills two terms are used, kaiawia' kwitiknn, or 'quilled/ a com- mon phrase, or more properly, piniikum- ta'wun, 'enriched.' Leggings or moccasins hung with carved deer's dew-claws and hoofs or with metalHc tinklers, are said to be ndni'hdndkwutd'wun. In addition to neck- laces of beads, kond'pdmik or cowrie shells (the badge of the Mitd'win or Medicine Dance society), bear's claws, and birds' bills were formerly used
	INDIAN NOTES

SKINNER — MENOMINI CULTURE

PL. XXXV

TOILET SET Photograph by courtesy of the Public Museum, Milwaukee

o

z z

5

TERMS FOR DRESS

women's garments

Nisa'gipun, a hair ornament, with long beaded trailers, rarely worn by the Menomini, but - common among the Sauk, Fox, and Winne- bago.

pe'sakagnmve'u, waist.

mitdna'pis or ina"pis, skirt.

akwii'kualao ina" pis or ivapu'ucan, robe or blanket.

TERilS COMMON TO BOTH

The terms for leggings and moccasins are the same for both sexes. In cases where it is desired to particularize, the word ina'ni^, man, or mitd'mu, woman, is prefixed.

A'sikun wmna'kun, knife-sheath. Knives are

commonly worn by both sexes. petcinama'uan, tobacco-pouch. po"sahau, medicine-bag, also known as mite'-

ivaian (Medicine Dance skin), and mi-

gi'kwaian (otter-skin). siikak-d'uho'swmiilk, metal brooches, generally

worn by women.

AND MONOGRAPHS

141

142

f^

l\\ FOOD AND ITS rREPARATIOX

WILD RICE

Traditions of the Rice

AIMOXG all the forest Indians, the Menomini. dwelling in the heart of the wild-rice region, became most intimately associated with the harvest and the utilization of the plant. According to tradition they recognized this fact to such an extent that they took the title of Ma"}ionianco Ina'uhciig, or "Wild Rice ^len," commonly abbreviated to Ma'^iiomancicuk (singular Ma"iio)na)ico) . derived from nui'no'ma)!, "wild rice." and irui'iiiwug. "men," "people/' The term Mciwminrd'ok ininhcok, as given by He^vitt in the Handbook of American Indians, is not of the ]\Ienomini dialect, but rather is a cognate phrase in some kindred Algon- kian tongue.

According to ]Menomini tradition, the wild rice, since it springs up from under

INDIAN NOTES

W r L D RICE

143

the earth and the water, is the gift of one of the Underneath beings, probabh' Seka- tcoke'mau. The Indians believe that the birds on their migrations follow these beings and bring rice to them. They sometimes, though seldom, introduce the plant to new waters, for, Jenks to the contrary, there is no rule against transplanting rice.^

The Har\'est

The usual harvest season is about the middle of September. At this time the Indians gather in camps on the shores of the lakes. They usually arrive while the rice is still in the milk, and spend the time until it ripens, in pitching their lodges and prepar- ing to gather the grain. The older people instruct the younger generation to be quiet and to refrain from noise or boisterous play. Ndnawe'taiiwiik, or police, are set to guard the rice, and no one is allowed to trespass on the fields before the appointed day.

From time to time the poHce examine the rice, and when they finally decide that it is ripe enough for gathering they carry the information to the chief, who

AND MONOGRAPHS

144

MENOMINI CULTURE

instructs them to go from lodge to lodge crying, "Tomorrow we will commence the harvest." That night the chief of ^ each band makes a sacrifice to Sekdtcoke'mau. He gives a feast with prayers and a speech, saying, "We are going to commence to pick our rice tomorrow;" then turning to the people, "We make this offering to our Grandfather, the Master of Rice, who caused it to grow for our use. We give this tobacco [with these words he stops and digs a small hole and puts tobacco in it], as an offering to the Underground Powers and ask them to permit us to make the harvest. We beg for four days of good weather, and then we will leave the rest of the rice to the Thunderers for their use." Here the chief rises and throws tobacco into the fire (an unusual form of sacrifice) as an offering to the Thunderbirds: "May they permit us to pick rice for four days in the fields which they and the lower Gods have given us; then they may take their share."

At the conclusion of the speech, tobacco is passed about and the old people smoke in honor of the gods, after which the feast is

INDIAN NOTES

FEAST

eaten. This ceremony having been per- formed, the four days of calm weather are sure to follow unless someone has failed to fumi the conditions of respect and quiet which are enjoined. W^omen undergoing their menses and persons belonging to a family in which there has been a death within a year may not go on the rice fields, for such an act would offend both the Thun- derers and the Underneath gods.

The morning following the feast the Indi- ans visit the rice-beds in their cdnoes. An ideal party is composed of three— a man to pole the boat, and two women to gather the rice. Owing to the oozy nature of the lake bottoms at the river inlets, where the nee grows, an ordinary pole is not feasible lor pushing the dugouts, and because of fhe matted rice-plants, paddling is likewise impossible. For propeUing the bateau, therefore, a sapling, crotched at one end. and ten to sixteen feet long, is used. The boatman, standing in the stern, shoves his pole down among the roots of the rice, and drives his craft ahead with a twisting push, each turn causing the forked end of the

145

AND :\IONOGRAPHS

146

MENOMINI CULTURE

Fig. 10.— Pulling stick for harvest- i ng rice.

pole to grip the roots, which give more resistance than the surrounding ooze. As the boat is thus sent ahead at an even, although not very rapid rate, the women reach out and pull bunches of the rice-plant over the gunwales. For this purpose they use a stick about three and one- half feet long; then with a some- what shorter stick, grasped in the other hand, they knock off the ripe grain into the bottom of the canoe. Work must be done quickly to keep up with the speed at which they progress. In some cases the pulling-stick is made with a slight curve for the pur- pose of more readily bending the rice, but some are straight, in order, it was explained, to pene- trate the dense masses of the plant (fig. 10). The example figured is 30| in. long.

After making their course through the rice-bed the party

INDIAN NOTES

H A R \' E S T

returns and continues thus, going back and forth, always beating each new swathe as close to the last as possible, in order to harvest aU the gram. Great care is taken during the work not to offend the manitous who rule the water, especiaUy by wasting the rice, lest they should upset the canoes, or cause storms to rise.

The beating of the rice-bed is continued until the canoe is filled, the length of time taken for this varying with the yield of the crop and the size of the bateau. When it is loaded the party returns to camp and the women at once commence shuffling the rice in the bottom of the boat, in order to break off the spiny beards. This is done with the hands or with the feet, and is an uncomfort- able, not to say dangerous, procedure, since the sharp spikes are apt to penetrate the skm and work into the flesh like the quills of the porcupine, causing painful wounds; and if one flies into the eye it almost infaUi- bly destroys the sight.

AA'hen the beards have been broken off. the rice is packed in sacks, in blankets, and m birch-bark mococks. A small quantitv of

AND MONOGRAPHS

147

148	MENOMINJ CULTURE
	the rice, however, is reserved and hastily prepared for a feast in the following man- ner: The unhulled kernels are thrown into a dry kettle swung over a medium fire, and are stirred with a wooden paddle to pre- vent them from burning, while they roast or parch. The hulls crack like popcorn, though not so loudly, as it cooks. When the grains have all burst open, the rice is taken from the kettle and put into a pan, and a small hole is dug and lined with a cloth. Beside the hole a stake is driven into the ground. The rice is then poured in the hole and a man with clean, new moc- casins steps in. Grasping the stake to keep him in place, he dances up and down on the rice to thresh it. In former times he chanted a song as he danced, but this cus- tom has long since ceased. After the rice is threshed it has still to be winnowed. For this purpose it is placed by one of the women in a large birch-bark dish or tray (pi. xxxvi) and shaken up and down to free it from the husks. If a breeze is blowing it helps by carrying off the chaff. From time to time handfuls of refuse work
	INDIAN NOTES

THANKSGIVING

to the top and are picked out and thrown away.

Next the rice is washed to cleanse it of any particles of foreign matter that have found their way in, and of the smoky odor caused by the parching. After this it is ready for cooking. A small quantity is placed in a kettle with water and boiled slowly, being constantly stirred to prevent it from burning. It takes only a few hand- fuls to make a meal, so greatly does the grain expand. The dish is seasoned with pork or with salt.

As soon as the first lot of rice has been thus prepared for eating by each family, the harvesters gather about and their leader offers tobacco, saying: "I thank thee, O Rice-maker {Ono'miahdwatuk), that we have lived to see this season. As we must not partake of thy bounty without tobacco and a ceremony, I am doing this faithfully to carry out our part, to thank thee, and to fulfil thy wishes before we touch and taste the rice, in order that we may be successful in making a good harvest." When the leader has made this speech, the feast begins

149

AND MONOGRAPHS

150	ME NO MINI CULTURE
	This ceremonial meal must always be eaten on the first day of the harvest. After the harvest has all been gathered, the bearded rice may be hulled on the spot, or it may be taken home as it is and pre- pared for use later. If there is time the Menomini do not use the hasty process just described. Instead, a scaffold or grill of crossed poles is built up about two and one- half or three feet above the ground, and covered with a flat grass known as upouki- wiYntlskwilo ("grass made to roast or dry wild rice"); over this a mat is laid and the rice is spread on it. A small, even, "flat" fire, without high flames, is built under the scaffold, and constantly watched to prevent the blaze or the sparks from igniting the covering. The rice is stirred from time to time to keep it from burning, and gradually cracks and bursts until it is done, when it is hulled with the hands. At this stage it needs flailing and winnowing before it can be eaten. Sometimes the rice is cached for future use by placing it in a dugout canoe and burying it on the sunny slope of some hill-
	INDIAN NOTES

EARLY ACCOUNT

side where falling rain will rapidly drain away and not rot the vessel nor its contents. Rice so cached is still fit for use at the end of one or even of two years.

Interesting from an historical and com- parative standpoint, as showing the conser- vatism of this tribe, is an early account of the Menomini rice culture given by ^lar- quette, writing in 1673, as follows:

''The first nation we came to was called the I'olles-Avoines, or the 7iaiion of wild oats I entered their river to visit them, as I had preached among them some years before The wild oats, from which they derive their name grow spontaneously in their country. They grow m marshy ground and are not unlike our European oats. The grain is not thicker than ours but It IS twice as long, and therefore it yields much more meal. It makes its appear- ance in June and does not ripen until September In this month the Indians go to shake the grain ott the ears in their canoes, which easily falls If It be ripe, and which afterwards serves them ior food._ They dry it over a fire, then pack It away in a kind of sack made of the skins of animals, and having made a hole in the ground they put the sacks therein, and tread upon it until the chaff is separated from the grain, and then winnow it. Afterwards thev pound it in a mortar to reduce it into meal; they then boil it in water, and season it with grease, which makes it very palatable." «

151

AND MONOGRAPHS

152

MENOMINI CULTURE

\'OCABULARY

Md"nomdn, wild rice.

nemakoskil'tcikiVao, wild rice threshed by the feet.

apu'atao, parched wild rice.

anapa'^kwun, an underground cache (also called wana'kun) for wild rice. A hole dug in the earth about the size and shape of a barrel, and lined with basswood- or elm-bark. The rice is placed in bark-fiber bags wrapped in rolls of the same material (see descrip- tion, p. 147). Corn was cached in the same way, and kettles of maple syrup were covered and hidden likewise.

meli'^ko'ne ata^so, a canoe filled with wild rice or corn and buried in a hillside for better drainage (see p. 150).

WILD POTATOES AND OTHER VEGETAL FOODS

Three kinds of wild "potatoes" are rec- ognized by the IMenomini, and all are eaten with gusto. They are called:

1. Tapepin, 'straight.' This variety is washed

and dried and boiled alone, or with corn, wild rice, or meat broth.

2. Pe'koutc, or ma'tcetauopin, 'wild or Indian

potato'; cooked like the former, but occa- sionally prepared with meat or preserved in syrup for future use.

3. Wapise'pin, 'white potato,' used in the same

manner as the last.

INDIAN NOTES

C O R X

The following were favorite old-time Menomini vegetal foods:

Seica'pemin opanskunusit, dried sweet corn

and wild potatoes. Kitcekoma'sekoni7k; potatoes and hulled corn Ma no man p.kicoutrpaniuk kanusituo, ^xMric^

and potatoes. Pikhni'nalao, potato preserves; dried potatoes

p aced in maple sugar. The potatoes are

ma V thef"^''!''^' ^^'"^"'^^^ ^°^-^^^d with mats, they are then stored in woven sacks I have often observed the entire process

0«a7/./<>-. p„'.y,, ^^,hes cut in strips braided and dried (pi. xxxwn) for winTe;

Waiicnka^ pi^sikutd i:cm'mak^unun, squashes sumptior^^^ ^"' '''-' ^- --^- -

CORX AXD ITS PREPARATIOX From an economic standpoint, the Aleno mmi, like the other Central Algonkian tribes were fortunately situated. Not onlv did the forests comprised within their bound- aries furnish abiding places for game of all sorts, and the lakes and the rivers shelter numerous varieties of fish, but the soil was excellent and the climate pleasant, so that

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MENOMINI CULTURE

even bv their primitive methods good crops could be raised. Of all the vegetal foods cultivated by the IMenomini, corn was by far the most important. Their origin myth for maize is as follows:

Legend of the Origin of Corn

Long, long ago a certain man was accus- tomed to go hunting, leaving his Httle nephew at home to guard his lodge. Every time the uncle went out he would tell the Uttle fellow, "I have something very mys- terious; it is wrapped up in a bundle over there in the corner. Take great care of it and never open it under any circumstances." Day after day the uncle went out and each time he instructed his nephew to be careful of the bundle. At last one day when the old man had departed, the lad thought to himself, "I wonder why my uncle is so par- ticular about that bundle? I will open it and see what is inside."

Going to the corner where it was kept, the bov took the package. He untied wrap- ping after wrapping until at last he came across a sack in which there were some

INDIAN NOTES

SKINNER— MENOMINI CULTURE

PL. XXXVIIJ

MORTAR AND DOUBLE-ENDED PESTLE Photograph by courtesy of the American Museum of Natural History

LEGEND

grains of corn. "Well," said he, "since my uncle is not here Til do as I please." So he placed several kernels in the fire to roast After a while the heat caused the kernels to expand, and at last they exploded with loud reports, like giant popcorn. The particles feh aU over the lodge, and some flew outdoors, where they lav, covering the ground like snow. One even fell in the path of his uncle, although he was hunting a long distance away. As soon as the old man saw -it he knew exactly what had hap- pened, and he set out for his lodge as fast as he could go. In the meanwhile the fright- ened nephew tried to gather up the frag- ments and conceal them, but there were so many that he was unable to do so. They lay everywhere; some even rolled under the bed. While the boy was still at work gath- ermg them up, his uncle arrived. Rushing into the wig^vam, he cried, "Xephew, vou have done that which I strictly forbade ^ou to do! You have made me verv angry, and I am going to punish vou for it!"

He seized the lad and beat him until he was too tired to strike. Then he picked him

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156

M E N O M I N I CULTURE

up and to3sed him out of the lodge through the smoke-hole. "Never come back here again," he said. "I can never forgive you for opening this sack of mine." Then he added, "Let there be snow and storm."

According to the command of the old man, who was a very powerful Mitd'o, the storm came and the snow fell. The old man knew that he must get rid of his nephew, for he realized that the lad had great supernatural power, which he might sometime turn against hun. In the mean- time the boy lay on the ground where he had fallen, and the snow covered him over until he was out of sight. There he re- mained ten days. At the end of the time he arose, went into his uncle's lodge and slew him. When the old man was dead, the youth inherited all his effects, including the corn, which the old man had selfishly hidden away from mankind, but which the nephew gave to all the world. Cultivation

In cultivating maize the IMenomini usu- ally planted it in large hills placed far apart.

INDIAN NOTES

CULTIVATION

Some had no hills at all, preferring to drop the seed in holes in level ground; still others were accustomed to plant in holes and build up the hills after the seed had sprouted. Several kinds of corn were known. Among them were popcorn and the ordinarv maize, of which latter there were two varieties, an early blue form, and a white form ripening later in the season. The ears of the old native maize were not long and symmetrical like those now seen, but short, nubbv, and conical, with comparatively few kernels. The change in shape and size is ascribed by the Indians to improved methods and im- plements of agriculture. It is thought that the old-time hoes were furnished with stone blades.

Preparation

Popcorn, called nani'sapimhi^ "mouse corn," or "little brother," was also raised. It was usually prepared by roasting or parching, and pounding it in a mortar, with the addition of dried meat, maple sugar, or wild rice, or all three. In this condition it was very nourishing, so much so that a

157

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MENOMINI CULTURE

small quantity with the addition of a little water sustained one a long time. Conse- quently it was a favorite food for travelers, hunters, and warriors, who could not be troubled to carry any great bulk of food on their extended excursions. Ordinary maize was also prepared and used in the same way. In the autumn, corn is gathered and brought into the lodges, where it is husked at the convenience of the owners. Jolly husking-bees often accompany this labor, when young and old enjoy themselves in much the same manner as do white people under similar circumstances. In husking the corn all the sheathes except four or five are stripped from the cob. These are turned back and braided together around a basswood cord, which strengthens the braid, so that it can support the ear. The braids of corn, often as much as six or eight feet long, are swung from a cross-bar supported by two crotched uprights, at a height of five or six feet from the ground. These uprights, generally placed under a bark shelter, are allowed to bear their burden outdoors throughout the autumn

INDIAN NOTES

P R E P A R A T I O X

159

and sometimes through the winter as well. When the owners have the leisure or feel in the mood, the corn is taken down and shelled. The kernels are put in bags of woven string and stored away out of reach of mice, squhrrels, and other rodents, until needed for use.

The dry corn is prepared in a number of ways, one of the most common being the following: The corn is shelled and is then crushed in a small, horizontal wooden mor- tar with a short, heavy, double-headed pestle (pi. xxxviii). This reduces the corn to coarse flour or meal, but chaff is freely mixed with it. To remove this it is not sifted through a basket, as is done among other eastern Woodland tribes, but is win- nowed in a birch-bark tray like the wild rice. After winnowing, the coarse part is boiled for hominy, and the finer flour is used for gruels or for cakes. Sometimes when the corn is still on the stalk, women go through the fields trying the ears. If they find that the kernels are fairly hard they pick a quan- tity. These they take home. They may boil and eat them at once, or they may first

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160	M E N 0 M I N I CULTURE
•	parboil them, in preparation for storage, as follows: The half-cooked ears are taken and held firmly down against the bottom of a dish, while the kernels are cut off with a knife, or sometimes shelled with the back of the blade. A rush mat or a sheet of birch- or cedar-bark is stretched over a grate of poles, and the kernels are spread on this and allowed to dry in the sun, though in bad or cloudy weather the process is carried on indoors. This is the favorite corji for soup. For feasts it is mixed with beans. It is named "sewa'pimenilk,'^ and is called "great in a feast." Another popular dish is prepared by scraping the green corn from the cob with a tool made from one of the unworked rami of the inferior maxillary of the deer. The kernels, which are considerably broken up by the scraping, are put in a birch-bark pan or dish. Grease is added and thoroughly mixed with the corn, which is molded into cakes and baked in the ashes. Green corn is often baked. For this pur- pose a hole is dug, about six feet long and four feet broad, by two or three feet deep.
	INDIAN NOTES

COOKING

The bottom is lined with a layer of flat stones. Half-ripe ears of corn are husked and laid on the stones and covered with a layer of husks. Then another laver of stones is laid in place, and another laver of corn, and so on for several tiers. A slow fire composed of wood leaving plentiful ashes and coals is made over the pit. This fire is usually started in the evening and al- lowed to burn all night. In the morning the ears are removed, and the corn shelled with either a deer-jaw scraper or a musselshell It is boiled and is then readv for consump- tion.

Again, the ripe, well-grown corn is shelled from the cob. Wood-ashes are added to water until it becomes slimv, making a strong lye. The liquid is drawn off and placed m another kettle, and the ashes are thrown away. Then the kernels are put in and boiled. When the lye has softened the hulls, the corn is removed and repeatedly washed and rubbed with the hands. For this rinsing it is often placed in a huUing- bag (pi. Liv, b, c) and shaken about in the water. This also serves to break ofif the

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161

162

M EN O MINI CULTURE

hulls, which drain away with the water through the coarse meshes of the bag. The sound of the shaken corn indicates when the hulls are separated. The clean kernels are dried and stored in woven "short bags." At this stage it is called ki'.cekonayase'komik, "looking hke popcorn after cooked," and is used to make soup. Such soup is seasoned by the addition of deer-bones, which are boiled with it, their marrow flavoring it. Sometimes red corn is cooked without hull- ing; it is shelled and boiled a long time until tender.

When travehng and not desiring to be overburdened, the Menomini frequently stored their corn in boxes made of bark of black ash or ehn, which they buried at a spot to which they hoped to return (see page 152).

In addition to foods of corn and of wild rice the Menomini knew also quite a num- ber of edible roots, nuts, fruits, and berries, which they did not cultivate, but gathered where they could find them. These were dried, made into preserves or jams, or eaten uncooked.

INDIAN NOTES

V'OCABULARY CORN

Ina'n li'a'pimin, white corn apesa'pimhi, black or 'blue' corn ktnuputantn (long white kernels)', white man'

osainca'pimin, yellow dent, i nam sapimin, popcorn. scica'pimin, sweet corn.

SQUASH

Uma'mdku'uasm, small, spotted, native squash " squir"'"' hard Variety of Hurar'd liisauivi'k'u^i nama'kii'un, pumpkin.

BERRIES

Anepimi'mm, service-berries.

pia'kamhiiln, cranberries

noma'kiminuk, gooseberries C sturgeon-berries')

sakiviikominuk, June-berries. ^ '

me nun, blueberries.

md-kata'i y:ano'k^unii]z, black raspberries

ama hcamt ^cano'k^unuk, red raspberries

oskishki mtnnn, low-bush blackberries

paica henunfm, high-bush cranberries '

' burspo'ttrd!''"^^'^' '^"^^'' '"^^ --b->'

FRUITS

Scwa'non, wild grapes

nmmasewa'non, wild grapes (large varietv)

tata ki minim, chokecherries ^''^^}J-

na^nocmin, black cherries

^^^■^gislihninun, red (birch-bark) cherries.

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MENOMINI CULTURE

VEGETABLES

Pigwa'ic pani'uk, wild potatoes. wapise'pin, white potatoes. atape'pin, edible root. sikako'sia, wild onion. _

kwuamwi'sia, milkweed (used tor greens). ivake'pen, 3^ellow water-lily root.

NUTS

Nano'tckopaka'n, hickory-nuts. paka'n awdpaka'n, butternuts. sdwd'nimtn, beechnuts. paka'esick, hazelnuts. apd^simhiiin, pin-oak acorn. oske'teminun, white-oak acorn.

:^1APLE SUGAR

Legend of the Origin of Maple Sugar Many years ago, Ma"nabus was traveling about over the earth when his attention was attracted to the maple tree. It had not been one of his own creations; indeed, it was made bv some other hero. Md"nabus was displeased with it, for in those days its sap was pure syrup, and it ran very slowly.

"That is a poor way," said he, "for the sap to run; it is too slow and tedious for my aunts [the women] and my uncles [the men] to wait for it, and it is too hard to get

INDIAN NOTES

CO •-=

< «

CO -c

Q ^

SKINNER — MENOMINI CULTURE

X

WOODEN LADLE FOR STIRRING SAP, AND WOODEN MORTAR Length of a, 14^ in.; of b, 261 in-

MAPLE SUGAR

out of the bark dishes. Til make it better and more profitable for them."

So, suiting his actions to his words he went over and urinated into the tree and his urine united with the sap and made it thinner so that it flowed more freely.

"Xow," said he, "my uncles and mv aunts will hereafter realize that this is a far better way for them to get their sugar Heretofore they got the syrup too cheaply but now they will have to work for it b^' their sweat. There will be more sap but they must prepare it."

Sugar ZVIaklxg

In the latter part of February and in

^March the .Alenomini formerly made their

sugar, but they claim that now the seasons

have changed, and they estabhsh their

sugar-camps in late .March or early in \pril

generally during the latter month. When

the proper time has arrived they withdraw

to their favorite ''sugar bushes." where the

men busy themselves in cutting four-foot

fagots lor the fires, while the women sort the

birch-bark dishes (pi. xxxix; .), washing

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M

ENOMINI CULTURE

and preparing them for use. When one is found to be broken or leaky, it is marked with charcoal at the defective pomt and set aside. The sound receptacles are put up in nests of ten and bound with strings of bark. When this has been done the women commence to mend the leaky ones. For this purpose they calk them with pitch obtained from deposits on sawn logs, which they scrape off with a knife. The handle of this tool is wrapped with cloth to protect the hand from the sticky substance. It no logs are available, a hole is chopped m a pine tree, and the sap is allowed to collect. This sap is then gathered and boiled m a kettle which is swung over a glowing heap of coals, but drawn to one side; or it is placed in a skillet. Great care must be taken to prevent a coal or a spark from igniting it. When it hangs sticky and stringy from the stirring-paddle, it is done. The cracks in the leaky vessels are daubed with the pitch, and rags are laid over it, which are covered in their turn. These tasks take up the workers' time until the warm spring days cause the sap to run.

INDIAN NOTES

GATHERING SAP

Then a man takes his axe and a couple of assistants, his children, if he has anv, and sets out. The assistants carrv the iron gouge for cutting holes in the trees, the spouts, and the receptacles for collecting the sap. Finding a suitable maple, the man takes his axe and chops mto the sunny side of the tree, drives in the iron gouge- shaped implement at the lower end of the cut, and inserts a wooden spout in the open- ing so made (pi. xxxix, b). If the sap is flowmg properly, it begins to gush out at once. A good worker wUl tap from two hundred to three hundred trees a day ^^hen the spout has been inserted, one of the assistants places a dish under it, and the party proceeds. An hour or an hour and a half before dark the sap is gathered tor if left longer it turns bitter and is useless' None must be wasted, or the Powers Below ^viU be offended and foul weather wiU ensue In case this occurs, the contents of the catching dishes are thrown out, and the dishes inverted under the spout until the ram or the snow ceases, when they are replaced in their proper position.

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168

MENOMINI CULTURE

Two birch-bark buckets suspended from a shoulder-yoke (fig. 11) are used for carry^ ing the sap. As rapidly as they are filled they are brought back to camp and poured out in a vat or trough. This may have been hollowed out of a single, huge basswood.

p-jc 11 —Shoulder-yoke used in gathering sap. (Length, 28 in.)

One such, seen by the writer, has a capacity of from five to thirty pork-barrels. Sometimes a hollow log is used, the ends being stopped up, and the cracks calked with white slip- ^ pery-elm-bark fiber and pitch. This trough lies partly inside and partly outside the sugar-camp so that it will be convenient for the workers.

The camp itself is a log house with no windows, the requisite light coming from the door, through the smoke-hole m the roof, and from the fires. A scaffold upheld

INDIAN NOTES

SUGAR MAKING

by crotched posts in the center of the house is covered with cross-poles, and under it is suspended the metal kettle for boiling the sap over the fire. In some cases, instead of a scaffold in the center, there are poles running from end to end of the house, over which cross-poles are laid. The sap vat pro- jects into the room at the opposite side of the house from the door, and the smoke- hole is in the center of the roof, directly over the fires. So much for th.e interior arrangement of the camp.

The sap is poured into the vat outside the house, and is dipped up with kettles inside. These kettles are then hung over the fires. They have to be watched constantly, lest the}' boil over. In this event the watchers thrust into the sap a stick, to the end of which fresh pine-tips have been tied. This causes the hquid to recede. As fast as the sap boils away, more is added, until the vat is emptied. Now syrup begins to form in the kettles, which are immediately drawn to one side. A syrup stirrer, called nata'poa- kun (pi. XL, a), is thrust in at intervals and twisted in such a way that the sap is lifted

169

AND MONOGRAPHS

170	ME NO MINI CULTURE
	up on it and allowed to fall back in the ket- tle. When the syrup hangs in a stringy, sticky mass, it is taken away from the fires and allowed to cool, when it is strained through a thin sack or a sheeting. When the syrup has been cleared of impurities, it is taken, two or three quarts at a time (not more, bcause it expands rapidly), and cooked again over a small fire. After fif- teen to thirty minutes it is done. This fact is recognized either by the way in which it drips from the stirring-paddle, or by its taste. It is then stirred until it begins to harden. Sometimes the white of an egg is added to lighten the color. Then it is taken, while still warm, and poured into a wooden trough, where it is pulverized by rubbing and crushing wdth a heavy wooden ladle as it coagulates. The pulverized sugar is placed in birch-bark mococks, in which it is closely packed, but not pressed in hard lest it become too solid to be removed. Small, hard cakes of various shapes are often put in with the sugar. This process may be dispensed with, and it may be run into molds and allowed to harden in the various
	INDIAN NOTES

GRADES

171

shapes that the fancy of the maker dictates. These molds do not have to be greased like our pastry forms, for the sugar comes out very readily when cool. In former times fresh-water musselshells, or bones, or carved wooden forms shaped like turtles, stars, leaves, or dishes, were used for this purpose. Xow commercial molds have largely taken their place. To make candy, or wax {se'kat- katdo), the syrup must be taken after the last boiling, and before it has hardened, and pulled, exactly like taffy.

When the sugar has been granulated, it is graded according to quality (the whiter the sugar the better) and stored away. To the leavings in the kettle is added sap which has been boiled a little, and this is cooked again to make second-grade sugar. It is considered a disgrace, and an offence to Mii^ndbus, to spill or waste any sap; the sugar will shrink as a punishment. On the other hand, if the Indians are careful, they will have more than they think they have. A sacrifice is oft'ered at every initial cooking. Sugar should be used at all feasts, and the

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:M E N O M I N I CULTURE

entire portion placed before each guest must be consumed.

After the sugar-making the kettles are washed by rubbing with wood-ashes and a stone until they are bright and clean, the Indians taking great pains with them.

Vocabulary general terms

Sopoma'lik so' porno, maple-tree sugar. ina'n so' porno, real sugar. mama'tcetau so' porno, Indian sugar. sopoma'^pokunin, 'sugar bush,' or grove of sugar-maple trees where sap is collected.

Wapishomana'kawaido, white grade; the first

run. -d'e^sa'nwamaka, brown sugar; the second run. se'katkatdo, maple-sugar wax. ape'^samaka pend'o-omi, or pend'o-mi ('black

partridge dung,' or 'partridge dung'). The

dark and bitter last run or fourth grade of

sugar.

WikVnatci' piakiin, birch-bark sap-bucket. naio'wakim asna'tcipi, yoke for carrying sap- buckets, etc. makwu'kivuamilcikihi, wooden sap-spout. wiki hona'knn, birch-bark dish for collecting sap.

INDIAN NOTES

H U X T I X G

173

nata'poakihu sap-stirrer.

nakawahi'tciu, pulverizing-trough of wood.

a'miskivihi snakaica/in'tci, ladle for pulverizing,

made very heavy. a^nopi'akun, sap-trough.

HUXTIXG, GAME, AND :^IEATS

Although agriculture played no mean part in the :\Ienomini struggle for existence, nevertheless it was not developed by the tribe to a point where it was their principal source of food. Fishing and especially hunt- ing supplied the major portion of their diet.

IMagic axd Mythology of the Chase

As the writer has brought out in another paper, 9 the ^Nlenomini not only resorted to every practical device in the way of snares and traps for taking game, but employed a number of mystic formulae, including sacred bundles with their rituals, to overpower their quarry by means of sympathetic and contagious magic. To the present day, no hunter, however skilled, believes for a mo- ment that he could be successful without the aid of sacred charms and incantations.

The most important of the hunting-

AND .AIOXO GRAPHS

174	ME NO MINI CULTURE
	bundles is one called Misa'sakiwis. This potent medicine was obtained from the manitous by the Culture-Hero Md"ndbiis, who fasted until the hearts of the Powerful Beings were smitten with pit}^ for his deplor- able state. The first animal to respond was the beaver, who gave his mystic song to lure the game, and his skin to contain the medicines. Next was the weasel, re- nowned for his ferocity and his success as a hunter. The mink followed, for he is wise in the ways of animal-kind, and, after him, the wolf, who is master of the deer, and many other predatory creatures added their powers. This bundle is given by the gods to especially worthy men, to whom they appear in visions. The opening of the bundle in a "clean place" in the woods precedes the hunt. The men of the party perform a dance dramatizing the chase and slaughter of the deer, and its subsequent preparation for food. Next morning they smudge their weapons in incense taken from the bundle, and set out, sure of success, because the essence of the charmed pack has already
	INDIAN NOTES

HUNTING-BUNDLES

permeated the forest during the night and stupefied the game. The bundle also con- tains formulae for killing and blinding witches, one of whose wicked activities con- sists in stealing luck from hunters. As the witch-destroying formulae can be turned against innocent parties, the bundle has fallen into disrepute, although its game- overpowering quahties are generally ac- knowledged. Few of these packs are in existence, but another and almost as im- portant a medicine is more widely distrib- uted. Indeed parts of it may be found in the possession of almost every conservative male JMenomini. This is the famous "Spotted Fawn iMedicine," or Kitagd'sa

The spotted fawn medicine was given to Md^ndhus because the first bundle which he received from the Powers was too dif- ficult for ordinary mortals to obtain, only a few persons being worthy to possess it. The lesser packet contains two gifts from the animals that are of transcendent impor- tance. The wolf, as master of the deer, donated his abilities in the chase, and the

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176	M E N 0 M I N I CULTURE
	deer themselves submitted, giving their consent to be captured that the Indians need not starve. Because of its small size, Md'hidhus doubted the efficacy of this charm, but the manitous took bim to an island in the middle of the ocean, and there, after he had performed the rites, all the animals in the world appeared before him, and he was convinced. In addition to these principal charms, there are all manner of personal hunting- fetishes of lesser value, either obtained in dreams by their owners or bought of suc- cessful hunters and wizards. There are even times when it is permissible to use war-bundles, or perhaps only certain ones among them, to take game. None of these things is of such tribal importance as are the two great hunting-bundles, which, while privately owned, are employed for public benefit, and are regarded as national stand- bys in days of starvation. Many are the superstitions and behefs of the Menomini regarding the taking of game. In their philosophy, if not in prac- tice, animals must not be slain wantonly.
	INDIAN NOTES

SUPERSTITIONS

Each species of wild game is supposed to have its chief or ruler, resident under- ground, and no doubt connected, if not identical with, the animal manitous con- trolling the four tiers of the Underworld. It is further believed that in the beginning all slain creatures came to Hfe and returned to their former haunts, ready to be slaugh- tered again, on the fourth day. However, when the Culture-Hero refused to let the Powers Beneath revive his younger brother whom they had slain, this resurrrection ceased. Nevertheless, it is beheved that only by propitiating game animals and their leaders will beasts be allowed to fall a prey to the weapons and the traps of the hunter.

The bear is the recipient of special rever- ence and is not killed without a ceremony and apology, a custom widespread among the Central and Northern Algonkians.^^ Bones of the bear are scrupulously collected that they may not become food for dogs, and are deposited in running water. The skull is hung in a tree in a "clean place" in the woods. These animals are supposed to

177

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178	MENOMINI CULTURE
	reside in springs during winter, as well as in drier hibernating quarters. The wolf was never deprived of life unless some hunter, having repeatedly missed fire, decided that his bow or his gun was at fault. He therefore slew a wolf, and, laying his weapon between the forefeet of the ani- mal, presented the carcass with tobacco, begging it, or rather its spirit, to cause his missiles to find their mark. In former years, it is said that an Indian who had use- lessly taken the life of any small animal was obliged to absolve himself by offering to- bacco and prayer, lest ill luck befall him. It is believed that in the spring the deer face the south, and that the wind from that quarter blows away their gray winter coats and gives in exchange the red fur of summer. In the fall, they feed facing north, and the process is reversed. In the beginning the deer desired to eat man, but was rendered harmless by virtue of an edict of the assem- bled gods, who rendered it subordinate to men and to wolves. The deer is regarded as t'he most useful of all animals; its flesh is food, its skin is valuable for clothing, its
	INDIAN NOTES

SUPERSTITIONS

179

hair for ornaments or quilting, its bones for tools, its antlers for arrowpoints and glue, its hoofs and dew-claws for glue and orna- ments, and its sinew for thread.

Lone muskrats, outlawed by their tribe, are supposed to grow great in size and feroc- ity, even attacking men. A muskrat se- cured the mud of which the Great Dawn reconstructed the earth during the flood. The muskrats are admirers of the tribe of beavers, whom they imitate in the con- struction of their lodges, but not very suc- cessfully. Muskrats are excellent food, but are generally considered fit only for old people.

Dogs are eaten on 'ceremonial occasions, but not even then with reHsh. To spare the feelings of the feasters, so it is said, the meat is referred to as "white raccoon." Dogs could once speak, but were indiscreet and so lost the privilege.

Garter-snakes are said to change into chipmunks, and vice versa. The small painted turtle, scratching his gaily red- blotched sides, causes sparks to fly off, and thus sets the prairies on fire. The snapping

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180	MENOMINI CULTURE
	turtle, highly valued for food, especially for sacred feasts, is called by a number of cere- monial names, such as Mi'shikdo, which I suspect is Hterally "Hairy (Mossy) One," and Ukema'uwuiinl, "Chief Man." Another myth recounts that the catfish, little and insignificant as it now appears, on one occasion slew a huge moose. His head is flattened because a moose once kicked him there. There is a semi-human sturgeon who is looked upon as a "strong power," and has been known to travel on land. These, and a host of other little superstitions concerning the animal king- dom, are current among the Indians. Customs of the Chase THE PEAST of THE FIRST GAME The first animal, whether furred or feath- ered, that was slain by a male child, was made the object of much congratulation by his parents, who immediately had it cooked, no matter how worthless it might be, and served in an informal feast or celebration called the Oskind'nitdwtn, or "Youth's Dance," to which even the prominent men
	INDIAN NOTES

DIVISION OF GAME

181

of the camp were invited, and of which the}' pretended to partake with great solemnity. This was done by the way of encouraging the youthful Nimrod to slay game, and thus become "a good provider" among his people.

THE DIVISION OF GAME

Among the :\Ienomini a man's father-in- law has a peculiar right to a share in any bear which his son-in-law may kill. It is his duty to skin the animal, and he is en- titled to keep the hide, one side, the head, and the neck. This rule does not apply to other game. If any person chances on a hunter who has just killed a deer, the slayer is forced by custom to give him the hide and a portion of the meat, especially if the newcomer is an old man. It then falls on the recipient to skin and cut up the deer. The slayer is entitled to receive the head, shoulders, brisket, lungs, heart, and back.' The custom of surrendering part of the kill to a new arrival is called a'poko\ and the act of giving it was accompanied by the phrase, "N'da'bokiimn,'' "I give it to you,"

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182

M E N 0 M INI CULTURE

with the gesture of flinging out . the open right-hand. I have seen a man surrender the entire carcass of a small mammal, such as a squirrel, to a stranger who, having heard the shot, ran to the spot in hope of surprising the hunter. I have also seen a man, thus caught, "buy off" the newcomer by means of some small gift. Deer Hunting

Deer were driven to slaughter in the fol- lowing manner: Trees were chopped and allowed to fall partly over, with Kmbs on the ground, and trunks still attached to their stumps. This was done at intervals, all the trees being made to lie in the same direction. Two V-shaped, or inward-point- ing lines of these were made, the arms of the V often extending several miles. At the apex of the V was a narrow opening where several armed hunters were concealed.

A body of men beat over the country, driving the deer into the mouth of the V or funnel. Fearing or hesitating to break through the lines of fallen trees, the animals, if not too frightened by the drivers, ran

INDIAN NOTES

DEER HUNTING

slowly straight on to the apex of the trap, where they were easily shot. . This method of driving is called kuska'- ku'Ctso or spimawanota'^ka, "the drive," or apd"sosspe'mepatiikuu, "the deer, now their running." The time of year best suited for this manner of hunting was when the gar- den stuffs were full grown. The last drive

Fig. 12.— Wooden deer call. (Length, 4| in.)

was held at Thunder lake, near Little hill iWatci'use), in 1870. Not every one was able to be successful in deer-driving, not even those who used the great hunting- bundles.

Lone hunters took deer by twitch-pole snares with slip nooses, set in the animals' trails. Does are still called to the hunter

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183

184

MENOMINI CULTURE

Fig. 13.— Hunter using the deer call.

INDIAN NOTES

DEER HUNTING

in the spring. The man conceaHng himself, imitates the bleat of a new-born fawn by means of a double wooden horn (fig. 12, 13). Any doe in the neighborhood will rush to the spot on hearing the plaintive cry. The Indians consider this method danger- ous, as wildcats and wolves are also often lured by the sound.

Deer are still chased down their runways by dogs, or by men beating the bushes, until they pass hidden hunters. This style of chase is called mi'uskiiniik. In modern times, at least, deer are attracted to arti- ficial salt "licks," where the hunter has a scaffold erected, from which he shoots his game. Still-hunting on foot, or from a canoe, has always been practised. At night deer are approached where they gather to eat the pads and stems of water-lilies in the shallows of streams and ponds. A jack- light, consisting of a blackened wooden sconce supporting a resinous torch (fig. 14, and 48, a), is used to dazzle the eyes of the game until the hunter can shoot.

185

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186

MENOMINI CULTURE

Fig. 14.— Jacklight used in hunting game. (Height, 471 in.)

INDIAN NOTES

BEAR HUNTING	187
Bear Huxtixg In olden times, men armed with spears having stone blades and wooden shafts "a man's height in length," entered bears' dens and slew them single-handed at close quarters. This was considered to be as brave a deed as to slay an enemy. Bears were also trapped in various wa}^s. An ancient method, still sometimes employed, was the deadfall, or ta'no'nagun. This was made of a heavy log, often weighted at the upper end with stones. The log was set up obliquely and was supported by a "figure 4" trigger. Directly under the log, a small enclosure of stakes was built, in which the bait was placed. In order to get at the lure the bear was obliged to enter the enclosure. The instant that the bait was touched, the trigger to which it was attached released the log, which crashed down on the animal and broke its back. I have frequently seen this identical device employed by the Ojibwa north of Lake Superior, and have observed similar deadfalls in use by the JMenomini and the northern Algonkians to take smaller
AND MONOGRAPHS

188	ME NO MINI CULTURE
	fur-bearing animals. The Ojibwa, and doubtless the IVIenomini, utilize a variation of the deadfall for trapping bear, in which the animal, instead of entering an enclosure, is obliged to stretch its neck over a log. When the trigger is released, another log falls crosswise on the neck of the brute, and either breaks it or causes death by strangu- lation. Nooses arranged to twitch upward and hang the bear are set in a similar man- ner. In modern times, the Menomini fre- quently set traps of steel in a small enclos- ure hke that made to house the bait for the deadfall, so that the bear on entering may be caught by the leg. To the trap is chained a heavy log "clog" which drags after the wounded animal attempting escape, and makes his trail well marked and easy to follow. Bears are also captured in pitfalls called swa'nakiitak. These are set in the bear path or trail, and covered with rotten sticks or reeds, over which earth and leaves are sprinkled. For bait, besides magic lures, honey, apples, pork, beaver musk, and other sweet- smelling or oily substances are used. It is
	INDIAN NOTES

BEAR HUNTING

189

said that a bear will travel a long way out of his path to find the source of any sweet or unusual savor brought to his nostrils by the wind. Still-hunting on foot with the rife, or formerly with the bow, was done principally in the late summer, when the bear gorges on raspberries, and travels widely m search of abandoned clearings or burnt-over openings in the forest w^here the fruit grows in abundance. In the fall the bear roams again, this time feeding prin- cipally at night on acorns from the oak trees which cover the sandy plains and ridges. The Indians say that the bear relies on this feast of acorns to provide the fat which is to carry him through his winter sleep. The ]\Ienomini declare that at other seasons the bear is met with only by acci- dent, and inhabits the heart of the forest. It is said that bears were formerly hunted out in their winter quarters, early in the spring, when the females have just brought forth their young. It was at this time that adventurous youths showed their metal by hand-to-hand conflicts in the den.

The :Menomini speak of several varieties

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190	ME NO MINI CULTURE
	of bears besides the black and the grizzly; the latter animal, by the way, was known to them only from their raids beyond the Mississippi for war or for buffalo. The additional species of which the.elders speak are doubtless all mythical. One of these is a bear called kinu'a, which had no fur on its sides. This may be a survival of an ancient pan-Algonkian conception, since a similar hairless bear occurs in the legends of the Delaware and Mahican tribes of the Middle Atlantic states. Other Game The eyes and feet of small animals such as rabbits, muskrats, and the like, are care- fully removed by the hunter, strung on bass- wood strings, and festooned about the lodge. This makes the surviving members of the species less able to see or feel the traps set for them. Rabbits are taken by simple nooses set in their runways. The stupid little animal, hopping along, finds its nar- row path partially blocked with fresh twigs set upright, and only a small opening left. Through this it thrusts its head and neck.
	INDIAN NOTES

C A N N I B A L I S M

to become entangled in the noose of hair or cord neatly set there and swiftly choked to death. The large gray Canada lynx is said to be as easily trapped as the rabbit, and in a similar manner. As the lynx has the habit of following travelers in the for- est, probably out of curiosity, the Indians sometimes set nooses behind them in their own trails, like rabbit snares but on a larger scale, so that any lynx dogging their foot- steps may be caught. L3'nx are also driven into trees by dogs, and then captured by means of a slip noose fastened to the end of a pole and thrust over the big cat's head. It is then an easy matter to choke the ani- mal to death. The Indians insist that the common wildcat, though much smaller than the lynx, is a much more intelligent and ferocious animal, and cannot be so easily taken.

Cannib.alism

Human flesh was eaten ceremonially by the warriors, who cooked and devoured small portions of the bodies of slain ene- mies on the field of battle. The heart of a

191

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192	MENOMINI CULTURE
	brave foeman was especially prized as giv- ing the courage of the vanquished to his conqueror. In this connection it is inter- esting to note the corroboration of native statements found in the observations of a British officer made during the siege of Fort Meigs on the Maumee river, Ohio, in the war of 1812, and published in the London New Monthly Magazine for December, 1826. The ]\Ienomini warriors to whom he refers were at that time enlisted in the service of the British. "As we continued to advance into the heart of the encampment, a scene of more disgusting nature aroused our attention. Stopping at the entrance of a tent occupied by the Minoumini tribe, we observed them seated around a large fire, over which was suspended a kettle contain- ing their meal. Each warrior had a piece of string hanging over the edge of the vessel, and to this was suspended a food, which, it will be presumed we heard not without loathing, con- sisted of a part of an American; any expression of our feelings, as we declined the invitation they gave us to join in their repast, would have been resented by the Indians without much ceremony. We had, therefore, the prudence to excuse ourselves under the plea that we had already taken our food, and we hastened to remove from a sight so revolting to humanity."^'
	INDIAN NOTES

DRESSING GAME

Methods of Preparing and Cookixg ^^Ieats

One of the favorite methods of dressing deer, especially when it is necessary to transport the meat for any distance, is to remove the flesh in one solid sheet, called ma" sa hail, which can easily be carried by one man. A quantity of boughs, or grass or hay is placed under the carcass to fend it from the dirt, and the dressing is commenced at the head. The flesh is flayed away in a blanket-like mass, which can be rolled into small compass. Sometimes the entire sheet is spread before the fire on half-a-dozen peeled willow wands, slanted toward the heat and soon dried. The bones of the skeleton are disjointed and boiled, or roasted on the coals. In any event, it is customary to draw out the entrails first in order to preserve the meat from spoihng. The tongue also is generally removed shortly after the animal is slain.

Sometimes meat was first parboiled, and then roasted on spits before the fire, or it was strung on basswood strings and dried in front of the blaze. The short ribs of deer

193

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194	MENOMINI CULTURE
	are considered very good and are boiled in blocks. The sirloins are esteemed for roast- ing, but the back fat, found over the hips, is the choicest part. Deer-hams were sliced, partially roasted on spits, strung on basswood strings and dried. It is believed that the flesh of a barren doe or of a lone or ''bachelor" buck, an outcast from the herds, is especially palatable. No taboos con- cerning the cooking of venison seemed cur- rent, but the Indians declared that bear and beaver meat were never boiled in the same kettle, owing to the fact that the bear and the beaver women once quarreled over a human husband, as is related in one of their folktales. Young men durst not eat the head of the woodchuck, lest it stunt their growth. Raccoons, and perhaps other small ani- mals, were suspended by strings tied about the tail, and roasted before the fire, the string being slowly twisted to distribute the heat. The writer has eaten moose-hearts prepared in this way by the Eastern Cree and Northern Saulteaux. Meat was often roasted on coals, and small animals were
	INDIAN NOTES

COOKING GAME

195

sometimes rolled up in clay and baked in the hot ashes. This was a favorite method of dealing with porcupines. When the clay she]] was split open the quills and hide of the animal adhered to the mold and the roast came out clean. The entrails were not removed as it was thought that they im- proved the flavor. Small animals such as squirrels were often impaled on spits and thus roasted. W^hen all is said and done, however, boiJing was the commonest way of preparing meat. It is possible that the fact that stews and soups can be distributed in equal portions with the greatest ease may have influenced i\Ienomini pubHc opinion in this manner.

PAuxcH boilixg; bark kettles

When earthen kettles or other receptacles were not available, the IMenomini took the stomach of an animal recently slain, and filled it with water and pieces of meat. This improvised boiler was hung up over a slow fire and served to cook a meal or two. It could not be used many times, however. Birch-bark kettles were also used in the

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196

ME NO MINI CULTURE

same way, but they too, it is said, were not durable.

Vocabulary

MAMMALS

MUskuti'a pi'shaki'' (formerly pi'shaki'' alone),

buffalo. apa"sos, deer. aia'pdo, buck. o'ko', doe.

kilagd'sa, spotted fawn. manase'se, larger unspotted fawn. oskd'ko, yearling deer (best food). oska'liya'pdo, lone or bachelor buck. md'nuko, barren doe. ouamaid'sia, unborn fawn. oma'skos, elk.

mdlca'ia, unusually large elk. nl'kian (child), fawn. omo's, moose. u'atd'\ caribou.

mishimi'icaiuuk, gray ('hairy') squirrel. ape"scnink, black squirrel. osh's, muskrat. nomd\ beaver.

dnd'm, dog (eaten ceremonially). mi'sJnvdo, cottontail rabbit. ica'pus, snowshoe rabbit, varying hare. kitdkabos, wildcat. pise'ii, panther. pise'sa, lynx.

mulnc'd'o, wolf (not eaten). u'icik, fisher. tcapd'sla, marten (rarely eaten).

INDIAN NOTES

A N I M A L T E R 2^1 S

197

BIRDS

Pind'o, partridge.

na^tdkanii'o, prairie chicken.

muskoidiid'o, quail.

khca'neu, quail.

luti's, woodcock.

'U'ipik-u'ii'kdndo, canvas-back.

■icakaiyo'sa, butter-ball.

muskdtl'iido, teal.

meka'k, wild goose.

aa'icdo, brant.

iva'peseo, swan.

rndse^sip, mallard.

li'inihigo'sesip, black duck ('Winnebago duck').

li'ishintikd'kiii, coot (young).

ivapikisu'nien, bittern.

kiciitd'tcia, crane.

ose, fish-duck.

supai'shuk, wood-duck.

apd sakiiiy waxy snow goose.

mu'ok, loon.

seke'ma, helldiver.

mdtc seke'ma, large grebe.

sd"sa'kco, blue heron.

liishmi'anuv, long-eared owl.

ivhi'ishmi'aniiv, great horned owl.

pipo'ndniu, red-shouldered hawk.

^li'dliikonn'mi'sd, mourning dove.

omi'mi, wild pigeon.

ki"ki, coot, mud-hen.

PARTS OF THE DEER

The following terms are applied to the cuts of venison, and, to distinguish them

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198	ME NO MINI CULTURE
	from other game, must usually be preceded by the name apd'^sos (deer). Wes, head. oki'kun, neck. otd'n (pi. otd'nmk), shoulder. o'sa'naiva'ii ('crotch'), brisket. oka"kainau, back. ona'kishiiln, entrails. ok'^^on, liver. otd'skotdkum, pancreas. oto'noncsiik, kidneys. wena"nuk, tripe. weneno'sa, tripe-tallow. o'pa'nun, lungs. mitd', heart. osi'knn or opu'o (pi. opii'omium), saddle. o"kum, skin. we'wemm, antlers. ose'tilk, feet (legs). otd'siunik (pi. otd'shinikiin), sirloin. ml'kim, buttocks. FISHING In former years, when the IMenomini were situated along the shores of Green bay and the rivers which flow into it, fishing played an important part in the economy of the tribe. Now the Indians have Httle access to the bay, and can take only the few species of fish that their lakes and streams afford.
	INDIAN NOTES

STURGEON

199

Legexd of the Sturgeon

In earlier times the sturgeon was foremost among the fishes used a.s food. It was found not only in Lake Michigan, but ascended the favorite rivers of the Menomini to spawn. Up to the time that the whites placed dams in the Wolf, Keshena falls, on the present reserve, was a great resort of these fish in the spring. Here the high water that follows the thaws and rains beats against a mass of rock, making a drum- ming noise. Menomini folklore declares that this is the music of a mystic drum belonging to the manitou who owns the cataract. They say that when this drum beats, the toads and the frogs begin their mating songs, and the sound calls the stur- geon to the pools and eddies below the cat- aract. There they formerly spawned . and were then speared in large numbers.

Sturgeon played so important a part in early Menomini economy that they receive frequent mention in mythology. One of the first acts of the Great Underground Bear, after he had metamorphosed himself into

AND IMONOGRAPHS

200	M EN 0 MINI CULTURE
	the original human ancestor of the tribe, was to invent a bark canoe and a spear, that he, and his people after him, might take these fish. However, in another tale, the "Jonah" concept, these inventions are credited to Md"nabus. The myth of the separation of the tribe ascribes this to a dispute over sturgeon, and other examples might be cited. Methods or Catching Fish Sturgeon were usually captured by spear- ing, either from the rocks along the shores of rivers, where there were pools or shallows, or from canoes. The spears which were used for this purpose seem to have been bone- or copper-headed harpoons, probably, but not certainly, unilaterally barbed. Another form, probably used for smaller fish, is a variety of trident. In this case a straight cedar pole, at least ten or twelve feet long, was selected, and at the heavier end a mor- tise was made to receive two outward-slant- ing cedar prongs, serrated inwardly, with a central spike between them. This arma- ment was held in place by a firm binding of
	INDIAN NOTES

FISHING .

cedar-bark twine. The fish was impaled by the thrust of the central spike, and pre- vented from escaping by the barbed or toothed side-prongs. Fish-spearing was and is (for the writer has frequently joined the Indians in this procedure) often done at night in the shallows, the water being il- lumined by the rays of a jacklight, such as is used to dazzle the eyes of deer (fig. 14). Iron spears, bought of the whites, are now substituted for those of native make.

Fishhooks, made of bone or of native copper, and generally, if not always, barb- less, were commonly used by the jMenomini, before, and to some extent after, the period of European contact. The writer himself once found a copper fishhook on the old Menomini site of High Banks near the city of Oconto.

Gill-nets, woven of bark-fiber cord, were abundantly utilized. They were held up- right in the water by means of lanceolate floats whittled of cedar, and weighted down by sinkers of notched pebbles. No examples of these, nor of several varieties of fish snares, vaguely remembered by the elders,

201

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MENOMINI CULTURE

have come down to the present da\^ The probability is that they closely resembled those still found among the Ojibwa. It is said that when nets were set in the winter, especially for whitefish, holes were made in the ice not far apart, in a long row, and the net dropped into the water through the first and largest, then pushed with a pole from opening to opening, until its entire length was spread out. Its stone sinkers carried it downward to the deepest bottom, where fish congregate in cold weather, and its wooden floats or buoys held it upright so that fish blundering into it enmeshed their gills.

In chopping holes in the ice for fishing it is probable that the ]\Ienomini formerly used an ice-chisel of the same type as that described to me by old men among the Ojibwa and the Cree. This implement consisted of a stout handle to one end of which a narrow stone or copper celt was lashed, or inserted in a cleft and lashed, in such a manner that the planes of blade and handle were continuous. Narrow celts of

INDIAN NOTES

ICEFISHING

the type described are sometimes found on old Menomini sites.

In winter the :\Ienomini, hke their Ojibwa neighbors, and the Eastern jot "Santee" bands of Dakota, repair to the lakes to angle through the ice. This is accomplished in several ways. A hook and line attached to a ''tip-up" device, similar to, if not identical with that used by the whites, is now^ commonly employed, although its an- tiquity is questionable. Another method, which is surely aboriginal, is as follows: A small hut of boughs is built on the ice, and covered so tightly with a blanket or robe as to exclude the rays of the sun. Beneath the shelter a hole about a foot across is cut. The fisherman, with the light above him excluded, finds the clear water transparent to a considerable depth; in fact, the same effect can be obtained, though with less success, by merely chopping a hole in the ice and lying over it, with a blanket thrown over the head. An artificial minnow, carved of wood and cunningly weighted with lead to sink it and keep it balanced, is attached to a string and lowered into the water, where

203

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MENOMINI CULTURE

it is given a lifelike motion by jerking the cord which is usually fastened to the end of a short stick. When a fish attempts to seize the lure, it is promptly speared.

In summer, fish were formerly shot with arrows in the shallows. Some say that a string was tied to the arrow and this in turn made fast to the bow. Apparently the practice of shooting fish has not been in vogue for a long time.

Methods of Preparing and Cooking Fish

When caught fish were usually boiled, or roasted on spits, and eaten, but they were also dried on scaffolds, or split, tied by the tails or hung from a cross-bar, and dried, either in the sun, or over a slow fire. To this day small fish such as brook trout are often smoked entire. In the spring of 1920 the writer ate some trout prepared in this manner at Keshena, and found them a great deUcacy. Sturgeon and other large fish were drawn, split from the head down, and, like the smaller fish, suspended from a hurdle or laid on a grill and smoked or dried.

INDIAN NOTES

PREPARATION

Sometimes the sturgeon was sliced in flakes, which were smoked or sun-dried.

Dry or smoked fish were often pounded in a mortar before boilmg; or the pulverized mass could be added to mush. A dish held in high esteem was composed of the head and the fins of sturgeon boiled with wild rice. Such especially delicate foods were called ''mitd'o cooking."

Sturgeon-roe was dried in the sun. A quadrangular scaftold was erected and cov- ered with elm-bark laid with the inside up. The edges of the bark were tied or weighted so that it could not curl inward as it dried, and over this a cedar-bark mat was thown. The roe was spread on this covering with a paddle, and stirred from time to time so that it might cure thoroughly. When fi- nall>- dried, it was placed in cylindrical cases of swamp-ash-bark, about a foot in diam- eter and two or three feet high. So prepared, the roe could be stored indefinitely. It could Ije eaten as it was, or it might be served in various ways, chief among which were:

Roe Pudding: To three tablespoonfuls of dried sturgeon-roe, three equal quantities

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206	M E N 0 M INI CULTURE
	of flour were added. These were boiled together without seasoning. When cooled, the eggs expanded so that they sufficed as a meal for a large family. Roe Dumplings: To dried roe boiling water was added until the eggs became of a doughy consistency. Then the water was poured off into another dish, and the eggs kneaded with the fingers. Handfuls were dropped into boiling water and cooked. The water in which they were prepared made excellent soup. Roe Cakes: To a quantity of dried roe, hot water was added until the eggs were of about the same consistency as dough. Salt and saleratus were used for seasoning, and the paste was kneaded and made into cakes which were patted into shape with the hands, and then baked. These cakes were often eaten with maple syrup or sugar. Raw sturgeon-roe was kept until it turned black and smelled offensive. The eggs fi- nally burst and fermented and made a dish very palatable, in spite of the disagreeable odor.
	INDIAN NOTES

TERMS FOR FISH

207

Vocabulary

nsH {Ndma'stik)

Miii'sa noma'^hos, brook trout.

nmna'^ko, lake trout.

oka'o, pike.

kinu'siii, pickerel.

miu'skinosfu, muscallonge.

a^sekii'n, small-mouth bass.

7muna^se'kun, large-mouth bass.

masai', gar.

osi'kiimdk, eel,

ose'neman, red horse.

noma' pin, red sucker.

ape's noma' pin, black sucker.

nakn'ti, sunfish.

md'^kwundku'ii, red and black gilled sunfish.

sipi'andku'ti, rock bass ('river sunfish').

Sasaki' sakwiln, silver bass.

7ia^kd'siik, herring (pi.).

td'^komik, whitefish.

ndmd'o, sturgeon.

isa'-ii'do, yellow perch.

tcitceke'kuu'dnun, ' dogfish.'

ivd's€0, catfish.

ivdsc'se, bullhead.

TORTOISES

Mdtc inikd'nd, uku'ema'tiwinini, or mi'shikdo,

snapping turtle. nokd'^kinan, soft turtle. su'kuniso, painted ^margined') turtle. U'O'weno'sikdo, musk turtle ('fire-maker'). posa'kato. sculptured turtle.

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MENOMINI CULTURE

CANOES AND FISHING TACKLE

Me'tigos, log canoe.

wiki'lios, birch-bark canoe.

ane'pos, elm-bark canoe.

pi, paddle.

wasu'kon, jacklight for deer or fish.

pimi'eta'nau, cross-bar on canoe for attaching

jack. niilciniu'hakuHin, fish-spear. muskl'wus, medicine to attract fish. ani'ii, fish-spear shaft. aJie'^'taivukon, slow-match of cedar-bark for tlie

jacklight. osaiiiva'pa ko'^kau, copper fishhook. osauwa'pa natcima'hdgivan, copper fish-spear. na'7nd's a'tiup, gill-net (also called pitaha'-

tcikmi, 'trap' or 'entangler').

INDIAN NOTES

V. :\IEAXS OF TR.\NSPORTATIOX

SIGNS AXD SUPERSTITIONS OF THE TR.\IL

^TT^ HE TRAIL and the lake or the river

^^ ^vere par excellence the Indian

^^1 highways. The trail, as has been mentioned previously, was once systematically blazed in times of peace. But at all times it had its perils, from wild animals, from lurking foes, or from those creatures of the imagination which take shape from the fear of the unknown. A journey, to a barbaric people, was an occa- sion of prayer to the deities.

A Belief in Ghosts

While traveling at night Indians some- times see, meet, or are followed by ghosts. The spirits may attempt to force the Indi- ans to accompany them as they roam about, but this can be prevented by tearing off a piece of a rag, or even of one's clothes, burn-

209

AXD M 0X0 GRAPHS

210	M EN 0 MINI CULTURE
.	ing it to ashes and rubbing these on the fore- head. The smell of the ashes is not ob- noxious to the spirits, but makes them think any one with this odor is one of themselves, and they accordingly leave him alone. It is said that when a mother who has a child that is as yet too young to talk is molested by a ghost, coming to steal away her babe, during the night, she may drive away the marauder in the same manner. If she has to travel after dark, she places the mark on the child before starting If these precautions are not taken, the child is sure to pine away and die within a year. Pabokowa'o Pahokowd'o (plural pahokowa wiik) , mean- ing "intermittent noise," are a kind of spirits that dwell in lonely places and frighten travelers by their eerie cries. They were not further described by the elders, but I am inclined to identify them with the eastern Ojibwa or INlississauga gob- lin Pahokowai, who seems to have been rep- resented in ceremonies by a false- face, or
	INDIAN NOTES

SKINNER — MENOMINI CULTURE

m^S

m b

i

SNOWSHOES

II

en

u <,

< .y

o S

?!

UJ "o

-J >.

Q ^ < 3

O) O

TRAVEL

mask, of carved wood, similar to that employed by the Iroquois. The false-face represents the god that banishes disease. Though mentioned and figured by the Rev. Peter Jones in his History of the Ojebway Indians, explanatory data are lacking. It was collected later by Mr M. R. Harrington for the American Museum of Natural His- tory, and is again figured and described in his Religion and Ceremonies of the Lenape Indians, in this series.

EQUIPAGE The article of manufacture most indis- pensable for overland travel has already been described in the section on JMenomini dress. The native moccasin was more im- portant, to the Woodland Indian especialh^ than the acquired European horse; for most of his journeys were made on foot. But in winter, when the forest trail gave place to the untracked, drifted snow, and river and lake were frozen, in addition to the moccasin t-he snowshoe was donned.

AND MONOGRAPHS

211

212	MENOMINI CULTURE
	Snowshoes Four types of snowshoes are recognized and made by the Menomini. They are called pointed or kaka'^^kikwukemilk; cat- fish-shape or wase'iiwakemilk (pi. xli) ; oval or "bear's-foot"-shape (generally used only as a makeshift, and made of a rough net of basswood-bark over a hastily prepared framework) known as waive' dtukima'tiuk; and "knee-shape" or oki'kwunukenmk, so called because the forward end is supposed to conform with the transverse outline of the doubled knee. The generic term for snow- shoes is a'kemiik: Horse Trappings At the present time the Menomini do not use toboggans, sledges, or travoix. The horse has long been accessible to the tribe, and while they have developed its culture less than any of the other Central peoples, still they have acquired a number of its more widely distributed features. Pack- saddles made of wood covered with rawhide of buffalo or of cattle are common. Some- times the pommel is carved to represent the
	INDIAN NOTES

EQUIPAGE

head of a horse (pi. xlii) or a woodchuck. The Indians also delight in adorning these saddles with brass-headed tacks.

For bridles, a short rope twisted around the lower jaw of the steed is said to have sufficed. I have never seen the Menomini use or possess any true saddle-bags. Be- longings to be transported are usually packed in yarn bags, tied to the pack-saddle. Sometimes a saddle-blanket is improvised by cutting a large yarn bag open at the ends, and spreading it out. A horse is called pdskigo'kesi" Csuigle hoof) in Menomini, a name possibly derived from the term used by the neighboring bands of Potawatomi and Ojibwa.

BURDEN-STR-\PS

Burden-straps, but not burden baskets, are used by the Menomini. The burden- strap consists of a piece of heavy tanned leather, about two feet long and three or four inches broad, which is intended to run across the forehead or the chest. To this strap, which bears the strain, a thong is fastened at each end. These thongs, each

213

AND MONOGRAPHS

214

MENOMINI CULTURE

alDout six feet in length, are intended for lashing about the burden. Straps of this nature among the Menomini and their northern Algonkian neighbors are strictly utilitarian, and are never in any way orna- mented, in contrast with those of the Dela- ware and the Iroquoian tribes. An example in the writer's possession, once the property of the famous chief Oshkosh, is as unattrac- tive as any owned by the poorest of his fol- lowers. The native name for a burden- strap is ape'^'kon.

Cradles

A child's carrying-board or cradle (tike'- nagun) is shown in pi. XLni, and in pi. XLiv a woman in the act of carrying a child on her back in a similar contrivance. So well known and widely distributed among the Woodland tribes is this portable cradle that it needs no detailed description here. The Menomini form consists of a board back, with shallow detachable sides and a foot-rest. A wooden bow projects over the head to support a shade or canopy and to

INDIAN NOTES

SKINNER— MENOMINI CULTURE

CARRYING A CHILD IN A CRADLE

CRADLES	215
prevent injury to the baby in case the cradle should fall. The child is held fast by wrapping or tying its little body in with a long strip of cloth, the outer side of which usually bears beaded decorations (pi. lxxviii, b) . From the bow in front are suspended strings of beads, bells, thimbles, and if the child is a boy, miniature weapons. For a girl, a doll, a wooden spoon or similar articles are substituted. When not carried by its mother, the baby, cradle and all, may be suspended from a rafter or the bough of a tree, or leaned against a bench, a stone, or some convenient stump. The child usually remains on the cradle-board until at least two years of age, not only for convenience in transportation, but for the purpose of making the back straight. Little girls can often be seen with toy cradles of this sort, containing their dolls, (For further details concerning children and their care, the reader is re- ferred to the writer's paper on Social Life and Ceremonial Bundles of the ]\lenomini Lidians.i2)
AND MONOGRAPHS

216	MENOMINI CULTURE
	CANOES For water transportation, canoes are used. These are of two types, the log canoe, or me'tigos, which is still used, and the now obsolete birch-bark canoe, which is termed wiki'hos. The last birch-bark canoe to be found in the tribe was collected by the writer in 1910 for the American Museum of Natural History, where it is now preserved (pi. XLVi) . It was carried by its owner from his home to Keshena, a distance of several miles, and on account of its lightness, neces- sitated no stops for rest (pi. xlv). It is related by the elders that elm-bark canoes {ane'pos) were once used. Birch-bark Canoes The making of a birch-bark canoe was a laborious process, usually accompHshed by a group of several families, who held a boat- building "bee," late spring being the season usually chosen. After meeting and making the camp, the men of the party set out in the early morning to select suitable birch trees and gather the bark, which was re- moved in sections four feet long by three
	INDIAN NOTES

BARK CANOES

to four feet broad, cut as nearly square as possible. This task sometimes required as much as two days, for several trees of the proper size had to be found, and these were not common. The bark also had to be thick, and the trees straight with few limbs. When a birch that had all these qualifica- tions was located, the direction in which it was desirable to fell it was decided on. Other trees were then cut to fall at right angles across the field where it was to He. The birch was -felled across and on them, that it might be elevated from the ground and the bark thus more easily stripped from it. Bark sufficient to cover a canoe of aver- age size, that is, at least four "armspreads" long, was required. This unit of measure- ment, called niku'tina in the vernacular, is the distance between the outstretched fin- gertips of the right and the left hands, when the arms are held out horizontally. When the bark was brought back by the men, the women took a large kettle and poured boil- ing water on it to soften it. It was then rolled up in large packages to be stored in the shade until needed. Possiblv mv in-

217

AND MONOGRAPHS

218

:\IEN0MINI CULTURE

formant, the late Indian Court Judge John Perrote, who had not assisted in canoe mak- ing since he hved at Fond du Lac on Lake Winnebago before the lAIenomini went on their present reservation, may have erred in this last detail. Birch-bark is more easily rendered pliable by heating before the fire than by wetting.

During the first day, while the men were gathering bark, the women emploved them- selves in collecting stringy pine-roots (wa- ta'p), which they spht, made into coils, and placed in water to soak. The next morning the men again repaired to the woods, this time to search for cedar from which to make the framework of the canoe. A tree having been selected and felled, it was spht and examined to see if the grain was straight; if not, another had to be found. From this wood the thin lath-Hke inner sheathing for the canoe (pi. xlvi, h) was made. These strips, called ana'kianuk C^mats"), but with the animate plural sufiix, were cut very thin, ahnost like paper, and were made in ten-foot lengths, and from three to four

INDIAN NOTES

OS

Is

o .y

CO ^ O o

BARK CANOES	219
fingers broad. Cross-ribs, called pekd'kunfik C'ribs"), were also made. While the men cut out the sheathing and the framework, a task which lasted a day or more, the women, beginning in the after- noon, sewed the sections of bark together. Two women sat on the ground facing each other, with two sections of bark between them. Lapping the ends of the pieces over, one woman made holes through the bark with an awl of bone or of metal, at short regular intervals, while the other pushed the flexible wata'p thread through the perfora- tions. When the sections were sewed across, both pulled vigorously to straighten them. The day after the men returned with the cedar, they took an old canoe, and, using it as a pattern, drove stakes in the ground around it, to make a structure of the same shape as the boat. These falsework stakes are called je'pata'iwun ("elevated tie stakes"). Around the inside of the top the gunwale {minak, "frame") was attached. This part of the work had to be completed by noon, so that the canoe could be finished by- dark ; otherwise the bark warped. Along
AND MONOGRAPHS

220

ME NO MINI CULTURE

the gunwale six or more places were marked for attaching thwarts. These were three or four feet apart in the case of the larger lake- going canoes, and less for ordinary craft, or for the diminutive one-man variety.

Broad thwarts were made for the center portions, narrow ones for the ends, but these were temporarily supplied by false cross-pieces, while temporary ribs were added. Now eight men went to work on the frame, four at the bow, and four at the stern. The bark covering, sewed in a single sheet, was passed under the frame with great care, and smoothly shaped. Then it was sewn fast to the gunwale with wata'p. The cross-ribs, three or four fingers broad, were soaked in hot water to soften them,' and were then laid in, about eighteen inches apart (pi. xlvi, h). These were called mitcimi'skotcinanak, "holding down" or "holding out pieces." The temporary ribs and thwarts were next removed, and real thwarts were sewed in. Perhaps at this stage thin, flat, oval boards were inserted as spreaders, set perpendicularly in the bow and the stern of the canoe to hold out the

INDIAN NOTES

BARK CANOES	221
bark. The tops of these projecting above the gunwales were ornamentally carved. The bow and the stern, which were left to the last, were next sewed by the women, with great care, and the rough edges were trimmed with a knife. The upturned tips at both ends were not yet attached, but it was imperative that the work up to this point he completed without stopping, lest the bark warp. Next day the inner sheathing was put in, pieces of three fingers' width alternating with those of four fingers. As usual, these were first wet with hot water to render them flexible. They are said to have been difficult to adjust at the noses, where they came together, as they often cracked. Cracked sheathing was discarded and new selected. The sheathing was sometimes made double. The following day the women arose early to see that the seams were calked before the dawn wind should scatter coals and sparks from the fires over which they boiled their gum, as birch-bark is highly inflam- mable. The noses were first sewed to the
AND MONOGRAPHS

222

M E N O M I N I CULTURE

body of the canoe with colored wata'p. The canoe then was taken from its frame and in- verted. The seams were cover- ed with narrow strips of liber or of cloth, and the gum of pitch {andmimita'wuk) , colored black with birch-bark charcoal for ornamental efTect, was used to calk them. A small wooden paddle was utilized to apply the pitch, which could not be laid on until cooled enough not to burn the bark.

Sometimes men painted eyes on the bow and the stern of the canoe so that it "could see where to go," or added some fancy device. With this, the craft was completed (pi. xlvi, a).

Log Canoes

Fig 15- ^^^ canoes (pi. XLVii) are Typical canoe hollowcd with metallic adzes from basswood or cedar, and

INDIAN NOTES

'Wmm.

^

=) r-

O 5 O --f 3 d

Q S

(T =

o a

LlI b O £ 2 <

< y

o ^

SKINNER — MENOMINI CULTURE

CUTTING THE HAIR FROM DEERSKIN

LOG CANOES

their making is also a tedious process, even with these improved implements. For further details as to canoes and their uses, the reader is referred to pages 185, 208, in the section on fishing and hunting. A typical paddle, 5^ ft. in length, is shown in fig. 15.

223

AND MONOGRAPHS

224

VI. HANDICRAFT TANNING

Preparation of the Skin

M J IN REMOVING furs the ]\Ienomini ^^1 ^ ^ hunter commences when the car- cass of the animal is yet warm, if possible, by cutting the skin along the inside of the hind legs and across the anus, making a single transverse slit. The hind quarters and the tail are first skinned, the work then proceeding toward the head. When removed, the skin is turned inside out and stretched over a wooden frame.

In skinning large mammals, such as deer, elk, moose, and buffalo, when possible a quantity of grass or hay is first spread on the ground to keep the carcass from contact with the earth. Cuts are made around the knee-joints of all four legs. The inner sur- faces of the hind quarters are then cut along a transverse line which crosses the anus; a

INDIAN NOTES

TANNING

similar cut is made under the forelegs and across the breast, and a third from the point of the lower jaw longitudinally down neck and belly to the anus.

In removing the hide the knife is little used after the initial cutting is finished, except for taking off the thick skin of the neck. The hide is loosened by thrusting the fist between it and the flesh, or, on the neck, by tugging with both hands while bracing against the carcass with the feet. As above noted, this work is most easily accomphshed while the animal is- still warm.

Taxxixg Fur For tanning skins with the hair on, the skin is first scraped. The brains and liver of the animal are then applied to the inner or fleshy surface of the green hide, and worked in with the hands until the entire skin is saturated. The pelt is then warmed before the fire and softened by rubbing with a small tool of wood or of bone. Herbs and roots are also sometimes ap- pHed, in solution, to render the fur proof against moths.

225

AND MONOGRAPHS

226	MENOMINI CULTURE
	Leather Making In tanning deerskin without the hair, the green hide may be treated at once, or al- lowed to dry hard and wait indefinitely. In the latter case, it is necessary first to soak the skin until it is pliable,' after which it is hung over the smoothed upper end of a log set obliquely into the ground, so that the raised end is about waist-high. The hair is then cut down to about a quarter of an inch in length by means of a sharp knife (pi. xlviii) and the hide is again soaked, usually over night. The next step brings the hide back to the slanting log (pi. XLix), where both the hah: and the subcutaneous tissue are scraped ofif with an edged implement, shaped like a draw- shave, and called a "beaming tool" (fig. 16). At present these implements are of wood, provided with a metallic blade, but in former times they were made from cannon- bones of deer. The example figured is 15 in. long. The hide is next washed, wrung out, and stretched on a rectangular wooden frame by
	INDIAN NOTES

;KINNER — MENOMINI CULTURE

WRINGING THE DEERSKIN

LEATHER

means of leather thongs, or cords woven of basswood fiber, and tightened by wooden pegs, or, more usually, by the unworked toe-bones of the black bear, used as tourni- quets. Both sides of the skin are now carefully rubbed and saturated with a mix- ture of deer's brains applied with the hands.

The skin is next soaked in a tub contain- ing a small quantity of water. It is then

Fig. 16.-Beaming tool for scraping deerskin. (Lennh lo in.) ° '

wound around a small sapling and wrung dry by twisting it with a stick about three feet in length (pi. l). This is followed bv workmg and stretching it with the hands and feet (pi. li), after which it is washed m clean, fresh water.

The hide is next stretched again on the frame with strings and pegs, and is rubbed vigorously with a spatula of hard wood, a yard or less in length, and is also scraped with a metal scraper of chisel-like form

22:

AND MONOGRAPHS

228	MENOMINI CULTURE
	This removes all the small particles of sub- cutaneous tissue that may remain, which are valuable as soup stock. Sometimes, if the skin has dried too rapidly, more water and brains must be applied. When the hide is at last soft, white, and pliable, it is sewed up in the form of a bag with wi'kop, or raw basswood string, and a stick is thrust inside transversely to keep it open. A hole about a foot wide and six inches deep is dug in the earth in a locality sheltered from the wind, and a slow, glowing, smoky fire is made in the bottom of the pit with dead branches, punk, or even dry corncobs. Over this the inverted bag is suspended (pi. lii), and pegged down about the base. Care must be tak-en to prevent the fire from blazing up and burning the hide, and also to prevent the smoke from becoming too thick, lest the skin be dark- ened too deeply. Shot holes are alwa>'s sewed up before the hide is smoked; other- wise the fumes escape through these ori- fices, and the tanning is uneven. Deerskins are not all alike in quahty. Buckskin is thick, and is suitable for mocca-
	INDIAN NOTES

SKINNER — MENOMINI CULTURE

STRETCHING THE DEERSKIN BY HAND

J

TANNING -TERMS

sins and mittens. Doeskin is best for leg- gings and shirts, while fawnskin is utilized for fancy work. Skins of unborn fawns are dehcate, and require much care in their preparation. They are used as inner wrappers for war-bundles and other sacred articJes. All deerskins are at their prime m the fall. Tanned skins were considered less valuable in the old days, if the tail with its fur had been removed.

Vocabulary

A pa" SOS o'Hm, deer-hide.

kikau'a'nukdsiu, fresh hide with the hair adher- ing. tcisa'kunVnkun, beaming tool, or dehairer

port the hide during the dehairing process. nasiko hkun, wooden spatula, a flesher osusa'wikisua, the smoking process omdnite, deer's brains, used in tanning mmatuku'nun, stretching cords for spreading

the skin to dry. ^

o'ka'nuk smina'si'i, pegs used to tighten the

stretching cords, usually bones from the

feet of the black bear. mettkii'u'n mina'tcukunm, stretching frame osaii'i ksiia, tanned skin.

AND MONOGRAPHS

229

230	MEXOMIXI CULTURE
	WEAVING Tt is truly astonishing that the ability of the Woodland tribes in the matter of textile arts has been so little recognized by stu dents. The cleverness displayed by the ^lenomini in these crafts is no doubt not greater than that of their Algonkian and Siouan neighbors, yet little has been re- corded of it, outside of some casual and often incorrect notes published by ]\Iason and others. In view of the fact that ]\Ir William C. Orchard of the Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation, has in mind a monograph which will cover the sub- ject, nothing more has been done in the course of preparing this paper than to indi- cate some, by no means all, of the technics employed. Had the variety and complica- tion of the textile art as it exists among the Menomini tribe been fully realized, no doubt more examples of their weaving might have been obtained in the field. The writer is in- debted to Mr Orchard for the identification and the descriptions of the technics em- ployed in the specimens used for illustration.
	INDIAN NOTES

□Q p 2 I

q: ^

< u

< c? o -^

?^

^ I 2 5

< -3

o -

ja^Hi^Ei.*.,

04

5 ^

ui " 2 :::

W E A \^ I N G	231
Wo\XN Bags String bags woven of vegetal fiber and of the types so well known among the Cen- tral Algonkian and Southern Siouan tribes, were formerly possessions of every ^Menomini household, but are now rapidly becoming obsolete. The few that still exist are kept for the purpose of preserving sacred ob- jects, and are generally made of modern commercial yarn. There are others, how- ever, utilized for hulling corn, or for stor- ing wild rice, which are more aboriginal in material. The ordinary yarn storage-bag is woven between a frame of two sticks set vertically in the ground. The work is commenced at the upper edge, and the receptacle is woven downward (pi. Lin). This seems to have been the usual method employed throughout the woodlands. Oddly enough, the picture of a \'irginia Indian woman given by Mason in fig. 148 of his monograph, Aboriginal American Basketry, and cited several times as illustrating an ancient style of weaving from the bottom upward, clearly
AND .AIOXO GRAPHS

232	ME NO MINI CULTURE
	exemplifies the reverse of this process. The latter method is brought out also in the photographs reproduced in this paper. The ancient materials used in weaving were bast string, yarn of buffalo wool, later displaced by blanket ravelings, and, in the case of bags for hulling corn or for storage (of dift'erent types from pouches) cedar- bark, and Indian hemp made of rotted nettle-fiber. With regard to the technic employed in the weaving of Menomini storage-bags and pouches of basswood- or slippery-elm-bark fiber, an excellent description may be found in Aboriginal American Basketry. ]\Iason says : "Plate 131 represents an open twined wallet of the Ojibwa Indians (Algonquian stock), at Angwassag Village, near St. Charles, Saginaw County, JNIichigan. The native name is Na IVIoot and it is made from the inner bark of the slippery elm {Ulmus Americana). Other bags of. the same technique in the U. S. National Museum are from the elm bark associated with red and black yarn. The technic of these wallets is so interesting in the survival of an- cient weaves that they justify a special descrip- tion. The weft is plain twined weaving; all the ornamentation, therefore, is effected by
	INDIAN NOTES

STORAGE BAGS

233

means of the warp, which is partly vertical, but more of the zigzag type seen in many Aleu- tian Island wallets. In all of the specimens examined the warp is made up of twine, partly in the materials of the weft and partly in colored yarns. The diameter of the warp twine, espe- cially the 3'arns, seems to be greater than the length of the twists in the weft, so that there is a crowding which brings one color to the front, and leaves another color inside — that is, the figures that are brown on the outside will appear in yarn on the inside and the reverse. To be more explicit, beginning at the lower edge of any one of these wallets the warp ma 3' be in pairs, the elements of which separate and come together alternately in the ro\ys of weav- ing. On the outside of the bag two elm-bark warp strands will be included and appear; in the next half twine two yarns will be included and show on the inside of the wallet. After this zigzag process goes on for a short distance the weaver changes her plan, omits the bark or the yarn warp altogether, but continues the twining process, catching the warp in every other half turn of the twine. Again, there will be a row or two of ordinary twined weaving with straight warp, when she returns to her zigzag method, covering the entire surface therewith. At the top of the bag an inch or less of plain twined weaving in which the warps are vertical and included in pairs brings her to the outer border, wlere all the warps are twisted together and turned back to be fastened off in

the texture

''The photographs of the twined bag shown in Plate 131 were taken by William Orchard, of

AND MONOGRAPHS

234	ME NO MINI CULTURE
	the American ^Museum of Natural History, and presented to the National Museum by Harlan I. Smith. On one side a mountain lion and on the other an eagle with geometric figures are sho\Mi in black. The technique of this par- ticular example from left to right would be five vertical rows of plain twined weaving; nine rows of mixed warp, but plain weaving; a course of braided warp in which the four elements of two rows of warp are braided together and included in the twine. On the other side is a similar administration. The middle portion shows zigzag twined weaving, figured. Above this is a row of three-ply twined weaving, as among many of the western tribes; above this three rows of plain twined weaving in openwork including all the warps. At the top the warps are twisted and fastened into the texture. It must be clearly understood that the figures which show black on the outside — that is, the eagle and the lion— will be white on the inside, necessarily." ^3 This type of weaving is the commonest among the Menomini, and bags of this kind have been seen by the writer among the Ojibwa, Potawatomi, Sauk, Fox, Kickapoo, Miami, Winnebago, Iowa, the "Santee" bands of the Dakota, and elsewhere. An example of a variety of closed twined weave is shown in pi. liv, a. In this bag the warp-threads are of twisted basswood
	INDIAN NOTES

SKINNER MENOMINI CULTURE

~ --T- ^ ^ .<^ jS? ^ ^' .

BAG OF TWINED AND DIAGONAL TWINED WEAVING. OBVERSE

AND REVERSE

Width. 18 in.

SKINNER— MENOMINI CULTURE

j^^^fi^stB^ii

WOVEN BAGS FOR STORAGE PURPOSES Width, 23i in.

TWINED WEAVING	235
fiber, and the woof of various colored yarns. The method of weaving the design, which is of parallel horizontal groups of alternating concave and convex scallops, alternating in turn with plain straight bands, is compH- cated. For a description of the methods employed in the making of this and other bags figured here, the writer is indebted to the kindness of ]\Ir William C. Orchard. In the scalloped bands, the first line of the woof is a double strand of yarn brought across the figure from right to left, looping about each element of the warp as it passes and crossing between each warp strand. It crosses the figure and then the woof strands return. At the last turn before going back, they are twisted together and then divided in two parts, each half looping back singly in the opposite direction from that taken in the first course. This is done alternately until the figure is finished. The plain horizontal bands are made by a simple, closely twined, horizontal weave, the woof yarns being in two or three strands. A third type of twined weave is found on the border.
AND MONOGRAPHS

I3b

^I E X 0 :^I I N I C V L T V R E

A very remarkable piece of textile work well illustrating the resourcefulness of the ^lenomini artizan, is shown in pi. lv, in which ]\rr Orchard has been able to identify no fewer than six varieties of twined and diagonal twined weaving.

In pi. LM, (7, is shown a bag of basswood or cedar-bark tiber intended for storage purposes. It is made in a closely twined weave, and is a model of simplicity in technic. The woof-strands occur at inter- vals of about three-quarters of an inch apart, and the main body of the work is in the heavy, closely-pkiced warp. Bags woven in checkerwork from narrow strips of cedar-bark (pi. l\"i. h) are also used for the same purpose. I have never seen one of these that bore an ornamental design. In former years cedar-bark strips were woven into mats in the same manner as that in which these bags were made, but they are now obsolete. Formerly some handsome mats were made in twilled weav- ing (see HofYman's pi. xxii).^"' Like the checkerwork mats, none have been seen for manv \ears.

IXDIAX XOTES

H U L L I X G - B A G S	237
HULLING-BAGS Two bags of cedar-bark fiber are shown in pi. Liv, h, c. These are designed to hold corn while it is being soaked to cleanse it after boiling in a solution of lye (hard-wood ashes) and water to loosen the hulls from the kernels. The technic of these bags is open twining. A fine example is figured in pi. LIV, c, which illustrates a hulHng-bag of open twined weave in which the rows are alternated in uneven groups to make a decorative pattern. This is accompHshed by crossing some sets of warp strands and leaving the next group parallel. At the top the warp threads are collected in groups of three and then braided together with the addition of some fiber to thicken the border. In the specimen under discussion the styles of weaving alternate in rows of two until near the top, where they run one row of each type for four rows, finished by two rows of parallel warp elements at the upper edge. A second example of hulling-bag is pre- sented in pi. Liv, h. This specimen is also
AXD MONOGRAPHS

238

M EN O MINI CULTURE

made in open twined weaving in a manner similar to the preceding save that all the warp elements are crossed except the top row on one side, and the two top rows on the other — the discrepancy being caused by the fact that the bag is woven spirally.

Yarn Sashes

Sashes, pa^'ku'uwute (belt), are braided by hand in several styles. While colored yarns are now used for this purpose, bast may have been used in earlier days, and, when procurable, the wool of the buffalo. PL lvii, a, b, from field photographs by Dr S. A. Barrett, give a good idea of the process. Such sashes are worn by men around the waist, or across the shoulders, or are bound turban-wise about the brows. Women use small sashes as belts to hold up their skirts.

^lATS Reed ]Mats

A certain species of reed, called by the Indian hi'iiskiin, furnishes material for the mats used as covering for floor or bench, and for hanging on the inner wall of the lodge.

INDIAN NOTES

SKINNER— MENOMINI CULTURE

WEAVING YARN SASHES Photographs by courtesy of the Public Museum, Milwaukee

REED MATS	239
These mats are termed ana'kiaii (plural. ana'kiauiin), and are made as follows: The reeds grow in shallows where the water is two or three feet deep, and on sand- bars. They are ripe in June and July, when parties of women gather them in the same way in which they do cattails, wading out and thrusting their hands into the water in order to pull them up near the roots. The women select stalks evenly matched as to length and thickness, and fine or coarse according to the desired quahty of the mat. They carry ashore the bundles of reeds that they have gathered and trim the' ends roughly on the spot. The reeds are then taken home and thoroughly dried in the sun. \\'hen dry, the stalks are taken in small quantities and tied on a board, one end of which is laid over a cross-piece supported by two uprights, the other end being placed in a kettle. Over the reeds is thrown, at intervals, a quantity of boiling water, until they are entirely scalded; a fact which can .readily be noted as they change in color. The board then receives a fresh lot. After all the reeds are scalded they are drained
AND MONOGRAPHS

240	ME NO MINI CULTURE
	and again dried in the sun. They are much lighter in weight at the end of this process, and the worker ties them in bunches and stores them away in a place safe from mice and squirrels to await dyeing. In preparation for this, the reeds are sorted and counted, so many for each shade, according to the design desired; the woman having previously calculated how many of each are needed to work out her pattern. They are first wet to render them pliable, and are then tied in round coils and boiled, each in its appropriate dye, after which they are left to soak all night that the color may saturate them and become set. To facilitate this they are weighted down be- neath the surface of the liquid. In the morning the reeds are taken out, straight- ened, dried, and stored away. For the weaving a frame is made by driving two uprights into the ground six or eight or more feet apart, and lashing a horizontal bar to their tops with wi'kop. The reeds are then braided to form the upper edge of the mat, and, in doing this, a certain number of stalks is counted off here
	INDIAN NOTES

REED MATS	241
and there to work out the design. The braided upper edge is now attached be- neath the horizontal bar. The reeds are then pulled and twisted until they overlap, and the process of plaiting them together, backward and forward and from end to end, from the top downward is commenced (pi. LViii). Sometimes several women w^ork at once, each having previous knowledge of the proposed design. Because the reeds continually dry out as the work progresses, and become stiff and brittle, the women occasionally squirt a mouthful of water over them, just as a Chinese laundryman does to moisten his ironing. At the end of their task the border at the bottom is hemmed, and the rough ends are evened, doubled over, and a string sewn through them to hold them down. The designs on reed mats are generally geometric, but I have twice seen small ones used for wrapping war-bundles on which were woven conventional figures of the Thunderers. Old Menommi. tell me that in former years those who had dreamed of various mythical monsters, such as the
AND MONOGRAPHS

242	M E N 0 M INI CULTURE
	Underneath Panther, sometimes wove their conventionaHzed shapes on mats. There is an example of this sort in the collection of this Museum, obtained by Mr M. R. Har- rington among the Sauk and Fox. One mat of conventional floral design was secured from John Amob, by whose late wife it was made (pi. lx). The ornamentation is a rare one, which the writer has never seen dupli- cated. Amob used this article as a decora- tive hanging in his cabin, for handsome mats are thus employed even more fre- quently than as coverings for floor or bench. The old time checker and twilled weave mats of cedar-bark strips, now a thing of the past, were utilized in a similar manner. Unfortunately, as is the case with the pouches of woven yarn or of string, it has never been realized how many ingenious and often complicated styles and technics of weaving may be found among the mats of the Menomini and the other Central tribes, so that an insufficient number of examples are at hand for study. However, out of three specimens in the collection of the Museum of the American Indian, Heye
	INDIAN NOTES

^mm^^m.

< ^

cc S

UJ ^ Q

Z)

Q

<

^wii

REED .MATS

Foundation, ]\Ir William C. Orchard was able to identify two different technics.

Two mats, one of which is shown in pi. Lix, are made in diagonal weave, with double or linked diamond design, the weave being selected apparently to facilitate the shaping of the pattern. This is doubtless a common type judging by other examples seen in the possession of the natives.

The other technic is a simple over-and- under vertical weave, as shown in pi. lx. The weft, as usual, is of bast, and the warp is of reeds. The broad, interlocked, ser- rated bands of decoration are formed by crossing the plain weft over the colored reeds, thus concealing them at intervals. The floral and geometric designs, in open work, not before noted by the writer on any specimen, are begun and ended at the opposing borders as weaving, but after running under the white background for two or three inches, are continued as em- broidery. In considering these mats, it must be remembered that the weaver uses no tools.

243

AND MONOGRAPHS

244	MENOMINI CULTURE
	:\Iats for Covering Houses As has already been remarked, the typi- cal winter wigwam of the IMenomini was semi-globular in shape, and was covered with mats made of cattail-flags. In the Me- nomini tongue the name for cattail is u'pa^kiiik, and thence the meaning has been extended to the mats, and finally to the lodges themselves, in popular parlance, although these are more correctly called upa'^'kiwiko'iuik, or "cattail-flag houses." The work of preparing the mats is done entirely by the women, who gather the flags in the fall, during the months of October and November. In small companies they pro- ceed to the sloughs, lake borders, and sink- holes, where the cattails grow. Although the Indians firmly beheve that the presence of this plant always betrays the lair of a horned hairy snake beneath the water, the women bravely paddle out in their canoes, or wade in and pick the rushes, breaking them oft' under the surface close to their, roots, where the plants are white and tender. When sufficient flags have been collected,
	INDIAN NOTES

H 0 U S E . M A T S	245
the gatherers go ashore and build a fire, around which they sit and trim them, cutting off the thick part of each near the base, and the narrow tips. The trimmed stalks are then carried home, and, when the weather is fine, are spread out to dry in the sun, after which they are laid away until it is convenient to make them into mats. Before the reeds are ready for this final process, the outer rind must be peeled off, and the stalks again trimmed until they are of even length. The proper number are selected for the mat required, and are laid on the floor or on level ground in a row, side by side, with the ends reversed alter- nately. The ends on one side are then braided together over a cord of basswood- bark fiber. The worker next threads her bone mat-needle, a curved, flat instrument about a foot in length and half an inch in breadth, made of the rib of a buffalo or a cow (fig. 17), and sews the flags together. The thread is the customary basswood cord, and the sewing is begun about five or six inches from the braided ends of the
AND MONOGRAPHS

246

ME NO MINI CULTURE

rushes and carried across. It is repeated at intervals of the same distance until the entire mat is sewed. As roofing mats are always made double, in order to withstand rain and bad weather, the next proced- ure is to construct a second layer of flags. This is accomplished in the same way and the two layers are then braided together over a bark-cord foundation, along one side which has been left ragged for the purpose. In some cases sticks are tied or sewed across the ends to facilitate rolling up the mats for transportation. Cattail house-mats are made in several sizes, the Fig. 17.— Needles largest being intended to

madeof theribsof the , , . .

buffalo. (Length of cnclose the circumferencc ' ' " '"■ of the lodge at its base.

INDIAN NOTES

BARK MATS	247
It is said that eight mats are required to roof the ordinary winter wig^vam, including the Httle mat which slides back and forth over the smoke-hole, and another small one which covers the door. The remaining six are wrapped about the frame, three to a side. Like everything else about the house, the mats are the peculiar property of the woman, and in traveling it is her duty to carry them, whereas it is the man's task to carry the clothes. Though bulky, the mats are not heavy. They are rolled up lengthwise, and the culinary utensils are placed inside. The whole is then made fast by lashings of wi'kop, or basswood-bark. The load is packed longitudinally on the woman's back, and is supported by means of two pack- straps, one around her waist, the other around her chest and shoulders. It projects far over her head, and gives her a remarkable appearance as she trudges along. Bark Mats Frequently alluded to in the foregoing paragraphs are mats made of strips of cedar-
AND MONOGRAPHS

248	ME NO MINI CULTURE
	bark woven in checker and twilled technic. These are now entirely obsolete, though still remembered, but were sometimes seen in Hoffman's day. This writer figures a handsome example in his monograph with the statement: "Plate XXII represents an entire specimen, while in plate xxiii a section only is shown. They are made of the inner bark of the cedar, cut in strips averaging half an inch in width. Some of the mats are nearly white, others are colored dark red, and sometimes black, with native vegetal dyes. The decoration is effec- tively produced in diamond and lozenge pat- terns, as well as in zigzag lines, both by color and by the weaving of the weft strips, the latter being accomplished. by taking up and dropping certain numbers of the warp strips." ^^ STRING For many purposes, especially for emer- gencies in the forest, the Indian turns to the basswood sapling to supply him with cord. While it is always easy to peel off the bark of this tree in long strips, it jdelds more readily in the spring, when quantities are gathered for future use. In lesser amounts, however, it can always be had at a mo-
	INDIAN NOTES

SKINNER— MENOMINI CULTURE

ROLLING BARK FIBERS INTO TWINE

STRING

249

ment's notice. Having stripped off a long piece of the bark, the Indian cuts the outer rind slightly, and bends the bark at the cut until the rind projects enough to give him a grip with his fingers, or, more commonly, with his teeth. He then pulls off the outer laver and discards it. The inner bark, which is pliable, is ready for use without further preparation, except splitting it down to the desired size (pi. lxi). This is the famous ui'kop, the rough-and-ready cord of the forest. The process described is called inokopd'keo ma'nikopi, "gathering bark."

Balls of prepared twine made of cedar-, elm-, or basswood-bark are found in every well-regulated household, and are used for lashing, sewing, or as material for weaving bags. The manufacture of this twine is one of the duties of the women, who go to the woods and gather ui'kop in the manner described above. It is then made into coils, which are tied together to prevent unroll- ing, and taken home and boiled, some say with lye added to the water. The boiling process is finished when the fibers of the bark begin to separate and spread. It is

AND MONOGRAPHS

250

MENOMINICULTURE

then taken out and dried. When thor- oughly seasoned, it is cut into yard lengths and worked back and forth with the h^nds to break up the woody fibers and to detach them from one another. Sometimes this IS accomplished by rasping the cooked bark through the hole in the pelvic bone or a crotch m the scapula of a deer or a bear In this condition it is often stored away until convenient to proceed with the next step.

In the evenings, when the familv gathers round the fire, is the favorite dme for twisting twine. The woman sits down pulls up her skirt, and removes one legging' She takes two of the fibers in one hand, and holds them, spread a few inches apart against her bare shin. She slides the palm of her other hand backward and forward over them until the fibers twist together (pl. Lxii). At the end of each vard she combs the fibers with her fingers, selects two more, and rolling half an inch of their ends with the ends of the old piece, makes a sphce so perfect that it is invisible. As the twine is made, it is wound into a ball

INDIAN NOTES

VARIETIES

251

until all the material has been used. The pelvic bone of a deer or a bear is then tied firmly to a wigwam pole or an upright stake, and the string rasped through to make it even. The finished twine is again carefully wound in balls and put away. Nettles are rotted in order to obt^n the .inner fiber which is made into twine for weaving bags.

In addition to cords of vegetal substance, leather thongs are commonly utilized. A small piece of deerskin is taken and a nar- row strip cut round and round the edge in a continuous piece, until a long cord is obtained.

Varieties of String

Pa^ku'kian, basswood string, twisted, used

principally for sewing bulrush mats. _ ivi'kop ka'kop, omi'hotdo, basswood-bark string,

braided. , i , ., i i

nu'ki kopi'tdo, basswood inner bark, boiled and

shredded, ready to make into string. musku'ta pishd'ki"- u'e'na^min ond'hotdo, braided

buffalo-hair string ox yarn. sd"nup, Indian hemp string. apd"sos o'kum kdko'pian, buckskin thong. apd"sos o'kum naprkivun, deerskin thong, cut

fine, for sewing with an awl.

AND MONOGRAPHS

252	M E N 0 M I N I CULTURE
	a^ta"^, or apa'sos a'^ta^, deer-sinew used as thread, a'^/a^ ona hotdo, braided deer-sinew. WOVEN BEADWORK The description of INIenomini beadwork- ing by Hoffman is well worth repeating here: "After deciding on the article to be worked — a garter, for example, — a frame of wood is made sufficiently large to extend from 4 to 6 inches beyond the finished piece. Figure 45 represents a frame of this character. The pieces of wood are usually of pine, 2 inches broad and from a half« to three-fourths of an inch thick, made rigid by screws or thongs, where the pieces intersect. Threads of linen are then wrapped vertically over the top and bottom, each thread being a bead's width from the next. In some instances, as will be referred to later, the threads are wrapped so as to run by pairs. These form the warp. The number of threads depends on the width of the proposed design. "The pattern is begun at the lower end, several inches from the frame. A fine needle is threaded, the other end of the fiber being secured to one of the lateral threads of the warp; then the needle is passed through a bead of the desired tint of the ground color of the garter, and the thread passed under one vertical or warp cord; another bead is then taken up, after which the needle is pushed along over the next cord; and then another bead being threaded, the needle is again passed along under
	INDIAN NOTES

GARTERS OF Vl^, In the American Museum of Natural History, )

BEADWORK

e courtesy this pholograph is reproduced

WOVEN BEAD WORK

253

the next following cord, and so on al emately above and beneath the warp cords until the other side is reached, when the outer cord is merely inclosed bv one form. The same proe- ms is followed in the return to the side rom which the beginning was made, except that the rhteads alternate, the woof being now above instead of below the warp cords. Figure 40 reore'^ents the process described. ^''The chief difficulty which one encounters is in remembering the exact point at whjh a new pattern should appear, as the color of he bead required for this must be inserted at he proper time and the number of spaces care ull^ counted and reserved for use as the pattern s developed. When the design is completed, the warp-cords are gathered by bunches of two s or three's and tied in knots, so as to pre^vent the dislodgment of the woof fibers and the_ conse- quent destruction of the entire fabric To the^e ends are afterwards attached strands of woolen varn to lengthen the garter, so as to reach around the leg and admit of tying m a

°''' The "above illustrates the simplest method of working beads. The type of beadworkmg shown in figure 47 is a little more comphcated In this there are two vertical warp cords or threads between each two beads, there being an alternate movement of the pair of warp cords backward and forward, thus makmg it sunilar in appearance to the preceding pattern, excludmg the beads, when the latter are placed sidewise

''The woof thread is run to the side of the crarter, and a bead is then passed through and returned in the next upper space, where another

AND MONOGRAPHS

254

ME NO MINI CULTURE

row of beads is taken up to continue the design. When the opposite border of the garter is reached, a single bead is again threaded and permitted to extend as a projection to guard the external warp threads agiinst injury.

"A third variety of beadwork is effected by using the vertical warp cords as before, but instead of passing the threaded needle through one bead at a time, whenever a vertical thread is passed, the necessary number of beads re- quired to reach across the pattern, as well as the proper arrangement of colors to carry out the design, are threaded and laid down on the warp so that each bead falls within its proper space; then, as the lateral thread is inclosed by the weft thread, the needle is passed back through the same row of beads, but this time beneath the warp instead of above, thus en- tirely inclosing the weft. This requires a deli- cate needle and a fine though strong thread. This variety of beadwork is usually found only in garters, whereas the other two forms occur in almost all other kinds of bead objects, such as the sheets used"in making medicine bags, in collars, baldrics, belts, and narrow strips, the tM^o ends being fastened together by tying or otherwise. The cord itself is then decorated with beads by simply threading on a single fibre and wrapping this about the primary piece from one end to the other. By a little care in the proper selection and arrangement of colors, very pretty effects are produced.

"Beads are stitched on clothing, moccasins, etc., by simply threading one or more beads on the needle and sewing them down along the outlines marked on the outside and afterward

INDIAN NOTES

SKINNER— MENOMINI CULTURE

BANDOLEER AND BAG OF WOVEN BEADWORK. AND BEADED

BELT

Photograph by courtesy of the American Museum of Natural History

SKINNER — MENOMINI CULTURE

BANDOLEER AND BAG OF WOVEN BEADWORK Photograph by courtesy of the American Museum of Natural History

W OVEN B E A D \\' O R K

255

the inside of the article which it is designed to ornament.

''As a rule, the ends of the pieces of beadwork are at right angles to the direction of the warp, but in many small examples, such as collars or necklaces, the ends terminate diagonally, an effect produced by the successive rows contain- ing one or two beads less than the preceding row. the diagonal side being on one side of the article only, and not divided so as to turn toward a central apex b}- simultaneously leaving off one or more beads on both sides.

"In the third variety of bead-weaving there are only single vertical threads between each two beads as in the first named, but the cross- threads forming the woof are double instead of single, and as the threads pass through the bead they diverge so as to inclose the warp, after which they again unite to pass through the next bead. The lateral edges of the garter rtiay be smooth or beaded — that is. the threads rnay either simply inclose the outside vertical thread and return to take up the next upper row of beads, or they may pass through one bead and then return on the next line. The object of the lateral beads, which project edgewise, is for the same purpose as that mentioned in con- nection with the second class of weaving.

" Dance bags — so called because they are ornamental and worn chiefly by well-to-do Indians at dances — are made of a piece of cloth or buckskin about 15 inches square, from the two upper corners of which a continuous band or baldric, 4 or 5 inches broad, extends upward so as to pass over the shoulder opposite the side on which the bag is worn. The entire piece

AND MONOGRAPHS

256

MENOMINI CULTURE

of material is covered by a sheet of bead work, bearing designs similar to those on the garters, though frequently more elaborately combined or grouped. The flat part of the bag contains a very narrow slit for a pouch, the latter being often no larger than a vest pocket.

"A medicine man considers himself fortunate if he owns one of these bags. The ordinary number worn by the mita'wok is three or four, part of them being worn at the left side, the others at the right. Sometimes a dozen such bags are worn by a single individual, beside other bead ornaments consisting of necklaces, breast-pieces, garters, armlets, etc., until the weight of the decorations causes him consider- able inconvenience in these prolonged cere- monies."^*^

DESIGNS

Woven glass-bead belts, garters, bando- leers, and small pouches are made by the native women, and are among the most beautiful embellishments of this nature found among the Woodland Indians, being surpassed, if at all, only by those of the Winnebago.

These articles were formerly adorned by the jMenoraini with somewhat convention- alized floral designs, often showing the double-curve motive found in quill and bead embroider}^ in which inward-turning

INDIAN NOTES

SKINNER— MENOMINI CULTURE

BANDOLEER AND BAG OF WOVEN BEADWORK Photograph by courtesy of the American Museum of Natural History

SKINNER — MENOMINI CULTURE

BEADED MEDICINE POUCH, SHOWING ANIMAL DESIGNS.

OBVERSE AND REVERSE Photograph by courtesy of the American Museum of Natural History

DESIGNS	257
brackets enclose minor figures. In addition to these concepts, geometric motives, and rarely, conventional birds and animals or other realistic subjects are seen. Except in the latter case, in which the figures are made as prayers to the creatures which they represent, no symbolism is found in Meno- mini beadwork, the intention being purely esthetic. When held up to the light these handsome, symmetrically woven objects often give the effect of cathedral stained-glass windows. According to the statements of the Indians, which are wholly credible, this technic is a survival of an older type of work in woven porcupine-quills, a few specimens of which still survive in the tribe. Old pieces of Menomini handicraft may be distinguished from modern degenerate, or, properly, more realistic, floral designs introduced by the Ojibwa, for the old de- signs are highly conventionalized and the component units are smaller and broken. In addition, old pieces were made on the heddle, instead of on the modern rect-
AND MONOGRAPHS

258	MENOMINI CULTURE
	angular frame loom, and are more firmly woven. There seems no limit to the variety of the designs, and pi. ixiii-LXXiv, and fig. 18-22, show some of these, although the full effect of the colors and the lighting must be seen to be appreciated. Many of the mo- tives seem widely spread among the Cen- tral Algonkian and Southern Siouan tribes, but do not extend to the northerly Ojibwa; though common to some of the southerly bands of that tribe. It is notable that among the Sauk and Fox fruit forms seem more abundantly used then elsewhere, and for some curious reason these affiliated peoples do a large proportion of their work with black or dark- colored threads, which renders it somber and less pleasing. Among the Southern Siouans, not omitting the Winnebago, vari- ous star figures are popular, and some- what more idealistic designs are found than among the Menomini, a statement which also holds true of their embroidery. An antique pair of bead garters, the mo- tive of which is the Thunderbird, may be
	INDIAN NOTES

n

w Si en 3

^^

o S

o ^

2 3

It's

o <

THUNDERBIRDS	259
seen represented in pi. xxxiii, h. These, a gift to the writer from his Indian uncle, John Satterlee, were once the property of the donor's grandfather, Apa'^samin; "Acorn." When adorned by them, that renowned warrior became imbued with the power of the birds they represented, and was able to call the lightning from the skies to strike his foes. It is related that he once slew an enemy in this way. No doubt the design of these garters was dictated by the old warrior's famihar demon or dream- guardian during his puberty fast. I have seen a somewhat similar pair, of more recent origin, and doubtless of less magic fame, collected by ^Mr M. R. Harrington among the Potawatomi. Some small pouches with animal designs are shown in pis. lx\ ii-lxix. Designs on Woven Bags Of the figures to be found on the woven bags or pouches of the Menomini, none have any native signification except such as are realistic, with one exception. This is a simple solid figure of hourglass shape
AND MONOGRAPHS

260

MENOMINI CULTURE

(fig. 18), said to symbolize a coup or brave deed on the part of the owner. It is sug- gestive of the X-shape figures of Hke im- port, painted in vermihon on grave-posts

E

H

Fig. 18. — Hourglass design.' Fig. 20. — Grave-shed design.

a b

Fig. 19. — Sacrificial food dishes.

Fig. 21. — Diamond design. Fig. 22. — Spider-web design.

or on weapons. Fig. 19, a, b, show two oblong figures called birch-bark food dishes, the spots inside being food. These often

INDIAN NOTES

THUNDERBIRDS

accompany respresentations of the mani- tous to signify sacrificial offerings made to keep them contented. A grave-house or covering is shown in fig. 20. Food dishes with contents are sometimes woven near these to appease hungry souls.

Of other reahstic forms, none of which are very abundant, as compared with purely geometric concepts, the Thunder- bird is perhaps most commonly seen. PL Lxx, e, shows one of these manitous woven on an antique bag. Zigzag lines repre- senting the Hghtning are worked above its head. Another Thunderer, without the hghtning decoration, is seen in d of the same plate, taken from the reverse side of the same bag. A flock of young Thunder- birds, with joined wing-tips, is portrayed in b, but some translate this figure as rep- resenting people, or more commonly women with clasped hands, and speak of the motive as a "friendship" design placed on gift bags. The usual explanation, however, is that the figures represent the Thunderers, and that their presence on any article is a prayer to gain the protection of these

261

AXD MONOGRAPHS

262

M E N O :\1 1 N I CULTURE

deities. The Thunderbird design as shown on these bags seems to be a very ancient pan-Algonkian concept. The writer has noted it not only among all the Central Algonkian tribes and their Southern Siouan neighbors, most of whose concepts of art and of material culture have been borrowed from the former, but he has seen the iden- tical figures on archeological specimens col- lected on Algonkian sites much farther east. At Shinnecock Hills, Long Island, N. Y., he once took from a shell-heap a fragment of pottery with the form of a Thunderer etched on it. This specimen is now in the American Museum of Natural History. In the Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation, there is a fragment of red shale from the great Raritan (Unami Delaware) site at Tottenville, Staten Island, N. Y., with similar pictures scratched on it, and a polished stone monitor pipe in the museum connected w'ith Rutgers College at Xew Brunswick, N. J., possibly from a site of the same people, has a like incised orna- ment. A portrait of a Mahican chief from the Hudson river, made in London in 1799,

INDIAN NOTES

SKINNER — MENOMINI CULTURE

a

^

THUNDERBIRD DESIGNS WOVEN ON BAGS a Woman in league with Thunderers; b, Three Thunderers; f," Man lea<^ue with Thunderer; d, The Thunderbird; e, Thunderbird and hghtning

SKINNER — MENOMINI CULTURE

9^ #\i

ANIMAL DESIGNS WOVEN ON BAGS a.iUnderground panther; b c, Underground panther and real panther; d

13eer; e, Turtle

PANTHERS	263
shows the same motive in facial paintmg. On the other hand, in 1913 the writer ob- served closely similar representations of the Thunderbirds painted on several lodges of a band of Plains Cree encamped on the banks of the Qu'Appelle river, on Crooked Lake reserve in Saskatchewan. PI. Lxx, c, shows a man ''in league with the Thunder," or having supernatural assistance from that deity. As is usual in such cases the man is shown with a hooked nose, suggestive of the beak of his patron, and with one arm linked with or joined to the wing of the manitou. In a of the same plate is figured a woman en rapport with the Thunder. Her hands touch the wings of Thunderbirds on either side. The mythical Giant Underground Panther fpl. Lxxi, a, b) is not uncommonly shown on bags intended as receptacles to hold medicines. It is distinguished from ordi- nary panthers (c) by its bufifalo-like horns. The long, curling tail drawn under the feet is often spoken of as 'Hhe panther's road." These panther figures, except for the posi-
AND MONOGRAPHS

264	MEXOMIXI CULTURE
	tion of the tail, closely resemble the huge effigy mounds and intaglios of the panther found in Wisconsin, just as the represen- tations of the Thunderbirds before described resemble the bird tumuli. A deer (pi. lxxi, d) copied from a woven-bead bag containing a love-charm, constitutes a rare motive on ]Menomini bags, though such animals are frequently to be noted on specimens from the Sauk, Fox, Potawatomi, and Winnebago. Among the Eastern or Santee Sioux the deer or the elk is counted a powerful supernatural assist- ant in love affairs. Some bags show the totem animal or dream-guardian of the maker. The turtle (pi. LXXI, e) is a rare subject taken from an old fragment of a bag that once held sacred objects. It is one of the few examples of this reptile that has come to the attention of the writer, although they have sometimes been noted as ornamental designs on bead bags. With the turtle were two incomplete figures denominated snakes by the wrinkled grandmother who presented the specimen (pi. Lxxiii, c). It is said that sorcerers
	INDIAN NOTES

SKINNER — MENOMINI CULTURE

PL. LXXII

ANCIENT DESIGNS WOVEN ON BAGS Photograph by courtesy of the American Museum of Xatural History

SKINNER — MENOMINI CULTURE

>*<:*

(

I*

uizSiSlS

CONVENTIONALIZED REALISTIC DESIGNS a Men holding hands in friendship; b, Man and Woman; c. Snakes

FRIENDSHIP	265
sometimes had representations of horned serpents woven in the bags which contained their poisons. In pi. Lxxii, b, is represented an ancient bag of basswood twine and buffalo wool, obtained as a gift from Philip Naku'ti, eighty-four years old in 1911, when the pre- sentation was made, who had inherited it from his grandfather. On one side are shown Thunderbirds and flocks of their young; on the other, Underground and pre- sumably actual panthers with their cubs, and the bark dishes from which they are supposed to eat. A spider-web is repre- sented by c of the same plate, and by fig. 22'. The lozenges in fig. 21 and in pi. lxxii, /, are called "diamonds," though this term may be a recent one. The design in pi. lxxiii, a, signifies men holding hands in friendship. They are not nearly so often' figured as are women, for some reason, nor do men and women often alternate on any bags seen from this tribe. But note b. The well known "elongate hexagon" (pi. Lxxiv, a) is sometimes designated the
AND MONOGRAPHS

266

MEXOMIXI CULTURE

"watch chain" design by the Indians, but this is obviously a modern term. In rare instances I have seen conventionalized flower motives on :Menomini bags of this sort. To the "hourglass," (fig. 18) ''poly- gon," (pi. Lxxiv, d), elongate oval or "star" (c), and "eye" design (b), the writer has supplied the names given for convenience sake. These designations, so far as he is aware, are entirely unknown to the Indians.

EMBROIDERY

Among the ornamental arts of the Menomini, that of embroidery takes first place. It is also a handicraft of antiquity, embroidery in colored quills of the por- cupine dating back to prehistoric times. However, in the years since the first white contact, \>netian glass beads have been gradually substituted for the quills. This is owing to the ease with which they may be manipulated, and to the fact that they require no preliminary tedious processes of gathering, sorting, dyeing, and softening But the ancient designs seem to have been retained in their entiretv.

INDIAN NOTES

SKINNER— MENOMINl CULTURE

3<XXZ=X>0C

CONVENTIONALIZED GEOMETRIC DESIGNS a. Elongate hexagon or watch chain; h. Eye; c. Star; d, Polygon

SKINNER — MENOMINI CULTURE

PL. LXXV

OUILL EMBROIDERY ON OTTER-FUR BAGS Photograph by courtesy of the American Museum of Natural History

EMBROIDERY

267

:^Ienomini embroidery is distinctive in its tendency to graceful openwork, without a filled-in background. It is thus reminiscent of the quilhvork of the early Iroquois, the designs consisting, Uke theirs, of geometric or of conventionaHzed figures, the latter being, however, somewhat more reaUstic (pi. Lxxv-Lxxvii). Heavy figures and solidly quilled or beaded motives are avoided. The large, closely covered, con- ventional designs of the other Central Algonkian and Southern Siouan tribes occur only rarely, except in the case of the silk applique work on women's garments. Equally rare are the highly realistic designs, animal or floral, so dear to the hearts of the Ojibwa. Specimens of both these types are sometimes seen among the IMeno- mini, but they are probably intrusive. On the other hand the Woodland Potawa- tomi, who are in contact with the IMenomini on the north, seem to have copied Meno- mini motives, and indeed have so confessed to the writer. Their native style is rather that of the general Central Algonkian culture.

AND MONOGRAPHS

268	ME NO MINI CULTURE
	Silk Applique Applique designs made in colored silk rib- bons, cross-stitched, or so carefully turned in and sewn that the stitching is invisible, are found on the broadcloth leggings, robes, and skirts now worn by women, and tradi- tion states that these are survivals of quilled decorations on dark-dyed deer- skin. The figures are sometimes purely geometric, or geometric figures combined with conventional floral designs; but the greater number of applique motives are purely floral. While httle or no symbolism is to be found in Menomini embroidery, in their silk applique work the contrary is true. Ac- cording to tribal mythology there is a set of four celestial sisters who dwell in the southern heavens, who, with another group of four sisters living in the east, control the destinies of women. To the southern sky sisters certain colors are appropriate, and each has power to travel and befriend females in one of the four directions. The colors are: red for the east, black for the
	INDIAN NOTES

SKINNER — MENOMINl CULTURE

PL. LXXVI

JLJi,

«

QUILL EMBROIDERY ON OTTER TAILS Photograph by courtesy of the American Museum of Natural History

SKINNER — MENOMINI CULTURE

OUILLED POUCH MADE OF EAGLE-SKIN Photograph by courtesy of the American Museum of Natural History

APPLIQUE	269
north, white, yellow, or blue, for the south and west. In the latter instance there seems to be confusion in the minds of the Indians as to which is which. The most that can be said, then, is that the colored ribbon work has a primary use which is purely ornamental, and a secondary use which is ceremonial, the colors being looked upon as protective emblems of the Sky Women. DESCRIPTION OF SPECTMF.NS Some few of the ribbon designs appli- qued on women's garments are geometric figures, principally diamonds, often in- dented at the short axes (fig. 23), or alter- nated with elongated diamonds and dia- mond-like figures. Triangles, hexagons, oblongs, and ovals also occur in similar rows, with alternations of regular and elongate figures (fig. 24). Stepped triangles and diamonds are found in combination with floral figures (fig. 25), and diamonds with elongated and indented sides are seen (fig. 26), but it is a question whether or not some of these con-
AND MONOGRAPHS

270

MENOMINI CULTURE

Fig. 23. — Indented diamonds.

Fig. 24. — Stepped triangles and diamonds.

P"iG. 26. — Elongate diamonds.

INDIAN NOTES

I i

DESIGNS

271

cepts, which now seem to be wholly geo- metric, are not the ultimate conventionali- zation of floral motives.

Among the conventional floral designs, fig. 27 shows a still recognizable oak-leaf

lie.

-Udk-k'df and acorn.

f iG. 2S. — Antennse motive.

and acorn basis, but fig. 28 impresses the writer as having been derived from the upper or forward wings and feathery anten- nae of one of the larger species of moths. Fig. 29 may perhaps be a further conven- tionalization of this motive in which the

AND MONOGRAPHS

272	MENOMINI CULTURE
	original has been forgotten, the antennae exaggerated, and the wings attenuated, dwarfed, and notched. Hearts and dia- monds, which form a minor decoration on
'^'X^^^^^^^^'^
^s^^^^^lMl^iiiiiiHfl^RHMl^siii^iMl^siMiH
Fig. 29. — Antennae, hearts, and diamonds. this specimen, perhaps indicate the modern influence of a pack of cards.
mS^^^^hI
B^^^^^^^^^^pUl
Fig. 30. — Stepped diamond and elongate figure. While at first glance fig. 30 seems to belong to the purely geometric group, the writer inclines to the opinion that it repre- sents another case of the ultimate conveii-
	INDIAN NOTES

SKINNER — MENOMINI CULTURE

PL. LXXVIII

FLORAL DESIGNS a, On breech-clout; b. On cradle-band

STENCILS	273
tionalization of an open-flower and spread- ing-leaf motive. The designs are made from stencils cut from paper or from birch-bark, outhned with flour paste or charcoal, each stencil being a single unit of the design, and re- peated as often as is needed. The speci- men shown in pi. lxxviii, a, is the hand- somely decorated front and rear flaps of a breech-clout, obtained by the writer among the Menomini, but of doubtful origin, for all the old breech-clouts from this tribe which have come under our observation have been beautified b}^ flower designs like those seen among the Ojibwa, only more crudely done. This specimen resembles closely Winnebago or Sauk-and-Fox work, the form of the doubly-curved floral design par- taking much of the nature of those found among these people. It is quite possible, however, that the garment may be of Menomini make, for the art of the tribe is somewhat of a cross between pure Central and Northern Algonkian motives.
AND MONOGRAPHS

274	MENOMINI CULTURE
	Porcupine Quillwork Formerly the ^lenomini delighted to adorn their garments with the dyed quills of the porcupine, but of late years the art has disappeared, except for the coarse variety still used to decorate birch-bark boxes of small size intended to hold trinkets or maple sugar (pi. lxxix, a, c). A few beautiful examples of the delicate open- work figures once made on deerskin have survived on the feet and tails of medicine- bags of otter, mink, and even weasel-skin, on pouches, arm-bands, and receptacles found in ancient sacred bundles, and on moccasins and various small objects still in the possession of the descendants of the early white settlers at Fort Howard and the Green bay district generally. Some fine examples are to be seen in the museum of the Kellogg PubHc Library at Green Bay,i and others, family heirlooms, are in the possession of Miss Deborah Marten of that city. It is regrettable that these speci- mens are so obscurely located, instead of being placed with one of the large museums,
	INDIAN NOTES

QUILL WORK	275
where they could be viewed by thousands and their preservation be assured. The task of embroidering with porcupine- quills is said to have been both irksome and dangerous. The sharp tips of the spines were Hkely to wound the fingers in the process of being sewed in, and afterwards, in being trimmed off, might fly into the eyes and cause blindness. In embroidering, the quills were softened in water, flattened between the teeth or the fingernails, and sewed with an awl on a background of soft-tanned leather, which itself had been previously dyed a dark color. A pattern was marked on the leather before the work was commenced. And when the design was completely embroidered, the quills, still soft, were flattened and smoothed by rubbing with a tool made of antler (fig. 53). Porcupine-quills were also woven to form belts and decorative strips; they were used as ornamental wrappings for pipestems, to fringe the legs of small skins used as med- icine containers, and, with horsehair, to adorn the decorative strips attached to the shafts of eagle-feathers.
AND MONOGRAPHS

276"	MENOMINI CULTURE
	In the oldest examples of quillwork seen by the writer, namely the medicine-bags, which are handed down from generation to generation and are said to date back as far as two hundred years, floral designs have been abundant. ANTIQUITY OF FLORAL MOTIVES As has just been mentioned, floral de- signs, especially in conventionalized forms, are unquestionably of respectable antiquity among the Menomini, since they appear on examples of quill embroidery attached to medicine-bags or other receptacles some of which can be traced back two hundred years or more. The wide diffusion of this art among the various forest tribes, and its disappearance along with other traits of Woodland culture, as soon as the borders of the Woodland area are reached, mark it as one of the distinctive units of that cul- ture. There is no reason to maintain that because Prairie Indians prefer to use geo- metric motives almost exclusively the Forest tribes must necessarily have done so. Except in the Southeastern or Gulf re-
	INDIAN NOTES

FLORAL DESIGNS	277
gion, where still other esthetic ideas prevail, floral concepts are one of the concomitants of Eastern Woodland material culture, and go hand-in-hand in distribution with such other characteristic features as the soft- soled moccasin. Southern Siouan tribes, and the Eastern Dakota, all of whom belong to the same group as the Central Algonkians, so far as material culture is concerned, also make use of these floral motives. On the northern plains, among those tribes which are in the process of graduation from Wood- land to Plains culture, like the Bungi and the Plains Ojibwa, or the Plains Cree, who have practically crossed the dividing line, similar floral designs are found. These facts demonstrate that floral concepts are a fundamental trait of Woodland culture, and, so far as we can determine, an ancient one. The region in which they are in vogue has, in comparatively recent times, been ex- tended across the subarctic forest belt to the West where it now includes even the Tlinkit. It is undeniable that the Ojibwa and the Eastern Cree in particular have modernized
AND MONOGRAPHS

278	ME NO MINI CULTURE
	certain designs. No claim can be made for the antiquity of the flower-pot or jar- diniere from which issues a double spray of flowers, but there were blossoms in the for- ests and Indians to admire and copy them before flower-pots were introduced. Large bands of Ojibwa reside in Canada where the maple-leaf is the dominion emblem, and numbers of the tribe on both sides of the border make designs on which realistic maple-leaves with full venation are promi- nent. This particular type of work is un- questionably modern, and has no doubt been encouraged by traffic with the whites, yet the underlying idea of a realistic leaf is not, especially among the Ojibwa, who of all Indians seem to have gone more directly to botanical originals for their inspiration. At present the Menomini, who, when the writer first saw them in 1909, were still making only their own types of beadwork, are turning their attention more and more to realistic Ojibwa designs. Yet this may be only a recrudescence of an older custom, for some antique Menomini specimens which I have seen are more realistic in their con-
	INDIAN NOTES

:m e t a l-w 0 r k	279
cepts than much of the work dating from post-European contact. This discussion must not be interpreted to mean that the writer thinks that the early Menomini and other forest peoples made use of flower figures exclusively, and utterly neglected geometric designs. Such is not the case. They, and all their cul- tural relatives, had many geometric con- cepts in their art, which were contempo- raneous with these. In embroidery, carv- ing, and later in applique, however, floral designs predominate over all others, whereas in pottery, basketry, and in woven bags and mats, geometric figures were preferred, or dictated by custom, or, in some instances, more easily made. METAL WORKING The elders still repeat traditions concern- ing the ancient use of native copper. According to these stories, the Menomini knew copper only in the surface veins, and did not attempt to sink shafts for mining purposes. It is said that fire was used to soften the ore so that it might be cut with
AND MONOGRAPHS

280	ME NO MINI CULTURE
	stone implements. The detached mass was then taken home and again heated, and hammered into shape with stones. The melting process was unknown by the In- dians who were ignorant both of the means of producing heat great enough to melt copper and of the crucibles to contain the molten metal. Slightly grooved or notched stone mauls, such as are still to be picked up on the ancient sites of the Menomini, could well have been used for beating out copper. Many types of native copper implements have been obtained on the old Menomini sites at the Suamicos, Oconto, Peshtigo, and elsewhere on Green bay, Wisconsin, especially by Mr J. P. Schumacher of Green Bay. Among the articles found have been arrowpoints, knives, spear-heads, a butterfly ceremonial (with a cache of other copper articles at Oconto), and fishhooks. The writer personally found a fishhook on one of the Oconto sites. At the present time the Menomini make a variety of ornaments from silver and ger- man silver; principally round, flat buttons
	INDIAN NOTES

SILVERSMITHS

281

and brooches of types similar to those in use by the Iroquois and other eastern tribes, attached by means of a tongue (pi. lxxx). They also manufacture rings, bangles, ear-

FiG. 3!.— Rings of beaten metal. (Actual size.)

Fig. 32. — Metal earring with incised design. (Actual size.)

rings, and bracelets. In the workman- ship and design of the latter they show peculiar skill and originality. Several ex- cellent examples are shown in figs. 5, 31, 32. The tools used by Menomini silver- smiths are obviouslv derived from those

AND MONOGRAPHS

282	MENOMINI CULTURE
	kept on hand by early traders as a part of their stocks in trade, and consist of small commercial or smithy-made punches, ham- mers, and dies of metal, with a Httle iron anvil. Some of these tools have been im- provised from old files and rasps. The last surviving Menomini silversmith of the writer's acquaintance is Teko Whitefish, who was actively plying his trade in the early summer of 1920. POTTERY- Although pottery vessels are said not to have been made or used by the Menomini for over a hundred years, the memory of the process, as described to them by their par- ents, still hngers among some of the older people. In 1911 the late Philip Niiku'ti, then eighty-four years of age, told the writer that vessels were made of selected clay, which was pounded and mixed with pul- verized shells of the freshwater clam (Unio sp.) for tempering. When the clay had been properly prepared, more water was added, and it was kneaded into a stiff paste. This was plastered by hand over a large ball of
	INDIAN NOTES

SKINNER^MENOMINI CULTURE

5ILVER BROOCHES Diameter of t\ 44 in.

POTTERY

283

basswood-bark twine, an opening being left out of which protruded an end of the string. The clay was then smoothed off with a stick, and the incipient vessel was set in the sun to dry. In fact, sunshine was considered such a necessary factor in the drying process that no one ever attempted to make pottery on a dull day.

When the clay coating was dry, the potter took hold of the end of the ball of twine, which had been left protruding from the opening made for the purpose, and, pulling it, unwound the ball within, leaving an earthen shell. Fresh clay was daubed over the rough inside, and the outside was again scraped smooth with a stick. The vessel was then sized with a coating or wash of finer clay, and ornamented with designs marked with a sharpened stick. Such was Xaku'ti's information, but arch- eological evidence is to the effect that fig- ures impressed by means of sticks wrapped with cord predominate over incised designs. After decorating the receptacle, holes were bored in the sides near the rim, for the purpose of affixing a bail of basswood-bark.

AND MONOGRAPHS

284	ME NO MINI CULTURE
	The vessel was then dried again, and is said to have been ready for use. Xaku'ti supposed it not to have been fired but to have become hardened by the heat while in use, but apparently memory or his in- formation must be at fault in this particu- lar, for not only does it seem improbable that an unfired vessel could have been made to retain liquid without dissolving or coming apart, but all the potsherds and vessels seen or collected by the writer from old Menomini sites show distinct evidence of firing. Indeed they could not otherwise have withstood the elements for so many years. Possibly the theory that vessels were used without this essential step is a "folk explanation" of a now forgotten art. Archeological investigations show that the earthen jars of the ancient Menomini are of the old "pan-Algonkian" type with pointed base (fig. 33). Peter Fish once told the writer that stone kettles were made in olden times. A shallow hole was first pecked in a bowlder with another stone, and the pitting then
	INDIAN NOTES

POTTERY

285

rubbed smooth. Perhaps this datum is really referable to stone mortars.

It is said that dishes and spoons were made of clay before wood came into use, but this mav be merelv a confused memory

Fig. 33. — Pottery jar with pointed base. (Height, 16^ in.)

of the making of pottery jars described above. In common with a number of other Algonkian tribes visited by the writer, the Menomini believe that the first iron and brass or copper kettles obtained

AND MONOGRAPHS

286	MENOMINI CULTURE
	by them were thrown up on the surface of the earth to sacred dreamers by the Under- neath Gods. Probably this, too, is a sur- vival of a tradition dating back to the time when kettles were made of earth, the prop- erty of the Powers Below. Be it as it may, this idea is curiously widespread among kindred tribes. HOUSEHOLD UTENSILS Wooden Bowls Among the Menomini two types of wooden bowls are known which are com- mon to nearly all the forest tribes. These are the round form, and an oval variety, rising to a point at each end. A few of the circular bowls possess a handle on one side. Both types vary in size, from tiny affairs capable of holding only a few doses of medicine, with tiny carved spoons to match, to large feasting bowls, two and one-half feet in diameter, with huge ladles for serv- ing. The average size of the round bowls is from eight to ten inches in diameter. They are used principally as individual food
	INDIAN NOTES

WOODEN BOWLS

28;

dishes, or for throwing dice. Oval bowls are used only for food or for medicine, and are seldom of great size.

Wooden bowls are no longer made, and are now rare among the Menomini. For-

FiG. 34. — Oval wooden bowl. (Extreme diameter, 7 5 in.)

Fig. 35. — Round wooden bowl. (Extreme diameter, lli^ in.)

merly they were fashioned from the knots or burls of the birch, black ash, and curly maple. After the bowl had been cut from the tree on which it grew, it was shaped and hollowed by burning and scraping with a

AND MONOGRAPHS

288	MENOMINI CULTURE
	crooked knife or a small adze. In still earlier times flint, shell, or native copper implements were used. The process is the same as that used in carving out log mor- tars or dugout canoes. PL Lxxxi exhibits a bowl of the round type with a carved handle. These bowls are never made with thick, flat bottoms as among the Iroquois. Fig. 34 represents an oval bowl, and fig. 35 a round bowl. These latter are 7| in. and IItV in., respectively, in greatest diameter. TORTOISE-SHELL DiSHES Dishes or bowls made of the shells (cara- paces) of the margined, wood, or B landings tortoise, are sometimes seen. These uten- sils (fig. 36) are prepared for use by scraping out the inner ribs, and sometimes by trim- ming the edges of the shell away. They are used for various purposes, often for holding tobacco. They seem to be anal- ogous to the archeological specimens found in graves and shellpits in coastal New York:
	INDIAN NOTES

SHELL BOWLS	289
The example figured is in the American Museum of Natural History, and measures 7f in. in length.
"^^B^^^^gg— ~- ' '^ "^ ,, -r^
Fig. 36.— Bowl made of ti.rtoise-shell. ^Length, 1\ in.) Courtesy of the American Museum of Natural History. Wooden Spoons Spoons with short handles and large, broad bowls, were formerly carved from red cedar, birch, maple, and walnut. Fig. 37 shows a large ladle used in serving feasts of the Mita'win, on the handle of which is carved a human head, intended to represent Md"nabus; fig. 38 is another, less handsome, long-handled example. They are, respec- tively, 13^ in. and 24 in. in length. Most spoons and ladles are plain, or at least ornamented only with some simple open-
AND MONOGRAPHS

290

MENOMINI CULTURE

work carving (fig. 39). This latter form is one which I have not observed elsewhere, and is now in the American Museum of Natural History. Most wooden spoons

Fig. 37. — Ceremonial ladle. (Extreme length, 13^ in.)

possess a handle carved so as to form a backward-pointing hook, so that they may be hung over the edge of a bowl or a kettle and not slip into the food. This is a feature

INDIAN NOTES

292	MENOMINI CULTURE
	that is rather widely found among the Woodland tribes (fig. 40). On the whole, Menomini spoons are not so well made as those of their neighbors; the attractively carved ladles of the Sauk, Fox, Potawa- tomi, Winnebago, and eastern Sioux, with their effigy handles, are certainly of a better type. Fig. 40. — Spoon with hooked handle. (Extreme length, 6| in.) Shell Spoons Spoons are said to have been carved of antler and of bone, but this is no longer done. Fig. 41 shows a crude spoon made from the slightly modified scapula of a young black bear, now in the American Museum of Natural History. It seems highly probable that spoons made of simple
	INDIAN NOTES

SHELL SPOONS

293

clamshells were the forerunners of wooden ladles among the Menomini. In fact, this has been stated by one of the Jesuit mis- sionaries at Green Bay, in speaking of the adja- cent tribes. Moreover, the ^lenomini, for cer- tain ceremonial pur- poses, still use clam- shell spoons ; for example in administering the sacred drink during the initiation of candidates in the Mitd'win. A dam- shell for this purpose should be found in every properly equipped medi- cine-bag.

Baskets and Boxes •

Among the IMenomini the art of making splint baskets in checker, twilled, and wicker-work, is neither ancient nor well developed. It is an industry brought to the tribe by the Oneida and the Stock- bridges from the East. The forms in use

Fig. 41. — Spoon made from the scapula of a young bear.

AND MONOGRAPHS

294

MENOMINI CULTURE

include fancy-work baskets, storage bas- kets, and even broad-brimmed hats. These articles are principally made for sale, and are seldom used by the Menomini. On the subject of basketry Hoffman remarks:

"Baskets are made on much the same principle of plaiting as is employed for bark mats. The strips or osiers are made from black elm, the necessary limbs being from 3 to 4 inches in diameter; these are thoroughly hammered with a wooden mallet until the indi- vidual layers of the branch are detached from the layers immediately beneath. These layers are then cut into thin narrow strips by means of the knife universally used [the crooked knife]. The strips are kept in coils until ready for use, when they are soaked in water." ^^

Since time immemorial the Menomini have made baskets, boxes, pails, and other receptacles of birch-bark. The commonest of these are plain boxes popularly known as "mococks" throughout the region of the great lakes. They are made of a single piece of birch-bark cut according to the pattern displayed in pi. lxxix, a. The sides are then folded up and sewed together with spruce-root. Around the upper edge a band of split willow is also sewed on to

INDIAN NOTES

:yi o c o c K s

295

strengthen the rim. The boxes are usually provided with a cover of bark, ^Yhich is sewed on in the same manner. These re- cepacles range in size from huge storage affairs for holding maple sugar, to Httle trinket boxes. The shape resembles a trun- cated pyramid with rounded edges, and, in in the case of the smaUer boxes, sides and cover are often ornamented with colored porcupine-quiUs. Another form of orna- mented bark box of more nearly rectangular shape is shown in pi. l^xix, c. Among the Menomini the writer has never seen these bark receptacles ornamented with any other device save quillmg. Pails made like the mococks except in shape are used to carry maple-sap. Small bark dishes are used to catch the sap as it drips from the spout driven into the maple tree. These articles are also described in the section on making maple sugar, pages 165-168.

A cleverly made and uniquely shaped cylindrical box of birch-bark is shown in pi. Lxxix, h. It is composed of a circular piece of bark, apparently slipped off a log, perhaps a rotten one, and a disc of wood

AND MONOGRAPHS

296

ME NO MINI CULTURE

which forms the bottom. The top is made of another disc which fits over the upper edge. Sweet-grass baskets (figs. 42, 43)

V

./.^.

v:^)

^\-ji^!R\ \\\ ;'^^|>

Fig. 42. — Sweet-grass basket ornamented with quillwork. Courtesy of the American Museum of Natural History.

are made by the coil process, and quilled.

Although they are common among the

Sauk, Fox, and Kickapoo, I have seen only

two buffalo-hid& trunks among the Meno-

INDIAN NOTES

I

BASKETS

mini. One (fig. 44) is in the American ]\Iuseum of Natural History, and was col- lected by the late Dr William Jones. It is about 3 ft. long, 18 in. broad, and 18 in.

Fig. 43. — Sweet-grass basket ornamented with quillwork. Courtesy of the American Museum of Natural History.

high, and is made of plain bison-hide. The other, of about the same size and shape, is in the Milwaukee Public Museum. It was col- lected by Dr. S. A. Barrett, and is unique in that it still retains the wool inside.

297

AND MONOGRAPHS

298

ME NO MINI CULTURE

The family from whom Dr Jones obtained his specimen have informed the writer that their trunk may have been of Sauk origin.

Fig. 44. — Eison-hide trunk. Courtesy of the American Museum of Natural History.

However, all those which have come to my attention from that tribe have been adorned with painted figures.

INDIAN NOTES

WOODEN BOXES

299

Other Receptacles Shallow, oblong, wooden boxes with sliding covers are used to hold eagle- feathers (fig. 45). They measure about twelve inches in length, by three in breadth, and, in the case of old specimens, have been carved out by hand. They are widely distributed among the Cen- tral tribes. The example here figured is in the American Museum of Natural History. Two rawhide pouches with open- work ornamenta- tion cut in their flaps are shown in

AND MONOGRAPHS

300

MENOMINI CULTURE

Fig. 46. — Rawhide pouch for holding porcupine-quills

Fig. 47. — Rawhide pouch for holding porcupine-quills. (Length, about u in.)

INDIAN NOTES

B R 0 0 :\I- B 0 W-D RILL	301
figs. 46, 47. They are used to hold porcu- pine-quills intended for use in embroidering. In shape they are like envelopes. The measurements are, respectively, 7 in. by 5| in. and 6^ in. by 4\ in. The writer be- lieves these to be rare articles, as he has seen no others. Grease and lard are often stored in blad- ders of the black bear, a custom often noted b3' the writer among the Ojibwa and the Cree north of Lake Superior. Brooms A broom of cedar (pi. lxxxii) is of a type formerly used to clean out the lodges. A thick, cylindrical post about four feet long is taken and, except for about a foot at one end, is trimmed down to make a slender handle. The club end is then spht into fine slivers. These, bent backward and outward, form the brush, which is secured by a tight belt of bark. Fire-drills The bow-drill, with a shaft of seasoned cedar and a hearth-board of the same material, was used to make fire. The tin-
AND MONOGRAPHS

302

ME NO MINI CULTURE

Fig. 48. — «, Torch in birch-bark case; b, Rope of cedar-bark used to transport fire. (Length of a, 16/e in.)

INDIAN NOTES

MORTARS

303

der was pounded cedar-bark, or, in some cases, punk. Punk is still used with flint and steel in lighting ceremonial pipes. If the first spark does not catch, the omen is not good.

Thick ropes made of twisted, pounded, and shredded cedar-bark are still sometimes used to carry fire from one place to another (fig. 48, &) . The spark lives and eats slowly into the rope for a long time until wanted. Then, if violently waved in the air, it glows or even flames.

Mortars

The IMenomini use a short, heavy, hori- zontal log mortar eighteen inch'es to two feet in length by about a foot thick, usually with rude handles hewn on the ends (pi. xxxviii) . With it is always a short double- ended pestle a yard or less long. Stone pestles are not now used, nor were any data secured as to their occurrence on the old sites. Probably the stone pounder goes with the vertical log type of mortar. Ver- tical mortars are sometimes, though rarely, seen on the INIenomini reservation, but all

AND MONOGRAPHS

304

ME NO MINI CULTURE

those that have come to the writer's knowl- edge have been in Potawatomi famiHes. The Menomini do not use stone metates and mullers for corn crushing, as do some of the neighboring tribes.

Bone Awls

Fig. 49 shows a bone awl collected among the Menomini by Dr S. A. Barrett, and now in the Milwaukee Public Museum. The

Fig. 49. — Bone awl now used in basketry. Courtesy of the Public Museum, Milwaukee.

writer never had the good fortune to obtain one of these, although he has bought them from the neighboring Potawatomi. They are now used almost exclusively in basket making, though they were formerly used in sewing leather, the awl being employed to perforate the skin, and the sinew thread being pushed in afterward, just as shoe-

INDIAN NOTES

BONE AWLS	305
makers work among us. ^^|^^ Fig. 50 shows an awl with a ^^^^^^ bone point and a wooden ^^^^^^m grip now belonging to the ^^^^^^H American Museum of Nat- ^^^^^^B ural History; and fig. 51, a, ^^^^^H b, two with bone and antler ^^^^^B handles and metal points. ^^^^B All the forms described here ^^^H are survivals of archeological ^|^^P days. That entirely of bone is familiar to all students; the forms with handles no doubt illustrate methods of hafting sharp bone slivers and copper awls. A bone described as having been used for "pushing awls in sewing" is credited to the I collection gathered by the 9 late Dr William Jones in 1 the catalogue of the Ameri- 1 can :Museum of Natural 1 'Hktor\' ^^'^- ^^- — "'^^^'^ '"'^''^^^ ^°"^ nii5LOr\. point in wooden grip. Courtesy of the American Museum of Natural History.
AND MONOGRAPHS

306

MENOMINI CULTURE

Fig. 51. — Bone and antler handled awls with metal points (Length of 6, 5i in.)

INDIAN NOTES

BONE NEEDLES

BoxE Needles Flat, double-pointed needles, four to six inches long and perforated in the middle (fig. 52, a, b) are still made of bone by theMenomini. They are used in netting the babiche on snowshoes, and closely resemble many archeological types. The examples shown here are in the American Museum of Natural History.

For sewing the cattails of which the wigwam covers are made, a flat, thin needle, about twelve inches long and haK an inch broad, is used. These mat needles are perforated near the cen- ter, and are sharp at one end and blunt at the other. They are often

■"Tiiiiiiinii

T!| li

307

Fig. 52. — Snowshoe needles made of bone. (Length, 6 in.)

Courtesy of the American Museum of Natural History-.

AND MONOGRAPHS

308	M E N 0 M INI CULTURE
	scalloped on the edges, and decorated
	with incised designs on the upper surfaces
	(fig. 17).
	An Iron for Quills
	N^^. ^^
	1 ' /
	1 ■'1
	jyi
	Fig. 53. — Quill smoother made of antler. {\ size.) Courtesy of the American Museum of Natural History.
	An antler implement, neatly carved with
	the totem birds of its owner, is shown in
	fig. 53. It is said to be a "quill iron,"
	INDIAN NOTES

QUILL SMOOTHER

used to smooth out quill embroidery after the work had been finished. It is about 5 in. long, and is now in the American Museum of Natural History.

Vocabulary

Md'^kiitai'ii'dskimut, yarn ('black') bag. icikopa'skimiV, basswood fiber bag. kisdki'kop mimi'ti, cedar-bark fiber bag. sanup minii'ti, nettle fiber bag. sa'sikop minu'ti, slippery-elm fiber bag._ nictcima'skimi'tt, food bag, for dried venison. kd'kop mimi'ti, corn-hulling bag (string bag). piticd'sokihi, buffalo-hide trunk (the term is now

applied to an ammunition bag). ana'kian, mat woven of colored reeds. upa'^ki, cattail-flag house mat. pj'saniina'kiln, berry or acorn-drying mat. ama''^, bulrush-mat needle. uske'man a'ma"^, snowshoe needle. uske'man, babiche, for snowshoes. hiniitci'tciu, oval wooden bowl. metigii'ana' giin, round wooden bowl. metigu'anagd'sa, tiny, round, wooden bowl. meti'gdmiskii'iin, wooden spoon. okan d'miskic'iin, spoon made of bone. iceidn d'miskiciin, spoon carved of antler. d'^scsa d'miskii'iin, clamshell spoon, mciig asa'gnn, horizontal log mortar. asa'gihialtk, wooden pestle. md'nona a'^'ka^, pottery (red clay) kettle. olaH-dkun, pottery kettle (lit. 'his kettle'). iciki sopomo ma'^^ka, birch-bark box for maple

309

AND MONOGRAPHS

310	ME NO MINI CULTURE
•	kW^kop ma' gun, bark dish or basket. me'gisa me'ttk oke'tcikiln, bead heddle. ta'pinak oke'tcikun, square frame for bead- working. WEAPONS War-bundles In connection with their warlike activi- ties, the war-bundles of the Menomini are elsewhere described (see pages 60-64), but they should again receive at least pass- ing notice. These sacred articles are small oval packets of amulets and charms, to which are attached songs and rituals for the purpose of bringing immunity and success to the bearers in war, and of restoring the wounded to health. They belong to those who have dreamed the right to own them, and are supposed to be the gifts of the Thunderbirds or of the Morning Star. The contents of these sacred articles vary considerably, doubtless according to the dreams of the owners, emphasis being laid on the charms relating to the donor of the package. Thus the leading or principal power in one may be a little warclub or a tiny, carved lacrosse stick or a ball, or all
	INDIAN NOTES

I

WAR-BUNDLES	311
three, or even a round stone, all of which articles are emblematic of the Thunderers. In another I have seen the entire skin of a bald eagle; another had a tightl3^-tied bundle of weasel-skins; others tails or other portions of the skin of the buffalo; several had snake-skins; two, the skins of small birds to which portions of human scalps were attached. These articles are invari- ably enveloped in an outer wrapper com- posed of a small, woven reed mat, whence comes the native name for these charms, wapana'kian, or white mat, although the mat in actuality is often covered with de- signs in dark-dyed reeds. Beneath the outer mat is an inner wrapping of white tanned buckskin, called wa'pikui. One unusual example collected by the writer from the late Pitwa'skum had this inner wrapper covered with paintings of the gods of war in various colors (pi. xcvi). Tied to the outside of the bundle are usually reed whistles for calling the Thunderers, war- clubs, and deers'-hoof or gourd rattles. The contents include, in addition to the articles previously enumerated, roots and
AND MONOGRAPHS

312	ME NO MINI CULTURE
	herbs to heal the sick or to render the war- riors invisible, war-paint, and the skins of small animals, such as bats and swallows, which are difficult to shoot on the wing, and, when worn by the warriors, impart to them this quahty of swift erratic flight. Hawk- or eagle-skins lend strength to strike the foe; the raven gives wariness, especially to scouts; the snake stealth in approach and escape; the weasel, who never returns from the hunt with an empty belly, success and ferocity. With these may be birch-bark song records in the crude picture- writing common among the Algonkians, and additional charms such as feathers, tiny warclubs, bows and arrows, or even, as in one instance, a native copper arrow- head, picked up by someone long ago, and kept as a war-charm. In another case, a grooved stone axe, once hafted and tied outside a war-bundle, was given me as an ancient relic. In one bundle figures of the Thunderers in human form, carved on blocks of wood, were seen, and, in one only, a braided bast prisoner-tie, with quilled tassels, was found. This was the solitary
	INDIAN NOTES

■ WAR -BUNDLES	313
case of a prisoner-tie noted by the writer in perhaps as many as twenty-four war- bundles collected among the ^Menomini, although these articles are common enough in Sauk, Fox, and Southern Siouan bundles. In the detail of always having an outer wrapping composed of a reed mat, the Menomini bundles resemble those the writer has seen or collected among the Potawatomi, but not those of the Sauk and Fox, which usually have an outer covering of deerskin. The Iowa and the Oto, while sometimes using a mat for purposes of external wrap- ping, seem to prefer a cover of deerskin. The Osage and the Kansa have an inner mat wrapper, but the whole is enveloped in a wallet woven of buffalo-hair. It may well be added that the bundles of the Oto, Osage, and Kaw resemble one another as distinct from the Sauk, Fox, Potawatomi, and ^lenomini type. An owner of a war-bundle can, and indeed often does, sell his bundle or a part of it to another, especially as the burden of keep- ing the palladium placated in times of peace, by means of feasts and sacrifices, is
AND MONOGRAPHS

314

ME NO MIX I CULTURE

heavy. Bundles must be secluded from women undergoing their menses, and must be treated with respect by all comers.

Warclubs

Two types of warclubs were commonly used by the Menomini. These were the ball-headed weapon, called pa'^ku'egus, with or without a spike in the knob, and the flat "gun-butt" or "rabbit's hind-leg" variety, called pasahd'nakus (pi. lxxxiv, c). This form may originally have had a stone celt set in it, just at the turn of the outer angle of the blade. A variant of this type, itself an ancient variety, is shown in pi. Lxxxm. Clubs of this less angular kind are depicted by John White as in use among the Algonkians of Virginia at the time of the first settlements in that district. The bird figure in beads, attached to an ornament tied to the club, represents a Thunderer, one of the gods of war and a notable patron of fighting men. All warclubs for practical use average about two feet in length.

The Menomini still retain as ancestral heirlooms clubs that date back many gen-

IXDIAN NOTES

SKINNER— MENOMINI CULTURE

BROOM MADE FROM A CEDAR POST Photograph by courtesy of the .\merican Museum of Natural History

erations. PL

Lxxxiv, a,

shows one

obtained

from John

Amob, which is supposed to

have been worn by a warrior

named A'sikwonat at the siege

of Wawaie'tonon, or Detroit.

It is of the ball-headed type,

and does not show the skill in

workmanship displayed in some

specimens.

The fine old specimen shown in fig. 54 betrays its age by the high poUsh due to much manipulation. The handle is more angular than usual, and the neck drops to an exagge- rated degree. The head has been weighted with lead at some time subsequent to its making. The Menomini Wa'- niskum, from whom it was obtained, declared that it had been used in many victorious

11

.m

P5

AND MONOGRAPHS

316	MENOMINI CULTURE
	battles against ^ the Sauk and Fox. On the handle, inlaid in small white beads, is the figure of a plumed warrior, bearing a lance. Miniature warclubs, of both the types described, are made and carried by such men as are supposed to have descended from the Thunderers, or who have these beings as their dream-guardians. The clubs are supposed not only to assure their owners supernatural protection, but because of their magic properties to be efficacious in actual combat. Such clubs are kept in the lodge or carried on the person. Of course, some persons who "bear the feath- ered name" or are "in league with the Thunder," are not restricted to the tiny models, but may make and keep real war- clubs. Old Ki'tikon, well remembered by the writer, had a ball-headed club of larger size than usual, with two knife blades of steel affixed in the under circum- ference of the knob. This he constantly bore with him as the result of an injunc- tion received from the Morning Star dur- ing his puberty dream.
	INDIAN NOTES

WARCLUBS

317

Warclubs of both types, when ceremonial in origin, are frequently painted red on one side and black on the other, with the signifi- cance treated in this article at greater length (see p. 346), of eternity, symbolizing the lasting character of their supernatural patrons. Warclubs are often lashed on the outside of sacred war-bundles, and are frequently carried by their owners when on parade, or during dances. For the latter purpose, specially carved and painted models of very light wood, sometimes bear- ing flashing mirrors, are made.

The elders speak of a type of warclub, a specimen of which I once saw, owned by Kine'sa. This was a slungshot, made by covering a small, heavy, round stone with rawhide, and attaching it loosely by a thong to a short leather- covered handle of wood about six inches long. The weapon was carried by a thong which was slipped over the wrist. As the :Menomini regard pebbles and similar small concretions as thunder- bolts, or eggs, such weapons as the slungshot are no doubt supposed to have additional value, in that they struck the enemy with

AND MONOGRAPHS

318

ME NO MINI CULTURE

the power of the hghtning. The writer has seen stone-headed clubs, somewhat similar to these described, but longer handled, among the Winnebago. In pi. lxxxiv, b, is shown a light trade axe or tomahawk.

Grooved stone axes were used chiefly to lop branches for fire- wood, but were occa- sionally used as weapons, and one of these latter is shown in fig. 55. This was a gift to the writer from the late Indian Court Judge Sabatis Perrote, who stated that it was an heirloom in his family. He added that it had once been hafted and used as a club, and that it had survived as an attach- ment to the outside of a war-bundle for many generations before its handle rotted and fell apart. It is now in the American Museum of Natural History. Philip Na- ku'ti once told the writer that his parents

Fig. 55. — Grooved stone axe. (I size.) Courtesy of the American Museum of Natural History.

INDIAN NOTES

< s

SKINNER— MENOMINI CULTURE

PL. LXXXV

BUFFALO-HIDE AMMUNITION POUCH AND POWDER HORN

SHIELD S— K X IVES

319

described the method by which grooved axes were made. The groove was pecked in with a small pebble held in the hand. Grooved axes, celts of stone, and celts of copper are found on the ancient village-sites on Green bay. A bell-shaped stone celt was once picked up by the writer at Big Suamico.

Shields and KxrvES

Some old Indians state that in former days warriors carried small, round shields of buffalo-hide, but none of these shields has been in existence for a long time, and most of the best informants deny that the tribe ever used shields. The custom is depicted among the Sauk and Fox by Cathn, but seems to have been abandoned by the Central tribes soon after his paintings w'ere made. The Menomini speak of the buffalo shields as being particularly com- mon among their enemy the Osage. The Menomini beheve they did not need shields, since they used the war-bundles for pro- tection.

Knives were worn in a sheath suspended

AND MONOGRAPHS

320	ME NO MINI CULTURE
	by a short cord around the neck and rest- ing on the chest. The weapon thus placed could be more readily seized in case of attack. Knife sheaths were handsomely embroidered with porcupine-quills and tufts of dyed deer's hair. Latterly, since the cessation of intertribal warfare, knives have been worn at the belt. The sheaths are made of saddle-leather, ornamented with brass-headed tacks or woven bead- work. Sometimes the skin of the lower leg of a deer with the hoof attached is utilized. In prehistoric days, knives finely chipped of flint, or made of sharp bone, or of native copper, are said to have been in vogue. Bows AND Arrows While the Menomini of today insist that their grandfathers used only long, simple bows, of hickory or of ash, in Hoffman's time there were some of the older men who claimed to have seen bows made by mem- bers of their own tribe "consisting of two pieces of wood, glued together lengthwise, and wrapped at intervals with buckskin or sinew."i«
	INDIAN NOTES

BOWS

321

In making a bow for hard service it is necessary to select strong, resilient wood, and for this purpose a hickory was usually chosen. A tree was felled and the implement was blocked out with an axe according to the grain of the wood. The rough form was then carried home, where it was dressed down to final shape with the crooked knife, rubbed with bear's grease, and put away to season. Bows are sized at intervals with deer's brains to keep them from cracking. Some bows are rather elaborately finished, and fig. 56 shows one of these which bears near one end twenty-five tally notches.

The woods preferred for bow- making were, in order of choice, shagbark hickory or nishkaha' kdo ; two other unidentified varieties of hickory, both called nana'tcko; white oak, tlske"tinie^; elm, ane'p; and hemlock, miusiM'kawd.

In olden times the bows were made perfectly straight, not bent,

AND MONOGRAPHS

322	MENOMINI CULTURE
	and it was considered best not to draw the string back too far when shooting, as, in that case, the arrows were supposed not to fly so sure. For use in battle, arrowheads were often made of turtles' claws. These were at- tached with sturgeon glue, and were sup- posed to strike the enemy with the magic power of the turtle as well as with the force of the bow. Such arrows were named ma'nano'kwutdo, and, if the speaker wished to particularize further, since bear- or panther-claws were sometimes utiHzed, he prefixed the name of the animal. Only those who had dreamed the right could be successful with such arrows, and then only against human targets. Stone arrowheads were used in both war and hunting, white flint or quartz being preferred. Old Menomini claim that these stone points readily penetrated flesh, but were stopped by contact with bone. This, they say, was not the case with points of antler bone, which were tougher and less brittle. The latter varieties were made in hollow, conical shape, and were for the
	INDIAN NOTES

ARROWS

323

chase alone. Copper points were semi- sacred and were for war. Bone-headed arrows were called by the same name as those with claw tips.

Although the elders declare that it has not been many generations since the INIeno- mini were skilled in the art of chipping flint arrowpoints, there is no one now living who is acquainted with the process. Some think that a man was instructed, in a dream, how to manufacture them, and others add that it was customary for the ancestors to boil the flint in the grease of large and powerful animals, such as the elk and the moose, now extinct within the limit even of primitive Menomini territory. It is thought that when so treated "the flint could be cut like cheese." Seneca Iroquois of New York have told the writer that their ancestors boiled flint with cer- tain herbs to make it fracture more easily. In hafting heads of stone the distal end of the arrowshafts was broadened and flat- tened, and a deep slot made in it to retain the head, which was bound on with sinew and held fast with glue. Fig. 57 shows two

AND MONOGRAPHS

324

MENOMINI CULTURE

Fig. 57. — Hafted arrows. (Diameter of shafts, | in.)

INDIAN NOTES

A R R O W S

old specimens, made and kept for many years by John Amob as the result of instructions received in a dream. The heads he picked up, but the shafting was done accord- ing to tradition. " Wild Jim Crow," or So'man Jim. several times showed the writer his set of stone- headed arrows hafted in this way, with which he assured me he had killed bear and deer. He used a long and powerful bow, and had also a quantity of iron- or steel- headed arrows. These, too, are no longer to be had.

In former times, as at present, arrows intended for hunting large game, or for war were feathered {hana'watdo) with three longitud- inal strips made of split hawk- or turkey-feathers (fig. 57, h), about three to four inches long, bound on at the ends with a sinew. The feathers were made fast with glue Fig. 58.—

. r 1 Glue-Stick.

concocted from the tips ot the (Length, antlers, and the hoofs of deer. " ^"'

325

AND MONOGRAPHS

326 MENO MINI CULTURE

When boiled down, this glue was kept in a lump on the end of a stick six or eight inches long, which served later as a handle in heat- ing and in applying the substance. Fig. 58 shows a typical example of a glue-stick. Warren says in his History of the O jib- ways :

"The old men tell of using a kind of arrow in hunting for the larger animals in those primi- tive days, which I have never seen described in books. The arrow is made with a circular hole bored or burnt in the end in which was loosely inserted a finely barbed bone. Being shot into an animal, the arrow would fall off, leaving the barb in the body, and as the animal moved this would gradually work into its vitals and soon deprive it of life.''^^

This paragraph may perhaps explain the peculiar shape of some wooden arrows now used by the IVIenomini only as toys. They resemble arrows collected by the writer among the northern Saulteaux, which corre- spond in turn to those described by Warren. Arrows tipped with stone or with copper are frequently mentioned in iMenomini folklore and mythology. On the ancient ]\Ienomini village-sites at the Suamicos

INDIAN NOTES

ARROWS

and at Oconto, are found triang- ular, stemmed, and notched ar- rowheads of white quartz and colored flints. IMany were ser- rated finely and must have been formidable weapons. Hoftman says that the IMenomini of his time claimed that their ancestors smeared their arrowheads with rattlesnake venom.

Several varieties of blunt ar- rows were and are used (fig. 59) for small game. These were of the blunt form called pikwu'kuic, with or without a nipple on the end; of a double-headed form named papakenekwutd'o; and of a plain, sharpened, and fire- hardened . wooden form, called asikunekwuid'o.

The Menomini used the terti- ary arrow- release of Morse, as shown in the Handbook of American Indians, which is rather odd, since the neighboring Ojibwa use the primary and the

327

Fig. 59.— Blunt arrosv. (Diameter of

shaft, I in.^

AND MONOGRAPHS

328

ME NO MINI CULTURE

Fig. 60.— Quilled quiver. (Length, 32 in.)

INDIAN NOTES

QUIVERS	329
secondary releases. Bow-strings are made of heavy, tanned, deerskin thongs, although Hoffman states erroneously that they were made of sinew. The old quiver illustrated in fig. 60 is one in the collection of the Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation, which, from the style of the quilled ornamenta- tion, closely resembles that found on Me- nomini otter-skin medicine-bags, and from the general form, common among the Cen- tral Algonkians, has been ascribed to the Menomini. No quivers have been made nor used by the tribe for a long time. ^lodern hunting outfits are composed of the most up-to-date sporting paraphernalia to be purchased, but some conservative In- dians still use old-fashioned percussion-cap rifles. There are yet to be seen among them ammunition bags made of buffalo-skin or saddle leather, consisting of a shoulder pouch, a powderhorn, an antler powder- charger, small pockets for caps and wads, pouches for shot, and a knife-sheath (pi. Lxxxv) . The writer has a leather pouch for caps and balls of more aboriginal character
AND MONOGRAPHS

330	MENOMINI CULTURE
	which was given him by a Menomini friend as a reHc of the famous chief Oshkosh, whose possession it once was. It is of plain tanned deerskin, about a foot long and three or four inches wide, made by folding a strip of leather lengthwise and sewing up one side with a deerskin thong. The bag folds in the middle to hang over the belt, and thus has two lobes, each of which is accessible through a longitudinal slit, resembling a double saddle-bag. The ends are slightly fringed. I have collected beaded speci- mens of this type among the Wahpeton Sioux, once friends of the Menomini. Vocabulary Mell'kwop, bow. 7nefiku'ope'sa, tiny ceremonial bow. niep, arrow. SCULPTURE The ornamental art of the IMenomini, and as usual of all their Central Algonkian and Southern Siouan neighbors, comprises not only embroidery in quill- and bead- work, silk ribbon applique, painting on skin, wood, and bark, and designs woven
	INDIAN NOTES

SKINNER — MENOMINl CULTURE

PL. LXXXVl

STATUE OF THE GOD WA"BANO Height, 3 ft., lOf in.

SKINNER— MENOMINI CULTURE

WOODEN PUPPET USED FOR PURPOSES OF MAGIC Photograph by courtesy of the American Museum of Natural History

SCULPTURE

331

in textiles, but sculpture in wood, and for- merly in bone, antler, and stone. Sculpture proper was limited to the production of statues and statuettes of animal or anthro- pomorphic guardians of individuals.

A statue of the god Wa'hano, the ]\Iorn- ing Star, is shown in pi. lxxxvi. This figure, once the property of the late father of KimeSMin Oke'mas, who was a noted shaman of the Wa'hano cult, is crudely hewn from a log in nearly life-size, and pre- sents the head and armless trunk of the deity. The eyes and mouth were once painted, but the pigment has weathered away. The idol now measures 3 ft. lOf in. in height, but has lost several inches of its basal portion, which has rotted. This image formerly stood upright at the eastern side of the old shaman's wig^'am in the deep forest, a few miles from the so-called pagan settle- ment of Zoar, on the ]\Ienomini reservation. It represents the dream-guardian of the owner and was regarded as highly sacred by him, and, indeed, by all the neighboring Indians. Sacrifices were offered and feasts made in its honor several times each year.

AND MONOGRAPHS

332	MENOMINI CULTURE
	On such occasions it was repainted and adorned with clothing, eagle-feathers, and offerings of caHco and of bright-colored cloths. No profane eye was allowed to behold it, and the welfare, if not the very existence of the owner, depended on its good will. Another ruder image of the same sort stands behind the lodge of Wi'sa- nokut Mo'sihat, not far from the village of Keshena. The writer knows of no other examples of large statues among either the Menomini or their neighbors. CURVING In pi. Lxxxvii-Lxxxix may be seen examples of small wooden puppets used by the Indians, mainly for purposes of magic. They are decidedly better carved than the large figures previously described, and possess the usual human complement of arms and legs. The heads are often made separately and pivoted on the trunks so that they turn, but the limbs are carved of the same piece as the body, and are there- fore rigid, hence the name mun'ninisa (plu- ral muzinini' suk) , "solid" or "rigid being."
	INDIAN NOTES

SKINNER — MENOMINI CULTURE

WOODEN PUPPET USED AS A LOVE CHARM Photograph by courtesy of the American ;Museum of Natural History

SKINNER— MENOMINI CULTURE

PL. LXXXIX

WOODEN PUPPET USED AS A LOVE CHARM

Photograph by courtesy of the American Museum of Natural History

PUPPETS	33vS
Some of these puppets are regarded as guardians of health and as personal or family gods of good will. In this case they are tucked carefully awa}' in many wrappings and swaddlings, to which bits of bright-colored cloth, etc., with, of course, the inevitable tobacco, are added to keep them in good humor and to "attract" gifts of the same articles to the home. They maintain the family in good health and spirits, grant success in hunting and fish- ing, and soften the hearts of visitors so that they make presents to their hosts. There are set prayers to, and songs in honor of these figurines, and feasts are made periodi- cally in their behalf. The custom is fol- lowed widely among the Central Algonkians, and runs as far east as the Shawnee and the Delawares. Puppets of this type are used to destroy enemies. Just as the Salem witches were supposed to make and torment images of their victims, and thus assail the originals by sympathetic magic, so does the ^Meno- mini sorcerer get out his doll, name it after his intended prey, and, having invoked his
AND MONOGRAPHS

334	ME NO MINI CULTURE
	familiar demon with songs, prayers, food, and tobacco, proceed to torture or slay the effigy, secure in the beHef that like disaster will overwhelm his enemy. Two puppets of large size, carefully carved of wood, are shown in pi. lxxxviii and Lxxxix. They are dressed in elaborate gar- ments and swaddlings. Like others of their kind, their purpose is to keep a man and his wife faithful to each other. They are named for the contracting parties and tied up together face to face. In the breast of each is an opening in which are .placed various love medicines, including, it is said, powder made from a dried and pounded human heart. The specimens under dis- cussion were obtained by the writer from an old woman named Kopai'as Weke, of the Zoar settlement. The figurines had brought and bound to her no fewer than four husbands, but so great was their power that each unfortunate spouse died shortly after marriage. When the last, Thomas Hog, a favorite informant of the writer's, passed away, kopai'as decided that the charm was too potent, and turned it
	INDIAN NOTES

SKINNER— MENOMINI CULTURE

WOODEN PUPPETS BOUND TOGETHER AS A LOVE CHARM Photograph by courtesy of the American Museum of Natural Historj-

SKINNER — MENOMINI CULTURE

OWL CARVED IN WOOD Photograph by courtesy of the American Museum of Natural History

PUPPETS	335
over to the collector. Ukemd'ii'as, the most powerful luck-charm extant, compounded of vermilion and the glistening scales of the horned snake (bits of mica), are arnong the ingredients added to the pounded hearts to make this medicine what it is. In pi. xc is shown a love-charm composed of two small, neatly carved, wooden figures, bound together face to face, with love- powder between them. A hair, a nail paring, or even a shred of the clothes of the person desired is inserted between the two, the proper song is sung, and the victim is powerless to resist the spell. Oddly enough, the old ]\Ienomini warriors' coiffure, the roach, is carved on both dolls. The at- tached beaded bag is intended to hold medi- cines. The little figures are only about four inches high. An owl, carved in wood, is reproduced sitting on its sacred post, in pi. xci. This specimen, now in the American ^Museum of Natural History, was obtained by the writer from the late Pitwa'skum. It was an evil charm, and was set on its stake, driven in the ground, during the perform-
1 AND MONOGRAPHS

336

MENOMINl CULTURE

ance of certain rites of sorcery, with the intent to kill human beings by magic. The sculpture is a rather spirited attempt to portray the barred or "hoot" owl, and is about ten inches in length. The post on which the bird is pivoted is about two and a half feet high.

Wooden and even stone bowls WTre some- times carved to represent animals. Fig. 61

Fig. 61. — Wooden bowl carved to represent a porcupine.

(Extreme length, 8f in.) Courtesy of the American Museum of Natural History.

shows a wooden bowl cut in the shape of a porcupine. Handles of spoons and ladles (pi. xcii) were decorated with sunilar figures. A horse's head carved as a handle on a small dish of red catlinite used for sacrificial tobacco is exhibited in pi. xciii.

The carving of flattened figures was even more extensively practised among the

INDIAN NOTES

O 3

o I

> o

< £

CARVING

Menomini and their neighbors than sculp- ture in the round. Bone, antler, and wood were the materials used. Dice cut from thin bone or antler were sometimes made to represent Thunderbirds or animals, such as turtles. PL xciv gives a series of these.

Carving in Relief

On flat, wooden surfaces incised floral and realistic designs, evidently copied from

Fig. 62. — Carved moccasin patterns. (Length, about

12 in.) Courtesy of the American Museum of Natural History.

textiles, are sometimes seen, usually further beautified by the addition of paint rubbed in the incisions. Fig. 62, a, b, represents

337

AND MONOGRAPHS

338	ME NO MINI CULTURE
	two boards of the kind placed under leather when cutting out the patterns for mocca- sins. The designs are ships, a fish, houses, joined hearts, and other native and acquired ideas. They are in the American Museum of Natural History. Similar carving is found on looms, or rather heddles, used in weaving beadwork (pi. xcv), and on articles of antler and of bone, such as the moose-antler comb-case in figs. 8 and 9. Floral designs and "war- clubs" or ''lacrosse racquets" may be noted on the canoe paddle in fig. 63. This paddle, which is 31 in. long, is in the American Museum of Natural History. Carved orna- mentation also occurs on the handles of lacrosse sticks and shinny clubs. All the carved designs figured are by no means confined to the IMenomini, but are found generally distributed among the neighboring tribes, except for the concept of the statue as exemplified in that of Wa'hano. This seems peculiar to the IMenomini .
	INDIAN NOTES

SKINNER — MENOMINI CULTURE

DICE CARVED OF BONE OR ANTLER Photograph by courtesy of the American Museum of Natural History

■z. ^

> u CC 'C

< i "I

CO 4J llJ 43

CARVING

339

Fig. 63. — Canoe paddle, obverse and reverse. (Length,

31 in.) Courtesy of the American Museum of Natural History.

AND MONOGRAPHS

340	ME NO MINI CULTURE
	PAINTING AND ETCHING Portraits of men, animals, and manitous are sometimes painted on robes and scratched or etched on wood or bark. The writer once collected a war-bundle from the late Pitwa'skum which had, instead of the usual white fetus-skin wrapper, a tanned buckskin upon which were drawn, in archaic Algonkian style, in several colors, the gods connected with the bundle and all their powers. This was illustrated and de- scribed at length in the writer's article on Social Life and Ceremonial Bundles of the Menomini Indians,^^ and is shown in pi. xcvi. This is the best example which has yet come to my notice from any of the Central tribes. Drawings on birch-bark, particularly as mnemonic reminders of Mitd'wm formulae, are not unknown, and four fine examples of these are given and described by the writer in the paper above referred to. These, and similar etchings on wood, are now rare in the tribe. PL xcvii represents head-posts or markers
	INDIAN NOTES

SKINNER — MENOMINI CULTURE

(;^l'up^^

WAR-BUNDLE WRAPPER OF DEERSKIN ADORNED WITH DRAWINGS

SKINNER— MENOMINI CULTURE

/ /

GRAVE-POSTS, ETCHED AND PAINTED

ETCHING	341
from graves. In b, the totem animal, a bear, is inverted, as is always done to indicate death, and the horizontal bands of red paint indicate coups counted by war- riors at the funeral. In a, a similar stick is illustrated, the totemic animal this time being a chicken, indicative that the de- ceased was of mixed blood. Through neglect on the part of the maker it is not inverted. In c, we have an example in which the animal, a turtle, is etched in the wood, but it was also originally painted with vermilion. Fig. 64 shows a similar grave-post of the Bear gens, the human figures representing slain enemies. The average height of these grave-posts is about two feet. Fig. 65 represents a stake used in certain witch-bundle ceremonies. It is hollowed at the top, the cavity being a receptacle for medicine. Two human figures, male and female, are etched on its sides, and these are used in incantations to bewitch people. The turkey-beard attached is a potent evil charm.	■
AND MONOGRAPHS

342

MENOMINI CULTURE

m

Fig. 64. — Grave-post. (Height, 28 in.)

Fig. 65. — Sorcerer's stake. (Height, 15| in.)

INDIAN NOTES

DYES	343
In fig. 66 is shown a Menomini anthropo- morphic concept of thunder, incised on a block of wood taken from a war-bundle. It represents either a man imbued with thunder-power or a Thunderer in human form. This is now in the American ]Museum of Natural History.
	^
Cm nui col	Fig. 66. — Anthropomorphic concept of thunder. (Height of figure, 3 in.) irtesy of the American Museum of Natural Hist DYES rhe :Menomini are acquainted wit Tiber of native dyes which they use oring mats, porcupine-quills, and o	ory. h a for ther
AND MONOGRAPHS

344	MENOMINI CULTURE
	articles. Green is thought by them to have been inaccessible before white contact, but Mr M. R. Harrington assures me that the Sauk and Fox were possessed of a na- tive green dye, so that it is highly probable that the jNIenomini had some now forgotten means of obtaining this shade. All vegetal colors were obtained by boihng the ingre- dients. The following Hst of dyes and their names was recorded: Yellow, wasau'ii'tk, obtained from sumac roots, and also from another unidentified plant. Red, sosa'kwtk, from bloodroot. It was also secured by grinding or pulverizing hema- tite between two stones. It was some- times called papitcikoive' . Dark red, mnislkosawa, or sosa'wik, from hem- lock-bark. Black, api'shik, apa'ntk, or a/?w/"', from butter- nut-bark, and for an intense shade, butter- nut-bark boiled with blue clay. Blue, aski'pitktk kami'kwut, literally 'green like the clouds.' Green, aski'pukik. White, u'ai'abtskit. IMUSICAL INSTRU.AIENTS Drums Among Menomini musical instruments, those of percussion easily take first place.
	INDIAN NOTES

W ATE R-D R U ^I	345
Three varieties of drums are still in com- mon use, of which the most important, from a ceremonial point of view, is the deep water-drum, or to'waka. This is an ancient form, which appears time and again in the mythology of the tribe, and is associated with all the origin myths of the Mitd'unn, or ]\Iedicine Dance ceremony. It is made by laboriously hollowing out a two-foot sec- tion of a whitewood log, and fitting in a thin, wooden disc at the base. TJie head is not made of rawhide, but, unlike those of all other drums, is composed of a heavy piece of tanned deerskin cut from the neck of a buck, where the skin attains its greatest thickness. This head, which is about eighteen inches in diameter, is stretched and held in place by means of a wooden hoop made of a willow branch squared and lashed in place, and pushed over the top, and down on the body of the drum. When it is desired to prepare the drum for use, from two to four fingers' depth of water, to which tobacco is added to please the genius of the drum, is poured into the bot- tom of the instrument; the head, otherwise
AND MONOGRAPHS

346

MENOMINI CULTURE

soft and incapable of resonance, is then wet, wrung out, and stretched. The Indians say that the water in the drum ffl4M throws the sound to a great dis- tance, whereas it does not make so much noise near at hand. The depth of the water is regulated by means of a hole and a plug at one side near the bottom (pi. xcviii, b). The water-drum is often dec- orated by two parallel, horizontal bands of blue, or green, and red paint, near the base. These colors symbolize day and night, summer and winter, joy and sorrow, life and death, and hence eternity, which in turn signifies the lasting character of the Medicine Lodge, whose devotees attain life in the Hereafter. In the ceremonies of the Lodge this drum is used ex- FiG. 67.— clusively, although its use is

Drumstick for r- ^ ,

water -drum, not coniined to thesc rites, in.r^ ' ' For beating the water-drum.

INDIAN NOTES

if

SKINNER— MENOMINI CULTURE

DRUM AND STICK OF THE ^^'BANO CULT Photographs by courtesy of the American Museum of Natural Hi.tory

DREAMERS' DRUM	347
a stick about a foot long with the distal end curved downward is used. In many speci- mens the striking end of the stick is carved to represent the head of the loon, or of some other animal (fig. 67). When traveling, the owner of a water-drum carries it in a large bag of white cloth, closed by a draw- string, with tasseled ends of bright-colored yarn. It is probable that similar recep- tacles of plain tanned deerskin were for- merly made. For further data and illustra- tions of other articles used in the Medicine Dance, the reader is referred to the writer's paper entitled Medicine Ceremony of the Menomini, Iowa, and Wahpeton, Indian Notes and Monographs, vol. I\'. A huge and elaborately decorated drum, called td'wdhigitn, is used only in the rites of the Society of Dancing Men, popularly called the "Dreamers." This is not an ancient form, and all specimens seen by the writer have been made over a foundation composed of a large galvanized iron wash- tub with the base cut out. Over the top and the bottom are stretched raw calfskin heads under the uppermost of which a
AND MONOGRAPHS

348	MENOMINI CULTURE
	sleigh- or cow-bell is hung. The heads are painted half red and half blue, or green, according to custom. The sides are fes- tooned with beadwork in woven belts or bands, and with perforated silver coins. At four equidistant intervals are placed leather loops, so that the drum when in ser- vice may be suspended from four elegantly beaded stakes, or supports; for this drum, unlike the water-drum, is never permitted to touch the ground. Between the sup- ports are small, decorative, beaded flaps, generally bearing figures of human hands or heads. When the drummers desire to beat the head of this, or of any other type of drum possessing a membrane of rawhide, the head is first heated before the fire. The drumsticks are wrapped with beads and strips of otter-fur, with cloth padding at the striking end. When not in use this drum is kept in a shrine built in a corner of the wigwam or log cabin of one of the devotees belonging to the local branch of the Dreamers which owns the drum. As it is sacred it is never left without an attendant; and, as the drums
	INDIAN NOTES

WA'BANO DRUM	349
are always the common property of a cere- monial group, the writer has never been able to collect one. For further informa- tion as to the ceremonies of the Dreamers, consult the articles by Barrett and by Skinner on the Dream Dance.-^ A smaller type of drum is shown in pi. xcvni, a, which represents an instrument used in the so-called "Woman's Dance" recently introduced by the Winnebago. Little need be said of this drum save that, except in size and ornamentation, it almost duplicates the one just described. It is by no means regarded as sacred. The third and last variety of drum known to the Menomini is the tambourine drum, or tdwahigd'sa. These instruments, of fairly large size, that is eighteen inches to two feet in diameter, are used to accompany the singers at the moccasin game, but very much smaller specimens, six inches in diame- ter, or perhaps a trifle larger, are used by shamans of the Wa'hano and the Je"sako cults. While the ornamental painting on drums of this class used for pleasure is of a purely decorative character (pi. xcix),
AND MONOGRAPHS

350	MENOMINI CULTURE
	those of the shamans bear esoteric figures,
	relating to the mystic dreams of their users. The tiny drum shown in pi. c was ob-
	^m.
	/^^^m^f^^m.
	^«m
	1 w ^
	Fig. 68.— Tortoise charm attached to the Wa'bano drum. (Height. 8h in.)
	INDIAN NOTES

SKINNER— MENOMINI CULTURE

PL. C

TINY DRUM OF THE WA'BANO KIME'WUN Diameter. 9J in.

SKINNER — MENOMINI CULTURE

PLAYING THE LOVER'S FLUTE Photograph by courtesy of the Public Museum, Milwaukee

W.VBANO DRUM

tained from the estate of a noted Wa'hano named Kime'wun, and bears designs of unknown significance. It has attached to it a bunch of the tails of the woodchuck (Arctomys monax) which presumably have no meaning, and a small, dried, snapping tortoise {Chelydra serpen- tina), which is one of the mysterious animals from which the shaman's power was derived (fig. 68). In- side some Httle drums of this character, beads, seeds, pebbles, or shot serve to add a rattling noise. To many are attached the four sacred oka'nuk, short, hol- low, bone cylinders (fig. 69) swallowed by the conjurer to enable him to see through the body of a patient, and thus locate the cause of disease, and also to suck out sickness. The drumstick used with this drum is short and knobbed.

Fig. 69.-Shaman's necklace. (Length of beads, about 2 in.)

351

AND ]\IONOGRAPHS

352	ME NO MINI CULTURE
	Rattles and Jinglers The common form of ceremonial rattle is called shi'shikwun, and is made of a gourd, the pulp of which is removed while fresh. When the gourd has dried, a few shot, glass beads, seeds, or pebbles, are placed inside, and a wooden handle ^^5aP»^^^^^^ is thrust lengthwise £ / ^^^v through the small end 1/ ' ^ ^ '> i^fc^ of the hollowed shell 1 1 ~ ^ ^ ',1 mH ^^ ^^^ broad distal ^^ «v \li^K^ ^^^' which is pierced ^^^SM^^^ by it, and is made fast ^^^^P^ by means of a trans- ^1 verse peg of wood (fig. II 70). If the gourd III splits or cracks a piece |j||. of the translucent in- ^^ testinal integument of Fig. 70. — Gourd rattle. . , . . . , (Length, 8^ in.) some animal IS Stretch- ed over it while green, as is shown in the specimen figured. This dries hard, and closes the crack. The writer has never seen a Menomini gourd rattle ornamented in any way. When not in use,
	INDIAN NOTES

RATTLES

353

Fig. 71. — Gourd rattle in conical case of bark. (Length, 111 in.)

AND MONOGRAPHS

354

MENOMINI CULTURE

gourd rattles are often protected by a conical case or wrapping of birch-bark, which prevents damage should they fall from their hanging places in the lodge (fig. 71).

Used for ceremonies of the most sacred sort, and especial ly for those connected with the medicine-bundles, are rat- tles made of deer-hoofs and dew-claws (fig. 72). These are threaded on fine buckskin thongs passed through a little hole bored in the point, and knotted to prevent their, slip- ing off the string. They are attached to a shank or handle a foot or less in length. The handle is whittled to a point at the proximal end, that the instrument may be thrust up- right in the ground at the con- clusion of the rites. Some examples, more elaborately carved than usual, have figures of Thunderbirds, or their heads, on the upper or distal ends.

Fig. 72.— Deer- hoof and dew- claw rattle. (Length, 14^ in.)

INDIAN NOTES

i

JINGLERS	355
Jinglers made of cut deer-hoofs were formerly attached to garments, and, no doubt, to moccasins, but the only survivals which the writer saw were on ceremonial fur wrist-bands. The elders declare that the tinkle of these jinglers, called nani'hanen, worn by warriors during surprise attacks by night, was potent to lull the enemy to sleep. In modern time these attachments were supplanted by conical, metal jinglers, from which protruded scarlet-dyed deer-hair tufts. In form, the jinglers are exactly similar to those still picked up on historic Iroquois sites in New York state. In some bundle ceremonies the songs are accompanied by tapping together two sticks shaped like drumsticks. An ancient pair of these which were formerly kept in the great hunting medicine-bundle, known as misa'sakiwis, was once obtained by the writer. Age and much use had nearly worn them in two. Whistles and Flutes Whistles, six inches to a foot long, are made of reeds from the Mississippi valley, or
AND MONOGRAPHS

356	ME NO MINI CULTURE
		Qll from split alder with the pith
	■^	Wjll removed. They give a feeble,
		^^M piping note, and are used in
	.s	I^H ^^^^ ^^^ ^^ war-bundle cere-
	"=,2	1 ^B "^^^^^^ ^^ ^^^^ ^^^ Thunderers
	0\	^H to the assistance of the braves.
	ti	jIB Flutes or flageolets are
	d.	JH carved of two pieces of cedar,
	OJ	flBW hollowed, carefully glued, and
	"in	ilH lashed together. They are of
	1	fi^B large size, measuring some two
	a	e'BH feet or more in length and two
		;^H or two and one-half inches in
	"S	y^l thickness. As these instru-
	1	1 i| nients are used almost ex-
		^^ clusively in courting, they are
	1. 1	^W highly prized, and usually
	6 jj^	pg handsomely ornamented with
		iJH strips of otter- or mink-fur ^^S fastened around them in H bands. The slide by which
		fl the tone of the flageolet is
	1	^^^m regulated, is often carved to ^^M represent some animal of J^P especially amorous nature. ^ Fig. 73, for example, shows a
	INDIAN NOTES

1

FLUTES	357
spirited stallion's head. It is notable that in general form these carved slides closely re- semble the problematical bird-stones of arch- eolog>'. Flageolets usually possess six holes, and it is the intention of the player in each instance to imitate as nearly as possible the actual words of the song he is rendering. If he is able to make his notes quaver as well, he is considered an artist (pi. ci). Flutes which have been used in successful courtships soon acquire a reputation for their power over female affections, and be- come in great demand among the youths. Such instruments are rented out at a good price. The native name of the flute is pipi'gu'un, and it finds frequent mention in folklore and in mythology. RFXEPTACLES FOR TOBACCO Origin of Tobacco According to the mythology of the ^lenomini, tobacco was procured for the Indians by Md"ndhus, who instructed his uncles and his aunts, the people, to capture great quantities of grasshoppers and cause them to spit out the tobacco they were
AND. MONOGRAPHS

358	ME NO MINI CULTURE
•	chewing. Of course this was a liquid, but the Indians kept it until it hardened in the form of plug tobacco. Moreover, up to the present time grasshoppers still spit tobacco, when they are caught, so that no one need doubt the truth of the story. As a matter of fact the Menomini not only do not grow tobacco but disclaim all knowledge of its cultivation, although it is raised by their neighbors the Woodland Potawatomi. Whether tobacco was un- known to them in olden times is a question which it is difficult to answer; they may have obtained it from their neighbors, or they may have smoked only substitutes in their stone and earthen pipes. The pos- session of the origin myth for tobacco, given above, may be taken as evidence con- tradicting the statements that they did not know the native herb, or it may be regarded as a modern folk explanation, especially as the custom of chewing tobacco seems to be a modern development. As to tobacco substitutes, they are still used, but chiefly to adulterate commercial tobacco. The ^Menomini make use of the dried bark of
	INDIAN NOTES

SKINNER — MENOMINI CULTURE

FRAME FOR DRYING K^'NIKINlV Photograph by courtesy of the American Museum of Natural History

CO •-

$0

o 2

TOBACCO	359
the red willow, and dried sumac leaves. Both these materials go by the popular name of kfnikintk, though the writer is in doubt as to whether the term is aboriginal in the language of this tribe. In preparing ki'nikinik, a rough Y-shaped frame about a yard long is cut from a small crotched sap- ling, and a crude coarse matting of bass- wood-bark is woven across the extended arms (pi. cii). On this the H'niktnik is spread, and thus dried over a fire. The frame is called apd'sawan; tobacco is termed nd"nemau. Sacrificial Dishes For holding tobacco sacrifices at shrines, and during ceremonies, elaborately carved dishes are often used. A small wooden bowl carved to represent a porcupine is shown in fig. 61. This receptacle was used to hold sacrificial tobacco in the family of Xawagi'sikwap for many generations. A more common form is represented in fig. 74. This is a flat platter of wood with incised decorations carved on the ends, and afterward rubbed with red paint. A rare
AND MONOGRAPHS

360

MENOMINI CULTURE

example is a small round bowl of catlinite with a projecting handle made to represent the head of a horse (pi. xciii). Sometimes

Fig. 74. — Sacrificial platter with incised carving. 12 in.)

(Length,

miniature wooden canoes are fashioned (fig. 75) exactly like real ones, except for their smaller size. These are carried in

Fig. 75. — Miniature canoe, a charm against drowning. (Length, 9^ in.)

accordance with warnings received in dreams, as charms against drowning, and serve to hold tobacco.

Pipes

The last vestige of the art of .working stone among the Menomini survives in the manufacture of stone pipes. As this people has* always been the -one Woodland Algon^

INDIAN NOTES

PIPES	361
kian tribe uniformly friendly to the Sioux, they have always had access to the cathnite quarries of ^Minnesota, though the journey to that locality was so long, and lay through the range of so many hostile war parties, that the supply was limited, and the stone accordingly valued. Some small, rough, rectangular blocks of catlinite, quarried generations ago, are still treasured posses- sions of fortunate IMenomini individuals, who value each at one hundred dollars, or its equivalent in ponies. Notwithstanding the high price placed on the rough material, the blocks seen by the writer would not suflSce to make more than two pipes each, and finished pipe-bowls bear the value, usual in all the forested region, of five dol- lars apiece. A poorer quahty of catlinite, of a darker red than that from Minnesota, is found in certain localities in Wisconsin,^^ and this is freely utilized. As the writer has never had the good fortune to observe the Menomini process of pipe-making, or to be acquainted with one of that people skilled in the art, data on the process cannot be given, but it is to be presumed that it
AND MONOGRAPHS

362	MENOMINI CULTURE
	differs little from that still employed by the Eastern Sioux, Menomini pipes are nearly always of the Siouan form. The women of this tribe do not often smoke miniature stone pipes, as do the women of the Ojibwa, but use the ordinary corn-cob and briar pipes of commerce. Large or small, the stone pipes seem usually to be the property of the men. The Menomini frequently inlay their pipes with pewter, other metals, or dark- colored stone, but the writer* does not recall having seen any dark stone pipes among them. Some of the larger pipes have floral or animal designs scratched on their sides. Some pipes are carved to rep- resent fish or other animals, and often have stone stems; but all those seen by the writer were probably obtained from the Sioux. No doubt the prehistoric pipes of the Menomini were of the curved-base monitor, pebble, and other types commonly found on archeological sites in Wisconsin, but for complete data on this subject one must turn to the collections made at the ancient sites of the tribe on Green bay. The
	INDIAN NOTES

PIPES	363
writer has seen fragments of a rather orna- mental terracotta pipe, with fine, small, incised decoration, found on the formerh' occupied site at the junction of Little and Oconto rivers. The stems of the catlinite pipes are ordi- narily made of wood, and vary considerably in length, but most of them are about eighteen inches to two feet long. Those used in connection with pubHc ceremonies or "belonging" to the Dream Dance drum, are very much longer, sometimes reaching a length of four feet. The stems are often broad, flat, and thin, and are carved in open or lattice designs, and painted in various colors. In some cases the stem is carved spirally until it resembles an auger. PI. cin represents a series of pipe-bowls and stems. In former times pipe-stems -were adorned with porcupine-quills, but now strung or woven glass beads are used. Otter-fur strips are wound around the stems, and silver is used as inlay. War- and peace-pipes had a fan of eagle-feathers attached beneath the stems. The Menomini early obtained or made
AND MONOGRAPHS

364

ME NO MINI CULTURE

pipe-bowls of metal. A war-pipe in the American Museum of Natural History, collected by the late Dr William Jones, has a bowl, rather pretty in design, of cast pewter. A brass pipe, in the collection of the Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation, is shown in pi. cm, b. It is the only specimen of this character that the writer has ever observed among any of the Woodland tribes. It is doubt- ful if the Indians ever made pipes of this nature, and from its well-made character the writer is inclined to ascribe it to the famous maker of pipe-tomahawks, Jour- dain. It was bought for the writer by John V. Satterlee from an Indian residing on the Menomini reservation, at Zoar settlement. For further treatment of Menomini pipes, and the prehistoric pipes of the ancient Menomini country, the reader is referred to the papers by Barrett^^ and by W^est.24

Pipe-tomahawks are not uncommon among the Menomini, and are of iron, sometimes nickeled, and of brass. The heads have been obtained in trade from the

INDIAN NOTES

SKINNER — MENOMINI CULTURE

w

TOBACCO-POUCH WITH FLOWER DESIGN IN BEADS Length. 14 in.

SKINNER — MENOMINI CULTURE

TOBACCO-POUCH OF WOVEN YARN Photograph by courtesy of the American Museum of Natural History

POUCHES	365
whites, and the stems, ornamented \Yith fur strips, beadwork, silver inlay, or pyrography are made by the natives. The Indians also sometimes imitate the metal pipe heads in catlinite. In spite of the fact that these articles have such long associa- tion with things Indian, they are of w^hite origin and provenience, and therefore need, not be further described nor figured here. Vocabulary Apii'agun, pipe. maku'^asen apii'agun, redstone pipe. ^puagiina'tik, pipe-stem. pe'tcinamaiian, tobacco-bag. na"nemau, tobacco. Bags and Pouches for Tobacco For holding tobacco a variety of styles of leather bags are made; but the variations lie mainly in the matter of size and in the arrangement of the puckering string, in accordance wdth devices common through- out the Woodland tribes. The general style of :Menomini tobacco-bags is that of a small, soft pouch, with a very short, plain fringe, entirely unlike the long and elabo-
AXD MONOGRAPHS

366	ME NO MINI CULTURE
•	rate bags of the Plains tribes, which are made large enough to contain the pipe as well as the tobacco of the smoker. Meno- mini bags are frequently ornamented with the usual tribal style of conventionalized flower designs in beads. Plate civ gives a typical example. Such bags are commonly carried in the belt. Sometimes the draw- strings are ornamentally beaded. Tobacco-pouches are not uncommonly made from the skins of small mammals, such as skunks, woodchucks, mink, mar- ten, and kit otters. The skin is taken off entire, through a longitudinal slit a few inches in length made in the chest-band, and is carefully tanned. Such bags rarely bear any ornamentation, and may always be distinguished from medicine-bags by the fact that they do not have the symbolic tufts of dyed down thrust through the nostrils. Tobacco-pouches of woven yarn, with designs in white beads interwoven with the threads, were formerly worn around the neck and over the chest. A good example of one of these now rare articles is shown in
	INDIAN NOTES

G A :m E s

pi. cv. These pouches are also often seen among the Pota- watomi.

Paraphernalia for Games

Owing to the fact that the games of the ]\Ienomini have been already described in the section dealing with Social Or- ganization (see pages 56-58), nothing more than a brief re- capitulation will be given here. For lacrosse, sticks of two types are used (pi. cvi, h, and fig. 76). The balls are of tanned deerskin, about the size of base- balls, and are stuffed with deer- hair (fig. 77). Both sticks and balls, particularly the latter, are often symbohcally painted in red and black.

Shinny is played with a short, straight stick (fig. 78), and a double ball of leather (fig. 79), p-j^. 76.-Ordi- generallv painted red. For the "^jy lacrosse

^ ' ^ stick. (Length.

dice game, a round, wooden 3 ft. 10| in.)

AND MONOGRAPHS

367

368

ME NO MINI CULTURE

bowl and a set of bones or wooden dice (pi. xciv) are necessary. Six of the dice are discs; the rest are carved to represent half- moons, tortoises, or Thunderbirds, and are colored red, black, blue, or green on one side, and left white on the other.

A short' form of the snow- snake (pi. c \' I , a) and a wooden wand with a slender shaft and a weight or knob at one end„are used for dis- tance hurling over the ice. The typical Algonkian cup-and-pin game, petcikona'hikun (pi. cvii), is played by the Menomini. The pin is of wood, the cups being made from the phalangeal bones

Fig. 77. — Lacrosse ball. (Diameter, i\ in.)

Fig. 78. Shinny stick. (Length, 24 in.)

INDIAN NOTES

SKINNER — MENOMINI CULTURE

a

b

SNOW-SNAKE, AND PONY-FOOT LACROSSE STICK Length of a, 36 in.

< ^

< ^

GAMES	369
of the deer, ground down to hollow cones. This game is played only as a hunting- charm. Darts of wood, smok- f%ss^ ed while spirally wrapped ^ ifW with green bark to give a 1 Lf twisted decoration, are used 1 i by boys for distance throwing. |i I The moccasin game, though | -"^ 1 popular at one time, is seldom A J 1 1 played now. It needs no J :^ ^ special paraphernaHa. Bow- ^ ,^^p M and-arrow games are played ^i^^ erJ with miniature bows decora- ^^P tively painted in gay colors, fig. 79.-Shinny and blunt arrows. 2'5"in-.) ^'^'"°'^'
AND MONOGRAPHS

370

yU. ARCHEOLOGY

X LATE June, 1919, the writer.

accompanied by his assistant.

^Ir John V. Satterlee, and Dr S.

A. Barrett of the Public ]\luseum of the City of ^lilwaukee. were enabled to visit several of the ancient ^Menomini vil- lage-sites along the west shore of Green bay, in Brown and Oconto counties, Wisconsin, through the kindness of Messrs J. P. Schu- macher and Xeville of the city of Green Bay. These gentlemen not only permitted the examination of their private collections, but also cooperated with ]Miss Deborah ^Marten of the Kellogg Public Library of Green Bay in reviewing the collection there. The sites visited were Male Sim'mdko at Big Suamico, Siiamdko'sa at Little Suamico; Wasa'kiu, or High Banks, oh the Oconto river near the city of that name, and a series of other sites in its environs; also Pa^kd'nano' at the junction of Oconto and

INDIAN NOTES

VILLAGE-SITES 371
Little rivers.' While of a cursorv' nature. these examinations brought out many inter- esting facts. First: The ancient habitat of the Meno- mini was situated under different physio- graphic conditions from those of their pres- ent reser\-ation. All their early towns were either on the lake shore at mouths of the Menominee, the Oconto, the Peshtigo, the Suamicos. and the Pensaukee. or on the banks of these streams, as a rule not ver\^ far inland. To this there were exceptions, however, for according to Menomini tradi- tion, and archeological e\-idence as well, there were early settlements inland on the Woh*, on the present reser\-e. a locahty easily reached by portage from the Oconto. At the time of white contact, and for a long time before and after, the former cul- ture of the IMenomini must have been al- most maritime, and stronglv differentiated from that of more recent years. It was essentially a culture of wild rice, fish, and lake products. Second: The Menomini were sedentar\-, living more or less permanently on their
AND M 0X0 GRAPHS

372	MENOMINI CULTURE
•	principal sites, except for seasonal changes, as when they went far inland on their fall and winter hunts. Some of the Green bay sites have been occupied by the Menomini as far back as they have any tradition. Indeed, their origin myth speaks of the first Menomini coming out of the ground as a bear on the site at the mouth of the Menom- inee river. Subsequent to the arrival of white settlers, the tribe was dislodged by successive purchases from the old shoreHne home, and began to scatter and withdraw inland. The greater part of those who still dwelt on the old spots were moved to the present reservation in 1852 and the years immediately following. A few, principally of mixed blood, still remain. Two Indians by the name of Adams dwelt at Mate Sua'mdko, and an old woman, Mrs Misha'- kwut (Covered by Clouds), resided at High Banks in 1919. The relics on the sites therefore range from prehistoric to late his- toric times. Third: The type of culture indicated by the specimens obtained or seen goes to show that the Menomini belonged to the same
	INDIAN NOTES

VILLAGE-SITES	373
group as the neighboring Green bay tribes, the Potawatomi, Ottawa, Sauk, Fox, and Winnebago. Fourth: Specimens from the sites exam- ined are identical with those obtained from the mounds opened by Dr Barrett and the writer on the present Menomini reser- vation in Shawano county. The form and decoration of the pottery in particular was the same. The ]\Ienomini sites, however, yielded objects of native copper, bone speci- mens, and pipes, not as yet reported from the mounds, and perhaps representing a later phase or local development of the same cul- ture. The fact that the Menomini in gen- eral deny that they ever made mounds means, very little. Fashions die out and are forgotten among all races. That not all IMenomini are of the same opinion regard- ing the non-use of mounds by their people may well be demonstrated by the following data: In June, 1920, Jim Paia'tckowit, or, properly Buna'i-giVik (Opposite Sky), in- formed the writer that there is a buffalo effig>' mound on the plains near the Peshtigo
AND MONOGRAPHS

374	•ME NO MINI CULTURE
	river, not far from Sandstone falls, above Ellis Junction, Wis., close to the residence of a white man named Seymour. Buna'i- gi'zik declares that a war party of Ojibwa was traveling along the river; their leader had previously dreamt that some impor- tant object would be encountered on the march. About noon some members of his company observed a buffalo standing on a knoll, and recognized the animal as the ful- iilmerit of their partizan's dream. As the warriors gazed, the buffalo sank into the ground and vanished without leaving a track or sign. They made a mound there in the form of a buffalo, which still remains as a monument to this portent. Since then, Buna'i-gi'zik says, the Menomini have made similar mounds, in imitation of the original, in various parts of the territory, during the ceremonials in honor of the buffalo — perhaps that of the Buffalo Dance. The locahty on the Peshtigo is called by the Menomini Pishakipsanamakenikasit, "The Place Where the Buffalo is Outlined."
	INDIAN NOTES

ARTIFACTS	375
TYPES OF SPECLMEXS FROM MEXO- MINI SITES The following objects were noted from the Menomini sites examined, but, as before stated, they are probably common to all the tribes in the neighborhood as well: Stone Grooved, and, possibly, fluted axes. Celts. Gorgets, principally the two-holed form. Winged bannerstones. Notched, stemmed, triangular, and serrated arrowpoints. Drills. Scrapers. Oval or leaf-shaped knives. Copper Knives. Arrows, socketed, stemmed, and notched. Celts. A copper bannerstone, of small size, is reported by :Mr Schumacher from Oconto. Fishhooks, awls, and beads. Clay Pointed-bottomed jars with decorations stamped with a cord-wrapped stick, or rarely, with incised chevrons. Pipes.
AND MONOGRAPHS

376

MENOMINI CULTURE

The abundance, excellence, and variety of the stone-work, the scarcity of bone and horn material, and the pointed jars with stamped decoration made by the impression of the cord-wrapped stick, all link the Menomini with the Algonkian peoples far- ther east. Copper, too, in New York at least, is characteristic of Algonkian and not of Iroquois culture.

While bone and antler are still used to some extent by the Menomini in the manu- facture of implements, stone and clay are things of the past, and so is native copper. However, traditions still persist about the use of these materials, and the kinds of objects made. In a few instances specimens have survived as heirlooms. According to Hofifman:

"Previous to the advent of white traders, or before they were able to procure by purchase or barter beads of European manufacture, the Menomini claim to have m.ade large beads from shells found in the rivers of Wisconsin and on the shores of Green bay. Quite a variety of large and exceedingly beautiful freshwater shells occur in the rivers of Wisconsin, and it would be strange indeed if the natives did not utilize the iridescent pearl for ornamentation when at

INDIAN NOTES

ARTIFACTS

377

the same time they used them as knives. Among some of the old mita'v women large beads, together with the elongated shell beads purchased at traders' stores, are worn — beads of sufficiently, primitive appearance to induce one to believe the assertion that their people had made them.

"These beads were evidently made from the thick portions, or perhaps joints, of freshwater mussels; they are of the size of buckshot, with a perforation drilled from each end toward the middle. The perforations being somewhat of funnel shape, and showing marked striae, would indicate that the drilling had been made with other than a metal instrument. On subsequent investigation respecting the manufacture of articles requiring perforation, I was informed that the ]Menomini used sharp-pointed pieces of quartz and jasper, rotating these rude drills with the hand and fingers."-^

In another place Hoffman says:

"The Indians agree in the statement that the m.aking of stone weapons was discontinued by them four generations ago. Shu'nien re- members hearing the old people speak about the manner of using these stone objects. The knives vrere made of flint (hornstone), and were about 8 inches long, an inch and a half broad, and sharply pointed; some indeed were sharp enough to cut moose skin with ease. These implements were used in cutting meat, for scraping arrowshafts, and in making bows.

"Some of the Menomini say that mussel- shells are used even today, when necessity de-

AND MONOGRAPHS

378

MENOMINI CULTURE

mands, both for spoons and for cutting. They are also sometimes used for scraping deerskin in tanning. The survival of the practice of thus using shells is not at all astonishing, for they serve the purpose as well as almost any- thing else, and thick strong shells of several species are abundant in Wisconsin.

"Earthenware is no longer made by the Menomini, though some of the oldest women remember when pottery making was engaged

The writer has fairly full data on the making of earthenware which are presented on pages 282-284.

Existing Vocabulary for Ancient Artifacts

A^sin mita'kun, stone scraper.

a' sen kuski'kahikan, stone hide-scraper.

oka'na, or okd'ne, bone awl.

a' sen indna'ba, stone axe (lit. 'stone original

iron;' the ancient name has been lost), osanwa'pa mo'komau, native copper knife. a'sen mo'koman, stone knife. asenme'p, stone-headed arrow. osauwa'pamep, copper-pointed arrow.

INDIAN NOTES

Mil. ETHXOGEOGRAPHY GEOGRAPHICAL BAND NAMES

N ADDITION to the division of the tribe into gentes, the Meno- mini were formerly split up into a number of geographical groups, each taking its name from the locality in which it resided. As now remembered these were:

Oka" to Wini'tinvnk, Pike Place people, dwelling at the mouth of the Oconto river. This was one of the ancient original groups of the tribe.

Pa'sd'tiko Wini'niunik, Peshtigo River people, dwelling at the mouth of the river whose name they bear. The meaning of the name is lost, but it may mean a current eddying. An original ancient group.

Minika'ni Wini'nhi'uk, Village people. This band had their village at the mouth of the ^lenominee river, which was called the Minika'ni, or Milage river, on this account. It is looked upon as the oldest or parent group of the tribe, for here the animal ancestors of the ]SIenomini are supposed to have come out of the ground and turned

379

AND MONOGRAPHS

380	ME NO MINI CULTURE
	themselves into men. ^Nlenomini born at the mouth of the river proudly boast of the fact. Male Sua'mdko Tusl'nini'^, Great Sand Bar people. This band lived on the sand dunes at what is now called Big Suamico, on Green bay. An original group. The locality is still prominent in mythology as the place where Ma"nabus performed the episode of the shut-eye dance. Sua'mdkosa Tusi'nini'', Little Sand Dune peo- ple. An offshoot of the Oka"to band, liv- ing on the sandhills of Little Suamico. Ndmd'o Wikito' Tusi'ni"', Sturgeon Bay people. Dwelt at Sturgeon Bay, and w^re likely an original group. Muhit'd'o Se'peo Wini'mivuk, Wolf River people. Lived on upper stretches of the stream. May have been a part of the Oka" to band, who lived on Green bay during the sum- mer, and hunted inland, dwelling in the warm, wooded river valley in winter. Kaka' pa[kato' Wim'nrd'ilk, Barricade Falls people. Lived at Keshena falls of Wolf river on the present reservation. Perhaps an offshoot of the preceding band. The Menomini claim that a few families always lived inland on the Wolf. Poivahe'knne r«5i'w/wm'/^^. Rice-gathering-place people. Dwelt on Lake Poygan. Prob- ably a more recent group which came into being subsequent to the dispersal of the tribe. Kake-ii'd'nikone Tusi'ninkimg, Portage people. Lived at Portage, Wis.; a more recent group, in all probability.
	INDIAN NOTES

BAND NAMES

Wi'skos Sc pco WinVniwilk, Wisconsin River people. Wi'skos, or Wi'sko'^s, means a little muskrat house, and from this the name Wisconsin is derived. This band and the next were hardy adventurers who strayed over to the ]Mississippi, and were in friendly touch with the Santee and other eastern Sioux.

Kipisa"kia Wini'niwuk, River Mouth people. Resided at Prairie du Chien.

Xoma'kokon Se'peo Tusi'niniivug, Beaver River people. Lived near Winneconne (Wini- ka'ni, a skull), Fond du Lac, and Oshkosh. Said to be an old, but not an original band.

Mani'toicuk Tusi'niniu'iig, ]Manitou Place peo- ple. Resided at Manitowoc, Wis. An- other old, but not original band.

Misi'^nimdk Kimiko Wini'niicilk, Michilimacki- nac people, residing near the old fort at ]\Iackinac, Mich. This band was lured from home by trade. An old, but not orig- inal band. There was another settlement of jNIenomini at JNIilwaukee {Mdndicak Wini'- niwuk), and a specially notable one at Fort Floward, in the present city of Green Bay. A few stragglers doubtless camped on the site of what is now Chicago.

Subsequent to the breaking up of the local groups of the Menomini, following the arrival and settlement of the whites in their old territory, there came into existence still another grouping, or perhaps rather a re- naming of the old bands, this time each tak-

381

AND MONOGRAPHS

382	MENOMINI CULTURE
	ing its designation from its chief. These bands are still remembered, but rather vaguely, especially as the titles of each must have changed with the demise of the leader. There were eleven remembered in Hoff- man's day, *as follows: 1, Osh'kosh, 2, Aia'miqta, 3, Sha'kUdk, now under charge of Ni'aqtawd'pomi, 4, Ma'nahii'shd, 5, Le Motie, 6, Phvd'qtinef, 7, Pesh'tiko (evidently one of the old local groups), 8, O'hopesha, 9, Ke'sJwk, or Ke'so, 10, Aqkd'moi, now under charge of Ma'tskikine'if , 11, Shu'nii'iii'if, or Shu'nien. SOME MENOMINI PLACE NAMES IN WISCONSIN The following list of place-names was obtained from John V. Satterlee, ex-Cap- tain of IMenomini Indian Police, of Keshena, Wisconsin, and Honorary Member of the Wisconsin Archeological Society for the Menomini tribe, in June, 1919. The names are of places famous in Menomini history and tradition, and many sites are now cov- ered by thriving American towns and cities. Some of these names were published by the
	INDIAN NOTES

PLACE NAMES

383

writer, but in a somewhat faulty manner, in The Wisconsin Archeologist, vol. 18, no. 3, p, 97, August, 1919.

Omd'^nomanco Ishko'ncgun, ]Menomini reser- vation.

' Oka" to ('pike place'), Oconto. Both banks of the Oconto river from its mouth to the old dam were formerly used as a place of residence by the Menomini, despite their swampy char- acter. In later times most of the Indians lived in the city of Oconto where the lumber yards now are. ]Mr Satterlee lived here for three or four years prior to 1862, when he left for the present reserve.

Wa'sa'kiu ('high sandy bank')- This was an ancient ]\Ienomini village place on the sand dunes where the old dam was located. It was used more or less continuously from pre- historic days until recent times. An old half- breed Menomini woman, jMrs ]Misha'kwut (Covered by Clouds), still resided there in June, 1919. ]Many stone and copper relics, including a copper celt, and a grooved axe found by the old Indian woman, have been obtained here. When visitedlast June in company with Mr J. P. Schumacher of Green Bay and Dr S. A. Barrett of the ^lilwaukee ^Museum, numerous stone arro\A'points, a notched stone maul, and a native copper fishhook were collected, also some decorated sherds from the rim of a large pottery vessel. Mr Schumacher reports a small copper bannerstone found here. Some rela- tively recent graves of Indian children were

AND MONOGRAPHS

384

MENOMINI CULTURE

reported to lie under a fine tree on a knoll near Mrs jMisha'kwut's house.

Pa'^^kmano' ('branch of a river'). A village on a long narrow point where the Little river joins the Oconto. When visited by I\Ir Schu- macher, Dr Barrett, Mr Satterlee, and the writer, this spot showed every indication 'of having been occupied for ages. Much pottery, a fragment of an ornamented clay pipe, numer- ous arrow, spear, and knife points of flint and other stones, hammerstones, and the like were obtained. Numerous hearths, charcoal, and split bones were seen, and Mr Schumacher re- ports copper implements. Mr Satterlee, fol- lowing Indian traditions, located without diffi- culty a group of pits and wild rice caches dug into the edge of the bank on the east (?) side of the point. Mr Satterlee reports that among the last Indians to reside here were George McCall, John Wa'pus (Rabbit), native name Wa'nawat (Begs for Food), and the families of Charles Chickeney, native name Matcikine'u (Terrible Eagle), and of Kine'sa (Golden Eaglet).

Pa'^ku'ukiii ('pointed hill'), native name of Stiles. There is a site, now nearly destroyed, in the railroad yard here. Menomini tradition states that a Miski Kinu'bik, or monster horned hairy snake, lived in a whirlpool in the river a quarter of a mile above Stiles. An Indian mother of the long ago once sacrificed her little daughter to this beast in order to get it to give her portions of its body to make an evil medi- cine for witchcraft. The place was ever after noted and abhorred by the Indians, who always passed it in silence, throwing in an offering to pacify the monster.

INDIAN NOTES

PLACE N A M E S

385

Ko^nin ('where the tornado passed'), a plain just below the Oconto falls. There is said to be an ancient ]Menomini village-site here.

Xepeuspa^peniHo' ('where water falls'), the ]\renomini name of Oconto falls. A Menomini village is said to have been located here.

Ona'sin Apa'kato' ('rocky rapids'), a locality called Flat Rock by the whites. An old Menomini camp or village-site.

Kdkdivd'nikone ('crossing the portage'), now Underbill. This was where the Menomini car- ried across to Lake Shawano.

Mate Wasa'^kiu ('big high banks'), a local- ity on the Oconto now called Oconto Red Banks.

Sor'nau'e'mno' Usnd'nind ('three rivers fork- ing'), now Suring.

Apa'saklu ('brant [goose] land'), now called Pensaukee. There was an old Menomini vil- lage at the mouth of this creek.

Siiamdko'sa ('little sand-bar'), Little Sua- mico. An ancient INIenomini camp ground.

Mate Siia'mdkoox Sakaua'mdko {'gre^tsdind- har'), now Big Suamico. x\n ancient jNlenomini village-site of large extent is situated at the mouth of the river and along the lake shore. Copper and stone objects have been found here in abundance in former years by Messrs J. P. Schumacher and Neville of Green Bay, who accompanied the writer to the spot. A bell- mouthed celt and numerous points, scrapers, and sherds were obtained. Two Menomini men, named Adams, still live near by. The site is famous in Menomini folklore, mythology, and history.

SesipukctaJie'kone ('ducks landing [from

AND MONOGRAPHS

386

ME NO MINI CULTURE

flight]'), Duck creek, a place famous in Meno- mini folklore.

Futci'wikit, or, now, Piiji'kU ('a bay in spite of itself,' or 'a ba}^ in spite of everything'), Green bay. Menomini villages were situated on the site of the present city of Green Bay on both sides of the Fox river, and at Fort Howard {Mind''^ka^ kiin, 'a fort'), where they camped under the fort wall on the site of the present Green Bay railroad station.

Ke'^na'tdo ('cape'), the Door peninsula.

Wa^ntV^ti'ii ('a bend'), Bay Settlement.

Ndmd'o Wi'kitu ('sturgeon bay'). Sturgeon Bay.

Wasa'^^kiil ('high sand-bank'). Death's Door.

Apd'sitik Se'peu (meaning lost, possibly con- nected with Apd"sos, deer), Peshtigo river.

Usakc'ioik ('at the mouth,' or 'the mouth'). The old jNIenomini village at the mouth of Peshtigo river.

Apd'sitikgo, Peshtigo City. JMeaning of name lost.

Wapa'pako ('white stone'), White Rapids.

Musikaho'sa PagwiVtik ('little solid liquid's falls'). Named for an Indian who once dwelt there.

Minika'ni Se'peu ('village, or town, river'), ]\Ienominee river. The city of Menominee, ^Michigan, is also called Minika'ni. This is the most noted spot in all IVIenomini history, for here the ancestor of the tribe first issued from the ground. Mr Satterlee was born on an island in the river between Menominee, INIichi- gan, and Marinette, Wisconsin.

Kinitciii'uno ('long stretch'), a straight place in the ]\Ienominee river.

I

INDIAN NOTES

PLACE NAMES

387

Uskotc Kikili ('silent place'), a locality in this river where dwells a monster who harms or drowns noisy persons.

Nama'o Usnaka"se ('sturgeon barrier'), Sturgeon falls on the ^Menominee river. This was the northern inland boundary of the tribe, and here the traditional break-up of the nation into two groups (purely m3-thical) through a quarrel over the supply of sturgeon took place.

Kipu'akimano, De Pere. The meaning of. the name is lost.

Oka'^kane ('pike fishing place'), Kaukauna.

Mind' si ('island'), ^lenasha.

Waive'a^pita ('eddy or whirlpool'), Appleton.

Md^kinuk Ustcepd'tce ('w^here stands the blood cedar tree'), a famous landmark on Fox river near the two preceding.

Winibi'go Nipe'sa ('Winnebago lake'), Lake Winnebago.

Wasiiske'\si}w ('new grave mound in a marsh'), Chilton. The parents of the present chief of the pagan ^Menomini, Indian Court Judge Sabatis Perrote, came from this place, where the ]\Ienomini had a later village. The name of the Judge's father was Peanot (Perrote) Amob.

Keskd"kK'tltino ('lake bluff'), a rock ledge opposite Oskhosh City, perhaps at Chilton. A sacred spot in ]\Ienomini mythology, because here the Thunderbirds who became the ances- tors of that clan alighted and turned into men.

Wanika'miu ('end of the lake'), Fond du Lac.

Osko's Omani'kan ('Oshkosh, his city'), pres- ent city of Oshkosh. The name means either a "claw" or "brave," the connection possibly

AND MONOGRAPHS

388

MENOMINI CULTURE

being that in olden times the slayer of a grizzly bear wore its claws in the form of a necklace as a sign of bravery.

Osko's On'e'^pishim ('Oshkosh, his lake'), Lake Oshkosh.

Milce'kane ('stockade'), a lake between Winneconne and Oshkosh City.

Winika'ni ('skull'), Winneconne. Named because of the large number of bleached human skulls and bones said by the Menomini to have been scattered about on the field of a battle, perhaps one of the battles between the Sauk and the French.

Pdwahi'kane ('where wild rice is gathered'), Lake Poygan. The Menomini lived about this body of water in relatively recent times.

Muhwd'o Se' pen ('wolf river'), the present Wolf river.

Pind'o Wi'ko ('partridge crop'), the present Partridge lake.

Akuand"nuk Se' pen ('stranded log river'), New London.

Sake'mdo Wafend ('mosquito hill'), a locality a little above New London, on the Wolf.

Wa''sa'''kiu ('high banks'), another locality with this common name.

Mdno'na Kitciu (^ at the clay bank'), Brick- yard.

Ma'no'mdne Sa'iak ('wild rice along the banks'), Shiocton, site of a recent Menomini settlement.

Wa'kilconOmd'niMn ('Wakitcon, his town'). Chief Wakitcon's village was here. The Chief's name was really Wakajona'pe (Crooked Beak), the personal name of the Thunderbirds, pre- served in the Thunder clan of the Menomini.

INDIAN NOTES

PLACE NAMES

389

Ona'mun Usta't ('where vermilion exists, or is had'), a clay bank on Wolf river near Waki- tcon's town, resorted to for red paint.

Kiitaha'kukane (' shooting-at-targets place'), a landmark at which the Indians always shot when passing.

Andkd'^kika (' bark-house place'), a Meno- mini settlement just above the town of Wauke- chon.

' 'Pone " Omd'nigan {' Pony's town ') . Named for a white settler and trader called "Pony Richmond."

Settlements ox the Menomini Reservation

Omd^nomdneo Ishko'negim, Menomini reser- vation.

Oka'to'sa ('little pike place'). South Branch settlement.

Keshi'niuv ('swift-flying'), Keshena Agency; named for a former chief.

Koii'a'pomi Md'nigan ('Vanishing's town'). Named for some old Indian notable. The pagan settlement where Judge Perrote and Wi'sano- kut now live.

Akine'hiii ('the standing land'), a settlement a few miles from Keshena.

Ni'uopet ('four-seated,' or 'four in a den'). Xeopit, named for the old chief, son of Osh- kosh, recently deceased.

Xihi'tukicune Mi'nikan (translation not given). The name is the same as that of the West Branch settlement on Wolf river. Zoar settlement of "pigan" Menomini.

Xiga'nis Omd'nigan (Niganis, a Potawatomi personal name), a settlement near Phlox.

AND MONOGRAPHS

390	MENOMINI CULTURE
	Perotc, a station on the railroad named for the late Indian Court Judge, Sabatis Perrote. Askenel ('one that is raw,' 'uncooked'), a locality named for a former Indian court judge. Ndku'ti Uskinawe'ndt ('Sunfish's [a personal name] berry-patch'), a locality between Kesh- ena a»d South Branch settlement, where the late Philip Naku'ti gathered berries. Also called Ndkii'ii Nu'ivisokun, with the same meaning. There is a large mound-group here. Pikwu'kunao Omd'nikim ('outdone in shoot- ing town ') . Named for an old Menomini chief. The "shooting" referred to here is that act (so called) as performed with otter-skin medicine- bags inside the medicine-lodge. Now Satterlee (named for J. V. Satterlee) on Oconto river, just off the reserve.
	INDIAN NOTES

BIBLIOGRAPHIC NOTES

1. Brixtox, D. G. Myths of the New World,

chap, vi, p. 165, New York, 1868.

2. Skixxer, Alaxsox. Notes on the Eastern • Cree and Northern Saulteaux, Anthropo- logical Papers of the American Museum of Natural History, vol. ix, part i, p. 100, New York, 1911.

3. a. Schumacher, J. P., and Glaser, J. H.

Indian Remains in Northeastern Wis- consin, Wisconsin Archeologist, vol. xi, no. 4, Madison, Wisconsin, April, 1913. b. Fox, G. R., and Youxger, H. O. ]Mari- nette County, ibid., vol. xvii, no. 2, June, 1918.

4. HoFFMAX, W. J. The ^Menomini Indians,

Fourteenth Annual Report, Bureau of American Ethnology, part i, p. 268, Wash- ington, 1896.

5. Catlix, Geo. Illustrations of the Manners,

Customs and Condition of the North American Indians, vol. ii, p. 147, Lon- don, 1841.

6. Skix-xer, Alaxsox. ]\Iedicine Ceremony

of the ]Menomini Indians, etc. Indian Xotes and Monographs, vol. iv, p. 129, New York, 1920.

7. Jexks, a. E. The Wild-rice Gatherers of

the Upper Lakes, Nineteenth Annual Re- port, Bureau of American Ethnology, part ii, p. 1093, Washington, 1900.

391

AND MONOGRAPHS

392

MENOMINI CULTURE

8. Marquette, Pere Jacques, and Joleet,

Sieur. An Account of the Discovery of Some New Countries and Nations in North America in 1673. Historical Col- lections of Louisiana, part ii, p. 280. Philadelphia, 1850.

9. Skinner, Alanson. Social Life and Cere-

monial Bundles of the Menomini Indians Anthropological Papers of the American Mnsenm of Natural History, vol. xiii, part i, p. 131, New York, 1913.

10. Skinner, Alanson. Notes on the Eastern

Cree and Northern Saulteaux, ibid., vol. ix, part i, pp. 69-73, New York, 1911.

11. Howe, Henry. Historical Collections of Ohio, e/c, p. 538, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1848.

Skinnier, Alanson. Social Life and Cere- monial Bundles of the Menomini Indians, op. cit., pp. 35-41.

Mason, O. T. Aboriginal American Bas- ketry. Annual Report of the U. S. Na- tional Museum for 1902, p. 385, Wash- ington, 1904.

14. Hoffman, op. cit., pi. xxii.

15. Hoffman, op. cit., p. 259.

16. Hoffman, op. cit., pp. 270-272.

17. Hoffman, op. cit., p. 259-260.

18. Hoffman, op. cit., p. 280.

19. Warren, W. W. History of the Ojibways,

Based upon Traditions and Oral State- ments. Coll. Minn. Hist. Soc, vol. v, p. 98, St. Paul, Minn., 1885.

20. Skinner, Alanson. Social Life and Cere-

monial Bundles of the Menomini Indians, op. cit., p. 103, fig. 10.

12.

13.

INDIAN NOTES

NOTES

393

21. d. Skixner, Alanson. Associations and

Ceremonies of the jSIenomini Indkns, ibid., vol. xiii, part ii, p. 173, New York, 1915. b. Barrett, S. A. The Dream Dance of the Chippewa and IMenominee Indians of Northern Wisconsin. Bulletin of the Pub- lic Aluseum of the City of Milwaukee, vol. i, art. iv, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, 1911.

22. West, G. A. Pipestone Quarries in Barron

County, Wisconsin Archeologist, vol. ix, no. 2, April-July, 1910.

23. Barrett, op. cit., p. 353.

24. West, G. A. Aboriginal Pipes of Wis-

consin, Wisconsin Archeologist, vol. iv, nos. 3, 4, Madison, Wisconsin, 1905.

25. Hoffman, op. cit., pp. 265-266.

26. Hoffman, op. cit., pp. 256-257.

AND MONOGRAPHS

394
	INDEX Abenaki, conical lodge of, 85 Abode of the dead, 38. See Hereafter Aboriginal American Basketry, excerpt from, 231-234 Acorns, eaten by bear, 189; mat for drying, 309 Adams, Indian family living at Mate Sua'mako, 372, 385 Adultery, punishment for, 55, 82 Adzes used to hollow wood, 222, 288 Agriculture, 153-154, 156-157, 173, 358 Alder, whistles of, 355-356 Aleutian islands, wallets of, 233 yl/gow^m«5, burden-straps of, 214; cup-and-pin game of, 368; dialect of, 142; house types of, 85-87; Menomini a tribe of, 24, 360-361, 376; mystical character of , 25 ; name of Culture God among, 36-37; origin of metal-ware explained by, 285-286; paintings of, 340; textile arts of, 230; warclubsof, 314; Central: arbors among, 98-99; bear rites of, 177-178; concept of Hare trickster among, 37-38; demonology of, 31; designs, embroidered, 267 ; designs, floral, 273; designs, woven. 258 ; economic situation of , 153; games of, 58; leggings of, 115; mythology of, 76-77; ornamental art of, 330-331; puppets of, 333; quivers of, 329; string bags of, 231; Thunderbird concept of, 262; Northern: bear
	INDIAN NOTES

INDEX

rites of, 177-178; deadfalls used among, 187- 188; floral designs of, 273. See Pan-Algonkian

Alphabet used in Menomini words, 21

American Museum of Natural i/f^/or}', acknowl- edgment to, 19, 113, 123, 139, 234, 289, 290, 292, 297, 299, 305, 307, 309, 318, 335, 338, 343; collections of, 211, 216, 262, 364

.4 mericans, eaten by Indians, 192 ; forces assisted by ]Menomini, 60

A mmunition-hags, 329-330

Amob, John, acknowledgment to, 20; arrows hafted by, 325; mat secured from, 242; war- club of, 3^5

Amob, Peanot, father of Sabatis Perrote, 387

Amulets, see Charms

Ancestors, animals regarded as, 30-31, 46-47, 200, 316, 379-380, 387; dance in honor of, 74; determining moieties, 49; emergence of, 386

Animals, blessing given by, 53-54; bowls carved to represent, 336; carvings representing, 336- 337, 368; claws of, as medicines, 66; cruelty to. punished, 45, 178; dance in honor of, 74; designs on pipes, 362; designs, woven.. 234. 257, 259, 264; gifts of, to Ma"nabus, 65; meta- morphosis of, 39, 46-47, 199-200, 343, 379, 387; metamorphosis of men into, 69-70; native terms for, 196, 198; skins, medicine- bags made of,- 39; statues of, 331; super- natural rulers of, 32, 177; superstitions con- cerning, 77, 173-182, 194; symbolic repre- sentations of, 80., 341. See Ancestors, Gentes, Totem

Antenna design, 271-272

395

AND MONOGRAPHS

396	ME NO MINI CULTURE
	^w//er, arrowpoints, 179, 322-323; carving of, 337-338; comb-case, 138-139; combs, 123; glue from, 179; handles of awls, 305-306; objects, 376; paint-brush made of, 136; powder-charger, 329; quill-smoother, 275, 308- 309; sculpture in, 331; spoons, 292, 309; spreader, 112-113 Apa'^samih or Acorn, garters of, 259 Apples as lure, 188 _ Appleton, Wis., native name for village-site at, 387 Applique-work, ribbon, 110, 124-125, 268-273, 330; floral designs in, 279 Arbors, fire sheltered by, 101; of boughs, 98-99 Archeology, tribal, 370-378 Arctic, conical lodge of, 86 Arctomys monax, see Woodchuck Arm-hands, 130; quilled, 274 Armlets, beaded, 256 Armspreads, measurement by, 217 Arrowpoints, 322-323; antler, 179; bone, 326; copper, 280, 312, 375. 378; iron, 325; stone, 327, 375, 378, 383-385 Arrow-release, 327-329 Arrows, blunt, 327, 369; enchanted, 69-70, 72; feathering of, 325; fish shot by, 204; for large game, 326; for warfare, 62; hafting of, 323-325 ; materials used for, 322-323, 327 ; mis- directed by witchcraft, 70-71; native term for, 330. See Bows Ash, bows made of, 320 Ash-hark, storage boxes of, 162 Ashes, baking in, 160, 194-195; forehead anointed with, 209-210; kettles scoured with, 172; lye of, 161, 237; marking fireplaces, 101
	INDIAN NOTES

INDEX

397

A'siku'onat, warclub of, 315 Askenet, village named for, 390 Astonishment, sign language for, 59 Attendants at war-bundle sacrifice, 60 Augwassag village, Mich., Ojibwa of, 232 Aunts and uncles, title of mankind, 39, 164, 357 Awl-case, worn by women, 127 Awls, 304-306; bone, 219, 304-305, 378; copper,

305, 375; for quillwork, 275; for sewing, 219,

251 Axe as charm, 312; axes, 318-319, 375, 378,

383. See Celts

Bahiche, netting of, 307, 309

Bachelor buck as food, 194

Backward speech of Heyoka, 71

Bags, 309; for tobacco, 120, 365-367; for water- drum, 347; of the Ojibwa, 119; of toilet-sets 136-138; woven, designs of, 259-266, 279 woven string, 159, 231-238; woven yarn, 120 213, 231-232, 313, 366. See Bandoleer-hags, Medicine-hags, Pouches, Storage-hags

Bail of bass wood-bark, 283

Baking of corn, 160-161

Bald Eagle gens, 47

Bald eagles, skin of, in war-bundle, 311; inhabit- ing empyrean, 30

Baldrics, beadwork, 254

Ball-headed warclubs, 314-317

Balls, in war-bundle, 310; lacrosse, 367; of fire, witcljes transformed into, 69; shinny, 367; vessels molded over, 282-283

Balsam, couch covered with boughs of, 91, 98

Bandoleer-hags of woven beadwork, 119, 256; worn by witches, 70

AND MONOGRAPHS

398	MENOMINI CULTURE
	Bands, painted on water-drum, 346; woven, decoration of, 235, 243, 348 Bands, tribal, 379-382 Bangles, silver, 281 Bannerstones, 375; copper, 383 Bark, arbors of, 98-99; as substitute for tobacco, 358-359; broom strengthened with, 301; cutting of, 90-91; dishes, 134, 160, 165-166, 172, 260-261, 265, 295, 310; domestic uses of, 205; fiber: string, 166, 201; storage-bags of, 152; vat calked with, 168; lodges, 71, 85-87, 93-100, 104-105, 107; mats, 205, 236, 247- 248, 294; meat-drying scaffold of, 108; paint- ing on, 330; piece of, as door, 98; shelter of, 158-159; storage-boxes of, 162. See Bass- wood-hark, Birch-hark, Cedar-hark, Elm-hark Barrett, S. /!., acknowledgment to, 19, 136, 238, 370, 383-384; bone awl collected by, 304; buffalo-hide trunk collected by, 297; on Dreamers' dance, 349; on Menomini mounds, 373; on prehistoric pipes, 364 Barricade Falls people, a band group, 380 Basketry, 293-296; awls used in, 304; geometric designs used in, 279 Baskets, birch-bark, 294-295; corn-meal sifted through, 159; splint, 96, 293-294; sweet-grass, 296 Basswood, canoes, 222; vat, 168 Bassit'ood-hark, cache lined with, 152; fiber, weaving in, 232, 234, 236; matting, 359; nets for snowshoes, 212; string, 89, 90, 94, 108, 158, 190, 193, 227-228, 232, 245, 247, 249, 265,283 Bast, prisoner-tie of, 312-313; sashes woven of, 238; string, weaving in, 232, 243. See Fihcr
	INDIAN NOTES

INDEX

399

Bats, skins of, in war-bundles, 312

Battle, fillets for, 111; on site of Winneconne, 388. See War

Bay Selllement, Wis., native name for village- site at, 386

Beads, adorning wand, 122; copper, 375; decor- ating cradle, 215; in rattles, 351-352; shell, 377

Bcadwork, cosmetic bags, 136, 138; danglers, 115; embroidery in, 116-117, 254-258, 266- 267, 330; medallion on dance-bustle, 121; pipestems ornamented with, 363, 365; realistic designs in, 278; rosettes on fillets, 110; scarfs, 119; warclub ornamented with, 314, 316; woven: 252-266, 338; bags, 330, 335; neck- laces, 126, 140; ornaments, 118-119, 348; pendants, 122; pouches, 120, 366-367

Beaming-tool, scraping with, 226-227

Beans, corn cooked with, 160; garden of, 98

Bear, apology to, before killing, 177-178; assisted b}' eagle. 46; bladders used for storage, 301; bones, as tools, 227, 229, 250-251, 292; ceremonies, 75-76; claws, arrowpoints of, 322; claws, necklace of, 128, 140,387-388; cooking of, 194; gall in tattooing outfit, 134f grease, wood rubbed with, 321; Great White Bear patron of, 30-31; hunting of, 187-190, 325; inhabiting lonely places, 32 ; patron of witches, 70; witches transformed into, 69, See Great White Bear

Bear-Eagle gens, 46^47

Bear gentes,' 47; etiquette of, to bear, 75-76; grave-post of, 341; ofiices hereditary in, 51-52

Bearing the feathered name, 316

Bearskins, bedding of, 91; in witch's bundle, 70

AND MONOGRAPHS

400	MENO MINI CULTURE
	Beating of rice-bed, 147 Beaver, cooking of, 194; musk of, as lure, 188; native name for, 196; supernatural power of 174; superstitions concerning, 179 Beaver gens, 48 Beaver River people, a band group, 381 Bed, see Couch Bell-mouthed celt at Big Suamico, 385 Bells, attached to dance-bustle, 121; decorating cradle, 215; hung on drum, 347-348; in tattoo- ing outfit, 134 Belts, ceremonial, of Dream dance, 121-122; knife worn in, 127, 320; native name for, 140; of wampum, as reward, 62; of women, 126- 127; of woven beadwork, 119-120, 254,256; of woven quill work, 275. See Sashes Benevolent poivers, conference of, 38-39; inhabit- ing empyrean, 29-30; names acquired from, 53; sacrifices to, 33-35. See Gods Berries, edible, 162-163 Big Jim Pd"monit, acknowledgment to, 20 Big Sand gens, 47 Big Suamico, Wis., native name for village- site at, 385; stone implements- found at, 280, 319, 326; village-sites at, 370, 380 Big Suamico river, village-sites on, 83, 371 Bills, necklace of, 140 Binder for hair, 122-123, 141 Birch, bowls of, 287; spoons of, 289 Birch-bark, baskets, 294; boxes, 147, 170, 274, 294-296, 309; canoes, 208, 216-222; charcoal, as pigment, 134,222; corn-kernels dried on. 160; dishes, 134, 160, 172, 260-261; drawings on, 340; effigies in witchcraft, 70; gourd wrapper, 353-354; kettles, 195-196; lodges
	INDIAN NOTES

INDEX

401

covered with, 86, 90-91; masks, 75; sap- buckets, 168, 172; song records on, 312; stencils, 273; stripping of, 216-217; winnow- ing-trays, 148, 159

Bird-like deities of empyrean, 29-30. See Thundcrhirds

Birds, as representatives of Thunderers, 30; beaded figure of, 3 14; carved on quill-smoother, 308; mounds, 264; native terms for, 197; necklaces of bills of, 140; rice brought to super- natural beings by, 143; woven designs of, 257

Bird-skins in war-bundle, 311

Bird-stones, carved slides resembling, 357

Birth, customs of, 52-53

Black, charcoal pigment for, 134,222; dye, 344; face painted with, 81, 132; games painted with, 367-368; mats, 248; skirts, 124; sym- bolism of, 268; warclubs painted with, 317; yarn, 232

Black ash, bowls of , 287

Black hear, 190; bladders of, used for storage, 301; spoon made from scapula of, 292; toe- bones of, as tools, 227, 229

Black Bear gens, 47

Blackcloud, James, acknowledgment to, 20; tat- tooing outfit of, 134

Black elm used in basketr>% 294

Blackhau'k war, assistance of ]Menomini in, 60

Black root, a plant, 135

Bladders used for storage, 301

Blanket, wife given away with, 55; blankets: bedding of, 91; covering fishing hut, 203; instead of buffalo robes, 120; native term for, 141; ravelings from, 232; rice stored in, 147; serving as doors, 90, 98

AND MONOGRAPHS

402	MENOMINI CULTURE
	Blazing oftraiis, 58, 209 Blessing, given through dream, 53-54; petitions for, 34 Blood, washing of, from hands, 63-64 Blood root, red dye from, 344 Blue, broadcloth, breech-cloths of, 1 16; clay used in dyeing, 344; dice painted, 368; dye, 344; face painted, 132; paint in cosmetic bag, 137; skirts, 124; svmbolism of, 133, 269, 346, 348 Blue corn, 157, 163 Blunt arrows, 327, 369 Boiling, of fish, 204; of meat, 195; water, immu- nity from, 71 B one, arrowpoints, 322-323,326; awls, 219,304- 306; carving in, 337-338; combs, 123; fish- hooks, 201 ; knives, 320; needles, 245-246, 307- 308; objects on village-sites, 373, 376, 378; rubbing tool, 225; scraper, 160; sculpture in. 331; spear-heads, 200; spoons, 292, 309; spreader, 113; tubes, 113, 351; bones: as molds, 171; as tools, 160, 179, 226, 227, 229, 250-251; cooking of, 162, 193; for cup-and- pin game, 369; for dice game, 368; kept from dogs, 177; marking fireplaces, 101; split, on village-sites, 384 Boughs, arhoY?, of, 98; couch covered with, 91, 98; fishing hut of, 203; lodges of, 62-63, 107; long-house covered with, 100; placed under carcass, 193 Bow-drill, fire made with, 301 Bowl-and-dice game, 58, 368. See Dice Bowlder, kettle made from, 284-285; bowlders, fireplaces of, 101 Bowls, carved, 336, 359-360; ceremonial at Buf- falo dance, 73-74; for dice game, 368; tortoise-
	INDIAN NOTES

INDEX	403
shell, 288-289; wooden, 286-288,309, 359. See Dishes, Kettles Bows, and arrows, as charms, 312; hunting with, 189; in warfare, 62; making of, 320-322; minia- ture, 369; native terms for, 330 Bow-strings, 329 Boxes, bark: 170, 274, 294-296, 309; corn cached in, 162; wooden: 299; roaches kept in, 113 Boys, see Children Bracelets, silver, 128-130, 281 Braided, corn, 158; prisoner-tie, 312-313; squashes, 153; warp, 234 Braiding, of cattails, 245-246; of sashes, 238 Brains, bows sized with, 321; used in tanning, 225-229 Brass, hawk-bells, 121; kettles, 285-286; pipe, 364; tacks, 127, 213 Breast-pieces, beaded, 256 Breech-cloths, 116-117, 140; beaded, 273 Brickyard, Wis., native name for village-site at, 388 Bridles, Tope, 213 Brinton, D. G., on derivation of name of Culture god, 36-37 British, account of cannibalism by, 192 Broadcloth, applique on, 268; breech -cloths of. 116-117; leggings of, 115-116; shawl of, 124 Brooches, of silver, 280-281; worn by women. 126, 141 Broom of cedar, 301 Brother, title of bear, 47 Brown, dye for, 113 Brown county, Wis., :Menomini village-sites in, 370
AND MONOGRAPHS

404

M EN O MINI CULTURE

Buck, as food, 194; native name for, 196. See Deer

Buckets, birch-bark, 168, 172. See Pails

Buckskin, bows wrapped with, 320; drum-head 345;* garments, 228-229, 255; thongs, 354: war-bundle wrapper. 311, 340. See Deerskin

Buffalo, efligy mound, 373-374; hair, wallet woven of, 313; horns, worn at dance. 111; hunt, 52, 190; Menomini far removed from, 120; native name for, 196; needle from boen of, 245; skinning of, 224; wool, use of, 120, 232, 238, 251. 253, 265 "

Buffalo dance, dream revelation of, 34; rites of, 73-74,111,374

Buffalo-hide, ammunition-bags of, 329; head- dresses of, 111; in war-bundle, 311; shields of, 319; trunks of, 296-298, 309

Buffalo-like horns of Panther, 263

Building bee for long-house, 103

Bima'i-gi'zik or Jim Paid'tckoivil on Bufifalo efhgy mound, 373-374

Bundle of dead person's clothes, 79; bundles of witches, 70. See Sacred bundles, War- bundles

Biingi, use of floral designs by, 277

Burden-straps, 89, 213-214, 247

Burls, bowls fashioned from, 287

Burning, rags, as charm, 209-210; tobacco, 35, 144; to hollow wood, 289-290

Bustle, eagle-feather, of Dreamers, 41-42, 121- 122

Butterfly ceremonial at Oconto, 280

Butternut-bark, black dye from, 344

Butternut juice used as dye, 113

Buttons of silver, 280-281

INDIAN^NOTES

INDEX

405

Caches, of copper objects at Oconto, 280; of corn, 101-102, 162; of wild rice, 150-152, 384. See Pits, Storage

Cakes, corn, 160; corn-meal, 159; maple-sugar molded into, 170-171; roe^, 206

Calfskin,- drum-heads of, 347-348

Calico, given to corpse, 79; lacrosse fees paid in, 56; men's shirts of, 114; women's waists of, 124, 126

Calking, of canoe, 221-222; of kettles, 166

a?// for deer, 183-185 _

Calumet of southern Siouan tribes, 75

Camps, Cree, 263; for canoe-making, 216; for harvesting wild rice, 143; for sugar-making, 75, 165, 168-169; log, 107; on road of dead, 44

Canada, quadrangular bark-house in, 86-87

Candy made of maple-sugar, 171

Cannibal giants inhabiting earth, 31; cannibals, tales about, 77

Can'iiihalism, 191-192; practised by witches, 70

Canoes, bark, invention of, 199-200; birch-bark, 208; cattails gathered into, 244; construction of , 216-222; deer hunted from, 185; elm-bark, 208, 216; fishing from, 200; log, 208, 216, 222- 223, 288; miniature, as charms, 360; rice harv-ested in, 145-147, 151; storage in, 152

Canvas, long-house covered with, 100

Cap, see Head-dress

Carrving-hoards, see Cradle-hoards

Carving, 332-339; antler, 112-113, 123, 138-139, 275, 292, 308-309, 331, 337-338; bone, 113, 171, 308, 331, 367-369; deer's dew-claws, 140; floral designs in, 279; stone, 336, 360, 362, 365; wood, 92, 97-98, 113, 123, 171, 203, 212-

AND MONOGRAPHS

406

MENOMINI CULTURE

213, 286-292, 299, 310, 312, 317, 338, 342- 343, 347, 354, 356-357, 359-360, 363, 368

Catfish, superstitions concerning, 180

Catlin, George, on buffalo robes among Meno- mini, 120; paintings by, 319

Catlinite, carved dish of, 336, 359-360; pipes of, 360-363, 365

Cat's-cradle game, 58

Cattail mats, lodges covered with, 86, 89-90. 107, 247, 309; making of, 244-246, 251, 307; storage of, 105

Cedar, bow-drill of, 301; broom of, 301; canoe framework of, 218; canoe of, 222; floats of, 201; flutes of, 356; spoons of, 289; trident of, 200-201

Cedar-hark, as tinder, 301-303; corn-kernels dried on, 160; couch covered with, 98; fiber bags woven from, 232, 236, 237, 309; lodges covered with, 86, 90-91, 95, 107; mat, roe spread under, "205; rope to carry fire, 303; scaffolds of, 153; slow-match of, 208; string, 201, 249; strips: checkerwork of, 236; mats woven of, 242, 247-248

Cedar-houghs, lodge of, 107

Celestial Medicine Lodge, ]Ma''nabus initiated into, 38-41. See Mitd'win

Celtic imagination, 77

Celts, 202-203, 319, 375, 383, 385; set in war- club, 314. See Axe

Central tribes, affiliation of Menomini mythology with, 76; customs among, 27-28; horse cul- ture among, 212; paintings of, 340; use of shields by, 319; weaving of, 242. See names of various tribes

Ceremonies, witch-bundle, 341. See Rites

INDIAN NOTES

INDEX

407

Charcoal, birch-bark, pigment of, 134, 222; de- fective dishes marked with, 166; face black- ened with, 132; on village-sites, 384; stencils outlined with, 273

Charms, against drowning, 360; chipped stone blades as, 127; controlled by Mita'win, 67; cup-and-pin game as, 369; evil, 341, 384; for hunting, 173-176; for love, 264, 334-335; given by Ma"nabus, 40; given in dreams, 33-34; in head-dress, 110; in war-bundles, 62, 64, 311-313, 369; kept from women, 93; owl as, 33^-Z3>(); puppets as, 2)d>2-2)^S; purchase of, 68,^176; rattlesnake design as, 128; war- bundles as, 310-313

Checkerwork weaving, 236, 242, 248, 293

Chelydra serpentina, see Snapping tortoise

Chevron design on pottery, 375

Chicago, 111., village-sites at, 381

Chicken etched on grave-post, 341

Chickeney, Charles, resident on Little river, 384

Chief, see Commander-in-Chief

Chiefs, animal. 32, 177; band-groups named after, 381-382; civil government hy, 51-52; facial painting of, 262-263; har\-est duties of, 143- 144

Children, cradles of, 214-215; drowning of, by witches, 71; game for, 57; graves of, 383-384; names given to, 49-51, 53; protection of, from ghosts, 52-53, 210; toys of, 215, 369. See Puberty

Chilton, Wis., native name for village-site at, 387

Chipmunk, superstition concerning, 179

Chipped stone blades as charms, 127

Chipping of flint, 323

Christianity among Menomini, 24, 29, 42-43

AND MONOGRAPHS

408	MENOMINI CULTURE
	Circular ground-plan of lodge, 86 Clam-shells, as tweezers, 130, 136; clay tem- pered with, 282; spoons of, 292-293, 309 Clait's, arrows made of, 322; as medicines, 66; -necklaces of, 128, 140, 387-388 Clay, dishes and spoons of, 285; dye boiled with, 344; pottery sized with, 283; roast wrapped in, 194-195; tempering of, 282. See Pottery Clean place, bundles opened in, 174; skull hung in, 177 Cleansing of soul, 45 Climate, influence of, on culture, 153-154 . Closed twined weaving, 234-236 Cloth, bag of, 347; decorative strips of, 121; foundation for beadwork, 255; leggings of, 115-116; offered to Wa'bano, 332; tying- band of, 215; wrappings of, 333. See Broad- cloth Clothing, of corpse, 78-79; of statue, 332; sacri- ficed to supernatural powers, 34. See Dress Coil process, baskets made by, 296 Collars, beadwork, 254 Color, 91, 109-110, 113, 115-116, 121, 123-125. 127, 132-134, 178, 222, 232-235, 240, 243, 248, 252, 253, 257, 258, 266, 268, 274, 275. 295, 311, 320, 327, 332, 333, 340, 343-344, 347, 355, 363, 366-369 Colors, appropriate to Sky-sisters, 30, 268-269; painting in, 340; symbolism of, 30, 132-133, 268-269, 317, 346, 348. See Blue, Green, Red, Yellow Comb-case, 138-139, 338 Combs of german silver, 123 Commander-in-chief, duties of, 51-52
	INDIAN NOTES

INDEX	409
Communal lodge, construction of, 99-100, 107. See Long-house Conical t^-pe of lodge, 85-86, 99 Connecticut, semi-globular lodge in, 85 Construction of lodges, 88-105, 107 Contempt, sign language for, 59 Conventionalized designs in embroidery, 267 Cooking, of corn, 159-162; of fish, 204-206; of meats, 193-196; of rice, 149, 151-153, 157; of wild potatoes, 152-153 Copper, arrowheads, 280, 312, 323, 326; awls, 305; celts, 202-203, 319; fishhooks, 201; im- plements, 208, 280, 288, 373, 375, 378, 383-385; kettles, 285-286; knives, 320; spear-heads, 200; tail of Great White Bear, 30-31; working of. 279-280 Cord-'b.rapped stick, pottery impressed with, 283. 375-376 Corn, caches for, 101-102, 158; cooking of, 152- 153, 159-162; crushing of, 304; cultivation of, 156-157; curing of, 157-159; economic value of, 153-154; hulling of, 237; legend of, 154- 156; native terms for, 157, 163; storage of, 162,231 Corncobs, fire of, 228 Corn-field of So'man Jim, 98 Cornhusks, lodges covered with, 86 Cosmetics, bags for, 136-138 Cosmogonic myth, 35-38, 76-77, 179 Costume, see Dress Couch built into lodge, 91, 96, 98, 108 Councils, names changed by, 53, 63; part of, in government, 51 Coups, recital of, 63, 75, 80; symbols of, on grave- posts, 260, 341
AND MONOGRAPHS

410	MENOMINI CULTURE
	Courage, bear's-claw necklace proof of, 387-388; derived from cannibalism, 191-192. See Power Courting, flutes used in, 356-357 Covering, blanket as, 203; for lodges, 85-86, 89- 90, 95, 105, 107, 238, 242, 244-247; for long- house, 100 Cow, needle from bone of, 245 Cowrie-shells, necklaces of, 126, 140 Coyote or Spider, concept of, among Plains tribes, 37 Cradle-boards, 52, 96, 214r-215 Crane gens, 48 Cree, concept of Trickster among, 37; data gath- ered among, 20; dialect of, 24; ice-chisels of, 202; moccasins of, 117-118; storage receptacles of, 301; Eastern: cooking of, 194; semi-glob- ular lodges of, 86;Plains: Thunderbird design among, 263; use of floral designs by, 277-278 Cries, of ghost, 43-44; of goblins, 210 Crooked Lake reserve, Saskatchewan, 263 Cross-stitching of applique-work, 268 Crow belt of Plains tribes, 121 Crow or Raven gens, 48 Culture, prehistoric, 371-372; typical artifacts of, 372-378 Ctdture god, myth of, 76-77. See Md"nabus Cup-and-pin game, 58, 368-369 Cuts of venison, 193-194, 197-198 Cutwork on rawhide pouches, 299-301 Cycle of Trickster, 37, 77 Cylinder used in rites of Je"sako, 72. See Tube Cylindrical, opening in Heavens, 29-30; storage cases, 205
	INDIAN NOTES

INDEX

411

Dakota, Eastern or Santee, alliance of Menomini with, 60; data gathered among, 20; floral designs of, 277; Heyoka of, 71; ice-fishing among, 203; semi-globular lodges of, 86; weaving of, 234. See Siouan tribes

Dance, at war-bundle ceremony, 60, 64; bags worn at, 255-256; bustle worn at, 41-42, 121-122; Medicine, introduced bv Ma"nabus, 39-40; of Buffalo cult, 73-74; of Dreamers, 41-42; of hunting-bundle, 174; of victor)^ 63, 74; on going to war, 61 ; shut-eye, of Ma''nabus, 380; dances, list of, 74-75

Dancing men, 41. See Dreamers

Danglers of beadwork, 115. See Pendants, Streamers, Strips

Darts for distance throwing, 369

Da-wn, connection of Ma"nabus concept with, 36-38; war attack commenced before, 62. See Great Dawn

Dead, abode of, 38; feast of, 45-46, 79, 81; hut for, 99; impersonator of, 46, 81; INlita'win rites for, 75; mourning for, 81-82; Na'^patao lord of, 73; road of, 44-45. See GJiost, Spirits, Mortuary customs

Deadfall for bear, 187

Death, caused by: living skeleton, 31; watch- craft, 69-71; women during menses, 54, 93; inverted totem symbolic of, 80, 341; of ]Ma"nabus, 39; of >s"a'''patao, 38, 45; penalty for adulter>% 55; resurrection from, 177; un- cleanness caused by, 145; songs at funeral, 78. See Ghost, Spirits, Mortuary cw^ioms

Deaths Door, Wis., native name for, 386

Declaration of war, 60-61

Decoration, sep Designs

AND MONOGRAPHS

412

ME NO MINI CULTURE

Deer, bones, as tools, 160, 179, 226, 250-251; bones, cooked, 162; bones, ground, 368-369; brains, sizing with, 321; design, as love-charm, 264; dew-claws and hoofs, 61, 140, 179, 311, 325, 354-355; foot, sheath of, 128; hair, balls stuffed with, 367; hair, roach of, 109, 111-113, 140; hair tufts, 320, 355; hunting of, 182-186, 325; jaw, scraper of, 161; native names for, 196; skinning of, 224-225; veneration for, 178- 179; wolves masters of, 175-176, 178, See Venison, White Deer

Deer gens, 48

Deer-hoof, jinglers, 355; ornaments, 128, 140; rattles, 61, 311, 354

Deer's-ear root, a plant, 135

Deerskin, ammunition-bag, 330; bag for drum, 347; bows wrapped with, 320; cosmetic bag, 136; drum-head, 345; garments, 109, 113- 115, 117, 124-126, 178, 228-229, 255; offered to sun, 75; quilled, 268, 274; sheaths, 128, 320; shells for scraping, 378; tanning of, 226- 229; thongs, 115,213-214, 226, 227, 251, 252, 317, 329, 330, 354; war-bundle wrappers, 311, 3 13, 340. See Buckskin, Doeskin

Dehairing, of hides, 226, 229; tweezers for, 130- 131, 136

Deities, see Benevolent powers. Malevolent powers

Delawares, burden-straps of, 214; hairless bear of, 190; leggings of, 115; puppets of, 333; semi- globular lodge among, 85; Thunderbird de- signs among, 262

Dens, killing of bear in, 187, 189

DePere, Wis., native name for village-site at, 387

Designs, animal, 234, 257, 259, 264, 336-337, 359, 362, 368; bands, 235, 243, 346, 348; birds, 257,

INDIAN NOTES

INDEX

413

264, 308. 314; chevron, 375; chicken, 341; conventionalized, 267; deer, 264; disc, 121; doublv-curved, 256-257, 273; eagle, 234; esoteric, 350-351; eye, 222, 266; fish, 338, 362; floral, 116, 124, 242-243, 256-258, 266, 268, 271-273, 276-279, 337-338, 362, 366; friend- ship, 261, 265; fruit, 258; geometric, 234, 241, 243, 257, 261, 267-269, 272, 276, 279; Great Underground Panther, 263-265; hands and heads, 348; heart, 272, 338; hexagon, 265-266, 269; horse's head, 336, 356-357, 360; hour- glass, 259-260, 266; houses, 338; lacrosse racquets, 338; lattice, 363; loon, 347; lozenge, 243, 248, 265, 269, 272; moth, 271-272; on potters-, 283; on reed mats, 91; plumed war- rior, 316; realistic, 128, 257, 259, 267, 337, 368; scallops, 235; ships, 338; snakes, 264- 265; spider-web, 265; staf, 258, 266; Thunder- bird, 133, 241, 258-259, 261-264, 314, 337, 343, 354, 368; turtle, 139, 171, 264, 337, 341, 368; warclubs, 338; woven, 120, 252-256, 330- 331; zigzag, 261. See Effigy

Destruction by charms, 333-334

Detroit, siege of, 315

Deiv-clau'S, as ornaments, 140; rattles of, 354; uses of, 179

Diagonal twined weaving, 236

Diagonal weaving, 126, 243, 255

Diamond designs, see Lozenge designs

Dice, bowls for throwing, 287; carved, 337; game, 58, 367-368

Disc design on dance-bustle, 121; discs for dice game, 368

Disease, see Sickness

AND MONOGRAPHS

414	MENOMINI CULTURE
	Dishes, bark, 134, 160, 165-166, 172, 260-261, 265, 295, 310; earthenware, 285; sacrificial, 359-360. See Bouis, Kettles Distance hurling, 58, 368-369 Diviners of Je"sako cult, 33-34, 71-72 Division of game, 181-182 Divorce, adultery cause for, 55 Doctor, Ma"nabus disguised as, 38; doctors of Je"sako cult, 3Z, 40 Doe, as food, 194; hunting of, 183-185; native name for, 196 Doeskin, ancient waist of, 125-126; leggings of, 114^115, 229 Dog, dance, 75; feast, on opening war-bundle, 61; guarding passage to Hereafter, 45; dogs: bones kept from, 75-76, 177; ceremonial eating of, 179, 196; inhabiting lonely places, 32; sacrificed to supernatural powers, 34; used in hunting, 185, 191 Dog gens, 48 Dolls, 215; used in witchcraft, 70. See Puppets Dome-shaped lodge, see Semi-glohnlar lodge Door, mat serving as, 90, 98, 247 Door peninsula, native name for, 386 Doorposts or saplings of winter-lodge, 88-89, 91 Doiihly-cnrved designs, in applique, 273; in bead- work, 256-257 Down, tufts of dyed, 111, 121, 366 Drawing, see Etching Draw-sticks game, 58 Dream dance, bustle of, 41-42, 121-122^ facial painting in, 132; wife given away at, 55. See Dreamers
	INDIAN NOTES

INDEX

415

Dreamers, dance of, 74; metal-ware given to, 285-286; society of: 41-42, 69, 96, 347; catlinite pipes of, 363; drum of, 347-349

Dream-guardian, carved s}Tnbol of, 92; repre- sented on bag, 264; statues of, 331; Thunder- birds as, 259, 316

Dreams, buffalo-portent in, 73, 374; bundles given in, 67-68, 174; charms indicated in, 176, 360; communication bv, with supernatural, 33-34, 259; designs de'rived from, 241-242, 350; instructions as to arrows in, 323, 325; medicines given in, 66; names revealed in, 5Z; of Ma"nabus, 73; of Thunderbirds, 73; puberty fast inducing, 53-54; right to war- arrows conferred by, 322; right to war-bun- dles conferred by, 60, 310; right to warclubs conferred by, 316; ritual of Dreamers given in, 41

Dress, 109-130, 238; of women, 124-126, 267- 273

Dressing of game, 193

Dried, corn, 160; fish, 204-205; meat, 102, 108, 157, 193-194, 309; vegetables, 153, 162

Drills, stone, 375, 377

Drink, ceremonial serving of, 293

Driving of deer, 182-183

Droivning, charms against, 360; caused by witch- craft, 71; of noisy persons, 387

Drums: 344-351; of Dreamers, 41-42, 347-349; of Je''sako cult, 349-351; of Keshena falls, 199; of Wa'bano cult,98, 349-351; of Woman's dance, 349; worship of Thunderbirds through, 73

Drumsticks, of Dreamers' drum, 348; of shaman's drum, 351; of water-drum, 346-347

AND MONOGRAPHS

416	MENOMINI CULTURE
	Drying, oi cattails, 245; of ki'nikinik, 359; of pottery, 283; of reeds, 239-240, of rice, 150, 151; of wi'kop, 250; platforms, 108 _ Dual, cycle of Trickster, 37-38, 77; division or moiety, 49, 65, 200, 387; soul, 43 Duck creek, native name for, 386 Dumplings, roe, 206 Dutchman, Charlie, leggings of, 114 Dutch wampum, necklaces of, 126-127 Dyed, deer's hair roach, 109, 111-113; deerskin, 125, 268; hawk-feathers, 110; porcupine-quills, 127, 266; tufts, 121, 320, 355, 366 Dyeing, of leather, 275; of reeds, 240 Dyes, vegetal, 113, 248, 343-344. See Color, Colors. Eagle, bear assisted by, 46; design, 234; eagles inhabiting empyrean, 30 Eagle-feather, dance-bustle, 41-42, 121-122; fans, 98, 363; granted for kilhng foeman, 63; in roach, 113; eagle-feathers: adornment of, 275; boxes for holding, 299; statue adorned with, 332 Eagle-plumes adorning fillets, 110 Eagle-skins, magic of, 312 Earrings, 128, 135, 281 Earth, belonging to Underneath gods, 286; created by sun, 35; herbs and roots, hairs of, 38, 66; island-form of, 29; knowledge of, cleansed from soul, 45; recreation of, 36, 179; return of soul to, 45-46, 75, 81; sacrificial tobacco buried in, 35, 66, 144; supernatural denizens of, 31-32; wild rice springing from, 143 Earthenware, see Pottery
	INDIAN NOTES

INDEX

417

East, four sisters of, 268

East, or Wa'pan, connection of ]Ma"nabus con- cept with, 36-38

Eastern Woodland culture, characteristics of, 277- 278. See Forest tribes

Effigv, dishes and spoons, 336; handles of wooden "'spoons, 289, 292; mounds, 264, 373-374; effigies, human: 341-343; used in witchcraft, 70

£i'.? used to clear maple syrup, 170; eggs of Thunderbirds, 317

E!f causing sleep, 32

Elk, design, 264; flint boiled in grease of, 323; native name for, 196; skinning of, 224

Elk gens, 48

Ellis Junction, Wis., effigy mound near, 373-374

Elm, baskets made of, 294; bows made of, 321

Elm-bark, cache lined 'with, 152; canoes, 208, 216; lodges covered with, 86, 91, 95, 107; roe dried on, 205; smoke-hole covered with, 90; storage boxes of, 162; string of, 249. See Slippery-elm bark

Embroidery, beadwork: 110, 116-117, 254-255, 266-267, 330; decorative designs of, 256-258; floral designs in, 279; native terms for, 140; on mats, 243; quillwork, 122, 125, 266-268, 274-276, 299-301, 320, 330; solid, 119; sym- bolism lacking in, 268; utensils used in, 275, 301, 308-309

Empyrean, abode of benevolent powers, 29-30.' See Land of spirits

Enemies, charms against, 67, 333-334; hearts of, eaten, 191-192; represented on grave-post, 341; souls of, as servants, 44, 80

Epaulets, beaded, 114

AND MONOGRAPHS

418	MENOMINI CULTURE
	Esoteric designs, 350-351 Etching, 340-343; on pottery, 262; on silver, 128; on wood, 359 Eternity, red and black signifying, 317. 346 Ethnohotony, tribal, 28 Ethnogeography, tribal, 379-390 _ Europe, influence of, on Menomini, 78; ]\Ieno- mini soldiers carried to, 27; origin of horse in, 211. See Whites Evildoers, exclusion of, from Spirit-land, 45 Evil, charms, 67, 335-336, 341, 384; dreams, significance of, 54 Evil poivers, see Malevolent powers Expiation of sin, 31-32. See Punishment Eye, design on bags, 266; eyes: adorning canoe, 222; as hunting trophies, 190; death-deahng, 31 Face, blackened in mourning, 81; of corpse painted,_ 78; painting of , 132-133, 262-263 Fall, hunting in, 189; sacrifice to war-bundles in, 60; skins prime in, 229 False-face or mask, 210-211 Falsework for canoe, 219-220 Family, canoe built by, 216; customs of , 52-56; duties of: in mourning, 80; in victory dance, 63-64; to partizan, 61; game etiquette of, 181; gods of, ?>Z?>; lodge built by, 103. See Relatives Fans^ of eagle-feathers, 98, 363 Fasting, dream revelations induced by, 34, 53- 54, 259; magical power obtained through, 69; supernatural gifts secured by, 174 Fastnesses inhabited by pygmies, 32 Fat as food, 194 Father-in-law, rights of, 181
	INDIAN NOTES

INDEX

Fawnskin, wrapper of, 229

Feas!, at Bear ceremony, 75; at rice harvest. 144, 148, 149; at war-bundle ceremony, 60, 64; of dead, 45-46, 79, 81; of first game, 180- 181; on opening war-bundle, 61; to war- bundles, 313; feasts: bowls for, 286; dishes of corn for, 160; food for, 179-180; ladles for, 286, 289; maple-sugar used at, 171-172; to Wa'bano, 331

Feasting in Spirit-land, 45

Feathered, arrows, 325-326; name, 316

Feathers, adorning fillets, 110-111; as charms, 312; dance-bustle adorned with, 121; sacred pole adorned with, 92-93. See Eagle-feather, Plumes

Feet as hunting trophies, 190

Fetishes given in dreams, 34. See Charms

Fetus-skin, war-bundle wrapper of, 340

Fiber, bags, 152, 231-237, 251, 309; bark, 152, 168, 222, 227, 232, 234, 236, 237, 245; nettle, 232, 251; string, 201, 231-232; used in calk- ing, 168, 222. See Bast, Wi'kop

Fillets of fur, 109-111, 140. See Head-dress

Fire, balls of, witches transformed into, 69; immunity from, 71; making of, 101, 301-303; tobacco burned :n, 35, 144; fires on road of dead, 44. See Prairie fires

Fire-drills, 301

Fire-hardened arrows, 327

Fireplace, in center of lodge, 89, 90, 92, 98, 100; in general, 100-103, 384

Firewood, cut with stone axes, 318; determining location of villages, 106

Firing of pottery, 284

AND MONOGRAPHS

419

420

MENOMINI CULTURE

Firstborn, Mudje'kiwis colloquial term for. 49-50

First game, dance of, 74

Fish, abundance of, 153, 371; cooking of, 204- 206; design, 338, 362; native terms for, 207; smoking of, 102

Fisheries, tribal, 84

Fishhooks, 201; copper, 280, 375, 383 _

Fishing, charms for, 67, 333; economic import- ance of, 173, 198, 371; methods of, 198-204

Fishing-tackle, 200-204, 208

Fish, Jim, acknowledgment to, 20

Fish, Peter, acknowledgment to, 20; on prehis- toric kettles, 284-285

Five Nations, long-house of, 87. See Iroquois

Flag, surmounting sacred pole, 92

Flageolets, see Flutes

Flailing of wild rice, 150

Flaps, beaded, 348; on dance-bustle, 121; on leggings, 114; on moccasins, 117, 136

Flat Rock, Wis., native name for village-site at. 385

Flint, and steel, pipes lighted with, 303; arrow- points, 322, 323, 327; implements, 288; knives, 320, 377, 384; flints, bodies lacerated with, 81-82

Floats for fishing, 201-204

Flood, recreation of earth after, 36, 179

Floral designs, appliqued, 124, 268, 271-273; beaded, 116, 256-258, 366; carved, 337-338; distribution of, 276-279; on bags, 266; on mat, 242-243; on pipes, 362

Flower-pot design, 278

Fluted stone axes, 375

Flutes, 356-357

INDIAN NOTES

INDEX

Flying heads and skulls, S2 Folk-lore, see Myths

Folles-Avoines of Nation of Wild Oats, 151 PollojiYs of Ma' nabus, 40. See Mita'ivin Fonddu Lac, Wis., 218; native name for, m- village-sites near, 381 '

Food animal 173-207; conventional represen-

60 Tff'^'.^f l^^'.P'^^ t« bundle-owners, 60, offered to bundle of clothes, 79; offered

t.ff' ^'^?' ^^^' f^^^fi^^d to siipernat- ural powers, 34; vegetal, 142-173

toot, deer's, as knife-sheath, 128

Foot-racing game, 58

Forehead, annointed with ashes, 209-210- bur- den-straps crossing, 213

Fore^/, haunted by living skeleton, 31; trails

?n^-''X°^' ^i' 2^^' t"bal habitats in, 84' 11)0-106; war-bundle opened in, 61 Forest tribes, carved spoons of, 290-292- cat limte among, 360-361; cultivation of to- bacco by, 35^; data gathered among, 20- decorative designs of, 256; embroidety of,' 20/; floral designs distinctive of, 276-279- house t3pes of, 85; irregular villages of, 105- 106; meal-making of, 159; moccasins of, 211- portable cradles of, 214; pipes of, 364 tex- tile arts of, 230-231; tobacco pouches of 365- wild rice culture of, 142; wooden bowls com- mon to, 286

PormulcE, contained in hunting-bundles 173

1 /o; gifts of Ma"nabus, 40, 66 Fort Hou^ard Wis., village-sites at, 381, 386-

white settlers at, 274 '

Fort Meigs, Ohio, capture of, 192 Fossils as medicines, 66

AND MONOGRAPHS

421

422	MENOMINI CULTURE
	Foul weather caused by waste, 147, 167. See Weather Four, bunches of shavings, 80; coups recounted, 80; days and nights to Otherworld, 44; days, Je"sako cylinder used during, 72; days, prayer for, in harvest, 144-145; days, soul cleansed at expiration of, 45; days, tattooing pigment worn, 135; degrees of Mita'win, 64; Sky-sisters, 268; tiers of empyrean, 29; winds, creative agency of, 35 \ witches, 70 Fox, see Sauk and Fox Foxes, witches transformed into, 69 Fox gens, 48 Fox, G. R., on early Menomini sites, 83 Fox river, native name for landmark on, 387; village-sites on, 83, 386 Fox squirrels, skins of, 137 Frame for weaving: bags, 231; beadwork, 252, 257-258, 310; mats, 240-241 Frameivork, for canoe, 218; of long-house, 100; of summer-house, 93-94 Free and Accepted Masons, society of, 39-40 French, accounts by, of Menomini, 28-29; among Menomini, 83; battle of, with Sauk, 388 Friendship, attracted by charms, 67; design, 261, 265 Fringe on leggings, 114^115; fringes: of woven quillwork, 275; on garters, 119; on moccasins, 117; on tobacco pouches, 365 Frogs, mating songs of, 199 Fruit designs, 258; fruits, edible, 162-163 Funeral customs, see Mortuary customs Funeral rites of Mita'win, 75, 96-97. See Memorial ceremony
	INDIAN NOTES

INDEX	423
Fur, ancient robe of, 126; deer's, 178; fillets, 109-111, 140; streamers, 110, 136; strips, 348, 356, 363, 365. See Pelts, Skins Future foretold in dreams, 53-54. See Prophets Galloping, sign language for, 59 Game, abundance of, 153; arrows for, 327; division of, 181-182; feast of, 180-181; iMa"nabus master of, 40; superstitions about, 173-182, 194. See Hunting Games, paraphernalia for, 367-369; tribal, 56-58 Garters, of women, 125; of woven beadwork, 119, 252-256; Thunderbird, 258-259 Garter-snakes, superstitions concerning, 179 Genies, tribal, 46-51, 388; segregation of, in villages, 106. See Totem Gentile names, 49-51; awarding of, 53, 63, 388 Geometric designs, 234, 241, 243, 257, 261,267- 269, 272, 276, 279 German silver, bracelets of, 128; combs of, 123; ornaments of, 280-281; roach spreader of, 113 Germany,, effect of war with, on Menomini, 27 Ghost or soul, 43-44; confusion of, at funeral, 79-80; grave-shed erected for, 80-81, 99, 261; ghosts: precautions against, 209-210; stories oiF, 78. See Soul, Spirits Giants inhabiting earth, 31 Gifts, attracted by charms, 67, 333; made to ]Ma"nabus, 65; medicines regarded as, 66; obligatory at lacrosse, 56; of magic, 173-175; of \\ild rice, 143; sign language for, 59, 181; to corpse, 79 Gill-nets, 201-202, 208
AND MONOGRAPHS

424	MENOMINI CULTURE
	Girls, puberty of, 54; revelation of Dreamers to, 41; toys of, 215. See Children Glue, 356; made of deer, 179, 325; made of sturgeon, 322; used in making bows and ar- rows, 320, 323, 325-326 Glue-stick, 326 Goblins, travelers frightened by, 210-211 Gods, good, sacrifices to, 33; honored by games, 56; of war: paintings of, 311; Thunderbirds as, 30, 314; Wa'bano as, 97-98. See Benevo- lent powers, Malevolent powers, Thunderbirds, Wa'bano Golden Eagle gens, 48 Golden eagles inhabiting empyrean, 30 Good-luck charms. 67, 335. See Ill-luck Gorgets, stone, 375 Gouge for piercing maple trees, 167 Gourd rattles, 311, 352-354; at funerals, 78; of So'man Jim, 98. See Rattles Government, tribal, 51-52; U. S., IMenomini drafted by, 27 Gm^e^ of sugar, 171-172 Grandfather, title of rice, 144 Grandmother, title of earth, 35, 38, 66 Grass, burned in parching rice, 150; dolls of, in witchcraft, 70; lodge, 86, 107; spread be- neath carcass, 193, 224 Grasshoppers, tobacco-myth of, 357-358 Grave, ceremonies at, 80-81; mortuary offerings in, 44, 80; graves: of children,' 383-384; robbed of bodies by witches, 70; tortoise-shell bowls in, 288 Grave-posts, decoration of, 80, 260, 340-341 Grave-sheds, 80-81, 99, 261 Graveyard, ghost lingering in, 43-44
	INDIAN NOTES

INDEX

Gray fur of deer, 178

Grease, bladders for storing, 301; flint boiled in, 323; green wood rubbed with, 321; sea- soning with, 151, 160

Great Ancestral Bear gens, 47

Great Dawn, derived title of Ma"nabus, 38. See Md"nahus

Great Hare or Mate Wa'pus, 35-36, 77. See Md"nahus

Great Horned Snake, see Horned hairy snakes

Great Mythical Bear, see Great White Bear

Great Sand Bar people, a band name, 380

Great Spirit or Mate Haivd'tuk, as creator, 35; birds messengers of, 30; power of Ma"nabus derived from, 36; sun-concept of, 29; wor- shiped through drum, 41

Great Underground Bear, see Great White Bear

Great Underground P anther, 3\; dream of, 241- 242; on medicine-bags, 263-265

Great White Bear, ancestor of ]Menomini, 46; Bear gens descended from, 51; inhabiting lowest tier of Underworld, 30-31; inventions of, 199-200

Green, dice painted, 368; dye, 344; symbolism of, 346, 348. See Blue

Green Bay, copper implements of, 280; native name for, 386; quillwork of, 274; Sauk and Fox driven from, 59-60; shells of, 376; stone implements of, 319; village-sites on, 83-84; 105-106, 198, 362, 370, 372, 380

Green Bay, Wis., 280, 293, 383, 385; collections in, 274, 370; village-sites at, 386

Grills, built over fireplace, 102. See Scaffolds

Grizzly bear, 190; necklace made of claws of, 387-388

425

AND MONOGRAPHS

426	MENOMINI CULTURE
	Grooved, axes, 312, 318-319, 375, 383; mauls, 280 Ground-plan, of lodges, variations in, 86-87; of long-house, 100 Gruels made of corn-meal, 159 Guardian, see Dream guardian Guests, place of honor for, 92, 108 Gulf, culture, semi-globular lodges of, 85; re- gion, esthetic designs of, 276-277 Gun-butt warclubs, 314 Halting of arrows, 323-325 Hair, in mourning, 81-82; mode of wearing, 122-123, 130-132, 141, 335; noose of, 191; of deer, uses of, 109, 111-113, 178-179, 320, 355, 367; hairs of Earth grandmother, 3.8, 66. See Horsehair Hair-brushes, porcupine tails as, 139 Hairless bear or kinu'a, servant of Great White Bear, 31,190 Half-moons, carved, 368 Hammerstones, 384 Handbook of American Indians, cited, 142, 327 Handles, carved, of sp6ons, 289-290; effigy, 336; inlaid, of warclub, 316; of awls, 305-306. See Bail Hands, design on drum, 348; washing of blood from, 63-64 Hangings, mats as, 238, 242 Happiness, red symbolizing, 132-133, 346 Harpoons for fishing, 200 Harrington, M. R., acknowledgment to, 242; garters collected by, 259; on false-face, 211; on green dye, 344 Harvest, dance of , 74 Harvesting of wild rice, 52, 143-151
	INDIAN NOTES

INDEX

427

Hato'ii'i or ato'ici, game of, 57-58.

Hawk-bells, in tattooing outfit, 134; on dance- bustle, 121

Haivk-feathers,^ adorning fillets, 110; arrows feathered with, 325

Hawks inhabiting empyrean, 30

Hawk-skins, magic of, 312

Headache, tattooing for, 133

Head-bands, see Fillets

Head-dress, of buffalo at Buffalo dance, 73; of men, 109-113, 238; of women, 122-123. See Fillets, Roach

Heads: carved on spoon handles, 289; design on drum, 3-48; flying, 32; ghosts resident in, 43; horses'; car\-ed, 336, 356-357, 360; loon's, carved, 347; of drums, 345-348; Thunder- birds, carved, 354

Health, charms guarding, 333. See Sickness

Hearth-board, 301

Heart, design, appliqued, 272; design, carved, 338; human, eating of, 70, 191-192; human, powder from, 334-335; moose's, roasted, 194

Heavens, see Empyrean, Land of spirits

Heddles, beadwork woven on, 257-258; car\'ed, 338; native name for, 310

Hematite, red dye from, 344

Hemlock, bows made of, 321

Hemlock-bark, lodge of, 107; red dye from, 344

Hemp, Indian, 232. See Nettles

Herbs, as medicines, 38, 65, 66, 312; buffalo's knowledge of, 74; flint boiled with, 323; in tattooing outfit, 134-135; in war-bundle, 311- 312; skins treated with, 225

Hereafter, belief in, 43-46, 81; dramatization of belief in, 64-65

AND MONOGRAPHS

428

MENOMINI CULTURE

Heroes, tales of, 77

Hewitt, J. N. B., on derivation of ]\Ienomini, 142

Hexagon designs in textiles, 265-266, 269

Heyoka of Dakota, 71

Hickory, bows made of, 320-321

High Baulks, Wis., fishhook found at, 201; native name for, 383, 388; village-site at, 370, 372

Hills, corn planted in, 156-157; lodges located on, 106; supernatural denizens of, 32

Hillside, caches situiteJ ia, 150-152

History of the Ojebway Ifidians, Peter Jones, author, 211

History of the Ojihways, W. W. Warren, author, 326

Hobgoblins inhabiting earth, 31

Hoes, aboriginal, 157

Hoffman, W. J., folk-lore collected b}', 76; on arbors, 99; on band-names, 382; on bark mats, 248; on basketry, 294; on beadwork, 252-256; on bows, 320; on bow-strings, 329; on moccasins, 118; on poisoned arrow- points, 327; on prehistoric artifacts, 376-378; on twilled weaving, 236

Hog, Mrs Kopai'as Weke, acknowledgment to, 20; love charm of, 334-335

Hog, Thomas, death of, 334

Hogs inhabiting lonely places, 32

Hole, corn baked in, 160; rice cached in, 152; rice threshed in, 148, 151. See Pits

Holy sky color, or blue, 133. See Blue

Hominy or coarse corn-meal, 159

Honey as lure, 188

INDIAN NOTES

INDEX

429

Honor, place of, in lodge, 92, 108; honors of war. 62-63

Hoofs of deer, as ornaments, 128, 140, 355; glue of, 179, 325) rattles of, 61, 311, 354

Hooks, articles suspended on, 91-92; on spoon handles, 290-292

Hoop, of water-drum, 345; scalp stretched on, 62

Hoot oui, see Oivl

Horizontal twined weaving, 235

Horn for calling deer, 185

Horned hairy snakes, 31-32; cattail sign of, 244; design on sorcerer's bag, 265; sacrifice to, 384; scales of, as charm, 335; witch medicine from, 70. See Snakes

Horned oid, skin of, in witch's bundle, 70

Horns, buffalo, head-dress with, 111; of Un- derground Panther, 263

Horse, carved head of, 336, 356-357, 360; im- portance of, 211; inhabiting lonely places, 32; trappings for, 212-213

Horsehair, bead necklaces woven on, 126; strips adorned with, 275

Hourglass design, 259-260, 266

Household vocabular}% 309-310

House-mats, see Cattail mats

House types of INlenomini, 84-88; houses, carved design, 338. See Lodges

Hudson hav, semi-globular lodge on, 86; tribes of, 118

Hudson river, ]\lahican chief from, 262

Hidled corn, 153, 237

Hulling of rice, 150

Hulling-bags for corn, 161-162, 231, 232, 237- 238, 309

Hunters, corn preparation for, 158

AND MONOGRAPHS

430

MENOMINI CULTURE

Hunting, arrows for, 322-323, 325-326; charms for good-luck in, 67, 3?)Z, 369; of bear, 187 190; of deer, 182-186; of small game, 190-191; paraphernalia for, 329-330; supernatural con trol of, 67, 70-71, 173-177

Hunting-bundles, 173-176, 183, 355; given by Ma"nabus, 40; given in dreams, 34; wolf-skin fillets in. 111

Husband, status of, 54-56

Husking of corn, 158-159

Ice-chisel, 202-203 Ice-games, 58, 368 Ill-luck caused by: waste, 178; witchcraft, 70.

See Good-luck Immortality, belief in, 38-39, 44, 64-65, 81;

given by Ma'nabus, 40 Impersonator of dead, 46, 81 Implements, prehistoric, 280, 375-378. See

Tools Impressed designs on pottery, 283, 375-376 Incantations., 341; for hunting, 173. See

Formulce. Incense in hunting-bundle, 174-175 Incised, carving on antler, 139; designs: on

bone, 308; on pottery, 283, 375; on terracotta

pipe, 362. See Etching Indian hemp or nettle-fiber, 232 Influenza, Pagan party decimated by, 27 Inheritance of dreams, 68 Initiation, into Dreamers, 42; into Mita'win,

40, 46, 64, 81, 293; into Peyote religion, 43 Inlays, beaded, 316; on pipes, 362, 365 In league with thunder, 263, 316 Insanity caused by charms, 67

INDIAN NOTES

INDEX	431
Intellect regarded as soul, 43 Inversion of totem symbolic of death, 80, 341 Invisibility secured by charms, 62, 312 loii'a, data gathered among, 20; war-bundles among, 313; weaving of, 234 Iron, arrowpoints, 325; gouge, 167; kettles, 285-286; pipe-tomahawks, 364; spears, 201; wash-tub for drum, 347 Iroquois, burden-straps of, 214; culture of New York, 376; embroidery of, 267: false-face of, 210-211; house types of, 85-87; practical char- acter of, 25; silver brooches of, 281; sites, jinglers on, 355; treatment of flint by, 323; wooden bowls of, 288 Islafid, earth believed to be, 29; :Ma"nabus taken to, 176 Itaglios of panther, 264 JackligJit, deer hunted with, 185, 201; fishing by, 201; native name for, 208 Jackson, Matilda, acknowledgment to, 20 Jams of fruit, 162 Jars, decorated earthenware, 375; of Pan-Al- gonkian t\'pe, 284-285. See Pottery Jasper drills, 377 Jaw, deer's, scraper of, 161 Jenks, A. E., on transplanting wild rice, 143 Je''sako cult, diviners of, 33-34; drum of , 349- 351; ]SIa''nabus patron of, 40; paraphernalia of, purchased, 97; rites of, 71-72 Jesuit on clam-shells as spoons, 293; Jesuits, accounts by, of Menomini, 28-29 Jinglers, 140, 355 Joking relationship, a formal etiquette, 55-56, 59 Jonah concept, 200
AND MONOGRAPHS

432	MENOMINI CULTURE
	Jones, Peter, author of History of the Ojebway Indians, 211 Jones, William, bone implement found by, 305; buffalo-hide trunk collected by, 297 Jourdain, J., pipe-tomahawks of, 364 Journey, perils of, 209-211; to the Land of Spirits, 38, 44, 53, 72, 80 Jugglers, see Prophets Kd'kdk, Jane, acknowledgment to, 20 Kd'kwatc, Louis, acknowledgment to, 20 Kansa, data gathered among, 20; war-bundles among, 313 Kaukauna, Wis., native name for ^•illage-site at, 387 Kaw, war-bundles among, 313 Kellogg Public Library, acknowledgment to, 370; quillwork in, 274 Keshena, Wis., 204, 216; statue near, 332; village near, 389 Keshena Agency, Wis., native name for, 389 Keshena falls, Wis., sturgeon at, 199; village- site at,' 380 Keshena, John, acknowledgment to, 20 Ke'soa'pomesdo; acknowledgment to, 20; leg- gings of, 114 Kettles, birch-bark, 195-196; earthen, 195, 286, 309; for sugar-making, 169; metal, 285-286; mode of suspending, 92, 102, 168-169; stone, 284-285; stones supports for, 101; washing of, 172 Kickapoo, buffalo-hide trunks of, 296; weaving of, 234 Kicking game, 58
	INDIAN NOTES

INDEX

433

Kime'ii'im Oke'mas, acknowledgment to, 20; bark lodge of, 97-98; drum of, 350-351; hair- cut of, 130-131; statue belonging to, 331

Kine'sa, acknowledgment to, 20; resident on Little river, 384; warclub of, 317

Ki'niktnlk or dried sumac leaves, 359

Kitaga'sa muski'ki'' or Spotted fawn medicine, 175

Kites inhabiting empyrean, 30

Ki'tikou, warclub of. 316

Knife, crooked, 288, 294, 321; used: in tanning, 225-226; to cut kernels, 160; to scrape pitch, 166; knives: bone, 320; copper, 280,320,375, 378; shell, 377; stone, 320, 375, 377, 378, 384

Knife-sheaths, 127-128, 141, 319-320, 329

Ko'kosh, Thomas, acknowledgment to, 20

Kse'icatosa, acknowledgment to, 20

facial painting in, 132; playing of, in Spirit- land, 45 ; sticks : 338 ; and balls, 367 ; miniature, 310 Ladles, wooden, 170, 173, 286, 289-290, 336.

See Spoons Lake Michigan, sturgeon in, 199; tribal habitat

on, 83 Lake Oshkosh, native name for, 388 Lake Poxgan, native name for, 388; village-site

on, 380 Lake Shau'ano, portage to, 385 Lake Superior, tribes north of, 187, 301 Lake Winnebago, 218; native name for, 387 Lakes, supernatural denizens of, 32 Land of spirits, children coming from, 52-53; road to, 44-45

AND MONOGRAPHS

434

MENOMINI CULTURE

Language, by signs, 58-59; of Menomini, Algon kian, 24, 28. See Speech

Lard, bladders for storing, 301

Lattice designs, painted, 363

Leaf-shaped stone knives, 375

Leather, ammunition-bags, 329-330; binder, 122 burden-straps, 213; dance-bustle, 121; gar- ments, 109; knife-sheaths, 127-128, 320, 329 loops, 348; making of, 226-229; patterns for cutting, 338; quill embroidering of, 275 sewed with awls, 304; thongs, 251; tobacco- pouches, 365-366, See Saddle-leather

Leaves, designs from, 271-273; molds shaped like, 171

Legend, of corn, 154-156; of hairless bear. 190; of maple-sugar, 164-165; of tobacco, 357-358. See Afyths ^

Leggings, native terms for, 141; of broadcloth, 115-116, 268; of deerskin, 114-115; of doe- skin, 229; of women, 125

Life, dependent on supernatural beings, 32, 38; given by Ma"nabus, 40

Light or Wa'pan, connection of I\Ia"nabus con- cept with, 36-38

Lightning, controlled by Thunderbirds, 259; con- ventional representation of, 261; of Thunder- birds, 135; pebbles having power of, 317-318; sign language for, 59 •

Linen, warp formed of, 252

List, of dances, 74-75; of tribal games, 58

Little Brother, title of popcorn, 157, 163

Little hill. Wis., deer drive near, 183

Little Pot-belly or Pepdkiji'se, colloquial term for youngest son, 51

Little river, village-sites along, 371, 384

INDIAN NOTES

INDEX	435
Little Sand Dune people, a band name, 380 Little Siiamico, Wis., native name for camp site at, 385; village-sites at, 280, 326, 370, 380 Little Suamico river, village-sites along, 83, 371 Little Wolf or Na'xpatao, 45. See Na'xpatao Liver used in tanning, 225 Livijig skeleton, 31 Lodge, festooned with trophies, 190; for Je"sako rites, 71; for sacred objects. 92; log, 107-108 ; Medicine, 38-39, 64-65, 81, 390; of boughs, on going to war, 61-63; special for women, 52-54, 93, 108. See Mitd'u'in, Outhouse Lodges, construction of, 88-103, 107; durability of, 104-105; location of, 105-106; of beavers, 179; Thunderbird painted on, 263; tvpes of, 83-88, 244. See Semi-globular lodge, Summer lodge Log, across river to Spirit-land, 44-45; canoes, 208, 216, 222-223, 288; lodges, 88. 107-108; mortars, 288, 303, 309; statue hewn from, 331; sugar-camp, 168; used in deadfall, 187-188; used in tanning, 226, 229; vat made of, 168;. water-drum made of, 345; logs tied over roofing, 95 London New Monthly Magazine, account of cannibalism in, 192 Long-house, construction of, 99-100, 103, 107; distribution of, 87-88. See Medicine lodge Long Island, Algonkian sherd from, 262; semi- globular lodge on, 85 Looms, see Frame, Heddles Loon, head of, carved, 347; native name for, 197 Love, matches, rarity of, 54-55; stories of, 78 Love-charms, 67; deer as, 264; puppets as, 334- 335
AND MONOGRAPHS

436

MENOMINI CULTURE

Lozenge designs, 243, 248,^265, 269, 272

Lungs, eaten by witches, 70

Lrrre, song of beaver as, 174; lures: in fishing,

203-204; in hunting, 185, 187-189 Lxe, corn hulled in, 161, 237; wi'kop boiled in.

'249 Lynx, native name for, 196; representative of

Underground Panther, 31; trapping of, 191

McCall, George, resident on Little river, 384

Mackenzie river, tribes of, 118

Mackinac, Mich., village-sites at, 381

Magic, hunting controlled by, 173-176; life pro- longed by, 38; lures, 188; sympathetic, 333- 334; tales of, 77. See Medicines, Witchcraft

Mahican, chief, facial painting of, 262-263 tribes, hairless bear of, 190

Maize, see Corn

Malevolent powers: angered by Ma"nabus, 38- 39; Great White Bear, 31; habitat of, 29-33 Hairless bear, 31; Horned Hairy Serpent, 31; Na'^patao, 45; Panther, 31; placation of , 32 35;White Deer, 31; witches patronized by, 34, 69-70. See Underneath gods

Ma"nabus or Great Dawn, cycle of, 35-38, 77 effigy handle representing, 289; gifts of animals to, 65; hunting charms given by, 173-174 inventions of, 200; maple sap modified by, 164-165; marriage customs derived from, 54; medicines given by, 40, 66, 175-176; Na'^patao brother of, 45, 177; power of Mita'wape and Te'pape derived from, 72-73; recreation of earth by, 36, 179; rites of Medicine lodge shown to, 38-41; shut-eye dance of, 380 tobacco gift of, 357-358; waste an offence against, 171

INDIAN NOTES

INDEX	437
Maud an attacked by ]\Ienomini, 60 Manitou of Keshena falls, 199; manitous: animal, 32, 177; hunting-bundle given by, 174; of water, 147 MatiUou Place people, a band group, 381 Manitowoc, Wis., village-sites at, 381 Ma"nomdneo Ina'nhvug or Wild rice men, derivation of JNIenomini, 142 Maple, bowls of, 287; spoons of, 289 Maple-leaf design, 278 Maple-sugar, boxes for holding, 170, 274, 295, 309; cooked vnih. corn, 157; dance at making of, 75; gathering of sap for, 165-168; legend of, 164-165; making of, 168-172; native terms for, 172-173 Maple-syrup, caching of, 152; in cooking, 206 Margined tortoise, shell of, used for bowls, 288 Marinette, Wis., J. V. Satterlee born near, 386 Maritime culture of Menomini, 371 Marquette, Fere Jacques, on rice culture, 151 Marriage, charms efticacious in, 67, 334-335; customs of, 54-56 Marrow, soup flavored with, 162 Marten, Deborah, acknowledgment to, 370; quill- work belonging to, 274 Marten-skin, tobacco pouches of, 366 Masks of birch-bark at Beggar's dance, 75. See False-face Mason, 0. T., on basketr>% 231-234; on textile arts, 230 Masons, see Free and Accepted Masons Massachusetts, semi-globular lodge in, 85 Master of rice, 144. See Grandfather Mat, fireplace marked by, 89; serving as door, 90, 98, 247; mats: arbors covered with, 99;
AND MONOGRAPHS

438	MENOMINI CULTURE
	as hangings, 238, 242; as wrappers, 241, 311, 313; bark,_205, 236, 247-248, 294; cattail, 244- 247; coloring of, 343; geometric designs used in, 279; lodges covered with, 85, 100; native names for, 309; needles for sewing, 307-308; reed, 91, 96, 238-243, 311, 313; rush, 90, 160; shelter of, 107; vegetables dried on, 153. See Cattail mats Mate Hawa'tuk or Great Spirit, 29. See Great Spirit Mdtckine'u, native name for Charles Chickeney. See Chickeney, Charles Mate Wa'pus or Great Hare, birth of, 35-36. See Ma"ndhus Mauls, for beating copper, 280; stone, 383 Maumee river. Fort Meigs on, 192 Meal, made of corn, 159; made of wild rice, 151 Meats, cooking of, 152, 193-196; drying of, 102. 108, 157, 193-194, 309; native terms for, 196- 198 Medallions adorning fillets, 110 Medicine-hag, native term for, 141; medicine- bags: bead work, 254, 335; charms against hostile, 67; clam-shell in, 293; of woven quill- work, 119; opening of, 34; Panther design on. 263-265; quilled, 274-276, 329; seating in accordance with, 65; serpent design on, 265; shooting with, 39, 81, 390; toilet-sets in, 138; tufts decorating, 366 Medicine-bundles, ceremonies of, 34, 354-355; hung on pole, 93; kept in place of honor, 92; woven quillwork in, 119 Medicine Ceremony of the Menomini, Iowa, and Wahpeton Dakota, A. Skinner, author, 347
	INDIAN NOTES

INDEX

439

Medicine dance, 74; ceremonial structure for, 81, 87-88, 90, 100, 103; origin myth of, 31, 39-40. See Mitd'unn

Medicine lodge, shooting in, 390; used for me- morial ceremony, 81. See Long-house, Mitd'- li'in

Medicine-man, dance-bag of, 256. See Shahman

Medicines, birch-bark dish for, 134; for fishing, 208; given by Ma' nabus, 40; kept from women in menses, 54, 93; magic, 62, 173- 176, 341; mortars for, 137; of jMita'win, 65-68; of So 'man Jim, 97; of witches, 70, 384; wooden utensils for, 286-287. See Charms, Herbs

Mediumship of turtle, 71

Memorial ceremony of Mita'win, 45-46, 81. See Funeral rites

Men, clothes carried by,247; dress of, 109-122, 128-130, 140; friendship representation of, 265; stone pipes property of, 362; uncles title of, 39, 164, 357. See Warriors

Menasha, Wis., native name for village-site at, 387

Mending of bark dishes, 166

Menominee, ]\lich., native name for village-site at, 386

Menominee river, native names for parts of, 386- 387; tribal ancestors on, 46; village-sites on, 83,371-372,379-380

Menomini, derivation of term, 142

Menomini reservation. Wis., 331, 383, 389

Menses regarded as unclean, 52, 54, 93, 145, 314

Messengers of Great Spirit, 30

.1/^/(7/, adzes, 222; awls, 219, 305; brooches, 126, 141; jinglers, 140, 355; tools of silversmiths,

AND MONOGRAPHS

440	MENOMINI CULTURE
	281-282; used in pipe-making, 362-365. See Brass, Copper, Iron, Silver Metal-work, 279-282 Metamorphosis, 39, 46-47, 69-70, 199-200, 343. 379-380,387 Metates, 304 Miami, weaving of, 234 Mica in love-charm, 335 Mice, precautions against, 159, 240 Michigan, Menomini sites in, 381, 386; Ojibwa in, 232 Michiiimackinac people, a band group, 381 Middle-Atlantic states, bear legends in, 190 Milky way or Road of the dead, 44 Milwaukee, Wis., village-sites at, 381 Milwaukee Public Museum, see Public Museum of the City of Milwaukee Miniature, bows and arrows, 369; canoes, 360; lacrosse sticks, 310; stone pipes,- 362; war- clubs, 62, 310, 312, 316; weapons, 215 Mining of copper, 279 Mink, supernatural power of, 174 Mink-fur, strips of, 356 Mink-skin, medicine-bags of, 274; tobacco- pouches of, 366 Minnesota, catlinite quarries of, 361 Minnow, artificial, 203-204 Mirrors, in toilet-set, 136-137; warclubs bearing, 317 Misa'sakiwis or hunting bundle, 173-174, 355 Misha'kwut, Mrs, living at High Banks, 372, 383-384 Mississauga, goblin of, 210
	INDIAN NOTES

INDEX

441

Mississippi river, Menomini bands on, 381; Menomini warfare along, 60; tribes east of, 118; valley, 355

Mitd'o, cooking, 205; of corn legend, 156

Mitd'ii^ape, cult of, 72-73

Mita'ii'in, birch-bark formulae of, 340; connection of otter with, 109-110; dance-bags of, 256; dance of, 74; facial painting in, 132; funeral rites of, 45-46, 75, 81, 96-97; head-dress of, 110; initiation into, 46, 64, 81; ladles for feast of, 289; medicines of, 65-68; necklaces dis- tinctive of, 140; origin myth of, 38-41, 76-77; protection of, against witches, 69; relation of, to Dreamers, 42; safe journey to Otherworld through, 38, 44; toilet-sets of, 137-138; use of clam-shells in ceremony of, 293; water- drum of, 345-347. See Medicine lodge

Mittens made of buckskin, 229

Moccasin, bag in form of, 136; economic import- ance of, 211; soft-soled, of Easterti culture, 277; moccasins: beaded, 254; infants', pierced, 52-53; jinglers on, 355; made of buck- skin, 228-229; native terms for, 141; of men, 117-118; of women, 125; patterns for cutting, 338; quilled, 274; worn in threshing rice, 148

Moccasin game, 58, 369; drum for, 349

Mococks, 294-295; maple-sugar stored in, 170; rice stored in, 147

Moieties, traces of, in phratries, 49

Molds for maple-sugar, 170-171

Monitor pipe, Thunderbird design on, 262; pipes. 362

Moon, concept of,-30

Moose, comb-case from antler of, 139, 338; flint boiled in grease of, 323; hearts, roasting of.

AND MONOGRAPHS

442	MENOMINI CULTURE
	194; native name for, 196; skinning of, 224; superstitions concerning, 180 Morning Star or Wa'bano, concept of, 30; power derived from, 71; visions given by, 33; war- bundles gifts of, 310; warclub gift of, 316 Morse, E. S., arrow-release of, 327 Mortar for paint, 137; mortars, 151, 157, 205; stone, 285; wooden, 159, 288, 303-304, 309 Mortuarv, customs, 45-46, 75, 80-81, 96-97, 260-261, 340-341; offerings, 44, 78-80. See Motirning Mother-in-law taboo, 56 Moths, designs from, 271-272; precautions against, 225 Mounds, effigy, 264, 373-374; tribal, 84, 390 Mountain lion design, 234 Mourning, 81-82; blackening of face in, 132; duration of, 145 Mouse-corn or popcorn, 157, 163 Mud, earth recreated from, 179 Mudje'kiuns, colloquial term for firstborn, 49- 50 Mullers, 304 Murder, contrived by witches, 70; trial of, 52 Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foun- dation, researches of, 19,97-98, 114,230,242- 243, 262, 329, 364 Music, tribal, 28 Musical instruments, 344-357 Musikaho'sa Pagivii'tik, village-site named for, 386 Musk as lure, 188 Muskhogean or Gulf culture, semi-globular lodge of, 85
	INDIAN NOTES

INDEX	443
Muskraf, name of: 196; Wisconsin derived from, 381; muskrats: hunting of, 190; superstitions concerning, 179 Muskrat gens, 48 Musselshells, as implements, 378; as molds, 171; as scrapers, 161 Myths, connected with hunting, 173-180; four classes of, 76-78; of deer's fur, 178; of Hare trickster, 35-38; of Horned hairy snake, 31- 32, 384; of Mita'win, 64-65; of otter, 109-110; of sturgeon, 199-200, 387; of tribal origin, 46-47, 200, 372, 379-380; of wild rice, 142- 143. See Legejid Xaimowa'pikineu, acknowledgment to, 20 Naia'towapomi, JNIrs, acknowledgment to, 20 Ndkii'ti, Philip, acknowledgment to, 20; gift of bag from, 265; on grooved axes, 318-319; potter>'-making described by, 282-284; village named for, 390 Names, changing of, 53, 63; in Thunder gens, 49-51; of gentes and phratries, 47-49; of tribal bands, 379-382; tribal, of places, 382- 390 Ndnawe'tauunik or police for wdld rice, 143-144 Na'xpatdo or Wolf, birth of, 35-36; death of, 3^, 177; power of physicians derived from, 73; prayers to, 45-46, 75; ruler of Spirit-land 45,81 Nd'lciu'ishko, acknowledgment to, 20 Nation of Wild Oats or Folles-Avoines, 151 Nature, concept of, 31-33 Nawagi'zikii'dp, acknowledgment to, 20; sacri- ficial dish belonging to, 359 Necklace, shaman's, 351; necklaces, of bear's claws, 128, 140, 388-389; of men, 128, 140;
AND MONOGRAPHS

444	MENOMINI CULTURE
	of women, 126-127, 140; of woven beadwork, 118-119, 255, 256 Needles, bone, 307-308; for beadwork, 252-254; for mats, 245-246; for tattooing, 134-135; native names for, 309 Neopit, Wis., named for Ni' opit Oshkosh, 389; So'man Jim's lodge near, 96 Nephew, duties of, to partizan, 61; of corn myth, 154-156 Nets, see Gill-nets Netting of snowshoes, 307 Nettles, fiber from, 232, 251, 309 Neville, A. C, acknowledgment to, 370; artifacts found by, 385 New Brunswick, N. J., monitor pipe at, 262 New England, semi-globular lodge in, 85 New Jersey, Thunderbird designs in, 262 New London, Wis., native name for village-site at, 388 Neiv York, Algonkian potsherd firom, 262; coastal, tortoise-shell bowls in, 288; house types in, 85-87; Iroquois culture of, 376; Iroquois sites in, 355 Night, attacks by, 61; dread of, 31, 44, 69, 209- 210; hunting and fishing by, 185, 201 Nito'tdm, salutation between Bear-Eagle and Wolf- Wave gentes, 46-47 Noisy persons, drowning of, 387 North, cannibal giants of, 31; deer turning toward, 178; s\Tnbolic color for, 268-269 North America, house types in, 85-87 North American mythology, concept of Great Hare in, 37-38; Horned hairy serpent in, 31 Nose, hooked, of Thunderbird, 263; punishment by loss of, 55, 82; noses of canoe, 221-222
	INDIAN NOTES

INDEX	445
Notched, arro^\^)oints, 327, 37S; mauls, 280, 383 Nuts, edible, 162, 164 Oak-leaf and acorn design, 271 Oblong designs in appliqu?, 269 Ocean, earth floating in, 29; island visited by Ma'"nabus in, 176 Ocher, yellow derived from, 132 Oconto, Wis., copper implements at, 280, 375; native name for village-site at, Z^?); stone arro^vpoints at, 327; tribal site near, 201 Oconto county. Wis., tribal sites in, 370 Oconto falls, Wis., native name for, 385 Oconto Red Banks, Wis., native name for village- site at, 385 Oconto river, village on, 390; village-sites on, 83, 370-371, 379, 383-385 Offerings, of food to ghost, 44; to Horned hairy snake, 384; to Wa'bano, 332. See Sacrifices Ohio, British campaign in, 192 Ojibica, arrow-release of, 327-329; clothing of, 133; communal lodge of, 99-100; concept of Trickster among, 37; customs of, 27-28; data gathered among, 20; deadfalls used by, 187-188; decorative designs of, 258; dialect of, 24; embroidery of, 119, 267; fish-snares among, 202; floral designs of, 257, 273, 277- 278; goblin of, 210; horses of, 213; ice-chisels of, 202; ice-fishing among, 203; moccasins of, 117-118; myths of, 76, 374; semi-globular lodge of, 86; storage receptacles of, 301; weaving of, 232, 234; women's pipes among, 362 Oka"to band, 380 Oki'tcita or soldiers of the Plains tribes, 52
AND MONOGRAPHS

446	MENOMINI CULTURE
	Oneida, basketry of, 293; data gathered among, 20 Opening of sacred bundles, 34, 61, 174 Open twined weaving, 234, 237-238 Openwork embroidery, 267, 274 Orchard, W. C, acknowledgment to, 230, 233, 235, 236, 243 Orientation, determined by medicine-bags, 65; of deer, 178; of Medicine lodge, 46, 81; of Sky Women, 268; of winter lodge, 89 Origin, of tobacco, 357-359; tribal, 35, 46-47, 200, 372, 379-380. See Legend, Myths Ornaments, parts of deer as, 179; silver, 280-281 Osage, charms among, 127; shields of, 319; war-bundles among, 313; war of Menomini against, 60 Oshkosh, Wis., native name for ledge near, 387; native name for village-site at, 387-388; village-sites near, 381 Oshkosh, Mrs Ni'opit, acknowledgment to, 20 Oshkosh, Ni'optl, acknowledgment to, 19; ammu- nition-bag of, 329-330; burden-strap of, 214; native costume of, 113-114; village named for, 389 Osiers, black elm, 294. See Willow Olherworld, see Land of spirits Oto, data gathered among, 20; war-bundles among, 313 Ottawa, Menomini related to, 372-373 Otter, Ma' nabus persuaded by, 39; supernatural powers of, 109-110 Oiler-fur, fillets of, 109-111, 140; strips of, 115, 348, 356, 363 Otter-skin, medicine-bags of, 274, 329, 390; tobacco-pouches of, 366
	INDIAN NOTES

INDEX

447

Outhouse, for menses, 54, 93, 108; for parturition,

52; for sacred bundles, 92 Oval, designs in applique, 269; ground-plan of

lodge. 86; knives, 375; wooden bowls, 286-

287,309 Over-and-undcr weaving, 243 Old, as evil charm. oZ^-ZZd; as patron of watches,

70; owls, native names for, 197; witches

transformed into, 69 Owners of war-bundles, part of, in sacrifice, 60;

war power vested in, 51

Pabokowd'o or goblin, 210-211

Pack-saddles, 212-213

Pack-straps used in building lodge, 89. See Burden-straps

Paddle, canoe. 222-223; paddles: spreading, 205, 222; stirring, 148, 166, 170

Pagan, beliefs among ]Menomini, 24, 42-43; coiffure, 123; party, decimated by influenza, 27; party, Perrote leader of, 387; settlement, 331, 389

Paia'tckoii'it, Jim, see Biina'i-gi'zik

Pails, birch-bark, 294-295. See Buckets

Paint, in toilet-set, 136-137; in war-bundles, 312. See Painting

Paint-brush in toilet-set, 136

Painted turtle, superstition concerning, 179

Painting, 330, 340; of body, 132-133; of buffalo- hide trunks, 298; of canoe, 222; of carved designs, 337, 359; of drum, 346, 348-351; of face, 78, 81, 132-133, 262-263; of games, 367- 369; of garments, 113, 115, 340; of grave- posts, 80, 260, 341; of lodges, 263; of pipe- stems, 363; of sacred pole, 92-93; of statue, 331-332; of wampum, 60; of warclubs, 317

AND MONOGRAPHS

448	MENOMINI CULTURE
	Paintings, by Catlin, 319; on war-bundle wrap- per, 311 P an- A I go nk Ian, long-house, 87; mythical bear, 190; Thunderbird design, 262; type of jars, 284-285. See Algonkians Panther, arrowpoints made from claws of, 322; designs on bags, 263-265; inhabiting lonely places, 32; native name for, 196. See Great Underground Panther Parching, of corn, 157-158; of rice, 148, 150, 151 Partizans, war duties of, 60-63 Partridge-dung or fourth grade of sugar, 172 Partridge lake, native name for, 388 Paste, used to outline stencils, 273 Patterns for moccasins, 338. See Designs, Weaving Paunch boiling, 195 Peace-pipes, 363; badge of commander-in-chief, 52 Pebble pipes, 362 Pebbles, as sinkers, 201; in rattles, 351-352; regarded as thunderbolts, 317-318; stone axes pecked with, 319 Pecking of stone, 284, 319 Pecore, Joe, acknowledgment to, 20 Pecore, Sophie, acknowledgment to, 20 Pegs used in stretching skins, 227, 229 Pelts, tanning of, 225. See Skins Pelvic bone, used as rasp, 250, 251 Pendants, of fur, 110, 136; of woven beadwork, 122, See Danglers, Streamers, Strips Pensaukee, Wis., native name for village-site at, 385 Pensaukee river, village-sites along, 83, 371 Pepdkiji'se, colloquial term for youngest son, 51
	INDIAN NOTES

INDEX

449

Pcvotc, Wis., named for Judge Perrote, 390

Pcrrote, John Sabatis, acknowledgment to, 20, 26. 218; grooved stone axe of, 318; parents of. 3S7; residence of, 389; village named for, 390

Perrote, Mrs John, acknowledgment to, 20

Personal names, 53. See Names

Peshtigo, Wis., copper implements at, 280; native name for village-site at, 386

Peshtigo river, eftigy mound near, 373-374; native name for, 386; village-sites along, 83, 371,386

Peshtigo River people, a band name, 379

Pestles, 303, 309; for crushing corn, 159

Pewter, pipe inlays of, 362

Peyote religion, converts to, 24, 42-43, 97

Phlox, Wis., village near, 389

Phratries, tribal. 46-51. See Gentcs

Physicians, see Shaman, Tcipinini

Picture-nriting on birch-bark, 312

Pigeon, Louis, acknowledgment to, 20

Pigment, charcoal as, 222; in tattooing, 134-135; in toilet-set, 136

Pike Place people, a band name, 379

Piku'il'kunao Oma'nikiin, village named for, 390

Pine, forests, scarcity of reeds in, 105; tips attached to sugar-making stick, 169; trees, pitch of, 166; weaving-frame of, 252

Pine-roots or wata'p, canoe sewed with, 218-220, 222. See Wata'p

Pipe, monitor, from New Jersey, 262; sacrifice of, 35; pipes: 358, 360-365, 373; ceremonial, lighting of, 303; of Dreamers, 41-42; terra- cotta, 375, 384

Pipestems, 363; wrappings for, 275

Pipe'tomahaii'ks, 364-365

AND MONOGRAPHS

450

ME NO MINI CULTURE

Pitch used for calking, 166, 168, 222

Pitfalls for bears, 188

Pits, on village-sites, 100-102, 384; on Wolf river, 84. See Caches

Pitwd'skum, acknowledgment to, 19; evil charm of, 335-336; war-bundle of, 340

Placation, of game, 177-178; of malevolent powers, 32-33, 144, 149, 167; of war-bundles. 313. See Punishment

Place-names, tribal, 382-390

Place of honor in lodge, 92, 108

Plain twined weaving, 232-234

Plains tribes, buffalo hunt among, 52; circular camps of, 105-106; concept of Spider or Coyote among, 37; crow belt of, 121; data gathered among, 20; decorative designs of, 276-278; Dreamers originating in, 41; Thun- derbird design among, 263; tipis of, 99; tobac- co-pouches of, 365-366

Plaiting of reeds, 241. See Braiding

Platform, sacred, 108. See Scaffolds

Platter, sacrificial, 359

Plumed icarrior, inlay representing, 316

Plumes on dance-bustle, 121. See Feathers

Poisons, arro\\'points smeared with, 327; of sorcerers, 265

Pole, for propelling canoe, 145-146; sacred to medicine-bundles, 92-93, 108; poles, frame- work of, 88-89, 91, 93-94, 100. See Stick

Police, guarding rice-beds, 143-144; war leaders as, 51-52

Polygamy formerly practised, 55

Pommel, car\^ed, 212-213

Ponca, data gathered among, 20

Ponds, supernatural denizens of, 32

INDIAN NOTES

INDEX	451
Pony Richmond, village named for, 389 Popcorn, native name for, 157, 163 Porcupine, bowl carved to represent, 336, 359; roasting of, 195; tail as comb-cleaner, 139; tufts as roach, 111 Porcupine gens, 47 Porcupine-quills, coloring of, 343; rawhide pouches for holding, 301; smoother for, 275, 308-309. SeeQuilli^ork Pork as lure, 188 Portage, Wis., village-site at, 380 Portage people, a band group, 380 Portrait of jMahican chief, 262-263; portraits, 340 Potatoes, see Wild potatoes Potawatomi, bone awls of, 304; customs of, 27- 28; deer design among, 264; Forest: cultiva- tion of tobacco by, 358; data gathered among, 20; embroider>^ of, 267; horses of, 213; Me- nomini related to, 372-373; mortars of, 303- 304; name, 389; Peyote religion among, 24, 42; Plains: origin of Dreamers in, 41; Thun- der-garters of, 259; tobacco-pouches of, 366- 367; waist of, 126; war-bundles among, 313; weaving of, 234 Pot-hooks, 102 Pottery, 309, 373, 375, 378, 383, 384, 385; from Shinnecock Hills, 262; geometric designs used in, 279; process of manufacture, 282-285 Pouches, beaded, 256, 259; for shot, 329-330; for tobacco, 120, 365-367; quilled, 274; rawhide, 299-301; woven, 232, 242. See Bags Powder from human heart, 334-335 Powderhorn,329
AND MONOGRAPHS

452	MENOMINI CULTURE
	Poiver, contained in sacred bundles, 67-68; de- rived from dreams, 259; of hunting bundles, 173-176; of Ma"nabus, 39; of otter, 110. See Blessing, Courage Prairie du C/tien, Wis., village-site at, 381 Prairie fires caused by painted turtle, 179 Prairie-grass, lodge of, 107 Prairie tribes, see Plains tribes Prayer, absolution through, 178; accompanying medicines, 66; accompanying sacrifice, 34; at rice harvest, 144, 149; decorative designs as. 257, 261; in gathering medicines, 66; offered at lacrosse, 56; on making journey, 209; to Na'^patao, 45-46; to puppets, 333-334 Preserves, of fruits, 162; of wild potatoes, 153 Prisoners' base game, 58 Prisoner-tie in war-bundle, 312-313 Prophecy, see Future Prophets, of Wa'bano cult, 71; supernatural visions of, 33-34 Puberty, dream revelations of, 34, 259, 316; fast of. 53-54; of girls, 54 Public Museum of the City of Milwaukee, acknowl- edgment to, 19, 136, '297, 304, 370, 383 Pudding, roe, 205-206 Pulling-stick for harvesting rice, 146 Punishment, for adultery, 55, 82; of evildoers, 45. See Placation Punk, fire made with, 303 Puppets, carved, as charms, 70, 332-336 Purchase, initiation by, 40, 64; of charms, 68, 176; of medicines, 65-66; of sacred bundles, 67-68; of war-bundles, 313 Purification effected by washing, 45, 63-64
	INDIAN NOTES

INDEX

453

Pygmies inhabiting earth, 32

Pyrography, pipestems ornamented with, 365

Quadrangular bark house for summer, 85. See

Summer lodge Qu'Appelle river, Cree camp on, 263 Quartz, arrowpoints, 322, 327; drills, 377 Quill, tattooing instrument made of, 134 Quilhvork, embroiderA', 125, 140, 256-257, 266- 268, 274-275, 320, 330; holders for, 299-301; on birch-bark boxes, 295; on deerskin gar- ments, 113, 124-125; on pipestems, 363; on quiver, 329; on sheath, 127; on woman's head- dress, 122-123; smoother for, 275, 308-309; tassels, 312; woven, 119, 125, 257, 275 Quiver, quilled, 329

Rabbit's hind-leg warclubs, 314

Rabbits, hunting of, 190-191; native names for, 196

Raccoons, roasting of, 194

Racing ponies game, 58

Rags, burning of, 209-210

Rain, dance for, 75

Raritan site, N. J., Thunderbird design from, 262

Raspberries eaten by bear, 189

Rasping of string, 250-251

Rattles, accompanying war songs, 61; at funerals, 78; attached to war-bundles, 311; gourd, 352- 354; in tattooing outfit, 134; of deer-hoofs and dew-claws, 354; of So'man Jim, 98'. See Gourd rattles

Rattlesnake, arro^^'points smeared with poison of, 327; etched on bracelet, 128

Ravelings used in weaving, 232

AND MONOGRAPHS

454	MENOMINI CULTURE
	Raven, magic of, 312 Rawhide, moccasins soled with, 118; pouches, 299-301; saddles, 212; used in slungshot, 317 Realistic designs, carved, 337, 368; embroidered, 267; in beadwork, 278; symbolism of, 128. 257, 259-265. ^t& Designs Realm of the dead, see Land of spirits, Na'^patao Red, dye, 344; face painted with, 132; fur of deer, 178; games painted with, 367-368; grave-Dosts painted with, 80, 260, 341; mats. 248'; sa- cred pole painted with, 92-93; sacrificial dish painted with, 359; paint on Wolf river, 389; . shale, etched, 262; skirts of women, 124; symbolism of, 132-133, 268, 317, 346, 348; wampum painted with, 60; warclubs painted with, 317; yarn, 232. See Scarlet, Vermilion Red cedar, spoons of, 289 Red corn, cooking of, 162 Red top root, a plant, 135 Red-willow bark as tobacco substitute, 358-359 Reed, mats, 91, 96, 238-243, 309, 311, 318; reeds, pitfalls covered with, 188; scarcity of, in forests, 105; whistles, 311, 355-356 Relationship, see Family Relatives, joking relationship among, 55-56, 59. See Family Religion, tribal, 28-46 Religion and Ceremonies of the Lenape, Harring- ton, author, 211 Resurrection, 177. See Hereafter, Soul Ribbons, dance-bustle adorned with, 121; hair braided with, 123; leggings bordered with, 116; men's garments decorated with, 114. See Applique-work Rice, see Wild rice
	INDIAN NOTES

INDEX	455
Rice-gathering-place people, a band group, 380 Rice-maker, title of deity, 149 Rilles, percussion-cap, 329 Rhigs, silver, 281 Rites, of bear, 75-76; of Buffalo cult, 73-74; of Dreamers, 41-42, 69; of Je"sako cult, 71-72; of Mita'wape, 72-73; of Mita'win, 40, 64-68; of Peyote religion, 42-43; of phratries, 48; of Te'pape, 72-73; of Thunder cult, 73; of Wa'bano cult, 71; of Witches' society, 69-71, 341 Rituals, of cults, given in dreams, 34, 54; in war-bundles, 310 River bounding Land of spirits, 44-45; rivers, supernatural denizens of, 32 River Mouth people, a band group, 381 Roach, of dyed deer's hair, 109, 111-113; spreader for, 112-113 Roaching of hair, 130, 335 Road, of dead, 44-45; of Panther, 263-264 Roasting, of fish, 204; of meats, 193-195 Robes, portraits painted on, 340. See Dress Rocks, supernatural denizens of, 32 Rock-shelters, ancient use of, 107-108 Roe, cooking of, 205-206 Rolling hoops game, 58 Roof of summer house, 86-88. See Covering Roof -mats of winter lodge, 89-90. See Cattail mats Roots, as medicines, 38, 62, 66; edible, 162; in tattooing outfit, 134-135; in war-bundles, 311- 312; solution of, 225 Rope, bridles, 213; of cedar-bark to carr^' fire, 303 Rosettes adorning fillets, 110
AND MONOGRAPHS

456	MENOMINI CULTURE
	Round, stone: in slungshot, 317-318; in war- bundle, 311; wooden bowls, 286, 288, 309 Rubbing tools, 226-227 Ruffles, on men's garments, 114; on women's waists, 126 Runners sent to declare war, 60-61 Rush mat, corn-kernels dried on, 160; smoke- hole covered with, 90 Rutgers College, monitor pipe in collection of, 262 Sacks, maple-syrup strained through, 170; pota- toes stored in, 153; rice stored in, 147, 151. See Storage-bags Sacred bundles, of So'man Jim, 97-98; purchase of, 67-68; quillwork in, 274; supernatural being carrying, 31-32. See Hunting-bundles, Medicine-bundles, War-bundles Sacred objects preserved in bags, 231 Sacrifices, at lacrosse, 56; by witches, 69-70, 333-334; human, 384; in sugar-making, 171; of tobacco, 108, 334, 359-360; of tobacco to buffalo, 74; of tobacco to earth, 35, 66; of tobacco to wolf, 178; to dead, 79-81, 261; to supernatural powers, 32-35; to Thunderbirds, 144; to Underneath gods, 144, 149; to Wa'- bano, 331; to war-bundles, 60, 61, 313. See Offerings Sacrificial dishes, 260-261, 336, 359-360 Saddle, see Pack-saddle Saddle-bags, yarn bags as, 213 Saddle-leather, ammunition-bags of, 329 St Charles, Mich., Ojibwa Indians near, 232 Salem witches, 333-334 Salt licks in hunting deer, 185
	INDIAN NOTES

INDEX	457
Sandstone falls, Wis., effigy mound near, 373-374 Santee, Menomini friendly with, 381. See Dakota Sap, see Maple-sugar Saplings, see Pole Sap-spout, 167, 172, 295 Sashes of woven yarn, 120, 124; braiding of, 238; used as turbans, 109, 111 Saskatchewan, Canada, Cree camp in, 263 Satterlee, John V., acknowledgment to, 20, 2^, 370, 382; artifacts found by, 384; birthplace of, 386; pipe-tomahawk bought by, 364; Thunderbird garters of , 259; village named for, 390 Sauk and Fox, appliqued breech-cloths of, 273; buffalo-hide trunks of, 296; carved ladles of, 292; clothing of, 133, 141; customs of, 27-28; decorative designs of, 258, 264; green dye of, 344; hair-binder of, 141; mat of, 242; Meno- mini related to, 24,372-373; shields of, 319; war-bundles among, 313; warfare against, 59- 60, 316; wea\ang of, 234; Sauk, battle of, \Adth French, 388 Saulteaux, Northern, arrows of, 326; cooking of, 194; data gathered among, 20. See Ojibiva Scaffolds, for building, 103; for dn.-ing, 108, 153, 204-205; for hunting. 185; for parching rice. 150; kettles suspended from, 168-169 Scalding of reeds, 239 Scales of horned snake in love charm, 335 Scallops design, 235 Scalping, name changed as reward for, 63 Scalp-lock, 130-131; roach attached to, 112-113 Scalps, ceremony of, 62-64; in war-bundle, 311 Scapula, bear's, spoon of, 292
AND MONOGRAPHS

458

MENOMINI CULTURE

Scarfs of woven beadwork, 119

Scarlet-dyed deer-hair tufts, 355

Schumacher, J. P., acknowledgment to, 370;

artifacts found by, 280, 375, 383, 385; on

early Menomini sites, 83 Scraper of deer-jaw, 161; scrapers: shell, 378;

stone, 375, 377, 385; used in tanning, 226-227 Sculpture, 330-332. See Carving Sedge-grass, lodges covered with, 86, 107 Seeds in rattles, 351-352 Seers, see Prophets Sekdtcoke'mau, patron of wild rice, 143; sacrifice

to, 144 Semi-globular lodge, construction of, 88-93, 103;

covering of, 244-246; distribution of, 85-86;

durability of, 104 Seminole, data gathered among, 20 Seneca, data gathered among, 20; treatment of

flint by, 323 Separation by mutual consent, 55 September, wild rice harvested in, 143, 151 Serrated stone arrowpoints, 375 Servants, of supernatural beings, 30-31; souls of

slain enemies as, 44, 80 Sewa'pimeniik, native term for succotash, 160 Sewing, awls used in, 251, 304-305; of applique,

268; of baskets, 294; of beadwork, 254-255;

of canoe, 219-221; of cattail mats, 245-246,

307; of mats, 241, 251; on leggings, 115. See

Needles, Thread Seymour, E. A., effigy mound near residence of,

'373-374 Shagbark hickory, bows made of, 321 Shagpoke gens, 48

INDIAN NOTES

INDEX

459

Shaman, children named by, 53; drums of, 349- 351; friendship with, 26; of the MitaVin, 69; of the Wa'bano, 71; statue belonging to, 331, See Medicine-man

Shawano county, Wis., mounds in, 373

Shaiii worn by women, 124

Shawnee, leggings of, 115; puppets of, ?>?)2>; Shaw- ano dance derived from, 75

Sheaths, see Knife-sheaths

Shell-heap at Shinnecock Hills, 262

S hell in goi corn, 159-161

Shellpits, tortoise-shell bowls in, 288

Shells, as medicines, 66; as spoons, 292-293; necklaces of, 126-127, 140; uses of, 288,376- 377. See Clam-shells, Musselshells, Tortoise- shell

Shelves, built into lodges, 91-92

Shields, ViiQoi,()2,Z\9

Shinnecock Hills, L. I., potter>^ from, 262

Shinny, game of women, 56, 58; stick and ball for,'338. 367

Shiocton, Wis., native name for village-site at, 388

Shi'pikaii, Antoine, acknowledgment to, 20

Ships, carved design, 338

Shirts 114, 229

Shooting, of fish, 204; with medicine-bags, 39, 67,81,390

Shot placed in drum, 351

Shoulder-pouches, see Bandoleer-bags

Shut-eye dance of ]\la"nabus, 380

Sickness, aid of buffalo in curing, 74; banished by mask, 211; caused by witchcraft, 69-70, 72; cured: by Dreamers, 41; by games, 56; by Je"sako, 71-72; by Wa'bano,

AND MONOGRAPHS

460	MENOMINI CULTURE
	351; medicines for, 65-67, 311-312; rattle- snake charm against, 128; tattooing as cure for, 133-135. See Medicines Sign language, 58-59, 181; signs of trail, 20.9 Silk, thread, decorative use of, 121; women's waists of, 124, 126. See Appliqiie-n'ork, Ribbons Silver, bracelets of, 128; coins, drum decorated with, 348; ornaments of, 280-281; pipestems inlaid with, 363, 365. See German silver Silversmiths, tools used by, 281-282 Sin, wandering in expiation of, 31-32. See Punishment Sinew, arrowpoints bound with, 323; as thread, 179, 252, 304; bows wrapped with, 320; bow- strings of, 329; feathers attached with, 325 Sinkers, notched, 201-202 Siouan tribes, affiliation of Menomini mythology with, 76; charms among, 127; effect of war with Germany on, 27; Menomini friendly with, 360-361, 381; practical character of, 25; textile arts of, 230; Eastern: carved ladles of, 292; deer design among, 264; pipe-making of, 361-362; Southern: arbors among, 99; calu- met of, 75; decorative designs of, 258; demo- nology of, 31; Dreamers' societies of, 41; embroidery of, 267; floral designs of, 277; games of, 58; ornamental art of, 330-331; semi-globular lodges of, 86; string bags of, 231; Thunderbird concept of, 262; war-bun- dles among, 313; Wahpeton: beaded bags of, 330 Sister, warrior's scalps received by, 63-64. See Sky-sisters Sizing, of bows, 321; of pottery, 283
	INDIAN NOTES

INDEX	461
Skeleton, living, 31 Skewers, food placed on, 60 Skins, couch covered with, 98; in war-bundles, 311-312; medicine-bags of, 39; paintings on, 330, 340; removal of, 224-225; storage-sack of, 151; tobacco-pouches of, 120, 366. See skins of various animals Skirts, 124, 141 SkuU of bear hung in woods, 75, 177; skulls: flying, 32; li\^ng, 77 Skunk-root, a plant, 134 Skunk-skin, tobacco pouches of, 366 Sky color, 133. See Blue Sky-country, see. Empyrean Sky-sisters, 30; protective emblems of, 268-269; shinny belonging to, 56 Sledges, 212 Sleep caused by elf, 32 Sleigh-bells, on dance-bustle, 121; on drum, 347- 348 Slippery-elm bark, calking with, 168; fiber, bags woven from, 232, 309 Slungshot t>'pe of warclub, 317-318 Smith, H. I., acknowledgment to, 234 Smoked fish, 102, 204-205 Smoke-hole, 90, 95, 98, 156, 168-169, 247 Smoking, of hides, 228; of sacrificial tobacco, 35, 144-145 Snakes, charms against, 67; design, 264-265; magic of, 179, 312; skins in war-bundle, 62, 311. See Horned hairy snakes, Rattlesnake Snapping tortoise attached to drum, 351 Snapping turtle, ceremonial eating of, 179-180. See Turtle Snapping turtle gens, 47
AND MONOGRAPHS

462	MENOMINI CULTURE
	Snares, for fish, 201-202; for game, 173, 183- 185, 190-191. See Traps , Snow caused by Mitii'o, 156 Snowshoe, needles for, 307, 309; types of, 211-212 Snow-snake game, 58, 368 Social Life and Ceremonial Bundles of the Me- nomini Indians, A. Skinner, author, 215, 340 Society of Dancing Men, Z^l . See Dreamers Socketed copper arrowpoints, 375 Softening, of birch-bark, 217-218, 221; of copper, 279-280; of flint, 323; of hide, 225, 226; of quills, 266, 275 Socman Jim, acknowledgment to, 20; arrows of, 325; bark lodge of, 96-98 Song, accompanying rice threshing, 148; incan- tation by, 333-335; of beaver, 174; songs: accompanying medicines, 66; at funeral, 78; in bundle-ceremonies, 61, 355; in courting, 357; in war-bundles, 310, 312; mating, 199; of Mita'win, 65; on opening war-bundle, 61; to stupefy enemy, 62 Son-in-law, duties of, 181 Sorcerers, charms against, 67; compact of, with evil, 33-34; enchanted arrows of, 69-70, 72; serpent design on bags of, 262-263. See Witchcraft, Witches, Wizards Soul, dual, 43; immortality of, 44, 81; return of, to body, 72; return of, to earth, 45-46, 75,81; souls of enemies, servants, 44, 80, See Ghost, Spirits Soups, 195; corn for, 160, 162; roe, 206; stock for, 228 South, deer .facing, 178; four sisters of, 268; winter lodge facing, 89
	INDIAN NOTES

INDEX	463
South Branch settlement, Wis., native name for, 389 Southeastern region, esthetic designs of, 276-277 Spear-heads, copper, 280; stone, 187, 384 Spears, fishing with, 199-201; hunting with, 187; of Thunderbirds, 135 Speech, backward, 71; dog capable of, 179; of chief at rice harvest, 144, 149 Spider or Coyote, concept of, 37 Spider-iixb design, 265 Spiral tivined weaving, 238 Spirits, coaxing of children by, 52-53; com- munion with, 71; land of, 44-45. See Ghost, Soul Spits, roasting on, 193-195, 204 Splint baskets, 96, 293-294 Spoons, bone, 309; earthenware, 285; mussel- shells as, 378; shell, 292-293; wooden, 215, 286, 289-292, 336 Spotted Fawn Medicine, 175-176 Spout, see Sap-spout Spreader for roach, 112, 113 Spring, hunting in, 183-185, 189; sacrifice to war-bundles in, 60; sugar made in, 165; wi'kop prime in, 248 Springs, inhabited by bears, 177-178 Spruce-houghs, lodge of, 107 Spruce-root, baskets sewed with, 294 Squashes, garden of, 98; native terms for, 153, 163 Squirrel, surrender of, 182; squirrels: precautions against, 159, 240; roasting of, 195 Squirrelskins, mortars made from, 137 Stake, sorcerer's, 341-342 Stallion, head of, carved, 356-357
AND MONOGRAPHS

464	MENOMINI CULTURE
	Star design, 258, 266; stars, molds shaped like, 171 Starvation prevented by hunting-bundles, 175- 176. See Fasting Stat en Island, N. Y., Thunderbird design from, 262 Statue of Wa'bano, 97-98, 331-332, 338 Steel, arrowpoints, 325; knife-blades, 316 Stemmed arrowpoints, 327, 375 Stencils, birch-bark, 273 Stepped diamonds and triangles, 269-271 Stews, 195 Stick, placed at grave, 80; shinny, 367; sticks across ends of house-mats, 246; for harvesting rice, 146; for sugar-making, 169; lacrosse, 338, 367; tapping of, in songs, 355. See Grave- posts, Pole Stiles, Wis., native name for village-site at, 384 Still-hunting, 185, 189 Stockbridges, basketry of, 293 Stone, arrowpoints, 322-325, 327; axes, 312, 318- 319; blades, 127; celts, 202-203, 314. 318, 319; dishes, 336, 359-360; hoes, 157; implements, 139, 280; kettles, 284-285; kettles scoured with, 172; metates, 304; mortars, 285; objects on sites, 375-378, 383-385; pestles, 303; pipes, 358, 360-362; round, 311, 317-318; sculpture in, 331; sinkers, 201-202; spear-heads, 187, 384; stones: as medicines, 66; as supports for kettles, 101; used in baking corn, 161 Storage, baskets for, 294-295; cases for, 205; in lodges, 91-92; of cattail mats, 105; of corn, 159-160, 162; of fish, 205; of grease,- 301. See Caches, Mococks
	INDIAN NOTES

INDEX

Storage-bags, 152, 159, 162; weaving of, 231-

236. See Sacks Storm caused by ]Mita'o, 156; storms caused by

wasting rice, 147. See Weather Streaiiiers, deerskin thongs as, 115; of fur, 110,

136; of quillwork, 122-123. See Danglers,

Pendants, Strips String, bags, 159, 231-238; garters, 125; making

of, 249-251; materials for, 166, 201, 231-232,

248-249; used in roasting game, 193-194. See

Bassiivod-bark, Wata'p, Wi'kop Stripping of bark, 216-217

Strips, beadwork, 114, 254; cedar-bark, in weav- ing, 236, 242, 247-248; decorative, of wood,

121; for basketry, 294; of fur, 115, 348, 356,

363, 365; of quillwork, 275. See Danglers,

Pendants, Streamers Sturgeon, preparation of, 204-205; spearing of,

200; superstition concerning, 180; tribal myth

of, 199-200, 387 Sturgeon Bav, Wis., native name for village-site

at, 386; village-site at, 380 Sturgeon Bay people, a band group, 380 Sturgeon falls. Wis., native name for, 387 Suamicos, see Big Suamico, Little Suamico Sugar, see Maple-sugar Sugar bushes, 165, 172 Sumac, leaves as tobacco substitute, 358-359;

roots, yellow dye from, 344 Summer lodge of bark, 85, 107; construction of,

93-99; distribution of, 86-87; durability of,

104r-105

Summer sites, tribal, 84

Sun, deerskin offered to, 75; inhabiting highest tier of empyrean, 29-30; power of Wa'bano

465

AND MONOGRAPHS

466

MENOMINI CULTURE

derived from, 71; warriors' garments adorned with, 113. See Great Spirit

Superstitions, concerning tie-strings, 118; con- nected with journeys, 209-211; hunting, 173- 182, 194. ^ee Legend, Myths

Suring, Wis., native name for village-site at, 385

Swalloivs, inhabiting empyrean, 30; skins of, in war-bundles, 62, 312

Swamp-ash hark, storage cases of, 205

Sivamps, supernatural denizens of, 32

Swan, see White Swan

Sweet-grass baskets, 296

Symbolism, of colors, 132-133, 268-269, 317, 346, 348; of designs, 128, 257, 259-265, 268; of tufts decorating drum, 366; signifying death, 80, 341

Syrup used in cooking, 152-153. See Maple- syrup

Syrup-stir rer, 169-170, 173

Taboo, against women, 52, 54, 93, 145, 314; con- nected with mourning, 82, 145; imposed in dreams, 54; in cooking, 194; of mother-in-law, 56

Tail, of Great White Bear, 30-31; of Under- ground Panther, 263-264; tails: adding value to pelts, 229; as hair brushes, 139; as orna- ments, 110, 137; drum decorated with, 351

Tally notches on bow, 321

Tambourine drum, 349-351

Tanning, 224-229

Tassels, on drum, 347; on leggings, 115; quill- work, 312

Tattooing, 133-135

Td'wdhigun or drum of Dreamers, 347-349

Tcika' pis or Trickster, 37. See Trickster

INDIAN NOTES

INDEX	467
Tcipinini or physicians of Na'^patao, 73 'Tel iva' pus or Great Hare, 37. See Md''ndhus Tempering of clay, 282 Te'papc, cult of, 72-73 Thanksgiving at rice harvest, 149 Thimbles decorating cradle, 215 Thojigs, deerskin, 115, 213-214, 226-227, 252, 317, 329, 330, 354; making of, 251 Thread, silk, 121; sinew as, 179, 252, 304; spruce- root as, 294; twine as, 249; wata'p as, 218- 220, 222 Three-ply twined weaving, 234 Threshing of rice, 147-148, 151 Throwing sticks game, 58 Thunder, anthropomorphic representation of, 312,343 Thunderblrd gens, 48-51, 388 Thunderblrds, ancestors of Menomini, 46-47, 387, 388; as dream guardians, 56, 259; birds representatives of, 30, 314; carvings repre- senting, 312, 337, 343, 354, 368; cult of, 34, 73; designs of, woven, 241, 258-259, 261-264; emblems of, 311, 316; gods of war, 30, 314; lacrosse belonging to, 56; patrons of tattooing, 133-135; sacrifice to, 144; war-bundles gifts of, 60, 310; warfare of, against evil, 33; whis- tles for calling, 311, 356 Thunderbolts, pebbles regarded as, 317-318 Thunderers, see Thunderbirds Thunder lake, deer drive at, 183 Thunder society, dream revelation of, 34, 73 Thunder-storm, drum cracked during, 73 Tie-strings, superstition concerning, 118 Tinder, cedar-bark as, 301-303 Tipis of Plains tribes, 99
AND MONOGRAPHS

468	MENOMINI CULTURE
	Titles, of animals, 47, 179-180; of deities, 35, 38, 66, 144, 149; of human beings, 39, 49-50, 164; of magic, 67, 174, 175, 335, 355; of plants, 144, 157; significance of, in phratries, 48 TlinkU, use of floral designs by, 277 Toads, mating songs of, 199 Tobacco, as declaration of war, 60; bags for, 120, 365-367; dance in honor of, 75; given to corpse, 79; in charms, Z?)?); origin of, 357-359; pipes for, 360-365; placed in water-drum, 345; sacrificed, 34-35, 66, 74, 79, 108, 144, 149, 178, 334; sacrificial dishes for, 336, 359-360; tortoise-shell bowls for, 288 Toboggans, 212 Toilet-sets, 136-139 Tomahawk, see Trade axe Tools, of silversmiths, 281-282; of wood-workers, 287-288; stone, 139. See Implements Tortoisee, carved, 368; native names for, 207 Tortoise-shell bowls, 288-289 Totem animal, carved, 139, 308; on bag, 264; on grave-post, 80, 341. See Gentes Tottenville, N. Y., Thunderbird design from, 262 Toys, 215, 326. See Games Trade axe, 318 Trails, blazing of, 58, 209 Transplanting of wild rice, 143 Trappings of horse, 212-213 Traps, game taken in, 173, 187-188. See Snares Travel, means of, 211-223; perils of, 209-211 Travelers, corn preparation for, 158; followed by lynx, 191; molested by supernatural beings, 32 Travoix, 212 Trays for winnowing, 148, 159
	INDIAN NOTES

INDEX	469
Trial of murder, 52 Triangle designs, 269 Triangular arrowpoints, 327, 375 Trickster, cycle of, 37, 77 Tridents for fishing, 200-201 Trinkets, boxes for holding, 274 Tripod, kettle suspended on, 92 Trout, smoked, 204 True stories, tribal, 78 Trunks, buffalo-hide, 296-298 Tube, as rattle, 134; for roach spreader, 113; Je'sako cure effected by, 72, 351 Tufts, as decoration. 111; of down, 121, 366; of dyed deer's hair, 320, 355 Tnr'bans, sashes worn as, 109, 111, 120, 238 Turkey, tufts of, as roach, HI; turkeys, witches transformed into, 69 Turkey-beard, an evil charm, 341 Turkey-feathers, arrows feathered with, 325 Turtle, arrowpoints made from claws of, 322: eating of, 179-180; etched on grave-post, 341; mediumship of, 71 ; woven on bag, 264; turtles: dice in form of, 337; incised on comb-case, 139; molds shaped like, 171. See Tortoises Tiixezer-bags in toilet set, 138 Tweezers for eradicating hair, 130-131, 136 Twilled weaving, 236, 242, 248, 293 Twined weaving, 232-234 Two-holed gorgets, 375 Ukema'was, or luck-charm, 67, 335 Unami, see Delawares L^«c/g,. duties of, to partizan, 61; of corn myth, 154-156
AND MONOGRAPHS

470	ME NO MINI CULTURE
	Undeanness, during mourning, 81-82; of death, 145; of menses, 52, 54, 93, 145, 314; of partu- rition, 52 Uncles and aunts, title of mankind, 39, 164, 357 Undergrotmd Panther, see Great Underground Panther Underhill, Wis., native name for village-site at, 385 Underneath gods, 29-33, 177; kettles gift of, 285- 286; placation of, 32-33, 144, 149, 167; wild rice gift of, 142-145. See Malevolent powers United States National Museum, wallets in, 232, 234 Universe, concept of, 29-46 Urine of Ma"nabus, 165 Vat used in sugar-making, 168-169, 173 Vegetables, native names for, 152-153, 163-164 Vegetal, colors, 344; dyes, 248; foods, 142-173. See Dyes, Fiber, Herbs Venetian beads, embroidery in, 266 Venison, native terms for, 197-198; preparation of, 193-194, 309 Venom, arrowpoints smeared with, 327 Vermilion, in cosmetic holder, 136; in love charm, 335; on grave-post, 80, 260, 341. See Red Vertical weaving, 243 Vessel, see Pottery Victory dance, 63, 74 Village people, a band name, 379-380 Village-sites, ancient, 83-84, 101, 105-106, 280, 326-327, 362, 370-375, 379-382, 386; native names of, 383-390 Virginia, Algonkians of, 314; weaving in, 231 Visions, see Dreams
	INDIAN NOTES

INDEX

471

Vocabulary, for birds and mammals, 196-198; for clothing, 140-141; for fishing, 207-208; for houses, 107-108; for prehistoric implements, 378; for string, 251; for sugar-making, 172- 173; for tanning, 229; for vegetal foods, 152- 153, 163-164; household, 309-310. See Names

Vomiting of arrow, 72

Wa'bano or Morning Star, cult of, 71, 96, 97;

drum of, 349-351; prophets of, 33; statue of,

97-98, 331-332, 338 Wahpeton, see Sionan tribes Waists, 125-126, 141 Wakajona pc, native name of Chief Wa'kitcon.

See Wa kitcon, Chief Wake, duration of, 78 Wa'kitcon, Chief, village of, 388-389 Wallet as war-bundle wrapper, 313. See Bags,

Pouches Walnut, spoons of, 289

Wampum, belt as reward, 62; imitation, neck- laces of, 126-127; string as declaration of war,

60 Wd'nawat, native name for John Wa'pus. See

Wa'pus, John Wand, carried at Dream dance, 122; for distance

hurling, 368 Wandering Jew, supernatural being like, 31-32 Wa'niskum, acknowledgment to, 20; warclub of,

315-316 Wa' pan or dawn, derivation of Ma''nabus from,

36-38, 77 Wa'pus, Dave, acknowledgment to, 20 Wa' pus, John, resident on Little river, 384 Wa'pus or hare, derivation of Ma''nabus from,

36-38

AND MONOGRAPHS

472	MENOMINI CULTURE
	War, customs of, 59-64; gods of, 30, 97, 311, 314; lacrosse regarded as mimic, 56; of 1812, 192; power of declaring, 51; special arrows for, 322, 323, 325; special garments for, 113; stories of, 78 ; with Germany, e^ect of , 27. See Thunder- birds, Warriors War-bimdles, 310-314; carving in, 343; cere- monials of, 61, 313-314; dance of, 74; enemies' scalps in, 63-64, 311; given in dreams, 33-34; purchase of, 97; Rain dance given to, 75; stone axe attached to, 318; used in hunting, 176; warclubs attached to, 317; warfare aided by, 60-62, 319; war power vested in owners of, 51-52; whistles in, 356; wrappings for, 229, 241, 311, 313, 340 Warclubs, 62, 314-319; attached to war-bundles, 311; carved design of, 338; miniature, 62, 310, 312, 316; of sleep-causing elf, 32 War-dance on opening war-bundle, 61 War eagles, see Golden eagles War-paint in war-bundles, 312 War-pipes, 363-364 Warren, W. IF., on arrows for large game, 326 Warriors, cannibahsm of, 191-192; charms given to, 62, 312; coiffure of, 130, 335; corn prepara- tion for, 158; jinglers of, 355; ornamental fillets of, 110-111; pigments for, 136, 312; rites of, 44, 63-64, 75, 80; wild rice policed by, 52 Washing, of blood from hands, 63-64; of hides, 226-227; of rice, 149; of soul, 45; of sugar kettles, 172 Wd'sikwondl, acknowledgment to, 20 Waste, penalties for, 147, 167, 171-172, 176, 178 Wata'kunina, war-bundles given through, 60
	INDIAN NOTES

INDEX

473

WaUi'p or pine-root, thread of, 218-220, 222

Watch-chain design, 266

Water, bones of bear placed in, 177; determining

location of villages, 106; manitous of, 147;

wild rice springing from, 143 Water-drum, 345-347 Waterfalls, supernatural denizens of, 32 Waukechon, Wis., village-site near, 389 Wave, wolf assisted by, 46 Wax or maple wax, 171, 172 Ways of the Great Dawn, 40. See Mitd'uin Weapons, 310-330; kept from women in menses,

93; miniature, 215; significance of, in graves,

44, 80; vermilion designs on, 260 Weasel, supernatural power of, 174, 312 Weasel-skins in war-bundle, 311; medicine-bags

of, 274 Weather, supernatural control of, 50, 118, 145,

147, 156, 167 Weaving: bags, 159, 213, 231-238, 259-266, 313,

366-367; baskets, 293-294; beadwork, 118-

120, 122, 125, 126, 136, 138, 252-266, 348;

designs, 279, 330-331; heddles for, 257-258,

310. 338. mats, 238-248; quillwork, 123, 125,

275; variety in, 230; yarn sashes, 109, 111,

124, 238; yarn tobacco-pouches, 120, 366-367 West, realm of Na'^patiio in, 46, 81; symbolic

color for, 268-269 West Branch settlement. Wis., native name for,

389 Western tribes, use of floral designs by, 277;

weaving of, 234 West, G. A., on prehistoric pipes, 364 Whirlwind design on dance-bustle, 121 Whistles, reed, 311, 355-356

AND MONOGRAPHS

474	ME NO MINI CULTURE
	White, dice, 368; dye, 344; flint, arroAvpoints of, 322; quartz, arrowpoints of, 322, 327; sym- bolism of, 269; wrappers of war-bundles, 311 White com, 157 White Deer inhabiting underworld, 31 Whitefish, catching of, 202 Whitefish, Teko, silversmith, 282 White, John, warclubs described by, 314 White oak, bows made of, 321 II7///C raccoon, dog so called, 179 White Rapids, Wis., native name for village-site at, 386 Whites, accounts by, of Menomini, 28-29; battle of, with Indians, 41; pipe-forms derived from, 364^365. See Europe White Siiwi inhabiting empyrean, 30 Whitewood log, water-drum of, 345 Whooping at victory dance, 63 Wicker-work weaving, 293 Wife, status of, 54-56 Wigwam, see Semi -globular lodge Wi'kop, cord of, 227-228, 247-249. See Bass- wood-hark Wildcat, hunting of, 185, 191; native name for, 196 Wild Jim Crow, see So'man Jim Wild potatoes, edible, 152-153 Wild rice, 371; caches for, 101-102, 384; cooking of, 149, 151-153, 157, 205; feast of, 144, 148; harvesting of, 52, 143-152; storage of, 147, 150-152, 231; threshing of, 147-151; tradi- tions of, 142-143 Wild Rice Men, see Md''nomdneo Ind'niwug Willow, basketry, 294-295; hoop, 345; wands, venison dried on, 193
	INDIAN NOTES

INDEX

475

Wind, deer's fur changed by, 178

Winged bannerstones, 375

Wings, designs from, 271-272

Winnebago, carved ladles of, 292; clothing of, 133; customs of, 27-28; data gathered among, 20; decorative designs of, 256, 258, 264, 273; effect of war with Germany on, 27; hair-binder of, 141; leggings of, 115; Menomini related to, 372-373; Peyote religion among, 24, 42; semi- globular lodges of, 86; waist of, 126; warclubs of, 318; weaving of, 234; Woman's dance of, 75, 349; woven bandoleers of, 119

Winneconne, Wis., native name for lake near, 388; native name for site at, 388; village-sites near, 381

Winnowing of corn, 159; of rice, 148-151

Winter, prolongation of, 118; sites of Menomini, 84

Winter lodge, see Semi-globular lodge

Wi'sdnokut, acknowledgment to, 20; residence of, 389; statue belonging to, 332

Wisconsin, catlinite from, 361; copper imple- ments in, 280; derivation of name, 381; ethgy mounds in, 264; ^Menomini reservation in, 96, 128; Menomini sites in, 83, 370-375, 382-390; prehistoric pipes of, 362; shells of, 376-378

Wisconsin Archeological Society, 382; Menomini sites described in, 83

Wisconsin Archeologist, article on place-names in, 383

Wisconsin River people, a band group, 381

Witch-bundle ceremonies, 341

Witchcraft, disease caused by, 72; human sacrifice in, 384; powers of, 69-71, d,Z?>-2>2>A, 336, 341; stories of, 78

AND MONOGRAPHS

476	ME NO MINI CULTURE
	Witches, formulae against, 175; medicines of, 67; rattlesnake charm against, 128; society of, 69-71. See Sorcerers Wm'skdsit, Mrs, acknowledgment to, 20 Wizards, hunting-charms of, 176; tales about, 77. See Sorcerers Wolf, assisted by wave, 46; wolves: deer sub- ject to, 174-176, 178; luring of, 185; mal- treaters of, punished, 45 Wolf or Na'-^patao, birth of, 35-36. See Na'=^patdo Wolf river, native names for, 388-389; paint on. 137; sturgeon in, 199; village-sites along, 84, 371, 380 Wolf River people, a band group, 380 iro//-5Hw, fillets of. Ill Wolf-Wave, linked gentes, 46-48 Woman, earth personified as, 35; women: appli- qued garments of, 267-273; aunts title of, 39, 164, 357; care of children by, 214-215; cattails gathered by, 244; coiffure of, 122-123, 132; dance of, 75, 349; dress of, 122-130, 141; ears of corn tested by, 159; facial painting of, 132; friendship design of, 261, 265; hair eradicated by, 131; in league with Thunder, 263; in men- ses, 52, 54, 93, 145, 314; knives of, 12/; lodges built by, 88-89; matsproperty of, 247; orna- ments of, 128-129; part of, in canoe building, 217-219, 221; part of, in rice harvest, 145-147; parturition of, 52; pipes of, 362; reeds gathered by, 239; sashes of, 238; shinny belonging to, 56; Sky-sisters presiding over, 30, 268-269; string made by, 249; war-bundles granted to, 60; warriors' scalps received by, 63-64; weav- ing by, 256
	INDIAN NOTES

INDEX

477

Woman's dance, 75; drum of, 349 Wood, arrows and shafts of, 323-327; beaming- tool of, 226; bowls of, 73, 286-288; bows of, 312, 320-322, 369; boxes of, 113, 299; canoes of, 208, 216, 222-223; carving of, 92, 203, 213, 310, 312, 317, 332-339, 347, 354, 356-357, 359-360; combs of, 123; cooking utensils of, 169-173, 309; cradles of, 214; cylinder of, 72; decorative strips of, 121; deer-call of, 185; dolls of, 70, 332-336; etching of, 312, 340-343; floats of, 201, 205; flutes of, 356-357; games of, 367-369; grave-posts and shed of, 80-81, 99, 260, 340-341; grills of, 102-103; in building, 88-89, 91-93, 100, 216-222; jacklight of, 185; molds of, 171; mortars of, 159,288, 303- 304; paddles of, 148, 160, 170, 205, 222; paint- ing on, 330; pestles of, 159, 303; pipestems of, 363; platter of, 359; pot-hooks of, 102; rubbing tool of, 225, 227; saddles of, 212-213; sap- spout of, 167; sculpture in, 97-98, 331; spoons of, 170, 173, 215, 286, 289-293, 33j5 Wood-ashes, kettles scoured with, 172;- lye of,

161,237 Woodchuck, carved on saddle, 213; superstition concerning, 194; tails of, as decoration, 351 Woodchuck-skin, tobacco pouches of, 366 Wood-duck, native name for, 197; toilet set

adorned with, 138 Woodland tribes, see Forest tribes Wood-tortoise, shell of, for bowls, 288 Wool, buffalo, use of, 120, 232, 238, 251, 265;

yarn, garter lengthened with, 253 Worship, games a form of, 56 Wounds healed by war-bundles, 310 Woven beadwork, see Beadwork, woven

AND MONOGRAPHS

478	MENOMINI CULTURE
	Wrappers, for puppets, 333-334; for rattles, 352-354; for war-bundles, 229, 241, 311, 313, 340; quilled, of pipestems, 275 Wrist-bands, jinglers on, 355 Yarn, bags, weaving of, 213, 231-232, 310, 313; buffalo-wool, 120, 232, 238, 251, 265; com- bined with fiber, 233-235; commercial, 231; garters of, 120; garters tied with, 253; leggings ornamented with, 115; sashes of, 109, HI, 120, 124; tassels of, 347; tobacco-pouches, 120, 366-367 Yellow, dye, 344; face painted with, 132; sym- bolism of, 269 Yellow root, a plant, 135 Yoke used in gathering sap, 168, 172 Younger, H. 0., on early Menomini sites, 83 Yoiitlis dance, 180. See Feast oj first game Zigzag, design, 261; twined weaving, 233, 234; weaving, 248 Zoar settlement, Wis., 331, 334, 364; native name for, 389
	INDIAN NOTES

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